COURT OF APPEALS OF VIRGINIA

Present: Chief Judge Huff, Judges Frank, Humphreys, Felton, Kelsey, Petty, Beales,

 Alston, McCullough, Chafin and Decker

Argued at Richmond, Virginia

LOREN ANTHONY MASON, JR.

OPINION BY

v. Record No. 1542-13-2 JUDGE D. ARTHUR KELSEY

FEBRUARY 3, 2015

COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA

UPON A REHEARING EN BANC

FROM THE CIRCUIT COURT OF SUSSEX COUNTY

W. Allan Sharrett, Judge

Paul S. Roskin (Vergara & Associates, on brief), for appellant.

Kathleen B. Martin, Senior Assistant Attorney General 

(Mark R. Herring, Attorney General, on brief), for appellee.

The trial court convicted Loren Anthony Mason, Jr., of various drug offenses1 based 

upon evidence obtained during a traffic stop of a vehicle in which he was a passenger. Prior to 

trial, Mason moved to suppress the evidence, claiming that the traffic stop was unconstitutional. 

The trial court disagreed, denied the motion, and convicted Mason of the charged offenses.

On appeal, Mason challenges the trial court’s denial of his motion to suppress. A divided 

panel of this Court agreed with Mason, reversed the trial court’s ruling on the motion to 

suppress, and remanded the matter to the trial court. Mason v. Commonwealth, 63 Va. App. 

587, 760 S.E.2d 831 (2014). We granted the Commonwealth’s petition for rehearing en banc, 

vacated the panel opinion, and now affirm the decision of the trial court.2

 1 These offenses include distribution of marijuana, Code § 18.2-248.1; possession of a 

Schedule I or II controlled substance, Code § 18.2-250; and possession of a Schedule I or II 

controlled substance with the intent to distribute, Code § 18.2-248.

2 On January 1, 2015, Judge Huff succeeded Judge Felton as chief judge. Justice Kelsey 

prepared and the Court adopted the opinion in this case prior to his investiture as a Justice of the 

Supreme Court of Virginia. Judge Felton and Judge Frank participated in the hearing and 

decision of this case prior to the effective date of their retirements on December 31, 2014.

PUBLISHED
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I.

We restate the facts “in the light most favorable to the Commonwealth, giving it the 

benefit of any reasonable inferences.” Glenn v. Commonwealth, 49 Va. App. 413, 416, 642 

S.E.2d 282, 283 (2007) (en banc) (internal quotation marks omitted), aff’d, 275 Va. 123, 654

S.E.2d 910 (2008). “In doing so, we consider facts presented both at the suppression hearing 

and at trial.” Elliott v. Commonwealth, 61 Va. App. 48, 51, 733 S.E.2d 146, 148 (2012).

In this case, a police officer testified that, while operating a stationary radar unit, he saw a 

sedan with a “dangling object” that was “hanging from the rearview mirror.” App. at 24. The 

officer testified that he “saw it clearly” as the vehicle “went by” him at “approximately 2:30 in 

the afternoon.” Id. at 21, 31. The object, reproduced below, was admitted into evidence. 
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In his testimony, the officer identified this object as the “dangling object that [he] saw on 

that particular day.” Id. at 24. It is an opaque parking pass measuring five inches long and three

inches wide. When asked if the dangling parking pass that he observed “could obstruct a 

driver’s view,” the officer replied unequivocally, “It could, yes, ma’am.” Id. at 31. Code 

§ 46.2-1054 prohibits, among other things, any object from being “suspended from any part of 

the motor vehicle in such a manner as to obstruct the driver’s clear view of the highway through 

the windshield, the front side windows, or the rear window.” Mason conceded in the trial court 

that the officer made a traffic stop of the sedan believing that “he was acting properly” pursuant 

to Code § 46.2-1054. Id. at 89.

At the time of the traffic stop, Mason was a passenger in the sedan. The officer intended 

to issue the driver a summons for driving without a seatbelt and for violating Code § 46.2-1054. 

Prior to issuing the summons, however, the officer asked the driver if he would consent to a 

“weapons” pat down. Id. at 58. The driver consented, and the officer found marijuana on the 

driver during the pat down.

The officer then searched the sedan and found a backpack containing cocaine, ecstasy 

pills, a “large sum of individually wrapped bags” of marijuana, id. at 130, a digital scale, and a 

box of plastic bags. Other evidence established that the backpack belonged to Mason. The 

officer then arrested Mason for possession of drugs. A search of Mason incident to his arrest 

yielded $3,381 in cash and a cell phone on his person. 

Prior to trial, Mason sought to suppress all incriminating evidence gathered during the 

traffic stop on the basis that no officer could reasonably suspect that the parking pass violated

Code § 46.2-1054. At the suppression hearing, the trial judge made various remarks from the 

bench suggesting his inclination to grant the motion to suppress. After making these remarks, 

however, the judge “asked for additional time to consider” the issue, id. at 101, and issued an 
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order stating that the court needed “more time to deliberate on the motion to suppress,” id. at 98. 

The trial judge also took a “view of the scene,” id. at 101, to determine if the parking pass could 

obstruct a driver’s vision in a sedan similar to the one that the officer had stopped. See Oral 

Argument Audio at 9:47 to 9:55, 26:04 to 26:30 (Apr. 1, 2014) (stipulation of counsel).

At a later hearing, the judge advised counsel that he had reconsidered his earlier 

remarks.

3

 He said that his initial “concern” was that the parking pass did not “substantially

obstruct” the driver’s view of the highway. App. at 102 (emphasis added). But after reviewing 

the caselaw “stacked up against [him],” the judge explained, he realized that neither the statute 

nor the reasonable suspicion standard required a substantial obstruction. Id. at 105. The case

law he reviewed included an unpublished opinion from our Court, Commonwealth v. Bryant, 

No. 0076-04-1, 2004 Va. App. LEXIS 283, at *4 (Va. Ct. App. June 15, 2004), which reversed a 

suppression order when an officer had stopped a vehicle displaying an “air freshener hanging 

from the rear view mirror” that “could” have obstructed the driver’s view in violation of Code 

§ 46.2-1054. Accord Richardson v. Commonwealth, No. 0946-13-3, 2014 Va. App. LEXIS 98, at 

*4, *11 (Va. Ct. App. Mar. 18, 2014) (upholding a traffic stop when the officer observed that an 

air freshener “could be in violation” of Code § 46.2-1054); Pegram v. Commonwealth, No. 

1041-95-2, 1996 Va. App. LEXIS 611, at *2 (Va. Ct. App. Sept. 24, 1996) (validating a traffic

 3 The trial judge’s initial comments were superseded by the court’s ultimate ruling and 

contemporaneous explanation for it. It is the court’s holding — not the judge’s off-the-cuff 

remarks from the bench — that accompanies the final order on appeal to us. Viewed in context, 

none of the judge’s initial remarks (which he later explained were based upon an inaccurate legal 

standard) can be fairly deemed “factual findings.” Infra at 17-18. Mason’s argument to the 

contrary presents a good example of why “[w]e are particularly skeptical . . . of appellate efforts 

to piece together . . . fragmented remarks from the bench” in an effort to undermine the court’s 

ultimate holding, White v. White, 56 Va. App. 214, 218, 692 S.E.2d 289, 291 (2010), and why 

we traditionally decline the invitation to “fix upon isolated statements of the trial judge taken out 

of the full context in which they were made, and use them as a predicate for holding the law has 

been misapplied,” Damon v. York, 54 Va. App. 544, 555, 680 S.E.2d 354, 360 (2009) (internal 

quotation marks omitted).
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stop pursuant to Code § 46.2-1054 given the officer’s observation of a “large cloth object” 

hanging from the rearview mirror).

Acknowledging that he “initially disagreed” with the view taken by these unpublished 

(and thus nonbinding) opinions, the trial judge explained that “what carrie[d] the day” was the 

definition of “obstruction.” App. at 105. “[U]ltimately it’s the definition that persuaded the 

Court that that’s what the law is intended and that’s what the law says.” Id. Repudiating some 

of his earlier statements, the trial judge held:

[T]he Court is of the opinion that the standard for [the officer] to 

have stopped the vehicle was[:] is there reasonable suspicion that 

this object is . . . cutting off from sight or blocking an unhampered, 

. . . unrestricted view of the highway? Well, there is reason to 

believe that it could be, because there is an object dangling. He is 

entitled constitutionally to investigate further. So the Court 

believes that the presence of the object is, in fact, sufficient 

reasonable suspicion to justify a detention of the vehicle.

Id. (emphasis added).

4

 In short, the trial court explained, “[I]t’s a parking pass, it’s not a driving 

pass.” Id. at 40.

II.

 A. THE REASONABLE SUSPICION STANDARD

Reasonable suspicion is simply suspicion that is reasonable. It is not something more

than suspicion. And it can hardly be called proof. To be sure, the degree of certitude required 

by reasonable suspicion is “‘considerably less than proof of wrongdoing by a preponderance 

of the evidence,’ and ‘obviously less demanding than that for probable cause.’” Perry v. 

Commonwealth, 280 Va. 572, 581, 701 S.E.2d 431, 436 (2010) (quoting United States v. 

Sokolow, 490 U.S. 1, 7 (1989)); see also Navarette v. California, 134 S. Ct. 1683, 1687

 4 The trial judge had acknowledged earlier that “the question we have now is [whether 

there] is reasonable suspicion to believe that there is a traffic infraction taking place[.] So again, 

is there reasonable suspicion to believe that [the parking pass] is obstructing . . . the driver’s 

clear view of the highway through the windshield?” App. at 40-41 (emphasis added); see also id.

at 84.
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(2014). Consequently, “the mere possibility of an innocent explanation does not necessarily 

exclude a reasonable suspicion that the suspect might be violating the law.” Morris v. City of 

Va. Beach, 58 Va. App. 173, 183, 707 S.E.2d 479, 483 (2011) (internal quotation marks

omitted).

No one can be arrested on the basis of reasonable suspicion. It serves merely to justify a 

brief detention to investigate. Because the need for justification is quite low, so too is the 

justifying legal standard. See 4 Wayne R. LaFave, Search & Seizure § 9.5(b), at 658-59 (5th ed. 

2012) (noting that reasonable suspicion requires merely “that there exists at the time of the stop a 

substantial possibility — or, indeed, even a ‘moderate chance’ — that [unlawful] conduct has 

occurred, is occurring, or is about to occur” (emphasis added) (footnotes omitted) (quoting 

Safford Unified Sch. Dist. No. 1 v. Redding, 557 U.S. 364, 371 (2009))).

In suppression hearings, a police officer usually takes the stand and describes what he 

saw and, occasionally, why he did what he did. While the first part is highly relevant, the second 

is not. “Examining the subjective intent of the officer ‘is fundamentally inconsistent with our 

Fourth Amendment jurisprudence,’ Kentucky v. King, 131 S. Ct. 1849, 1859 (2011), because 

‘the Fourth Amendment regulates conduct rather than thoughts,’ Ashcroft v. al-Kidd, 131 S. Ct. 

2074, 2080-81 (2011) (noting narrow exceptions).” Washington v. Commonwealth, 60 Va. App. 

427, 435, 728 S.E.2d 521, 525 (2012).

For these reasons, settled precedent governing Fourth Amendment cases has “repeatedly 

rejected a subjective approach.” Fernandez v. California, 134 S. Ct. 1126, 1134 (2014) (internal 

quotation marks omitted); see also Robinson v. Commonwealth, 273 Va. 26, 37, 639 S.E.2d 217, 

223 (2007) (holding that the officer’s “subjective motivation is irrelevant” (quoting Brigham 

City v. Stuart, 547 U.S. 398, 404 (2006))). A police officer’s “action is ‘reasonable’ under the 

Fourth Amendment, regardless of the individual officer’s state of mind, ‘as long as the 
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circumstances, viewed objectively, justify the action.’” Stuart, 547 U.S. at 404 (brackets 

omitted) (quoting Scott v. United States, 436 U.S. 128, 138 (1978)); see also Navarette, 134

S. Ct. at 1687; Maryland v. Macon, 472 U.S. 463, 470-71 (1985).

5

 Consequently, an “officer’s 

subjective characterization of observed conduct is not relevant” to an objective application of 

the Fourth Amendment. Jones v. Commonwealth, 279 Va. 665, 673, 691 S.E.2d 801, 805 (2010)

(emphasis added and internal quotation marks omitted); see also Stuart, 547 U.S. at 404.

6

Because courts “do not examine the subjective understanding of the particular officer 

involved,” Heien v. North Carolina, 135 S. Ct. 530, 539 (2014), it necessarily follows that, when 

deciding a suppression motion, a court should not limit itself “to what the stopping officer says 

or to evidence of his subjective rationale,” Raab v. Commonwealth, 50 Va. App. 577, 583 n.2, 

652 S.E.2d 144, 148 n.2 (2007) (en banc) (quoting United States v. Brown, 232 F.3d 589, 594 

(7th Cir. 2000)).

7

 Courts should instead “look to the record as a whole to determine what facts 

were known to the officer and then consider whether a reasonable officer in those circumstances 

would have been suspicious.” LaFave, supra, § 9.5(a), at 647 n.22 (quoting United States v. 

McKie, 951 F.2d 399, 402 (D.C. Cir. 1991)). Because the reasonable suspicion test “is purely

 5 So strong is this principle that, even when an officer’s testimony shows that he 

misjudged the legal basis for the stop, his subjective misjudgment does not undermine the 

objective validity of a stop that could be based on a wholly different legal basis. See, e.g., 

Slayton v. Commonwealth, 41 Va. App. 101, 109, 582 S.E.2d 448, 451-52 (2003) (applying this 

principle to arrests); McGuire v. Commonwealth, 31 Va. App. 584, 596-97, 525 S.E.2d 43, 49 

(2000) (same); Golden v. Commonwealth, 30 Va. App. 618, 625, 519 S.E.2d 378, 381 (1999)

(same).

6 See also Bond v. United States, 529 U.S. 334, 338 n.2 (2000); Whren v. United States, 

517 U.S. 806, 813 (1996); Scott, 436 U.S. at 138; United States v. Johnson, 734 F.3d 270, 275 

(4th Cir. 2013); United States v. Singh, 363 F.3d 347, 356 (4th Cir. 2004); United States v. 

McKie, 951 F.2d 399, 402 (D.C. Cir. 1991); Harris v. Commonwealth, 276 Va. 689, 697, 668 

S.E.2d 141, 146 (2008); Robinson, 273 Va. at 37-38, 639 S.E.2d at 223-24.

7 See Washington, 60 Va. App. at 434, 728 S.E.2d at 525; Shifflett v. Commonwealth, 58 

Va. App. 732, 736 n.2, 716 S.E.2d 132, 135 n.2 (2011); Morris, 58 Va. App. at 179, 707 S.E.2d 

at 481; Thomas v. Commonwealth, 57 Va. App. 267, 273-75, 701 S.E.2d 87, 90-91 (2010); 

Armstead v. Commonwealth, 56 Va. App. 569, 579 n.7, 695 S.E.2d 561, 565 n.7 (2010).
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objective,” the reasonable suspicion standard imposes “no requirement that an actual suspicion

by the officer be shown.” Id. § 9.5(a), at 647 (second emphasis added). This approach “is 

obviously far preferable to a system based on the suppositions of individual officers.” Fox v. 

Commonwealth, 43 Va. App. 446, 450, 598 S.E.2d 770, 772 (2004).

We thus reject Mason’s contention that an officer making an investigatory stop must 

actually articulate, from the witness stand, the articulable facts and then explain, in his personal 

opinion, why these facts prompted him to be suspicious. Any assertion to the contrary is 

inconsistent with prior en banc precedent from our Court, Raab, 50 Va. App. at 583 n.2, 652 

S.E.2d at 148 n.2, as well as the uniform view among courts that have addressed this issue.8

 B. OBSTRUCTING A DRIVER’S “CLEAR VIEW OF THE HIGHWAY”

Code § 46.2-1054 prohibits, among other things, any object9 from being “suspended from 

any part of the motor vehicle in such a manner as to obstruct the driver’s clear view of the 

highway through the windshield, the front side windows, or the rear window.” Applied to a 

sedan, this portion of the statute has three components: (i) something “suspended” (ii) that 

serves to “obstruct” a “clear view of the highway” (iii) through the windshield, the front side 

windows, or the rear window. Id.

 8 See, e.g., United States v. Bailey, 622 F.3d 1, 5-6 (D.C. Cir. 2010); Brown, 232 F.3d at 

594; United States v. Ozbirn, 189 F.3d 1194, 1198-99 (10th Cir. 1999); United States v. Swann, 

149 F.3d 271, 272 (4th Cir. 1998); United States v. Jones, 990 F.2d 405, 408 (8th Cir. 1993);

McKie, 951 F.2d at 402; United States v. Causey, 834 F.2d 1179, 1183-84 (5th Cir. 1987); 

United States v. Hawkins, 811 F.2d 210, 213 (3d Cir. 1987); State v. Heminover, 619 N.W.2d 

353, 357 (Iowa 2000), abrogated on other grounds by State v. Turner, 630 N.W.2d 601, 606 n.2 

(Iowa 2001); Zimmerman v. N.D. Dep’t of Transp. Dir., 543 N.W.2d 479, 482-83 (N.D. 1996).

9 Code § 46.2-1054 expressly exempts the “rear view mirror, sun visor, or other 

equipment of the motor vehicle approved by the Superintendent [of the Department of State 

Police].” See also Code § 46.2-1005 (“Procedure for approval of equipment”).
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By statute, a highway includes “the entire width between the boundary lines of every way 

or place open to the use of the public for purposes of vehicular travel in the Commonwealth, 

including the streets and alleys.” Code § 46.2-100 (emphasis added). A highway is not, as 

Mason presumes, simply the stretch of pavement immediately in front of a driver’s vehicle. 

Under Virginia law, a “highway” is not limited “to a hard-surfaced or partly hard-surfaced way 

or to a dirt and gravel way. It does not confine a highway to the main-travelled portion of the 

way or to lanes specifically designated for vehicular traffic.” Crouse v. Pugh, 188 Va. 156, 

164-65, 49 S.E.2d 421, 426 (1948); see also Jessee v. Slate, 196 Va. 1074, 1083, 86 S.E.2d 821, 

826 (1955).

Because a “highway” includes the “entire width between the boundary lines” of the “way 

or place” used by vehicular traffic, Code § 46.2-100, it includes overhead highway signs,10

on-ramps and off-ramps, merge lanes, deceleration lanes, roadways,11 bridges,12 intersections,13

shoulders,14 pedestrian crosswalks,

15 and shared-use paths.16 Thus, a “clear view of the

 10 See Code § 46.2-100 (defining a “traffic control device” as “a sign, signal, marking, or 

other device used to regulate, warn, or guide traffic placed on, over, or adjacent to a . . . 

highway”).

11 A “roadway,” narrower in scope than a highway yet still broad in terms of the surface 

area it includes, is defined as “that portion of a highway improved, designed, or ordinarily used 

for vehicular travel, exclusive of the shoulder.” Id. A highway may itself “include two or more 

roadways.” Id.

12 See Nelson v. Cnty. of Henrico, 10 Va. App. 558, 561, 393 S.E.2d 644, 646 (1990).

13 See Code § 46.2-100 (defining “intersection” as certain areas of highways that “join 

one another,” cross an “intersecting highway,” or are crossed “by a pedestrian crosswalk”). 

14 A “shoulder” is defined as “that part of a highway between the portion regularly 

traveled by vehicular traffic and the lateral curbline or ditch.” Id. (emphasis added); see also

Jessee, 196 Va. at 1083, 86 S.E.2d at 826.

15 See Code § 46.2-100 (defining “crosswalk” as a “part of a roadway,” which is part of a 

highway); see also supra note 13 (defining “intersection”).

16 “Shared-use paths” include bikeways and other paths that are open to “pedestrians, 

skaters, users of wheel chairs or wheel chair conveyances, joggers, and other nonmotorized 

users.” Code § 46.2-100.
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highway,” as used in Code § 46.2-1054, no doubt means the pavement itself and everything 

physically on it. It would make no sense for Code § 46.2-1054 to prohibit a dangling object from 

obstructing a driver’s view of the pavement directly in front him but not a vehicle, bicyclist, or 

pedestrian17 moving across that same pavement.

In this case, the police officer testified that he “clearly” observed the parking pass prior to 

stopping the vehicle. App. at 31. The parking pass is an exhibit. We need no description of it 

from the officer. We are looking at the very thing that the officer said he clearly saw: an opaque 

plastic card that is five inches long and three inches wide. And the trial judge had something 

even better. He took a “view of the scene” to determine if the parking pass could obstruct a 

driver’s vision in a vehicle similar to the one that the officer had stopped. Id. at 101; see Oral 

Argument Audio at 9:47 to 9:55, 26:04 to 26:30 (Apr. 1, 2014).

Given these facts, we agree with the trial court that a reasonable officer could suspect that 

the opaque, five-by-three-inch parking pass dangling from a rearview mirror might violate Code 

§ 46.2-1054 and thus warrant an investigatory stop. Several scenarios illustrate why. The 

bottom of the parking pass would be at or slightly above eye level for a driver of average height. 

The parking pass could be at an angle that might partially block a driver’s clear view of a vehicle 

ahead and to the right of him. If that vehicle put on its left-turn signal, for example, the driver

with the parking pass might not see it at all — particularly when the vehicle is merging into 

highway traffic from an on-ramp. If a driver simply wanted to make a right turn at an 

intersection, the parking pass could partially obscure his field of vision. An enhanced risk would 

exist when the driving occurs at night, and only the taillights of a vehicle ahead and to the right 

are visible. Consider, too, highway signs that are often placed overhead and on the right 

 17 See Crouse, 188 Va. at 165, 49 S.E.2d at 426 (“The Motor Vehicle Code of Virginia 

recognizes the right of both the pedestrian and motorist to use the highways for travel.”).
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shoulder of the highway. A person of any height could have his clear view of highway signs 

partially obstructed by the parking pass, especially during nighttime driving.

It bears repeating that an officer need not have proof beyond a reasonable doubt of any of 

these scenarios before he makes a vehicular stop. Nor does he need to be convinced by a 

preponderance of the evidence. To be sure, the quantum of confidence need not even rise to the 

level of probable cause. See Perry, 280 Va. at 581, 701 S.E.2d at 436. It is enough that the 

officer is aware of facts that, viewed objectively, could give rise to a reasonable suspicion that 

the parking pass may be non-compliant with Code § 46.2-1054. Settled precedent has 

“consistently recognized that reasonable suspicion ‘need not rule out the possibility of innocent 

conduct.’” Navarette, 134 S. Ct. at 1691 (quoting United States v. Arvizu, 534 U.S. 266, 277 

(2002)). In this respect, the law employs a “commonsense approach,” id. at 1690, that takes into 

account “the totality of the circumstances — the whole picture,” id. at 1687 (quoting United 

States v. Cortez, 449 U.S. 411, 417-18 (1981)), and asks simply whether unlawful activity “may 

be afoot,” id. at 1690 (quoting Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 30 (1968)).

Mason does not directly challenge these principles. Instead, underlying much of his

argument is the unstated, but implied, assertion that this type of traffic infraction is simply too 

trifling to warrant an investigatory stop. Underlying Code § 46.2-1054, however, is the General 

Assembly’s unstated, but implied, recognition that a driver’s ability to see clearly through an 

unobstructed windshield is crucial to the safety of the driver as well as others sharing the road. 

We certainly concur. At some point in every trial judge’s career, he or she has heard a 

confounded witness, while testifying about a tragic automobile accident, say simply, “I don’t 

know what happened. I just didn’t see the other car.” Given the multitude of other distractions 

competing for a driver’s attention, it hardly makes sense for the law to treat as trivial the 
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perfectly reasonable suspicion that a five-by-three inch opaque parking pass, hanging from the 

rearview mirror of a sedan, could obstruct a driver’s clear view of the highway.18

Needless to say, our holding does not endorse any per se rule authorizing traffic stops 

whenever an object of any kind is observed dangling from a vehicle’s rearview mirror. While 

the prosecutor asserted as much in the trial court, see id. at 53, the Attorney General correctly 

disavowed the overstatement on appeal, see Oral Argument Audio at 14:56 to 15:10, 16:22 to 

16:57 (Nov. 18, 2014). Code § 46.2-1054, after all, does not uniformly forbid drivers from 

dangling objects from their rearview mirrors — only those positioned “in such a manner as to

obstruct the driver’s clear view of the highway.” We thus limit our holding to the suspected

obstruction in this case: a five-by-three-inch opaque parking pass hanging from a rearview 

mirror of a sedan.

Finally, we acknowledge that the application of the concept of reasonable searches and 

seizures to Code § 46.2-1054’s prohibition on dangling obstructions involves an inescapable 

exercise in judicial line-drawing. But, as Justice Holmes once said, we should not be “troubled 

by the question where to draw the line. That is the question in pretty much everything worth 

arguing in the law.” Irwin v. Gavit, 268 U.S. 161, 168 (1925). That we must, from time to time, 

make fine distinctions is no reason to abandon the task altogether19 and treat all such dangling 

 18 The dissent argues that the officer’s “failure to investigate the existence of the alleged 

‘criminal activity’ is fatal to any justification of Mason’s seizure under Terry and its progeny.” 

Infra at 16. Mason, however, never made that contention on appeal. To quote him: “In the 

instant case the only assignment of error is the failure of the trial judge to grant the defendant’s 

motion to suppress evidence seized from the motor vehicle in which the defendant was riding 

following a traffic stop, alleging that the officer in question did not have reasonable suspicion to 

make such stop.” Appellant’s Br. at 6 (emphasis added). See Rule 5A:12(c)(1)(i) (limiting 

appellate review to the assignment of error); Rule 5A:20(e) (requiring appellants to state clearly 

their “argument (including principles of law and authorities) relating to each assignment of 

error”).

19 As for the criticism that this line-drawing exercise requires a case-by-case approach, 

“truth be told, it is supposed to be this way. The reasonable suspicion standard itself is a 
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objects as indistinguishable. A five-by-three inch opaque parking pass is obviously different 

from a high school graduation tassel or a tiny chain locket. We thus have no fear that our 

holding will be misconstrued as a constitutional blank check for police officers to make traffic 

stops under circumstances wholly dissimilar from those presented in this case.

20

III.

In sum, the trial court correctly held that a reasonable officer could make an investigatory 

stop of the sedan in this case to determine if, in fact, the parking pass he observed violated Code 

§ 46.2-1054.

21 Finding no fault with the trial court’s denial of Mason’s motion to suppress, we 

affirm his convictions.

 Affirmed.

 

‘somewhat abstract’ and ‘elusive concept’ that cannot be reduced to a ‘neat set of legal rules.’” 

Shifflett, 58 Va. App. at 739, 716 S.E.2d at 136 (quoting Arvizu, 534 U.S. at 274).

20 We agree with our dissenting colleagues that, even if Mason could challenge 

successfully the legality of the officer’s stop of the sedan, that victory would not necessarily 

require the suppression of any incriminating evidence found during the officer’s ensuing 

consensual searches of the driver or the sedan. See generally Ellis v. Commonwealth, 52 

Va. App. 220, 226, 662 S.E.2d 640, 643 (2008) (“Our analysis begins with the general rule that ‘a

search authorized by consent is wholly valid.’” (quoting Kyer v. Commonwealth, 45 Va. App. 

473, 483, 612 S.E.2d 213, 218 (2005) (en banc))).

21 On appeal, Mason argues that the officer’s alleged reasonable suspicion was “based on 

a misapprehension of the law” and, for that reason, “was thus per se unreasonable and thus could 

not be the basis of a valid investigatory stop . . . .” Appellant’s Br. at 8. The United States 

Supreme Court, however, recently rejected this very argument. Heien, 135 S. Ct. at 539. Given 

our holding, we need not address the dissent’s effort to distinguish Heien. Infra at 20-23.
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Humphreys, J., with whom Frank, Petty, Alston and Chafin, JJ., join, dissenting.

The law of search and seizure with respect to automobiles is 

intolerably confusing.22

Every day, millions are stopped for one of the myriad of 

regulations governing our use of public streets. As soon as you get 

into your car, even before you turn the ignition key, you have 

subjected yourself to intense police scrutiny. So dense is the 

modern web of motor vehicle regulations that every motorist is 

likely to get caught in it every time he drives to the grocery store.23

This case further exacerbates the intolerable confusion referred to by Justice Powell. 

“Prior to Terry v. Ohio, [392 U.S. 1 (1968),] any restraint on the person amounting to a seizure 

for the purposes of the Fourth Amendment was invalid unless justified by probable cause.” 

Florida v. Royer, 460 U.S. 491, 498 (1983) (citation omitted). “Terry created a limited 

exception to this general rule: certain seizures are justifiable under the Fourth Amendment if 

there is articulable suspicion that a person has committed or is about to commit a crime.” Id. 

After today and insofar as motor vehicles are concerned, this exception is no longer particularly 

limited and has now swallowed the general rule. Despite the majority’s assertion to the contrary, 

I believe that the majority opinion in this case will be read to provide “automatic” reasonable 

articulable suspicion for any officer to pull a citizen over if he/she observes any object dangling 

from a rearview mirror. Moreover, henceforth, reasonable suspicion justifying the seizure of 

citizens will be found even if police officers are mistaken concerning the law as long as their 

testimony includes magic words such as “I thought . . . I believed . . . I mistakenly believed . . . I 

suspected . . . I mistakenly suspected . . .” or as in this case, the officer just doesn’t really know 

one way or the other. Therefore, I dissent from the analysis and judgment of the majority.

 22 Robbins v. California, 453 U.S. 420, 430 (1981) (Powell, J., concurring).

23 Markus Dirk Dubber, Policing Possession: The War on Crime and the End of Criminal 

Law, 91 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 829, 874 (2001). The “War on Crime,” “War on Drugs,” 

and “War on Terror” have all been used to justify limits to basic Fourth Amendment protections. 

I would not add a “War on Dangling Objects” to that list. 
- 15 -

I. Reasonable Suspicion and the Fourth Amendment 

Even a cursory review of Terry and the cases which follow it reveal often repeated 

language requiring specific facts in support of an officer’s suspicion that criminal activity is 

afoot. “[T]he police can stop and briefly detain a person for investigative purposes if the officer 

has a reasonable suspicion supported by articulable facts that criminal activity ‘may be afoot,’ 

even if the officer lacks probable cause.” United States v. Sokolow, 490 U.S. 1, 7 (1989). “[I]n 

justifying the particular intrusion the police officer must be able to point to specific and 

articulable facts which, taken together with rational inferences from those facts, reasonably 

warrant that intrusion.” Terry, 392 U.S. at 21. “A court sitting to determine the existence of 

reasonable suspicion must require the agent to articulate the factors leading to that conclusion.” 

Sokolow, 490 U.S. at 10. 

“To establish reasonable suspicion, an officer must be able to articulate more than an 

unparticularized suspicion or ‘hunch’ that criminal activity is afoot.” Rudolph v. 

Commonwealth, 277 Va. 209, 210, 722 S.E.2d 527, 528 (2009). “This demand for specificity in 

the information upon which police action is predicated is the central teaching of [the United 

States Supreme Court’s] Fourth Amendment jurisprudence.” Terry, 392 U.S. at 21 n.18.24 It is 

axiomatic that whether or not reasonable suspicion of criminal activity exists must be determined 

from “the facts available to the officer at the moment of the seizure.” Id. at 21-22 (emphasis 

 24 “The Fourth Amendment applies to seizures of the person, including brief investigatory 

stops such as the stop of the vehicle . . . . An investigatory stop must be justified by some 

objective manifestation that the person stopped is, or is about to be, engaged in criminal 

activity.” United States v. Cortez, 449 U.S. 411, 417 (1981) (citations omitted); see also

Delaware v. Prouse, 440 U.S. 648, 663 (1979) (stopping an automobile and detaining the driver 

is unreasonable under the Fourth Amendment unless there is at least articulable and reasonable 

suspicion that the vehicle or an occupant is subject to seizure for violation of the law). When a 

police officer makes a traffic stop, the passenger is seized within the meaning of the Fourth 

Amendment and may challenge the constitutionality of the stop. Brendlin v. California, 551 U.S. 

249, 251 (2007). 
- 16 -

added). In this case, the facts do not create a reasonable suspicion of any traffic infraction or 

other violation of the law.25

Moreover, the majority overlooks the basic tenet of Terry that the sole constitutionally 

proper objective of a Terry stop is to confirm or dispel suspicion of criminal activity. 

Jurisprudence from various federal circuits supports this proposition. See e.g., United States v. 

Branch, 537 F.3d 328, 336 (4th Cir. 2008) (“If a police officer wants to detain a driver beyond 

the scope of a routine traffic stop . . . he must possess a justification for doing so other than the 

initial traffic violation that prompted the stop in the first place.” (citation omitted)); 26 Croom v.

Balkwill, 645 F.3d 1240, 1251 n.15 (11th Cir. 2011) (“[A]n investigative detention must be 

temporary and last no longer than is necessary to effectuate the purpose of the stop”); United 

States v. Andres, 703 F.3d 828 (5th Cir. 2013) (holding that a traffic stop must be temporary and 

last no longer than is necessary to effectuate the purpose of the stop, unless further reasonable 

suspicion, supported by articulable facts, emerges). 

I dissent from the analysis and judgment of the majority and would reverse the trial court 

and remand this case for two reasons. First, Officer Richards’s failure to investigate the 

existence of the alleged “criminal activity” is fatal to any justification of Mason’s seizure under 

Terry and its progeny. Second, the testimony of Officer Richards articulated absolutely no facts 

 25 “We must not allow our zeal for effective law enforcement to blind us to the peril to 

our free society that lies in this Court’s disregard of the protections afforded by the Fourth 

Amendment.” Royer, 460 U.S. at 513 (Powell, J., concurring).

26 Another case from the same circuit, United States v. Johnson, 743 F.3d 270, 275 (4th

Cir. 2013), stands for the proposition that “it is not relevant whether the officers proceed to take 

further action on the predicate traffic violation” once a vehicle is detained. However, this case is 

inapplicable to the one before us because in Johnson the police officer actually observed and 

testified to unlawful conduct amounting to probable cause (driving with an illegible license plate 

in violation of Maryland law) prior to the stop. Conversely, in this case, Officer Richards only 

observed wholly lawful conduct and surrounding circumstances that fall far short of suggesting 

that any criminal activity was afoot prior to initiating the stop. 
- 17 -

from which reasonable suspicion of criminal activity can be inferred, and the parking pass, in its 

capacity as an exhibit, does nothing to overcome that failure. 

Officer Richards made no effort whatsoever to investigate the “criminal activity” he 

asserted to be the basis for the stop. Instead, Officer Richards testified that the only reason he 

stopped the vehicle was because he observed “a dangling object.”27 Yet, Officer Richards 

testified that, after stopping the vehicle, he never sat in the driver’s seat or otherwise made any 

attempt to determine if a driver could see the roadway through the windshield given the 

“dangling object’s” size and location behind the rearview mirror. At no point was Officer 

Richards able to articulate any facts that, even when coupled with an examination of the pass 

itself and other evidence in the record, would lead to any objective belief that the “dangling 

object” was suspended “in such a manner as to obstruct the driver’s clear view of the highway” 

as prohibited by Code § 46.2-1054.28 

Despite the deficiencies in Officer Richards’s testimony, the majority asserts that his 

testimony supplied evidence of “criminal activity” when, after being handed the parking pass as 

an exhibit in the trial, he noted in response to the prosecutor’s abstract question that because of 

 27 The majority contends that Officer Richards intended to “issue the driver a summons 

for driving without a seatbelt and for violating Code § 46.2-1054.” However, Officer Richards 

testified that at the time of the stop, which is the point in time when the existence of reasonable 

suspicion is determined, the only thing he observed was the dangling object. J.A. at 28-29. 

Indeed, the record reflects that there was a stipulation by the parties that the dangling object was 

the only basis for the stop. Id.

28 Although appellant raises no issue regarding the vagueness of the statute and thus I do 

not consider the applicability of our Supreme Court’s decision in Tanner v. City of Virginia 

Beach, 277 Va. 432, 438, 674 S.E.2d 848, 852 (2009), it nevertheless seems to me that the fact 

that the statute suggests a subjective standard of enforcement for police officers, contributes to 

the majority’s flawed analysis.
- 18 -

its opaque nature, the 3” x 5” parking pass “could [obstruct a driver’s view].”29 Alternatively, 

the majority reasons that the parking pass itself supplies the missing articulated evidence of 

“criminal activity” despite factual findings by the trial court to the contrary. These conclusions 

are inapposite to Terry and its progeny.

As to the former position advanced by the majority, the record is clear that neither Officer 

Richards’s answer to the prosecutor’s abstract question, nor the context supplied by the question 

itself established any facts or reasonable inferences that the parking pass and its placement in the 

vehicle blocked any view of the highway. If either the answer or the context of the question had 

done so, the record then would at least have provided the missing evidence of criminality that the 

majority creates out of whole cloth. In this case, Officer Richards articulated only facts that 

supported entirely lawful conduct and failed to provide any reason to suspect that criminal 

activity was occurring or about to occur. Insofar as evidence of “criminal activity” provided by 

the parking pass itself is concerned, I believe that the unequivocal and reiterated factual findings 

by the trial court which consistently and repeatedly stated that the parking pass, as placed in the 

vehicle, would not obstruct the driver’s view of the highway renders this portion of the 

majority’s analysis untenable. 

The majority insists that the trial court’s statement, “because there is an object dangling

. . . [the officer] is entitled constitutionally to investigate further” was the actual factual finding 

by the trial court rather than simply its legal conclusion. In my view, the context of the trial 

court’s words could hardly be clearer that this statement was actually an erroneous legal holding 

based upon the Commonwealth’s equally erroneous argument that the mere fact that any object 

 29 On redirect, the attorney for the Commonwealth handed the parking pass to Richards 

and asked, “So it’s not clear that you can’t—you can’t see through it, so it could obstruct a 

driver’s view?” Officer Richards replied, “It could, yes, ma’am.”
- 19 -

was suspended from the rearview mirror, was per se sufficient reasonable suspicion of criminal 

activity to justify the seizure of the vehicle and its occupants.

The majority generally dismisses all of the trial court’s statements regarding the parking 

pass as “the judge’s off-the-cuff remarks from the bench.” However, immediately following 

Officer Richards’s testimony, and in response to the prosecutor’s argument that reasonable 

suspicion exists to stop the car because there is an object hanging from the mirror that “does 

obstruct and you can’t see through it,” the trial court responded, 

I will say this to you Ms. Pleas [prosecutor], I think you can hang 

this [parking pass] on any car in America, and it won’t obstruct the 

view at all. It hangs up on the rearview mirror, which is up here. 

That doesn’t obstruct your view. You don’t even see the highway 

up there. The highway is out here. It doesn’t obstruct your view at 

all. But that’s not even the question. Now – but that’s not even 

the question – the question in the case is whether there is 

reasonable suspicion that the object could obstruct the view. 

Because it doesn’t – I’m trying whether the officer could believe it. 

And I think it’s not an obvious answer to that. 

J.A. at 34-35. Contrary to the assertion of the majority, the trial court’s subsequent erroneous 

legal holding does not nullify or “supersede” its factual findings that the parking pass would not 

obstruct the view of the driver “on any car in America.” Such a conclusion would fly in the face

of well-settled law in Virginia that mandates this Court evaluate a trial court’s fact-finding

through a wholly distinct lens than a trial court’s conclusions of law. Indeed, in a Fourth

Amendment case, this Court must evaluate both the factual findings and conclusions of law of

the trial court. In such a scenario, this Court gives “deference to the factual findings of the trial 

court” and “independently determine[s]” whether those findings satisfy the requirements of the

Fourth Amendment. Whitfield v. Commonwealth, 265 Va. 358, 361, 576 S.E.2d 463, 464 

(2003). “There is good reason for the rule that appellate courts must defer to the factual 

findings of the trial judge in Fourth Amendment cases. The fact patterns in such cases arrive in 
- 20 -

infinite variety, seldom or never exactly duplicated.” Malbrough v. Commonwealth, 275 Va.

163, 171, 655 S.E.2d 1, 5 (2008).

The factual statements of the trial court regarding the parking pass support only the legal 

position advanced by the Commonwealth and ultimately adopted by the trial court, that all

objects suspended from a rearview mirror per se provide reasonable suspicion to detain a 

vehicle’s occupants. The majority overcomes this logical deficiency by recasting the trial court’s 

legal conclusion that “an object dangling . . . [entitles the officer] constitutionally to investigate 

further” as a factual finding that the pass obstructs a driver’s view of the highway. However, 

such recasting is outside the proper role of an appellate court. See Thomas v. Commonwealth, 

48 Va. App. 605, 608, 633 S.E.2d 229, 231 (2006) (“We review the factfinding of a lower court 

‘with the highest degree of appellate deference.’”); see also Commonwealth v. Hilliard, 270 Va. 

42, 49-50, 613 S.E.2d 579, 584 (2005) (An appellate court reviews the trial court's “findings of 

historical fact only for clear error and must give deference to the inferences that may be drawn 

from those factual findings.”). As such, this Court is bound by the repeated factual findings of 

the trial court that the parking pass did not, and would not obstruct the view on “any car in 

America.”

II. The Officer’s Mistake of Law

Officer Richards’s failure to investigate the criminal activity suspected here is also fatal 

to a Fourth Amendment analysis. 30 Investigation of the suspected criminal activity is the only 

 30 The majority asserts that appellant never raised this issue on appeal. However, 

appellant clearly challenges the stop of the vehicle, arguing that reasonable suspicion did not 

exist to justify the Terry stop under the Fourth Amendment. The law is abundantly clear that 

“reasonable suspicion” must be related to whether criminal activity is afoot. As such, it is proper 

and necessary for this Court’s analysis to determine if the seizure was conducted in a manner to 

confirm or dispel suspicion of a violation of Code § 46.2-1054, which should have been the 

ultimate objective of a Terry stop. Therefore, the assignment of error on appeal fairly 

encompasses the basis for the stop, the failure to effectuate the purpose of the stop and any 

mistake of law upon which “reasonable suspicion” was supposedly based.
- 21 -

rationale for a detention under Terry. It is axiomatic that if an officer takes no action to confirm 

or dispel the suspicion of criminal activity, the detention is unwarranted. Moreover, while 

pretextual stops are permissible under the Supreme Court’s holding in Whren v. United States, 

517 U.S. 806 (1996), that is only so if probable cause exists that an offense has been committed. 

Thus, even though the offense for which probable cause exists is a pretext for the real reason for 

the detention, the existence of probable cause for any offense, satisfies the Fourth Amendment. 

Here, there is no suggestion of probable cause for any offense whatsoever and therefore any 

detention that does not serve the limited purpose of a Terry stop, is necessarily 

unconstitutional.31

It is also obvious to me, as it was to the trial court, that Officer Richards never 

investigated the “criminal activity” he asserted was afoot because he mistakenly believed that 

any object suspended from the interior of a vehicle violated the law. The trial court asked 

counsel “Is it of any probative value that the officer never inquired as to whether – never even 

looked to see whether the object, in fact obstructed the highway?” J.A. at 47. The trial court 

then noted, “Listening to [Officer Richards] answering the questions, this was a stop because of 

the existence of a dangling object. That’s what the officer did. And he – and I’m not claiming 

bad faith. It may be a misapprehension of the law.” J.A. at 51. “[Officer Richards] didn’t have 

any idea that this [object] needed to be an obstruction.” J.A. at 52. 

Significantly, the trial court then asked the prosecutor, “Is it the Commonwealth’s 

position that any object that dangles gives rise to the stop of the vehicle?” The prosecutor 

responded in the affirmative, and the trial court noted “I think you’ve got to get there. I think 

 31 I am not suggesting, however, that a valid Terry stop does not prevent a law 

enforcement officer from generally investigating any and all possible criminal activity that a 

reasonable officer would suspect given the circumstances, including requesting consent to 

conduct a search. 
- 22 -

that’s what you’ve got to argue.” “[S]o the issue becomes, and where the Court has put its focus, 

is whether or not essentially the mere fact of a dangling object gives the officer reasonable 

suspicion to stop to determine whether or not the object, and I quote the statute ‘obstructs the 

driver’s clear view of the highway.’” J.A. at 102 (emphasis added). The trial court ultimately 

and, in my view, erroneously, adopted the Commonwealth’s argument as its holding, relying 

upon two circuit court opinions and an unpublished opinion of this Court and never considered 

the officer’s failure to actually investigate the statutory violation as a factor in its analysis. 

The Commonwealth previously maintained on brief and at oral argument before the 

panel, the position it took at trial and that the trial court adopted, that “dangling objects” per se

“provide reasonable suspicion to stop any vehicle.” The Commonwealth retreated from this 

position to the “know it when you see it” reasonable suspicion standard for the first time in oral 

argument before this Court sitting en banc, implying without overtly arguing that the trial court 

now was right but for the wrong reason. The majority now adopts this standard. In my view, the 

Commonwealth is incorrect in both its original and revisionist positions on the application of the 

law. Moreover, without any guidance or any limitations to lower courts or police officers, the 

majority’s analysis amounts to choosing the latter option of overreaching hindsight in the 

Hobson’s Choice of either agreeing with the trial court and the Commonwealth’s original 

position that it is objectively reasonable to stop all motor vehicles with any object hanging from 

the mirror regardless of any possible obstruction of the view of the highway, and the alternative 

“we will know it when we see it” standard advanced today pursuant to de novo fact-finding by 

this Court regarding the object in question.

To be clear, a traffic stop will be deemed a reasonable “seizure” when an objective 

review of the facts shows that an officer possessed specific, articulable facts that an individual 

was violating a traffic law at the time of the stop. An officer need not be factually accurate in his 
- 23 -

belief that a violation has occurred, but, instead, need only produce facts establishing that he 

reasonably believed a violation had taken place. Illinois v. Rodriguez, 497 U.S. 177, 185-86

(1990) (emphasis added). In order to satisfy the reasonableness requirement of the Fourth 

Amendment, what is necessary of “the police officer conducting a search or seizure under one of 

the exceptions to the warrant requirement . . . is not that they always be correct, but that they 

always be reasonable.” Id. at 185. However, reasonableness will not normally be found in 

mistakes of law by a police officer.

The United States Supreme Court recently held that only objectively reasonable mistakes

of law are acceptable excuses from strict compliance with the Fourth Amendment. Significantly,

for the purposes of the analysis here, the Supreme Court rejected the proposition that a good faith

mistake of law was per se unreasonable under the Fourth Amendment, but Chief Justice Roberts

clarified that “[t]he limit is that the mistakes must be those of reasonable men.” Heien v. North

Carolina, 135 S. Ct. 530, 536 (2014). “An officer can gain no Fourth Amendment advantage

through a sloppy study of the laws he is duty-bound to enforce.” Id. at 539-40. The statute in

question in Heien contained confusing language, making it unclear whether only one working

“stop lamp” (brake light) was required by law, especially considering another statute seemed to

suggest that vehicles must have “all originally equipped rear lamps or the equivalent in good

working order.” Id. at 540. 

Unlike the statute in Heien that involved a difficult issue of statutory interpretation well

outside the ken of non-lawyer police officers, the statute at issue in this case suffers from no such

infirmity. No objectively reasonable officer could sensibly conclude from a reading of Code 

§ 46.2-1054 that an object simply hanging from the rearview mirror is unlawful, unless it also 

obstructs the driver’s clear view of the highway. Indeed, it is evident from the totality of Officer 

Richards’s testimony that the trial court was correct in observing that Officer Richards 
- 24 -

mistakenly believed that any object suspended from the interior of a vehicle constituted a Class 4 

misdemeanor pursuant to Code § 46.2-1054, as opposed to only those objects which are 

suspended “in such a manner as to obstruct the driver’s clear view of the highway.” 

The alleged traffic infraction (merely having a parking pass suspended from the rearview 

mirror) that formed the basis of the stop, was at best the sort of “sloppy study” of Code 

§ 46.2-1054 referred to by Chief Justice Roberts in Heien. To hold otherwise ignores the 

observation by both the majority and dissent in Heien that it would be a rare situation where the 

law is so confusing that it would be reasonable for a police officer to be unaware of it. Further, 

such a holding would also mean that ignorance of the plain language used in the law, as opposed 

to any nuanced interpretation of it, is an automatic excuse for police officers, although certainly 

not for those they arrest. Since Officer Richards was unable to testify to any facts, objectively 

viewed, that would support reasonable suspicion that the parking pass violated Virginia law, 

application of the Supreme Court’s holding in Heien compels a conclusion that Officer 

Richards’s objectively unreasonable mistake of law was insufficient to justify a stop under the 

Fourth Amendment. 

Moreover, several other states with similar statutes to Code § 46.2-1054 have also held 

that the mere presence of dangling objects from the rearview mirror, without facts supporting an 

objective officer’s reasonable suspicion that the object was obstructing the driver’s view of the 

highway, violates the Fourth Amendment. See e.g. People v. Arias, 159 P.3d 134, 138-39 (Colo. 

2007) (holding that a motor vehicle stop was unjustified because the officer who erroneously 

thought that an air freshener hanging from a rearview mirror, regardless of whether it 

“obstructed” the “driver’s vision through any required glass equipment,” was a violation of 

Colorado law had not testified to any facts to support an objective finding that the air freshener 

obstructed driver’s view); People v. Cole, 874 N.E.2d 81, 87-88 (Ill. App. Ct.) (finding that a 
- 25 -

motor vehicle stop was unjustified because the officer did not realize the statute required the 

suspended object to “materially obstruct” the driver’s view and that despite the officer’s 

mistaken interpretation of the law, was unable to articulate facts that a reasonable officer would 

have found to support reasonable suspicion that the defendant, who had beads hanging from his 

rearview mirror, was violating the law as written), cert. denied, 865 N.E.2d 971 (Ill. 2007); and 

State v. Cyrus, 1 A.3d 59, 68 (Conn. 2010) (holding that an officer’s mistaken belief that any 

object hanging from the rearview mirror violated Connecticut law could not support a finding of 

reasonable suspicion because the officer’s testimony offered no facts or any objective basis to 

conclude he suspected that the chain and cross hanging from the defendant’s rearview mirror 

obstructed the driver’s view or that such a belief would have been objectively reasonable).

The majority asserts that “our holding does not endorse any per se rule authorizing traffic 

stops whenever an object of any kind is observed dangling from a vehicle’s rearview mirror.” 

Yet, its analysis, failing as it does to provide any substantive guidance to police and trial courts, 

has the consequence of implying just the opposite—that it is nevertheless reasonable to stop any

vehicle, any time, if it has any object suspended from the mirror or windshield. It does not 

matter that the object may be a parking pass, graduation tassel, GPS receiver, government issued 

toll transponder, or any other object no matter the size. All such vehicles may now be stopped 

and the occupants detained in the sure and certain knowledge that today’s precedent will justify 

their stop despite any testimonial deficiency in the articulation of facts establishing reasonable 

suspicion of criminal activity, any failure to conduct an investigation into the suspected criminal 

activity, and even ignorance of the plain language of the statute in question by those supposed to 

enforce it. 
- 26 -

III. The Exclusionary Rule

Although, for the reasons stated, I would hold that Mason’s Fourth Amendment rights 

were violated when the vehicle in which he was a passenger was stopped, I cannot say based 

upon the record before us that the exclusionary rule requires the suppression of the evidence in 

this case. See Hudson v. Michigan, 547 U.S. 586, 592 (2006) (noting that the exclusionary rule 

does not apply to “‘every item of evidence that has a causal connection with police misconduct’” 

(quoting Segura v. United States, 468 U.S. 796, 829 (1984) (Stevens, J., dissenting))). Mason 

had no apparent standing to object to the seizure or search of the driver, and the trial court, 

having denied the motion to suppress, made no determination as to whether the driver’s consent 

to search his person, which led to the search of the car and the discovery of evidence against 

Mason, attenuated any illegality of the stop as it pertained to and affected Mason. See

Schenckloth v. Bustamonte, 412 U.S. 218, 248-49 (1973) (holding that whether an individual’s 

consent to a search was voluntary is a factual question); United States v. Seidman, 156 F.3d 542, 

548 (4th Cir. 1998) (concluding that after the trial court determined that the officer entered 

Seidman’s residence in violation of the Fourth Amendment and that Seidman voluntarily 

consented to the conversation with the officer, the trial court should have gone further and 

determined “whether the taint arising from the unlawful entry was sufficiently attenuated by the 

consent”). 

IV. Conclusion

Concluding as I do that the trial court erred in its holding that reasonable suspicion 

existed to justify the seizure of the vehicle and its occupants under the Fourth Amendment, I 

would reverse and remand for a new trial including a determination by the trial court regarding 

the applicability of the exclusionary rule if the Commonwealth is so advised. 
VIRGINIA:

In the Court of Appeals of Virginia on Tuesday the 9th day of September, 2014.

Loren Anthony Mason, Jr., Appellant, 

 against Record No. 1542-13-2 

 Circuit Court Nos. CR12-215 through CR12-217 

Commonwealth of Virginia, Appellee. 

Upon a Petition for Rehearing En Banc 

Before the Full Court 

 On August 15, 2014 came the appellee, by the Attorney General of Virginia, and filed a petition 

requesting that the Court set aside the judgment rendered herein on August 5, 2014, and grant a rehearing en

banc on the issue(s) raised in the petition. 

 On consideration whereof, the petition for rehearing en banc is granted with regard to the issue(s) 

raised therein, the mandate entered herein on August 5, 2014 is stayed pending the decision of the Court en

banc, and the appeal is reinstated on the docket of this Court. 

 The parties shall file briefs in compliance with Rule 5A:35(b). The appellant shall attach as an 

addendum to the opening brief upon rehearing en banc a copy of the opinion previously rendered by the 

Court in this matter. It is further ordered that the appellee shall file twelve additional copies of the appendix 

previously filed in this case. In addition, any party represented by counsel shall file twelve electronic copies 

of their brief (and the appendix, if the party filing the appendix is represented by counsel) with the clerk of

this Court. The electronic copies must be filed on twelve separate CDs or DVDs and must be filed in Adobe

Acrobat Portable Document Format (PDF).1

 A Copy, 

 Teste: 

 Cynthia L. McCoy, Clerk 

 original order signed by a deputy clerk of the 

 By: Court of Appeals of Virginia at the direction 

 of the Court 

 Deputy Clerk

1

 The guidelines for the creation and submission of a digital brief package can be found at 

www.courts.state.va.us, in the Court of Appeals section under “Resources and Reference Materials.” 

PUBLISHED 
COURT OF APPEALS OF VIRGINIA 

Present: Judges Humphreys, Kelsey and Petty 

Argued at Richmond, Virginia 

LOREN ANTHONY MASON, JR. 

 OPINION BY 

v. Record No. 1542-13-2 JUDGE ROBERT J. HUMPHREYS 

 AUGUST 5, 2014 

COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA 

 FROM THE CIRCUIT COURT OF SUSSEX COUNTY 

W. Allan Sharrett, Judge 

 Paul S. Roskin (Vergara & Associates, on brief), for appellant. 

 Kathleen B. Martin, Senior Assistant Attorney General (Mark R. 

Herring, Attorney General, on brief), for appellee. 

 Loren Anthony Mason, Jr., (“Mason”) was convicted at a bench trial in the Sussex 

County Circuit Court (“trial court”) of distribution of marijuana, possession of a Schedule I or II 

controlled substance, and possession of a Schedule I or II controlled substance with the intent to 

distribute. On appeal, Mason argues that the trial court erred in denying his motion to suppress 

the evidence because the Commonwealth failed to prove that the officer had a reasonable and 

articulable suspicion to stop the vehicle in which Mason was riding. 

I. BACKGROUND 

Around 2:30 on the afternoon of March 3, 2012, Officer Willie Richards (“Officer 

Richards”) was parked on the side of the road operating stationary speed radar when he observed 

a vehicle pass by with a “[d]angling object on the rearview mirror.” Officer Richards executed a 

traffic stop of the vehicle because he observed the “dangling object.” He identified the driver of 

the vehicle, Tony Jarrett (“Jarrett”), and “ran his information.” When Officer Richards returned 

to the stopped vehicle after running a search of Jarrett’s information, he was going to issue 

PUBLISHED 
- 2 - 

Jarrett summonses for the dangling object and failure to wear a seatbelt. However, before 

issuing any summonses, Officer Richards asked Jarrett if he would mind stepping out of the car. 

Jarrett complied. Jarrett walked to the back of the vehicle he was driving, and Officer Richards 

told Jarrett why he stopped him. Then Officer Richards asked Jarrett if he had any weapons on 

him. Jarrett said no. Officer Richards asked him “if he minded if [Officer Richards] patted him 

down.” Jarrett said, “that’s fine.” Officer Richards patted Jarrett down for weapons. Officer 

Richards then saw a multi-colored sunglasses case sticking out of Jarrett’s left rear pocket. 

Officer Richards asked Jarrett what was in his back pocket. Jarrett paused, pulled out the bag, 

and threw it on the car stating, “I’m not selling it, I’m just using it.” Officer Richards opened the 

bag and found green leaf material inside. At that point, Officer Richards placed Jarrett in an 

investigatory detention and read him his Miranda rights. Up to this point, Mason was sitting in 

the front passenger seat of the vehicle. Upon the detention of Jarrett, Officer Parker, who was 

training under Officer Richards, pulled Mason out of the vehicle. Officer Parker checked Mason 

for weapons and walked him to the front of the police vehicle, parked directly behind the vehicle 

Jarrett and Mason were riding in. 

 Officer Richards began searching the stopped vehicle. Inside the vehicle, Officer 

Richards saw a black backpack sitting on top of a jacket in the middle of the backseat. Inside the 

backpack were about twenty to twenty-five individually wrapped bags in a larger bag, digital 

scales, cocaine, ecstasy pills, and a large amount of marijuana. After neither individual claimed 

ownership of the backpack, Officer Richards placed them both under arrest for possession. He 

searched Mason and found $3,381 in cash and a cell phone on his person. 

 Other evidence established that the backpack belonged to Mason. Mason filed a motion 

to suppress the evidence seized from the backpack, the evidence found on Mason’s person, and 

any statements made by Mason at the time of his detention and arrest and while in the custody of 
- 3 - 

Officer Richards. Mason argued that the stop was based solely on Officer Richards’s 

observation of a parking pass that hung from the rearview mirror and that Officer Richards 

lacked reasonable and articulable suspicion to stop the vehicle as that concept is defined in Terry 

v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968). 

 With the agreement of the parties, the trial court took up the suppression motion during 

the course of Mason’s trial. Officer Richards was questioned about his reason for stopping the 

vehicle. The prosecutor asked, “what brought your attention to the vehicle again?” Officer 

Richards replied, “Dangling object [sic] on the rearview mirror.” Officer Richards subsequently 

agreed with Mason’s counsel that the dangling object, a parking pass, would block only a small 

portion of the entire windshield. He also agreed that if a driver was looking straight ahead, the 

object would not be in his field of vision at all. There was nothing about Jarrett’s driving that 

made Officer Richards believe that Jarrett’s view was obstructed. The rearview mirror to which 

the object was attached was in its normal position on the windshield. Mason’s counsel 

introduced the object into evidence through Officer Richards—it was a 3” x 5” parking pass 

issued by the Department of Defense for use at Ft. Lee, the top portion of which hooks onto the 

post that holds the rearview mirror (see below).1

 

 1

 No effort was made to render the image as actual size because we recognize that those 

who publish our opinions, whether in printed and bound reports or in an on-line database, will 

not likely reproduce any image in actual size. We have, however, specifically noted the actual 

dimensions and included horizontal and vertical rulers as part of the image in the interest of 

maintaining contextual accuracy irrespective of future editorial decisions by others. 
- 4 - 

The trial court concluded, and both parties acknowledged, that this pass hung behind the 

rearview mirror from the driver’s perspective. App. at 33-34. 

On redirect, the Commonwealth asked, “So it’s not clear that you can’t—you can’t see 

through it, so it could obstruct a driver’s view?” Officer Richards replied, “It could, yes, 

ma’am.” After some discussion off the record, Officer Richards was recalled and the 

Commonwealth resumed questioning him: 

[Commonwealth:] What about [the vehicle] caught your attention? 

[Officer Richards:] Just the—initially when it was coming down I 

was running radar, so I was watching it come down the hill to 

make sure it wasn’t speeding. And when it got a little closer, I saw 

the tag on the rearview mirror. 

[Commonwealth:] And was it moving, or anything about it cause 

you concern for the driver? 
- 5 - 

[Officer Richards:] Just that there was a dangling object. I mean, I 

can’t say it was moving back and forth, just that I saw it when it 

came by. 

[Commonwealth:] Were you able to see everything from your 

vantage point when you saw the vehicle with the object in the 

window? Were you able to see everything in the car with that 

object there? 

[Officer Richards:] For the most part, yes. 

[Commonwealth:] And when you say “for the most part”? 

[Officer Richards:] I could see the two, the passenger and the 

driver. 

[Commonwealth:] Okay. Once you pulled the vehicle over, did 

you get in the vehicle? 

[Officer Richards:] Get in it? 

[Commonwealth:] Yes, the stopped vehicle? 

[Officer Richards:] Eventually, yes, ma’am. 

[Commonwealth:] And did you look at the rearview mirror? 

[Officer Richards:] Yes, ma’am.

[Commonwealth:] And what about it, if anything, did you 

observe? 

[Officer Richards:] Just there was a dangling object on it. 

[Commonwealth:] Did it—when you got in, were you on the 

driver’s side or passenger’s side, do you remember?

[Officer Richards:] Well, when I went into the vehicle to search it, 

it was on the passenger side. 

[Commonwealth:] You got in on the passenger side? 

[Officer Richards:] Yes. 

[Commonwealth:] Did you look out of the window? 
- 6 - 

[Officer Richards:] No, ma’am. Not to see—not to determine, you 

know, whether I could see out of the window or not where the 

dangling object was, no, ma’am.

[Commonwealth:] So you didn’t look?

[Officer Richards:] No. 

Mason’s counsel renewed his motion “even more strenuously” based on Officer 

Richards’s testimony that the stop was based on the dangling object, and not because the officer 

thought the object was in any way obstructing the driver’s view. The Commonwealth’s position 

in response was that any object that dangles from the rearview mirror justifies the stop of the 

vehicle. 

 Throughout its deliberation over the motion and extensive discussions with the parties, 

the trial court consistently and repeatedly stated that the parking pass would not obstruct the 

driver’s view of the highway. For example, the trial court found that the parking pass would not 

obstruct the view of the driver at all if hung “on any car in America.” “I don’t think it obstructs 

anybody’s view.” “It seems to me that object hanging from the mirror—it’s readily obvious, it’s 

not obstructing anybody’s view.” “It hangs up in the rearview mirror, which is up here. That 

doesn’t obstruct your view. You don’t even see the highway up there. The highway is out here. 

It doesn’t obstruct your view at all.” “The object that dangled didn’t substantially obstruct a 

view. You could get in the car and essentially look right through it. But it did dangle down and 

it was there.” The trial court simultaneously and repeatedly acknowledged that the issue, 

however, was whether the object gave rise to reasonable suspicion to believe that a traffic 

infraction was taking or had taken place. The trial court ordered additional briefing by the 

parties on this issue and continued the matter for further consideration of the issue. When the 

parties reconvened several months later, the trial court repeated that “I think everyone would 

agree that [the parking pass] didn’t substantially obstruct the driver’s view” and then noted that 
- 7 - 

the issue was “whether or not essentially the mere fact of a dangling object gives the officer 

reasonable suspicion to stop to determine whether or not the object . . . obstructs the driver’s 

clear view of the highway.” The trial court then held that there is reason to believe that the 

object could be blocking the sight of the driver simply “because there is an object dangling.” 

The trial court continued, “[The officer] is entitled constitutionally to investigate further. So the 

Court believes that the presence of the object is, in fact, sufficient reasonable suspicion to justify 

a detention of the vehicle.” The trial court denied the motion to suppress the evidence and found 

Mason guilty as charged. 

II. ANALYSIS 

Mason argues on appeal that “the trial court erred in failing to grant [his] motion to 

suppress controlled substances seized by Officer Richards of the Waverly Police Department 

when the Commonwealth failed to meet its burden in showing that he had reasonable and 

articulable suspicion to stop the vehicle in which Loren Mason was riding.” 

 Officer Richards pulled the vehicle over after observing an object attached to the 

rearview mirror. Code § 46.2-1054 provides in part, 

It shall be unlawful for any person to drive a motor vehicle on a 

highway in the Commonwealth with any object or objects, other 

than a rear view mirror, sun visor, or other equipment of the motor 

vehicle approved by the Superintendent, suspended from any part 

of the motor vehicle in such a manner as to obstruct the driver’s 

clear view of the highway through the windshield. 

(Emphasis added). 

On appeal, it is the appellant’s burden to show that the trial court’s denial of a motion to 

suppress constituted reversible error. Lovelace v. Commonwealth, 37 Va. App. 120, 124, 554 

S.E.2d 688, 689 (2001). “[D]eterminations of reasonable suspicion and probable cause should 

be reviewed de novo on appeal.” Ornelas v. United States, 517 U.S. 690, 699 (1996). “In 

performing such analysis, we are bound by the trial court’s findings of historical fact unless 
- 8 - 

‘plainly wrong’ or without evidence to support them and we give due weight to the inferences 

drawn from those facts by resident judges and local law enforcement officers.” McGee v. 

Commonwealth, 25 Va. App. 193, 198, 497 S.E.2d 259, 261 (1997) (en banc). 

A. Code § 46.2-1054 does not Proscribe All Suspended Objects 

 Initially, we note that both at trial and on appeal, the Commonwealth advanced its 

position that any object suspended from a rearview mirror would provide an officer with 

reasonable suspicion to justify pulling the car over and this argument was ultimately adopted by 

the trial court in its holding. However, Code § 46.2-1054 proscribes only suspended objects that 

obstruct the driver’s clear view of the highway. What exactly constitutes an obstruction of the 

clear view of the highway is not specified by the statute. However, appellant raises no issue 

regarding the vagueness of the statute and its constitutionality is presumed, thus we do not 

consider the applicability of our Supreme Court’s decision in Tanner v. City of Virginia Beach, 

277 Va. 432, 438, 674 S.E.2d 848, 852 (2009). What is clear is that the statute does not 

proscribe all objects suspended from the interior of a motor vehicle. If the General Assembly 

had intended to proscribe all objects suspended from any part of a motor vehicle, it would have 

said so. See Holsapple v. Commonwealth, 266 Va. 593, 599, 587 S.E.2d 561, 564-65 (2003) 

(courts may not add language to a statute that the General Assembly has not seen fit to include). 

Thus, and as discussed more fully infra, in order for an officer to have reasonable suspicion that 

a driver is violating Code § 46.2-1054, the evidence must support an officer’s reasonable 

suspicion that a suspended object is obstructing the driver’s view of the road and not merely that 

there is a suspended object. A holding along the lines urged by the Commonwealth that any and 

all objects suspended from a mirror in a motor vehicle provide reasonable suspicion that the 

driver is violating Code § 46.2-1054, would amount to a per se rule obviating the need for 

particularized suspicion that an individual is engaged in wrongdoing before executing a Fourth 
- 9 - 

Amendment stop and detention. See United States v. Cortez, 449 U.S. 411, 417-18 (1981). The 

United States Supreme Court has said that “for the most part per se rules are inappropriate in the 

Fourth Amendment context.” United States v. Drayton, 536 U.S. 194, 201 (2002) (favoring 

consideration of the totality of the circumstances of the encounter when determining if a citizen 

has been seized by police). The per se rule urged by the Commonwealth would stand in stark 

contrast to the established precedent of the United States Supreme Court requiring an officer to 

form individualized suspicion that a crime is being or is about to be committed and we reject the 

Commonwealth’s argument supported by the dissent that the statute permits every vehicle with 

any object suspended from the rearview mirror to be stopped based solely because of that fact.2

 

Thus, we turn to whether the totality of the circumstances of this case provide reasonable 

suspicion of criminal activity for the stop of the vehicle. 

B. Reasonable Suspicion and the Requirement that Facts Supporting it be Articulated 

 We begin, as we must in these cases, with the Fourth Amendment to the United States 

Constitution, which provides that “the right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, 

papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated.”

It is quite plain that the Fourth Amendment governs “seizures” of 

the person which do not eventuate in a trip to the station house and 

prosecution for crime—“arrests” in traditional terminology. It 

must be recognized that whenever a police officer accosts an 

 2

 The obvious legislative purpose behind Code § 46.2-1054 is a recognition that many 

who drive motor vehicles on the highways of the Commonwealth attach different objects and 

devices to their vehicles for various reasons. Some are purely decorative such as the iconic 

“fuzzy dice” or hold personal or sentimental meaning such as a graduation tassel or rosary beads, 

while still other objects have utilitarian uses such as GPS devices, toll transponders, air 

fresheners or, as in this case, parking permits. Significantly, these items are permitted to be 

attached to a vehicle unless they are of a size or positioned in such a way as to impair the ability 

of the driver to view the road. Were we to adopt the interpretation advanced by the 

Commonwealth and supported by the dissent, all who do so would automatically provide police 

with a reasonable suspicion to detain them without regard to whether there is any evidence 

articulated by the officer that the article in question may actually be a hazard to the operation of 

the vehicle. 
- 10 - 

individual and restrains his freedom to walk away, he has “seized”

that person. 

Terry, 392 U.S. at 16. “Prior to Terry v. Ohio, any restraint on the person amounting to a seizure 

for the purposes of the Fourth Amendment was invalid unless justified by probable cause.” 

Florida v. Royer, 460 U.S. 491, 498 (1983). “Terry created a limited exception to this general 

rule: certain seizures are justifiable under the Fourth Amendment if there is articulable suspicion 

that a person has committed or is about to commit a crime.” Id. 

 Even a cursory review of reasonable suspicion cases reveals often repeated language 

requiring specific facts in support of an officer’s suspicion that criminal activity is afoot. “[T]he 

police can stop and briefly detain a person for investigative purposes if the officer has a 

reasonable suspicion supported by articulable facts that criminal activity ‘may be afoot,’ even if 

the officer lacks probable cause.” United States v. Sokolow, 490 U.S. 1, 7 (1989). “[I]n 

justifying the particular intrusion the police officer must be able to point to specific and 

articulable facts which, taken together with rational inferences from those facts, reasonably 

warrant that intrusion.” Terry, 392 U.S. at 21. “A court sitting to determine the existence of 

reasonable suspicion must require the agent to articulate the factors leading to that conclusion.” 

Sokolow, 490 U.S. at 10; see also United States v. Dennis, 115 F.3d 524, 532 (7th Cir. 1997) 

(“[I]n reviewing a reasonable suspicion determination, we require law enforcement authorities to 

articulate the specific characteristics exhibited by the person or object to be detained which 

aroused the authorities’ suspicion in the particular case before us, and we determine whether 

those characteristics would reasonably arouse suspicion under the circumstances presented in the 

case.” (citing Sokolow, 490 U.S. at 10)). “The officer, of course, must be able to articulate 

something more than an ‘inchoate and unparticularized suspicion or hunch.’” Sokolow, 490 U.S. 

at 7 (quoting Terry, 392 U.S. at 27); see also Rudolph v. Commonwealth, 277 Va. 209, 210, 722 

S.E.2d 527, 528 (2009) (“To establish reasonable suspicion, an officer must be able to articulate 
- 11 - 

more than an unparticularized suspicion or ‘hunch’ that criminal activity is afoot.”). “This 

demand for specificity in the information upon which police action is predicated is the central 

teaching of this Court’s Fourth Amendment jurisprudence.” Terry, 392 U.S. at 21 n.18.3

 

 A reviewing court must consider the totality of the circumstances known to the officer at 

the time of the stop when determining whether the officer’s suspicion was reasonable:

The scheme of the Fourth Amendment becomes meaningful only 

when it is assured that at some point the conduct of those charged 

with enforcing the laws can be subjected to the more detached, 

neutral scrutiny of a judge who must evaluate the reasonableness 

of a particular search or seizure in light of the particular 

circumstances. And in making that assessment it is imperative that 

the facts be judged against an objective standard: would the facts 

available to the officer at the moment of the seizure or the search 

“warrant a man of reasonable caution in the belief” that the action 

taken was appropriate? Anything less would invite intrusions upon 

constitutionally guaranteed rights based on nothing more 

substantial than inarticulate hunches, a result this Court has 

consistently refused to sanction. 

Terry, 392 U.S. at 21-22 (emphasis added). “[T]he totality of the circumstances – the whole 

picture – must be taken into account. Based upon that whole picture the detaining officers must 

have a particularized and objective basis for suspecting the particular person stopped of criminal 

activity.” Cortez, 449 U.S. at 417-18; see also Navarette v. California, 134 S. Ct. 1683, 1687 

(2014) (the Fourth Amendment permits traffic stops “when a law enforcement officer has ‘a 

particularized and objective basis for suspecting the particular person stopped of criminal 

activity’” (quoting Cortez, 449 U.S. at 417-18); and holding that a tipster can provide an officer 

 3 “The Fourth Amendment applies to seizures of the person, including brief investigatory 

stops such as the stop of the vehicle . . . . An investigatory stop must be justified by some 

objective manifestation that the person stopped is, or is about to be, engaged in criminal 

activity.” Cortez, 449 U.S. at 417 (citations omitted); see also Delaware v. Prouse, 440 U.S. 648, 

663 (1979) (stopping an automobile and detaining the driver is unreasonable under the Fourth 

Amendment unless there is at least articulable and reasonable suspicion that the vehicle or an 

occupant is subject to seizure for violation of the law). When a police officer makes a traffic 

stop, the passenger is seized within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment and may challenge 

the constitutionality of the stop. Brendlin v. California, 551 U.S. 249, 251 (2007). 
- 12 - 

with enough particular facts to give rise to the officer’s reasonable suspicion); United States v. 

Edmonds, 240 F.3d 55, 59 (D.C. Cir. 2001) (“the question of whether reasonable suspicion 

existed can only be answered by considering the totality of the circumstances as the officer on 

the scene experienced them”).

 In Sibron v. New York, 392 U.S. 40 (1968), a companion case to Terry, the Court 

considered whether the officer had reasonable grounds to believe that Sibron was armed and 

dangerous, so as to justify the officer’s self-protective search for weapons. “The police officer is 

not entitled to seize and search every person whom he sees on the street or of whom he makes 

inquiries. Before he places a hand on the person of a citizen in search of anything, he must have 

constitutionally adequate, reasonable grounds for doing so.” Id. at 64. “In the case of the selfprotective search for weapons, he must be able to point to particular facts from which he 

reasonably inferred that the individual was armed and dangerous.” Id. (emphasis added) (citing 

generally Terry, 392 U.S. 1). The Court found that the officer’s testimony revealed no such 

facts—the officer did not testify that when Sibron put his hand in his pocket that he feared that 

Sibron was going for a weapon, and he “never at any time put forth the notion that he acted to 

protect himself.” Id. at 64 n.21. The Court found that the trial court should have suppressed the 

evidence found in the officer’s search of Sibron. Id. at 68. 

 In Brown v. Texas, 443 U.S. 47 (1979), the Court found that the officer failed to 

articulate a reasonable suspicion for stopping Brown. Officers observed Brown and another man 

walking away from one another in an alley. Officer Venegas testified that he and the other 

officer “believed the two had been together or were about to meet until the patrol car appeared.” 

Id. at 48. The officers then stopped Brown because the situation “looked suspicious and [they] 

had never seen [Brown] in the area before.” Id. at 49. The area was known for drug trafficking, 

however, “the officers did not claim to suspect [Brown] of any specific misconduct, nor did they 
- 13 - 

have any reason to believe that he was armed.” Id. The Court noted in its analysis that “none of 

the circumstances preceding the officers’ detention of [Brown] justified a reasonable suspicion 

that he was involved in criminal conduct.” Id. at 51-52. “Officer Venegas testified at appellant’s 

trial that the situation in the alley ‘looked suspicious,’ but he was unable to point to any facts 

supporting that conclusion.” Id. at 52. The Court noted that in this case the officer’s testimony 

“is to be distinguished from the observations of a trained, experienced police officer who is able 

to perceive and articulate meaning in given conduct which would be wholly innocent to the 

untrained observer.” Id. at 52 n.2. “In the absence of any basis for suspecting appellant of 

misconduct, the balance between the public interest and appellant’s right to personal security and 

privacy tilts in favor of freedom from police interference.” Id. at 52. “When . . . a stop is not 

based on objective criteria, the risk of arbitrary and abusive police practices exceeds tolerable 

limits.” Id. 

 Likewise, in this case, Officer Richards did not testify either to facts sufficient to 

suspect the driver or Mason of any specific misconduct or reasons why his training and 

experience would permit further investigation of conduct which to the untrained eye appears to 

be wholly innocent. Although the prosecutor asked Officer Richards if anything about the 

dangling object concerned him, his response was “just that there was a dangling object.”4

 We 

note that in some cases, “‘wholly lawful conduct might justify the suspicion that criminal activity 

was afoot.’” Sokolow, 490 U.S. at 9 (quoting Reid v. Georgia, 448 U.S. 438, 441 (1980)). 

However, in determining whether the officer’s suspicions were reasonable the relevant inquiry is 

the degree of suspicion that attaches to particular types of noncriminal acts. Id. at 10. 

 4

 Although we do not consider it in our reasonable suspicion analysis, we note that 

Officer Richards did not pursue any investigation of his stated reason for the stop to see if the 

parking pass actually obstructed the driver’s view of the road from inside the car.
- 14 - 

 In Reid v. Georgia, 448 U.S. 438 (1980), the Supreme Court determined that federal 

narcotics agents seized Reid without an articulable suspicion that he was unlawfully transporting 

drugs—Reid’s conduct was mostly typical of any number of innocent travelers and the 

individual conduct specific to Reid was not indicative of any wrongdoing. The evidence at the 

suppression hearing established that Reid arrived at the Atlanta Airport on an early morning 

flight from Fort Lauderdale, Florida. Id. at 439. The agent testified that Fort Lauderdale is a 

principal place of origin of much of the cocaine sold in the country. Id. at 441. As Reid 

proceeded through the airport, the agents observed him looking backward in the direction of a 

second man. Id. at 439. Both men carried similar shoulder bags. The men walked past the 

baggage claim, then spoke briefly, and left the terminal building together; at this point agents 

stopped them and found drugs in Reid’s bag. Id. The Court of Appeals of Georgia found that 

the agents had reasonable suspicion of Reid’s wrongdoing because (1) Reid arrived from a city 

known for its cocaine production, (2) Reid arrived “early in the morning, when law enforcement 

activity is diminished,” (3) Reid and his associate “appeared to the agent to be trying to conceal 

the fact that they were traveling together,” and (4) they only carried shoulder bags and no other 

luggage. Id. at 440-41. 

However, the United States Supreme Court reversed and concluded that “the agent could 

not, as a matter of law, have reasonably suspected the petitioner of criminal activity on the basis 

of these observed circumstances.” Id. at 441. Of the evidence relied on, only the fact that 

petitioner occasionally looked back toward his associate relates to his particular conduct. Id. 

“The other circumstances describe a very large category of presumable innocent travelers, who 

would be subject to virtually random seizures were the Court to conclude that as little foundation 
- 15 - 

as there was in this case could justify a seizure.” Id.5

 Nor could the Court agree that the manner 

in which Reid and his associate walked through the airport “reasonably could have led the agent 

to suspect them of wrongdoing”—this was “simply too slender a reed to support the seizure in 

this case.” Id. 

 In this case, Officer Richards, the only witness who testified about the circumstances of 

the stop, did not articulate facts that would support any particularized suspicion that Jarrett was 

committing a traffic offense when he pulled the car containing Mason over. He only asserted 

that he observed an object hanging from the rearview mirror as the vehicle passed, and it is clear 

from his testimony that he mistakenly believed that any object hanging from the mirror 

constituted an offense. Officer Richards never testified to any facts or circumstances that 

suggested a reason to suspect that this 3” x 5” object hanging from behind a mirror affixed to the 

top of the vehicle’s windshield obstructed the driver’s view of any part of the highway. On 

cross-examination the officer confirmed that the only thing he knew at the point of the stop was 

the “dangling object.” Officer Richards did not assign suspicion to this fact based on his 

experience as a law enforcement officer in the field. See United States v. Sigmond-Ballesteros, 

285 F.3d 1117, 1123 (9th Cir. 2002) (where the court considered that the agent never testified 

about the relevance of the innocent activity of the suspect or that, in his experience, the suspect’s 

actions indicated criminal activity). 

 The prosecutor stipulated that Officer Richards did not notice anything unusual about the 

driving of the vehicle. The officer acknowledged that the parking pass would only take up a 

 5

 Similarly, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit has noted that 

“neither police officers nor courts should sanction as ‘reasonably suspicious’ a combination of 

factors that could plausibly describe the behavior of a large portion of the motorists engaged in 

travel upon our interstate highways.” United States v. Tapia, 912 F.2d 1367, 1371 (11th Cir. 

1990); accord United States v. Rodriguez-Sanchez, 23 F.3d 1488, 1492 (9th Cir. 1994) (holding 

that reasonable suspicion cannot be based “on broad profiles which cast suspicion on entire 

categories of people without any individualized suspicion of the particular person to be 

stopped”).
- 16 - 

small portion of the entire windshield and that it would not be in a driver’s view when looking 

straight ahead. We further note, as did the trial court, that the parking pass hung behind the 

rearview mirror, reducing the area of the parking pass visible to the driver. On redirect, the 

prosecutor asked Officer Richards, “So it’s not clear that you can’t—you can’t see through it 

[meaning the parking pass], so it could obstruct a driver’s view?” Officer Richards replied, “It 

could, yes, ma’am.” Even the officer’s acknowledgement in court that the pass could possibly 

obstruct a driver’s view specifically because of its opaque nature, does not equate to never 

articulated facts supporting a reasonable suspicion at the time of the stop that the pass was 

obstructing the driver’s view of the highway.

 6 Moreover, the absence of the articulation of facts 

supporting a reasonable suspicion in Officer Richards’s testimony is consistent with the trial 

court’s statements after viewing the exhibit that the parking pass could not obstruct a driver’s 

view of the highway if hung “on any car in America” and the trial court’s later statement made 

immediately prior to its ruling that, “I think everyone would agree that [the parking pass] didn’t 

substantially obstruct the driver’s view.” 7

 6

 This is the central point of our disagreement with the dissent. A highway includes “the 

entire width between the boundary lines of every way or place open to the use of the public for 

purposes of vehicular travel in the Commonwealth, including the streets and alleys.” Code 

§ 46.2-100. Barring the approach advocated by the Commonwealth and the dissent that any

object affixed to the interior of a vehicle per se generates reasonable suspicion as a matter of law, 

neither the testimony of Officer Richards nor the parking pass itself, provides reason to believe 

that the trial court’s unequivocal and repeated statements regarding this object’s inability, from 

its size and location in the vehicle, to obstruct any part of the highway were either nonsense or 

legally meaningless. 

7

 This latter statement by the trial court immediately prior to its holding seems to us to 

contradict the dissent’s assertion that “none of the judge’s initial remarks can be fairly deemed a 

‘factual finding.’” Indeed, and significantly unlike the situation in Commonwealth v. Bryant, 

No. 0076-04-1, 2004 Va. App. LEXIS 283, at *4 (Va. Ct. App. June 15, 2004), cited by the 

dissent, we conclude that these two unequivocal statements by the trial court are indeed a factual 

finding binding upon this Court and the holding the dissent contends is a repudiation of these 

statements is actually an erroneous adoption by the trial court of the Commonwealth’s legal 

argument that any opaque object attached to a vehicle constitutes reasonable suspicion of a 

violation of Code § 46.2-1054 and justifying a stop of the vehicle. 
- 17 - 

Officer Richards’s observation of the parking pass attached to the rearview mirror is 

descriptive of wholly innocent behavior exhibited by many drivers on the road who have objects 

attached to their windshield or rearview mirror that do not obstruct their view of the road. We 

note that there is little distinction between the size of the parking pass, which when hanging 

would be covered in part by the rearview mirror itself, and the size of various opaque stickers 

and other objects that various government agencies require or authorize to be displayed on the 

windshield of a motor vehicle, such as a state vehicle inspection sticker, Code § 46.2-1163, or an 

E-ZPass toll transponder, Code § 33.1-23.03:10(C). Without any particular or individualized 

facts suggesting or supporting a suspicion that this parking pass was obstructing the driver’s 

view of the road, we conclude that the totality of the circumstances known to the officer at the 

time of the stop in this case are insufficient to support a reasonable suspicion that the driver was 

violating the law. 

III. CONCLUSION 

 We hold that the traffic stop and seizure of Mason violated his Fourth Amendment rights 

because the facts and circumstances available to the officer at the time of the stop did not support 

a reasonable suspicion that the driver was violating or about to violate the law. However, despite 

our holding that the stop here is constitutionally infirm, we cannot say based upon the record 

before us that the exclusionary rule necessarily requires the suppression of the evidence in this 

case. See Hudson v. Michigan, 547 U.S. 586, 592 (2006) (the exclusionary rule does not apply 

to “‘every item of evidence that has a causal connection with police misconduct’” (quoting 

Segura v. United States, 468 U.S. 796, 829 (1984) (Stevens, J., dissenting))). The trial court, 

having denied the motion to suppress, made no determination as to whether Jarrett’s consent to 

search his person, which led to the search of the car and the discovery of evidence against 

Mason, attenuated the illegality of the stop as it pertained to and affected Mason. See 
- 18 - 

Schenckloth v. Bustamonte, 412 U.S. 218, 248-49 (1973) (whether an individual’s consent to a 

search was voluntary is a factual question); United States v. Seidman, 156 F.3d 542, 548 (4th 

Cir. 1998) (after the trial court determined that the officer entered Seidman’s residence in 

violation of the Fourth Amendment and that Seidman voluntarily consented to the conversation 

with the officer, the trial court should have gone further and determined “whether the taint 

arising from the unlawful entry was sufficiently attenuated by the consent”). Therefore, we 

reverse and remand for a new trial consistent with this opinion if the Commonwealth is so 

advised. 

Reversed and remanded. 
- 19 - 

KELSEY, J., dissenting. 

 The case is important not because I think it is a good or bad policy to stop vehicles for 

what some consider to be an insignificant vehicular safety violation, but because I disagree with 

the majority’s factual narrative and believe that much of the majority’s legal analysis is out of 

sync with settled precedent. 

I. 

 I will restate the facts as I believe we must — “in the light most favorable to the 

Commonwealth, giving it the benefit of any reasonable inferences.” Glenn v. Commonwealth, 

49 Va. App. 413, 416, 642 S.E.2d 282, 283 (2007) (en banc) (internal quotation marks omitted), 

aff’d, 275 Va. 123, 654 S.E.2d 910 (2008). 

A police officer testified that, while operating stationary radar, he saw “a vehicle that 

came by with a dangling object.” App. at 21. The object was dangling from the rearview mirror. 

Id. at 22. At the suppression hearing, the officer identified the object that he observed. It was an 

opaque parking pass, measuring five inches long and three inches wide. The parking pass was 

introduced as an exhibit at the suppression hearing. The officer testified that he “saw it clearly” 

as the vehicle “went by” him. Id. at 31 (emphasis added). Two questions later, when asked if 

the dangling parking pass that he so clearly observed “could obstruct a driver’s view,” the officer 

said unequivocally, “It could, yes, ma’am.” Id. (emphasis added). 

At the suppression hearing, the trial judge made various remarks from the bench 

suggesting his inclination to grant the motion to suppress. After making these remarks, however, 

the judge requested briefing and “asked for additional time to consider” the issue. Id. at 101. 

The trial judge also later examined the parking pass and took a “view of the scene,” id., to 

determine if the parking pass could obstruct a driver’s vision in a vehicle similar to the one that 
- 20 - 

the officer had stopped. See Oral Argument Audio at 9:47 to 9:55, 26:04 to 26:30 (stipulation of 

counsel). The parking pass, reproduced in its actual size, looks like this: 

Later, on the day of trial, the judge advised counsel that he had reconsidered his earlier 

remarks during the suppression hearing. He said that his initial “concern” was that the parking 

pass did not “substantially obstruct” the driver’s view of the highway. App. at 102 (emphasis 

added). But after reviewing the caselaw “stacked up against me,” the judge explained, he 

realized that neither the statute nor the reasonable suspicion standard required a substantial

obstruction. Id. at 105. He noted that one of the cases making this point was an unpublished 

opinion from our Court, Commonwealth v. Bryant, No. 0076-04-1, 2004 Va. App. LEXIS 283, 

at *4 (Va. Ct. App. June 15, 2004) (Humphreys, J.). 
- 21 - 

In Bryant, we reversed a trial court for granting a suppression motion in a similar context. 

There, an officer stopped a vehicle after observing an “air freshener hanging from the rear view 

mirror” that the officer believed “could” have partially obstructed the driver’s view. Id. (internal 

quotation marks omitted). Considerably smaller than the opaque parking pass in our case, the air 

freshener in Bryant was “in the shape of a dragon” and was “three-and-a-half by one-and-a-half 

inches.” Id. at *5 (internal quotation marks omitted). Under these facts, we held that the trial 

court plainly erred by concluding that these facts did not give rise to a reasonable suspicion that 

the vehicle could have been in violation of Code § 46.2-1054. Id. at *15-16; see also Richardson 

v. Commonwealth, No. 0946-13-3, 2014 Va. App. LEXIS 98, at *4 (Va. Ct. App. March 18, 

2014) (Huff, J.) (upholding a traffic stop where the officer observed that an “air freshener could 

be in violation of Virginia’s ‘obstruction of view’ statute”).

The trial judge also relied upon Pegram v. Commonwealth, No. 1041-95-2, 1996 

Va. App. LEXIS 611, at *4 (Va. Ct. App. Sept. 24, 1996) (Willis, J.), in which we similarly noted 

that an officer had “stopped the vehicle based upon his belief that it was being operated in 

violation of Code § 46.2-1054.” The object in that case was a “large cloth object” hanging from 

the mirror. Id. at *2. We held that even though the officer was unable “to describe the cloth,” 

that “d[id] not invalidate the stop.” Id. at *4. To the contrary, “[b]ecause [the officer] had 

probable cause to believe that the cloth object violated Code § 46.2-1054, the trial judge did not 

err in finding that the [officer] had authority to stop the vehicle and to issue a summons.” Id. 

Acknowledging that he “initially disagreed” with the view taken by these cases, the trial 

judge explained that “what carrie[d] the day” was the “definition” of obstruction. App. at 105. 

“[U]ltimately it’s the definition that persuaded the Court that that’s what the law is intended and 

that’s what the law says.” Id. at 105. Repudiating his earlier views, the trial judge held: 
- 22 - 

[T]he Court is of the opinion that the standard for [the officer] to 

have stopped the vehicle was[,] is there reasonable suspicion that 

this object is blocking or cutting off from sight or blocking an 

unhampered, . . . unrestricted view of the highway? Well, there is 

reason to believe that it could be, because there is an object 

dangling. He is entitled constitutionally to investigate further. So 

the Court believes that the presence of the object is, in fact, 

sufficient reasonable suspicion to justify a detention of the vehicle. 

Id. (emphasis added).8

 It is the court’s holding — not the judge’s initial remarks from the bench 

— that accompanies the final order on appeal to us. Viewed in context, none of the judge’s 

initial remarks can be fairly deemed a “factual finding.” Ante at 16 n.7.9

 Nor should they be 

woven into a factual narrative as if they were. 

II. 

 A. THE REASONABLE SUSPICION STANDARD

 Reasonable suspicion is simply suspicion that is reasonable. It is not something more 

than suspicion. And it can hardly be called proof. To be sure, the degree of certitude required by 

reasonable suspicion is “‘considerably less than proof of wrongdoing by a preponderance of the 

evidence,’ and ‘obviously less demanding than that for probable cause.’” Perry v. 

Commonwealth, 280 Va. 572, 581, 701 S.E.2d 431, 436 (2010) (quoting United States v. 

Sokolow, 490 U.S. 1, 7 (1989)); see also Navarette v. California, 134 S. Ct. 1683, 1687 (2014). 

Consequently, “the mere possibility of an innocent explanation does not necessarily exclude a 

 8

 See also App. at 40-41 (The trial judge confirmed that “the question we have now is 

[whether there] is reasonable suspicion to believe that there is a traffic infraction taking place[.] 

So again, is there reasonable suspicion to believe that [the parking pass] is obstructing . . . the 

driver’s clear view of the highway through the windshield?” (emphasis added)). 

9 We traditionally decline invitations to “fix upon isolated statements of the trial judge 

taken out of the full context in which they were made, and use them as a predicate for holding 

the law has been misapplied.” Damon v. York, 54 Va. App. 544, 555, 680 S.E.2d 354, 360 

(2009) (internal quotation marks omitted); see also White v. White, 56 Va. App. 214, 217-18, 

692 S.E.2d 289, 291 (2010) (“We are particularly skeptical . . . of appellate efforts to piece 

together . . . fragmented remarks from the bench” in an effort to undermine the court’s ultimate 

holding.). 
- 23 - 

reasonable suspicion that the suspect might be violating the law.” Morris v. City of Va. Beach, 

58 Va. App. 173, 183, 707 S.E.2d 479, 483 (2011) (internal quotation marks omitted). 

 No one can be arrested on the basis of reasonable suspicion. It serves merely to justify a 

brief detention to investigate. Because the need for justification is quite low, so too is the 

justifying legal standard. See 4 Wayne R. LaFave, Search & Seizure § 9.5(b), at 658-59 (5th ed. 

2012) (noting that reasonable suspicion requires merely “that there exists at the time of the stop a 

substantial possibility — or, indeed, even a ‘moderate chance’ — that [unlawful] conduct has 

occurred, is occurring, or is about to occur” (emphasis added) (footnotes omitted) (quoting 

Safford Unified Sch. Dist. No. 1 v. Redding, 557 U.S. 364, 371 (2009))). 

 In suppression hearings, a police officer usually takes the stand and describes what he 

saw and, occasionally, why he did what he did. While the first part is highly relevant, the second 

is not. When assessing the legality of an officer’s actions, his “subjective motivation is 

irrelevant.” Robinson v. Commonwealth, 273 Va. 26, 37, 639 S.E.2d 217, 223 (2007) (quoting 

Brigham City v. Stuart, 547 U.S. 398, 404 (2006)). A police officer’s “action is ‘reasonable’ 

under the Fourth Amendment, regardless of the individual officer’s state of mind, ‘as long as the 

circumstances, viewed objectively, justify the action.’” Stuart, 547 U.S. at 404 (brackets 

omitted) (quoting Scott v. United States, 436 U.S. 128, 138 (1978)); see also Navarette, 134 

S. Ct. at 1687. Indeed, settled precedent governing Fourth Amendment cases has “repeatedly 

rejected a subjective approach.” Fernandez v. California, 134 S. Ct. 1126, 1134 (2014) (internal 

quotation marks omitted). 

Put another way, a court should thus make “‘an objective assessment of the officer’s 

actions in light of the facts and circumstances confronting him at the time,’ and not on the 

officer’s actual state of mind at the time the challenged action was taken.” Maryland v. Macon, 

472 U.S. 463, 470-71 (1985) (quoting Scott, 436 U.S. at 136). Consequently, an “officer’s 
- 24 - 

subjective characterization of observed conduct is not relevant” to an objective application of 

the Fourth Amendment. Jones v. Commonwealth, 279 Va. 665, 673, 691 S.E.2d 801, 805 (2010) 

(emphasis added and internal quotation marks omitted); see also Stuart, 547 U.S. at 404.10

It necessarily follows that, when deciding a suppression motion, a court should not limit 

itself “to what the stopping officer says or to evidence of his subjective rationale,” Raab v. 

Commonwealth, 50 Va. App. 577, 583 n.2, 652 S.E.2d 144, 148 n.2 (2007) (en banc) (quoting 

United States v. Brown, 232 F.3d 589, 594 (7th Cir. 2000)).11 Courts should instead “look to the 

record as a whole to determine what facts were known to the officer and then consider whether a 

reasonable officer in those circumstances would have been suspicious.” LaFave, supra, § 9.5(a), 

at 647 n.22 (quoting United States v. McKie, 951 F.2d 399, 402 (D.C. Cir. 1991)). Because the 

reasonable suspicion test “is purely objective,” the Terry standard imposes “no requirement that 

an actual suspicion by the officer be shown.” Id. § 9.5(a), at 647 (second emphasis added). 

Citing United States v. Sokolow, 490 U.S. 1 (1989), the majority asserts that an officer 

making a Terry stop must actually articulate the articulable facts that gave rise to his personal 

suspicion. Sokolow does not stand for that proposition. Nor do any of the other cases cited by 

the majority opinion. Sokolow simply restates that the “totality of the circumstances,” id. at 8 

(quoting United States v. Cortez, 449 U.S. 411, 417 (1981)), must give rise to “articulable facts 

that criminal activity ‘may be afoot,’” id. at 7 (quoting Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 30 (1968)). 

 10 See also Bond v. United States, 529 U.S. 334, 338 n.2 (2000); Whren v. United States, 

517 U.S. 806, 813 (1996); Scott, 436 U.S. at 138; United States v. Johnson, 734 F.3d 270, 275 

(4th Cir. 2013); United States v. Singh, 363 F.3d 347, 356 (4th Cir. 2004); United States v. 

McKie, 951 F.2d 399, 402 (D.C. Cir. 1991); Harris v. Commonwealth, 276 Va. 689, 697, 668 

S.E.2d 141, 146 (2008); Robinson, 273 Va. at 37-38, 639 S.E.2d at 223-24. 

11 See also Washington v. Commonwealth, 60 Va. App. 427, 434, 728 S.E.2d 521, 525 

(2012); Shifflett v. Commonwealth, 58 Va. App. 732, 736 n.2, 716 S.E.2d 132, 135 n.2 (2011); 

Morris, 58 Va. App. at 179, 707 S.E.2d at 481; Thomas v. Commonwealth, 57 Va. App. 267, 

273-75, 701 S.E.2d 87, 90-91 (2010); Armstead v. Commonwealth, 56 Va. App. 569, 579 n.7, 

695 S.E.2d 561, 565 n.7 (2010). 
- 25 - 

This does not mean that the facts must actually be articulated by the officer on the witness stand 

or that any such articulation, by itself, must be sufficient to establish reasonable suspicion. The 

majority’s assertion to the contrary is inconsistent with binding en banc precedent from our 

Court, Raab, 50 Va. App. at 583 n.2, 652 S.E.2d at 148 n.2,12 as well as the uniform view among 

courts that have addressed this issue.13

 B. OBSTRUCTING A DRIVER’S “CLEAR VIEW” OF THE HIGHWAY

As a provision of the Virginia Motor Vehicle Code, Code § 46.2-1054 prohibits, among 

other things, any object from being “suspended from any part of the motor vehicle in such a 

manner as to obstruct the driver’s clear view of the highway through the windshield, the front 

side windows, or the rear window.” This portion of the statute has three components: 

(i) something “suspended,” (ii) that serves to “obstruct” a “clear view” of the highway, 

(iii) through any window of the vehicle (except for the rear side windows). Id. 

By statute, a highway includes “the entire width between the boundary lines of every way 

or place open to the use of the public for purposes of vehicular travel in the Commonwealth, 

including the streets and alleys.” Code § 46.2-100 (emphasis added). A highway is not — as 

Mason presumes — simply the stretch of pavement immediately in front of a driver’s vehicle. 

Under Virginia law, a “highway” is not limited “to a hard-surfaced or partly hard-surfaced way 

 12 The “interpanel accord doctrine” precludes a panel of our Court from altering the 

holding of a prior panel, Startin v. Commonwealth, 56 Va. App. 26, 39 n.3, 690 S.E.2d 310, 316 

n.3 (2010) (en banc) (citing Atkins v. Commonwealth, 54 Va. App. 340, 343 n.2, 678 S.E.2d 

834, 835 n.2 (2009)), aff’d, 281 Va. 374, 706 S.E.2d 873 (2011). All the more, the doctrine 

precludes a panel from expressly or implicitly repudiating a prior en banc holding. 

13 See, e.g., United States v. Bailey, 622 F.3d 1, 5-6 (D.C. Cir. 2010); Brown, 232 F.3d at 

594; United States v. Ozbirn, 189 F.3d 1194, 1198-99 (10th Cir. 1999); United States v. Swann, 

149 F.3d 271, 272 (4th Cir. 1998); United States v. Jones, 990 F.2d 405, 408 (8th Cir. 1993); 

McKie, 951 F.2d at 402; United States v. Hawkins, 811 F.2d 210, 213 (3d Cir. 1987); State v. 

Heminover, 619 N.W.2d 353, 357 (Iowa 2000), abrogated on other grounds by State v. Turner, 

630 N.W.2d 601, 606 n.2 (Iowa 2001); Zimmerman v. N.D. Dep’t of Transp. Dir., 543 N.W.2d 

479, 483 (N.D. 1996). 
- 26 - 

or to a dirt and gravel way. It does not confine a highway to the main-travelled portion of the 

way or to lanes specifically designated for vehicular traffic.” Crouse v. Pugh, 188 Va. 156, 

164-65, 49 S.E.2d 421, 426 (1948); see also Jessee v. Slate, 196 Va. 1074, 1083, 86 S.E.2d 821, 

826 (1955). 

Because a “highway” includes the “entire width of the boundary lines” of the “way or 

place” used by vehicular traffic, Code § 46.2-100, it includes overhead highway signs,14

on-ramps and off-ramps, merge lanes, deceleration lanes, roadways,15 bridges,16 intersections,17

shoulders,18 pedestrian crosswalks,19 and shared-use paths.20 Thus, a “clear view” of a 

“highway,” as used in Code § 46.2-1054, no doubt means the pavement itself and everything 

physically on it. It would make no sense for Code § 46.2-1054 to prohibit a dangling object from 

 14 See Code § 46.2-100 (defining a “traffic control device” as “a sign, signal, marking, or 

other device used to regulate, warn, or guide traffic placed on, over, or adjacent to a . . . 

highway”).

15 A “roadway,” narrower in scope than a highway yet still broad in terms of the surface 

area it includes, is defined as “that portion of a highway improved, designed, or ordinarily used 

for vehicular travel, exclusive of the shoulder.” Code § 46.2-100. A highway may itself 

“include two or more roadways.” Id. 

16 See Nelson v. Cnty. of Henrico, 10 Va. App. 558, 561, 393 S.E.2d 644, 646 (1990). 

17 See Code § 46.2-100 (defining “intersection” as certain areas of highways that “join 

one another,” cross an “intersecting highway,” or are crossed “by a pedestrian crosswalk”). 

18 A “shoulder” is defined as “that part of a highway between the portion regularly 

traveled by vehicular traffic and the lateral curbline or ditch.” Code § 46.2-100 (emphasis 

added); see also Jessee, 196 Va. at 1083, 86 S.E.2d at 826. 

19 See Code § 46.2-100 (defining “crosswalk” as a “part of a roadway”); see also supra

note 17 (defining “intersection”).

20 “Shared-use paths” include bikeways and other paths that are open to “pedestrians, 

skaters, users of wheel chairs or wheel chair conveyances, joggers, and other nonmotorized 

users.” Code § 46.2-100. 
- 27 - 

obstructing a driver’s view of the pavement directly in front him but not a vehicle, bicyclist, or 

pedestrian21 moving across that same pavement. 

In this case, Officer Richards testified that he “clearly” observed the parking pass prior to 

stopping the vehicle. App. at 31. The parking pass is an exhibit. We need no description of it 

from the officer. We are looking at the very thing that the officer said he clearly saw: an opaque 

plastic card that is five inches long and three inches wide. And the trial judge had something 

even better. He took a “view of the scene” to determine if the parking pass could obstruct a 

driver’s vision in a vehicle similar to the one that the officer had stopped. Id. at 101; see Oral 

Argument Audio at 9:47 to 9:55, 26:04 to 26:30. 

Given these facts, a reasonable officer could suspect that the opaque, five-by-three-inch 

parking pass dangling from a rearview mirror might violate Code § 46.2-1054 and thus warrant 

an investigatory stop to find out if it in fact did. Several scenarios show why. The bottom of the 

parking pass would be at or slightly above eye level for a driver of average height. The parking 

pass could be at an angle that might partially block a driver’s clear view of a vehicle ahead and 

to the right of him. If that vehicle put on its left-turn signal, for example, the driver with the 

parking pass might not see it at all — particularly when the vehicle is merging into highway 

traffic from an on-ramp. If a driver simply wanted to make a right turn at an intersection, the 

parking pass could partially obscure his field of vision. An enhanced risk would exist when the 

driving occurs at night and only the rear running lights of a vehicle ahead and to the right are 

visible. Consider, too, highway signs that are often placed overhead and on the right shoulder of 

 21 Crouse, 188 Va. at 165, 49 S.E.2d at 426 (“The Motor Vehicle Code of Virginia 

recognizes the right of both the pedestrian and motorist to use the highways for travel.”).
- 28 - 

the highway.22 A person of any height could have his clear view of highway signs partially 

obstructed by the parking pass especially, once again, during nighttime driving. 

 Under settled law, an officer need not have proof beyond a reasonable doubt of any of 

these scenarios before he makes a vehicular stop. Nor does he need to be convinced by a 

preponderance of the evidence. To be sure, the quantum of confidence need not even rise to the 

level of probable cause. See Perry, 280 Va. at 581, 701 S.E.2d at 436. He need only have a 

reasonable suspicion of a violation of Code § 46.2-1054, which merely requires that he be aware 

of articulable facts suggesting that the parking pass could be non-compliant with the statute. 

Though it was legally unnecessary for Officer Richards to testify that he subjectively

believed the parking pass could have obscured the driver’s clear view of the highway, Raab, 50 

Va. App. at 583 n.2, 652 S.E.2d at 148 n.2, he did in fact come to this conclusion. Within 

seconds of stating that he “clearly” saw the parking pass, Officer Richards testified that he 

believed that it “could obstruct a driver’s view.” App. at 31. In context, he was speaking of the 

driver’s view of the highway — not something other than the highway. 

III. 

The trial court correctly held that a reasonable officer could make an investigatory stop of 

the vehicle to determine if, in fact, the parking pass violated Code § 46.2-1054. 

I respectfully dissent. 

 22 See supra note 14.