A Journalist’s Guide to the 

Federal Courts

ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICE OF THE UNITED STATES COURTS
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A

Journalist’s Guide

to the 

Federal Courts

Administrative Office of the United States Courts

Thurgood Marshall Federal Judiciary Building

Washington D.C. 20544

www.uscourts.gov
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A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts i

Introduction 1

Federal Court: Media Basics 2

Media Access in Brief 2

Recording and Broadcasting 4

Electronic Devices 5

Courthouse Contacts 6

Judges 6

Clerk of Court’s Office 7

Lawyers 7

Jurors 8

Other District Court Personnel 9

Accessing Court Documents 11

Online Access 11

Older Documents 12

User Fees 12

Sealed Documents and Closed Hearings 13

District Courts 15

Reporting on Criminal Cases 15

Investigations and Related Documents 15

Grand Juries and Indictments 16

Felony Preliminary Proceedings 17

Criminal Complaints and Informations 18

Pretrial Motions 19

Guilty Pleas 19

Covering Criminal Trials 20

The Jury 20

Opening Statements 22

Witnesses 22

Exhibits, Transcripts, and Courtroom Audio 22

Motion to Acquit 24

Closing Arguments 24

Jury Instructions, Deliberations, and the Verdict 25

Contents
ii

Post-Verdict Interviews 26

Non-Capital Sentencing 26

Death Penalty Sentencing 27

Covering Civil Cases 27

Filing the Complaint 28

The Plaintiff’s Claim 28

The Defendant’s Answer 29

Pretrial Proceedings 30

Ending a Case Without a Trial 31

Summary Judgment 31

Settlements 31

Civil Trials 31

Appellate Courts and Cases 33

Appellate Court Sources and Resources 34

The Appeals Process 35

Appeals Raising Constitutional Issues 36

Death Penalty Appeals 36

Three-Judge Panels 36

Bankruptcy Courts and Cases 38

Accessing Bankruptcy Records 38

Bankruptcy Process 39

Bankruptcy Appeals 40

Judges and Judicial Administration 41

Federal Judges 41

Federal Court Organization 43

Judicial Administration 44

Circuit Judicial Councils 44

Chief Judges 45

Judicial Disciplinary Process 45

Other Judiciary Entities 47

Criminal Justice Act Defense System (Court-Appointed Counsel) 47

Who Provides Court-Appointed Counsel 48

How CJA Cases Are Funded 48

The CJA and Death Penalty Cases 49

Probation and Pretrial Services Officers 50

Central Violations Bureau 52

Helpful Online Resources 53
Introduction 1

Federal judges and the journalists 

who cover them share an important 

goal: They want the public to 

receive accurate and understandable 

information about the federal courts 

and their work.

The media perform an important 

and constitutionally protected role by 

informing and educating the public. 

The media also serve a time-honored 

role as the public’s watchdog over 

government institutions, including the 

courts. Likewise, courts uphold many 

of the legal protections that enable 

journalists to perform their jobs. A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts is intended 

to assist reporters who cover appellate, district, and bankruptcy courts – the cases, 

the people, and the process. It also offers basic information for journalists writing 

about the federal court system as a whole. The guide does not discuss the Supreme 

Court of the United States. Go to the Supreme Court website (https://www.

supremecourt.gov/) for helpful resources.

The Guide is intended to help working reporters perform their professional duties; 

it is not a comprehensive overview of the federal courts. The U.S. Courts website 

offers additional online resources about the federal Judiciary (http://www.uscourts.

gov/about-federal-courts). 

The Guide does not constitute a statement of Judicial Conference policy and is 

not binding on any federal court or its judges or employees. Individual courts have 

varied approaches to media relations. Journalists should familiarize themselves with 

the customs, practices, and rules of the courts they cover.

In addition to this Guide, you may consult www.uscourts.gov and the Office of 

Public Affairs at the Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts, (202) 502-2600. 

Search for specific court location and website information using the Court Locator 

(http://www.uscourts.gov/court-locator). 

Introduction
2 Federal Court: Media Basics

Federal courts are public institutions, and with rare exceptions, members of the 

media and public can enter any courthouse and courtroom. However, whether you’re 

reporting about a high-profile case or the federal courthouse is part of your beat, the 

Judiciary has distinct differences from the other branches of the federal government, 

which often affect a reporter’s experience. Here are some notable differences:

• Legal terms. Reporters don’t need a law degree to cover the federal courts, 

but it is essential to understand and be able to translate legal jargon and 

procedures for readers or viewers. When in doubt, check the Glossary of 

Legal Terms (http://www.uscourts.gov/glossary). 

• Each court is unique. While some rules and statutes govern all federal courts, 

circuits and districts have substantial autonomy to determine local rules and 

practices. Understanding the rules will inform your coverage and ease your 

newsgathering.

• Impartiality. Federal judges adhere to strict ethics guidelines and recuse 

themselves from cases that constitute a conflict of interest or in which their 

impartiality might reasonably be questioned. Cases are assigned to judges 

randomly in appellate, district, and bankruptcy courts to ensure fairness and 

integrity. 

• Official proceedings, not interviews. In keeping with ethics rules, federal 

judges do not grant interviews about active cases. Judges “speak” through 

comments made in open court or through written decisions. Reporters must 

rely on the official case proceedings as their primary information source. 

MEDIA ACCESS IN BRIEF

Journalists have the same access to courthouses and court records as other members 

of the public. This access is governed by a mix of federal laws, federal judicial policy, 

and circuit or district courts’ local rules and practices.

Court documents. Most documents are filed electronically in appellate, district, and 

bankruptcy courts, and are available through the Public Access to Court Electronic 

Records service, better known as PACER (www.pacer.gov). PACER documents 

also can be read at no cost from a public terminal in the clerks’ offices. A list of 

Federal Court: 

Media Basics
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 3

documents not available to the public can be found at Accessing 

Court Documents on page 11. 

Interviews. Judges, court staff, and jurors may not discuss active cases. 

The clerk’s office usually is a court’s designated point of contact with 

the media.

Courthouse security. Members of the public must pass through a 

metal detector and agree to any additional requested screening by 

court security officers to enter a federal courthouse. Some courts 

permit expedited entry of reporters with recognized credentials. The 

clerk of court can tell you if this is available. 

Courtroom access. Most court proceedings are open to the public on 

a first come, first served basis. When in doubt, consult with the clerk’s 

office before a trial or hearing to learn whether there are special media 

arrangements, such as reserved courtroom seating or a separate media 

room.

Closed sessions. Certain proceedings are always closed to the public 

and media. By rule, only a witness, attorneys for the government, 

and a court reporter may be present when a grand jury sits, and jury 

deliberations and attorney-client meetings also occur in private. 

These rules are designed to protect the integrity of the process and 

preserve the right to a fair and impartial trial. Proceedings that deal 

with classified information, trade secrets, and ongoing investigations 

often are closed. Judges also may meet privately with the attorneys in 

chambers. 

Most pretrial hearings are open to the public, but either party may 

file motions asking the judge to close certain proceedings. Media 

organizations may choose to file an opposing motion when this occurs.

Off limit areas. Journalists should not cross from the public gallery 

into the well of the courtroom, which is generally marked by a 

short rail, without permission from the judge or a court employee. 

Throughout the courthouse, journalists should obey posted restrictions 

and instructions from court security officers. Failure to obey 

courthouse rules may result in sanctions.

Journalists 

should not 

cross from the 

public gallery 

into the well of 

the courtroom, 

which is 

generally 

marked by 

a short rail, 

without 

permission 

from the judge 

or a court 

employee. 
4 Federal Court: Media Basics

RECORDING AND BROADCASTING

The use of cameras in federal courtrooms is governed by the Judicial Conference of 

the United States and Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure. Find the full history 

of Judiciary policy on cameras at http://www.uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/

cameras-courts.

In specific instances, such as investitures, naturalizations, or other ceremonial 

proceedings, a judge may permit the public and media to take photographs and 

conduct video and audio recording inside a courthouse. And by local rule, the Second 

and Ninth Circuit Courts of Appeals will consider media requests to record or 

broadcast an appellate proceeding. Guidelines are available at the Second (http://

www.ca2.uscourts.gov/media_information.html) and Ninth Circuit (https://www.

ca9.uscourts.gov/news_media/) websites.

Outside these limited exceptions, the media may not photograph, videotape, or 

record live federal court proceedings.

Courts of appeals may provide audio or video recordings of appellate hearings, and 

rules are available on each circuit’s website. The Ninth Circuit website provides live, 

streaming video of oral arguments.

In addition, three district courts in the Ninth Circuit – the District Court for the 

Northern District of California, the District Court of Guam, and the District Court 

for the Western District of Washington – provide court-recorded video of some civil 

trials. These videos, authorized by Judicial Conference policy, can be seen at Cameras 

in Courts (http://www.uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/cameras-courts). 
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 5

Some district and bankruptcy court proceedings use audio recording 

instead of a court reporter, and those recordings are available to the 

public for a fee (See Exhibits, Transcripts, and Courtroom Audio 

on page 22). A judge also may permit courtroom video and audio 

recording for security purposes, and for other purposes of judicial 

administration, but these recordings are not available to the public. 

It is important to note that the prohibition on recording includes 

the use of cell phones and other personal electronic devices, even 

in courthouses where the public is permitted to carry such devices. 

Journalists must not record or photograph trial-related activity, either 

in the courtroom or in areas where closed-circuit audio or video is 

available. Violation of this rule can result in significant court sanctions. 

Under local rules, courts may specify areas away from the courtroom 

where cameras can be used for interviews and TV reports. These areas 

usually are outside the courthouse, on or just outside federal court 

property.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES

Circuits and districts set local rules on whether the public and media 

may bring portable electronic communication devices (such as cell 

phones, laptops, and tablets) into their courthouses, and where and 

whether such devices may be used. For guidance on personal electronic 

devices, consult the local court’s rules or administrative/standing 

orders on its website, or contact the clerk’s office.

Even if a court generally permits electronic devices, individual judges 

still may prohibit them inside courtrooms. Judges also may limit the 

applications that may be used on such devices. For example, even if 

devices are permitted by court rules, a judge may prohibit live blogging 

or use of social media applications inside the courtroom.

Even in courts 

that permit cell 

phones and 

other electronic 

devices, trialrelated activity 

may not be 

recorded.
6 Courthouse Contacts

Only a few federal courts have public information officers (PIOs) who interact with 

the news media on a daily basis. Absent a PIO, media interested in district court 

cases should contact the clerk of court or division manager (or district executive in 

those courts that have such a position). These employees either can help directly or 

can refer reporters to the court’s designated media contact. 

While these court employees will assist media regarding access and process, they are 

not a substitute for covering a hearing. Ethical restrictions and the sheer quantity of 

cases prevent court staff from giving reporters substantive updates about courtroom 

proceedings.

In cases before a court of appeals, media should start with the circuit executive or 

clerk of court. Bankruptcy case inquiries should be directed to the bankruptcy court 

clerk.

In many instances, answers to reporter questions can be found on court websites, 

through electronic case files in PACER, or at www.uscourts.gov.

JUDGES 

Journalists are likely to encounter four categories of federal judges. District court 

judges, who oversee most federal trials, and court of appeals judges, who hear 

appellate cases in panels, are appointed for life under Article III of the Constitution. 

They often are referred to as “Article III judges.” Magistrate judges handle many 

district court pretrial proceedings, while bankruptcy judges exclusively handle 

bankruptcy cases. Magistrate and bankruptcy judges have fixed terms but may be 

reappointed. See Judges and Judicial Administration on page 41. 

Under the Code of Conduct for United States Judges (http://www.uscourts.gov/

judges-judgeships/code-conduct-united-states-judges), all judges must “avoid public 

comment on the merits of pending or impending actions” in cases before them or 

on appeal. Don’t call judges, or their judicial assistants and law clerks, with questions 

about a case. 

Many judges participate in bar association programs and other public events, and 

you may introduce yourself in such settings. Some judges also will talk informally to 

Courthouse

Contacts
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 7

journalists about non-case-related matters. If you are new to covering 

a federal court, it is appropriate to call a judge’s chambers and ask 

whether you can drop by to introduce yourself. Profiles of newly 

appointed judges, new chief judges, and stories about courthouse 

projects and innovations are not uncommon. Judges may talk with 

reporters for these types of stories, but they are not obligated to do 

so. Some federal judges also may discuss procedural aspects of a case, 

while others decline to be interviewed by journalists on virtually any 

topic. Biographical information on many judges can be found on a 

court’s website. Brief biographies of every Article III judge can be 

found at https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges.

To learn more about federal judges, see Judges and Judicial 

Administration on page 41.

CLERK OF COURT’S OFFICE

The clerk of court’s office (or “clerk’s office”) performs a wide range 

of administrative duties, including management of the flow of cases. 

As the court’s official custodian of the record, the clerk can assist 

members of the public and media accessing court records. The clerk 

also is responsible for providing courtroom deputy clerks, who support 

judges in the courtroom. 

The clerk of court, or his or her staff, is an excellent source for routine 

procedural information, but not for questions of substance or law. 

Clerks also do not interpret documents or courtroom proceedings.

LAWYERS

For questions of legal substance, start with the lawyers in the case. 

The media are free to request interviews with prosecutors and 

defense lawyers, during or after a trial. However, the attorneys have 

no obligation to speak with the media, and in fact may decline to do 

so because of ethical or strategic considerations. The same is true of 

plaintiff ’s and defense counsel in a civil case. 

If the attorneys trying the case decline to talk with you, you may call 

lawyers who have handled similar cases, or professors at a local law 

school.

Federal prosecutors. A U.S. attorney’s office (http://www.usdoj.gov/

usao/offices/index.html), which is the local prosecutor’s office for the 

For questions 

of legal 

substance, 

start with the 

lawyers in the 

case. If they 

won’t talk, call 

lawyers who 

have handled 

similar cases, 

or professors 

at a local law 

school.
8 Courthouse Contacts

U.S. Department of Justice, tries major criminal cases in district court. 

This function is part of the executive branch, not the judicial branch. 

The U.S. attorney, who runs the office, is nominated by the President 

and confirmed by the U.S. Senate for a four-year term. 

Assistant U.S. attorneys ordinarily serve as the government’s lawyers 

in criminal and civil cases. In criminal cases, they often are joined 

at the courtroom’s counsel table by the lead law enforcement agent 

who investigated the case. Assistant U.S. attorneys sometimes are 

assisted by counsel from other federal agencies if the case involves an 

investigation begun by those agencies. 

Defense counsel. The right to counsel for criminal defendants is 

guaranteed by the Sixth Amendment of the Constitution. When a 

criminal defendant cannot afford a lawyer, the court will appoint either 

a federal public defender, who is a full-time government lawyer, or a 

Criminal Justice Act (CJA) panel attorney. Panel attorneys are private 

lawyers who receive an hourly fee from funds Congress provides the 

Judiciary for this purpose. About 90 percent of defendants in federal 

court are represented by court-appointed lawyers. Learn more about 

the federal defender and CJA system at http://www.uscourts.gov/

services-forms/defender-services.

The defense almost always sits at the table farthest from the jury box. 

Unless they choose to represent themselves, criminal defendants who 

can afford it are represented by private counsel. 

Attorneys in civil cases. There is no constitutional right to counsel in 

civil cases. In most civil cases that do not involve a government entity, 

the parties will engage private counsel, although a litigant may be 

self-represented. Some clerks will, at the direction of the court, assist a 

litigant in securing counsel who might take a case pro bono (without 

charging a fee). 

JURORS

U.S. citizens 18 years or older may qualify to serve on a federal court 

jury. Judges and attorneys use a process called voir dire to select the 

jurors who will participate in a case. Typically, 12 jurors are selected 

for criminal cases and six to eight jurors for civil cases. Jury selection is 

generally open to media.

In criminal 

cases, the 

defense almost 

always sits 

at the table 

farthest from 

the jury box.
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 9

During the selection process and trial, jurors usually are identified by 

number and not name. Jurors are strictly prohibited from discussing 

cases that are in progress, and you should not contact them, their 

families, or their close friends. You also should not speak about 

an active case if you know you are in a juror’s presence. Improper 

interaction with a juror can result in his or her dismissal from a panel. 

It also can lead to a mistrial, and a judge may choose to impose court 

sanctions against the responsible journalist. 

Unless otherwise ordered by the court, once a trial concludes, you 

are permitted to speak with jurors, should they choose to do so. The 

release of juror names is governed by each court’s jury plan, which is 

available either on the court’s website or upon written request. Further, 

by law, a court’s chief judge may seal jurors’ identities even after a case 

concludes.

In high-profile cases, judges may have court security personnel escort 

jurors out of the courthouse to protect them from media attention. 

You may request, through your contact person in the clerk’s office, that 

the judge ask jurors who are willing to speak to the media to meet at 

a specified location inside or outside the courthouse after the trial has 

concluded. That gives journalists the access they want, while providing 

a controlled environment in which the jurors may feel comfortable. 

However, jurors have no obligation to speak with the media.

OTHER DISTRICT COURT PERSONNEL

Numerous other personnel are present in courtroom proceedings, 

although they do not have an official role in answering media 

questions.

Courtroom deputy clerks generally sit in front of the judge’s bench or 

to the side. In addition to maintaining case files, the courtroom deputy 

clerk calls cases at the beginning of a hearing, swears in witnesses 

during trials, and receives exhibits introduced into evidence during a 

trial. 

Law clerks work for judges, assisting them with legal research and 

writing. A law clerk performs most of his or her work in the judge’s 

chambers but also may sit near the bench during court proceedings. 

Ethical restrictions prohibit law clerks from disclosing any confidential 

information or commenting on pending actions. It is not unusual for 

judges to prohibit their law clerks from talking with the media.

Ethical 

restrictions 

prohibit law 

clerks from 

disclosing any 

confidential 

information or 

commenting 

on pending 

actions.
10 Courthouse Contacts

Court reporters are responsible for recording transcripts of proceedings. They 

typically do so by using a stenographic machine, or by speaking into an audio 

recording hood, which looks like a mask. They typically are court employees, and are 

paid a salary for recording hearings and trials and providing transcripts to the judge 

and clerk of court. Court reporters sit in front of the judge, facing the attorneys. 

Information on how to obtain transcripts is available in Exhibits, Transcripts, and 

Courtroom Audio on page 22.

In cases that use audio recording instead of court reporters, electronic court recorder 

operators oversee the electronic sound recording equipment and create electronic log 

notes of proceedings.

Court-appointed interpreters, under the Court Interpreters Act, are present 

in criminal and civil cases instituted by the United States for defendants and 

witnesses who speak only or primarily a language other than English. Sign language 

interpreters also are appointed in such cases when hearing-impaired defendants 

or witnesses cannot fully understand proceedings or communicate with counsel or 

the judge. A judge also may appoint a sign language interpreter in proceedings not 

initiated by the federal government. 

Security personnel of two types typically are present in a federal courthouse, 

although neither is employed by the federal Judiciary:

• Deputy U.S. marshals are responsible for the custody and transportation 

of prisoners and the safety of witnesses, jurors, and the judge. Two or more 

deputy marshals are present whenever a detained criminal defendant is 

in the courtroom. The deputies usually wear business attire during court 

proceedings.

• Court security officers are responsible for the public’s safety in the 

courthouse. Also known as CSOs, they staff the metal detectors, and at least 

one CSO generally is present at every civil and bankruptcy hearing. CSOs 

are contract employees and dress in blue blazers and gray pants. 

Deputy marshals and CSOs report to a United States marshal (http://www.

usdoj.gov/marshals), who oversees the security of the district court, as well as that 

district’s Witness Protection Program and the apprehension of federal fugitives. The 

President appoints, and the Senate confirms, a U.S. marshal for each federal court 

district. Marshals report to the U.S. attorney general. 
Accessing Court Documents 11

ONLINE ACCESS

Most documents in federal courts - appellate, district, and 

bankruptcy - are filed electronically, using a system called Case 

Management/Electronic Case Files (http://www.uscourts.gov/

courtrecords/electronic-filing-cmecf) (CM/ECF). The media and 

public may view most filings found in this system via the Public 

Access to Court Electronic Records service, better known as PACER. 

Reporters who cover courts should consider establishing a PACER 

account and becoming familiar with the system. Users can open an 

account and receive technical support at www.pacer.gov. 

Documents not available to the public are discussed in Sealed 

Documents and Closed Hearings on page 13. Even in public 

court documents, however, some information is not available. Federal 

rules require that anyone filing a federal court document must redact 

certain personal information in the interest of privacy, including Social 

Security or taxpayer identification numbers, dates of birth, names of 

minor children, financial account information, and in criminal cases, 

home addresses.

Once case information has been filed or updated in the CM/ECF 

system, that information is immediately available through PACER. 

Some courts provide free automatic case notification through Really 

Simple Syndication (RSS) feeds or through read-only CM/ECF 

access. In courts where RSS is available (https://www.pacer.gov/

psco/cgi-bin/links.pl), PACER users can opt to receive automatic 

notification of case activity, summarized text, and links to the 

document and docket report.

For cases that draw substantial media and public interest, some 

courts have created special sections of their websites, called “Cases 

of Interest” or “Notable Cases,” where docket entries, court orders, 

and sometimes, trial exhibits may be posted. Some courts also use an 

email/text alert service during high-profile cases, to alert reporters to 

major filings and other information. 

Accessing Court 

Documents

The vast 

majority of 

documents in 

federal courts - 

appellate, 

district, and 

bankruptcy - 

are filed 

electronically. 

The media and 

public may 

view most of 

these filings.
12 Accessing Court Documents

OLDER DOCUMENTS

Most documents and docket sheets for cases that opened before 1999 are in 

paper format and therefore may not be available online. Paper files on closed cases 

eventually are transferred to the National Archives and Records Administration 

(NARA), or they are destroyed in accordance with a records retention schedule 

approved by both the Judicial Conference of the United States and NARA.

Any search for older paper documents should begin by contacting the court where 

the case was filed. As a secondary source, such documents may be available from 

NARA. 

USER FEES

User fees are charged to access documents in PACER, and the current fee structure 

is available at Electronic Public Access Fee Schedule (http://www.uscourts.gov/

services-forms/fees/electronic-public-access-fee-schedule). Fees are billed quarterly, 

and all fees are waived if the bill does not exceed a specified limit in a billing quarter. 

Written opinions are published on court websites and are available for free on 

PACER. Many courts also publish free, text-searchable opinions on the Federal 

Digital System, or FDsys (https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/browse/collection.action?colle

ctionCode=USCOURTS), operated by the U.S. Government Publishing Office.
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 13

Electronic records can be viewed in the clerk of court’s office for free, 

as can any paper records that have not been destroyed or transferred to 

the National Archives. But per-page fees are charged for printing or 

copying court documents in the clerk’s office. 

SEALED DOCUMENTS AND CLOSED HEARINGS

Some documents are not ordinarily available to the public. As noted 

in Privacy Policy for Electronic Case Files (http://www.uscourts.

gov/rules-policies/judiciary-policies/privacy-policy-electronic-casefiles), these include unexecuted summonses or warrants; pretrial bail 

and presentence reports; juvenile records; documents containing 

information about jurors; and various filings, such as expenditure 

records, that might reveal the defense strategies of court-appointed 

lawyers. 

In certain circumstances, judges have the authority to seal additional 

documents or to close hearings that ordinarily would be public. 

Reasons can include protecting victims and cooperating informants, 

and avoiding the release of information that might compromise an 

ongoing criminal investigation or a defendant’s due process rights. 

Some examples: 

• Courts sometimes seal documents that contain sensitive 

material, such as classified information affecting national 

security or information involving trade secrets. 

• Criminal case documents and hearing transcripts are 

sometimes sealed to protect cooperating witnesses from 

retaliation.

• The Federal Rules of Civil Procedure provide for protective 

orders during discovery to protect a party or person from 

annoyance, embarrassment, oppression, or undue burden or 

expense.

• Bankruptcy court records are public, but under the Federal 

Rules of Bankruptcy Procedure, the court may withhold 

certain commercial information, any “scandalous or defamatory 

matter,” or information that may create an undue risk of 

identity theft or other injury.

Generally, when a party to a case moves to seal a document or to close 

a hearing, a record of the motion can be found in PACER. As noted 

When a party 

to a case 

moves to seal a 

document or to 

close a hearing, 

a record of the 

motion can 

be found in 

PACER. Media 

organizations 

sometimes 

file motions 

opposing such 

requests. 
14 Accessing Court Documents

in Media Access in Brief on page 2, media organizations sometimes file motions 

opposing such requests. 

Civil litigants may ask judges to issue a protective order forbidding parties from 

disclosing any information or materials gathered during discovery. Deposition 

records often remain in the custody of the lawyers, and the media do not have a 

right of access to discovery materials not filed with the court. 

When a civil case is settled, that fact is usually apparent from the public record. 

However, the terms of settlement and any discovery records may remain 

confidential. 

The Federal Judicial Center provides comprehensive explanations of these issues in 

two downloadable booklets: Sealing Court Records and Proceedings: A Pocket Guide

(https://www.fjc.gov/content/sealing-court-records-and-proceedings-pocketguide-0) and Confidential Discovery: A Pocket Guide on Protective Orders (https://

www.fjc.gov/content/confidential-discovery-pocket-guide-protective-orders-0).
District Courts 15

The United States district courts are the trial courts of the federal 

court system. Within limits set by Congress and the Constitution, 

district courts have jurisdiction to hear nearly all categories of federal 

civil and criminal cases.

The vast majority of all civil and criminal cases are filed in state courts. 

Sometimes a case can be filed under similar statutes in either state or 

federal court.

There are 94 federal judicial districts. All but three of these districts 

have lifetime-appointed Article III judges. Judges serve 10-year terms 

in three territorial districts: the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, and the 

Northern Mariana Islands. 

Find a list of all federal court districts at and their geographical 

boundaries at https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/part-I/

chapter-5.

REPORTING ON CRIMINAL CASES

Criminal cases involve an allegation by the government that an 

individual or entity violated the criminal laws of the United States. 

Read additional information about criminal cases at http://www.

uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/types-cases/criminal-cases. Except 

where noted in Sealed Documents and Closed Hearings on page 

13, and in Older Documents on page 12, criminal case records 

are available in PACER.

Investigations and Related Documents

Although a defendant may be arrested during the commission of a 

crime, most criminal cases that attract media attention begin with a 

federal investigation. Generally, this involves the U.S. attorney’s office 

in coordination with a law enforcement agency, such as the FBI, the 

Drug Enforcement Administration, or the Securities and Exchange 

Commission.

District 

Courts 

There are 94 

federal judicial 

districts. All 

but three of 

these districts 

have lifetimeappointed 

Article III 

judges.
16 District Courts 

Most investigations remain confidential, with prosecutors and 

investigators presenting evidence in closed session to a grand jury. A 

magistrate judge or district judge may authorize search warrants, also 

in closed hearings. Warrant applications remain sealed until after a 

search is conducted - and sometimes until after an arrest is made or an 

investigation is closed.

Courthouse beat reporters may find it useful to review unsealed 

warrants regularly, as the application documents can provide an early 

window into the facts of a criminal investigation. In particular, a 

supporting affidavit - written by the lead law enforcement agent to 

supply the judge with evidence of probable cause - offers a detailed 

account of the allegations. The one-page warrant application includes 

information about the defendant. 

Clerk’s offices maintain search warrant applications in widely varied 

ways. Ask local courthouse staff for the easiest way to review these 

documents routinely. However, some courts do not keep them at all, 

instead returning them to the U.S. attorney’s office.

Grand Juries and Indictments

In most felony cases, prosecutors present evidence to a grand jury. 

Grand juries are composed of 16 to 23 citizens, who hear a wide 

range of criminal cases and decide whether there is evidence to justify 

indictments sought by federal prosecutors. Grand juries are seated for 

up to 18-month terms, but their service can be extended an additional 

six months if needed by an order from a district judge.

Extensive information on grand juries is available in the Handbook 

for Federal Grand Jurors (http://www.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/

grand-handbook.pdf). Grand juries are formally supervised by a 

district judge, often the chief judge, but for all practical purposes, they 

function from day to day under the auspices of the U.S. attorney’s 

office. Only prosecutors present evidence before a grand jury, and 

neither the accused nor his or her lawyer is present when a grand jury 

meets. 

To return an indictment, a minimum of 12 members of a grand jury 

must find probable cause. Grand jurors are prohibited from discussing 

case-related information with the media or others.

Grand jury indictments are returned to the district court – usually to 

a magistrate judge – in a closed court hearing, and often are sealed 

Indictments 

describe 

the crimes 

allegedly 

committed by 

defendants. 

They are a road 

map to what 

the prosecution 

intends to 

prove at trial.
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 17

until after an arrest is made. Indictments list the offenses allegedly 

committed by defendants and describe the facts supporting those 

allegations. An indictment is a road map to what the prosecution 

intends to prove at trial.

Felony Preliminary Proceedings

The defendant’s arrest, when it follows a felony indictment, begins 

a series of three preliminary proceedings in open court. They are the 

initial appearance, the detention hearing, and the arraignment. The 

first two always are before a magistrate judge. 

The initial appearance must take place “without unnecessary delay,” 

under Rule 5 (https://www.law.cornell.edu/rules/frcrmp/rule_5) of 

the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure (http://www.uscourts.gov/

rules-policies/current-rules-practice-procedure), and it typically occurs 

within hours of an arrest. The defendant is advised of the charges, his 

or her rights are explained by the judge, and counsel is appointed if 

the defendant cannot afford a lawyer. 

The prosecutor also is asked whether the government will seek to 

detain a defendant pending trial. If the answer is no, the magistrate 

judge will determine any conditions of release and order the defendant 

freed. If the prosecution seeks to hold the defendant, a detention 

hearing will be scheduled for three days after the initial appearance, in 

accordance with the Bail Reform Act of 1984. 

The detention hearing determines whether the accused must be held 

in jail until trial. Prior to the hearing, a pretrial services officer files a 

report with the judge, based on interviews with the defendant, family 

members, and others who have relevant information.

The report, which recommends whether the defendant should be 

released and under what conditions, is not public, and it is not binding 

on the magistrate judge. But if the judge releases a defendant pending 

trial, the conditions of release are listed in a court order, which is 

public.

During the detention hearing, both sides may present evidence and 

cross-examine the other side’s witnesses. 

Federal law requires that individuals be released on personal 

recognizance or unsecured appearance bond (that is, without putting 

up any money or other asset as security) unless, under the Bail 

Under the Bail 

Reform Act, 

a defendant 

must be 

released 

unless there 

is a serious 

flight risk or 

danger to the 

community.
18 District Courts 

Reform Act, the judge determines “that such release will not reasonably assure the 

appearance of the person as required or will endanger the safety of any other person 

or the community.”

If the judge determines that a person presents a flight risk or a danger to the 

community, the judge still may order release subject to certain restrictions, such as 

requiring a secured bond, forfeiture of passport, electronic monitoring, or home 

confinement. The Bail Reform Act requires that a judge choose “the least restrictive” 

conditions that protect the community and ensure the defendant’s appearance in 

court. 

Under certain circumstances, a judge is to presume that a defendant cannot be 

released safely. These include cases that involve an act of terrorism, federal drug 

offenses carrying a penalty of 10 years or more in prison, possession of a firearm 

during a crime of violence or drug trafficking crime, or certain offenses involving 

minors. The accused may present evidence at the detention hearing to rebut the 

presumption that detention is necessary.

Once a magistrate judge has ordered the detention or release of a defendant, either 

party can obtain a review of that decision by a district judge. Detention orders also 

may be appealed to the court of appeals after a district judge’s ruling.

The arraignment is a formal reading of the charges. In response, the accused is 

expected to enter a plea of guilty or not guilty. At this time, the accused may request 

a jury trial or a bench trial before a judge. Some judges also schedule the trial date 

and dates for motion hearings at the arraignment. 

Criminal Complaints and Informations

A defendant can be arrested without an indictment. When an arrest is made during 

the alleged commission of a crime, the lead investigator submits a written criminal 

complaint. 

In addition, a federal prosecutor may, without going to the grand jury, file charges 

in a document called a “criminal information.” An information sets forth the same 

kinds of allegations and facts that would be contained in an indictment.

When there is no indictment, one additional early proceeding is required: the 

preliminary examination hearing, in which the prosecution must convince a judge 

that there is probable cause to proceed with the case. A defendant may choose to 

waive the preliminary examination hearing. If the judge finds probable cause, or if 

the defendant waives the hearing, the judge will require the defendant to appear for 

further proceedings.
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 19

Pretrial Motions

The prosecution and defense often file pretrial motions, asking the 

judge to decide specific issues before the trial begins. Certain motions 

must be made before trial or the issue will be deemed waived.

Some common pretrial motions that may be filed by the defense:

• Motions to dismiss the charges

• Motions for access to the prosecution’s evidence

• Motions to suppress certain pieces of evidence, for instance 

evidence found as a result of a search that may have violated 

the individual’s Fourth Amendment rights

• Motions to relocate the trial through a change of venue, 

claiming, for instance, that pretrial publicity in the local news 

media will make it impossible to select an impartial jury in the 

original venue

• Competency motions asking a judge to postpone the trial 

on the grounds that a defendant is not able to understand 

the proceedings or to assist in his or her defense - essential 

elements of a fair trial. If such a motion is granted, all trial 

activity ceases, and there is no determination of guilt or 

innocence. A trial may occur at a later date if the defendant’s 

legal competence is restored through medical or other 

treatment 

This phase of a case is known as motion practice. A judge may 

decide motions based purely on written briefs, or set a hearing if 

oral argument of the issues or evidence from witnesses will aid in a 

decision.

Guilty Pleas

Nearly 90 percent of federal criminal cases are resolved by a guilty 

plea. Many of these cases involve a plea agreement: The defendant 

pleads guilty and forgoes a trial in exchange for the prosecutor’s 

dropping some charges and/or recommending a more lenient 

sentence. During the plea bargaining process, prosecutors often 

require defendants to waive the right to appeal a conviction. 

Ultimately, a judge must approve the terms of a plea agreement. 

Two documents are filed with the court at the plea hearing: the plea 

agreement, outlining the specific charges to which the defendant 

Judges must 

approve 

the terms 

of any plea 

agreement. 

Before 

accepting a 

guilty plea, the 

judge must be 

satisfied that 

it is voluntary 

and legally 

appropriate.
20 District Courts 

pleads guilty, and a statement of facts describing what the defendant admits to 

doing. Both generally are available only after the hearing has concluded. 

During the hearing, the judge will conduct a plea colloquy in which the defendant is 

informed of the nature of the charges to which he or she is pleading guilty and the 

rights that are being waived. Before accepting the plea, the judge must be satisfied 

that a guilty plea is voluntary and legally appropriate.

If the defendant pleads guilty, a sentencing hearing is scheduled. If he or she does 

not plead guilty, the case will proceed to trial.

COVERING CRIMINAL TRIALS

The Jury

The right to a trial by jury in federal criminal cases is guaranteed by the Sixth 

Amendment to the Constitution. 

Extensive background on juries (http://www.uscourts.gov/services-forms/juryservice) is available. In addition, most district courts post a jury plan on their 

websites, which explains how potential jurors are selected from the community, as 

well as the court’s policy on whether and when to release jurors’ names. 

By law, the courts seek to empanel juries that are a “fair cross-section” of the 

community. This starts with a “jury wheel,” a traditional term that dates to when 

prospective jurors’ names were drawn from a revolving container. Today, the jury 

wheel is an automated database filled with names randomly selected from a 

source list or source lists, for use in further random selection of possible jurors for 

qualification and summoning. The number of names included in a court’s jury wheel 

is proportional to the number of registered voters in each county comprising the 

district or jury division within the district. 

During jury selection, often called voir dire, the judge, the lawyers, or both will 

question prospective jurors about their backgrounds, and potential biases that 

may hinder their ability to be impartial. In federal court, often only the judge will 

question potential jurors; counsel can request that specific questions be asked. 

Voir dire is critical to ensuring an impartial jury. Prospective jurors may be struck 

from the panel in two ways. Lawyers may exercise a “challenge for cause,” claiming 

the juror cannot be impartial. If the judge agrees, the potential juror is excused. 

Lawyers also may exercise “peremptory challenges,” allowing them to remove jurors 

without stating a reason. The number of available peremptory challenges varies by 

case type, pursuant to statute and the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure (http://

www.uscourts.gov/rules-policies/current-rules-practice-procedure).
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 21

During voir dire, a party may object to another party’s exercise of a 

peremptory challenge on grounds that the party tried to exclude a 

potential juror based on race, ethnicity, or gender. Such objections are 

known as “Batson challenges,” referring to Batson v. Kentucky, a 1986 

Supreme Court decision that ruled such exclusions unconstitutional. 

Unless the parties agree otherwise, the jury consists of 12 persons. 

The court may impanel up to six alternates to replace any jurors who 

become disqualified or otherwise are unable to perform their duties.

In death penalty and other complex cases, jury selection can take 

as long as several weeks. In some courts, judges handling a highprofile trial will have hundreds or, in rare instances, even thousands 

of potential jurors fill out an extensive questionnaire. A manageable 

number of eligible jurors are then called in each day to be questioned 

individually. 

On the final day of jury selection, the qualified pool of jurors is 

called in to the courtroom, and both sides exercise their peremptory 

challenges until the jury is seated. In capital cases, each side is allowed 

a greater number of peremptory challenges, in accordance with the 

Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure (http://www.uscourts.gov/rulespolicies/current-rules-practice-procedure).

For exceptional cases, a judge may decide there is a need to sequester 

a jury - that is, keep all jurors in the court’s protection until the trial 

concludes. 

As noted in Jurors on page 8, journalists should not contact a juror 

before a case is concluded. Even where a court permits the release of 

jurors’ names after the trial, a judge may order that jurors in a specific 

case remain anonymous. 

Juror payment amounts are set by federal statute, and current rates 

are available at Juror Pay (http://www.uscourts.gov/services-forms/

jury-service/juror-pay). Jurors also are reimbursed for reasonable 

transportation expenses and parking fees, and a judge may authorize 

an additional $10 a day if a proceeding lasts more than 10 days. 

Federal law does not require an employer to pay jurors during a trial, 

but the Jury Act forbids any employer from firing, intimidating, or 

coercing any permanent employee because of his or her federal jury 

service.

In death 

penalty and 

other complex 

cases, jury 

selection can 

take several 

weeks. 
22 District Courts 

Defense 

counsel are 

not obligated 

to speak to the 

jury or present 

evidence, since 

the defendant 

is presumed 

innocent. 

Opening Statements

At the beginning of a criminal trial, lawyers are limited to telling the 

jury what they believe the evidence will show. Thus, this is an opening 

statement, not an argument. 

Prosecutors go first because they bear the burden of proving beyond 

a reasonable doubt that the defendant committed the offense(s) he or 

she has been charged with. Defense counsel are not obligated to make 

an opening statement or present any evidence, since the defendant is 

presumed innocent. Defense counsel may choose to make an opening 

statement at the conclusion of the initial set of prosecution witnesses, 

as opposed to at the start of trial. Reporters usually want to be present 

for opening statements. Not only do they hear a road map of the case 

the lawyers intend to present, but they often can get quotes that are 

useful to their coverage.

Witnesses

Some individual judges or local rules of court require the prosecution 

to file a list of potential witnesses prior to trial, along with a list 

of exhibits that may be entered into evidence. Reporters may ask 

the clerk of court’s office before the trial whether either list will be 

available to the public.

Prosecution witnesses take the stand first. Each will be asked 

questions by the prosecutor and can be cross-examined by the defense 

lawyer. If a witness is cross-examined, the prosecution is permitted 

a “redirect,” asking the witness only questions related to the topics 

discussed during cross-examination.

You may speak to witnesses after they are excused by the court, unless 

the judge indicates the witness is subject to recall to the stand later 

in the trial. The witness, however, is not obligated to answer your 

questions, and often may be advised by counsel not to do so.

Exhibits, Transcripts, and Courtroom Audio

Trial exhibits that are admitted into evidence become part of the 

public record. Subject to logistical considerations, they usually are 

available through the clerk of court’s office to inspect and copy. You 

also can request a copy of an exhibit from the party that introduced 

it. In some courts this is necessary, because parties retain custody of 

exhibits even after they have been introduced into evidence. 
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 23

In high-profile cases, courts may work with the parties to make extra copies of 

exhibits that the news media can review, or the court may decide to post exhibits on 

its website. The presiding judge has some discretion in this area, so he or she might 

deny public access to certain evidence until after the conclusion of the trial.

Transcripts of courtroom proceedings are not produced unless ordered by a party, a 

member of the public, or the court. However, by statute, every session of the court is 

recorded in some format. 

Written transcripts are produced by a court reporter or transcriber. As noted in 

the Federal Court Reporting Program (http://www.uscourts.gov/services-forms/

federal-court-reporting-program) webpage, under Judicial Conference policy these 

transcripts are not available on PACER until 90 days after they are delivered to the 

clerk’s office.

During this 90-day period, transcripts are available at the clerk’s office for inspection 

only, or may be purchased from the court reporter or transcriber. The maximum perpage fee is set by the Judicial Conference, and each district sets a local rate subject 

to that maximum. A few courts have special exceptions to set their transcript rates 

higher. 

After the 90-day period, transcripts can be viewed, downloaded, or printed for 10 

cents per page on PACER. Additionally, the transcript is available for inspection 
24 District Courts 

and copying in the clerk’s office under the same terms and conditions as any other 

official public document in the case file.

In most bankruptcy cases, and also in some district court cases (especially 

proceedings involving magistrate judges), the official record is kept through digital 

audio recordings. When this is the case, under Judicial Conference policy, the 

presiding judge may choose to make a copy of the recordings available through 

PACER.

Copies of such digital audio recordings also may be purchased from the clerk’s 

office. The current rate is available in the miscellaneous fee schedules for district 

courts (http://www.uscourts.gov/services-forms/fees/district-court-miscellaneousfee-schedule) and for bankruptcy courts (http://www.uscourts.gov/services-forms/

fees/bankruptcy-court-miscellaneous-fee-schedule), which are set by the Judicial 

Conference. Courts may make these recordings available via tape, CD, email, and/or 

digital download. When a court reporter is employed to create a transcript, there is 

no public entitlement to the reporter’s personal backup recording. 

Motion to Acquit

After the prosecution’s last initial witness, the defense often makes a Rule 29 

motion. Named after Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 29, the motion asks the 

judge to acquit the defendant because the prosecution’s evidence is insufficient 

to sustain a conviction. This motion also may be made after the conclusion of 

testimony by defense witnesses.

These motions are not granted often, but when they are, the defendant goes free. The 

prosecution cannot appeal such a ruling and the defendant cannot be tried again in 

federal court on the same charges because of the constitutional protection against 

“double jeopardy.” If, however, the judge grants a Rule 29 motion after the jury 

reaches a guilty verdict, prosecutors can then appeal the judge’s acquittal. 

Closing Arguments

Unlike during the opening statement, prosecutors and defense lawyers are permitted 

to make an argument after the completion of testimony. That is, they may marshal 

facts in an attempt to prove or disprove the government’s allegations. 

The prosecution goes first, followed by the defense and a rebuttal by the prosecution. 

Because the prosecution has the burden of proof, it gets the final word. Reporters 

will want to be present for this portion of the trial.
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 25

Jury Instructions, Deliberations, and the Verdict

Before deliberations, the judge will give the jury its final instructions, 

a step that can have enormous impact on the verdict. Both sides 

may request in writing that specific language be included in the 

instructions. Once the judge finalizes proposed instructions, both 

sides review them in advance. Any objections must be submitted on 

the record before the jury begins deliberation. While jury instructions 

typically are given in open court and can be tedious to listen to, they 

spell out the matters the jurors are to consider and those they are not. 

In complex or high-profile cases, reporters may find it useful to be 

present.

Jury deliberations are private; nobody other than the jurors may 

be present during this process. Jurors have two responsibilities: to 

determine the facts based on the evidence presented during the trial 

and to apply the relevant law that the judge provides during the jury 

instructions. During deliberations, the jurors may have questions 

about the evidence or the instructions. If they do, they give a note to 

the deputy marshal or the appropriate person designated by the court, 

who takes it to the judge. The judge then calls the lawyers back into 

court to discuss what the answer to the note should be, calls the jurors 

back into the courtroom, and gives them the answer, provided it does 

not deal with issues outside the scope of the case or require the judge 

to interpret the facts for the jurors.

Criminal juries must reach a unanimous verdict of guilty “beyond a 

reasonable doubt” or not guilty. After thorough deliberation, the jury 

may report to the judge that it is deadlocked and unable to reach a 

verdict. At this point, the judge may give the jury what is known as 

the Allen charge. Named after an 1896 U.S. Supreme Court case, 

the Allen charge urges jurors to reconsider their positions, as well as 

those of other jurors, and resume their deliberations in an effort to 

reach a verdict. If they attempt to do so but still report that they are 

deadlocked, the judge may declare a mistrial.

In most federal courthouses, once a jury has reached a verdict, it 

is announced as soon as all the lawyers can get to the courtroom. 

Reporters may have as little as 15 minutes’ warning. Inquire before the 

trial how members of the media will be notified when a verdict has 

been reached. Reporters will want to be present for the reading of the 

verdict.

Jury 

instructions can 

have enormous 

impact on 

the verdict. 

Prosecutors 

and defense 

counsel each 

may ask the 

judge to 

include specific 

language.
26 District Courts 

Post-Verdict Interviews

Any media interviews must be arranged directly with lawyers and their clients. In 

high-profile cases, some type of media availability is common for prosecutors and 

defense lawyers, in or near court property, once a trial is completed. Rules regarding 

cameras are set by the court. You also are free to speak to jurors after the verdict is 

read. As noted in Jurors on page 8, they are not obligated to grant interviews. 

Similarly, lawyers and their clients are free to determine whether they wish to talk 

with the media or not.

Non-Capital Sentencing

Whether there is a plea agreement or a trial that ends with a conviction, sentencing 

is generally scheduled for a later date. The court’s probation office prepares a 

presentence investigation report on circumstances that may help the judge in 

determining a sentence. The report is based on conversations with the defendant 

and his or her family and friends, victims and their families, and others with relevant 

information. It is always filed under seal and accessible only to the judge, prosecutor, 

and defense counsel. 

Since 1987, sentencing in federal court has been governed by the U.S. Sentencing 

Guidelines. They are set by the U.S. Sentencing Commission (http://www.ussc.

gov), an independent agency in the judicial branch, created by Congress to make 

sentencing more consistent and proportionate. In January 2005, the Supreme 

Court ruled that the guidelines are merely advisory. Judges are urged to consider 
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 27

the guidelines but can depart from the guideline ranges, so long as the 

sentence is reasonable and does not exceed the maximum term set by 

statute for a particular crime.

The presentence report makes a recommendation based on how 

the guidelines rate the seriousness of the offense and on the 

defendant’s criminal history. The judge is not required to follow the 

recommendations of the probation office or the parties, but if the judge 

rejects a sentence agreed to by the defense and prosecution, a defendant 

may withdraw a guilty plea. During the sentencing hearing, defendants 

are given a chance to tell the court anything they believe the judge 

should consider before the sentence is imposed.

Death Penalty Sentencing

When a capital crime may have been committed, federal prosecutors 

must receive written authorization from the attorney general before 

they can seek the death penalty. Federal law provides for a two-part, or 

bifurcated, trial in a death penalty case. If a defendant is found guilty 

of a crime punishable by death, the same jury that convicted him or 

her will determine the sentence. During a second phase of the trial, 

known as the penalty phase, both sides can present witnesses and 

evidence. The prosecution presents aggravating circumstances to justify 

the death penalty, while the defense presents mitigating circumstances 

that support a sentence less than death. The jury has only two choices: 

execution or life in prison. 

Death penalty cases are fairly rare in federal courts. When they do 

occur, a defendant is given two lawyers, including one who has specific 

expertise in capital trials, as well other resources to support the defense.

Access to evidence presented in the death penalty phase is the same as 

in other proceedings. See Exhibits, Transcripts, and Courtroom Audio 

on page 22.

COVERING CIVIL CASES

Civil cases also are tried in district court. They begin when a plaintiff – 

the party seeking relief from an alleged wrong – files a complaint. The 

plaintiff can be an individual, organization, business, or governmental 

body. Allegations involve violations of civil laws and the Constitution, 

not criminal laws. 

Sentencing 

guidelines 

are advisory. 

Judges may 

impose 

a shorter 

or longer 

sentence, so 

long as it is 

reasonable 

and does not 

exceed the 

maximum 

prison term set 

by statute. 
28 District Courts 

Except as noted in Sealed Documents and Closed Hearings on page 

12, the complaint and virtually all related filings in civil cases are 

available through PACER. Read more background on civil cases at 

http://www.uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/types-cases/civil-cases.

Filing the Complaint

Federal courts are authorized to hear only civil cases that involve one 

or more of the following:

• Questions regarding the Constitution

• Questions of federal law (as opposed to state law)

• A dispute among residents of different states with an amount 

in controversy of more than $75,000

• The U.S. government – including its agencies – as a plaintiff or 

defendant

A plaintiff must inform defendants about a complaint filed against 

them. This is called service of process.

Generally, a lawsuit must be filed in the jurisdiction where the 

defendant resides or where the claim arose. In cases based on diversity 

of citizenship (when the plaintiff and defendant are residents of 

different states), the lawsuit may be filed in the jurisdiction where the 

plaintiff or defendant resides.

The Plaintiff’s Claim

The complaint states the claim that the plaintiff is making – why the 

plaintiff believes he or she is entitled to relief. And it states the kind 

of relief sought. There are three principal forms of relief that a jury or 

judge can provide:

• Declaratory judgment. The court determines the rights of 

parties without ordering that anything be done or awarding 

monetary damages.

• Injunction. A court order requires the defendant to do a 

specific act or prohibits a defendant from doing a specific act. 

In emergencies, a temporary restraining order (TRO) can be 

issued without notifying the adverse party of the lawsuit. A 

TRO can last no more than 14 days and is meant to preserve 

the status quo until there is a hearing on the moving party’s 

Federal courts 

hear civil 

cases that 

involve federal 

laws or the 

Constitution. 

They also settle 

disputes in 

which the U.S. 

government is 

a party. 
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 29

application for a preliminary injunction. A preliminary 

injunction is similar to a TRO, except that the adverse party 

must receive notice before the preliminary injunction is 

issued. The preliminary injunction (sometimes informally 

called a temporary injunction) stays in effect until a hearing 

can be held, or sometimes until after a trial. If the plaintiff is 

successful at trial, a permanent injunction is issued. Unlike 

TROs, there is no limitation on the duration of a preliminary 

injunction. 

• Monetary relief. The two most common types of monetary 

relief are compensatory and punitive damages. 

Compensatory damages are intended to compensate the plaintiff 

for an injury or loss. Special damages are a subset of compensatory 

damages; they represent the direct costs of the wrongdoing, such as 

hospital bills or wages lost during treatment. General damages are also 

the result of wrongdoing, but are subjective in amount, such as awards 

for the plaintiff ’s pain and suffering, or for mental anguish. There are 

also cases in which the defendant committed a wrong but the plaintiff 

suffered almost no harm; nominal damages, such as an award of $1, 

might be made in such cases. 

Punitive damages generally are available only if authorized by statute. 

They are awarded to punish the defendant and serve as a warning to 

others to refrain from similar conduct. Treble damages are a variation 

of punitive damages – triple the amount of the plaintiff ’s actual losses.

Some contracts anticipate a possible breach of the agreement and 

stipulate how much will be awarded in the event a party reneges on 

the deal; awards in these cases are called liquidated damages.

The Defendant’s Answer

Under federal rules, defendants generally have 21 days to file an 

answer after they are served with a complaint; the U.S. government 

has 60 or 90 days, depending on whether it has waived service. In 

other types of cases, such as those involving the Social Security Act or 

the Freedom of Information Act, other response deadlines apply. 

Although most defenses to a complaint must be stated in the answer, a 

defendant can move to dismiss the complaint before filing an answer. 

Motions to dismiss typically make one or more of these arguments:

Punitive 

damages 

generally must 

be authorized 

by statute. They 

are awarded 

to punish the 

defendant and 

warn others 

to refrain from 

similar conduct. 
30 District Courts 

Journalists 

do not have a 

right to attend 

depositions, 

which are not 

conducted in 

open court or 

in the presence 

of a judge. 

Evidence 

exchanged 

during 

discovery is not 

a part of the 

trial record.

• The court lacks the authority or jurisdiction to decide the case 

or to compel a defendant to appear.

• Service of process was defective.

• The complaint fails to state a claim that the law will recognize 

as enforceable.

• The plaintiff lacks standing, which means he or she is unable 

to show a connection to and harm from the matter that is 

the subject of the lawsuit. This can include failing to prove a 

distinct injury alleged to have resulted from a law or action.

Pretrial Proceedings

After the defendant has filed an answer or a motion to dismiss the 

complaint, the judge holds a pretrial conference, sometimes referred 

to as a case management conference. A schedule for discovery is 

generally set at this conference, and a trial date is sometimes also 

scheduled. 

Often in civil cases, parties file motions disputing whether a party is 

entitled to receive certain kinds of information before trial. Parties 

also may file a motion for summary judgment, which asks the judge 

to determine some or all of the issues in the case based on the 

information the parties present in briefs. These motions are in the case 

file. When either party files a pretrial motion, the judge may choose 

to hold a hearing. However, if the judge believes the motion contains 

sufficient information to decide an issue, no hearing is held.

Discovery may include documents, physical evidence, and other 

information relevant to the lawsuit. Discovery also may include 

statements obtained in depositions, a process in which persons 

involved in the dispute or with expertise relevant to the case are placed 

under oath and asked questions by the attorneys for both sides, much 

as they would be if they were on the witness stand in court. This 

testimony sometimes may be introduced as evidence during the trial. 

Journalists do not have a right to attend depositions. They are not 

conducted in open court or in the presence of a judge. Evidence 

exchanged during discovery is not a part of the trial record.

A final pretrial hearing is held following the completion of discovery. 

This conference enables the judge and parties to understand exactly 

what issues will be important at the trial, and to work out possible 

solutions to problems before the trial. The judge usually requires that 
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 31

the parties submit a pretrial order, in which the plaintiff and defendant 

provide the substantive and procedural framework for their respective 

cases as they expect to present them in trial.

Ending a Case Without a Trial

The overwhelming majority of civil cases are resolved prior to trial - 

either through judicial order (for example, when the judge grants a 

dispositive motion filed by one of the parties) or through a settlement 

between the parties.

Summary Judgment

A motion for summary judgment can be filed by the plaintiff or 

defendant at any time after the defendant’s answer, and often is filed 

after discovery. Such motions ask a judge to decide all, or portions, of a 

case on two grounds: (1) that there are no disputes of fact that require 

a trial, and (2) that the law clearly favors a specific decision.

The parties’ briefs typically include the motion for summary judgment, 

the opposing party’s response, and a reply from the party that 

introduced the motion. If the judge grants the motion in whole, the 

case is over and judgment will be entered in favor of the party who 

moved for summary judgment. If the judge denies summary judgment, 

the entire case can go to trial. If the judge grants the motion in part, 

only those issues that remain in dispute will be tried.

Settlements

The parties also may resolve their dispute by settlement, with or 

without court intervention. Parties frequently discuss settling their 

case during the final pretrial phase, and it is not uncommon for judges 

to strongly encourage them to resolve the dispute before trial. Cases 

can be settled during trial, including during jury deliberation. 

The fact that a case was settled often is not a matter of public record. 

In many settlements, pieces of evidence, the terms of the settlement, 

and any monetary award may remain unavailable to the public. More 

information on this topic is available in Sealed Documents and Closed 

Hearings on page 13. 

Civil Trials

In civil trials, both the plaintiff and the defendant have the 

constitutional right to a jury trial. Civil juries consist of no fewer 

Judges often 

encourage 

parties to 

resolve their 

dispute before 

trial. Cases 

can be settled 

during trial, 

including 

during jury 

deliberation. 
32 District Courts 

than six and no more than 12 members, not including alternate jurors. All verdicts 

must be unanimous, unless the parties agree otherwise – an option not available in 

criminal cases. The plaintiff ’s lawyer goes first in opening statements, followed by 

defense counsel, and the plaintiff ’s witnesses appear first.

Once the plaintiff ’s last witness has testified, the defendant may make a motion for 

a “directed verdict,” which is similar to a Rule 29 motion in a criminal case. This 

motion claims that the plaintiff has failed to prove one or more essential elements, 

and therefore the defendant is entitled to judgment in his or her favor as a matter of 

law.

As with criminal cases, lawyers for both sides may present closing arguments. 

In a jury trial, the judge will instruct jurors on the relevant laws to apply in their 

deliberations. These are parts of a trial that a journalist will want to attend.

Unlike criminal juries, which can find a defendant guilty only if the evidence is 

“beyond a reasonable doubt,” the standard for civil juries is a “preponderance of the 

evidence” – meaning that it is more likely than not that the plaintiff ’s claims have 

been proven to be true.
Appellate Courts and Cases 33

The vast 

majority 

of courts 

of appeals 

decisions are 

final, and they 

are binding on 

lower courts 

within the 

same circuit. 

Appellate Courts 

and Cases 

The nation’s 94 federal judicial districts are organized into 12 regional 

circuits, each of which has a court of appeals. These courts hear appeals 

from the district courts located within their circuits, as well as appeals 

from decisions of federal administrative agencies and some original 

proceedings filed directly with the courts of appeals. 

In addition, federal appellate courts hear cases that originated in state 

courts when they involve claims that a state or local law or action 

violates rights guaranteed under the U.S. Constitution. One important 

category is habeas corpus cases, which allege improper incarceration 

and form the basis of federal appeals of death penalties imposed by 

state courts. 

Federal courts of appeals routinely handle more than 50,000 cases 

each year. Ten percent or fewer of those decisions are appealed to the 

Supreme Court, which in turn hears oral arguments in fewer than 100 

cases annually. Thus, the vast majority of courts of appeals decisions 

are final, and they are binding on lower courts within the same circuit. 

A 13th appellate panel, the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, 

is a unique court. It is based in Washington, D.C., and has nationwide 

jurisdiction to hear appeals in specialized cases. The court hears 

appeals from the U.S. Court of International Trade, the U.S. Court 

of Federal Claims, and the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. It 

exclusively hears certain types of cases appealed from the district 

courts, primarily those involving patent laws.

Download a map of the 12 regional circuits (http://www.uscourts.

gov/sites/default/files/u.s._federal_courts_circuit_map_1.pdf). Read 

additional information about federal appellate courts at http://www.

uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/court-role-and-structure/about-uscourts-appeals. 
34 Appellate Courts and Cases 

APPELLATE COURT SOURCES AND RESOURCES

From a journalist’s perspective, there are similarities between courts of appeals and 

district courts. For instance, both have clerks of court, whose staff manages the flow 

of cases through the court, maintains court records, and handles other administrative 

duties. 

However, there are notable differences. Each circuit has a circuit executive who 

works closely with the chief judge to coordinate a wide range of administrative 

matters. 

An important inquiry early in any journalist’s dealings with a federal court of 

appeals is to identify the person or persons within the court authorized to talk to 

the news media. Most courts of appeals do not have a public information officer, but 

most have designated a specific person to interact with the media. That can be the 

circuit executive, clerk of court, or some other staff member. 

Oral arguments are open to the public. For information about digital recordings of 

oral arguments, audio or video, consult the court of appeals website.

Decisions, opinions, orders, and court calendars are available on courts of appeals 

websites, and also via PACER. Free, text-searchable opinions are available at FDsys 

(https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/browse/collection.action?collectionCode=USCOUR

TS). 
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 35

The losing 

party usually 

may appeal 

a trial court 

decision. 

Similarly, 

decisions made 

by most federal 

administrative 

agencies are 

subject to 

review by 

a court of 

appeals. 

THE APPEALS PROCESS

The losing party usually has the right to appeal a federal trial court 

decision to a court of appeals. Similarly, decisions made by most federal 

administrative agencies are subject to review by a court of appeals. 

Parties who contest decisions made in certain federal agencies – for 

example, disputes over Social Security benefits – may be required to 

seek review first in a district court rather than go directly to an appeals 

court.

In a civil case, either side may appeal the judgment, whether it results 

from a jury verdict or bench trial. Parties that settle a civil case 

relinquish their right to appeal. 

In a criminal case, the defendant may appeal a conviction based on 

a guilty verdict, but the government may not appeal if a defendant is 

found not guilty. Either side in a criminal case may appeal a sentence 

that is imposed after a guilty verdict by arguing that the sentence 

violates the law, reflects an incorrect application of the sentencing 

guidelines, or improperly departs from the sentencing guidelines. 

When defendants plead guilty, they generally give up their right to 

appeal, except for claims they may have relating to their sentencing.

If the dissatisfied party in a district court case plans an appeal, the 

first step usually is to file a notice of appeal in the district court, which 

informs the court of appeals and other parties.

A litigant who files an appeal of district court decision is known as an 

appellant. The term petitioner is used for a litigant who files an appeal 

from an administrative agency or who appeals an original proceeding. 

The appellant (petitioner) bears the burden of showing that the trial 

court or administrative agency made a legal error that affected the 

district court’s decision.

The court of appeals makes its decision based solely on the trial court’s 

or agency’s case record. The court of appeals does not receive additional 

evidence or hear witnesses. The court of appeals may review the 

factual findings made by the trial court or agency, but generally may 

overturn a decision on factual grounds only if the findings were “clearly 

erroneous.”
36 Appellate Courts and Cases 

Constitutional 

cases include 

some of 

the most 

contentious 

matters 

considered 

by the federal 

Judiciary. 

Appeals on 

hot-button 

issues are likely 

to attract broad 

media interest. 

APPEALS RAISING CONSTITUTIONAL ISSUES

U.S. appellate courts have jurisdiction over cases that allege violations 

of federal constitutional rights, regardless of whether the alleged 

violations involve federal, state, or local governments. Thus, appeals 

based on constitutional grounds permit federal court review of state 

and local laws, practices, and court rulings, not just direct appeals of 

federal cases. 

Constitutional cases include some of the most contentious issues 

considered by the federal Judiciary - freedom of speech and religion, 

the right to bear arms, search and seizure, right to counsel, and equal 

protection under the law, just to name a few. On certain hot-button 

issues, such appeals are likely to attract broad media interest. 

DEATH PENALTY APPEALS 

Federal appellate courts also hear habeas corpus appeals involving 

death penalties issued by state courts, as well as by federal courts. 

The substantive and procedural requirements for seeking federal 

habeas relief are largely governed by the Antiterrorism and Effective 

Death Penalty Act (AEDPA) and federal court decisions interpreting 

AEDPA. Despite significant legal barriers to obtaining federal habeas 

review under AEDPA, prisoners sentenced to death in state and 

federal courts almost always seek federal habeas corpus relief. 

In these proceedings, a state prisoner (under 28 U.S.C. § 2254 at 

https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/2254) or a federal 

prisoner (under 28 U.S.C. § 2255 at https://www.law.cornell.edu/

uscode/text/28/2255) asks a federal court to vacate or set aside his or 

her death sentence, alleging errors under the law. 

THREE-JUDGE PANELS

Appeals normally are decided by randomly assigned three-judge 

panels. The creation and scheduling of panels, and the assignment of 

specific cases to those panels, is handled by either the clerk of court’s 

office or the circuit executive’s office. Regional court of appeals rules 

determine when the names of the judges on a panel are made public. 

Judges play no role in panel assignments. 
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 37

More than 

80 percent of 

federal appeals 

are decided 

solely on the 

basis of written 

briefs. 

The appealing party, called the appellant, presents legal arguments to 

the panel in a written brief, seeking to convince the judges that the 

trial court or administrative agency committed substantial error and 

that the trial court’s decision should therefore be reversed. The party 

who prevailed in the trial court, known as the appellee (or respondent 

for administrative agency appeals), argues in a reply brief that the trial 

court was correct or that any error made was not significant enough to 

affect the outcome.

More than 80 percent of federal appeals are decided solely on the 

basis of written briefs. Less than a quarter of all appeals are decided 

following oral argument, in which both sides discuss the legal 

principles in the dispute. Each side is given a specified amount of 

time, which varies by circuit, to present its case. Judges may interrupt 

to ask questions. These arguments are open to the public. 

Sometime after the submission of briefs or after oral argument, 

the appellate panel will issue a decision, usually accompanied by an 

opinion explaining its rationale. A decision may be reached by a 3-0 

or 2-1 vote. A decision will take into account and apply any relevant 

precedents - similar cases already decided by that court or by the 

Supreme Court. Written opinions are posted on a court’s internet site.

The panel’s decision concludes a case unless one of these actions 

happens: 

• The judges send the case back to the trial court for additional 

proceedings (that is, remand the case)

• The court determines on its own that the matter should be 

reheard because of a potential conflict with a prior decision

• A party seeks a rehearing before the appellate panel

• A party seeks review before the full appeals court (called an en 

banc session) or 

• A party seeks review in the Supreme Court
38 Bankruptcy Courts and Cases

Bankruptcy 

laws give 

debtors a 

“fresh start,” by 

relieving them 

of most debts, 

and provide an 

opportunity to 

repay creditors 

in an orderly 

manner. 

Bankruptcy Courts 

and Cases

Federal courts have exclusive jurisdiction over bankruptcy cases. The 

primary purposes of the federal bankruptcy laws are to give a debtor, 

either a person or a business, a “fresh start” by relieving the debtor of 

most debts, and to give the debtor the opportunity to repay creditors 

in an orderly manner. A debtor may file bankruptcy under one of 

several chapters of the Bankruptcy Code, Title 11 of the United States 

Code.

There are 90 U.S. bankruptcy courts, which, by statute, are units of the 

U.S. district courts. Like district courts, bankruptcy courts have their 

own local rules, available on their websites. Bankruptcy Basics (http://

www.uscourts.gov/services-forms/bankruptcy/bankruptcy-basics) 

offers a good explanation of bankruptcy law and bankruptcy court 

proceedings. 

Learn more about the bankruptcy process at http://www.uscourts.gov/

services-forms/bankruptcy.

ACCESSING BANKRUPTCY RECORDS

Bankruptcy court proceedings are open to the public except in an 

extraordinary circumstance, such as when the judge is considering a 

matter under seal. Documents filed in connection with a bankruptcy 

case are public (unless sealed) and can be viewed through PACER 

(www.pacer.gov) or at the bankruptcy clerk’s office. Bankruptcy courts 

generally have their own clerks. In high-profile cases, the court may 

designate a public information officer.

Bankruptcy judges are authorized to use either contract court 

reporters (who are not employees of the court) or electronic sound 

recording equipment. 

Most bankruptcy judges use digital audio recording as the method of 

making the official court record. For information on how to obtain 

copies of such recordings, see Exhibits, Transcripts, and Courtroom 

Audio on page 22. 
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 39

Unlike district court cases, telephone and video court conferences are common in 

bankruptcy proceedings. This is because creditors and other interested parties are 

likely to be in many different locations, making it costly and impractical to assemble 

everyone in one court for what can sometimes be short proceedings. 

It is important to note, however, that Judicial Conference policy does not grant 

journalists access to these telephone and video conferences. Such transmissions of a 

live court proceeding are authorized for purposes of judicial administration and are 

available only for parties in a case and their lawyers. 

BANKRUPTCY PROCESS

Most bankruptcy cases – more than 95 percent – are filed by consumers, as 

opposed to businesses. Bankruptcy generally provides two options: liquidation or 

reorganization.

CHAPTERS OF THE BANKRUPTCY CODE

Chapter Description

Chapter 7 Provides that non-exempt assets to be liquidated and 

proceeds distributed to creditors

Chapter 9 Covers local governments and instrumentalities

Chapter 11

Allows businesses to reorganize and continue operating. Also 

available to individuals whose debts exceed statutory limits for 

filing under Chapter 13

Chapter 12 Covers family farmers and fishermen

Chapter 13 Provides that debtors with regular income retain assets and 

obtain court-confirmed plans to pay off their creditors

Chapter 15 Applies to foreign corporations and individuals

Liquidation means selling a debtor’s assets, if there are any available, to pay creditors. 

Chapter 7 of the Bankruptcy Code is designed for this purpose, and is by far 

the most common form of bankruptcy. A petition can be filed by a business or 

individual. When a Chapter 7 case is filed, a trustee is appointed by the U.S. Trustee, 

a Justice Department entity, to administer the estate. Most cases filed under Chapter 

7, however, are “no assets” cases, in which the debtor does not have assets available 

for distribution to creditors.
40 Bankruptcy Courts and Cases

In all 

bankruptcy 

cases, a 

meeting of 

creditors 

must be held. 

The debtor 

is required 

to attend 

and answer 

questions 

regarding 

the his or her 

financial affairs.

Reorganization involves obtaining a bankruptcy judge’s approval of 

a plan for repayment over time of all or a portion of the debts owed 

to creditors. Chapters 11, 12, and 13 govern the reorganization of a 

debtor’s financial affairs. In Chapter 12 and 13 cases, the presiding 

judge must approve the repayment plan. In Chapter 11 cases, which 

are frequently filed by corporations or other business entities, the 

plan of reorganization must be voted on by creditors and approved 

by the bankruptcy judge. Chapter 12 is a reorganization of assets for 

individual family farmers or fishermen. After Chapter 7, Chapter 13 

cases are the most commonly filed bankruptcy cases.

In all cases, no matter what chapter a case is filed under, a meeting of 

creditors must be held. The debtor is required to attend this meeting, 

during which the trustee and creditors may ask questions regarding 

the debtor’s financial affairs and the extent of the debtor’s holdings. 

The case trustee, not a bankruptcy judge, presides over this hearing.

Chapter 9 of the Bankruptcy Code provides protection for financially 

distressed municipalities from creditors while a plan for adjusting 

debts is negotiated. 

There are several types of bankruptcy proceedings that may interest 

journalists. The first is a hearing on first-day orders, which often is 

held in Chapter 11 cases. At this type of hearing, a bankruptcy judge 

is asked to approve important matters that determine how the debtor 

will operate while the case is pending.

Another proceeding of interest is the hearing on the confirmation of 

a Chapter 11 debtor’s plan of reorganization. During this hearing, the 

debtor’s lawyer seeks the judge’s approval of the plan, and creditors 

have a chance to present their objections. Still another proceeding of 

interest is an adversary proceeding hearing – something of a minitrial involving a particular issue related to the main bankruptcy case. 

For example, adversary proceedings can request injunctions, address 

environmental issues, and allege possible fraud by the debtor.

BANKRUPTCY APPEALS

A bankruptcy judge’s rulings can be appealed to the district court 

or, in certain circuits, to a bankruptcy appellate panel. Further 

appeals to a court of appeals and the Supreme Court are available. If 

certain statutory requirements are met, the court of appeals also has 

jurisdiction to authorize a direct appeal from a bankruptcy judge’s 

ruling to the court of appeals.
Judges and Judicial Administration 41

FEDERAL JUDGES

Article III of the Constitution governs the appointment, tenure, and payment of 

Supreme Court justices, and federal circuit and district judges. These judges, often 

referred to as “Article III judges,” are nominated by the President and confirmed 

by the U.S. Senate. Article III states that these judges “hold their office during 

good behavior,” which means they have a lifetime appointment, except under very 

limited circumstances. Article III judges can be removed from office only through 

impeachment by the House of Representatives and conviction by the Senate. The 

Constitution also provides that judges’ salaries cannot be reduced while they are in 

office. Article III judicial salaries are not affected by geography or length of tenure. 

All appellate judges receive the same salary, no matter where they serve. The same is 

true for district court judges.

Find brief biographies of all Article III judges (http://www.fjc.gov/history/home.

nsf/page/judges.html) since the nation’s founding. 

Bankruptcy judges are judicial officers of the district court who preside exclusively 

over bankruptcy proceedings. They are not Article III judges and are not appointed 

by the President. They are appointed to renewable 14-year terms by a majority of the 

judges of the U.S. Court of Appeals for their circuit. 

The bankruptcy judge appointment process (https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/

text/28/152) is set by Judicial Conference policy, in accordance with the Bankruptcy 

Amendments and Federal Judgeship Act. Unlike Article III judges, bankruptcy 

judges must meet eligibility criteria, including being a member of the bar in good 

standing. Circuits may appoint a merit selection panel, consisting of judges and 

other legal professionals, to review and recommend candidates for appointment. 

Bankruptcy judges receive the same annual salary, no matter where they serve or 

how many years they have served.

Magistrate judges also are not Article III judges. By federal statute, they are 

appointed by a majority of the U.S. district judges in each judicial district for a 

renewable term of eight years. In addition, there are a small number of part-time 

magistrate judges who serve four-year terms. 

Judges and Judicial 

Administration
42 Judges and Judicial Administration

The job title is magistrate judge, not magistrate.

Like bankruptcy judges, magistrate judges must meet specified 

eligibility criteria, including at least five years as a member in good 

standing of a state’s or territory’s highest court bar. They also must 

be vetted by a merit selection panel that consists of lawyers and nonlawyers from the community. 

The precise duties of magistrate judges vary somewhat from district 

to district, but some duties are common to all courts. Magistrate 

judges authorize search and arrest warrants, and they hear preliminary 

matters in felony criminal cases, such as conducting probable cause 

hearings and deciding whether to set bail or order pretrial detention. 

As a result, a magistrate judge is usually the first federal judicial officer 

a defendant sees following arrest or indictment. 

Magistrate judges hear cases involving petty offenses committed on 

federal lands, but felony trials are heard only by district judges.

In most districts, magistrate judges handle pretrial motions and 

hearings in civil cases. While most civil cases are tried by district 

judges, magistrate judges also may preside over civil trials if all parties 

consent. 

Like other federal judges, all magistrate judges are paid the same 

salary, regardless of where they serve or their years of service.

Bankruptcy 

and magistrate 

judges take 

office only after 

they are vetted 

by selection 

panels and 

show that they 

meet specified 

professional 

credentials. 
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 43

Senior judges are Article III judges who have met age and service requirements 

set by federal statute. Judges are eligible (but not required) to take senior status if 

they are at least 65 years old and have served at least 15 years on the bench, or any 

combination of age and years of service that equals 80. Regardless of age, judges 

must serve at least 10 years to qualify for senior status. 

Senior judges continue to draw their salary but may choose to handle a reduced 

caseload. They are required to handle at least one-fourth of the caseload, or other 

duties, of an active judge to qualify for future salary increases. By taking senior 

status, even if maintaining a full caseload, a judge creates a vacancy on the court, to 

be filled by the nomination and confirmation process.

Because there is no mandatory retirement age for Article III judges, there is no 

requirement that they take senior status. Many continue to carry heavy workloads, 

and senior judges handle about 20 percent of the total district and appellate 

caseload.

Visiting judges, like senior judges, can help a court stay on top of its caseload. 

Visiting judges have long provided significant assistance to courts they visit. Federal 

law provides that Article III judges may sit by designation and assignment in 

any other federal court having a need for their services. They provide temporary 

assistance not only when a court’s own judges must disqualify themselves, but also 

to help meet the caseload needs arising from vacancies, lack of sufficient judgeships, 

specific emergencies, and other workload imbalances. 

Circuit chief judges must authorize intracircuit assignments, which allow judges to 

sit with another court within their circuit, and the Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme 

Court must authorize intercircuit assignments, which allow a judge to sit in a circuit 

other than his or her home circuit.

FEDERAL COURT ORGANIZATION

The federal Judiciary was established by Article III of the Constitution, and the 

organization of district and appellate courts is set out in Title 28 of the United 

States Code (https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28).

In addition, federal judges and lawyers who practice in federal court follow the 

Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, Federal 

Rules of Bankruptcy Procedure, and Federal Rules of Evidence, which establish the 

general procedural requirements for litigating cases in federal courts. The rules are 

available at Current Rules of Practice & Procedure (http://www.uscourts.gov/rulespolicies/current-rules-practice-procedure). 
44 Judges and Judicial Administration

But federal courts have considerable autonomy. Each appellate, district, and 

bankruptcy court has its own set of local rules, addressing procedural matters not 

uniformly governed by federal statute, Judicial Conference policy, or the Federal 

Rules of Procedure. In some jurisdictions, individual judges also have a set of rules 

that govern cases in their courtrooms. Local rules and individual judges’ rules are 

posted on court websites.

JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION

The Judiciary is a separate and independent branch of government. By statute, 

national Judiciary administrative policies are set by the Judicial Conference of 

the United States, which is made up of 26 judges, with the Chief Justice of the 

Supreme Court presiding. The 

Judicial Conference meets twice 

a year. The meetings are not open 

to the public, but proceedings of 

the meetings are published and a 

news release is issued following 

each session. Find these resources 

at http://www.uscourts.gov/

about-federal-courts/governancejudicial-conference/about-judicialconference. 

The Administrative Office of the 

U.S. Courts, located in Washington, 

D.C., is the national administrative 

arm of the Judiciary, providing a 

broad array of professional, administrative, and program support services to judges 

and court staff. The Administrative Office’s Public Affairs Office, (202) 502-2600, 

is a central point of contact for the news media. The Federal Judicial Center (www.

fjc.gov), also located in Washington, is the Judiciary’s research and education agency 

(http://www.uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/judicial-administration).

The Supreme Court has its own public information and administrative offices. The 

PIO number is (202) 479-3050. Learn more about judicial administration at (http://

www.uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/judicial-administration).

CIRCUIT JUDICIAL COUNCILS

Every circuit has a circuit judicial council, which has a number of responsibilities 

relating to circuit-wide policies. The relevant statute provides the council with 

authority to “make all necessary and appropriate orders for the effective and 
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 45

expeditious administration of justice within its circuit.” In addition to 

the chief judge, the council consists of an equal number of appellate 

and district judges. Read more details about the circuit judicial 

councils (http://www.uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/governancejudicial-conference). 

CHIEF JUDGES

All appellate and district courts have chief judges. As provided by 

statute, the position is held by the longest-serving active judge from 

among those judges who are 64 years old or younger, have served 

for one year or more on the federal bench, and have not previously 

served as chief judge. The chief judge serves for a term of seven 

years or to age 70, whichever comes first, and handles budgetary and 

administrative matters that do not require the attention of all the 

judges. These include oversight of the senior court staff. 

Chief judges can be good contacts for journalists, since they often 

serve as spokespeople for their courts regarding administrative matters.

Chief judges of courts of appeals have some additional authorities 

specified by statute. For example, to ensure the smooth and timely 

administration of cases, they may temporarily reassign district or 

appellate judges to other courts within a circuit, or ask the Chief 

Justice to authorize the use of visiting judges from other circuits. 

JUDICIAL DISCIPLINARY PROCESS

By federal statute, any person can file a complaint alleging that a judge 

has engaged in “conduct prejudicial to the effective and expeditious 

administration of the business of the courts,” or that a mental or 

physical disability makes a judge “unable to discharge all the duties” of 

being a judge. Learn more about the Judicial Conduct and Disability 

process (http://www.uscourts.gov/judges-judgeships/judicial-conductdisability), including the rules relating to conduct and disability 

complaints, a graphical overview of the process, and frequently asked 

questions. In addition, every U.S. court website has a complaint 

form and additional information on how to file a complaint in that 

particular circuit. The complaint process is not for people who are 

dissatisfied with a particular judge’s decision.

Any person 

may file a 

complaint 

alleging judicial 

misconduct 

or disability. 

Dissatisfaction 

with a judge’s 

decision is 

not grounds 

for such a 

complaint.
46 Judges and Judicial Administration

The chief judge of a circuit receives any misconduct complaints involving judges in 

his or her circuit, conducts a preliminary review, and may dismiss the complaint if it 

lacks grounds for further action. Either the complainant or the affected judge may 

appeal the chief judge’s order to the circuit judicial council.

The chief judge also may appoint a special committee of judges to investigate the 

allegations and submit a report, including any recommendations, to the circuit 

judicial council. The council has a number of options, including dismissing the 

complaint or concluding that the judge who was the subject of the complaint already 

has taken corrective action. 

While it is not common, the council can take disciplinary action, including private 

or public censure or reprimand, and temporary withholding of cases from the judge. 

If the council concludes that the judge engaged in conduct that might constitute 

grounds for impeachment, the council must refer the complaint to the Judicial 

Conference. Under certain circumstances, a judge may submit a petition for review 

to the Judicial Conference Committee on Judicial Conduct and Disability. This 

committee reviews council orders for errors of law, clear errors of fact, or abuse of 

discretion. 

If the Judicial Conference finds possible grounds for impeachment, it submits a 

report to the House of Representatives. Only Congress has the authority to remove 

an Article III judge. This is done through a vote of impeachment by the House, and 

a trial and conviction by the Senate. As of September 2017, only 15 federal judges 

have been impeached, and only eight have been convicted. Three others resigned 

before completion of impeachment proceedings. A summary of federal judicial 

impeachments (https://www.fjc.gov/history/judges/impeachments-federal-judges) is 

available at the Federal Judicial Center’s website.

By law and the related rules for judicial misconduct and disability complaints, 

consideration of a complaint is confidential. When final action has been taken on a 

complaint and it is no longer subject to review, courts of appeals place orders entered 

by the chief judge and the judicial council on the circuit court’s website. 

The Committee on Judicial Conduct and Disability similarly publishes all orders 

constituting final action on a complaint. The committee’s orders are available at 

Judicial Conduct and Disability Orders (http://www.uscourts.gov/rules-policies/

judiciary-policies/ethics-policies/code-conduct-judicial-employees/judicial-conductdisability-opinions).

Statistics relating to judicial misconduct complaints can be found in Table 10 and 

Table S-22 (http://www.uscourts.gov/statistics-reports/complaints-against-judgesjudicial-business-2017) of the annual Judicial Business report.
Other Judiciary Entities 47

CRIMINAL JUSTICE ACT DEFENSE SYSTEM 

(COURT-APPOINTED COUNSEL)

Most federal criminal defendants, including those who are employed 

at the time of their arrest, cannot afford the cost of paying for a 

criminal defense lawyer. Nearly 90 percent of federal defendants are 

represented by court-appointed lawyers, through Judiciary funding 

under the Criminal Justice Act (CJA). 

Public representation ensures that all criminal defendants, regardless 

of their means, receive their right to counsel under the Sixth 

Amendment. It also protects the integrity of the proceedings, by 

creating a robust adversarial setting and holding the government to its 

burden of proof. Indirectly, the guarantee of a vigorous legal defense 

buttresses public confidence in the delivery of equal justice under the 

law. 

Information about the federal defender system is available in the 

Guide to Judiciary Policy, Chapter 7 (http://www.uscourts.gov/

rules-policies/judiciary-policies/criminal-justice-act-cja-guidelines), 

and the Criminal Justice Act, 18 U.S.C. § 3006A. Each district court 

is required by federal statute to formulate a district-wide plan for 

implementing the CJA; most CJA plans are available online. 

Some key points: 

• All criminal defendants charged with a felony or Class A 

misdemeanor are eligible for a court-appointed lawyer if their 

“net financial resources and income are insufficient to obtain 

qualified counsel.” 

• By statute, eligible defendants “shall be represented at every 

stage of the proceedings,” from an initial appearance before the 

magistrate judge through appeal.

• The judge determines a defendant’s eligibility for appointed 

counsel. Depending on a court’s CJA plan, either the judge or 

Other Judiciary 

Entities

Nearly 90 

percent 

of federal 

defendants are 

represented 

by courtappointed 

lawyers, under 

the Criminal 

Justice Act. 
48 Other Judiciary Entities

a separate administrator selects the lawyer. The defendant does 

not choose his or her attorney.

• In addition to counsel, the CJA pays for necessary defense 

resources, such as investigators and experts. In some cases, a 

defendant can afford to hire a lawyer, but requires the court to 

provide other professionals and services needed to support a 

defense.

• A defendant may waive the right to counsel and conduct his 

or her own defense. Even then, the court may appoint standby 

counsel, who will observe the case and step in as counsel if 

requested by the defendant. This protects the integrity of the 

proceedings and helps prevent legal errors that might disrupt 

the case.

Who Provides Court-Appointed Counsel

The federal defense system functions as a hybrid system with two 

types of lawyers: full-time salaried defenders, and private attorneys 

who are appointed by the court to represent defendants at a set hourly 

rate.

Nearly every court district has a federal defender organization, a 

federal entity that acts as a counterpart to the local U.S. attorney’s 

office. It is led by a chief defender and staffed by attorneys, 

investigators, paralegals, and support personnel. In some districts, fulltime defenders work for community defender organizations, which are 

nonprofit organizations that receive grants from the federal Judiciary 

to defend those who cannot afford a lawyer. 

The private lawyers, called panel attorneys, are available to handle CJA 

cases in which the local defender’s office has a conflict of interest (for 

example, multi-defendant cases) or when the office’s existing caseload 

prevents it from accepting more appointments. 

How CJA Cases Are Funded

Federal defender organizations receive individual budgets to fund their 

operations, including employee salaries. Specific case expenditures, 

such as expert fees, are funded from the office budget. In cases that 

require an unusually costly defense, such as a death penalty trial or 

other complex litigation, additional money can be provided by the 

Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts, which, along with the 

Judicial Conference Committee on Defender Services, oversees the 

national budget for the CJA program. 

Federal public 

defenders 

are salaried 

government 

employees. 

Panel attorneys 

are private 

lawyers who 

are appointed 

to specific 

cases and paid 

an hourly rate. 
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 49

Unlike federal defenders, panel attorneys are paid an hourly rate for CJA work. 

Hourly rates, which are set by the Judicial Conference of the United States within 

statutory limits established by Congress, are available at the Judiciary’s CJA 

Guidelines, § 230 (http://www.uscourts.gov/rules-policies/judiciary-policies/cjaguidelines/chapter-2-ss-230-compensation-and-expenses) (non-capital) and § 630 

(http://www.uscourts.gov/rules-policies/judiciary-policies/cja-guidelines/chapter-6-

ss-630-compensation-appointed-counsel)(capital).

Also unlike federal defenders, panel attorneys must have their compensation and 

expenses approved by the court. In addition, before obtaining other services, such 

as those of an investigator or expert witness, panel attorneys must get authorization 

from the presiding judge.

Defense costs in a specific case are not available to the public, or even to the 

prosecution, during the case, including any appeals. When a judge must authorize 

defense expenditures, such requests are made ex parte, with only defense counsel 

present.

Defense expenditures remain confidential because disclosure could compromise the 

defense by revealing legal strategy. Disclosure also may compromise the attorneyclient privilege and other protections. The public or media may ask the presiding 

judge to lift a seal on defense-related expenditures—but only after all judicial 

proceedings are concluded, including appeals. In practice, most costs related to 

a trial, including money spent on the criminal investigation and prosecution, are 

unavailable to the public. 

The CJA and Death Penalty Cases

Federal death penalty prosecutions are large-scale cases that are costly to prosecute, 

investigate, and defend. 

Because of their complexity and potential severity, death penalty trials have special 

provisions for court-appointed counsel, which are spelled out in Volume 7, Chapter 

6, of the CJA Guidelines (http://www.uscourts.gov/rules-policies/judiciary-policies/

criminal-justice-act-cja-guidelines). These include the following:

• The appointment of two lawyers, “at least one of whom is experienced in and 

knowledgeable about the defense of death penalty cases.” Attorneys versed in 

death penalty defense also are known as “learned counsel.” If necessary for 

adequate representation, more than two attorneys may be appointed.

• A higher rate of hourly compensation, which is available in the CJA 

Guidelines at § 630 (http://www.uscourts.gov/rules-policies/judiciarypolicies/cja-guidelines/chapter-6-ss-630-compensation-appointed-counsel), 

Compensation of Appointed Counsel in Capital Cases.
50 Other Judiciary Entities

In addition to death penalty trials, other capital representation in the federal 

courts includes post-conviction proceedings, in which an individual who has been 

sentenced to death, either in state or federal court, is seeking to vacate or set aside 

his or her death sentence. These are often referred to as “habeas corpus” proceedings, 

and the individual seeking relief is referred to as the petitioner. Financially eligible 

persons are entitled to the appointment of one or more qualified attorneys in these 

capital habeas proceedings.

PROBATION AND PRETRIAL SERVICES OFFICERS

Probation and pretrial officers are federal law enforcement officers who help protect 

the community by investigating and supervising federal defendants and offenders. 

They play a critical role, 

serving as the “eyes and 

ears” of the federal courts 

by providing critical 

pretrial, presentence, 

and post-conviction 

reports to judges. They 

also supervise defendants 

awaiting trial and 

people returning to 

the community after 

incarceration. 

Key parts of an 

individual’s community 

supervision process are not public. Pretrial and presentence reports are directed 

solely to the judge and the parties, and are not public. A supervision officer’s 

case files also are not public. Court orders setting out terms of supervised release 

generally are reflected in the judgment forms, which are available through PACER.

Media inquiries regarding specific cases or supervision officers should begin with 

the local probation or pretrial services chief. Local offices can be found through the 

Court Locator (http://www.uscourts.gov/court-locator). Inquiries about policies or 

procedure at the national level should be directed to the Administrative Office of 

the U.S. Courts’ Office of Public Affairs (http://www.uscourts.gov/contact-us). 

Probation and pretrial services officers make up nearly one-quarter of the Judiciary’s 

workforce, and they are organized by court district. Every district has a probation 

chief, and some also have a separate pretrial services chief. The chiefs report directly 

to a district court’s chief judge. 
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 51

Pretrial services and probation officers play many distinct roles 

throughout the judicial process:

• Pretrial services and presentence investigations. Following 

an arrest or indictment, pretrial services officers investigate 

defendants’ backgrounds, to help judges set bail and terms 

of pretrial release. The pretrial report recommends whether 

to release or detain the defendant before trial, and addresses 

whether the defendant is likely to stay out of trouble and 

return to court as required. 

Probation officers prepare a presentence investigation report, 

which recommends sentencing options under the federal 

sentencing guidelines, addresses the offense’s impact on the 

victim, and determines the offender’s ability to pay fines and 

restitution. It also recommends release conditions, by which 

the court can govern an offender’s movement and behavior in 

the community, as well as any rehabilitative programming that 

an offender may need. 

Although probation and pretrial services officers make 

recommendations to the court, judges make final decisions 

governing bail, sentencing, and supervised release, after 

receiving feedback from the prosecution and defense counsel. 

• Community supervision. Pretrial services officers supervise 

defendants who have been released to the community pending 

trial and sentencing. Probation officers supervise persons 

sentenced to probation and post-incarceration offenders who 

are returning to the community. 

Supervision consists of monitoring offenders’ behavior in the 

community, enforcing court-ordered restrictions on behavior, 

and providing interventions authorized by the court.

Monitoring is the process of collecting information about 

the behaviors and activities of an offender to ensure that 

conditions of supervision are being met. Monitoring is done 

through phone calls and personal contact with people under 

supervision; their family, friends, and associates; and other 

agencies. 

Individuals also are monitored through various supervision 

tools, such as location and computer monitoring, law 

enforcement notification systems, and investigative databases.

Postincarceration 

offenders 

who have left 

prison are 

supervised in 

the community 

by federal 

probation 

officers.
52 Other Judiciary Entities

Restrictions are actions that limit an individual’s liberty and reduce the 

likelihood of criminal behavior while under supervision. Restrictions may 

include court-imposed limits on traveling, associating with certain people, 

and consuming alcohol or controlled substances.

Interventions are programs and services that officers provide to offenders 

(or refer offenders to) that are designed to help offenders remain crime free. 

These include drug, mental health, and other counseling, and employment 

and vocational services. 

Read about the duties of probation and pretrial services officers at http://www.

uscourts.gov/services-forms/probation-and-pretrial-services/probation-andpretrial-officers-and-officer and about community supervision, including location 

monitoring, at http://www.uscourts.gov/services-forms/probation-and-pretrialservices/probation-and-pretrial-services-supervision. Locate information about 

probation and pretrial supervision caseloads at http://www.uscourts.gov/statisticsreports/caseload-statistics-data-tables.

CENTRAL VIOLATIONS BUREAU

In addition to major criminal cases, federal courts also hear cases about minor 

infractions that occur on federal land, such as military bases, park and forest land, 

and federally operated hospitals. These infractions can include traffic violations, 

vandalism, and possession of small amounts of drugs, and often result in court fines.

Hearings in these cases are handled by magistrate judges, and defendants often pay a 

fine without appearing in court. Fines are collected and case records are maintained 

by a national office, the Central Violations Bureau (CVB), which is based in San 

Antonio, Texas. 

Reporters seeking CVB records should email media@ao.uscourts.gov. Under 

Judiciary policy, CVB records are subject to a search fee, and an estimate will be 

provided before the search is conducted. Records typically are limited to a copy of 

the citation, including a statement of the facts, and a summary of fine payments. 

As with other federal criminal records, CVB case records are redacted to remove 

certain personally identifying information, such as street addresses and driver’s 

license numbers. 

Some courts also make CVB case records available via PACER. 
Helpful Online Resources 53

Federal court websites: Every federal court has its own website, with court locations 

and hours, local rules, access to PACER records, and other court information. Access 

links to all court websites at http://www.uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/federalcourts-public/court-website-links.

The Supreme Court website, with court calendar and opinions, is at www.

supremecourt.gov.

The Judicial Conference of the United States sets policy for the federal Judiciary. 

Find information about the Conference at http://www.uscourts.gov/about-federalcourts/governance-judicial-conference/about-judicial-conference, including 

membership and reports on its proceedings. 

The Federal Judicial Center (www.fjc.gov) provides training and research for the 

federal Judiciary. Its website includes

• a Judiciary history page (http://www.fjc.gov/history/home.nsf/page/judges.

html) and

• a biographical database of all Article III judges in U.S. history (https://www.

fjc.gov/history/judges). 

Financial disclosure statements of federal judges and senior court personnel may 

be sought through the Administrative Office’s Financial Disclosure Committee 

staff. The process is explained in the Judiciary’s disclosure request form (http://www.

uscourts.gov/forms/other-forms/financial-disclosure-report-request).

The United States Sentencing Commission establishes sentencing guidelines for the 

federal criminal justice system. To learn more, see www.ussc.gov. 

FDsys (https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/browse/collection.action?collectionCode=US

COURTS), an online Government Publishing Office service, has text-searchable 

published opinions for all regional U.S. courts of appeals, and for some U.S. district 

and bankruptcy courts.

Title 28 of the United States Code, which governs the federal courts, is available at 

FDsys (https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/browse/collection.action?collectionCode=USCO

URTS). 

Helpful Online 

Resources
54 Helpful Online Resources

The Judiciary website, www.uscourts.gov, has many resources: 

• Email Updates (http://www.uscourts.gov/email-updates) includes a 

subscription form to receive email updates about court news. 

• Court Locator (http://www.uscourts.gov/court-locator) provides address 

and contact information for all federal court units.

• Judiciary News (http://www.uscourts.gov/judiciary-news) has news articles 

and video about the federal courts. 

• About Federal Courts (http://www.uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts) 

provides an overview of the federal Judiciary. More detailed descriptions 

of the federal appellate and district courts are at Court Role and Structure, 

which also includes the background paper “Understanding Federal Courts.”

• Judges & Judgeships (http://www.uscourts.gov/judges-judgeships) includes 

information on judicial vacancies and emergencies, for the current and 

previous years, as well as the Code of Conduct for U.S. Judges.

• Statistics & Reports (http://www.uscourts.gov/statistics-reports) includes 

Judiciary data tables and access to Judiciary reports, which are described in 

detail at Analysis & Reports. 

• Rules & Policies (http://www.uscourts.gov/rules-policies) includes 

information about Federal Rules of Procedure:

• About the Rulemaking Process (http://www.uscourts.gov/rulespolicies/about-rulemaking-process)

• Current Rules of Practice & Procedure (http://www.uscourts.gov/

rules-policies/current-rules-practice-procedure)

• Rules of Appellate Procedure

• Rules of Bankruptcy Procedure

• Rules of Civil Procedure

• Rules of Criminal Procedure

• Rules of Evidence

• Pending Rules and Forms Amendments (http://www.uscourts.gov/

rules-policies/pending-rules-and-forms-amendments)

• Proposed Amendments Published for Public Comment (http://www.

uscourts.gov/rules-policies/proposed-amendments-published-publiccomment)
A Journalist’s Guide to the Federal Courts 55

• Records and Archives of the Rules Committee (http://www.uscourts.

gov/rules-policies/records-and-archives-rules-committees)

• Educational Resources (http://www.uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/

educational-resources) includes information about the courts, including 

classroom-ready materials for teachers and students.

• A Glossary of Legal Terms (http://www.uscourts.gov/glossary) is available at 

the bottom of each page of the Judiciary website.

Social Media. Federal courts sometimes maintain their own social media accounts 

that are linked from individual court websites. The Administrative Office of the U.S. 

Courts maintains a presence in the following social media:

• YouTube (https://www.youtube.com/user/uscourts): The federal Judiciary’s 

channel has videos produced by U.S. courts, the Federal Judicial Center, and 

the United States Sentencing Commission.

• Twitter (https://twitter.com/uscourts): @uscourts is the official source for 

news and information about the U.S. courts.

• LinkedIn (https://www.linkedin.com/company/us-courts/): This page 

provides information about working for the federal Judiciary
ADMINISTRATIVE 

OFFICE OF THE 

UNITED STATES 

COURTS

Thurgood Marshall 

Federal Judiciary Building

Washington D.C. 20544

www.uscourts.gov