Fire in the United States 

2008-2017

20th Edition

November 2019
Mission Statement

We support and strengthen fi re and emergency medical 

services and stakeholders to prepare for, prevent, mitigate 

and respond to all hazards.
Table of Contents i

Table of Contents

Executive Summary............................................................................................................. 1

National problem............................................................................................................... 1

Regional and state profiles............................................................................................... 2

Residences and other properties .................................................................................... 2

Causes of fires and fire losses ......................................................................................... 3

Residential.................................................................................................................... 3

Nonresidential............................................................................................................. 3

Vehicle........................................................................................................................... 4

Outside......................................................................................................................... 4

Other............................................................................................................................. 4

Race, age and gender characteristics of victims ........................................................... 4

Conclusions......................................................................................................................... 5

Prevention and other resources...................................................................................... 6

Fire in the United States 2008-2017 20th Edition............................................................ 7

Introduction........................................................................................................................ 7

Organization of report...................................................................................................... 7

The National Fire Problem ................................................................................................. 9

Fires and losses (10-year trends, 2008 to 2017) ............................................................ 9

Fire loss rates (2008-2017)................................................................................................ 12

Types of properties where fires occur ............................................................................ 14

Fires and fire losses by general property type (2017) ........................................... 14

Fire casualties and dollar loss per fire by general property type (2017)............. 16

Buildings and other properties........................................................................................ 17

Buildings....................................................................................................................... 17

Residential building fires and losses ................................................................. 18

All residential buildings ....................................................................................... 18

One- and two-family residential buildings ....................................................... 21

Multifamily residential buildings........................................................................ 23

Other residential buildings ................................................................................. 26

Nonresidential buildings ..................................................................................... 28

Vehicles and other mobile properties............................................................... 30

Outside and other properties ............................................................................ 35

Causes of fires and losses ................................................................................................ 38

Causes of residential building fires .......................................................................... 38

Causes of nonresidential building fires ................................................................... 42

Causes of vehicle fires................................................................................................ 44

Causes of outside fires............................................................................................... 46

Causes of other fires................................................................................................... 47

Fire casualties..................................................................................................................... 49

Fire deaths ................................................................................................................... 49

State profiles......................................................................................................... 49

Age ......................................................................................................................... 53

Gender ................................................................................................................... 55

Race........................................................................................................................ 57

Fire injuries .................................................................................................................. 58

Age ......................................................................................................................... 58

Gender ................................................................................................................... 61
ii Fire in the United States 2008-2017 

Data Sources and Methodology ....................................................................................... 65

Data sources....................................................................................................................... 65

National Fire Incident Reporting System................................................................. 65

National Fire Incident Reporting System enhancements...................................... 72

National Fire Incident Reporting System training and resources ........................ 73

Uses of the National Fire Incident Reporting System............................................ 74

U.S. fire departments ................................................................................................. 75

Methodology ...................................................................................................................... 75

Analytic issues and considerations .......................................................................... 75

Representativeness of the sample .................................................................... 76

National estimates ............................................................................................... 77

Future national estimates methodology................................................................. 78

Data quality........................................................................................................... 78

Unknown entries.................................................................................................. 79

Incomplete loss reporting................................................................................... 80

Unreported fires................................................................................................... 80

Structures versus buildings ................................................................................ 80

Computing trends ................................................................................................ 82

Rounding ............................................................................................................... 83

Comparing statistics ............................................................................................ 83

Data collection and reporting in NFIRS 5.0 ...................................................... 83

Confined fires........................................................................................................ 84

Structure fire cause methodology..................................................................... 84

Differences between the National Fire Incident Reporting System data and 

the National Fire Protection Association survey data.............................. 89

Appendix A — Acronyms .................................................................................................... 95

Appendix B — Fire in the United States Editions ............................................................ 97
Executive Summary 1

Executive Summary

The National Fire Data Center (NFDC) of the U.S. Fire Administration (USFA) periodically 

publishes “Fire in the United States,” a statistical overview of the fires in the United States, 

with the focus on the latest year in which data were available. This report provides the 

fire service and others with information that motivates corrective action, sets priorities, 

targets specific fire programs, serves as a model for state and local analyses of fire data, 

and provides a baseline for evaluating programs.

The primary source of data is from the USFA’s National Fire Incident Reporting System 

(NFIRS). The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) annual survey results, mortality 

data from the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), data from state fire marshals’ 

offices or their equivalents, population data from the U.S. Census Bureau, and inflation 

adjustments from the Bureau of Labor Statistics’ Consumer Price Index (CPI) are also used. 

Because of the time it takes for states to submit data to the USFA from the thousands of 

fire departments that participate in the NFIRS, then obtain corrections and edit the data, 

and analyze and display the results, the publication lags behind the date of data collection. 

Fortunately, the fire problem does not change very rapidly, so the data is usually quite 

representative of the situation in the year of publication as well.

This 20th edition covers the 10-year period from 2008 to 2017, with a primary focus on 

2017.1 The report addresses the overall national fire problem. Detailed analyses of the 

residential and nonresidential fire problem, firefighter casualties, and other subsets of 

the national fire problem are not included. These topic-specific analyses are addressed 

as separate, stand-alone publications.

National problem

Fire departments in the U.S. responded to over 1.3 million fire incidents in 2017.2 Each 

year, thousands of Americans die, tens of thousands of people are injured and property 

losses reach billions of dollars as a result of the U.S. fire problem. 

There are huge indirect costs of fire as well, including temporary lodging, lost business 

revenues, medical expenses and psychological damage. To put this into context, the 

annual losses from floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, earthquakes and other natural disasters 

combined in the U.S. average just a fraction of those from fires.3 The public, the media 

and local governments are generally unaware of the magnitude and seriousness of the 

fire problem and how it affects individuals and their families, communities and the nation.

Annual deaths from fire in the U.S. were estimated at 12,000 in 1974, the year in which 

the USFA was established. At that time, a goal was set for reducing this number by half 

within a generation. This goal was met.4 By 2012, estimates of civilian deaths were at their 

1

Only native NFIRS Version 5.0 data was used for NFIRS-based analyses. By Jan. 1, 2009, NFIRS 4.1 data was no 

longer accepted by the system.

2NFPA. (2018). Fire loss in the United States during 2017. 3National Weather Service (NWS). (2018). Summary of national hazard statistics for 2017 in the United States. 

Retrieved from http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/hazstats/sum17.pdf.

4 NFPA changed their estimation methodology in the mid-1970s. As a result, by 1977, the estimate of fire deaths 

had already dropped to approximately 7,400 and rose the next year to 7,700. Nevertheless, it is fair to say that 

the 50% reduction in fire deaths was achieved. National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control. (1973). 

America burning: The report of the national commission on fire prevention and control. Washington, DC: Author. 
2 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

lowest level (2,855). Over recent years, trends in fire deaths have increased. By 2017, the 

estimate of fire deaths was 3,400 — 19% higher than it was in 2012, but comparable to 

the estimate in 2007 when the number of fire deaths was 3,430.5,6

Table 1 presents 10-year fire and fire-loss rate trends. Fires per million population reached 

a new low in 2013, continuing the downward trend. Although the trend in the fire death 

rate (deaths per million population) increased 2% from 2008 to 2017, it is still less than a 

third of what it was in the late 1970s.7 While dollar loss per capita increased 12% over the 

10 years, injuries per million population continued to decline. 

Table 1. Fire and fire loss rate trends (2008-2017)

Loss measure 10-year trend (percent)

Fires per million population -12.3

Deaths per million population 2.4

Injuries per million population -21.2

Dollar loss/capita* 11.9

Sources: NFPA, CPI and U.S. Census Bureau.

* The 2008 to 2016 dollar-loss values were adjusted to 2017 dollars.

Regional and state profiles

The fire problem varies from region to region and state to state because of variations 

in climate, socioeconomic status, education, demographics and other factors. In 2017, 

four states (Alaska, Arkansas, South Dakota and West Virginia) had fire death rates that 

exceeded 20 deaths per million population. The District of Columbia and 22 states, mostly 

situated in the Southeast and Midwest, had death rates between 11.3 and 20 deaths per 

million population. Additionally, 21 states had fire death rates at or below the national 

fire death rate — 11.2 deaths per million population.8 Ten states, mostly largely populated 

states, accounted for 49% of the national total fire deaths. Unless their fire problems are 

significantly reduced, the national total will be difficult to lower.

Residences and other properties

Over the years, there has been little change in the proportion of fires, deaths, injuries and 

dollar loss reported to the NFIRS by the type of property involved. In terms of numbers of 

reported fires, the largest category continued to be outside fires (43%) — in fields, vacant 

lots, trash, etc. Residential and nonresidential structure fires together constituted 38% of 

fires, with residential structure fires outnumbering nonresidential structure fires by over 3 

to 1. What may be surprising was the large proportion of vehicle fires. In fact, approximately 

1 out of every 7 fires to which fire departments responded involved a vehicle.

5USFA. (2009). Fire in the United States (2003-2007) (15th ed.). Retrieved from https://www.usfa.fema.gov/

downloads/pdf/publications/fa_325.pdf. 6The NFPA estimated fire deaths to be 3,400 in 2017. For the same year, the National Center for Health Statistics 

(NCHS) mortality data reflected 3,645 fire deaths. For 2017, the NCHS mortality data suggest that fire deaths 

may be 7.2% higher than the NFPA estimate of fire deaths.

7The fire death rate used throughout this edition of Fire in the United States, however, reflects the number of fire 

deaths (3,645) from the 2017 NCHS mortality data. This death rate is 11.2 fire deaths per million population. In 1979, 

the fire death rate was 34.8 deaths per million population, as cited in USFA’s America Burning Revisited, 1987, p. 15. 8This analysis includes only states where fire death rates were computed. Fire death rates were not computed 

for Delaware, Rhode Island and Wyoming due to very small numbers of fire deaths (fewer than 10 deaths).
Executive Summary 3

By far, the largest percentage of reported deaths — 78% in 2017 — occurred on residential 

properties, with the majority of these on one- and two-family properties. Vehicles 

accounted for the second largest percentage of fire deaths at 15%. Great attention is 

given to large, multiple-death fires in public places, such as hotels, nightclubs and office 

buildings; however, fires that kill 10 or more people are few in number and constitute 

only a small portion of overall fire deaths. Furthermore, public properties are generally 

required by local codes to have built-in fire suppression systems. The area with the largest 

problem is most commonly overlooked — in people’s homes. Prevention efforts continue 

to focus on home fire safety.

Only 3% of the 2017 fire deaths occurred in nonresidential commercial and public 

properties. Outside and other miscellaneous fires, including wildfires, were also a small 

factor (4% combined) in fire deaths.

The picture was generally similar for fire injuries, with 76% of all reported injuries occurring 

on residential properties. The remaining fire injuries were distributed across the other 

property types — nonresidential properties, 8%; vehicles, 7%; and outside and other fires, 

9% combined.

The picture changes somewhat for dollar loss. While residential properties were the 

leading property type for dollar loss, nonresidential properties played a considerable 

role. These two general property types accounted for 81% of all reported dollar loss. The 

proportion of dollar loss from outside fires, however, may be understated because the 

destruction of trees, grass, etc., is often given zero value in fire incident reports if it is not 

commercial cropland or timber. 

Causes of fires and fire losses

Residential

At 52%, cooking was the leading cause of residential building fires. Heating caused another 

9%. These percentages (and those that follow) are adjusted, which proportionally spreads 

the unknown causes over the other 15 cause categories.

The leading causes of residential fatal fires were other unintentional or careless actions 

at 17%, cause under investigation at 14%, intentional actions at 13%, and smoking at 

12%. These four causes accounted for more than half of the residential fatal fires. The 

cause category “other unintentional or careless actions” includes the misuse of materials 

or products, abandoned or discarded materials or products, heat source too close to 

combustibles, and other unintentional actions. 

The leading cause of residential fires that resulted in injuries was cooking (32%). Cooking 

was, by far, the leading cause of fires resulting in dollar loss at 27%, followed by electrical 

malfunction and other unintentional or careless actions (12% each).

Nonresidential

For nonresidential building fires, cooking was the leading cause of fires (30%), followed 

by other unintentional or careless actions (11%). The leading causes of fires resulting in 

dollar loss in nonresidential buildings were other unintentional or careless actions (14%), 

cooking (12%), and electrical malfunctions (12%).
4 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Vehicle

Unintentional actions were the leading cause of fires and fires resulting in dollar loss 

in vehicles (38% and 37%, respectively). Failure of equipment or heat source, at 20%, 

was the second leading cause of vehicle fires. In 24% of vehicle fires, the causes were 

undetermined after the investigations. 

Outside

Unintentional actions were the leading cause of fires and fires resulting in dollar loss in 

outside fires (42% and 40%, respectively). In 27% of outside fires and 25% of outside fires 

resulting in dollar loss, causes were undetermined after the investigations.

Other

Just as with vehicle and outside fires, unintentional actions were the leading cause of other 

fires and fires resulting in dollar loss (45% and 48%, respectively). Failure of equipment 

or heat source was the second leading cause of other fires (19%) and other fires resulting 

in dollar loss (24%).

Race, age and gender characteristics of victims

Fire casualties affect all groups and races, rich and poor, Northern and Southern, urban 

and rural. But the problem is greater for some groups than for others. Males, African 

Americans and American Indians/Alaskan Natives had higher fire death rates than the 

national average. African Americans constituted a large and disproportionate share of total 

fire deaths, accounting for 19% of fire deaths in 2017, but only 13% of the U.S. population.

Males were 1.6 times more likely to die in fires than females. The percentage of female 

fire deaths in the 65 and older age group accounted for 42% of all female fire deaths. Male 

fire deaths, by contrast, were highest for those adults ages 55 to 64, accounting for 21% 

of male fire deaths.

People with limited physical and cognitive abilities, especially older adults (ages 65 and 

older), are at a higher risk of death from fire than other groups. Older adults accounted 

for 40% of all fire deaths and 15% of estimated fire injuries in 2017.

The majority of fire-related injuries occurred in adults ages 20 to 64. This age group 

accounted for 69% of the fire injuries in 2017. Males ages 20 to 24 and 30 to 59 had a 

higher proportion of injuries than females, while older adult females had more injuries 

than older adult males.

As baby boomers enter retirement age, the demographic profile of the U.S. is expected to 

change dramatically. Over the coming decades, the older population will increase, and a 

corresponding increase in fire deaths and injuries among older adults is likely.

In the past, children ages 4 and younger were also considered to be at a high risk of death 

from fire; however, data indicate that the trend is changing. In 2017, the relative risk of 

children ages 4 and younger dying in a fire was 40% less than that of the general population.
Executive Summary 5

Conclusions

Over the years, the USFA has contributed to remarkable progress in reducing the adverse 

effects of fire on the U.S. It is likely that several factors continue to contribute to this progress:

ĵ Smoke alarms, which have become nearly universal. The USFA continues to partner 

with other government agencies and fire service entities to improve and develop new 

smoke alarm technologies.

ĵ Sprinklers, which quickly combat incipient fires, especially in nonresidential and 

multifamily buildings. There are major movements in the U.S. fire service to require or 

facilitate use of sprinklers in all new homes, which could improve the use of residential 

sprinklers in the future.

ĵ Fire codes, which have been strengthened.

ĵ Construction techniques and materials, which have been developed specifically for 

fire prevention.

ĵ Public education at the community, county, state and federal levels.

ĵ Improved firefighter equipment and training.

Despite the progress in the reduction of fires in the U.S., there is still a need to continue 

the work of lessening the fire problem. Although there is an overall reduction in the 

numbers of fires and civilian fire injuries, the U.S. is seeing a rise in the trend of the overall 

numbers of civilian fire deaths; however, the numbers of deaths are generally lower than 

or comparable to what they were 10 years earlier. Although certain demographic groups 

remain at high risk, potentially driven by socioeconomic conditions, children ages 4 and 

younger are no longer a statistically high-risk group.

Specific areas that continue to be of concern:

ĵ The elderly remain at high risk of death from fire.

ĵ The focus for fire injury prevention should be on adults ages 25 to 64 and those ages 

80 to 84.

ĵ Males, African Americans and American Indians/Alaskan Natives remain at a higher 

risk of death from fire than the general population.

ĵ Outside/Wildland fires.

In addition to the areas of concern listed above, data challenges still exist. Many records 

submitted to the NFIRS by participating fire departments provide either incomplete or 

no information in some of the fields. Additionally, in preparing this report, it is assumed 

that participating fire departments have reported 100% of their fire incidents; however, 

this is not always the case. The completeness of all the information in the NFIRS modules 

and the improvement of data quality will contribute to the refinement and confidence 

level of future analyses.

With continued enhancements to the NFIRS, data collection and data quality efforts 

continue to improve. If we understand the relative importance of the factors that lessen 

the fire problem, resources can be better targeted to have the most impact.
6 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Prevention and other resources

The USFA develops and delivers fire prevention and safety education programs in partnership 

with other federal agencies, the fire and emergency response community, the media, and 

safety interest groups. The USFA also works with public and private groups to promote and 

improve fire prevention and life safety through research, testing and evaluation.

ĵ The USFA’s outreach materials and educational programs are available at https://www.

usfa.fema.gov/prevention.

ĵ Smoke alarm information on technologies, performance, disposal and storage, 

training bulletins, and public education and outreach materials is available at https://

www.usfa.fema.gov/prevention/technology/smoke_fire_alarms.html. The USFA’s 

position statement on smoke alarms is available at https://www.usfa.fema.gov/about/

smoke_alarms_position.html.

ĵ Residential sprinkler information on costs and benefits, performance, training 

bulletins, and public education and outreach materials is available at https://www.

usfa.fema.gov/prevention/technology/home_fire_sprinklers.html. The USFA’s position 

statement on residential sprinklers is also available at https://www.usfa.fema.gov/

about/sprinklers_position.html.

ĵ The USFA sponsors research and conducts studies to support emergency responder 

health and safety and help fire departments prepare for and respond to fire, natural 

disasters, nonfire emergencies, and other threats and vulnerabilities. Information on 

fire department operations, management and safety is available at https://www.usfa.

fema.gov/operations.

Provide feedback on this report.
Fire in the United States 2008-2017 20th Edition 7

Fire in the United States 2008-2017 

20th Edition

Introduction

In 1973, the president’s Commission on Fire Prevention and Control published “America 

Burning.” This document was the first in-depth discussion of this country’s fire problem. 

The report prompted a national awareness about the depth of the fire problem and the 

need for prevention efforts. By 1987, when a second commission was assembled, much 

progress had been made toward addressing the nation’s fire problem. Among other 

objectives, “America Burning Revisited” redefined the strategies needed to further reduce 

loss of life and property to fire. 

This report is a statistical portrait of fire in the U.S. It is intended for use by a wide 

audience, including the fire service, the media, researchers, industry, government agencies 

and the general public. The report focuses on the national fire problem with emphasis on 

the magnitude and trends of the fire problem, the causes of fires, where they occur, and 

whom fire impacts.

This document is the 20th major edition of “Fire in the United States” published by the 

USFA. It covers the 10-year period from 2008 to 2017, with a primary focus on 2017. 

Organization of report

This report presents an overview of the national fire problem in terms of estimates of the 

total numbers of fires, deaths, injuries and dollar loss (the four principal measures used 

to describe the fire problem), as well as 10-year trends. It also provides an overview and 

10-year trends of building fires and losses (i.e., residential and nonresidential). Trends 

in vehicle and other mobile properties as well as outside and other properties are also 

analyzed. Additionally, the report covers causes of fires and fires resulting in losses, as 

well as fire casualties in terms of death and injury rates and relative risk.

Finally, the last section of the report includes detailed descriptions of the data sources and 

data analysis methodologies used in this edition. Two appendices follow this section to 

include acronyms and a list of previous editions of the “Fire in the United States” reports.
8 Fire in the United States 2008-2017 
The National Fire Problem 9

The National Fire Problem

Fire departments in the U.S. responded to over 1.3 million fire incidents in 2017.9 Each year, 

thousands of Americans die, tens of thousands of people are injured, and property losses 

reach billions of dollars as a result of the U.S. fire problem. There are huge indirect costs 

of fire as well, including temporary lodging, lost business revenues, medical expenses and 

psychological damage. To put this in context, the annual losses from floods, hurricanes, 

tornadoes, earthquakes and other natural disasters combined in the U.S. average just a 

fraction of those from fires.10

Fires and losses (10-year trends, 2008 to 2017)

Over the 10 years from 2008 to 2017, the U.S. had an annual average estimate of 1,344,100 

fires resulting in 3,190 civilian deaths, 16,225 civilian injuries, and $14.7 billion in direct 

property loss each year.11 In terms of estimates of fires, fire deaths and fire injuries, the 

estimates are lower than they were 10 years ago. When the USFA was established in 1974, 

annual fire deaths were estimated at 12,000. The goal was to reduce deaths by 50% within 

25 years; that goal was met.12 By 2012, estimates of civilian fire deaths were at their lowest 

level (2,855). Over recent years, however, trends in fire deaths have increased. By 2017, the 

estimate of fire deaths was 3,400 — 19% higher than it was in 2012, but still comparable 

to the estimate in 2007 when the number of fire deaths was 3,430.13

Figure 1 shows the 10-year trends for all fires and losses from 2008 to 2017. Fires declined 

by 6% over the 10 years. Trends in fire-related injuries also declined by 16%. Trends in firerelated deaths and dollar loss (when adjusted for inflation), however, increased by 10% and 

21%, respectively. The large increase in the dollar loss trend is partially attributed to the 

increase in the 2017 dollar loss estimate which reflects the Northern California wildfires 

with an estimated property loss of $10 billion.14 By excluding this outlier, the 10-year trend 

in dollar loss declined by 14%.

9NFPA. (2018). Fire loss in the United States during 2017. 10NWS. (2018). Summary of national hazard statistics for 2017 in the United States. Retrieved from http://www.

nws.noaa.gov/om/hazstats/sum17.pdf. 11Annual average estimates are based on NFPA estimates of fires, deaths, injuries and dollar loss. Fires are 

rounded to the nearest 100, deaths to the nearest five, injuries to the nearest 25, and dollar loss to the nearest 

billion dollars. The 2008 to 2016 dollar-loss estimates were adjusted to 2017 dollars.

12 The NFPA changed their estimation methodology in the mid-1970s. As a result, by 1977, the estimate of fire 

deaths had already dropped to approximately 7,400 and rose the next year to 7,700. Nevertheless, it is fair to 

say that the 50 percent reduction in fire deaths was achieved. National Commission on Fire Prevention and 

Control. (1973). America burning: The report of the national commission on fire prevention and control. Washington, 

DC: Author.

13USFA. (2009). Fire in the United States (2003-2007) (15th ed.). Retrieved from https://www.usfa.fema.gov/

downloads/pdf/publications/fa_325.pdf. 14For 2017, the $23 billion in direct property loss estimate includes a $10 billion loss in the Northern California 

wildfires. NFPA. (2018). Fire loss in the United States during 2017.
10 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Figure 1. Fires and fire losses (2008-2017)

1,000

1,050

1,100

1,150

1,200

1,250

1,300

1,350

1,400

1,450

1,500

1,550

1,600

Trend

Fires

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Fires (in thousands) Fires (thousands)

Year Value

2008 1,451.5

2009 1,348.5

2010 1,331.5

2011 1,389.5

2012 1,375.0

2013 1,240.0

2014 1,298.0

2015 1,345.5

2016 1,342.0

2017 1,319.5

10-year 

trend (%)

-6.2%

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

4,500

Trend

Fire Deaths

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Fire deaths Deaths

Year Value

2008 3,320

2009 3,010

2010 3,120

2011 3,005

2012 2,855

2013 3,240

2014 3,275

2015 3,280

2016 3,390

2017 3,400

10-year 

trend (%)

9.6%
The National Fire Problem 11

Figure 1. Fires and fire losses (2008-2017) — continued

13,500

14,000

14,500

15,000

15,500

16,000

16,500

17,000

17,500

18,000

18,500

Trend

Fire injuries

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Fire injuries Injuries

Year Value

2008 16,705

2009 17,050

2010 17,720

2011 17,500

2012 16,500

2013 15,925

2014 15,775

2015 15,700

2016 14,650

2017 14,670

10-year 

trend (%)

-15.8%

$10.0

$12.0

$14.0

$16.0

$18.0

$20.0

$22.0

$24.0

Trend (adjusted)

Fire dollar loss

(adjusted)

Trend (actual)

Fire dollar loss

(actual)

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Fire dollar loss (in billions of dollars)

Actual

Adjusted

Dollar loss

(billions of dollars)

Year Actual

Adjusted 

to 2017 

dollars

2008 $15.5 $17.6

2009 $12.5 $14.3

2010 $11.6 $13.0

2011 $11.7 $12.7

2012 $12.4 $13.3

2013 $11.5 $12.1

2014 $11.6 $12.0

2015 $14.3 $14.8

2016 $13.6 $13.9

2017 $23.0 $23.0

10-year 

trend (%) 42.0% 20.9%

Sources: NFPA and CPI.

Note: The large increase in the dollar loss trend is partially attributed to the increase in the 2017 dollar loss estimate which 

reflects the Northern California wildfires with an estimated property loss of $10 billion.
12 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Fire loss rates (2008-2017)

Figure 2 shows the 10-year trends in the rates per million population for all fires and 

associated losses from 2008 to 2017. Fires per million population reached a low in 2013, but 

increased in 2014 and 2015, then declined again through 2017. Still, in 2017, the fire death 

rate was less than a third of what it was in the late 1970s.15 Fires and injuries per million 

population continued to decline by 12% and 21%, respectively, while deaths per million 

population and dollar loss per capita (when adjusted for inflation) increased 2% and 12%, 

respectively, over the 10 years. When excluding the loss from the 2017 Northern California 

wildfires, the trend in the dollar loss per capita declined by 20% (adjusted for inflation).16

Figure 2. Fire loss rates (2008-2017)

3,000

3,500

4,000

4,500

5,000

5,500

Trend

Fires

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Fires per million population Fires per million 

population

Year Value

2008 4,773.2

2009 4,395.8

2010 4,304.5

2011 4,459.5

2012 4,380.7

2013 3,923.3

2014 4,076.8

2015 4,195.0

2016 4,153.9

2017 4,058.2

10-year 

trend (%)

-12.3%

6.0

7.0

8.0

9.0

10.0

11.0

12.0

13.0

14.0

Trend

Fire deaths

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Fire deaths per million population Deaths per million 

population

Year Value

2008 10.9

2009 9.8

2010 10.1

2011 9.6

2012 9.1

2013 10.3

2014 10.3

2015 10.2

2016 10.5

2017 10.5

10-year 

trend (%)

2.4%

15In 1979, the fire death rate was 34.8 deaths per million population as cited in USFA’s America Burning Revisited, 

1987, p. 15.

16For 2017, the $23 billion in direct property loss estimate includes a $10 billion loss in the Northern California 

wildfires. NFPA. (2018). Fire loss in the United States during 2017.
The National Fire Problem 13

Figure 2. Fire loss rates (2008-2017) — continued

40.0

45.0

50.0

55.0

60.0

65.0

Trend

Fire injuries

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Fire injuries per million population Injuries

Year Value

2008 54.9

2009 55.6

2010 57.3

2011 56.2

2012 52.6

2013 50.4

2014 49.5

2015 48.9

2016 45.3

2017 45.1

10-year 

trend (%)

-21.2%

$0.0

$10.0

$20.0

$30.0

$40.0

$50.0

$60.0

$70.0

$80.0

Trend (adjusted)

Fire dollar loss

(adjusted)

Trend (actual)

Fire dollar loss

(actual)

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Fire dollar loss per capita

Actual

Adjusted

Dollar loss per capita

Year Actual

Adjusted 

to 2017 

dollars

2008 $50.9 $57.9

2009 $40.8 $46.7

2010 $37.5 $42.1

2011 $37.4 $40.8

2012 $39.6 $42.3

2013 $36.5 $38.4

2014 $36.4 $37.7

2015 $44.6 $46.1

2016 $42.1 $43.0

2017 $70.7 $70.7

10-year 

trend (%) 31.3% 11.9%

Sources: NFPA, CPI and U.S. Census Bureau.

Note: The large increase in the dollar loss per capita trend is partially attributed to the increase in the 2017 dollar loss 

estimate which reflects the Northern California wildfires.
14 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Types of properties where fires occur

This section describes the proportions of the fire problem by general property type: 

residential structures, nonresidential structures, vehicles, outside properties, and other 

or unknown properties.

Fires and fire losses by general property type (2017)

Figure 3 describes the proportions of the fire problem in 2017 by general property type. 

Over the years, there has been little change in the proportion of fires, deaths, injuries 

and dollar loss reported to NFIRS by the type of property involved. In terms of numbers 

of reported fires, the largest category continued to be outside fires (43%) — in fields, 

vacant lots, trash, etc. Residential and nonresidential structure fires together constituted 

38% of fires, with residential structure fires outnumbering nonresidential structure fires 

by over 3-to-1. What may be surprising was the large percentage of vehicle fires. In fact, 

approximately 1 out of every 7 fires which fire departments responded to involved a vehicle.

The largest percentage of reported deaths by far — 78% in 2017 — occurred on residential 

properties, with the majority of these on one- and two-family properties. Vehicles 

accounted for the second largest percentage of fire deaths at 15%. Only 3% of the 2017 fire 

deaths occurred in nonresidential commercial and public properties. Outside and other 

miscellaneous fires, including wildfires, were also a small factor in fire deaths (4% combined).

Great attention is given to large, multiple-death fires in public places, such as hotels, 

nightclubs and office buildings; however, fires that kill 10 or more people are few in 

number and constitute only a small portion of overall fire deaths. Furthermore, public 

properties are generally required by local codes to have built-in fire suppression systems. 

The area with the largest problem is most commonly overlooked — in people’s homes. As 

a result, prevention efforts continue to focus on home fire safety.

The picture was generally similar for fire injuries, with 76% of all reported injuries occurring 

on residential properties. The remaining fire injuries were distributed across the other 

property types — nonresidential properties, 8%; vehicles, 7%; and outside and other fires, 

9% combined.

The picture changes somewhat for dollar loss. While residential properties were the 

leading property type for dollar loss, nonresidential properties played a considerable 

role. These two general property types accounted for 81% of all reported dollar loss. The 

proportion of dollar loss from outside fires, however, may be understated because the 

destruction of trees, grass, etc., is often given zero value in fire incident reports if it is not 

commercial cropland or timber.
The National Fire Problem 15

Figure 3. Fires and fire losses by general property type (2017)

Fires by general property type (2017)

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0

Other

Outside

Vehicle

Nonresidential

Residential 28.9

42.7

5.4

14.3

8.7

Percent

Fire deaths by general property type (2017)

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0

Other

Outside

Vehicle

Nonresidential

Residential 77.6

1.9

2.1

15.2

3.3

Percent

Fire injuries by general property type (2017)

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0

Other

Outside

Vehicle

Nonresidential

Residential 76.1

4.1

5.0

6.6

8.1

Percent
16 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Figure 3. Fires and fire losses by general property type (2017) — continued

Fire dollar loss by general property type (2017)

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0

Other

Outside

Vehicle

Nonresidential

Residential 49.7

3.9

1.4

13.5

31.6

Percent

Source: NFIRS.

Note: Totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.

Fire casualties and dollar loss per fire by general property type (2017)

Figure 4 shows reported fire deaths and injuries per 1,000 fires and dollar loss per fire in 

2017 by general property type: residential structures, nonresidential structures, vehicles, 

outside properties, and other or unknown properties. These indicators represent the 

severity of fires, but they are somewhat ambiguous because they can increase if there are 

more casualties or damage per fire (the numerators) or if fewer minor fires are reported 

(the denominators).

Residential fires had the highest numbers of deaths and injuries per 1,000 fires — another 

important reason for prevention programs to focus on home fire safety. Nonresidential 

structure fires had the highest dollar loss per fire.

Figure 4. Fire casualties and dollar loss per fire by general property type (2017)

Fire deaths per 1,000 fires (2017)

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0

Other

Outside

Vehicle

Nonresidential

Residential 6.1

0.1

0.9

2.4

0.9

Deaths per 1,000 fires
The National Fire Problem 17

Figure 4. Fire casualties and dollar loss per fire by general property type (2017) — 

continued

Fire injuries per 1,000 fires (2017)

0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0

Other

Outside

Vehicle

Nonresidential

Residential 24.5

0.9

8.6

4.3

8.7

Injuries per 1,000 fires

Dollar loss per fire (2017)

0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0

Other

Outside

Vehicle

Nonresidential

Residential 18.5

1.0

2.8

10.2

39.1

Dollar loss per fire ($ thousands)

Source: NFIRS.

Buildings and other properties

This section provides an overview of the fire problem in buildings, vehicles, and other 

mobile properties over the 10-year period from 2008 to 2017.

Buildings

The analysis of building fires is presented in two major sections: residential (including 

one- and two-family dwellings, multifamily dwellings, and other residential buildings) and 

nonresidential (including industrial and commercial properties, institutions, educational 

establishments, mobile properties, and storage properties).
18 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Residential building fires and losses

The term “residential buildings” includes what are commonly referred to as “homes,” 

whether they are one- and two-family dwellings or multifamily buildings. It also includes 

manufactured housing, hotels and motels, residential hotels, dormitories, assisted 

living facilities, and halfway houses (residences for formerly institutionalized individuals 

(mentally impaired patients, drug addicts or convicts) that are designed to facilitate their 

readjustment to private life). The term “residential buildings” does not include institutions, 

such as prisons, nursing homes, juvenile care facilities, or hospitals, though many people 

may reside in them for short or long periods of time.

The residential building portion of the fire problem continues to account for the vast 

majority of civilian casualties. National estimates show that, on average from 2008 to 

2017, 97% of residential structure fires, 98% of associated deaths, 98% of injuries, and 

97% of dollar losses occurred in residential buildings. Because the majority of structure 

fires and losses occurred in buildings, the remainder of the residential analyses will focus 

on building fires and their associated losses.

All residential buildings

Overall, residential buildings include one- and two-family, multifamily, and other 

residential buildings.17 Annually, from 2008 to 2017, there were an estimated 371,200 

residential building fires. Because these fires resulted in an annual average of 2,610 civilian 

deaths, 12,375 injuries, and $7.7 billion in property loss (adjusted to 2017 dollars) over the 

10 years, the fire problem in U.S. residences is of significant concern.18

Figure 5 shows the 10-year trends for the overall residential building fires and losses. From 

2008 to 2017, trends in residential building fires and losses showed a 2% increase in fires, 

an 8% increase in deaths, a 19% decrease in injuries, and a 13% decrease in dollar loss.

17The USFA’s three topical reports that explore facets of the residential building fire problem, Residential Building 

Fires (2013-2015), One- and Two-Family Residential Building Fires (2013-2015), and Multifamily Residential Building 

Fires (2013-2015), are available at https://www.usfa.fema.gov/data/statistics/reports. 18The USFA’s Residential Building Fires Estimate Summary Series (2008 to 2017) is available at https://www.usfa.fema.gov/

downloads/pdf/statistics/res_bldg_fire_estimates.pdf. To download an Excel file of residential building fire and 

fire loss estimates by property use and cause, visit https://www.usfa.fema.gov/data/statistics/order_download_

data.html (located under the section “Download select data sets”). Note: The 2016 fire dollar-loss estimate for 

residential buildings used in this document was revised based on an updated release of 2016 NFPA dollar-loss 

estimates (NFPA Errata No.: FLX10-September 2017_01) and does not match the estimate published in the 

2008-2017 Fire Estimate Summary series for 2016.
The National Fire Problem 19

Figure 5. Trends in residential building fires and fire losses (2008-2017)

0

100

200

300

400

500

Trend

Fires

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Residential building fires (in thousands) Fires (thousands)

Year Value

2008 378.2

2009 356.2

2010 362.1

2011 364.5

2012 374.0

2013 380.3

2014 379.5

2015 380.9

2016 364.3

2017 371.5

10-year 

trend (%)

2.1%

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

Trend

Fire deaths

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Residential building fire deaths Deaths

Year Value

2008 2,650

2009 2,480

2010 2,555

2011 2,450

2012 2,385

2013 2,755

2014 2,765

2015 2,565

2016 2,775

2017 2,695

10-year 

trend (%)

8.4%
20 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Figure 5. Trends in residential building fires and fire losses (2008-2017) — continued

0

3,000

6,000

9,000

12,000

15,000

Trend

Fire injuries

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Residential building fire injuries Injuries

Year Value

2008 13,100

2009 12,600

2010 13,275

2011 13,900

2012 13,050

2013 12,450

2014 12,075

2015 11,475

2016 11,025

2017 10,825

10-year 

trend (%)

-18.6%

$0.0

$2,000.0

$4,000.0

$6,000.0

$8,000.0

$10,000.0

Trend

Fire dollar loss

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Residential building fire dollar loss

(in millions of dollars)*

Dollar loss

(millions of dollars) *

Adjusted to 2017 dollars

Year Value

2008 $9,133

2009 $8,295

2010 $7,472

2011 $7,248

2012 $7,583

2013 $7,235

2014 $7,145

2015 $7,342

2016 $7,478

2017 $7,797

10-year 

trend (%) -12.7%

Sources: NFIRS, NFPA and CPI.
The National Fire Problem 21

One- and two-family residential buildings

One- and two-family dwellings are where 75% of the people in the U.S. reside.19 The 

residential building fire profile is, therefore, dominated by this category. One- and 

two-family residential buildings include detached dwellings, manufactured homes, mobile 

homes not in transit and duplexes.

From 2008 to 2017, one- and two-family residential building fires accounted for 65% of 

all residential building fires and dominated the overall residential building fire profile. 

Trends in one- and two-family dwellings showed a 3% decrease in fires, an 11% increase 

in deaths, a 22% decrease in injuries, and an 18% decrease in dollar loss from 2008 to 

2017 (Figure 6).20

Figure 6. Trends in one- and two-family residential building fires and fire losses 

(2008-2017)

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Trend

Fires

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

One- and two-family residential building fires 

(in thousands)

Fires (thousands)

Year Value

2008 250.4

2009 234.1

2010 236.9

2011 237.7

2012 242.7

2013 244.7

2014 244.0

2015 242.3

2016 231.6

2017 233.8

10-year 

trend (%)

-2.7%

19The U.S. Census Bureau shows that, in 2017, 76.1% of occupied housing units were one-unit attached and 

detached structures or mobile homes (92.5 million), U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development 

and U.S. Census Bureau, 2017 American Housing Survey — Table Creator, select “2017 (Year) General 

Housing (Table); Units by Structure Type (Variable 1),” https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/ahs/data/

interactive/ahstablecreator.html#?s_areas=a00000&s_year=n2017&s_tableName=Table1&s_byGroup1=a3&s_

byGroup2=a1&s_filterGroup1=t1&s_filterGroup2=g1&s_show=S (accessed Sept. 5, 2019). Household size was 

estimated at 2.65 people per household (https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.

xhtml?pid=ACS_17_1YR_DP02& prodType=table, Selected Social Characteristics in the U.S., 2017 American 

Community Survey 1-Year Estimates). Thus, 92.5 million housing units x 2.65 people per household = 245.1 

million people. With the 2017 U.S. population given as 325.1 million, (https://www.census.gov/data/tables/timeseries/demo/popest/2010s-national-total.html#par_textimage_2011805803, Table 1. Annual Estimates of the 

Resident Population for the U.S., Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010, to July 1, 2018 (NST-EST2018-01)), 

approximately 75.4% of the population lived in what the NFIRS defines as one- and two-family housing.

20The 2016 fire dollar-loss estimate for one- and two-family residential buildings used in this document was 

revised based on an updated release of 2016 NFPA dollar-loss estimates (NFPA Errata No.: FLX10-September 

2017_01) and does not match the estimate published in the 2008-2017 Fire Estimate Summary series for 2016.
22 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Figure 6. Trends in one- and two-family residential building fires and fire losses 

(2008-2017) — continued

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

Trend

Fire deaths

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

One- and two-family residential building 

fire deaths

Deaths

Year Value

2008 2,160

2009 1,965

2010 2,025

2011 1,945

2012 1,885

2013 2,250

2014 2,195

2015 2,085

2016 2,290

2017 2,200

10-year 

trend (%)

11.1%

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

Trend

Fire injuries

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

One- and two-family residential building 

fire injuries

Injuries

Year Value

2008 8,400

2009 8,125

2010 8,525

2011 8,925

2012 8,300

2013 7,975

2014 7,550

2015 7,200

2016 6,925

2017 6,650

10-year 

trend (%)

-21.8%
The National Fire Problem 23

Figure 6. Trends in one- and two-family residential building fires and fire losses 

(2008-2017) — continued

$0.0

$1,000.0

$2,000.0

$3,000.0

$4,000.0

$5,000.0

$6,000.0

$7,000.0

$8,000.0

Trend

Fire dollar loss

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

One- and two-family residential building 

fire dollar loss (in millions of dollars)*

Dollar loss 

(millions of dollars) *

Adjusted to 2017 dollars

Year Value

2008 $7,011

2009 $6,513

2010 $5,941

2011 $5,593

2012 $5,907

2013 $5,464

2014 $5,386

2015 $5,473

2016 $5,876

2017 $5,501

10-year 

trend (%) -18.1%

Sources: NFIRS, NFPA and CPI.

Multifamily residential buildings

Multifamily residential buildings include structures such as apartments, town houses, 

row houses, condominiums and other tenement properties. Many multifamily dwellings 

are rental properties, which often fall under more stringent fire prevention statutes and 

tend to be regulated by stricter building codes. From 2008 to 2017, multifamily residential 

building fires accounted for 29% of all residential building fires responded to by fire 

departments across the nation.

From 2008 to 2017, trends in multifamily dwellings showed an 8% increase in fires, a 3% 

decrease in deaths, a 13% decrease in injuries, and an 18% increase in dollar loss (Figure 

7).21 In 2017, there were four multifamily residential building fires reported to NFIRS with 

total dollar losses exceeding $20 million each that contributed to the increase in dollar loss.

21The 2016 fire dollar-loss estimate for multifamily residential buildings used in this document was revised 

based on an updated release of 2016 NFPA dollar-loss estimates (NFPA Errata No.: FLX10-September 2017_01) 

and does not match the estimate published in the 2008-2017 Fire Estimate Summary series for 2016.
24 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Figure 7. Trends in multifamily residential building fires and fire losses 

(2008-2017)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Trend

Fires

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Multifamily residential building fires

(in thousands)

Fires (thousands)

Year Value

2008 104.1

2009 100.2

2010 102.7

2011 102.8

2012 106.0

2013 109.3

2014 108.7

2015 111.1

2016 105.8

2017 109.6

10-year 

trend (%)

8.1%

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Trend

Fire deaths

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Multifamily residential building fire deaths Deaths

Year Value

2008 395

2009 375

2010 425

2011 390

2012 400

2013 390

2014 440

2015 390

2016 360

2017 385

10-year 

trend (%)

-3.1%
The National Fire Problem 25

Figure 7. Trends in multifamily residential building fires and fire losses 

(2008-2017) — continued

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

Trend

Fire injuries

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Multifamily residential building fire injuries Injuries

Year Value

2008 4,200

2009 4,050

2010 4,250

2011 4,450

2012 4,325

2013 3,975

2014 4,100

2015 3,825

2016 3,625

2017 3,800

10-year 

trend (%)

-12.7%

Multifamily residential building fire 

dollar loss (in millions of dollars)*

$0.0

$500.0

$1000.0

$1500.0

$2000.0

$2500.0

Trend

Fire dollar loss

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Dollar loss 

(millions of dollars) *

Adjusted to 2017 dollars

Year Value

2008 $1,532

2009 $1,411

2010 $1,230

2011 $1,337

2012 $1,323

2013 $1,391

2014 $1,390

2015 $1,475

2016 $1,241

2017 $1,982

10-year 

trend (%) 17.9%

Sources: NFIRS, NFPA and CPI.

Note: In 2017, there were four multifamily residential building fire incidents reported to NFIRS with total dollar losses 

exceeding $20 million each that contributed to the increase in dollar loss.
26 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Other residential buildings

Other residential buildings include rooming houses, dormitories, residential hotels, 

halfway houses, hotels and motels, and miscellaneous and unclassified buildings 

reported as residences. This category does not include nursing homes, prisons or other 

institutions; these categories are addressed as part of nonresidential buildings. Trends 

in other residential buildings showed a 27% increase in fires, a 4% increase in deaths, a 

17% decrease in injuries, and a 24% decrease in dollar loss from 2008 to 2017 (Figure 8).22

Figure 8. Trends in other residential building fires and fire losses (2008-2017)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Trend

Fires

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Other residential building fires (in thousands) Fires (thousands)

Year Value

2008 23.7

2009 21.8

2010 22.5

2011 24.0

2012 25.3

2013 26.2

2014 26.8

2015 27.4

2016 26.9

2017 28.1

10-year 

trend (%)

26.7%

0

40

80

120

160

200

Trend

Fire deaths

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Other residential building fire deaths Deaths

Year Value

2008 90

2009 140

2010 105

2011 115

2012 100

2013 120

2014 130

2015 95

2016 125

2017 110

10-year 

trend (%)

4.4%

22The 2016 fire dollar-loss estimate for other residential buildings used in this document was revised based on 

an updated release of 2016 NFPA dollar-loss estimates (NFPA Errata No.: FLX10-September 2017_01) and does 

not match the estimate published in the 2008-2017 Fire Estimate Summary series for 2016.
The National Fire Problem 27

Figure 8. Trends in other residential building fires and fire losses (2008-2017) — 

continued

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Trend

Fire injuries

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Other residential building fire injuries Injuries

Year Value

2008 525

2009 425

2010 500

2011 525

2012 425

2013 500

2014 425

2015 425

2016 450

2017 400

10-year 

trend (%)

-16.8%

$0.0

$100.0

$200.0

$300.0

$400.0

$500.0

$600.0

$700.0

Trend

Fire dollar loss

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Other residential building fire dollar loss 

(in millions of dollars)*

Dollar loss 

(millions of dollars) *

Adjusted to 2017 dollars

Year Value

2008 $589.2

2009 $370.9

2010 $300.8

2011 $317.6

2012 $353.2

2013 $379.8

2014 $369.7

2015 $394.3

2016 $360.8

2017 $313.5

10-year 

trend (%) -24.3%

Sources: NFIRS, NFPA and CPI.
28 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Nonresidential buildings

The nonresidential building category includes industrial and commercial properties, 

institutions (such as hospitals, nursing homes and prisons), educational establishments (from 

preschool through university), mobile properties and storage properties. National estimates 

show that, on average from 2008 to 2017, about 90% of nonresidential structure fires, 90% 

of deaths, 92% of injuries, and 92% of dollar losses occurred in nonresidential buildings.

National estimates of nonresidential building fires and losses, from 2008 to 2017, annually 

accounted for only 7% of all fires, 3% of deaths, and 8% of injuries. These properties, 

however, accounted for a disproportionately large annual dollar loss — 20%.23 Trends in 

nonresidential buildings showed a 20% increase in fires, a 16% increase in deaths, a 0.3% 

decrease in injuries, and a 21% decrease in dollar loss from 2008 to 2017 (Figure 9). In 2016, 

in Oakland, California, a fire at a former warehouse that had been converted to mixed-use 

properties with an assembly area contributed to the peak in fire deaths. As a result of this 

incident, 35 fire deaths were reported to the NFIRS. Excluding these 35 deaths from the 

10-year trend analysis results in an overall 1% decrease in nonresidential building fire deaths.

Figure 9. Trends in nonresidential building fires and fire losses (2008-2017)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

Trend

Fires

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Nonresidential building fires (in thousands) Fires (thousands)

Year Value

2008 97.1

2009 89.2

2010 84.9

2011 85.4

2012 92.8

2013 93.7

2014 99.5

2015 104.6

2016 96.8

2017 111.0

10-year 

trend (%)

20.1%

23The USFA’s Nonresidential Building Fires Estimate Summary Series (2008 to 2017) is available at https://www.usfa.

fema.gov/downloads/pdf/statistics/nonres_bldg_fire_estimates.pdf. To download an Excel file of nonresidential 

building fire and fire loss estimates by property use and cause, visit https://www.usfa.fema.gov/data/statistics/

order_download_data.html (located under the section “Download select data sets”). The 2016 fire dollar-loss 

estimate for nonresidential buildings used in this document was revised based on an updated release of 2016 

NFPA dollar-loss estimates (NFPA Errata No.: FLX10-September 2017_01) and does not match the estimate 

published in the 2008-2017 Fire Estimate Summary series for 2016.
The National Fire Problem 29

Figure 9. Trends in nonresidential building fires and fire losses (2008-2017) — 

continued

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Trend

Fire deaths

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Nonresidential building fire deaths Deaths

Year Value

2008 100

2009 90

2010 80

2011 80

2012 65

2013 65

2014 60

2015 70

2016 145

2017 95

10-year 

trend (%)

15.9%

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

Trend

Fire injuries

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Nonresidential building fire injuries Injuries

Year Value

2008 1,250

2009 1,500

2010 1,375

2011 1,100

2012 1,450

2013 1,425

2014 1,200

2015 1,325

2016 1,550

2017 1,200

10-year 

trend (%)

-0.3%
30 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Figure 9. Trends in nonresidential building fires and fire losses (2008-2017) — 

continued

$0.0

$500.0

$1,000.0

$1,500.0

$2,000.0

$2,500.0

$3,000.0

$3,500.0

$4,000.0

$4,500.0

$5,000.0

Trend

Fire dollar loss

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Nonresidential building fire dollar loss 

(in millions of dollars)*

Dollar loss 

(millions of dollars) *

Adjusted to 2017 dollars

Year Value

2008 $3,930

2009 $3,153

2010 $2,699

2011 $2,654

2012 $2,638

2013 $2,590

2014 $2,667

2015 $2,783

2016 $2,908

2017 $2,719

10-year 

trend (%) -20.7%

Sources: NFIRS, NFPA and CPI.

Note: The 2016 peak in fire deaths is attributed to a fire at a former warehouse in Oakland, California, that had been 

converted to mixed-use properties with an assembly area. The NFPA estimate of dollar loss in 2008 reflects three 

industrial property fire incidents that resulted in $775 million in property damage.

Vehicles and other mobile properties

Overall, mobile properties are comprised of vehicles and other mobile properties, which 

include passenger vehicles, construction vehicles, motor homes, recreational vehicles, 

farm machinery, trains, boats, ships and aircraft. Vehicle fires account for a larger portion 

of the fire problem than many people realize. In 2017, vehicles accounted for 15% of fire 

deaths overall, 7% of fire injuries, 14% of dollar losses, and 14% of all fires reported to 

NFIRS — approximately 1 in every 7 fires.24

Figures 10 and 11 show the 10-year trends for mobile property fires and losses. Trends 

in overall mobile property fires declined over the 10 years, while the trends in mobile 

property fire deaths, injuries and dollar loss increased (Figure 10). For the years examined, 

the number of mobile property fire deaths was highest in 2015 with an estimated 500 

deaths. Figure 11 shows that the vast majority of mobile property fires and losses are 

from highway vehicles. Trends in highway vehicles showed a 16% decrease in fires, a 30% 

increase in deaths, a 17% increase in injuries, and a 14% increase in dollar loss (adjusted 

for inflation). Although there was a substantial increase in the other mobile property fire 

death trend, this is due primarily to the fluctuations in the small numbers of deaths.

24When there are fatalities associated with a mobile property accident, such as a collision between two cars, 

it is often difficult to determine whether the fatalities were the result of the mechanical forces or the fire that 

ensued. Because of the very large number of vehicle fatalities occurring in this country each year and the 

frequency of fires associated with these accidents, there can be a substantial error in estimating the total 

number of fire deaths if this issue is not carefully addressed. A fire fatality should be counted only if a person 

was trapped and killed by the fire, rather than killed on impact and subsequently exposed to the fire.
The National Fire Problem 31

Figure 10. Trends in mobile property fires and fire losses (2008-2017)

0.0

50.0

100.0

150.0

200.0

250.0

300.0

350.0

Trend

Fires

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Mobile property fires (in thousands) Fires (thousands)

Year Value

2008 236.0

2009 219.0

2010 215.5

2011 219.0

2012 202.5

2013 188.0

2014 193.5

2015 204.5

2016 204.0

2017 197.5

10-year 

trend (%)

-14.5%

0.0

100.0

200.0

300.0

400.0

500.0

600.0

Trend

Fire deaths

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Mobile property fire deaths Deaths

Year Value

2008 365

2009 280

2010 310

2011 300

2012 325

2013 320

2014 345

2015 500

2016 355

2017 430

10-year 

trend (%)

40.7%
32 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Figure 10. Trends in mobile property fires and fire losses (2008-2017) — continued

0.0

200.0

400.0

600.0

800.0

1,000.0

1,200.0

1,400.0

1,600.0

1,800.0

2,000.0

Trend

Fire injuries

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Mobile property fire injuries Injuries

Year Value

2008 1,065

2009 1,610

2010 1,590

2011 1,190

2012 975

2013 1,050

2014 1,450

2015 1,875

2016 1,225

2017 1,610

10-year 

trend (%)

19.7%

$1,200.0

$1,300.0

$1,400.0

$1,500.0

$1,600.0

$1,700.0

$1,800.0

$1,900.0

$2,000.0

$2,100.0

Trend

Fire dollar loss

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Mobile property fire dollar loss

(in millions of dollars)*

Dollar loss 

(millions of dollars) *

Adjusted to 2017 dollars

Year Value

2008 $1,700.9

2009 $1,555.0

2010 $1,546.8

2011 $1,471.1

2012 $1,962.3

2013 $1,464.7

2014 $1,575.9

2015 $1,878.1

2016 $1,816.9

2017 $2,044.0

10-year 

trend (%) 22.8%

Sources: NFPA and CPI.

Note: The 2012 and 2015 spikes in dollar loss reflect the $400 million property damage to the USS Miami (submarine) and 

a large aircraft fire that occurred at Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska.
The National Fire Problem 33

Figure 11. Trends in highway vehicle versus other mobile property fires and fire 

losses (2008-2017)

Highway vehicle versus other mobile property 

fires (in thousands)

0.0

50.0

100.0

150.0

200.0

250.0

300.0

350.0

Trend

Other mobile property fires

Trend

Highway vehicle fires

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Other mobile property

Highway vehicle

Fires (thousands)

Year

Highway 

vehicle 

value

Other 

mobile 

value

2008 207.0 29.0

2009 190.5 28.5

2010 184.5 31.0

2011 187.5 31.5

2012 172.5 30.0

2013 164.0 24.0

2014 167.5 26.0

2015 174.0 30.5

2016 173.0 31.0

2017 168.0 29.5

10-year 

trend (%) -16.6% -0.6%

Highway vehicle versus other mobile property 

fire deaths

0.0

50.0

100.0

150.0

200.0

250.0

300.0

350.0

400.0

450.0

500.0

550.0

Trend

Other mobile 

property fire deaths

Trend

Highway vehicle 

fire deaths

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Other mobile property

Highway vehicle

Deaths

Year

Highway 

vehicle 

value

Other 

mobile 

value

2008 350 15

2009 260 20

2010 285 25

2011 270 30

2012 300 25

2013 300 20

2014 310 35

2015 445 55

2016 280 75

2017 400 30

10-year 

trend (%) 29.5% 256.6%
34 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Figure 11. Trends in highway vehicle versus other mobile property fires and fire 

losses (2008-2017) — continued

Highway vehicle versus other mobile property 

fire injuries

0.0

200.0

400.0

600.0

800.0

1000.0

1200.0

1400.0

1600.0

Trend

Other mobile property fire injuries

Trend

Highway vehicle fire injuries

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Other mobile property

Highway vehicle

Injuries

Year

Highway 

vehicle 

value

Other 

mobile 

value

2008 850 215

2009 1,455 155

2010 1,440 150

2011 1,020 170

2012 800 175

2013 925 125

2014 1,275 175

2015 1,550 325

2016 1,075 150

2017 1,370 240

10-year 

trend (%) 17.4% 35.1%

Highway vehicle versus other mobile property 

fire dollar loss (in millions of dollars)*

$0.0

$200.0

$400.0

$600.0

$800.0

$1,000.0

$1,200.0

$1,400.0

$1,600.0

$1,800.0

Trend

Other mobile property fire dollar loss

Trend

Highway vehicle fire dollar loss

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Other mobile property

Highway vehicle

Dollar loss 

(millions of dollars) *

Adjusted to 2017 dollars

Year

Highway 

vehicle 

value

Other 

mobile 

value

2008 $1,328.6 $372.3

2009 $1,204.3 $350.8

2010 $1,109.5 $437.3

2011 $1,107.2 $364.0

2012 $1,168.0 $794.3

2013 $1,115.3 $349.3

2014 $1,182.4 $393.5

2015 $1,279.3 $598.8

2016 $1,325.7 $491.2

2017 $1,450.0 $594.0

10-year 

trend (%) 14.1% 49.1%

Sources: NFPA and CPI.

Note: The large increase in the trend for other mobile property type fire deaths is due primarily to the fluctuations in the 

small numbers of deaths. The 2012 and 2015 spikes in dollar loss for other mobile property fires reflect the $400 

million property damage to the USS Miami (submarine) and a large aircraft fire that occurred at Offutt Air Force 

Base, Nebraska.
The National Fire Problem 35

Outside and other properties

The “Outside and Other Properties” category includes all fires that did not occur in 

buildings, other structures, or vehicles. In NFIRS terminology, this includes fires that 

occurred outside of structures — either where the burning material had a value or where 

the fires were confined to trees, brush, grass or refuse. A subset of outside fires is wildland 

fires. Grouped in the “Other” category are fires that were not specifically classified or were 

considered to be outside gas or vapor combustion incidents.

Outside and other fires constituted roughly half of all fires. These numbers may not, 

however, reflect the true nature of the problem because of under-reporting and the 

difficulty in setting a price tag on outside fires. Also, many wildland fires are not reported 

to agencies reporting to the NFIRS or to the NFPA annual survey.

Figure 12 shows the 10-year trends for outside and other property type fires and losses. 

The numbers of reported outside fires alone were enormous — averaging 551,750 

each year over the 10-year period. The “Other” category of fires added, on average, an 

additional 94,350 fires to this already large number. Over 10 years, an average of 75 deaths 

resulted each year from outside fires, plus the miscellaneous other properties not covered 

elsewhere; injuries averaged 775. Although deaths showed an upward trend of 213%, 

this is due primarily to the fluctuations in the small numbers of deaths. Injuries showed 

an upward trend of 23%. Dollar loss for only outside properties increased by 59% over 

the 10 years of 2008 to 2017; however, when several large-loss incidents that occurred in 

2010 to 2013 and 2016 were excluded from the analysis, the trend in dollar loss for outside 

properties resulted in a 0.2% decrease.25

Estimating dollar loss for these fires is difficult.26 In addition, part of the difference in 

property loss estimates is because the NFPA estimates property loss only for outside fires 

“with value,” whereas the NFIRS permits property loss data collection for any fire. While 

both are reasonable approaches, neither may be definitive. Moreover, when there are 

large-loss fires, these fires may not necessarily be reported to the NFIRS.

25NFPA. (2007, 2010 to 2012, 2014, 2016). Fire loss in the United States. The Fourmile Canyon Fire in Colorado 

totaled $217 million in damage in 2010; the Bastrop County, Texas, Complex wildfire totaled $400 million in 

damage in 2011; the Waldo Canyon Fire and the High Park Fire in Colorado accounted for a total of $567.4 million 

in damage in 2012; the Black Forest Fire in Colorado totaled $420.5 million in damage in 2013, noted in the 2014 

NFPA report; and the Gatlinburg, Tennessee, wildfires totaled $911 million in damage in 2016.

26Setting a value for outside fire damage is always a problem. It is difficult to assign a dollar value to grass, tree 

and rubbish fires, yet the damage from these fires often requires labor beyond that of the fire department 

to clean up and restore the area. They also cause aesthetic problems that are intangible. Some outside 

fires spread to structural properties and may be reported as structural fires rather than outside fires with 

exposure to structures. Outside fires can have other indirect costs, such as the financial impact on agricultural 

communities where a fire destroys crops. Forest fires and other wildfires to which local departments are not 

called will not be reported to the NFIRS if the state or federal agency with principal authority for fighting the fire 

does not participate in the NFIRS. To better analyze outside fires, the NFIRS data needs to be complemented 

with data from these other agencies.
36 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Figure 12. Trends in outside and other property type fires and fire losses 

(2008-2017)

Outside and other property type fires 

(in thousands)

0.0

100.0

200.0

300.0

400.0

500.0

600.0

700.0

800.0

Trend

Other property type fires

Trend

Outside fires

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Other property type

Outside

Fires (thousands)

Year Outside 

value

Other 

value

2008 594.0 106.5

2009 546.0 103.0

2010 549.5 84.5

2011 597.5 88.5

2012 612.0 80.0

2013 479.5 85.0

2014 513.0 97.5

2015 536.0 103.5

2016 558.5 104.0

2017 531.5 91.0

10-year 

trend (%) -8.8% -0.3%

0.0

25.0

50.0

75.0

100.0

125.0

150.0

Trend

Outside and other property

type fire deaths

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Outside and other property type fire deaths Deaths

Year Outside and 

other value

2008 55

2009 35

2010 55

2011 65

2012 60

2013 65

2014 70

2015 95

2016 85

2017 145

10-year 

trend (%)

212.9%
The National Fire Problem 37

Figure 12. Trends in outside and other property type fires and fire losses 

(2008-2017) — continued

0.0

200.0

400.0

600.0

800.0

1,000.0

Trend

Outside and other property type

fire injuries

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Outside and other property type fire injuries Injuries

Year Outside and 

other value

2008 680

2009 700

2010 710

2011 675

2012 825

2013 800

2014 900

2015 825

2016 650

2017 900

10-year 

trend (%)

22.6%

Outside and other property type fire 

dollar loss (in millions of dollars)*

$0.0

$200.0

$400.0

$600.0

$800.0

$1,000.0

$1,200.0

$1,400.0

Trend

Other property type fire 

dollar loss

Trend

Outside fire dollar loss

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Other property type

Outside

Dollar loss 

(millions of dollars) *

Adjusted to 2017 dollars

Year Outside 

value

Other 

value

2008 $146.9 $107.0

2009 $290.2 $84.5

2010 $464.3 $98.9

2011 $589.5 $81.7

2012 $776.2 $91.8

2013 $547.1 $91.5

2014 $146.0 $99.4

2015 $156.2 $104.5

2016 $1,290.9 $161.4

2017 $137.0 $136.0

10-year 

trend (%) 59.4% 58.7%

Sources: NFPA and CPI.

Note: The large increase in the trend for outside and other property type fire deaths is due primarily to the fluctuations in the 

small numbers of deaths. The 2012 spike in dollar loss includes the Waldo Canyon Fire in Colorado with an estimated 

property loss of $453,700,000 and the High Park Fire, also in Colorado, with an estimated property loss of $113,700,000. 

The 2016 spike in dollar loss includes the $911,000,000 property damage resulting from the Gatlinburg, Tennessee, 

wildfires.
38 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Causes of fires and losses

The following sections show, by property type, the fire cause profiles of the major causes 

of fires and fires that resulted in losses in 2017: fatal fires, fires resulting in injuries and 

fires resulting in dollar loss.27

Causes of residential building fires

Figure 13 shows the cause profiles for residential building fires and fires resulting in losses 

for 2017. Cooking, at 52%, was the leading cause of residential building fires. Heating 

caused another 9%. These percentages (and those that follow) are adjusted, which 

proportionally spreads the unknown causes over the other 15 cause categories.

The leading causes of residential fatal fires were other unintentional or careless actions 

at 17%, cause under investigation at 14%, intentional actions at 13%, and smoking at 12%. 

These four causes accounted for more than half of the residential fatal fires.

The leading cause of residential fires that resulted in injuries was cooking (32%). Cooking 

was also the leading cause of fires resulting in dollar loss at 27%, followed by electrical 

malfunction and other unintentional or careless actions (12% each).28

27In principle, it is the cause of the fire that results in deaths and injuries which should be analyzed, not the 

numbers of deaths and injuries associated with fire causes.

28Causes of residential building fires are presented in more detail as part of the USFA’s Residential Building Fire 

Estimate Summary series (2008 to 2017) available at https://www.usfa.fema.gov/downloads/pdf/statistics/

res_bldg_fire_estimates.pdf. To download an Excel file of residential building fire and fire loss estimates by 

property use and cause, visit https://www.usfa.fema.gov/data/statistics/order_download_data.html (located 

under the section “Download select data sets”).
The National Fire Problem 39

Figure 13. Causes of residential building fires and fires resulting in losses (2017)

Percent

Residential building fire causes (2017)

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0

Reported

Unknowns 

apportioned

Unknown

Cause under

 Investigation

Other unintentional,

 careless

Equipment

misoperation, failure

Exposure

Natural

Other equipment

Other heat

Open flame

Appliances

Electrical

 malfunction

Cooking

Heating

Smoking

Playing with

 heat source

Intentional

Cause Reported Unknowns 

apportioned

Intentional 3.5 4.2

Playing with 

heat source 0.3 0.4

Smoking 1.7 2.1

Heating 7.4 9.1

Cooking 42.2 51.6

Electrical 

malfunction 5.3 6.5

Appliances 2.5 3.1

Open flame 3.5 4.3

Other heat 2.7 3.3

Other 

equipment 1.0 1.3

Natural 1.3 1.6

Exposure 1.6 2.0

Equipment 

misoperation, 

failure

1.7 2.1

Other 

unintentional, 

careless

5.8 7.1

Cause under 

investigation 1.1 1.4

Unknown 18.2 0.0

Total 100.0 100.0
40 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Figure 13. Causes of residential building fires and fires resulting in losses 

(2017) — continued

Percent

Residential building fatal fire causes 

(2017)

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0

Reported

Unknowns

apportioned

Unknown

Cause under

 investigation

Other unintentional,

 careless

Equipment

misoperation, failure

Exposure

Natural

Other equipment

Other heat

Open flame

Appliances

Electrical

 malfunction

Cooking

Heating

Smoking

Playing with

 heat source

Intentional

Cause Reported Unknowns 

apportioned

Intentional 6.6 13.1

Playing with 

heat source 0.6 1.2

Smoking 6.0 11.8

Heating 3.2 6.3

Cooking 2.8 5.5

Electrical 

malfunction 3.8 7.5

Appliances 1.1 2.1

Open flame 3.5 6.9

Other heat 3.3 6.6

Other 

equipment 1.8 3.6

Natural 0.5 1.0

Exposure 0.8 1.5

Equipment 

misoperation, 

failure

1.4 2.8

Other 

unintentional, 

careless

8.4 16.7

Cause under 

investigation 6.9 13.6

Unknown 49.4 0.0

Total 100.0 100.0
The National Fire Problem 41

Figure 13. Causes of residential building fires and fires resulting in losses 

(2017) — continued

Percent

Causes of residential building fires 

resulting in injuries (2017)

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0

Reported

Unknowns

apportioned

Unknown

Cause under

investigation

Other unintentional,

careless

Equipment

misoperation, failure

Exposure

Natural

Other equipment

Other heat

Open flame

Appliances

Electrical

malfunction

Cooking

Heating

Smoking

Playing with

heat source

Intentional

Cause Reported Unknowns 

apportioned

Intentional 4.5 5.9

Playing with 

heat source 0.9 1.2

Smoking 4.8 6.3

Heating 3.9 5.2

Cooking 24.4 32.2

Electrical 

malfunction 5.0 6.6

Appliances 4.1 5.4

Open flame 6.0 7.9

Other heat 4.3 5.7

Other 

equipment 1.2 1.6

Natural 0.6 0.8

Exposure 0.5 0.6

Equipment 

misoperation, 

failure

3.5 4.6

Other 

unintentional, 

careless

8.9 11.8

Cause under 

investigation 3.1 4.0

Unknown 24.3 0.0

Total 100.0 100.0
42 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Figure 13. Causes of residential building fires and fires resulting in losses 

(2017) — continued

Percent

Causes of residential building fires 

resulting in dollar loss (2017)

0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0

Reported

Unknowns

apportioned

Unknown

Cause under

investigation

Other unintentional,

careless

Equipment

misoperation, failure

Exposure

Natural

Other equipment

Other heat

Open flame

Appliances

Electrical

malfunction

Cooking

Heating

Smoking

Playing with

heat source

Intentional

Cause Reported Unknowns 

apportioned

Intentional 4.7 6.2

Playing with 

heat source 0.5 0.7

Smoking 3.0 3.9

Heating 4.4 5.7

Cooking 20.5 26.8

Electrical 

malfunction 9.1 11.9

Appliances 4.3 5.7

Open flame 5.3 6.9

Other heat 4.4 5.7

Other 

equipment 1.2 1.6

Natural 2.2 2.8

Exposure 3.1 4.1

Equipment 

misoperation, 

failure

2.9 3.8

Other 

unintentional, 

careless

8.9 11.6

Cause under 

investigation 1.9 2.5

Unknown 23.5 0.0

Total 100.0 100.0

Source: NFIRS.

Notes: 1. Adjusted percentages (percentages with unknowns apportioned) proportionally spread the fire incidents with 

unknown causes over the other 15 cause categories. Totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.

2. A large percentage of residential building fatal fire incidents reported to the NFIRS (49%) did not have sufficient 

information to determine the cause of the fire.

Causes of nonresidential building fires

Figure 14 shows the cause profiles for nonresidential building fires and fires resulting 

in dollar loss. Due to the small numbers of nonresidential building fatal fires and 

fires resulting in injuries reported to the NFIRS, and the large percentage of fires with 

insufficient information to determine fire cause, the distribution of causes for these fires 

is not shown.
The National Fire Problem 43

For nonresidential building fires, three causes accounted for at least half of the fires: 

Cooking was the leading cause of fires (30%), followed by other unintentional or careless 

actions (11%), and intentional actions (10%). The leading causes of fires resulting in dollar 

loss in nonresidential buildings were other unintentional or careless actions (14%), as well 

as cooking and electrical malfunctions (both at 12%).29

Figure 14. Causes of nonresidential building fires and fires resulting in dollar loss 

(2017)

Percent

Nonresidential building fire causes 

(2017)

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0

Reported

Unknowns

 apportioned

Unknown

Cause under

investigation

Other unintentional,

 careless

Equipment

misoperation, failure

Exposure

Natural

Other equipment

Other heat

Open flame

Appliances

Electrical

malfunction

Cooking

Heating

Smoking

Playing with

 heat source

Intentional

Cause Reported Unknowns 

apportioned

Intentional 6.2 9.8

Playing with 

heat source 0.2 0.3

Smoking 1.4 2.2

Heating 4.3 6.9

Cooking 19.2 30.4

Electrical 

malfunction 4.7 7.4

Appliances 2.2 3.5

Open flame 3.8 6.0

Other heat 3.2 5.1

Other 

equipment 2.8 4.5

Natural 2.1 3.3

Exposure 2.7 4.3

Equipment 

misoperation, 

failure

2.2 3.5

Other 

unintentional, 

careless

7.0 11.1

Cause under 

investigation 1.0 1.6

Unknown 36.9 0.0

Total 100.0 100.0

29Causes of nonresidential building fires are presented in more detail as part of the USFA’s Nonresidential 

Building Fire Estimate Summary series (2008 to 2017), available at https://www.usfa.fema.gov/downloads/pdf/

statistics/nonres_bldg_fire_estimates.pdf. To download an Excel file of nonresidential building fire and fire loss 

estimates by property use and cause, visit https://www.usfa.fema.gov/data/statistics/order_download_data.

html (located under the section “Download select data sets”).
44 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Figure 14. Causes of nonresidential building fires and fires resulting in dollar loss 

(2017) — continued

Percent

Causes of nonresidential building fires 

resulting in dollar loss (2017)

0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0

Reported

Unknowns

apportioned

Unknown

Cause under

investigation

Other unintentional,

careless

Equipment

misoperation, failure

Exposure

Natural

Other equipment

Other heat

Open flame

Appliances

Electrical

malfunction

Cooking

Heating

Smoking

Playing with

heat source

Intentional

Cause Reported Unknowns 

apportioned

Intentional 6.2 8.8

Playing with 

heat source 0.3 0.4

Smoking 1.7 2.5

Heating 4.1 5.9

Cooking 8.7 12.3

Electrical 

malfunction 8.3 11.8

Appliances 3.9 5.5

Open flame 4.9 6.9

Other heat 4.6 6.5

Other 

equipment 3.8 5.4

Natural 3.3 4.6

Exposure 5.3 7.6

Equipment 

misoperation, 

failure

3.5 4.9

Other 

unintentional, 

careless

10.2 14.4

Cause under 

investigation 1.9 2.7

Unknown 29.2 0.0

Total 100.0 100.0

Source: NFIRS.

Note: Adjusted percentages (percentages with unknowns apportioned) proportionally spread the fire incidents with 

unknown causes over the other 15 cause categories. Totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.

Causes of vehicle fires

Figure 15 shows the cause profiles for vehicle fires and fires resulting in dollar loss. Due 

to the small numbers of fatal vehicle fires and fires resulting in injuries reported to the 

NFIRS, the distribution of causes for these fires is not shown.

Unintentional actions were the leading cause of fires and fires resulting in dollar 

loss in vehicles (38% and 37%, respectively). In 24% of vehicle fires, the causes were 

undetermined after the investigations. Failure of equipment or heat source caused an 

additional 20% of vehicle fires. The cause was undetermined after the investigation in 

23% of fires resulting in dollar loss.
The National Fire Problem 45

Figure 15. Causes of vehicle fires and fires resulting in dollar loss (2017)

Percent

Vehicle fire causes (2017)

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0

Reported

Unknowns

apportioned

Unknown

Exposure

Intentional

Unintentional

Failure of equipment or

 heat source

Act of nature

Cause under investigation

Cause undetermined

after investigation

Cause Reported Unknowns 

apportioned

Cause 

undetermined 

after 

investigation

23.8 24.0

Cause under 

investigation 10.3 10.4

Act of nature 0.3 0.3

Failure of 

equipment or 

heat source

19.6 19.7

Unintentional 38.1 38.4

Intentional 4.7 4.7

Exposure 2.6 2.6

Unknown 0.7 0.0

Total 100.0 100.0

Percent

Causes of vehicle fires resulting in 

dollar loss (2017)

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0

Reported

Unknowns

apportioned

Unknown

Exposure

Intentional

Unintentional

Failure of equipment or

 heat source

Act of nature

Cause under investigation

Cause undetermined

after investigation

Cause Reported Unknowns 

apportioned

Cause 

undetermined 

after 

investigation

22.4 22.5

Cause under 

investigation 10.1 10.2

Act of nature 0.2 0.2

Failure of 

equipment or 

heat source

20.6 20.7

Unintentional 37.2 37.4

Intentional 5.7 5.7

Exposure 3.4 3.4

Unknown 0.4 0.0

Total 100.0 100.0

Source: NFIRS.

Note: Adjusted percentages (percentages with unknowns apportioned) proportionally spread the fire incidents with 

unknown causes over the other seven cause categories. Totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
46 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Causes of outside fires

Figure 16 shows the cause profiles for outside fires and fires resulting in dollar loss. Due 

to the small numbers of outside fatal fires and fires resulting in injuries reported to the 

NFIRS, and the large percentage of fires with insufficient information to determine fire 

cause, the distribution of causes for these fires is not shown.

Unintentional actions were the leading cause of fires and fires resulting in dollar loss in 

outside fires (42% and 40%, respectively). In 27% of outside fires and in 25% of outside 

fires resulting in dollar loss, causes were undetermined after the investigations.

Figure 16. Causes of outside fires and fires resulting in dollar loss (2017)

Percent

Outside fire causes (2017)

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0

Reported

Unknowns

apportioned

Unknown

Exposure

Intentional

Unintentional

Failure of equipment

or heat source

Act of nature

Cause under investigation

Cause undetermined

after investigation

Cause Reported Unknowns 

apportioned

Cause 

undetermined 

after 

investigation

14.3 26.8

Cause under 

investigation 2.7 5.0

Act of nature 2.3 4.3

Failure of 

equipment or 

heat source

2.0 3.7

Unintentional 22.2 41.8

Intentional 9.5 17.8

Exposure 0.3 0.6

Unknown 46.7 0.0

Total 100.0 100.0
The National Fire Problem 47

Figure 16. Causes of outside fires and fires resulting in dollar loss (2017) — continued

Percent

Causes of outside fires resulting in 

dollar loss (2017)

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0

Unknown

Exposure

Intentional

Unintentional

Failure of equipment

or heat source

Act of nature

Cause under investigation

Cause undetermined

after investigation

Reported

Unknowns

apportioned

Cause Reported Unknowns 

apportioned

Cause 

undetermined 

after 

investigation

14.1 24.5

Cause under 

investigation 3.9 6.8

Act of nature 2.0 3.4

Failure of 

equipment or 

heat source

5.8 10.1

Unintentional 23.2 40.2

Intentional 6.7 11.5

Exposure 2.0 3.5

Unknown 42.2 0.0

Total 100.0 100.0

Source: NFIRS.

Notes: 1. Adjusted percentages (percentages with unknowns apportioned) proportionally spread the fire incidents with 

unknown causes over the other seven cause categories. Totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.

2. A large percentage of outside fire incidents reported to the NFIRS (47%) did not have sufficient information to 

determine the cause of the fire.

Causes of other fires

Figure 17 shows the cause profiles for other fires and fires resulting in dollar loss. Due to 

the small numbers of other fatal fires and fires resulting in injuries reported to the NFIRS, 

the distribution of causes for these fires is not shown.

As with vehicle and outside fires, unintentional actions were the leading cause of other 

fires and fires resulting in dollar loss (45% and 48%, respectively). Failure of equipment 

or heat source was the second leading cause of other fires (19%) and other fires resulting 

in dollar loss (24%).
48 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Figure 17. Causes of other fires and fires resulting in dollar loss (2017)

Percent

Causes of other fires (2017)

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0

Reported

Unknowns

apportioned

Unknown

Exposure

Intentional

Unintentional

Failure of equipment

or heat source

Act of nature

Cause under investigation

Cause undetermined

after investigation

Cause Reported Unknowns 

apportioned

Cause 

undetermined 

after 

investigation

17.6 17.9

Cause under 

investigation 6.8 6.9

Act of nature 2.4 2.4

Failure of 

equipment or 

heat source

18.3 18.6

Unintentional 44.5 45.1

Intentional 8.4 8.5

Exposure 0.7 0.7

Unknown 1.3 0.0

Total 100.0 100.0

Percent

Causes of other fires resulting in 

dollar loss (2017)

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0

Reported

Unknowns

apportioned

Unknown

Exposure

Intentional

Unintentional

Failure of equipment

or heat source

Act of nature

Cause under investigation

Cause undetermined

after investigation

Cause Reported Unknowns 

apportioned

Cause 

undetermined 

after 

investigation

13.4 13.5

Cause under 

investigation 6.7 6.7

Act of nature 1.1 1.1

Failure of 

equipment or 

heat source

24.2 24.3

Unintentional 47.5 47.7

Intentional 4.8 4.9

Exposure 1.8 1.8

Unknown 0.5 0.0

Total 100.0 100.0

Source: NFIRS.

Note: Adjusted percentages (percentages with unknowns apportioned) proportionally spread the fire incidents with 

unknown causes over the other seven cause categories. Totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
The National Fire Problem 49

Fire casualties

Fire casualties affect all groups and races, rich and poor, Northern and Southern, urban 

and rural. But the problem is greater for some groups than for others.

Fire casualties across population groups can be assessed in several ways. The simplest 

method is to look at the distribution of the numbers of deaths or injuries across the factor 

of interest. For example, in the case of race in 2017, the number of fire deaths was greatest 

for white Americans and least for American Indians/Alaskan Natives. In the case of age, 

percentages of fire deaths were greatest for those ages 55 to 69, while percentages of fire 

injuries were greatest for adults ages 25 to 34.

Although these findings are informative, they do not account for differences in the basic 

population groups under comparison. In the case of age, as an age group matures, its 

population of individuals decreases as a result of deaths. In the case of race, there are 

far fewer American Indians/Alaskan Natives, for example, than white Americans living in 

the U.S. As a consequence, it is possible for a group to have greater (or fewer) deaths or 

injuries because the total number of individuals for whom it is possible to be injured is 

larger (or smaller) than other groups.

To account for population differences such as these, per capita rates are used. Per capita 

rates use a common population size, which then permits comparisons between different 

groups.30 Perhaps the most useful way to assess fire casualties across groups is to 

determine the relative risk of dying or being injured. Relative risk compares the per capita 

rate for a particular group (e.g., females) to the overall per capita rate (i.e., the general 

population). For the general population in the U.S., the relative risk is set at 1.

Fire deaths

In 2017, according to the NCHS, 3,645 deaths were caused by fire.31,32 The risk of death from 

fire is not the same for everyone. When determining fire risk, geographic, demographic 

and socioeconomic factors all come into play.33

State profiles

The fire problem varies from region to region and state to state in the U.S. This is often 

a result of climate, poverty, education, demographics and other factors. Table 2 lists the 

2017 civilian fire deaths, fire death rates per million population, and relative risk by state.34

30Per capita rates are determined by the number of deaths or injuries occurring to a specific population group 

divided by the total population for that group. This ratio is then multiplied by a common population size. For 

the purposes of this report, per capita rates for fire deaths and injuries are measured per 1 million people.

31NCHS, 2017 Mortality Data File, as compiled from data provided by the 57 vital statistics jurisdictions through 

the Vital Statistics Cooperative Program.

32For each reported death certificate in the U.S., the NCHS assigns International Classification of Disease (ICD) codes 

for all reported conditions leading to death. Based on the NCHS mortality data, there were 3,645 fire-related deaths in 

2017. These included all deaths in which exposure to fire, fire products or explosion was the underlying cause of death 

or was a contributing factor in the chain of events leading to death. This latter condition is an expanded approach to 

capturing fire and fire-related deaths. With this current approach, deaths where such exposures were a contributing 

factor (i.e., the death may not have occurred without the exposure) can be captured. The ICD 10 codes included in 

the mortality statistics are F63.1, W39 to W40, X00 to X06, X08 to X09, X75 to X76, X96 to X97, Y25 to Y26, and Y35.1.

33For more information on U.S. fire deaths, fire death rates, and the risk of dying in a fire, visit https://www.usfa.

fema.gov/data/statistics/fire_death_rates.html. Additionally, the USFA’s topical report Fire Risk in 2017 focuses 

on how fire risk, specifically the risk of death and injury, varies with age and how other demographic factors 

weigh upon that risk. This report is available at https://www.usfa.fema.gov/downloads/pdf/statistics/v20i3.pdf.

34This analysis includes only states where fire death rates were computed. Fire death rates were not computed 

for Delaware, Rhode Island and Wyoming due to very small numbers of fire deaths (fewer than 10 deaths). The 

fire death rates presented here reflect the crude death rates and are not age adjusted. The crude death rate is 

the total number of fire deaths per state divided by the total population per state and multiplied by one million.
50 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Four states (Alaska, Arkansas, South Dakota and West Virginia) had fire death rates that 

exceeded 20 deaths per million population. The District of Columbia and 22 states, mostly 

situated in the Southeast and Midwest, had death rates between 11.3 and 20 deaths per 

million population. Additionally, 21 states had fire death rates at or below the national fire 

death rate (i.e., 11.2 deaths per million population35). Ten states, mostly largely populated 

states, accounted for 49% of the national total U.S. fire deaths. Unless their fire problems 

are significantly reduced, the national total may be difficult to lower.

Figure 18 ranks the order of states by relative risk of civilian fire death in 2017. The states 

with the highest relative risk of fire death in 2017 included Alaska, Arkansas and West 

Virginia. The populace of West Virginia was 2.6 times more likely to die in a fire than the 

general population; however, people living in New Jersey were 60% less likely to die in 

a fire than the population as a whole. Where relative risk was computed, 23 states and 

the District of Columbia had a relative risk higher than that of the general population. 

Five states — Illinois, Maine, Oregon, Washington and Wisconsin — had a relative risk 

comparable to that of the general population. In 19 states, the relative risk was lower than 

that of the general population.

Table 2. Fire deaths, rates and relative risk by state (2017)

State of occurrence Fire deaths

Fire death rate 

per million 

population 

(crude rate)

Relative risk

Alabama 84 17.2 1.5

Alaska 20 27.0 2.4

Arizona 73 10.4 0.9

Arkansas 72 24.0 2.1

California 277 7.0 0.6

Colorado 48 8.5 0.8

Connecticut 24 6.7 0.6

Delaware * * *

District of Columbia** 13 18.7 1.7

Florida 166 7.9 0.7

Georgia 150 14.4 1.3

Hawaii** 14 9.8 0.9

Idaho** 14 8.1 0.7

Illinois 146 11.4 1.0

Indiana 79 11.9 1.1

Iowa 61 19.4 1.7

Kansas 36 12.4 1.1

Kentucky 63 14.1 1.3

Louisiana 92 19.7 1.8

35The per capita fire death rate for the total population in 2017 was computed from the total number of fire 

deaths (3,645), divided by the total resident population (325,147,121), multiplied by 1,000,000 people. This rate 

is equivalent to 11.2 fire deaths per 1 million population.
The National Fire Problem 51

Table 2. Fire deaths, rates and relative risk by state (2017) — continued

State of occurrence Fire deaths

Fire death rate 

per million 

population 

(crude rate)

Relative risk

Maine** 15 11.2 1.0

Maryland 63 10.5 0.9

Massachusetts 49 7.1 0.6

Michigan 100 10.0 0.9

Minnesota 78 14.0 1.2

Mississippi 58 19.4 1.7

Missouri 106 17.4 1.5

Montana** 11 10.4 0.9

Nebraska** 16 8.3 0.7

Nevada 23 7.7 0.7

New Hampshire** 11 8.1 0.7

New Jersey 41 4.6 0.4

New Mexico 35 16.7 1.5

New York 196 10.0 0.9

North Carolina 144 14.0 1.3

North Dakota** 10 13.2 1.2

Ohio 164 14.1 1.3

Oklahoma 62 15.8 1.4

Oregon 47 11.3 1.0

Pennsylvania 178 13.9 1.2

Rhode Island * * *

South Carolina 87 17.3 1.5

South Dakota** 18 20.6 1.8

Tennessee 130 19.4 1.7

Texas 231 8.2 0.7

Utah 26 8.4 0.7

Vermont** 11 17.6 1.6

Virginia 74 8.7 0.8

Washington 86 11.6 1.0

West Virginia 53 29.2 2.6

Wisconsin 65 11.2 1.0

Wyoming * * *

United States 3,645 11.2 1.0

* Indicates states where fire death rates and relative risk were not computed due to very small numbers of fire deaths (fewer 

than 10 deaths).

** Indicates fire death rates should be used with caution due to small numbers of deaths. Per the NCHS, National Vital Statistics 

Reports, Volume 60, Number 4, “Deaths: Preliminary data for 2010,” a rate or percentage is based on at least 20 deaths. 

Rates based on fewer than 20 deaths are considered highly variable.
52 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Figure 18. Rank order of states by relative risk of civilian fire death (2017)

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

West Virginia

Alaska

Arkansas

South Dakota

Louisiana

Iowa

Mississippi

Tennessee

District of Columbia

Vermont

Missouri

South Carolina

Alabama

New Mexico

Oklahoma

Georgia

Kentucky

Ohio

North Carolina

Minnesota

Pennsylvania

North Dakota

Kansas

Indiana

Washington

Illinois

Oregon

Maine

Wisconsin

Maryland

Montana

Arizona

Michigan

New York

Hawaii

Virginia

Colorado

Utah

Nebraska

Texas

New Hampshire

Idaho

Florida

Nevada

Massachusetts

California

Connecticut

New Jersey

2.6

2.4

2.1

1.8

1.7

1.8

1.7

1.7

1.7

1.6

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.4

1.3

1.3

1.3

1.3

1.2

1.2

1.2

1.1

1.1

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

0.9

0.9

0.9

0.9

0.9

0.9

0.8

0.8

0.7

0.7

0.7

0.7

0.7

0.7

0.7

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.4

Relative risk

Relative risk = 1.0

Source: 2017 NCHS Mortality Data File, as compiled from data provided by the 57 vital statistics jurisdictions through the Vital 

Statistics Cooperative Program and U.S. Census Bureau population estimates.

Note: Relative risk is not shown for Delaware, Rhode Island and Wyoming due to small numbers of fire deaths (fewer than 10).
The National Fire Problem 53

Age

Figure 19 shows the percentage of fire deaths by age. Unlike relative risk, the percentages 

do not take into account the number of individuals in an age group, and the distributions 

are somewhat different. Children younger than 15 accounted for 9% of all fire deaths, 

while older adults (ages 65 and older) accounted for 40% of all fire deaths in 2017. Adults 

ages 55 to 64 accounted for an additional 21% of the deaths.

People ages 50 and older had a higher fire death rate than the average population (11.2 

deaths per million population). For people ages 80 and older, the fire death rate was higher 

still — over three times the national average (Figure 20).

In 2017, adults ages 50 and older had a greater relative risk of dying in fires than the 

general population (Figure 21). Moreover, older adults ages 80 to 84 had a risk of fire death 

over three times that of the general population. Those ages 85 and older had the highest 

risk of fire death — nearly four times that of the general population.

People with limited physical and cognitive abilities, especially older adults, are at a higher 

risk of death from fire than other groups. As baby boomers enter retirement age, the 

demographic profile of the U.S. is expected to change dramatically. The older adult 

population (ages 65 or older) is expected to increase from its current 16% of the total 

population to 23% by 2060,36 with an assumed corresponding increase in fire deaths and 

injuries among older adults. According to U.S. Census Bureau projections, by 2060, the 

number of individuals ages 65 or older is expected to be 95 million — nearly double the 

amount in 2017. At the same time, the population ages 85 or older is expected to almost 

triple, increasing from 6.5 million in 2017 to 19.0 million in 2060.37 With advancing age, 

physical and mental capabilities of these older adults will likely decline, hindering their 

mobility and making it more difficult for them to see, smell and hear clearly. Lessened 

senses and decreased mobility increase the risk of death or injury from fire. 

In the past, children ages 4 and younger were also considered to be at a high risk of death 

from fire; however, data indicates that the trend is changing. From 2008 to 2017, the fire 

death rates of children ages 4 and younger were less than or the same as the general 

population. Although the relative risk of children ages 4 and younger dying in a fire was 

40% less than that of the general population in 2017, children ages 4 and younger faced 

an elevated risk of death in a fire when compared to older children (ages 5 to 14).

36U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division, Table 2. Projected Age Groups and Sex Composition of the Population: 

Main Projection Series for the United States: 2017 to 2060 (NP2017-T2). Release date: September 2018, https://

www.census.gov/data/tables/2017/demo/popproj/2017-summary-tables.html (accessed July 15, 2019).

37U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division, Table 2. Projected Age Groups and Sex Composition of the Population: 

Main Projection Series for the United States: 2017 to 2060 (NP2017-T2). Release date: September 2018, https://

www.census.gov/data/tables/2017/demo/popproj/2017-summary-tables.html (accessed July 15, 2019).
54 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Figure 19. Percent of fire deaths by age (2017)

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0

85 or older

80-84

75-79

70-74

65-69

60-64

55-59

50-54

45-49

40-44

35-39

30-34

25-29

20-24

15-19

10-14

5-9

4 or younger

7.6

9.1

9.9

11.0

9.9

7.2

4.7

4.5

3.8

3.5

3.2

2.5

1.6

1.9

3.2

3.6

6.2

6.9

Percent

Deaths (3,645 cases)

Source: NCHS.

Note: Data have been adjusted to account for unknown or unspecified ages. Total does not add up to 100% due to rounding.

Figure 20. Fire death rates by age (2017)

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0

85 or older

80-84

75-79

70-74

65-69

60-64

55-59

50-54

45-49

40-44

35-39

30-34

25-29

20-24

15-19

10-14

5-9

4 or younger

43.0

25.7

21.4

20.2

5.8

4.9

4.1

2.7

3.3

5.7

37.9

28.8

Deaths per million population

National fire death rate = 11.2

16.4

12.2

Deaths (3,645 cases)

8.2

8.4

6.6

6.5

Sources: NCHS and U.S. Census Bureau.

Note: Data have been adjusted to account for unknown or unspecified ages.
The National Fire Problem 55

Figure 21. Relative risk of fire deaths by age (2017)

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

85 or older

80-84

75-79

70-74

65-69

60-64

55-59

50-54

45-49

40-44

35-39

30-34

25-29

20-24

15-19

10-14

5-9

4 or younger

3.8

2.3

1.9

1.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.3

0.5

0.6

3.4

2.6

Relative risk

Relative risk = 1.0

1.5

1.1

Deaths (3,645 cases)

0.7

Sources: NCHS and U.S. Census Bureau.

Notes: 1. Relative risk compares the per capita rate for a particular group (e.g., age group) to the overall per capita rate 

(i.e., the general population). For the general population, the relative risk is set at 1, as indicated by the dashed 

line in the figure above.

2. Data have been adjusted to account for unknown or unspecified ages.

Gender

As shown in Table 3, more men (61%) died in fires than women (39%) in 2017. The high 

proportion of male to female fire deaths has remained steady from year to year.

Table 3. Percent of fire deaths by gender (2017)

Casualty type Males

(percent)

Females

(percent)

Deaths 60.9 39.1

Source: NCHS.

Figures 22 and 23 present the percent of fire deaths by age and gender and fire death 

rates by age and gender, respectively. The distribution of fire deaths by age is somewhat 

different for males versus females. Female fire deaths in the 65 and older age group 

accounted for 42% of female fire deaths. Male fire deaths, by contrast, were highest for 

those adults ages 55 to 64, accounting for 21% of male fire deaths.
56 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Overall, in 2017, males had a fire death rate of 13.9 deaths per million population, while 

females had a fire death rate of 8.6 deaths per million population. Males were 1.6 times 

more likely to die in fires than females.38 In fact, males had a higher fire death rate per 

million population than females for all age groups, except for those ages 15 to 19 where 

the rate was the same for both genders (Figure 23). 

Figure 22. Percent of fire deaths by age and gender (2017)

0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0

Females (1,424 cases)

Males (2,221 cases)

85 or older

80-84

75-79

70-74

65-69

60-64

55-59

50-54

45-49

40-44

35-39

30-34

25-29

20-24

15-19

10-14

5-9

4 or younger

8.7

6.9

9.5

8.8

10.6

9.4

10.0

6.2

11.7

10.3

9.6

7.8

5.1

4.5

3.7

5.0

3.4

4.1

2.7

4.0

2.8

3.4

1.3

3.2

2.0

1.3

2.0

1.8

3.9

2.7

4.4

3.1

6.7

5.9

7.0

6.7

Percent

Deaths (3,645 cases)

Source: NCHS.

Note: Data have been adjusted to account for unknown or unspecified ages. Totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.

38USFA. (2019). Fire risk in 2017. Emmitsburg, MD: National Fire Data Center. This report is available at https://

www.usfa.fema.gov/downloads/pdf/statistics/v20i3.pdf.
The National Fire Problem 57

Figure 23. Fire death rates by age and gender (2017)

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0

Females (1,424 cases)

Males (2,221 cases)

85 or older

80-84

75-79

70-74

65-69

60-64

55-59

50-54

45-49

40-44

35-39

30-34

25-29

20-24

15-19

10-14

5-9

4 or younger

29.6

67.6

19.6

32.8

17.0

26.3

13.6

8.1

27.3

12.9

20.1

16.5

6.8

9.6

5.4

11.4

4.6

8.5

3.5

8.0

3.5

6.3

1.8

6.3

2.7

2.7

2.9

3.8

5.6

5.7

6.4

6.7

27.8

51.9

39.8

19.9

Deaths per million population

Deaths (3,645 cases)

Sources: NCHS and U.S. Census Bureau.

Note: Data have been adjusted to account for unknown or unspecified ages.

Race

Figure 24 shows the fire death rates by race and gender in 2017. Males, African Americans 

and American Indians/Alaskan Natives had higher fire death rates than the national 

average.39 Asians/Pacific Islanders had the lowest death rates. African Americans 

constituted a large and disproportionate share of total fire deaths, accounting for 19% of 

fire deaths in 2017, but only 13% of the U.S. population.

39USFA. (2019). Fire risk in 2017. Emmitsburg, MD: National Fire Data Center. https://www.usfa.fema.gov/

downloads/pdf/statistics/v20i3.pdf.
58 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Figure 24. Fire death rates by race and gender (2017)

0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0

Females

(1,424 cases)

Males

(2,221 cases)

Overall

Asian/Pacific

Islander

American Indian/

Alaskan Native

African American

White

National fire 

death rate = 11.2

14.1

8.5

19.7

12.9

17.4

11.3

13.9

8.6

3.8

3.6

Deaths per million population

Sources: NCHS and U.S. Census Bureau.

Notes: 1. The overall male and female population estimates include individuals with “2+ races” per the census. The “2+ 

races” category accounts for 2.7% of the population. The NCHS does not include this race category.

2. This figure uses NCHS data in the computation of the national fire death rate for data consistency within this 

chart. Based on the 2017 NFPA fire death estimate, this rate is 10.5.

Fire injuries

According to the NFPA, in 2017 there were an estimated 14,670 civilian fire injuries. In 

general, the age profile for fire injuries was very different from that for deaths. This 

difference is thought to be the result of both cognitive and mobility issues that affect 

many older adults. As a result, these adults were generally less likely to escape the effects 

of fire and thus suffered fatal injuries.

Age

Figures 25 and 26 show the percentage of fire injuries by age and fire injury rates by age 

in 2017, respectively. In 2017, children younger than 15 accounted for 11% of fire injuries, 

young adults (ages 25 to 34) accounted for 17%, and older adults (ages 65 and older) 

accounted for 15%. Most fire-related injuries occurred in adults ages 20 to 64. This age 

group accounted for 69% of the fire injuries in 2017 (Figure 25). Adults ages 20 to 64 and 

80 to 84 experienced higher fire injury rates than the average population (i.e., 45.1 injuries 

per million population), yet those ages 20 to 49 have some of the lowest fire death rates 

(Figure 20). Adults ages 40 to 44 and 50 to 54 experienced the highest fire injury rate at 

58 injuries per one million people. Fire injury rates were below average for children and 

teenagers ages 19 or younger and for people ages 65 to 79 and 85 and older (Figure 26).
The National Fire Problem 59

In 2017, adults ages 25 to 64 and those 80 to 84 were at the greatest risk of fire injury 

(Figure 27). The risk for injury was lowest for the younger age groups and those ages 75 

to 79. The risk for injury from fire for adults ages 20 to 24, 65 to 74, and 85 and older 

was comparable to that of the general population. Although most of the older adult age 

groups had a lower or average level of fire injury risk, there were fewer of them in the 

total population. If their risk continues to be the same, we could expect more and more 

elderly fire injuries and deaths as the older adult proportion of the population increases. 

In the meantime, the focus for fire injury prevention should be on adults ages 25 to 64 

and those ages 80 to 84.

Figure 25. Percent of fire injuries by age (2017)

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0

85 or older

80-84

75-79

70-74

65-69

60-64

55-59

50-54

45-49

40-44

35-39

30-34

25-29

20-24

15-19

10-14

5-9

4 or younger

1.9

3.9

5.0

7.1

7.2

7.8

6.9

8.6

8.6

6.8

5.2

3.2

2.5

4.8

2.1

2.5

Percent

7.5

8.4

Injuries

Source: NFIRS.

Note: Data have been adjusted to account for unknown or unspecified ages.
60 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Figure 26. Fire injury rates by age (2017)

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0

85 or older

80-84

75-79

70-74

65-69

60-64

55-59

50-54

45-49

40-44

35-39

30-34

25-29

20-24

15-19

10-14

5-9

4 or younger

Injuries per million population

National fire injury rate = 45.1

Injuries

43.2

44.7

43.5

52.2

50.8

58.4

47.6

57.2

53.8

45.2

36.2

22.9

17.9

52.2

41.6

50.2

58.0

35.4

Sources: NFIRS, NFPA and U.S. Census Bureau.

Note: Data have been adjusted to account for unknown or unspecified ages.
The National Fire Problem 61

Figure 27. Relative risk of fire injuries by age (2017)

0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50

85 or older

80-84

75-79

70-74

65-69

60-64

55-59

50-54

45-49

40-44

35-39

30-34

25-29

20-24

15-19

10-14

5-9

4 or younger

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.2

1.1

1.3

1.1

1.3

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.5

0.4

0.8

1.2

0.9

Relative risk

Relative risk = 1.00

1.1

1.3

Injuries

Sources: NFIRS, NFPA and U.S. Census Bureau.

Notes: 1. Relative risk compares the per capita rate for a particular group (e.g., age group) to the overall per capita rate 

(i.e., the general population). For the general population, the relative risk is set at 1, as indicated by the dashed 

lines in the figure above.

2. Data have been adjusted to account for unknown or unspecified ages.

Gender

The male-to-female ratio for fire injuries was similar to that for fire deaths, except that 

the gender gap was slightly smaller. In 2017, more men (60%) were injured in fires than 

women (40%), as shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Percent of fire injuries by gender (2017)

Casualty type Males

(percent)

Females

(percent)

Injuries 59.52 40.48

Source: NFIRS.

Figures 28 and 29 present the percentages of fire injuries by age and gender and fire injury 

rates by age and gender, respectively. The percentage distribution of fire injuries by age 

was somewhat different for males versus females. Males ages 20 to 24 and 30 to 59 had 

a higher proportion of injuries than females, while older adult females had more injuries 

than older adult males (Figure 28). For all age groups, males had a substantially higher 

fire injury rate per million population than females (Figure 29).
62 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Figure 28. Percent of fire injuries by age and gender (2017)

0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0

Females

Males

85 or older

80-84

75-79

70-74

65-69

60-64

55-59

50-54

45-49

40-44

35-39

30-34

25-29

20-24

15-19

10-14

5-9

4 or younger

2.5

1.5

4.2

3.7

5.4

4.7

7.2

7.7

7.0

7.2

7.7

9.0

7.0

7.4

7.3

8.1

6.7

7.0

7.4

9.3

8.7

8.4

6.5

7.0

5.5

5.0

3.5

3.1

2.7

2.3

4.9

4.7

2.8

1.7

2.1

3.0

Percent

Injuries

Source: NFIRS.

Note: Data have been adjusted to account for unknown or unspecified ages. Totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
The National Fire Problem 63

Figure 29. Fire injury rates by age and gender (2017)

0.0 25.0 50.0 75.0 100.0 125.0

85 or older

80-84

75-79

70-74

65-69

60-64

55-59

50-54

45-49

40-44

35-39

30-34

25-29

20-24

15-19

10-14

5-9

4 or younger

35.2

57.9

36.3

54.4

35.8

52.3

41.2

41.9

64.2

37.7

63.3

74.7

39.2

62.6

44.0

72.9

37.4

57.9

40.5

73.6

45.4

61.8

35.7

54.2

31.5

40.8

20.2

25.6

16.1

19.6

30.2

40.3

47.3

58.9

47.3

37.0

Injuries per million population

Injuries

Females

Males

Sources: NFIRS, NFPA and U.S. Census Bureau.

Note: Data have been adjusted to account for unknown or unspecified ages.
64 Fire in the United States 2008-2017
Data Sources and Methodology 65

Data Sources and Methodology 

Data sources

The USFA’s data analyses are based primarily on the NFIRS data, but use other sources 

as well. Summary estimates for fires, deaths, injuries and dollar loss are from the NFPA’s 

annual survey of fire departments.40 Other data sources used by the USFA include 

2017 NCHS mortality data41 as compiled from data provided by the 57 vital statistics 

jurisdictions through the Vital Statistics Cooperative Program, resident population 

estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau, inflation adjustments from the Bureau of Labor 

Statistics’ CPI, and state statistics from state fire marshals’ offices or their equivalents. 

Because the NCHS mortality data are based on a census or enumeration of deaths based 

on death certificates rather than an estimate, it is used as the primary source for the 

computation of fire death rates and relative risk. The most current year available for the 

NCHS mortality data is 2017. Please note that, for consistency, national trend data are 

based on the NFPA survey estimates, not the NCHS mortality data.

The USFA gratefully acknowledges the use of the data and information provided by these 

groups. Data sources are cited for each graph and table.

National Fire Incident Reporting System

The NFIRS was established in 1975 as one of the first programs of the National Fire 

Prevention and Control Administration, which later became the USFA. The basic concept of 

the NFIRS has not changed since the system’s inception. All states and all fire departments 

within them have been invited to participate on a voluntary basis. Participating fire 

departments collect a common core of information on an incident and any casualties 

that ensue by using a common set of definitions. In very few departments, the data 

may be written by hand on paper forms; however, the majority of the data are collected 

electronically through third-party software, the NFIRS Data Entry Tool (DET) or the Data 

Entry Browser Interface (DEBI), or the reporting department’s own system. Local agencies 

forward the completed NFIRS modules to the state agency responsible for NFIRS data. 

The state agency combines the information with data from other fire departments into 

a statewide database and then transmits the data to the NFDC at the USFA. Data on 

individual incidents and casualties are preserved incident by incident at local, state and 

national levels. Once limited to fire incidents only, the NFIRS encompasses all incidents to 

which the fire department responds: fire, emergency medical services (EMS), hazardous 

materials or hazmat, and the like.

From an initial six states in 1976, the NFIRS has grown in both participation and use. 

Over the life of the system, all 50 states, the District of Columbia and more than 40 

major metropolitan areas have reported to the NFIRS. More than 30,000 fire departments 

40The NFPA summary estimates are used for the overall U.S. fire losses; for fire losses from vehicle, outside and 

other fires; and as the basis for estimates of residential and nonresidential building fires. The alternative approach 

for these summary estimates is to use the relative percentage of fires (or other loss measures) from the NFIRS 

and scale up (multiply by) to the NFPA estimate of total fires. The results would be somewhat different from those 

based on the NFPA subtotals. These differences are discussed in the section “Differences Between the National 

Fire Incident Reporting System Data and the National Fire Protection Association Survey Data.” Better estimates 

of fire loss measures will not be available from the NFIRS until a more robust method of estimation is developed.

41The NCHS data provides additional details not available from the NFPA survey: state of fire death occurrence, 

age, gender and race.
66 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

have been assigned participating NFIRS fire department identification (FDID) numbers by 

their states. In 2017, nearly 1.2 million fire incident records and about 26.7 million nonfire 

incident records were added to the database. The NFIRS is the world’s largest collection 

of incidents to which fire departments respond.42

Figure 30 shows the growth in the number of fire departments participating in the 

NFIRS over the last 38 years from 1980 to 2017.43 Between 1985 and 1999, the level of 

participation remained relatively constant: A few states came in or left the system each 

year, and at least 39 states reported to the NFIRS. Most years also included participation 

from the District of Columbia. The number of fire departments participating within the 

states remained relatively constant as well, with a slight dip in participation during the 

system migration from Version 4.1 to 5.0 in 1999. In 2000, the number of states increased 

to 43, and fire department participation began to bounce back from the Version 5.0 

transition. State and fire department participation began steadily increasing. In 2003, 

the NFIRS reached a milestone with participation by all 50 states. The following year, the 

NFIRS achieved another significant goal: the NFIRS not only achieved the national goal of 

100% state participation, including the District of Columbia, but also for the first time, the 

Native American tribal authorities submitted data.

The NFIRS continued to grow and mature. By 2007, a new level of participation had 

been achieved: all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Native American tribal authorities, 

Northern Mariana Islands and Puerto Rico all participated in the NFIRS for a total of 54 

state, district, tribal authority and commonwealth entities (Table 5). Although the Northern 

Mariana Islands and Puerto Rico are no longer reporting incident data to the NFIRS, the 

USFA continues to work with the U.S. territories to encourage participation. 

From 2009 to 2017, the level of participation remained relatively constant, and data 

were submitted by the District of Columbia, the Native American tribal authorities and 

all 50 states.44 In 2017, the most recent year of data available, 21,246 fire departments 

reported fire incidents to the NFIRS. Across participating entities, 71% of the estimated 

fire departments in the U.S. reported fire incidents to the NFIRS in 2017.45 With over 

two-thirds of all fire departments nationwide reporting fire incidents to the NFIRS 5.0, 

the reporting departments represent a very large dataset that enables the USFA to make 

reasonable estimates of various facets of the fire problem. Although some states do 

require their departments to participate in the state system, participation in the NFIRS 

is voluntary. However, if a fire department is a recipient of an Assistance to Firefighters 

Grant, participation is required.46

42USFA, “About the National Fire Incident Reporting System,” https://www.usfa.fema.gov/data/nfirs/about/index.html.

43Figure 30 reflects fire departments that reported fire incidents (includes mutual aid and automatic aid given); 

all other types of incidents were excluded from this figure.

44For 2013, Wyoming data were not included on the NFIRS public data release file, as the data were submitted 

by the state past the cutoff date set by the USFA’s NFDC; however, the data resides in the NFIRS production 

database and Enterprise Data Warehouse.

45For 2017, the NFPA estimated that there were 29,819 fire departments in the U.S. Source: NFPA. (2019). U.S. 

fire department profile 2017. https://www.nfpa.org/News-and-Research/Data-research-and-tools/EmergencyResponders/US-fire-department-profile.

46 From the fiscal year (FY) 2017 Assistance to Firefighters Grant (AFG) Notice of Funding Opportunity (NOFO) — 

while NFIRS reporting is strongly encouraged, NFIRS reporting is not a requirement to apply for or be awarded a 

grant within the AFG Program. However, fire departments that receive funding under this program must agree 

to provide information to the NFIRS for the period covered by the assistance. If a recipient does not currently 

participate in the NFIRS and does not have the capacity to report at the time of the award, that recipient must 

agree to provide information to the system for a 12-month period commencing as soon as possible after it 

develops the capacity to report. Capacity to report to the NFIRS must be established prior to the termination 

of the one-year performance period. In order to be compliant and close out the grant, the grantee may be 

asked by the Federal Emergency Management Agency to provide proof of compliance in reporting to the 

NFIRS. Any grantee that stops reporting to the NFIRS during the grant’s period of performance is subject to 

having the award(s) modified or withdrawn. See the FY 2017 AFG NOFO at https://www.fema.gov/media-librarydata/1515081517499-e26f234398e048e897410250055c916e/NOFO1.3.18.pdf.
Data Sources and Methodology 67

Figure 30. National Fire Incident Reporting System fire department participation 

(1980-2017, fire incidents only) Number of participating fire departments

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

19801981198219831984198519861987198819891990199119921993199419951996199719981999200020012002200320042005200620072008200920102011201220132014201520162017

Source: NFIRS.

Notes: 1. 1999 to 2008 includes participation from NFIRS 4.1 and NFIRS 5.0; 2009 and later only includes participation from 

NFIRS 5.0.

2. Includes fire departments that reported mutual and automatic aid given at fire incidents.

Table 5. States reporting fire incidents to the National Fire Incident Reporting 

System (2008-2017)

State 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Alabama X X X X X X X X X X

Alaska X X X X X X X X X X

Arizona X X X X X X X X X X

Arkansas X X X X X X X X X X

California X X X X X X X X X X

Colorado X X X X X X X X X X

Connecticut X X X X X X X X X X

Delaware X X X X X X X X X X

District of Columbia X X X X X X X X X

Florida X X X X X X X X X X

Georgia X X X X X X X X X X

Hawaii X X X X X X X X X X

Idaho X X X X X X X X X X

Illinois X X X X X X X X X X

Indiana X X X X X X X X X X

Iowa X X X X X X X X X X

Kansas X X X X X X X X X X

Kentucky X X X X X X X X X X

Louisiana X X X X X X X X X X
68 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Table 5. States reporting fire incidents to the National Fire Incident Reporting 

System (2008-2017) — continued

State 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Maine X X X X X X X X X X

Maryland X X X X X X X X X X

Massachusetts X X X X X X X X X X

Michigan X X X X X X X X X X

Minnesota X X X X X X X X X X

Mississippi X X X X X X X X X X

Missouri X X X X X X X X X X

Montana X X X X X X X X X X

Nebraska X X X X X X X X X X

Nevada X X X X X X X X X X

New Hampshire X X X X X X X X X X

New Jersey X X X X X X X X X X

New Mexico X X X X X X X X X X

New York X X X X X X X X X X

North Carolina X X X X X X X X X X

North Dakota X X X X X X X X X X

Ohio X X X X X X X X X X

Oklahoma X X X X X X X X X X

Oregon X X X X X X X X X X

Pennsylvania X X X X X X X X X X

Rhode Island X X X X X X X X X X

South Carolina X X X X X X X X X X

South Dakota X X X X X X X X X X

Tennessee X X X X X X X X X X

Texas X X X X X X X X X X

Utah X X X X X X X X X X

Vermont X X X X X X X X X X

Virginia X X X X X X X X X X

Washington X X X X X X X X X X

West Virginia X X X X X X X X X X

Wisconsin X X X X X X X X X X

Wyoming X X X X X X X X X X

Native American X X X X X X X X X X

Puerto Rico * *

Total 51 52 52 52 52 52 52 52 52 52

Source: NFIRS.

Notes: For 2008, includes fire incidents submitted in both NFIRS Versions 4.1 and 5.0. Beginning in 2009, includes only fire 

incidents submitted in NFIRS Version 5.0.

*

Puerto Rico submitted fire incident data to the NFIRS in 2008 to 2009, but the data were excluded from all fire data analyses 

due to data quality issues.
Data Sources and Methodology 69

Table 6. Fire departments reporting fire incidents to the National Fire Incident 

Reporting System in 2017

State

Number of fire 

departments 

in state

Number of 

reporting fire 

departments 

(NFIRS 5.0)

Percentage of 

reporting fire 

departments 

(NFIRS 5.0)

Alabama 1,100 313 28

Alaska 235 136 58

Arizona 197 125 63

Arkansas 976 677 69

California 1,038 499 48

Colorado 385 247 64

Connecticut 259 224 86

Delaware 61 59 97

District of Columbia 1 1 100

Florida 568 342 60

Georgia 608 515 85

Hawaii 6 4 67

Idaho 243 166 68

Illinois 1,127 966 86

Indiana 861 498 58

Iowa 848 490 58

Kansas 631 467 74

Kentucky 805 561 70

Louisiana 553 364 66

Maine 498 241 48

Maryland 362 259 72

Massachusetts 366 342 93

Michigan 1,074 839 78

Minnesota 778 716 92

Mississippi 757 626 83

Missouri 930 372 40

Montana 433 155 36

Nebraska 471 204 43

Nevada 78 40 51

New Hampshire 228 205 90

New Jersey 719 603 84

New Mexico 367 315 86

New York 1,786 994 56

North Carolina 1,243 1,006 81

North Dakota 375 180 48

Ohio 1,192 1,155 97
70 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Table 6. Fire departments reporting fire incidents to the National Fire Incident 

Reporting System in 2017 — continued

State

Number of fire 

departments 

in state

Number of 

reporting fire 

departments 

(NFIRS 5.0)

Percentage of 

reporting fire 

departments 

(NFIRS 5.0)

Oklahoma 930 349 38

Oregon 314 170 54

Pennsylvania 2,300 1,535 67

Rhode Island 70 35 50

South Carolina 471 415 88

South Dakota 337 215 64

Tennessee 696 529 76

Texas 2,022 903 45

Utah 263 131 50

Vermont 233 145 62

Virginia 668 413 62

Washington 595 269 45

West Virginia 439 416 95

Wisconsin 821 748 91

Wyoming 133 62 47

Native American 48 5 10

Total 32,499* 21,246 65

Sources: NFIRS (2017) and state fire marshal’s offices or equivalent organizations (October 2016).

Note: For 2017, Oregon changed its state database and was unable to import all its incidents to the national database due 

to data conversion issues. Compared to 2016 data, only 74% of its fire departments reported to the NFIRS in 2017, and 

only 29% of its incidents were imported. In addition, there are 701 Department of Defense (DOD) fire departments 

in the U.S. These departments are not included in the totals here as the DOD does not release their incident data 

to the USFA at the national level.

*

 This total differs from the 2017 NFPA estimate of 29,819 fire departments. The NFPA estimate is the official estimate used 

by the USFA as its benchmark for the National Fire Department Registry.

Corresponding to increased participation, the numbers of fires, deaths and injuries, as 

well as estimates of dollar loss reported to the NFIRS have also grown. An estimated 69% 

of all U.S. fires to which fire departments responded in 2017 were captured in the NFIRS.47

There are, of course, many problems in assembling a real-world database, and the NFIRS 

is no exception. Although the NFIRS does not represent 100% of incidents reported to fire 

departments each year, the enormous dataset and strong efforts by the fire service result 

in a huge amount of useful information. Because of advances in computer technology 

and data collection techniques over the past 40 years, and improvements suggested 

by participants, the NFIRS has been revised periodically. The latest revision, NFIRS 5.0, 

became operational in January 1999.

NFIRS 5.0 captures information on all incidents, not just fires, to which a fire department 

responds. NFIRS 5.0 provides 11 modules that recognize the increasingly diverse activities 

of fire departments today. Together, these modules contain 567 data elements or fields.

47This percentage excludes mutual-aid fire incidents to avoid counting the same fire more than once.
Data Sources and Methodology 71

The Basic Module is the main module, which is completed for every incident. The other 

modules are filled out, when appropriate, to provide additional information on an incident. 

All 11 modules are listed below:

Module Description

Basic Module General information for each incident

Fire Module Fire incident information 

Structure Fire Module Information on structure fires

Civilian Fire Casualty Module Fire-related injuries or deaths to civilians

Fire Service Casualty Module Injuries or deaths to firefighters

EMS Module Medical incidents

Hazardous Materials Module Hazardous materials incidents

Wildland Fire Module Wildland or vegetation fires

Apparatus/Resources Module Apparatus-specific information

Personnel Module Personnel associated with apparatus 

Arson Module Intentionally set fire information

Data from the modules are grouped together each calendar year to create the public data 

release (PDR) files in delimited text (.txt) format, which are then released annually into 

the public domain. For NFIRS data submitted prior to 2012, the PDR files were released in 

dBASE (.dbf) format. The Apparatus/Resources and Personnel Modules are excluded from 

the PDR because they are intended for local fire department use, and the PDR dataset’s 

main utility is intended for national analyses. The PDR files consist of a subset of the 

data fields contained within the NFIRS national production database. For example, data 

elements with sensitive or identifying information are removed, as are data elements that 

are wholly used for maintenance or production purposes. The data structure of the PDR 

files has been considerably simplified from the production database’s schema for ease 

of use. The PDR files from 2004 to 2013 only include fire and hazmat incidents and their 

related data tables (available on CD). Prior to 2004, all incidents were included in the PDR 

files. Beginning with the 2014 NFIRS data, both the fire and hazmat incident PDR file (CD) 

and the full, all-incident PDR file (DVD) are available upon request from the USFA’s NFDC.

In its basic form, the NFIRS PDR files have a relational data structure where data from 

each incident module is represented by a row in a data table. The primary tables (basic 

incident and incident address) contain most of the Basic Module data. There is exactly 

one record in the basic incident table for every incident reported to the NFIRS. All other 

modules, represented by data tables with similar names (fire incident, civilian casualties, 

etc.), have records that are linked to the basic incident table through unique incident 

identification key fields (e.g., STATE, FDID, INC_DATE, INC_NO and EXP_NO). Some module 

data are split across several tables (e.g., basic incident, incident address, and basic aid 

tables); one table (fire incident) combines data from two modules (i.e., Fire Module and 

Structure Fire Module). Some tables, such as fire incident, will only have one record for 

each relevant incident in the basic incident table, while tables such as civilian casualty may 

have several records linked to a single incident in the case where multiple injuries and/or 

deaths occur in the same incident.
72 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

State participation is voluntary, and each state specifies NFIRS reporting requirements for 

its fire departments. States have the flexibility to adapt their state reporting systems to 

their specific needs. As a result, the design of a state’s data collection system varies from 

state to state. NFIRS 5.0 was designed so that data from state systems can be converted 

to a single format that is used at the national level to aggregate and store NFIRS data.

All data in the system, regardless of the entry mechanism, are in NFIRS 5.0 format; 

non-NFIRS 5.0 data are converted to the 5.0 format. The proportion of native 5.0 data 

steadily increased since the introduction of NFIRS 5.0 in 1999 (Table 7). This proportion rose 

to 99% in the 2008 data. Since Jan. 1, 2009, NFIRS 4.1 data have no longer been accepted by 

the system. Prior to 2009, NFIRS 4.1 data in its converted form had been accepted by the 

system; however, the USFA only used native 5.0 data in its NFIRS-based analyses.

Table 7. National Fire Incident Reporting System fire incident data reporting by 

version (percent)

Year Percent of NFIRS 4.1

(converted to 5.0 format)

Percent of Native NFIRS 

5.0

1999 92 8

2000 77 23

2001 48 52

2002 31 69

2003 19 81

2004 11 89

2005 5 95

2006 5 95

2007 2 98

2008 1 99

2009 0 100

Source: NFIRS.

National Fire Incident Reporting System enhancements

Under the USFA Reauthorization Act of 2008, the U.S. Congress authorized and funded 

the USFA to develop enhancements to the NFIRS. The upgrades to the system began in 

October 2008 and included a simplified NFIRS web-based reporting interface and a data 

warehouse for generating output reports for use in analyses. These improvements make 

reporting and accessing the NFIRS data much easier for fire departments.

In July 2010, the USFA completed and deployed the new web-based version of the DET. The 

DEBI is a one-purpose tool for use by the fire service to document incident information 

within the NFIRS. While the functionality is the same as the NFIRS client DET that has been 

available for use for many years, the DEBI allows entry of incidents using a standard web 

browser, eliminating the need to download, install and configure client software. 

In 2016, a modernization effort began to upgrade the architecture to support the 

Department of Homeland Security (DHS)/Federal Emergency Management Agency security 

requirements and to move all functions of the USFA software’s System Admin Tool, which 
Data Sources and Methodology 73

is used to administer users and groups in the NFIRS system, available in a web-based or 

browser interface. This must be completed before “sunsetting” of the USFA software can 

occur. The upgrades include a single-sign on portal to simplify access to the NFIRS online 

tools and adhere to DHS and industry standards, as well as expand browser choices for the 

users. Included in the modernization is the much-needed account and password self-reset 

mechanism. In 2017, service to a “mass-email” communication tool was restored, enabling 

NFDC NFIRS staff to send important alerts to NFIRS users and vendors. 

The development of a flexible NFIRS Data Warehouse (DW) with comprehensive datamining capabilities was completed in July 2011 and is currently being deployed to NFIRS 

state and fire department users on request. The DW allows NFIRS users to access and 

report on nationally collected data with significantly increased functionality over the 

current report generation tool. The data have been transformed into a custom schema 

that greatly increases the speed of report generation and data access. NFIRS users are 

able to generate reports using data from other departments and states, which was not 

previously possible. USFA NFIRS staff have been able to take users’ recommendations and 

requests for particular queries and develop new reports according to usefulness. 

National Fire Incident Reporting System training and resources

The USFA offers several free classroom (on- and off-site) and online NFIRS training 

courses for fire departments, including the “Introduction to NFIRS 5.0” (W0497) course, 

the “National Fire Incident Reporting System 5.0 Self-Study” (Q0494) course, the “National 

Fire Incident Reporting System: Program Management” (NFIRS: PM) (R0491) course, and 

the “NFIRS Data Warehouse Training” (R0483). The Introduction to the NFIRS 5.0 and 

the NFIRS 5.0 Self-Study (online) courses provide an introduction to the NFIRS reporting 

standard, where incident coding, modules, and reporting rules are discussed. A course 

revision is underway for Q0494, the online NFIRS 5.0 Self-Study course. The NFIRS: PM 

course enables participants to successfully promote, support and manage NFIRS data 

collection, use and reporting. In 2017 and 2018, initial training materials were created for 

the NFIRS DW pilot release, and an invitational NFIRS Data Warehouse Training course for 

state program managers was offered in 2019, with much success. For more information on 

NFIRS training courses, visit https://www.usfa.fema.gov/data/nfirs/support/training.html.

In addition to the NFIRS training courses, USFA also offers the “Analytical Tools for 

Decision-Making” (R0387) course. This on-site course enables the student to leverage 

technology to support community risk reduction as well as fire and EMS emergency 

preparedness planning. A substantial portion of the course involves geospatial 

technologies and their applications.

Periodically, the USFA issues NFIRSGrams, which are short bulletins that provide coding 

help to fire department personnel who use the NFIRS. NFIRSGrams address frequently 

asked questions (FAQ) and common mistakes made when completing incident forms. 

Examples include “Computer-Assisted/Aided Dispatch (CAD) systems and autopopulated 

fields,” “Determining property use at the incident location,” “Data quality,” “Calculating fire 

loss,” “Documenting confined structure fires,” and “The difference between reported fire 

incident data and estimated fire incident data.” In addition to NFIRSGrams, the “NFIRS 5.0 

Coding Questions Manual” includes common NFIRS coding inquiries and instructions on 

how to code NFIRS 5.0 incident reports in a question-and-answer format. NFIRSGrams 

and the “NFIRS 5.0 Coding Questions Manual” are available at https://www.usfa.fema.gov/

data/nfirs/support/training.html.
74 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

The USFA also offers on-site technical support to the NFIRS state program managers. The 

purpose of the support is to help address problems states have in the management of the 

NFIRS and in their support to their fire departments.

Furthermore, the USFA’s NFIRS Support Center offers a consolidated national help desk 

to provide technical support to users, fire departments, tribal nations fire departments 

and NFIRS state program managers regarding all aspects of the NFIRS. Support Center 

staff may be reached by email at FEMA-NFIRSHELP@fema.dhs.gov or by calling toll free 

at 888-382-3827. Questions about or requests for NFIRS technical assistance can also be 

submitted online at https://apps.usfa.fema.gov/contact/ntsc/.

Uses of the National Fire Incident Reporting System

NFIRS data are used extensively at all levels of government for major fire protection 

decisions. At the local level, incident and casualty information is used for setting priorities 

and targeting resources. The data collected is particularly useful for designing fire 

prevention programs, educational programs and EMS-related activities specifically suited 

to the real emergency problems that local communities face.

At the state level, the NFIRS is used in many capacities. One valuable contribution is that 

some state legislatures use this data to justify budgets and to pass important bills on 

fire-related issues, such as sprinklers, fireworks and arson. Many federal agencies, in 

addition to the USFA, make use of NFIRS data. The NFIRS data are used, for example, by 

the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) to identify problem products and to 

monitor corrective actions. The Department of Transportation uses NFIRS data to identify 

fire problems in automobiles, which has resulted in mandated recalls. The Department of 

Housing and Urban Development uses NFIRS data to evaluate the safety of manufactured 

housing (mobile homes). The USFA uses the data to design prevention programs, to 

prioritize firefighter safety initiatives, to assist in the development of training courses at 

the National Fire Academy, and to serve a host of other purposes.

In addition to government agencies, the NFIRS data are also used for research and 

prevention programs by a variety of other entities, including nonprofit fire-related 

organizations, colleges and universities, courts and law firms, and the media. For example, 

since October 2014, the American Red Cross (ARC) has been linking NFIRS residential 

fire data to information gathered from their disaster response teams to identify 

neighborhoods that have a high fire risk, and then installing smoke alarms in homes within 

these communities as part of the nationwide Home Fire Campaign. By September 2019, 

the ARC and its partners have saved over 600 lives and installed nearly 1.9 million smoke 

alarms as part of this campaign to reduce the number of home fire deaths and injuries.48

Thousands of fire departments, scores of states and hundreds of industries have used the 

data. The potential for even greater use remains. The USFA report, “Uses of NFIRS: The 

Many Uses of the National Fire Incident Reporting System,” further describes the uses of 

the data and is available online at https://usfa.kohalibrary.com/app/work/159371.

48The American Red Cross Home Fire Campaign is available at: https://www.redcross.org/get-help/how-toprepare-for-emergencies/types-of-emergencies/fire/prevent-home-fire.html, accessed September 9, 2019.
Data Sources and Methodology 75

U.S. fire departments

The number of fire departments in each state (Table 6) was provided by each state’s 

NFIRS program manager. The USFA also maintains a database of fire departments. The 

USFA established the National Fire Department Census and its subsequent database in 

the fall of 2001 when the USFA launched a nationwide campaign for voluntary registration 

of fire departments.

From 2001 to 2016, the number of registered fire departments grew from about 16,000 to 

over 27,000. Because the census was cumulative over time, it did not reflect a typical census 

in the way that the data were collected.49 As a result, in the fall of 2016, the USFA renamed 

the census to the National Fire Department Registry. As of January 2019, there were 27,224 

registered fire departments, about 91% of the estimated number of U.S. fire departments.50

The NFPA estimated that there were 29,819 fire departments in the U.S. in 2017.

The database provides a current directory of registered fire departments and includes 

basic information, such as addresses, department types, website addresses (if applicable), 

number of fire department personnel and number of stations. Population-protected and 

area-protected data are also collected. However, in previous analyses of the populationprotected field, it was determined that the registered fire departments reported protecting 

a population two times that of the U.S. population estimated by the U.S. Census Bureau. 

Similar results were seen for the area protected. The National Fire Department Registry 

also collects information on specialized services that is released only in summary format. 

The database is intended for use by the fire protection and prevention communities, allied 

professions, the general public, and the USFA. The USFA uses the database to conduct 

special studies, guide program decision-making, and improve direct communication with 

individual fire departments. For more information about the National Fire Department 

Registry, or to download the list of registered fire departments, visit https://apps.usfa.

fema.gov/registry/.

Methodology

An attempt has been made to keep the data presentation and analysis as straightforward 

as possible. It is also the desire of the USFA to make the data analyses widely accessible 

to many different users, so it avoids unnecessarily complex methodology. The term “fire 

casualties” refers to deaths and injuries; the term “fire losses” collectively includes fire 

casualties and dollar loss.

Analytic issues and considerations

There are several long-standing issues regarding how to analyze NFIRS data when they 

are neither as complete nor as accurate as desired. The sections that follow discuss how 

the analyses address these and other issues.

Moreover, the USFA developed the “National Fire Incident Reporting System Version 5.0 

Fire Data Analysis Guidelines and Issues” document to address some of these issues and 

49A census is an official count or a complete enumeration of a population. 50USFA. (2019). National fire department registry summary. Retrieved from https://www.usfa.fema.gov/

downloads/pdf/registry_summary_2019.pdf.
76 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

discuss analytic considerations and methods of analyzing NFIRS fire incident data.51 Topics 

include the NFIRS 5.0 data structure, general quality assurance issues, and definitions and 

parameters of common fire analyses (e.g., residential building fires or casualties), including 

the methodology for determining structure fire causes. The methods, techniques and 

considerations discussed are those used by USFA analysts, and they do not necessarily 

reflect methods, techniques and considerations used by fire data analysts from other 

agencies and organizations. NFIRS data partners may (and do) employ their own methods 

for analyzing the data and may make differing assumptions when encountering data issues.

Representativeness of the sample

The percentage of fire departments participating in the NFIRS varies from state to state, 

with some states not participating at all in some years. To the best that the USFA can 

determine, the distribution of participants is reasonably representative of the entire 

nation, even though the sample is not random. The dataset is so large — on average about 

68% of all fires — and reasonably distributed geographically and by size of community 

that it is used as input to developing national estimates.

In a joint study effort, the USFA and the NFPA examined the biases in NFIRS participation, 

specifically whether the fire experience of NFIRS-reporting departments differed 

systematically from the fire experience of other nonreporting departments within the 

same population. Results based on data from 1997 and 2002 indicated that there were 

differences in total fire loss estimates derived from the NFIRS reporting departments 

and non-NFIRS reporting departments; however, the degree of difference was not great 

enough to merit adjusting current scaling methodologies. Thus, the USFA and fire data 

analysts from other organizations continue to use the long-standing methodology of 

scaling NFIRS estimates with NFPA total fire estimates.

In the fall of 2008, as required by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB), the 

USFA undertook a study of the NFIRS dataset to examine the potential bias in the NFIRS 

due to fire department non-response. As a result, the USFA completed an analysis to 

identify fire departments that do not participate in the NFIRS, characteristics of these 

departments, and whether their non-response impacted the representativeness of the 

NFIRS. Undertaken on a regional and county basis, the analysis provided insight into what, 

if any, adjustments could be made to minimize the impact of possible reporting bias on 

the fire loss estimates. States of particular concern for nonreporting were located in the 

Northeastern and Western regions of the country, where the average rates of reporting 

were approximately 72% for each of these regions. By contrast, the Midwestern region 

had an estimated 87% reporting rate.

In 2011, the USFA also completed a second NFIRS representativeness study as required 

by the OMB. For this study, the USFA compared the NFIRS database to NFPA proprietary 

data to determine the percentage of departments responding to the NFPA survey that 

also reported fires to the NFIRS. It was determined that 87% of the 2009 NFPA survey 

respondents also reported fire incidents to the NFIRS from 2007 to 2009. In 2009 alone, 

more than 18,000 additional departments (i.e., in addition to those responding to the NFPA 

survey) reported fires to the NFIRS.

51The “National Fire Incident Reporting System Version 5.0 Fire Data Analysis Guidelines and Issues,” July 2011, 

is available at https://www.usfa.fema.gov/downloads/pdf/nfirs/nfirs_data_analysis_guidelines_issues.pdf.
Data Sources and Methodology 77

It is important to note that the USFA, along with other federal agencies, does not use 

NFIRS data to derive state-level fire estimates. The NFIRS data are used to show the fire 

problem at the national level. Because the findings in the USFA’s NFIRS representativeness 

studies show high reporting rates, fire departments across the country appear to be 

well-represented in the NFIRS.

Moreover, most of the NFIRS data exhibit stability from one year to the next, without 

radical changes. Results based on the full dataset are generally similar to those based on 

part of the data, another indication of data reliability. Although improvements could be 

made — the individual incident reports could and should be filled out more completely 

and more accurately than they are today (as can be said about most real-world data 

collections as large as the NFIRS), and all participating departments should have the same 

reporting requirements — the overall portrayal is a reasonably accurate description of 

the fire situation in the U.S.

National estimates

National estimates are estimates of the number of fire losses (i.e., fires, deaths, injuries 

and dollar loss) associated with a subset of the fire data.52 High-level summarized national 

estimates of the numbers for fires, deaths, injuries and dollar loss are based on the 

NFPA’s annual Survey of Fire Departments for U.S. Fire Experience.53 With the exception 

of the NFPA estimates for total fires, structure fires (i.e., residential and nonresidential), 

vehicle, outside and other fires, all other estimates are scaled-up national estimates or 

percentages, not just the raw totals from the NFIRS. Because the NFIRS 5.0 data are not 

based on a statistically selected sample and do not represent a “complete” census of 

fire incidents, the raw counts of NFIRS data must be scaled up to national estimates.54

These estimates are based on a method of apportioning the NFPA estimates for total 

fires, structure fires, vehicle, outside and other fires.55 Generally speaking, the national 

estimates are derived by computing a percentage of fires, deaths, injuries or dollar loss 

in a particular NFIRS category and multiplying it by the corresponding total estimate from 

the NFPA annual survey.56 For example, the national estimate for the number of injuries 

by age group used in the calculation for the fire injury rate per million population was 

computed by taking the percentage of NFIRS fire injuries (with known age) and multiplying 

it by the estimated total number of fire injuries from the NFPA survey. This methodology 

is the accepted practice of national fire data analysts.

Ideally, one would like to have all of the data come from one consistent data source. 

Because the “residential population protected” is not reported to the NFIRS by many 

fire departments, and the reliability of that data element is suspect in many other cases, 

especially where a county or other jurisdiction is served by several fire departments that 

52An estimate is an approximation of a count or total. 53For information on the NFPA’s survey methodology, please see the NFPA’s report on fire loss in the U.S.: 

http://www.nfpa.org/news-and-research/fire-statistics-and-reports/fire-statistics/fires-in-the-us/overall-fireproblem/fire-loss-in-the-united-states. 54For an explanation of the difference between raw fire incident data and estimated fire incident data, see the 

USFA NFIRSGram “The Difference Between Reported Fire Incident Data and Estimated Fire Incident Data,” 

https://www.usfa.fema.gov/data/nfirs/support/nfirsgrams/nfirsgram_reported_versus_estimates.html. 55National estimates are based on “The National Estimates Approach to U.S. Fire Statistics” by Hall and Harwood: 

https://www.nfpa.org/-/media/Files/News-and-Research/Fire-statistics-and-reports/NFPA-estimates-andmethodology/NationalEstimatesApproach.pdf.

56The NFPA summary estimates are used for the overall U.S. fire losses; for fire losses from structure, vehicle, 

outside and other fires; and as the basis for the USFA’s estimates of residential and nonresidential building 

fires. The alternative approach for these summary numbers is to use the relative percentage of fires (or other 

loss measures) from the NFIRS and scale up (multiply by) to the NFPA estimate of total fires.
78 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

each report their population protected independently, this data element was not used. 

Instead, extrapolations of the NFIRS sample to national estimates were made using the 

NFPA survey for the gross totals of fires, deaths, injuries and dollar loss.

One problem with this approach is that the proportions of fires and fire losses differ 

between the large NFIRS sample and the NFPA survey sample. Nonetheless, to be 

consistent with approaches being used by other fire data analysts, the NFPA estimates 

of fires, deaths, injuries and dollar loss are used as a starting point. The details of the 

fire problem below this level are based on proportions from the NFIRS. Because the 

proportions of fires and fire losses differ between the NFIRS and the NFPA estimates, 

from time to time, this approach leads to minor inconsistencies. These inconsistencies 

will remain until all estimates can be derived from NFIRS data alone.

Future national estimates methodology

As a result of the differences between the NFIRS and the NFPA data, the USFA has 

performed extensive work to develop a new method for calculating national estimates 

relying entirely upon the NFIRS and other publicly available data, such as population 

and socio-economic data from the U.S. Census Bureau’s American Community Survey. 

Imputation (i.e., data substitution) methods were used to adjust for missing or unreported 

data. Various approaches were considered, most notably population scaling and 

multivariate regression methods.

The findings of this study were published in June 2018 on the USFA website as an 

academically peer-reviewed white paper (https://www.usfa.fema.gov/downloads/pdf/

statistics/national_fire_estimation_using_nfirs_data.pdf). Further research on the new 

methodology is currently underway.

Data quality

Data quality is an area of great importance. The following three criteria are used in 

monitoring data in the NFIRS during the year: the data are complete, the data are accurate, 

and the data are current. These criteria are monitored by creating reports from the 

database that show the number of reporting fire departments, the number of incidents 

by state, the number of invalid incidents, and the number of unreleased incidents. The 

USFA provides the reports to the state NFIRS program managers and works with them 

to resolve any data issues. Technical assistance (e.g., telephone support or site visits) is 

provided to states to help address any data quality and data reporting needs.

Audits of the data are performed during the year to identify any inconsistencies. The 

audits focus on three criteria: gaps in reporting, critical errors in the data, and outliers 

in the data. In particular, the USFA works closely with states to monitor the quality of 

data coming from third-party vendor software. Each state is responsible to enforce that 

the NFIRS third-party software sold by vendors in their state is compliant with NFIRS 

standards. The USFA assists states in monitoring vendor data quality issues or contacts 

vendors directly to discuss an issue at a state’s request. Other data quality issues are 

questionable, high dollar-loss incidents and questionable, high numbers of fire deaths. 

Quarterly, USFA staff queries the database for questionable values (i.e., outliers) and 

verifies the values with state- and local-level NFIRS program managers. The data quality 

steps are important to ensure that the data meet the USFA’s three criteria before the data 

are released in the NFIRS PDR format.
Data Sources and Methodology 79

The USFA published the report “Review and Assessment of Data Quality in the National 

Fire Incident Reporting System” (May 2017). This document covered a review of the 

system, the many robust data quality checks and mechanisms which are an integral part 

of the NFIRS, and an assessment of the data quality both at the state level and at the data 

element level. The data element assessment focused on the most common data elements 

used in NFIRS data analyses. The three most recent years of NFIRS data available at the 

time of the report’s development (2009 to 2011) were reviewed. Additionally, a section 

drawn from published NFPA documents covering the NFPA survey methodology was 

also included. The “Review and Assessment of Data Quality in the National Fire Incident 

Reporting System” document is available at https://www.usfa.fema.gov/downloads/pdf/

publications/nfirs_data_quality_report.pdf.

Unknown entries, incomplete loss reporting, and unreported fires are also important 

considerations when assessing NFIRS data quality. These topics are discussed in more 

detail in the sections that follow.

Unknown entries

Unknown entries are of the highest concern for data quality. On a fraction of the incident 

reports or casualty reports sent to the NFIRS, the desired information for many data 

items either is not reported or is reported as “unknown.” The total number of blank or 

unknown entries is often larger than some of the important subcategories. For example, 

48% of fatal fires in residential buildings reported from 2015 to 2017 did not have sufficient 

data recorded in the NFIRS to determine fire cause. The lack of data, especially for these 

residential fatal fires, masks the true picture of the fire problem. 

Many prevention and public education programs use NFIRS data to target at-risk groups 

or to address critical problems. Fire officials use the data in decision-making that 

affects the allocation of firefighting resources, and consumer groups and litigators use 

the data to assess product fire incidence. When the numbers of unknown entries are 

large, the credibility of the data suffers. In some cases, even after the best attempts 

by fire investigators, the information is truly unknown. In other cases, the information 

reported as unknown in the initial NFIRS report is not updated after the fire investigation 

is completed. Fire departments need to be more aware of the effect of incomplete data 

reporting, and they need to update the initial NFIRS report if additional information is 

available after the investigation. Through various USFA and NFDC training initiatives and 

efforts by various fire organizations, fire departments are encouraged to reduce the 

number of unknown entries by fully documenting the fire incident.

In making national estimates, the unknowns should not be ignored. The approach taken 

by the USFA in presenting the data is to provide not only the “raw” percentages of each 

category but also the “adjusted” percentages computed using only those incidents for 

which data were provided. This calculation, in effect, distributes the fires for which the 

data are unknown in the same proportion as the fires for which the data are known, which 

may or may not be approximately right. Both the reported data and the adjusted data (if 

unknowns are present) are plotted on bar charts.

To illustrate, using the cause of residential building fires, cooking was determined as the 

fire cause for 42.1% of reported residential building fires from 2015 to 2017; another 17.4% 

of reported fires had unknown causes. Thus, the percent of fires that had their cause 

reported was 100 minus 17.4, which equals 82.6%. With the unknown causes apportioned 

like the known causes, the adjusted percent of cooking fires in residential buildings can 

then be computed as 42.1 divided by 82.6, which equals 51.0%.
80 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Incomplete loss reporting

Although it is troublesome that insufficient data for the various NFIRS data elements 

can mask the true picture of the fire problem and impact the credibility of the data, the 

apparent nonreporting of injuries and property loss associated with many fire incidents 

is equally challenging. For example, there are many reported fires where the flame 

spread indicates damage, but property loss is not reported. It is notoriously difficult to 

estimate dollar loss, but an approximation is more useful than leaving the data element 

blank. Analysts need to be aware that this apparent lack of property-loss data affects the 

understanding of those fires that cause substantial loss.

Unreported fires

The NFIRS only includes fires to which the fire service responded. In some states, fires 

attended by state fire agencies (such as forestry) are included; in other states, they are not.

Nonreporting to the National Fire Incident Reporting System

The NFIRS includes fires from all states, but does not include incidents from all fire 

departments within participating states. The percentage of fire departments reporting 

varies greatly from state to state. However, if the fires from the reporting departments are 

reasonably representative, this omission does not cause a problem in making useful national 

estimates for any but the smallest subcategories of data and some geographic analyses.

Some fire departments submit information on most, but not all, of their fires. Sometimes 

the confusion is systematic, such as when no-loss cooking fires or chimney fires are 

not reported. Sometimes it is inadvertent, such as when incident reports are lost or 

accidentally not submitted. The information that is received is assumed to be the total 

for the department and is extrapolated as such.

Nonreporting to the fire service

A very large number of fires are not reported to the fire service at all. Most are believed to 

be small fires in the home or industry that go out by themselves or are extinguished by the 

occupant. Special surveys of homes and businesses are needed to estimate the unreported 

fires. No attempt is made here to estimate them. Studies undertaken in the mid-1970s, 

mid-1980s and again in the mid-2000s on unreported residential fires indicated that a 

substantial number of fires are not reported to local fire departments. The 2004 to 2005 

CPSC study on unreported residential fires noted that of the estimated number of fires 

in residences, only 3% were reported to fire departments and 97% were not.57 Although 

the vast majority of fire incidents are unreported because they are small, confined and 

immediately extinguished, they are still fires. Even the largest fire starts small. Hence, all 

fires, regardless of size, merit prevention attention and analytic investigation.

Structures versus buildings

NFIRS 5.0 allows for the differentiation between buildings and nonbuildings. In the NFIRS, 

a structure is a built object that can include platforms, tents, connective structures (e.g., 

bridges, fences, telephone poles) and other various structures in addition to buildings. 

From 2008 to 2017, analyses of NFIRS structure fires show that, in general, the majority 

(95%) of structure fires occurred in buildings.

57Greene, M. A., & Andres C. (2009). 2004-2005 national sample survey of unreported residential fires. U.S. 

Consumer Product Safety Commission.
Data Sources and Methodology 81

Structure fires are defined by the NFIRS incident type — Incident Type 110 series (structure 

fires) and Incident Type 120 series (fires in mobile property used as a fixed structure).58

These incident types are:

ĵ 111 Building fire.

ĵ 112 Fires in structure other than in a building.59

ĵ 113 Cooking fire, confined to container.

ĵ 114 Chimney or flue fire, confined to chimney or flue.

ĵ 115 Incinerator overload or malfunction, fire confined.

ĵ 116 Fuel burner/boiler malfunction, fire confined.

ĵ 117 Commercial compactor fire, confined to rubbish.

ĵ 118 Trash or rubbish fire, contained.

ĵ 120 Fire in mobile property used as a fixed structure, other.

ĵ 121 Fire in mobile home used as fixed residence.

ĵ 122 Fire in motor home, camper, recreational vehicle.

ĵ 123 Fire in portable building, fixed location.

As building fires are a subset of structure fires, they are defined as structure fires where 

the structure type is an enclosed building, or a fixed portable or mobile structure. By 

definition, this excludes nonbuilding structures. Previous USFA analyses demonstrated that 

confined structure fire incidents with full incident reporting primarily occurred in buildings. 

To accommodate the confined fire incident types with abbreviated incident reporting, the 

incident is also assumed to be a building if the structure type is not specified. In terms of 

the NFIRS data, building fires are therefore defined using the following criteria:

ĵ NFIRS Version 5.0 data.

ĵ Aid Types:

Ý 1 Mutual aid received.

Ý 2 Automatic aid received.

Ý 5 Other aid given.

Note: Mutual aid given and automatic aid given (Aid Types 3 and 4) were excluded to 

avoid counting a single incident more than once.

ĵ Incident Types 111 to 123 (excluding Incident Type 112):

Ý 111 Building fire.

Ý 113 Cooking fire, confined to container.

Ý 114 Chimney or flue fire, confined to chimney or flue.

Ý 115 Incinerator overload or malfunction, fire confined.

Ý 116 Fuel burner/boiler malfunction, fire confined.

Ý 117 Commercial compactor fire, confined to rubbish.

Ý 118 Trash or rubbish fire, contained.

Ý 120 Fire in mobile property used as a fixed structure, other.

Ý 121 Fire in mobile home used as fixed residence.

Ý 122 Fire in motor home, camper, recreational vehicle.

Ý 123 Fire in portable building, fixed location.

Notes: 1. Incident Types 113 to 118 do not specify if the structure is a building.

2. Incident Type 112 was included in data analyses prior to 2008, as previous 

analyses showed that Incident Types 111 and 112 were used interchangeably. 

As of 2008, Incident Type 112 was excluded.

58Note that Incident Type 110 is not included. Incident Type 110 is a conversion code for NFIRS 4.1. Incident 

Type 110 is not a valid code for data collected in NFIRS 5.0. Incidents in the NFIRS 5.0 database with Incident 

Type 110 are incidents collected under the NFIRS 4.1 system that are converted to NFIRS 5.0 compatible data.

59Preliminary findings noted that the fires coded as Incident Type 112 appear to be in buildings. A more detailed 

look at these incident types is required to determine whether they were coded correctly.
82 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

ĵ Structure Type:

Ý For Incident Types 113 to 118:

f 1—Enclosed building, or

f 2—Fixed portable or mobile structure, or

f Structure Type not specified (null entry).

Ý For Incident Types 111 and 120 to 123:

f 1—Enclosed building, or

f 2—Fixed portable or mobile structure.

The distinction between buildings and nonbuildings is particularly important when 

determining the effectiveness of engineered fire safety features, such as smoke alarms 

and residential sprinklers. These important components of early fire detection and 

automatic suppression apply to buildings and not necessarily to other types of structures. 

To facilitate analysis of these components and to acknowledge that prevention efforts 

are generally focused on buildings, the USFA separates the subset of buildings from the 

rest of the structures. For these reasons, the USFA focuses on producing building fire and 

loss estimates.

The USFA’s “Fire Estimate Summary” series, as well as 2003 to 2017 national estimates of 

residential and nonresidential building fires and losses, are published at https://www.usfa.

fema.gov/data/statistics/order_download_data.html. Information regarding the USFA’s 

methodology for computing national estimates of residential and nonresidential building 

fires and losses is published in the USFA’s “National Estimates Methodology for Building 

Fires and Losses” (August 2012) available at https://www.usfa.fema.gov/downloads/pdf/

statistics/national_estimate_methodology.pdf.

Computing trends

One FAQ is how much a particular aspect of the fire problem has changed over time. The 

usual response is in terms of a percent change from one year to another. In dealing with 

real-world data that fluctuates from year to year, a percent change from one specific year 

to another can be misleading. This is especially true when the beginning and ending data 

points are extremes, either high or low. For example, Table 8 shows that the percent 

change from 4,200 fire injuries in multifamily residential buildings in 2008 to 3,800 fire 

injuries in 2017 would be a substantial decrease of 9.5%; however, if 2009 is chosen as 

the beginning data point (4,050 fire injuries), this change would show a 6.2% decrease. As 

trends in the U.S. fire problem are of interest, the USFA presents the computed best-fit 

linear trend line (which smoothes fluctuations in the year-to-year data) and presents the 

change over time based on this trend line. In this example, the overall 10-year trend is a 

decrease in injuries of 12.7%. Trends that incorporate the NFIRS data from both Version 

4.1 and Version 5.0 may have subtle changes as a result of the Version 5.0 system design 

and not a true trend change.
Data Sources and Methodology 83

Table 8. Comparison of percent change indicators

Year

Multifamily 

residential 

building 

fire injuries

Best-fit 

linear trend

Change 

between 2008 

and 2017

Change 

between 2009 

and 2017

2008 4,200 4,335 4,200

2009 4,050 4,274 4,050

2010 4,250 4,213

2011 4,450 4,152

2012 4,325 4,091

2013 3,975 4,029

2014 4,100 3,968

2015 3,825 3,907

2016 3,625 3,846

2017 3,800 3,785 3,800 3,800

Percent change -12.7 -9.5 -6.2

Source: USFA national estimates of multifamily residential building fire injuries.

Rounding

Percentages on each chart are rounded to one decimal point. Textual discussions cite 

these percentages as whole numbers. Thus, 13.4% is rounded to 13%, and 13.5% is 

rounded to 14%. National estimates are rounded as follows: Fires are rounded to the 

nearest 100 fires, deaths to the nearest five deaths, injuries to the nearest 25 injuries, and 

loss to the nearest million dollars.

Comparing statistics

Differences between the current NFIRS and older versions have, or may have, an effect 

on the analyses of fire topics. These differences, the result of both coding changes and 

data element design changes, required revisions to long-standing groupings and analyses. 

The revisions have caused some challenges when comparing current data to past data.

Data collection and reporting in NFIRS 5.0

The following are among the areas that are unique to NFIRS 5.0: abbreviated or 

streamlined reporting for qualified incidents, the collection of smoke alarm and automatic 

extinguishing system data (formerly called sprinklers), the differentiation between 

buildings and structures, and the cause methodology.60 These areas have resulted in 

changes in overall trends, some subtle and some substantial.

60The NFIRS 5.0 documentation at https://www.usfa.fema.gov/data/nfirs/support/documentation.html provides 

detailed information.
84 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Confined fires

“Confined fires” are fires contained to certain types of equipment or objects within a 

structure. In the NFIRS, a confined structure fire is defined by Incident Type Codes 113 to 

118.61 Confined structure fires are typically small fire incidents that are limited in extent 

to specific types of equipment or objects staying within pots, fireplaces or certain other 

noncombustible containers. Confined structure fires rarely result in serious injury or large 

content loss and are expected to have no significant accompanying property loss due to 

flame damage.62

The NFIRS allows abbreviated reporting for confined structure fires. For these incident 

types, the Basic Module is required to be completed. NFIRS users may also optionally 

complete the Fire Module and the Structure Fire Module for confined fires, although it is 

not required. If any civilian or firefighter injuries occurred as a result of the confined fire, 

the Civilian Fire Casualty Module and/or the Fire Service Casualty Module are required to 

be completed for each injury reported on the Basic Module.

The limited reporting of confined, low-loss structure fires allows the fire service to capture 

incidents that either may have gone unreported prior to the introduction of NFIRS 5.0 or 

were reported, but as a nonfire incident, as little to no loss was involved.63 Data from this 

reporting option for structure fires was investigated in a 2006 USFA report, “Confined 

Structure Fires.” The addition of these fires results in increased proportions of cooking and 

heating fires in analyses of structure fire cause. In other analyses, the inclusion of confined 

fires may result in larger percentages of unknown values, as detailed reporting of fire 

specifics is not required. In many of the USFA’s analyses, the confined fires are analyzed 

separately from the nonconfined fires to account for the fact that detailed reporting is 

not required for the confined fires. In 2017, confined structure fires accounted for 19% of 

all reported fires and 49% of all reported structure fires. Of the confined structure fires, 

78% were no- or low-loss cooking fires (68%) and heating fires (10%).

Structure fire cause methodology

Since the introduction of NFIRS 5.0, the implementation of the cause hierarchy has 

resulted in a steady increase in the percentages of unknown fire causes. This increase may 

be due, in part, to the fact that the original cause hierarchy (described in “Fire in the United 

States 1995-2004,” 14th edition) does not apply as well to NFIRS 5.0. Causal information 

collected as part of NFIRS 5.0 was not incorporated in the old hierarchy. As a result, many 

incidents were assigned to the unknown cause category. As the hierarchy was originally 

designed for structures, incidents that did not fit well into the structure cause categories 

were also assigned to the unknown category.

61The confined structure fire incident type code descriptions are as follows: 113-Cooking fire, confined to 

container; 114-Chimney or flue fire, confined to chimney or flue; 115-Incinerator overload or malfunction, 

fire confined; 116-Fuel burner/boiler malfunction, fire confined; 117-Commercial compactor fire, confined to 

rubbish; and 118-Trash or rubbish fire, contained.

62Content loss includes losses to the contents of a structure due to damage by fire, smoke, water and overhaul. 

Property loss includes losses to the structure itself or to the property itself. For confined fires, the expectation 

is that the fire did not spread beyond the container (or rubbish for Incident Type code 118), and therefore, there 

was no property damage (damage to the structure itself) from the flames. However, there could be property 

damage as a result of smoke, water and overhaul.

63Some states routinely reported such nonloss fires as smoke scares. The result, from a reporting viewpoint, 

is that the incident is reported but not coded as a fire incident.
Data Sources and Methodology 85

Structure fires

To capture the wealth of data available in NFIRS 5.0, the USFA developed a modified 

version of the previous cause hierarchy for structure fires as shown in Table 9. The 

revised schema provides three levels of cause descriptions: a set of more detailed causes 

(priority cause description), a set of midlevel causes (cause description), and a set of highlevel causes (general cause description). The priority cause description and the cause 

description existed previously as part of the original cause hierarchy but have been 

expanded to capture the 5.0 data.

Table 9. Three-level structure fire cause hierarchy

Priority cause description 

(in hierarchical order) Cause description General cause description

Exposure Exposure Exposure

Intentional Intentional Firesetting

Cause under investigation Cause under investigation Unknown

Children playing Playing with heat source Firesetting Other playing

Natural Natural Natural

Fireworks

Other heat

Explosives Flame, heat

Smoking Smoking

Heating Heating

Cooking Cooking Equipment

Air conditioning Appliances

Electrical distribution Electrical malfunction Electrical

Appliances Appliances

Special equipment Equipment Other equipment Processing equipment

Torches Open flame Flame, heat

Service equipment

Other equipment Equipment Vehicle, engine

Unclassified fuel-powered 

equipment

Unclassified equipment 

with other or unknown fuel 

source

Unknown Unknown

Unclassified electrical 

malfunction Electrical malfunction Electrical
86 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Table 9. Three-level structure fire cause hierarchy — continued

Priority cause description 

(in hierarchical order) Cause description General cause description

Matches, candles Open flame

Flame, heat

Open fire

Other open flame, spark Other heat

Friction, hot material

Ember, rekindle Open flame

Other hot object Other heat

Natural condition, other Natural Natural

Heat source or product 

misuse

Other unintentional, 

careless Unknown

Equipment operation 

deficiency Equipment misoperation, 

failure Equipment Equipment failure, 

malfunction

Trash, rubbish Unknown

Unknown

Other unintentional Other unintentional, 

careless

Exposure (fire spread, 

other) Exposure Exposure

Unknown Unknown Unknown

Source: USFA.

Note: Fires are assigned to a cause category in the hierarchical order shown. For example, if the fire is judged to be 

intentionally set and a match was used to ignite it, it is classified as intentional and not open flame because intentional 

is higher on the list.

The causes of fires are often a complex chain of events. To make it easier to grasp the “big 

picture,” the 16 midlevel categories of fire causes, such as heating, cooking, and playing 

with heat source, are used by the USFA. The alternative is to present scores of detailed 

cause categories or scenarios, each of which would have a relatively small percentage 

of fires. For example, heating includes subcategories such as misuse of portable space 

heaters, wood stove chimney fires, and fires involving gas central heating systems. 

Experience has shown that the larger categories are useful for an initial presentation of 

the fire problem. A more detailed analysis can follow.

Fires are assigned to one of the 16 midlevel cause groupings using a hierarchy of 

definitions, as shown in Table 10.64 A fire is included in the highest category into which it 

fits on the list. If it does not fit the top category, then the second one is considered, and if 

not that one, the third, and so on. (See the note section in Table 9 for an example.)

64The structure fire cause hierarchy and definitions can be found in the document “National Fire Incident 

Reporting System Version 5.0 Fire Data Analysis Guidelines and Issues,” July 2011, available at https://www.

usfa.fema.gov/downloads/pdf/nfirs/nfirs_data_analysis_guidelines_issues.pdf. The hierarchy involves a large 

number of subcategories that are later grouped into the 16 midlevel cause categories, then the seven highlevel cause groupings.
Data Sources and Methodology 87

Vehicle, outside and other fires

While these cause categories have usefulness for the other property types — vehicle, 

outside and other fires — there are limitations. For these property types, the causes of 

fires are based on the distributions of the NFIRS cause of ignition data element. This data 

element captures a very broad sense of the cause of the fire.

Deaths, injuries and dollar loss

In previous analyses, the cause sections have included the distributions of deaths, injuries 

and dollar loss by fire cause. In principle, it is the cause of the fire that results in deaths, 

injuries and dollar loss that should be analyzed — not numbers of deaths and injuries 

associated with fire causes. Therefore, analyses of fire cause address fires that result in 

deaths (fatal fires), fires that result in injuries, and fires that result in dollar loss.

Other considerations

An additional problem to keep in mind, when considering the rank order of causes, is 

that sufficient data to categorize the causes was not reported to the NFIRS for all fatal 

fires in the database. The rank order of causes might be different than shown here if the 

cause profile for the fires where causes were not reported to the NFIRS was substantially 

different from the profile for the fires where causes were reported. However, there is 

no information available to indicate that there is a major difference between the known 

causes and the unknown causes, so the USFA’s best present estimate of fire causes is 

based on the distribution of the fires with known causes.

Table 10. Midlevel cause groupings

Cause category Definition

Exposure Caused by heat spreading from another hostile fire.

Intentional65 Cause of ignition is intentional, or fire is deliberately set.

Cause under 

investigation

Cause is under investigation, and a valid NFIRS Arson 

Module is present. (This category was formerly called 

“Investigation with Arson Module.”)

Playing with heat source Includes all fires caused by individuals playing with any 

materials contained in the categories below, as well as fires 

where the factors contributing to ignition include playing 

with heat source. Children playing with fire is included in 

this category.

Natural Caused by the sun’s heat, spontaneous ignition, chemicals, 

lightning, static discharge, high winds, storms, high water 

including floods, earthquakes, volcanic action, and animals.

Other heat Includes fireworks, explosives, flame/torch used for 

lighting, heat or spark from friction, molten material, hot 

material, heat from hot or smoldering objects.

65Fires caused by intentional actions include, but are not limited to, fires that are deemed to be arson. Intentional 

fires are those fires that are deliberately set, and they include fires that result from the deliberate misuse of a heat 

source and fires of an incendiary nature (arson) that require fire service intervention. For information and statistics 

on arson fires only, refer to the Uniform Crime Reporting Program arson statistics from the U.S. Department of 

Justice, FBI, Criminal Justice Information Services Division, https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/ucr.
88 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Table 10. Midlevel cause groupings — continued

Cause category Definition

Smoking Cigarettes, cigars, pipes, and heat from undetermined 

smoking materials.

Heating Includes confined chimney or flue fire, fire confined to 

fuel burner/boiler malfunction, central heating, fixed and 

portable local heating units, fireplaces and chimneys, 

furnaces, boilers, water heaters as source of heat.

Cooking Includes confined cooking fires, stoves, ovens, fixed and 

portable warming units, deep fat fryers, open grills as 

source of heat.

Appliances Includes televisions, radios, video equipment, phonographs, 

dryers, washing machines, dishwashers, garbage disposals, 

vacuum cleaners, hand tools, electric blankets, irons, hair 

dryers, electric razors, can openers, dehumidifiers, heat 

pumps, water cooling devices, air conditioners, freezers and 

refrigeration equipment as source of heat.

Electrical malfunction Includes electrical distribution, wiring, transformers, meter 

boxes, power switching gear, outlets, cords, plugs, surge 

protectors, electric fences, lighting fixtures, electrical arcing 

as source of heat.

Other equipment Includes special equipment (radar, X-ray, computer, 

telephone, transmitters, vending machine, office machine, 

pumps, printing press, gardening tools, agricultural 

equipment), processing equipment (furnace, kiln, other 

industrial machines), service, maintenance equipment 

(incinerator, elevator), separate motor or generator, vehicle 

in a structure, unspecified equipment.

Open flame, spark 

(heat from)

Includes torches, candles, matches, lighters, open 

fire, ember, ash, rekindled fire, backfire from internal 

combustion engine as source of heat.

Other unintentional, 

careless

Includes misuse of material or product, abandoned or 

discarded materials or products, heat source too close 

to combustibles, other unintentional (mechanical failure/ 

malfunction, backfire).

Equipment 

misoperation, failure

Includes equipment operation deficiency, equipment 

malfunction.

Unknown Cause of fire undetermined or not reported.

Source: USFA.

NFIRS fire causal data can be analyzed in many ways, such as by the heat source, equipment 

involved in ignition, factors contributing to ignition, or many other groupings. The hierarchy 

of causes has proven to be useful in understanding the fire problem and targeting 

prevention, but other approaches are useful too. Because the NFIRS database stores records 

fire-by-fire, and not just in summary statistics, a wide variety of analyses is possible.
Data Sources and Methodology 89

The cause categories displayed in the graphs of the USFA’s NFIRS data-related reports 

are listed in the same order to make comparisons easier from one to another. The y-scale 

varies from figure to figure, depending on the largest percentage that is shown; the y-scale 

on a figure with multiple charts, however, is always the same.

Differences between the National Fire Incident Reporting System data and 

the National Fire Protection Association survey data

As there are differences between any two analysts using NFIRS data because of the 

many assumptions and decisions about how to analyze incomplete and imperfect data, 

there can be inconsistencies between different data sources. In particular, there are 

discrepancies between the NFIRS data and the NFPA annual survey data. In general, NFIRS 

deaths and injuries per 1,000 fires are lower than those of the NFPA. In addition, NFIRS 

dollar loss per fire was higher than that of the NFPA except for 2008 to 2011.

From 2013 to 2017, the NFIRS collected fire incident data from an average of 20,850 fire 

departments each year.66 The NFPA annual survey of fire departments67 collects data from 

nearly 3,000 fire departments. The NFIRS is not a statistically selected sample; however, 

it is a very large set of fire incidents estimated to be, on average, two-thirds of reported 

fires. The NFPA survey is based on a statistical sample. These two datasets often yield 

dramatically different fire rates. The NFPA survey collects tallied totals, whereas the NFIRS 

collects individual incident reports. It is not surprising, therefore, that there are differences 

between the NFPA annual survey results and the NFIRS results. In the years examined 

(2008 to 2017), the common thread was the increase in the ratios of reported NFIRS data 

to the NFPA estimates for fires, deaths, injuries and dollar loss. In general, the deaths 

reported to the NFIRS represented a smaller fraction of the NFPA national estimate of 

deaths than the NFIRS number of fires represented of the NFPA estimate of fires; the same 

was true for NFIRS reported injuries. Estimates of dollar loss are notoriously inexact; it is 

not surprising that the NFIRS dollar loss changed from year to year with respect to NFPA 

totals (Figure 31).

66This count excludes fire departments that reported mutual-aid incidents only.

67“Fire Loss in the United States,” NFPA Journal, generally the September/October issue each year.
90 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Figure 31. Ratio of raw National Fire Incident Reporting System data to National 

Fire Protection Association national estimates Ratio

Fires Deaths

Injuries Dollar loss

0.0000

0.1000

0.2000

0.3000

0.4000

0.5000

0.6000

0.7000

0.8000

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Fires Deaths Injuries Dollar loss

2008 0.64 0.59 0.57 0.62

2009 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.57

2010 0.73 0.63 0.59 0.62

2011 0.71 0.67 0.60 0.70

2012 0.65 0.65 0.56 0.65

2013 0.67 0.57 0.56 0.70

2014 0.68 0.61 0.58 0.75

2015 0.66 0.62 0.58 0.72

2016 0.69 0.65 0.59 0.70

2017 0.69 0.61 0.58 0.75

Sources: NFIRS and NFPA.

Note: The 2008 dollar loss excludes the one-time large loss of an estimated $1.4 billion associated with the 2008 California 

wildfires. These losses do not have associated property uses. The 2010 dollar loss excludes the Fourmile Canyon Fire 

in Colorado with an estimated property loss of $217 million. The 2012 dollar loss excludes the Waldo Canyon Fire in 

Colorado with an estimated property loss of $453.7 million, the High Park Fire also in Colorado with an estimated 

property loss of $113.7 million, and the $400 million property damage to the USS Miami (submarine). The 2013 dollar 

loss excludes the Black Forest Fire in Colorado with an estimated property loss of $420.5 million. The 2015 dollar 

loss excludes the 2015 California wildfires with an estimated property loss of $1.95 billion (this figure includes total 

property loss for the Valley and Butte Wildfires). The 2016 dollar loss excludes the 2016 Gatlinburg, Tennessee, 

wildfires with an estimated property loss of $911 million. The 2017 dollar loss excludes the 2017 Northern California 

wildfire with an estimated property loss of $10 billion.

Looking at the problem from a different perspective, Figure 32 shows the number of 

deaths per 1,000 fires, injuries per 1,000 fires, and dollar loss per fire from the NFIRS and 

the NFPA from 2008 to 2017. In general, deaths and injuries per 1,000 fires were lower 

for the NFIRS than for the NFPA. The NFIRS dollar loss per fire was higher than that of the 

NFPA except for 2008 to 2011.
Data Sources and Methodology 91

Between 2008 and 2017, the NFIRS had, on average, a difference of 9% fewer fire deaths 

per 1,000 fires than the NFPA survey data. Annually, the NFIRS percent differences of fire 

deaths per 1,000 fires ranged from 0.6% more to 15% less than that of the NFPA. In 2017, 

the NFIRS showed 12% fewer fire deaths per 1,000 fires than the NFPA.

Injuries per 1,000 fires revealed a greater disparity between the two datasets. On average, 

between 2008 and 2017, the NFIRS had a difference of 15% fewer fire injuries per 1,000 

fires than the NFPA survey.

On average, over the 10-year period, the NFIRS dollar loss per fire was 0.5% lower than 

that of the NFPA survey, yet for 2012 to 2017, the NFIRS dollar loss per fire was higher 

than that of the NFPA.68 In 2008 and 2011, NFIRS dollar loss was only 3% and 2% lower, 

respectively, than the dollar loss estimates from the NFPA survey, but a much greater 

disparity was revealed in 2009 (15% lower), 2010 (15% lower), 2014 (9% higher), 2015 (9% 

higher), and 2017 (9% higher). For each of the years 2012, 2013 and 2016, 1%, 5% and 2%, 

respectively, more dollar loss was reported to the NFIRS per fire than was reflected by 

the NFPA survey estimates.

Figure 32. National Fire Incident Reporting System data versus National Fire 

Protection Association survey: losses per fire

1.6

1.8

2.0

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.8

NFIRS

NFPA

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Deaths (per 1,000 fires) Deaths (per 1,000 fires)

Year NFIRS NFPA

2008 2.13 2.29

2009 2.04 2.23

2010 2.02 2.34

2011 2.04 2.16

2012 2.09 2.08

2013 2.21 2.61

2014 2.25 2.52

2015 2.29 2.44

2016 2.38 2.53

2017 2.27 2.58

68The greater NFIRS dollar loss per fire may be, in part, due to the result of an NFIRS edit that was implemented 

in January 2012 that generates the following warning message: “Estimated dollar losses are required for all 

fires. If there was no loss or no pre-incident value, check or mark the appropriate ‘None’ boxes. If loss cannot be 

estimated, do not enter a loss value and no further action is required.” NFIRS Version 5.0 Design Documentation 

(January 2012), https://www.usfa.fema.gov/downloads/pdf/nfirs/NFIRS_Spec_2012.pdf, Relational Edit #184. 
92 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

Figure 32. National Fire Incident Reporting System data versus National Fire 

Protection Association survey: losses per fire — continued

Injuries (per 1,000 fires)

9.0

9.4

9.8

10.2

10.6

11.0

11.4

11.8

12.2

12.6

13.0

13.4

NFIRS

NFPA

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Injuries (per 1,000 fires)

Year NFIRS NFPA

2008 10.30 11.51

2009 10.65 12.64

2010 10.61 13.31

2011 10.59 12.59

2012 10.47 12.00

2013 10.64 12.84

2014 10.34 12.15

2015 10.25 11.67

2016 9.28 10.92

2017 9.30 11.12

Dollar loss (per fire) adjusted to 2017 dollars

$7,000

$7,500

$8,000

$8,500

$9,000

$9,500

$10,000

$10,500

$11,000

$11,500

$12,000

$12,500

$13,000

$13,500

NFIRS

NFPA

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Dollar loss (per fire)*

Year NFIRS NFPA

2008 10,673 11,042

2009 9,038 10,617

2010 8,151 9,604

2011 8,984 9,144

2012 8,980 8,898

2013 9,871 9,423

2014 10,126 9,257

2015 10,313 9,491

2016 9,836 9,657

2017 10,781 9,852

Sources: NFIRS, NFPA and CPI.

Notes: The 2008 dollar loss excludes the one-time large loss of an estimated $1.4 billion associated with the 2008 California 

wildfires. These losses do not have associated property uses. The 2010 dollar loss excludes the Fourmile Canyon Fire 

in Colorado with an estimated property loss of $217 million. The 2012 dollar loss excludes the Waldo Canyon Fire in 

Colorado with an estimated property loss of $453.7 million, the High Park Fire also in Colorado with an estimated 

property loss of $113.7 million, and the $400 million property damage to the USS Miami (submarine). The 2013 

dollar loss excludes the Black Forest Fire in Colorado with an estimated property loss of $420.5 million. The 2015 

dollar loss excludes the 2015 California wildfires with an estimated property loss of $1.95 billion (this figure includes 

total property loss for the Valley and Butte wildfires). The 2016 dollar loss excludes the 2016 Gatlinburg, Tennessee, 

wildfires with an estimated property loss of $911 million. The 2017 dollar loss excludes the 2017 Northern California 

wildfire with an estimated property loss of $10 billion.

*

Adjusted to 2017 dollars.
Data Sources and Methodology 93

Other minor differences appear when reviewing losses by general property type as shown 

in Figure 33. Specifically, the distributions of fires across property types between the 

NFIRS and the NFPA were quite similar, which is reassuring. Over the 10-year period, the 

proportions of structure fires (both residential and nonresidential) were slightly higher 

in the NFIRS reported data, while the proportion of vehicle fires represented by the NFPA 

estimate was higher than what was reported to the NFIRS. Regardless of the specifics, the 

distributions were reasonably comparable.

Figure 33. Comparison of National Fire Incident Reporting System data with 

National Fire Protection Association estimates by general property type (10-year 

average, 2008-2017)

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0

NFPA

NFIRS

Outside 

and other

Vehicle

Nonresidential

Residential 29.6

28.6

8.2

7.9

14.1

15.5

48.1

48.1

Percent

Fires

0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0

NFPA

NFIRS

Outside

 and other

Vehicle

Nonresidential

Residential

75.7

83.7

3.7

2.9

16.1

11.1

4.4

2.3

Percent

Deaths

0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0

NFPA

NFIRS

Outside

and other

Vehicle

Nonresidential

Residential 77.7

77.9

7.4

9.0

6.6

8.4

8.3

4.7

Percent

Injuries

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0

NFPA

NFIRS Outside

and other

Vehicle

Nonresidential

Residential

53.7

54.7

27.0

21.4

11.8

11.7

7.5

12.1

Percent

Dollar loss (adjusted to 2017 dollars)

Sources: NFIRS and NFPA.

The deaths and dollar losses that resulted from these fires were consistently more heavily 

represented in residential structures in the NFPA estimates. For the other major property 

categories, the NFPA percentages of losses were less than those resulting from the NFIRS 

data except for nonresidential structure fire injuries, vehicle fire injuries, and outside and 

other fire dollar loss.
94 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

One of the more important consequences of these distributions is in the creation of 

estimates of the various parts of the U.S. fire problem. For example, it is noted that the 

2017 NFPA residential structure fire estimates reflect 80% of all fire deaths (2,710 of 3,400) 

and 74% of all fire injuries (10,910 of 14,670). If the 2017 NFIRS percentages for residential 

structure fire deaths (77.57%) and injuries (76.09%) were applied to the overall 2017 NFPA 

estimates of fire deaths and injuries, the estimates would yield nearly 2,635 deaths and 

11,150 injuries resulting from residential structure fires.69 The scaled up NFIRS estimate 

of residential structure fire deaths is 3% lower than the NFPA estimate of residential 

structure fire deaths, whereas the scaled up estimate of residential structure fire injuries 

is 2% higher than the NFPA estimate of residential structure fire injuries.

The reasons for these differences in distributions between the NFPA and the NFIRS are 

not known. It may be that some departments reporting summary data to the NFPA 

inadvertently undercount their casualties and losses when reporting on the NFPA survey 

forms. Another possibility is that there are data entry errors in the NFIRS, with larger 

numbers of deaths and dollar loss per incident record being entered into the database 

despite edit checks at state and federal levels. (It appears that at least some of the dollar 

loss difference is due to this.)

A third possibility for the differences is that, with the abbreviated reporting of small, lowor no-loss confined fires in the NFIRS, the NFPA sample of these fires is not adequately 

represented. It is known that, prior to abbreviated NFIRS reporting, some departments 

did not fill out NFIRS forms for minor fires, such as food on stoves or chimney fires. It 

is not clear whether these fires are included in the department’s report to the NFPA, 

particularly if the department does not also report to the NFIRS. It may be that confined 

fires are underreported to the NFPA. Also unknown is the actual extent of this problem.

A fourth possibility is that some jurisdictions use the NFIRS as a tracking system for 

fire casualty information without providing the related incident data or vice versa. This 

situation does indeed occur from time to time in the NFIRS. Again, it is unclear how these 

incidents and their corresponding losses are reported to the NFPA.

Lastly, it could be that techniques used to generate the NFPA estimates unintentionally 

favor residential buildings, or that the NFIRS may result in fewer residential losses because 

it is a voluntary system and not based on a statistical sample.

Resolving the differences between the two major sources of fire statistics in the U.S. is 

important to prevent confusion among users of the data.

The analyses contained in this report reflect the current methodologies used by the USFA. 

The USFA is committed to providing the best and most current information on the U.S. fire 

problem and continually examines its data and methodology to fulfill this goal. Because 

of this commitment, data collection strategies and methodological changes are possible 

and do occur. As a result, analyses and estimates of the fire problem may change slightly 

over time. Previous analyses and estimates on specific issues (or similar issues) may have 

used different methodologies or data definitions and may not be directly comparable to 

the current ones.

Provide feedback on this report.

69Estimates of fire deaths are rounded to the nearest five; estimates of fire injuries are rounded to the nearest 25.
Appendix A — Acronyms 95

Appendix A — Acronyms

AFG Assistance to Firefighters Grant

ARC American Red Cross

CPI Consumer Price Index

CPSC Consumer Product Safety Commission

DEBI Data Entry Browser Interface

DET Data Entry Tool

DHS Department of Homeland Security

DOD Department of Defense

DW Data Warehouse

EMS emergency medical services

FAQ frequently asked questions

FDID fire department identification

FY fiscal year

ICD International Classification of Disease

NCHS National Center for Health Statistics

NFDC National Fire Data Center

NFIRS National Fire Incident Reporting System

NFIRS: PM “National Fire Incident Reporting System: Program Management”

NFPA National Fire Protection Association

NOFO Notice of Funding Opportunity

NWS National Weather Service

OMB Office of Management and Budget

PDR public data release

USFA U.S. Fire Administration
96 Fire in the United States 2008-2017
Appendix B — Fire in the United States Editions 97

Appendix B — Fire in the United States 

Editions

Previous editions of this report include:

ĵ First edition, published in 1978, included 1975 and 1976 fire data.

ĵ Second edition, published in 1982, included 1977 and 1978 fire data.

ĵ Third through fifth editions produced as working papers, but not published.

ĵ Sixth edition, published in 1987, included 1983 fire data.

ĵ Seventh edition, published in 1990, included 1983 to 1987 fire data.

ĵ Eighth edition, published in 1993, included 1983 to 1990 fire data.

ĵ Ninth edition, published in 1997, included 1985 to 1994 fire data, and it focused on the 

residential/nonresidential fire problem, as well as firefighter casualties.

ĵ Tenth edition, published in 1998, included 1986 to 1995 fire data, and it provided a 

state-by-state profile of fires and an examination of firefighter casualties.

ĵ Eleventh edition, published in 1999, included 1987 to 1996 fire data, and it focused on 

the residential/nonresidential fire problem, as well as firefighter casualties.

ĵ Twelfth edition, published in 2001, included 1989 to 1998 fire data and was the last 

edition to use the NFIRS 4.1 data system. It included analyses of all of the previous 

topics under one cover: residential and nonresidential fire problems, state-by-state 

profiles, and firefighter casualties.

ĵ Thirteenth edition, published in 2004, included 1992 to 2001 fire data and was the first 

edition to include the new NFIRS 5.0 data in the analyses. It included the residential 

and nonresidential fire problem, as well as firefighter casualties.

ĵ Fourteenth edition, published in 2007, included 1995 to 2004 fire data, with a primary 

focus on 2004. For the first time, only native NFIRS 5.0 data were used for NFIRS-based 

analyses. It addressed the overall national fire problem and provided detailed analyses 

of the residential and nonresidential fire problem. Firefighter casualties and other 

subsets of the national fire problem were not included.

ĵ Fifteenth edition, published in 2009, covered the five-year period of 2003 to 2007, 

with a primary focus on 2007. As in the 14th edition, only native NFIRS 5.0 data were 

used for NFIRS-based analyses.70 This report addressed only the overall national fire 

problem. Detailed analyses of the residential and nonresidential fire problem, firefighter 

casualties, and other subsets of the national fire problem were addressed as separate, 

stand-alone publications.

70 Previous editions of “Fire in the United States” presented 10-year trends. As many of the trends are based on 

national estimates that use the proportion of native NFIRS 5.0 data to allocate estimated fires and fire losses, 

trends in this edition are limited to 2003 and the years after when the proportion of native NFIRS 5.0 data 

exceeded 80% of the submitted data.
98 Fire in the United States 2008-2017

ĵ Sixteenth edition, published in 2013, was entirely web-based and covered the five-year 

period of 2007 to 2011, with a primary focus on 2011. The document was renamed 

“Data Sources and Methodology Documentation,” with all of the data presented in 

an Excel file.

ĵ Seventeenth edition, published in 2016, covered the 10-year period of 2004 to 2013, 

with a primary focus on 2013. This report addressed the overall national fire problem 

and was published as a PDF document.

ĵ Eighteenth edition, published in January 2017, covered the 10-year period of 2005 to 

2014, with a primary focus on 2014. This report addressed the overall national fire 

problem and was published as a PDF document.

ĵ Nineteenth edition, published in December 2017, covered the 10-year period of 2006 

to 2015, with a primary focus on 2015. This report addressed the overall national fire 

problem and was published as a PDF document.

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November 2019