Safety and Health Considerations 

for the Design of Fire and 

Emergency Medical Services 

Stations

May 2018

Safety and Health Considerations 

for the Design of Fire and 

Emergency Medical Services 

Stations

April 2018

Mission Statement

We provide national leadership to foster a solid foundation for 

our fi re and emergency services stakeholders in prevention, 

preparedness and response.

Preface i

Preface

This report was developed through a cooperative research agreement between the U.S. 

Fire Administration (USFA) and the International Fire Service Training Association (IFSTA) 

at Oklahoma State University (OSU). The IFSTA has partnered with the OSU Fire Protection 

Publications — a major publisher of fire service training materials since 1934. Through its 

association with the OSU College of Engineering, Architecture and Technology, the IFSTA 

also conducts a variety of funded, technical research on fire service, fire prevention, and 

life safety issues.

The extensive information provided within this report would not have been possible without 

the dedication and efforts of the following people assigned to this project:

Project Administrator — Nancy Trench; Assistant Director for Research; OSU Fire Protection 

Publications

Principle Investigator/Writer — Robert Tutterow; Fire Industry Education Resource 

Organization (F.I.E.R.O.); Charlotte, North Carolina

Editor — Michael A. Wieder; Executive Director; IFSTA

The USFA extends its gratitude to all the individuals and organizations who provided the 

photographs and illustrations used in this report.
ii Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations
Table of Contents iii

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................... 1

Station-related deaths .................................................................................................... 1

Station-related injuries ................................................................................................... 2

Station-related illnesses ................................................................................................. 2

General requirements..................................................................................................... 3

Using this manual ............................................................................................................ 8

Basis for this manual....................................................................................................... 9

Chapter 2: Needs Assessment-Based Planning Process ............................................. 11

The design and construction process............................................................................ 11

The needs assessment.................................................................................................... 13

Risk management plan factors ...................................................................................... 14

Risk identification...................................................................................................... 15

Risk evaluation .......................................................................................................... 15

Establishing priorities for action............................................................................. 15

Methods of risk control............................................................................................ 15

Other methods of control........................................................................................ 15

Risk management monitoring and follow up........................................................ 16

The building committee.................................................................................................. 16

The design team............................................................................................................... 18

Selecting an architect...................................................................................................... 19

Chapter 3: Site Selection................................................................................................... 23

Response time and service delivery ............................................................................. 23

Standards.......................................................................................................................... 24

Insurance Services Office Public Protection ClassificationTM rating .................... 24

National Fire Protection Association 1710............................................................. 25

National Fire Protection Association 1720 ............................................................ 25

Demographics .................................................................................................................. 26

Fundamental criteria....................................................................................................... 26

Size .............................................................................................................................. 27

Public water or well................................................................................................... 27

Public sewer or septic system................................................................................. 28

Electric power availability (three-phase versus single-phase)............................ 28

Communications service lines ................................................................................ 28

Storm water (regional).............................................................................................. 28

Clearing/Demolition ................................................................................................. 28
iv Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Natural gas................................................................................................................. 28

Road access................................................................................................................ 29

Grading/Topography ................................................................................................ 29

Wetlands..................................................................................................................... 30

Permitting and approvals ............................................................................................... 30

Condemned property ..................................................................................................... 30

Beware of free sites......................................................................................................... 31

Future growth .................................................................................................................. 31

Other cautions about site selection.............................................................................. 31

Community acceptance .................................................................................................. 31

Once a site is secured ..................................................................................................... 33

Chapter 4: Overview of Design Process and Applicable Construction Components.... 35

Design philosophy for fire and emergency services stations ................................... 35

Design factors .................................................................................................................. 36

Impact of Emergency Medical Services on station design.................................. 38

Type of department and expected response level .............................................. 38

Specific functions...................................................................................................... 39

Local geography ........................................................................................................ 39

Community restrictions ........................................................................................... 40

Flexibility for future requirements......................................................................... 40

Resources................................................................................................................... 41

Fire and emergency services building design process............................................... 41

Site selection.............................................................................................................. 41

Facility programing and functional analysis ......................................................... 42

Facility design development.................................................................................... 43

Construction document phase ............................................................................... 44

Construction bids and permits ............................................................................... 44

Construction.............................................................................................................. 45

Grand opening........................................................................................................... 46

Applicable construction components........................................................................... 46

Foundations............................................................................................................... 46

Apparatus bay floors ................................................................................................ 46

Drains................................................................................................................... 46

Coatings............................................................................................................... 47

Expansion joints ................................................................................................. 47

Structural systems.................................................................................................... 47

Framing................................................................................................................ 47

Walls ..................................................................................................................... 48
Table of Contents v

Control joints ...................................................................................................... 49

Roofs .................................................................................................................... 49

Windows.............................................................................................................. 49

Walk-through doors ........................................................................................... 50

Apparatus bay doors ......................................................................................... 50

Station parking, ramps and exterior driveways.......................................................... 52

Other exterior considerations ....................................................................................... 53

Interior design considerations....................................................................................... 54

Walls............................................................................................................................ 54

Ceilings ....................................................................................................................... 54

Floor finishes ............................................................................................................. 54

Heating, ventilating and air conditioning systems............................................... 55

Lighting and electricity............................................................................................. 56

Detection and fire suppression systems............................................................... 56

Training and the fire station........................................................................................... 56

Classroom/Online ..................................................................................................... 57

Mezzanines ................................................................................................................ 58

Training tower............................................................................................................ 59

Chapter 5: Specific Safety Considerations ..................................................................... 61

Electrocution/Shock hazards ......................................................................................... 61

Extent of problem at the station ............................................................................ 62

Relevant regulations and standards ...................................................................... 63

Preventive design requirements............................................................................. 63

Station grounds .................................................................................................. 64

Support areas ..................................................................................................... 64

Slips and falls.................................................................................................................... 65

Extent of problem at the station ............................................................................ 65

Relevant regulations and standards ...................................................................... 65

Preventive design requirements............................................................................. 66

Station grounds .................................................................................................. 66

Station interiors.................................................................................................. 66

Floor finishes for fall prevention...................................................................... 67

Stairways and guardrails................................................................................... 68

Slide poles ........................................................................................................... 68

Elevated surfaces ............................................................................................... 69

Marine areas ....................................................................................................... 69

Falling objects................................................................................................................... 70

Relevant regulations and standards ...................................................................... 70

Preventive design requirements............................................................................. 70
vi Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Explosions......................................................................................................................... 71

Extent of problem at the station ............................................................................ 71

Relevant regulations and standards ...................................................................... 71

Preventive design requirements............................................................................. 72

Hazardous atmospheres................................................................................... 72

Pressurized cylinders and vessels ................................................................... 72

Vehicle hazards ................................................................................................................ 73

Extent of problem at the station ............................................................................ 73

Relevant regulations and standards ...................................................................... 73

Site layout................................................................................................................... 73

Drowning........................................................................................................................... 74

Extent of problem at the station ............................................................................ 74

Preventive design requirements............................................................................. 74

Natural disasters.............................................................................................................. 74

Extent of problem at the station ............................................................................ 75

Relevant regulations and standards ...................................................................... 75

Earthquakes............................................................................................................... 75

Flooding...................................................................................................................... 77

Fire (all types) ................................................................................................................... 77

Extent of problem at the station ............................................................................ 78

Relevant regulations and standards ...................................................................... 78

Preventive design requirements............................................................................. 79

Fire-resistive construction................................................................................ 79

Fire detection and suppression systems........................................................ 79

Means of egress ................................................................................................. 80

Theft, vandalism and violence ....................................................................................... 80

Relevant regulations and standards ...................................................................... 81

Preventive design requirements............................................................................. 81

Department property........................................................................................ 81

Personal property.............................................................................................. 81

Parking lots ......................................................................................................... 82

Chapter 6: Specific Health Considerations .................................................................... 83

Cancer ............................................................................................................................... 83

Extent of problem at the station ............................................................................ 83

Preventive design requirements............................................................................. 83

Cancer overview........................................................................................................ 83

Overall design considerations................................................................................. 85

Red zone.............................................................................................................. 85

Yellow zone.......................................................................................................... 86

Green zone (cold/clean)..................................................................................... 86
Table of Contents vii

Decontamination............................................................................................................. 86

Equipment decontamination room............................................................................... 86

Personal protective equipment cleaning room.................................................... 87

Personal protective equipment drying.................................................................. 88

Personal protective equipment repairing ............................................................. 89

Personal protective equipment storage................................................................ 89

Respiratory protection room (self-contained breathing apparatus inspection, 

testing and repair) ................................................................................................ 89

Fitness rooms................................................................................................................... 90

Extent of problem at the station ............................................................................ 90

Relevant regulations and standards ...................................................................... 90

Exercises and equipment.................................................................................. 91

Design criteria..................................................................................................... 92

Hazardous materials ....................................................................................................... 93

Extent of problem at the station ............................................................................ 94

Relevant regulations and standards ...................................................................... 94

Preventive design requirements............................................................................. 94

All areas ............................................................................................................... 94

Diesel and vehicle exhaust hazards.............................................................................. 95

Extent of problem at the station ............................................................................ 96

Relevant regulations and standards ...................................................................... 96

Preventive design methods..................................................................................... 96

Filtration .............................................................................................................. 96

Source capture (hose connection) .................................................................. 97

Source capture (on-board system) .................................................................. 97

Station alerting system................................................................................................... 97

Extent of the problem at the station...................................................................... 98

Preventive design requirements............................................................................. 98

Radon exposure............................................................................................................... 99

Extent of problem at the station ............................................................................ 99

Relevant regulations and standards ...................................................................... 100

Preventive design requirements............................................................................. 101

Relevant regulations and standards................................................................ 101

Water source .................................................................................................................... 102

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus ............................................................... 102

Extent of problem at the station ............................................................................ 102

Relevant regulations and standards ...................................................................... 102

Preventive design requirements............................................................................. 102
viii Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Specific facility design and furnishings criteria.............................................. 103

Specific practices to adopt................................................................................ 103

Bed bugs ........................................................................................................................... 103

Extent of problem at the station ............................................................................ 103

Relevant regulations and standards ...................................................................... 103

Preventive design requirements............................................................................. 104

Recommended practices .................................................................................. 104

Food and waterborne infections................................................................................... 104

Extent of problem at the station ............................................................................ 104

Relevant regulations and standards ...................................................................... 104

Preventive design requirements............................................................................. 105

Kitchen................................................................................................................. 105

Ice machines ....................................................................................................... 106

Restrooms and showers ................................................................................... 106

Emergency medical equipment storage areas .............................................. 107

Water supply cross-contamination prevention ............................................. 107

Chapter 7: Key Points — Little Things Mean a Lot........................................................ 109

Initial versus ongoing costs ............................................................................................ 109

Initial costs ................................................................................................................. 109

Ongoing costs............................................................................................................ 109

General.............................................................................................................................. 110

Exterior.............................................................................................................................. 110

Sight lines ................................................................................................................... 110

Access to roadways................................................................................................... 111

Transition angles ....................................................................................................... 111

Bollards....................................................................................................................... 111

Driveways and aprons.............................................................................................. 112

Parking lots ................................................................................................................ 112

Walks........................................................................................................................... 112

Public entry................................................................................................................ 112

Yard hydrant .............................................................................................................. 112

Dumpster ................................................................................................................... 113

Rainwater collection ................................................................................................. 113

Storage building ........................................................................................................ 113

Security....................................................................................................................... 113

Interior............................................................................................................................... 113

Flow............................................................................................................................. 113

Entrance lobby........................................................................................................... 114
Table of Contents ix

Floor coverings .......................................................................................................... 114

Apparatus bay ........................................................................................................... 114

Apparatus bay doors................................................................................................ 116

Diesel exhaust capturing systems.......................................................................... 116

Bollards....................................................................................................................... 116

Utility closest/sinks................................................................................................... 116

Self-contained breathing apparatus cylinder refill stations ............................... 116

Kitchen trash cans..................................................................................................... 117

Slide poles .................................................................................................................. 117

Locker rooms............................................................................................................. 117

Hand sanitizers and wipes....................................................................................... 117

Personal protective equipment storage................................................................ 117

Laundry (personal protective equipment)............................................................ 118

Station alerting systems .......................................................................................... 118

General storage......................................................................................................... 118

Fires............................................................................................................................. 118

Facility repair and maintenance.............................................................................. 118

Fundamentals for a successful project......................................................................... 119

Chapter 8: Compliance and Funding Issues................................................................... 121

Determining compliance................................................................................................. 121

Funding ............................................................................................................................. 121

Achieving a safe and healthy work environment........................................................ 123

Appendix A: Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regional Offices....... 125

Appendix B: Occupational Safety and Health Administration Approved State 

Plans Directory............................................................................................................ 129

Appendix C: Additional Resources .................................................................................. 139

Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations.. 145

Appendix E: Organizations With Related Standards .................................................... 201

Appendix F: Sample Monthly Safety Inspection Checklist ........................................... 213

Appendix G: Sample Safety and Health Design, Construction and Acceptance 

Check-Off List.............................................................................................................. 217

Acronyms............................................................................................................................ 235
x Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations
Chapter 1: Introduction 1

Chapter 1: Introduction

Station-related deaths

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) reports that there were 115 firefighter 

line-of-duty deaths (LODDs) in fire stations for the 10-year period of 2006 to 2015. The 

causes of death were as follows:

ĵ Sudden cardiac deaths — 89.

ĵ Internal traumas — 14.

ĵ Strokes — 10.

ĵ Suicides — 2.

Included in these numbers are the following incidents:

ĵ Two members struck their heads and passed away after suffering medical emergencies 

(one from a heart attack and one from a seizure).

ĵ Seven died from falls.

ĵ Four were struck by apparatus.

ĵ One was trapped under an apparatus.

ĵ One died from an explosion.

ĵ One died from a physical altercation with another member.

ĵ One died from septic shock approximately three months after injuring his elbow in a 

station training session.

The majority of members (66) were engaged in normal activities when their fatal injuries 

occurred. Cardiac deaths, strokes, seizures and blood clots accounted for 58 of those 

66 deaths. Of the internal trauma deaths, two fell from ladders; one died from a leaking 

propane tank that ignited and exploded; one fell in the kitchen and struck his head on an 

appliance; one was crushed between the header of the bay door and the rail of an aerial 

apparatus while attempting to get a piece of equipment that was stuck overhead; and one 

lost his balance and fell, striking his head on the ground.

The primary activity being conducted during the LODDs was training (32). Cardiac arrest 

accounted for 24 of these, and five were the result of stroke. Seven members died while 

performing maintenance activities. One member was crushed against the wall by a brush 

unit when it lunged forward during maintenance. Another member was crushed while 

performing maintenance underneath an apparatus, and the jack used to elevate the 

apparatus failed.

Four members passed away while performing or preparing for community events at the 

facility. One passed away after falling from an antique apparatus while it was being loaded 

onto a trailer. Another one passed away from cardiac arrest while doing construction 

work on a new station, and one was struck by an aerial boom while assisting an insurance 

adjuster who was inspecting hurricane damage to the station. No specific information was 

provided on the fourth fatality.
2 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Additional information about fire and emergency services LODDs can be obtained from 

the following:

National Fire Protection Association

One-Stop Data Shop

1 Batterymarch Park

Quincy, MA 02169-7471

www.nfpa.org

Email: osds@nfpa.org

Phone: 617-984-7451

Station-related injuries

Firefighter and Emergency Medical Services (EMS) personnel injuries at the station are much 

more common than recognized by the industry. Unfortunately, firefighter injury statistics, 

specifically for station injuries, are not collected consistently on a national level. However, 

this information can be obtained for individual departments when injury information is 

maintained in computer databases that allow location searches. Any analysis of available 

data gathered on emergency personnel injuries and deaths that occur at the station clearly 

show there are plenty of opportunities to make changes in the station design.

Most personal injuries at fire and emergency services stations consisted of strains, sprains 

and lacerations. While these injuries may not be severe, many cause lost time. Some, such 

as lower back strains, can result in extensive lost time and can be debilitating. A sprain 

or strain of moderate severity can cost a career department close to $50,000 in lost time, 

workers’ compensation, medical charges, and overtime hiring.

Station-related illnesses

Station-related illnesses are widespread and result from various chemical, biological and 

environmental exposures. Cancer has become the leading illness in the fire services. Fire 

and EMS personnel are constantly exposed to carcinogens at the scene of a fire. They also 

bring particulates back with them. For example, continued exposure to diesel exhaust may 

partially explain the high incidence of certain cancers among firefighters. The Occupational 

Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and other agencies have clearly stated that diesel 

exhaust is a confirmed carcinogen, but there are additional carcinogens found in stations as 

well, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers, 

and polychlorinated biphenyls. With the rate of cancer in the fire services rapidly increasing, 

it is no surprise that more states are passing presumptive laws concerning firefighter cancer. 

As of the end of 2016, 36 states have enacted some form of cancer-presumptive legislation.

Fire and EMS stations also contribute to infectious disease risks. Due to the nature of their 

work, fire and EMS personnel are at an increased risk of exposure to bloodborne and 

airborne pathogens. These pathogens can make their way into fire stations that neglect 

the proper procedures and areas for decontamination/disposal of medical clothing and 

equipment. One study (Sexton & Reynolds, 2010) showed high levels of Methicillin-resistant 

Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in station furniture, while another study (Roberts, 2014) 

found MRSA in both apparatus bays and in living quarters.
Chapter 1: Introduction 3

Fire and EMS personnel are also at an increased risk of noise-induced hearing loss from 

alarm tones and engine noises in the station. In relation to station noise, station alerting 

systems contribute to firefighter heart disease. Studies have shown that heart rates are 

elevated among firefighters responding to alarms. While at the station, a firefighter’s heart 

rate becomes elevated within 15 to 30 seconds after the alarm. One study found that 

firefighters’ heart rates rise near 80 percent of the predicted heart rate maximum during 

the first 90 seconds following the alarm. A 2016 study by MacNeal, Cone and Wistrom 

concluded that small but significant decreases in the amount of tachycardic response to 

station alerting are associated with simple alterations in alerting methods. Station-specific 

and ramp-up tones improve perceived working conditions for emergency responders.

Some other major health illnesses that may result from the station include reactions to mold, 

which can cause respiratory illnesses. Exposure to carbon monoxide and diesel exhaust have 

been shown to increase risk for cardiovascular disease, which may be contributing to sudden 

cardiac death in firefighters. Also, cellular towers have become a new concern, as they are 

being placed on fire stations throughout urban areas. Firefighters working in these stations 

have reported neurological problems, such as headaches, irritability and sleep disturbance.

The U.S. Fire Administration (USFA) recognizes that many emergency response personnel 

have needlessly died and have been injured because of accidents at emergency services 

stations. This recognition is further heightened by the rising number of occupational health 

exposures to emergency responders.

Federal, state and local regulations have endeavored to curb exposures to diesel emissions, 

noise abatement, indoor air quality, hazardous materials, waste exposure, toxins, and 

infectious material. These are all exposures that emergency response personnel are 

subjected to every day they work. Unfortunately, compliance with these regulations is not 

consistent throughout the fire and EMS communities.

General requirements

Many emergency response organizations are familiar with NFPA 

standards. NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational 

Safety, Health, and Wellness Program, defines a fire department facility 

as any building or area owned, operated, occupied or used by a fire 

department on a routine basis, that may include fire and rescue stations, 

training academies, and communication centers (see Figure 1.1). Fire 

department facilities do not include those facilities not normally under 

fire department control. Chapter 10 of the standard, Facility Safety, 

requires an organization’s facilities to do the following:

ĵ Comply with all legally applicable health, safety, building and fire 

code requirements.

ĵ Provide facilities for disinfection, cleaning and storage in accordance 

with NFPA 1581, Standard on Fire Department Infection Control 

Program. NFPA 1581 provides facility requirements for:

Ý Hand washing.

Ý Food storage.

Ý Kitchens.

Figure 1.1 — NFPA 1500 

sets the benchmark for fire 

service safety issues.

Photo courtesy of Yvonne Smith, NFPA.
4 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Ý Shelving.

Ý Bedrooms.

Ý Bathrooms.

Ý Equipment storage.

Ý Personal protective equipment (PPE).

Ý Contaminated storage.

Ý Cleaning areas.

Ý Disinfecting areas.

Ý Disposal areas.

ĵ Comply with NFPA 101, Life Safety Code®, or locally 

adopted requirements of the building code.

ĵ Provide smoke detectors outside all sleeping 

areas, in the immediate vicinity of bedrooms, and 

on every level of the facility, including basements. 

Also, install smoke detectors in every bedroom, 

unless the facility has a supervised automatic 

sprinkler system installed in accordance with 

NFPA 101. Smoke alarm activation must cause an 

automatic evacuation signal for the entire facility.

ĵ Be designed with provisions for the ventilation 

of vehicle exhaust emissions from fire apparatus 

(and other vehicles) to prevent exposure to 

firefighters and to prevent contamination of all 

areas of the facility (see Figure 1.2).

ĵ Have carbon monoxide detectors in all sleeping 

and living areas.

ĵ Have fully-automatic sprinkler system in all new 

facilities.

ĵ Be a smoke-free facility.

ĵ Prohibit contaminated PPE in any sleeping and/or living area.

ĵ Guards and/or covers for slide pole openings to prevent accidental falls through 

the opening.

ĵ Be inspected annually to determine compliance with all legally applicable health, 

safety, building and fire code requirements. These inspections must be documented 

and recorded.

ĵ Be inspected monthly to identify and document/correct any safety or health hazards.

ĵ Have an established system to maintain facilities and to promptly correct any safety 

or health hazards, or code violations.

Fire and emergency services organizations are strongly advised to get a copy of NFPA 1500 

for complete guidance and explanatory language of the standard’s requirements. In addition, 

the USFA strongly recommends that stations be protected with automatic sprinkler systems.

Figure 1.2 — A typical 

apparatus exhaust system 

connection.

Photo courtesy of Mike Wieder, Stillwater, OK.
Chapter 1: Introduction 5

NFPA 1581, Standard on Fire Department Infection Control Program, requires that fire and 

emergency services facilities comply with all relevant health and infection-control laws 

and regulations (see Figure 1.3). Specifically, the standard requires the following:

ĵ Hand washing:

Ý Hand washing facilities anywhere contaminated materials are 

stored, cleaned, disinfected or laundered.

Ý Soap and water are preferred, but if they are not available, you 

can use waterless cleaners, sanitary wipes or other available 

skin cleaning products.

Ý Hand cleaning should occur prior to members entering 

living, sleeping and eating areas, if the member has been 

contaminated with infectious agents.

ĵ Kitchens:

Ý All food prep areas and surfaces used for holding/hanging 

containers and utensils be made of nonporous material.

Ý Dish-washing areas equipped with shelving or racks for dripdrying of food containers.

Ý Shelving and racks made of nonporous materials.

Ý Drainage from shelving and racks designed to drain into the sink 

or pan that empties into the sanitary sewer or septic system.

Ý Kitchens equipped with double-basin sinks or two sinks.

Ý A sprayer attachment for the kitchen sink.

Ý Sinks, countertops and backsplashes all made of nonporous 

material.

Ý Appliances: range, oven, at least one refrigerator, and a 

dishwasher.

Ý Dishwashers capable of producing to a temperature of 140 F.

Ý Food preparation and storage areas meet local health codes.

ĵ Food storage:

Ý Perishable food needing cold storage stored at 40 F or lower.

Ý Perishable food needing freezer storage stored at 0 F or lower.

Ý Foods removed from their original manufactured packaging kept in sealed food 

containers or wrapped with plastic food wrap.

ĵ Sleeping areas:

Ý Minimum of 60 square feet of space per bed.

Ý Ventilation, heating and cooling required.

ĵ Bathrooms:

Ý Doors, sinks and other fixtures designed to minimize or prevent spread of 

contaminants.

Ý Visible sign reminding members to wash their hands after using bathroom.

Ý Meet local health codes.

Figure 1.3 — NFPA 1581 

provides direction on infection 

control programs.

Photo courtesy of Yvonne Smith, NFPA.
6 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

ĵ Equipment storage areas:

Ý Emergency medical supplies and other equipment should be stored in dedicated 

and enclosed areas designed to prevent temperature degradation, contamination 

and other physical damage.

Ý Labeled and secured storage area.

Ý Open and reusable emergency medical supplies and equipment should not be 

stored in personal clothing lockers or areas used for the following:

f Food preparation and cooking.

f Living.

f Sleeping.

f Recreation.

f Personal hygiene, unless physically separated in locker or room.

ĵ Potentially contaminated PPE:

Ý Stored in a dedicated and well-ventilated room.

Ý Not allowed in the following areas:

f Food preparation and cooking.

f Living.

f Sleeping.

f Recreation.

f Personal hygiene.

ĵ Contaminated storage:

Ý Containers or areas for temporary storage of contaminated equipment and EMS 

supplies isolated from members.

Ý Such containers or areas not 

used for anything else.

ĵ Cleaning areas:

Ý Designated cleaning area in 

each facility for cleaning of PPE, 

portable equipment, and other 

clothing (see Figure 1.4).

Ý Lighted, ventilated and drainage 

system connected to sanitary 

sewer system or septic system.

Ý Designated cleaning area 

physically separated from the 

disinfecting facility and laundry 

facility.

Ý Designated area separated from 

the following areas:

f Cleaning of food and utensils.

f Food preparation.

f Personal hygiene.

f Sleeping.

f Living.

Figure 1.4 — Proper washing equipment 

for PPE is essential to firefighter health 

and safety.

Photo courtesy of Jeff Fortney, International Fire Service Training 

Association (IFSTA)/Fire Protection Publications.
Chapter 1: Introduction 7

ĵ Disinfecting facilities:

Ý If EMS is provided, a dedicated facility should be provided.

Ý If in a fire and emergency services facility, the following are required:

f Lighting.

f Venting to the outside environment.

f Drain to sanitary sewer system or septic system.

f Designed to prevent contamination to other areas of the facility.

Ý Disinfecting not allowed in kitchen, living, sleeping or personal hygiene areas.

Ý Equipped with racks or shelving to drip-dry equipment.

Ý Racks and shelving made of nonporous material.

Ý Drainage from racks and shelving flow directly into sanitary sewer system or 

septic system.

Ý If PPE and contaminated uniforms are cleaned in a fire and emergency services facility, 

a dedicated washer and dryer should be provided in the designated cleaning area.

Ý Noncontaminated clothing, bed linens, towels, and other laundry should be cleaned 

in a separate washer/dryer not located in the designated cleaning area.

ĵ Disposal area:

Ý Designated disposal area for regulated waste, including medical waste, not in the 

kitchen, sleeping, living or personal hygiene areas.

Ý Separated from the following areas:

f Food preparation.

f Cleaning of food and utensils.

f Personal hygiene.

f Sleeping.

f Living.

Ý Separated from the designated cleaning area and disinfecting facility.

Ý Locked and secured.

Ý Handling, storage and transportation in accordance with all applicable state and 

local laws and regulations.

Fire and emergency services organizations are strongly advised to get a copy of NFPA 1581 

for complete details and explanatory language of the standard’s requirements.

Emergency response organizations find it difficult to fully comply with the inspection and 

maintenance requirements for a number of reasons, including:

ĵ The potentially large number of requirements that can apply to emergency services 

facilities.

ĵ The lack of organizational knowledge concerning station safety hazards.

ĵ The perception that the station is generally a safer place than the fireground or 

emergency scene.

ĵ Most importantly, the perceived cost of compliance.
8 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

It is imperative that the knowledge base be expanded and that the cost aspect taken into 

consideration with workers’ compensation costs, medical costs, lost time, hire-backs, 

administrative costs, and insurance costs.

There are a significant number of regulations that apply to fire and emergency services

facilities. These regulations may be federal, state, local or insurance-based. Standards, such 

as those from the NFPA, may not be mandatory — depending on the state or jurisdiction

where the facility is located. It is impossible to list all the potentially applicable regulations, 

and to do so would create an extensively thick and unreadable reference. For this reason, 

this manual focuses on mandatory, federal regulations (primarily OSHA) which apply to 

many states within the U.S., and references other standards and regulations as appropriate.

Federal OSHA regulations apply to private sector workers and most federal agencies. Workers 

at state and local government agencies are not covered by federal OSHA regulations, but 

have OSHA protections if they work in those states that have an OSHA-approved state 

program. State OSHA plans are approved programs operated by individual states instead 

of federal OSHA. OSHA rules also permit states and territories to develop plans that cover 

only public sector (state and local government) workers.

Using this manual

It is possible to construct a building without identifying what is required by every regulatory 

agency. Unfortunately, when this happens and problems occur, the structure must be 

modified after it is occupied and functioning. Not only does this often result in unsafe 

conditions, but the costs for modifying the station are almost always much greater than 

if the regulations were considered during the building plans. There have been incidents 

where new fire stations could not obtain a certificate of occupancy until health and safety 

issues were addressed. This manual attempts to limit these occurrences by allowing 

departments to do the following:

ĵ Identify applicable requirements.

ĵ Select appropriate design features.

ĵ Evaluate their compliance for safety and health.

The primary content of this manual is organized into seven more chapters:

ĵ Chapter 2 addresses the planning process. Included in this chapter are roles and 

responsibilities of the department and its building committee, as well as the design 

team. This chapter focuses on the needs assessment model to determine department 

requirements and to identify potential hazards and safety concerns in selecting the 

site and designing the station.

ĵ Chapter 3 discusses all aspects of site selection and its impact on member safety, as 

well as safety of the public. There is information on how to work with the community 

in getting approvals and acceptance for the preferred site. There is also discussion on 

the potential pitfalls of free sites.

ĵ Chapter 4 provides an overview of general design considerations. Many of the factors 

described are part of the overall design and construction process; however, specific 

comments are offered relative to safety and health concerns. Therefore, the principal 

purpose of this section is to increase safety and health awareness in the selection of 

specific station designs and features.
Chapter 1: Introduction 9

ĵ Chapter 5 identifies specific safety concerns at the station. Subsections are provided 

for each safety concern:

Ý Discuss the nature of the hazard.

Ý Examine the extent of the hazard and its potential severity at the station.

Ý List relevant standards and sources of information.

Ý Provide design requirements for preventing or reducing the hazard.

ĵ Chapter 6 identifies specific health concerns at the station, with a special emphasis on 

cancer risk reduction. As in Chapter 5, subsections are provided for each safety concern:

Ý Discuss the nature of the hazard.

Ý Examine the extent of the hazard and its potential severity at the station.

Ý List relevant standards and sources of information.

Ý Provide design requirements for preventing or reducing the hazard.

ĵ Chapter 7 provides a brief description of the small things that can “make or break” 

the safe and healthy function of a fire and emergency services facility. This section 

provides a partial overview of some of the key points discussed in additional detail 

in other chapters.

ĵ Chapter 8 is an overview of compliance of funding issues that confront fire and 

emergency services organizations.

Basis for this manual

The information presented in this manual was researched through on-site visits to several 

stations, ranging from rural, to metropolitan, to multipurpose facilities. In addition, materials 

were gathered through many subject matter experts who routinely give presentations 

at the annual F.I.E.R.O. Fire Station Design Symposium.

Recommendations included in this publication are specifically directed toward those 

injury, health and accident concerns associated with activities that occur at fire and 

emergency services stations. These concerns can be reduced by careful design of new 

and renovated facilities.

The architect alone cannot design a safe fire station. It takes the involvement and combined 

effort of the administration and emergency response personnel to design a safe, healthy 

and functional facility.
10 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations
Chapter 2: Needs Assessment-Based Planning Process 11

Chapter 2: Needs Assessment-Based 

Planning Process

Adequate planning is the key to a successful station design that addresses all existing and 

foreseen safety and health hazards. Station planning is an essential step of the design 

process and should include several individuals who are both inside and outside the 

department. A fundamental part of this process is conducting a needs and risk assessment. 

The needs assessment involves identifying specific needs for the construction of the 

station. When needs are adequately identified, then the group responsible for station 

planning can research and recommend design solutions that satisfy those needs in terms 

of economy, and meeting safety and health requirements. This section describes a general 

station design process, with a specific focus on planning, and provides recommendations 

for carrying out a general needs assessment.

Organizations should be aware of the five essential elements to the process of planning 

a new fire and emergency services facility:

1. Property.

2. Architect.

3. Funding.

4. Space allocation.

5. Design issues and considerations.

The design and construction process

The overall design and construction of a fire or emergency services facility involves several 

steps and can take up to three years to complete. The process will vary from jurisdiction 

to jurisdiction, but here is an example of how the process might unfold:

ĵ Needs assessment.

ĵ Developing specific spaces and square footage program.

ĵ Issuing a Request for Qualifications (RFQ).

ĵ Short list the design firms that respond to the RFQ.

ĵ Issuing Request for Proposals (RFP) from short-listed firms.

ĵ Interviewing short-listed design firms.

ĵ Selecting the design firm.

ĵ Conducting and discussing additional case studies (optional).

ĵ Revisiting the specific spaces and square footage program.

ĵ Developing design concepts.

ĵ Developing a Schematic Design (SD).

ĵ Design development.

ĵ Construction documents.

ĵ Bidding the project.

ĵ Construction contract administration and construction observation.

ĵ Building acceptance and certificate of occupancy.

ĵ Post-occupancy evaluation.
12 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Figure 2.1 — Modern fire stations feature wide-open apparatus bays with drivethrough capabilities.

Photo courtesy of Mike Wieder, Stillwater, OK. 

The actual design of a station or facility takes place once the need for a station has been 

identified and established by the local government and/or fire department leadership 

(see Figure 2.1). The first step in this process is to appoint a building committee. The 

building committee is generally appointed to determine many of the details required in 

developing a facility design and to oversee the design/construction process. The actual 

design process is carried out by the design team that consists of the architect and other 

experts in building design. The design process begins once an architect is chosen. The 

components of a design team should include the following:

ĵ Fire and emergency services administration — The administration of the organization 

or a governing authority decides on the need for a station based on department 

operations and community expectations. A department official, such as the department 

chief or a member of his or her staff, appoints a building committee.

ĵ The building committee — conducts all or part of the needs assessment to determine 

requirements for the station design. The building committee’s primary responsibility 

is to oversee both the design and construction process by interacting with the design 

team and contractor.

ĵ The design team — prepares the detailed station design based on requirements of the 

department through interacting with the department administration and/or building 

committee. The design team translates the department needs and requirements into 

a specification from which the contractor can build the station.

While the above descriptions represent one possible relationship between the groups 

involved in designing the station, there are several variations of this process. For example, 

the degree to which the department defines its needs can be split between the department 
Chapter 2: Needs Assessment-Based Planning Process 13

administration or the building committee. In some cases, organizations may depend on 

outside specialists or consultants. Larger departments or departments which are part 

of the local government may have groups (i.e., standing building committees) already 

established with these responsibilities.

The specific process for how fire and emergency services organizations, local governments 

(or other department authorities), architects, and construction engineering firms interact 

to develop a specific station design varies, especially in the consideration of safety and 

health regulations, building codes, and other specifications.

In all cases, the design process should start with a needs assessment of the community, 

the organization, and their expectations. Fire and emergency services administrators 

should endeavor to provide the best facility with their available budget, in terms of meeting 

the priorities established in the needs assessment, particularly those related to safety 

and health. The location of the structure (with consideration of the community’s growth) 

and response time, plus the enhancement of total coverage with existing or neighboring 

stations, are paramount features in new station design.

Details should be handled by a team of individuals representing various areas of expertise 

related to the design project. The team should include at least one individual who is 

knowledgeable in emergency responder safety and health standards and regulations.

The planning phase of fire and emergency services facilities is a complicated task and 

requires close cooperation among all parties involved, particularly in the early stages 

when organizational station needs are identified.

The needs assessment

The first consideration of facility planning should be a needs assessment of the community 

and department to list specific requirements for the station in terms of the following:

ĵ Station capabilities (see Figures 2.2a and 2.2b).

ĵ Equipment (e.g., apparatus) accommodation.

ĵ Member safety and health.

Figure 2.2a — Some fire stations that 

house only a few pieces of equipment 

and personnel are relatively small 

structures.

Photo courtesy of Mike Wieder, Stillwater, OK.

Figure 2.2b — Fire stations that serve 

a variety of purposes, including 

emergency response, administration, 

emergency management, and public 

education, can be expansive structures.

Photo courtesy of Mike Wieder, Stillwater, OK.
14 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

The station’s needs assessment should begin with community expectations and operational 

needs, which can be broken down into more specific requirements. For example, a general 

need might be to accommodate an engine company and an EMS company at the same 

station. A specific need within this general need is to provide a bay capable of housing 

two apparatus and an EMS vehicle. As will be explained in later sections, there are several 

factors to be considered. The building committee or other responsible group must clearly 

define these needs and, where possible, quantify their requirements.

There are several valuable sources of information that should be consulted during the 

process of defining specific needs for the design and construction of a station:

ĵ The department’s own history with existing stations — a review of existing stations’ 

capabilities, equipment accommodations, and personnel safety and health can point 

to aspects of the design that work and those that do not.

ĵ Regularly attending educational symposia, such as the F.I.E.R.O. annual Fire Station 

Design Symposium (www.fierofirestation.com).

ĵ Seeking advice from neighboring departments, as well as departments in the region 

and across the nation.

ĵ Reading articles in periodicals (both in print and online).

ĵ Hiring a consultant who specializes in fire and emergency services planning and design.

The needs assessment must include a risk assessment that identifies safety and health 

requirements. Annex D of NFPA 1500 provides excellent guidance on how to conduct a 

risk assessment, as well as a sample risk management plan. The risk management plan 

includes the following:

ĵ Risk identification.

ĵ Risk evaluation.

ĵ Establishing priorities for action.

ĵ Methods of risk control.

ĵ Other methods of control.

ĵ Risk management monitoring and follow up.

It is important that health and safety features be a principal part of the design process. 

Lack of these features will cause member injuries, health issues and deaths. The old adage 

of “pay me now or pay me later” is appropriate for this situation. Risk factors that NFPA 

1500 recommends and should be considered are as follows.

Risk management plan factors

These have been adapted from NFPA 1500 (2018 edition), Annex D, “Risk Management 

Plan Factors.”
Chapter 2: Needs Assessment-Based Planning Process 15

Risk identification

List potential problems for every aspect of fire department operations at the station. The 

following are examples of sources of information that may be useful in the process:

ĵ A list of the risks to which members are or may be exposed.

ĵ Records of previous accidents, illnesses and injuries (both locally and nationally).

ĵ Facility and apparatus surveys, inspections, etc.

Risk evaluation

Using the following two questions, evaluate each item listed in the risk identification process:

1. What is the potential frequency of occurrence?

2. What is the potential severity and expense of its occurrence?

The following sources of information should help set priorities in the risk control plan:

ĵ Safety audits and inspection reports.

ĵ Prior accident, illness and injury statistics.

ĵ Application of national data to the local circumstances.

ĵ Professional judgement in evaluating risks unique to the jurisdiction.

Establishing priorities for action

Knowing the frequency and severity of risk occurrences serves as a tool for establishing 

priorities. Low frequency/High risk occurrences deserve immediate action. Nonserious 

incidents with a low likelihood of occurrence are a low priority and are placed near the 

bottom of the action required list.

Methods of risk control

Once the risks are identified and evaluated, determine which controls should be implemented 

and documented. The two primary methods of controlling risk, in order of preference, 

are as follows:

1. Wherever possible, totally eliminate/avoid the risk or the activity that presents the 

risk. For example, if the risk is falling on ice, then do not allow members to go outside 

when icy conditions are present, unless it is absolutely necessary.

2. Where it is not possible or practical to avoid or eliminate the risk, take steps to control 

it. For example, in the above situation, apply sand or absorbent on the ice.

Other methods of control

These include, but are not limited to the following:

ĵ Safety program development, implementation and enforcement.

ĵ Standard operating procedures development, dissemination and enforcement.

ĵ Training.

ĵ Inspections.
16 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Risk management monitoring and follow up

Periodically evaluate the selected controls to determine if they are working satisfactorily. 

If not, identify and implement new control measures.

Once department needs have been projected and regulatory needs are identified, the 

assistance of an architectural firm (or design team) can be obtained. The design team will 

provide the department with preliminary drawings for reviewing department concepts 

and compliance with regulatory agencies. In many cases, the building committee serves 

as an interface between department hierarchy and the design team.

The building committee

As the interface between the fire and emergency services organization and the design 

team, the building committee serves an important function in ensuring that department 

needs are met. The degree of autonomy provided to the building committee will depend 

on the individual organization. In addition to supervising the design/construction process, 

building committee responsibilities can include the following:

ĵ Completing the needs assessment.

ĵ Choosing the architect.

ĵ Monitoring the project’s schedule and budget.

ĵ Making recommendations or decisions for approving changes.

The design or redesign of existing facilities can have several different groups or individuals 

represented on the building committee:

ĵ Administrative staff.

ĵ Organization’s health and safety officer.

ĵ Emergency response personnel.

ĵ Labor representatives (if department personnel are represented by a union).

ĵ Local officials involved in planning.

ĵ Local officials involved in budgeting.

ĵ Maintenance personnel.

ĵ Code and regulation personnel.

ĵ The community.

ĵ Special consultants.

Each of these groups and individuals have their own perspective on the design of a facility 

and will want their own specific needs addressed. The constraint faced by each group is 

the limitation of funds available for building the station. Therefore, the attainment of each 

objective is often a function of how these funds are allocated for the facility’s construction.

Ideally, the department should choose qualified individuals to serve on the building 

committee. While some representatives are likely to be selected based on their current 

positions within the department or part of the community government (for nonvolunteer 

departments), organizations should assign individuals who have some expertise in 

construction principles, designs, techniques and budgets, since changes identified early 

in the process are much easier to correct. In addition, a desire to learn and become 

educated on the unique facets of a fire and emergency services facility will help provide 

a better outcome.
Chapter 2: Needs Assessment-Based Planning Process 17

Roles of the groups and individuals represented on the building committee:

ĵ Administration staff — The organization’s administrative staff should be able to 

provide a historical overview of what has worked and what hasn’t worked for the 

department. They will also be keenly aware of how the station must function to meet 

overall department operational needs. They should also be aware of the impact on 

response times based on the location of the facility.

ĵ Health and Safety Officer (HSO) — The organization’s HSO will have data on injuries that 

occur in the facility and on the facility property, and can identify features to minimize 

injuries and possible death. This individual also has a focus on design and furnishings 

that are often over-looked in the design and construction process.

ĵ Emergency response personnel — Members who must live and/or work in these 

facilities should have an active voice in the design process and will provide the most 

beneficial information. These individuals know what it takes to make the structure 

work both functionally and comfortably. Studies have proven that firefighter comfort 

greatly influences their productivity. Members are often the ones who are quick to 

identify deficiencies.

ĵ Labor representatives (if the organization has a labor union) — The local union will 

also speak for the line personnel and try to obtain as many features as possible for 

increasing their safety and comfort. They have health and safety resources, and they 

can obtain resources that can bring valuable information to the process.

ĵ Local officials involved in community planning — Community planners will need to 

be involved on the front-end to make sure the site location is best suited for future 

planned growth and possible changes in demographics.

ĵ Budget personnel — Budget personnel typically want the most economical structure 

for meeting their budget. They may not have projected funds to cover features based 

on requirements from voluntary standards. Arguments should be made to justify these 

additional requirements by showing improved safety and decreased organizational 

costs (in a cost-benefit analysis). Failure to comply with existing federal, state or local 

requirements during the initial planning process will usually add greater costs later when 

modifications are required. Therefore, part of the cost-benefit analysis should show 

how higher payouts in future years will occur if certain requirements are overlooked 

in the initial design process.

ĵ Maintenance personnel — Personnel responsible for the maintenance work will examine 

station design in terms of longevity and maintenance concerns. They will also make 

sure that utility service areas are accessible and building components are compatible 

with other building components within their realm of responsibility.

ĵ Code and regulation personnel — Code officials should be involved during the 

facility design process. The structure must meet all applicable codes and ordinances, 

typically those found in the uniform building and fire codes. There must be a clear 

need demonstrated by the fire and emergency services organization to meet these 

requirements by performing a cost-benefit analysis and showing the potential liability 

to the organization if the codes are not followed.
18 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

ĵ The community — Community involvement, especially from the very beginning of 

the process, is crucial. Citizens will want to ensure that the station does not affect the 

local community in detrimental ways, such as providing pedestrian safety hazards, 

noise, or an appearance inconsistent with the aesthetics of the neighborhood. Noise 

and aesthetics are especially important to the neighborhood. Their participation in 

the building committee is essential. It bears repeating that the interior of the facility 

belongs to the organization, but the exterior belongs to the community.

ĵ Special consultants — The idea of a hiring a special consultant should not be summarily 

dismissed. He or she may be hired for any number of reasons: to assist during the 

design process with some special need, or to provide a general understanding to help 

fire and emergency services departments who are not familiar with the intricacies of 

a fire and EMS facility that is safe, healthy and functional. It must be understood that 

the design and construction of emergency response facilities is a once-in-a-lifetime 

occurrence for many communities. Larger organizations also have frequent turnover in 

personnel assignments, and there is little continuity from the design and construction 

of one facility to the next.

The design team

The design team will consist of the architect and other experts who translate specific 

emergency response department needs and requirements into a set of plans from which 

a contractor can build the station. In most cases, the design team will at least include 

an architect and other design specialists from outside the department, but it is possible 

that some larger organizations will have an in-house facilities design staff with their own 

architects and other experts.

Depending on the size of the architectural firm and the resources available to the 

department, several specialists representing different areas of expertise may be required. 

In addition to the architect, station design can conceivably require a design team for the 

following specialties:

ĵ Civil engineering.

ĵ Structural engineering.

ĵ Mechanical engineering.

ĵ Plumbing engineering.

ĵ Electrical engineering.

ĵ Acoustical engineering.

ĵ Lighting.

ĵ Communications/Station alerting.

ĵ Hardware.

ĵ Information technology.

ĵ Space planning.

ĵ Interior design.

ĵ Industrial hygiene.

ĵ Infection control.

ĵ Community relations.

Larger architectural firms will already have specialists in many of these areas. Other 

architects may be required to hire advisors or other architectural firms representing 

these areas.
Chapter 2: Needs Assessment-Based Planning Process 19

The mechanical, electrical and plumbing engineers (referred to as MEP) are especially 

critical. In post-occupancy, shortcomings in these systems are often the most problematic. 

However, spotting these deficiencies during construction can be difficult. It is important 

that the MEP have excellent references.

Selecting an architect

The choice of an architect is of critical importance. It is imperative that the architect have 

experience with fire and emergency facilities design, especially in the areas of member 

health and safety. The role the architect will perform on your project is similar in nature 

to a battalion chief’s role on an emergency scene. The architect will take command of the 

project; orchestrate the supporting consultants; provide schedules, milestones, deadlines 

and budgets; and lead the overall design of your project’s requirements. The architect 

should also be a part of the construction oversight team during construction to ensure 

the organization gets what it requests.

The architect will be the primary contact for the organization, which is referred to as the 

“client.” He or she needs to have a close relationship with the client, as this project (design 

and subsequent construction) will take years to accomplish. The organization needs to 

establish a “team” for the architect to interact with. The team will need to provide some 

basic, yet specific, information for the architect to base their design decisions on. The 

team will also need to be able to provide plan reviews to ensure the architect is accurately 

accomplishing the project objectives.

The architect must be a leader; have a background in “commercial” architecture, design and 

construction (not residential); and have an extensive background in fire and emergency services 

facilities’ design and construction. The architect’s “team” must also have experience in design 

and construction. The architect’s team consists of civil, structural, plumbing, mechanical and 

electrical engineers. Any one of these trades can have detrimental effects on the project if 

their understanding of emergency services facilities is limited. The organization’s relationship 

is primarily with the architect, but that does not lessen the need for experienced engineers.

If the department has previously used or hired a “designer” who has performed well in the 

past, then their services could be considered, possibly as a consultant or coordinator acting 

on behalf of the organization. However, this entity should still be vetted for qualifications 

as there could be conflicts of interest. Likewise, architects with no experience in fire station 

design should be avoided, simply because the learning curve is too great.

An interesting analogy is to think of this process like a medical procedure. People want to go 

to a physician who is qualified (i.e., a specialist) to treat their specific condition. Architects 

also have “specialized” areas of expertise. For example, an architect who specializes in 

hospitals, schools or commercial buildings will not understand the complexities of a safe 

and healthy fire and emergency services station.

Always pay attention to the architect’s proposal, including:

ĵ Support staff.

ĵ Consulting engineers.

ĵ Project experience.

ĵ Specific types of project completed.
20 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

In addition, contact the general contractors who have built the architect’s projects. Their 

insight into the quality of the drawings, the personality of the architect, and the overall 

constructability of the project can be a strong tool in the selection of a qualified architect.

Architects with fire and emergency services facilities experience understand how to 

reconcile an organization’s wish list with the realities of the design and physical construction 

techniques that translate the information into a realistic budget. The architect’s job and 

primary function is to design a building, which meets or exceeds the organization’s specific 

needs, while using their skills to blend the facility into the community.

The architectural firm must be involved as early in the process as possible. They can take on 

every aspect of the project from property selection and evaluation, to handing over the keys 

at construction completion. They can be an aid in establishing a realistic budget, timeline, 

partners (law enforcement, city hall, public works, etc.) and other potential relationships.

Occasionally, local jurisdictions will insist on using a local architectural firm. Most 

architectural firms have no experience in designing fire and emergency services facilities. 

If the firm has no experience, it is imperative that the firm “joint venture” with a firm that 

has experience to ensure that local rules or ordinances are being met while providing the 

specific project design needs that the organization requires.

Overall, the organization must support the selected architect and have confidence in 

their choice. The organization must also be an active participant in the process and must 

maintain a select group of staff capable of seeing the project through to completion; 

decision-makers who have the support of the department can proactively work directly 

with the architect. A quality architectural firm will meet at least the following qualifications:

ĵ Demonstrate successful performance in the design and construction of at least five 

fire and emergency services facilities.

ĵ Familiarity with government contracts.

ĵ Be versed in commercial projects, preferably public sector projects like fire or police 

stations, libraries, civic centers and city halls.

ĵ Be registered in the state or jurisdiction where the department resides.

ĵ Be a member of the American Institute of Architects (AIA) (preferred, but not required).

ĵ Be familiar with the NFPA, nationally recognized emergency response standards, Insurance 

Services Office (ISO) classification, organizational accreditation, and all-hazards response.

ĵ Be familiar with Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) and the U.S. 

Green Building Council (USGBC) design standards. Although certifications in these 

areas are desired, they cost money to achieve. The architect should be able to design a 

facility that meets or exceeds the certification requirements for LEED and the USGBC, 

regardless of actual certification credit.

ĵ Have a staff with expertise in the unique aspects of an emergency response facility.

ĵ At least five valid references from other fire departments and the contractors who 

built their facilities.
Chapter 2: Needs Assessment-Based Planning Process 21

Even though the architect will carry the primary responsibility for the station design, 

there are several other entities, not previously mentioned, that may need to be involved. 

These typically include other parts of the city or county organizations, such as the finance 

department, legal department, accounting office, equal employment office, health 

department, real estate, public works, streets department, and the office of construction 

and land use. In the case of volunteer fire departments, this may include the board of 

trustees or community representatives. When each of these groups can cohesively work 

together, the acceptance of the project is enhanced, the project remains within budget, 

and the community and department are able to meet their expectations.

It is always wise to involve the community early and often. For example, hold public 

meetings at a local library or school where the team can be introduced and the project 

can be proposed. Then, meet again to display and discuss design themes and concepts. 

And finally, meet again prior to commencing with construction activities. Be transparent, 

positive and proactive. The architect should be able to lead these discussions and provide 

all the graphics, presentation boards and any other project-related information. The 

organization will need to provide the reasons for the project, the budget amounts, and 

the response time criteria.

Finally, fire and emergency services organizations will need to consider the variety of 

project delivery methods available to acquire the services necessary for the design and 

construction of the project. The most common methods:

ĵ Design-bid-build — The architect provides the design, the project is advertised for bids 

from contractors, then the lowest qualified bidder “builds” the facility.

ĵ CM@R or Construction Manager at Risk — The architect begins the design, and the 

department advertises for general contractor services based on experience only. Then, 

as the design progresses, the general contractor is on board and works directly with 

the architect to provide feasibility input and more accurate cost estimating. As the 

project nears construction, the general contractor provides Guaranteed Maximum 

Prices (GMPs). GMPs are the bids from the specific trades that the general contractor 

will oversee to build the facility. These are shared with the project team. The project 

team can then select the subcontractors based on their bid, their qualifications, or 

combinations thereof, to establish the actual construction costs.

ĵ Design-build — A method of project delivery in which one entity, the design-build team, 

works under a single contract with the fire and emergency services organizations (project 

owner) to provide design and construction services. This is typically a “joint venture” 

between the general contractor and the architect, and it is typically a performancebased selection process where the team has collaborated on projects of similar types 

together. It is common for the contract to be with the general contractor, and the 

architect is then working for the contractor. In this instance, it is also imperative that 

the contractor has considerable fire and emergency services project experience.
22 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations
Chapter 3: Site Selection 23

Chapter 3: Site Selection

It has been said that these are the two most difficult things about fire stations:

1. Trying to put a station in a community.

2. Trying to take a station out of a community.

Site selection can be a challenge to any organization. There are multiple considerations for 

selecting a site. The two up-front considerations are finding a site location that optimizes the 

response time and service delivery, and getting community acceptance. Poor site selection 

can result in poor service delivery and additional costs that could be applied to aiding the 

organization’s most valuable asset — its members, specifically their safety and health.

Response time and service delivery

In almost all cases, service delivery is the fundamental concern of any site selection. 

Response time is always a concern if a community is experiencing any of the following:

ĵ Expanding or filling in its geographical area.

ĵ Adding an in-fill station to take a workload off existing station(s).

ĵ Relocating an existing station.

Fire and emergency services organizations have two methods for justifying the need for 

a new station that are based on service delivery and response time. The first method is 

time and distance. A common response benchmark is for an organization to respond to 90 

percent of emergency calls within eight minutes. Using response time data, the department 

can identify where it is not able to meet this benchmark, and it can therefore justify the 

need for an additional facility.

There are several software packages available on the market which measure and show 

response distances on maps. Typically, the software integrates with existing Geographic 

Information Systems (GISs) to create maps. Response time software varies from being 

general and relatively cheap to expensive and very specific. While these are very valuable 

tools for developing qualitative data, there is no substitute for a fire and emergency services 

leader’s knowledge of their jurisdictions.

If software is not an option, the manual method may work quite well. Response time is 

calculated by multiplying the average speed of fire apparatus by the distance being traveled. 

For example, traveling 4 miles at 30 miles per hour equals an eight-minute response time. 

Fire and emergency services organizations can do GIS functions by hand with a large-scale 

map, a measuring wheel, and a few highlighters. Either way, a map showing response 

problems is a valuable tool.

The second method for justifying the need for a fire station is to establish a criterion on 

the number of calls to an area within a given time — say, when there are more than two 

calls per day in an area, a station will be required. Workload criteria may backfire, however, 

if a problem arises from a long response into a remote area.
24 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Standards

The ISO Public Protection Classification (PPCTM) is an evaluation program that classifies 

public fire protection on a scale of one to 10. Some areas of the country, and some insurance 

companies, use past losses in the region to base their fire insurance fees. However, there 

are over 50,000 protection areas in the U.S. that use the ISO PPC classification rating.

Departments are strongly advised to check the requirements of the two deployment 

standards from the NFPA. While NFPA standards are not law, and their adoption is up to 

the authority having jurisdiction, they are considered a standard level of care and can be 

used for or against fire and emergency services organizations.

NFPA 1710, Standard for the Organization and Deployment of Fire Suppression Operations, 

Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Career Fire Departments, 

covers career departments, and NFPA 1720, Standard for the Organization and Deployment 

of Fire Suppression Operations, Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the 

Public by Volunteer Fire Departments, covers volunteer departments.

Insurance Services Office Public Protection ClassificationTM rating

An excellent ISO PPC rating, especially a rating of one, not only reduces fire insurance rates 

for many in the country, but it is also a sign of an organization that provides a high level of 

protection, and is a source of pride for the community and the organization. Organizations 

that receive a rating of one almost always proudly display this rating on their facilities, 

their fleet, and other items, such as letterheads, uniforms, etc.

ISO PPC determines the classification of a fire department through field visits to assess the 

fire protection infrastructure. They rely heavily on nationally recognized standards, such as:

ĵ The NFPA.

ĵ American Water Works Association (AWWA).

ĵ Association of Public-Safety Communications Officials.

The classification system is based on points, with the maximum number of points being 

105.5. The allocation of points is broken down into the following areas:

ĵ Fire department — 50 points:

Ý The first-alarm response, such as number of firefighters, number of engines, 

number of ladders, number of service companies.

Ý Use of automatic aid.

Ý Equipment carried on apparatus.

Ý Pumping capacity.

Ý Reserve apparatus.

Ý Training.

Ý Operational considerations.

ĵ Water supply — 40 points:

Ý Community water supply system.

Ý Hydrant placement.

Ý Hydrant size, type and placement.

Ý Hydrant maintenance.
Chapter 3: Site Selection 25

ĵ Emergency communications systems — 10 points:

Ý Communications facilities.

Ý Support for the system.

ĵ Community risk reduction — 5.5 points:

Ý Fire prevention code adoption.

Ý Fire prevention code enforcement.

Ý Public safety education.

Ý Fire investigation.

National Fire Protection Association 1710

NFPA 1710 for career departments has more stringent requirements 

than does NFPA 1720 for volunteer departments (see Figure 3.1).

NFPA 1710 requires the following:

ĵ Turnout time for fire responses — 80 seconds.

ĵ Turnout time for emergency medical responses — 60 seconds.

ĵ For the arrival of the first engine at a fire-suppression incident 

— 240 seconds or less.

ĵ For a high-rise response — 480 seconds or less for the first fullalarm assignment for a fire-suppression incident.

ĵ For high-rise fire incidents — 610 seconds or less for the first 

full-alarm assignment.

ĵ For a unit with an automatic external defibrillator (AED) — 240 

seconds or less.

ĵ For an advanced life support unit, provided the organization has a 

responder with an AED or a basic life support on the scene within 

240 seconds — 480 seconds or less.

The number of personnel required to mitigate an incident is based on a 

task analysis as described in the standard. Fire and emergency services 

organizations are strongly advised to get a copy of NFPA 1710 for complete 

details and explanatory language of the standard’s requirements.

National Fire Protection Association 1720

NFPA 1720 contains the following requirements for volunteer 

departments (see Figure 3.2):

ĵ For urban areas, there must be minimum available staff of 15 

people to respond, with a response time of nine minutes, which 

is met 90 percent of the time.

ĵ For suburban areas, there must be a minimum available staffing of 

10 people to respond, with a response time of 10 minutes, which 

is met 80 percent of the time.

Figure 3.2 — NFPA 1720 sets 

requirements for volunteer 

fire departments.

Photo courtesy of Yvonne Smith, NFPA.

Figure 3.1 — NFPA 1710 sets 

requirements for career fire 

departments.

Photo courtesy of Yvonne Smith, NFPA.
26 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

ĵ For rural areas, there must be a minimum available staffing of six people to respond, 

with a response time of 14 minutes, which is met 80 percent of the time.

ĵ For remote areas, there must be a minimum available staffing of four people to respond, 

with a response time strictly dependent on the travel distance, which is met 90 percent 

of the time.

The response time requirements of these standards will assist the department in assessing and 

clarifying its needs. The standard applies to both fire and EMS responses. Fire and emergency 

services organizations are strongly advised to get a copy of the appropriate standard for 

their type of department for complete details and explanatory language of the standard’s 

requirements. The standards may also be viewed online, free of charge, at www.nfpa.org.

Demographics

The demographics of a community can play a role in site selection. Population density 

typically has a direct bearing on the number of responses an organization will have from 

a designated site. For example, multifamily housing areas will create a higher number of 

responses than single-family housing areas.

Hospitals, nursing homes, assisted living centers, and other facilities with special life-safety 

hazards must factor into an organization’s site selection. Other factors:

ĵ Heavy-rail and light-rail lines that might disrupt an organization’s response.

ĵ Drawbridges that might disrupt an organization’s response.

ĵ Rush-hour traffic.

ĵ Interstate highway access.

ĵ Special community events.

ĵ Seasonal population variances.

ĵ One-way streets.

ĵ Bridges with low-weight capacity.

Fundamental criteria

A fire and emergency services station 

is a major investment. It must function 

and serve the community for decades 

(see Figure 3.3). Since a station is a 

visible and long-term statement of 

the community’s commitment to the 

safety and well-being of its members, 

it should be designed to fit into the 

community and be highly functional. 

Figure 3.3 — There are basic fundamental 

criteria that apply to any new fire station 

that is being considered.

Photo courtesy of Jennifer Bettiol and Ray Holliday, BRW Architects.
Chapter 3: Site Selection 27

The following fundamental criteria will provide guidance in site assessment and selection:

ĵ Size.

ĵ Public water or well.

ĵ Public sewer or septic system.

ĵ Power availability (three-phase versus single-phase).

ĵ Communication service lines.

ĵ Storm water.

ĵ Clearing/Demolition.

ĵ Natural gas.

ĵ Road access.

ĵ Grading/Topography.

ĵ Wetlands.

ĵ Approvals/Permitting.

Size

An acre for every 5,000 square feet of building is a general rule of thumb. This will allow 

enough room for on-site rainwater retention, parking for employees and visitors, and 

turning radius for drive-through bays. However, there are many variables to this rule of 

thumb. Parking is often an overlooked consideration when selecting a site. The following 

criteria should be used in determining parking spot allocations:

ĵ Additional spaces to accommodate shift change if the station is to be fully staffed 

24 hours a day.

ĵ Additional spaces if there is a community room.

ĵ Additional spaces if functions other than response staffing are to be located at the 

station (such as investigators, public educators, permitting, administrative staff, and 

other community agencies).

ĵ If off-site parking is required, what is the distance, and what is the long-range 

commitment of the off-site parking area to the organization?

Additional space might be needed if exterior training evolutions are to be conducted 

on site. Also, there should be space allocated for additional apparatus to stage for joint 

meetings and training.

If a dumpster is going to be located on the site, there must be space allocated for it. Space 

will also be required to allow the waste management vehicle to safely access and empty 

the dumpster, to turn around, and to safely exit the property. Keep in mind the inside 

turning radius of a tandem axle apparatus or service truck is 35 feet.

Public water or well

While this might be a given for most available sites, it can be a big issue. Municipal and urban 

fire and emergency services organizations are often looking for new sites to provide service 

to an expanding response footprint. This typically comes through annexation. There have 

been many cases where a department is required to provide emergency response services 

before public water has been provided. This requires drilling a well that will hopefully provide 

enough flow and storage to satisfy the facility’s needs. If the station is to be staffed 24 hours 

a day, the water demands are typically much higher than a normal single-family dwelling.
28 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Public sewer or septic system

As with public water or a well, this is likely a given for most sites. Likewise, municipal and 

urban fire and emergency services organizations are often looking for new sites to provide 

service to an expanding response footprint. This typically comes through annexation. There 

have been many cases where a department is required to provide emergency response 

services before a public sewer system has been installed. If the station is to be staffed 24 

hours a day, the sewage output is much higher than a normal single-family dwelling. This will 

overwhelm a septic system. On occasions where this has occurred, the organization must 

contract with a septic pumping service company and set up pumping on a weekly basis.

Electric power availability (three-phase versus single-phase)

Most sites have electric power capabilities to one extent or the other. It is important to 

know if the power source can supply the unique needs of a fire and emergency services 

organization. Another consideration is whether power can be fed underground to the 

facility. Underground is preferred to minimize power disruptions due to storms, motor 

vehicle accidents, and acts of civil unrest.

Communications service lines

Communications service has become increasingly important with the need for 

communication beyond just a telephone line. Cable lines for internet access are second 

only to power lines as a basic need for a functional fire station. In addition, there might 

be a need for television service through a cable line.

Storm water (regional)

Storm water runoff is a major concern that local and regional governments are addressing. 

When assessing a site, it is important to get the big picture of how storm water might 

impact the site in the event of sudden, heavy downfalls, as well as prolonged steady rain 

or snow-melt events. Equally important is the impact of the new facility on storm water 

for the community and the region. In many jurisdictions, a retention area is required to 

maintain and control storm water.

Clearing/Demolition

Most potential station sites will require varying degrees of clearing and/or demolition. 

These are costs that have increased in most areas because of local codes impacting the 

disposal of cleared vegetation or demolished building materials. In addition to the cost of 

having to segregate materials for disposal, there can always be disposal fees associated 

with removal of vegetation.

Natural gas

Access to a natural gas line will lower the operating costs of a fire and emergency services 

facility. Natural gas burns cleaner than other fossil fuels, producing half the carbon dioxide as 

coal and about a third less than oil. It also emits fewer amounts of toxic chemicals like nitrogen 

oxides and sulfur dioxide. In the U.S. market, it is an abundant resource, and it is currently 

the cheapest source of electrical power. It costs less than coal, hydroelectricity and solar.

Another consideration for assessing natural gas is the growing market for natural gas 

driven vehicles. Emergency response vehicles are easily suited for this application because 

the need to refuel is almost always at the same place — the station.
Chapter 3: Site Selection 29

Road access

Road access involves several facets to assess:

ĵ Line of sight — Can the driver/operator of emergency vehicles get a good field of vision 

to access the road without creating a hazard to motoring public or the emergency 

response vehicles?

ĵ Returning to the station — If the vehicles are to be backed into the station, can this be 

done without having to stop traffic on the road?

ĵ Extremely busy roads — Will the site require traffic signals to stop traffic so the 

responding apparatus can safely/quickly enter the road? Many departments have 

opted to put facilities on adjacent or side streets to avoid having to access busy roads.

ĵ Responding uphill — If the responding apparatus must start out by climbing a grade, 

their response time will be negatively impacted. Sites at the bottom of a hill should be 

avoided, and sites located along an inclined road should receive careful assessment.

Grading/Topography

Grading can be a major expense for a fire and emergency services facility. Foremost, how 

much soil will need to be brought in, or how much soil will need to be removed? How far 

will the soil need to be transported if it is brought in or removed? If soil must be brought in, 

it will need to be compacted. Conversely, existing soil may require additional compaction. 

The architect used a creative design to fit this mountain fire station into the sloping lot. The 

two-story work and living spaces are offset at an angle from the apparatus bay (see Figure 3.4).

Figure 3.4 — This station being built on a hilltop is an example of a special 

construction consideration.

Photo courtesy of Robert Tutterow, F.I.E.R.O.
30 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Grading also entails diverting storm water away from the parking lot and facility. In many 

cases, it involves the construction of a retention pond. In mountainous areas, grading may 

require blasting to break through stone to provide space for a facility.

Wetlands

In general, wetlands should be avoided. However, there are cases where it might be 

unavoidable. Environmental concerns may put fire and emergency services organizations 

at odds with their members and organizations within the community. These issues get 

sorted out by the local body of politics. It is imperative that emergency response agencies 

state their position in a clear and transparent manner.

If a facility must be built in an area subject to possible flooding, consideration should be 

given to designing a two-story facility, so that the lower floor can be quickly evacuated 

with minimal property loss.

Permitting and approvals

Permitting and approvals vary from community to community. Fire and emergency 

services must be aware of all required permits and approvals, and must be sure they 

can be obtained before purchasing a site. It is also incumbent upon the organization to 

understand the time allotment needed to obtain approvals and permits. It is not unusual 

for local citizens (especially neighbors to the site) or community organizations to use 

permitting and approvals as a tool to keep the organization from constructing a facility on 

a potential site. As in all situations where there are neighbors and community concerns, 

it is imperative that the organization state its interests in a factual and transparent way.

Organizations must also be aware of any zoning requirements, as well as homeowner 

association implications for the proposed site. Some communities have height restrictions. 

Municipalities and county governments may have art or landscaping ordinances for all 

public facilities.

Condemned property

Occasionally, a fire and emergency services organization may need to work with their 

local government to condemn a property to obtain a site. Condemnations are not free. 

For example, there could be any of the following factors:

ĵ Court costs.

ĵ Legal fees.

ĵ Relocation costs.

ĵ Lost business reimbursement costs.

ĵ Cost of the land.

Many times, organizations may not be allowed to pay more than the assessed valuation 

of a property without some special effort.
Chapter 3: Site Selection 31

Beware of free sites

In lieu of the above, beware of free sites! It is not uncommon for a citizen or developer to 

offer a free site to fire and emergency services organizations. However, past experiences 

have shown that often a free site can be an extremely expensive site. Key questions to ask:

ĵ Is the location too much of a compromise to provide the response service?

ĵ What does the person/company/developer offering the site expect in return?

ĵ Are there site issues that would add significant additional construction expenses for 

the project?

ĵ Is the site possibly contaminated?

Future growth

It is always a sound decision to find a site that allows for future growth. This can include 

population growth in the response area, as well as added services provided by the fire 

and emergency services organization.

No one can predict the future with 100 percent certainty. However, local community 

leaders, especially planners, can provide valuable insight into the probable changes in the 

community. This can include land development, road networks, mass transportation, etc.

Other cautions about site selection

There are several issues in site selection that must be considered for fire and emergency 

services organizations. These include, but are not limited to the following:

ĵ Avoid property adjacent to a hazardous materials area. (The emergency response 

agency does not need to be the victim.)

ĵ If near an airport, be sure antenna are within Federal Aviation Administration regulations.

ĵ Check all records to make certain the site has not been a burial ground.

ĵ Check all records to make certain the site has not been used for hazardous waste disposal.

Never hesitate to hire an outside expert to conduct a site design feasibility study. It could 

be the best money you will ever spend.

Community acceptance

Fire departments must be professional in their request and justification for a new station, 

and in their site selection. It is imperative that they stick to the facts and always be 

transparent in justifying their needs. Fire departments should keep the station location 

process practical and out of politics as much as possible. They must also be open to elected 

officials and the public, and they must keep everyone apprised of what is occurring. “Selling” 

the need for a new station at a particular location is truly where the rubber meets the 

road. This is where departments should have their relationships with their stakeholders 

in good shape, so that they can be successful in their quest.
32 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Gaining community acceptance is a 24/7 process. Successful campaigns in the past have 

noted that it is easy to be against things (e.g., facilities), but a lot more difficult to be against 

people (e.g., first responders). Therefore, emergency responders must be in front of the 

community at every opportunity with a positive look and positive message.

A case study of a northwestern-based fire and emergency services organization revealed 

that the key to their success was a quarterly newsletter sent to their citizens. The full-color 

newsletter was loaded with pictures of the organization’s members providing service to 

the community. Not only were there emergency scene photos, but there were photos of 

smoke detector installations, blood pressure checks, fire extinguisher training, CPR training, 

home safety training, and other activities showing the members serving their community.

When initiating a campaign for community support, include the following:

ĵ Careful planning.

ĵ Educating the organization.

ĵ Increasing the knowledge base.

ĵ Educating the public.

Ý Station tours.

Ý Conduct community meetings.

ĵ Continuing information.

ĵ Creating a “tool chest” (who, what, when, where, why, and how much).

ĵ Developing an action plan that includes the following:

Ý Defining organization (and community) needs.

Ý Knowing the tax burden and benefits.

Ý Establishing media contacts.

Ý Sharing your financial information in a clear and concise order.

Ý Communicating a cohesive message.

Ý Dispelling or confirming rumors with facts.

Don’t expect everyone to buy in immediately. What is cost effective to one person, might 

be a waste of money to another person. Don’t ever assume the public knows the scope of 

an organization’s service capabilities, or the resources and training to deliver that service.

As was stated at the beginning of this section, it is often said that the following are the 

two most difficult things about fire and emergency services facilities:

1. Trying to get one in a community.

2. Trying to take one out of a community.

Gaining community requires a 24/7/365 commitment by the organization to be totally 

transparent with its customers. It must be understood that many people are basically suspicious 

of the government. So, soliciting funding for a new fire and emergency services facility can 

be an uphill battle. Sound marketing principles are critical for gaining community support.

Successful marketing by fire and emergency organizations to gain community support for 

a new or renovated facility includes elements, such as:

ĵ The need must be clearly identified.

ĵ The need must be clearly communicated to the community.

ĵ Be transparent. Transparency equals honesty.
Chapter 3: Site Selection 33

ĵ Be involved in as many community events as possible — always smiling.

ĵ Create an on-going newsletter. This can be monthly or quarterly. With a newsletter, 

the organization controls the message. Color works better than black and white. Use 

lots of photos.

ĵ Celebrate your members.

ĵ Create a logo for brand recognition.

ĵ Create a phrase to communicate the organization’s service. (Shorter is better.)

ĵ Communicate the organization’s value to the community. Quantifiable value is stronger 

than qualitative value.

ĵ Become active in civic organizations.

ĵ Embrace public speaking, as well as private speaking.

ĵ Offer free services: blood pressure readings, CPR lessons, fire extinguisher training, 

smoke detector installation, etc.

ĵ Let the public be involved in the exterior appearance of the facility. A good rule of 

thumb: The interior of the facility belongs to the members; the exterior belongs to 

the community.

ĵ Opportunities for marketing vary from community to 

community. It is essential to take advantage of every 

available opportunity.

Remember, it is easy to vote against things. It is difficult 

to vote against people. Be sure the community knows that 

the organization’s most valuable asset is its members.

Once a site is secured

Once a site has been approved, fire and emergency services 

organizations should stake their claim by posting a sign. This 

will generate questions from citizens about the progress 

toward building and opening “their” new facility (Figure 3.5).

Proclaiming the coming facility is a public relations tool to 

generate goodwill that departments should not miss.

Figure 3.5 — This shows some overall 

considerations for fire station site selection.

Photo courtesy of Jennifer Bettiol and Ray Holliday, BRW Architects.
34 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations
Chapter 4: Overview of Design Process and Applicable Construction Components 35

Chapter 4: Overview of Design 

Process and Applicable Construction 

Components

The design and construction of a fire and emergency services station is a long and complicated 

process. Many different decisions are required, and different people may be involved in 

those decisions. The factors governing facility design vary from department to department, 

and even within the organization itself. For some departments, the construction of a station 

may be an on-going process as the community or area which it serves is continually growing. 

These departments may have in-place building committees and well-defined procedures 

and specifications. In other organizations, building a station may be an infrequent event, 

requiring new research each time due to changing topography, demographics and industrial 

developments. In all cases, facilities should be designed to account for all relevant regulations 

and to promote an appropriate level of safety and health for the occupants.

This section provides an overview of the design process and applicable construction 

components. While many design choices are based on an organization’s specific needs for 

the new or remodeled facility, there are several design options which are regulated and 

impact personnel safety and health. The following sections provide insight for considering 

safety and health issues when making design choices.

Design philosophy for fire and emergency services stations

The old National Board of Fire Underwriters followed by the American Insurance Association 

originally set the tone for station design. Their concerns covered such factors as quick, 

efficient and safe response of apparatus to alarms. EMS responses and exposures were 

not found until departments accepted these responsibilities. With time, organizations 

began to become more involved with prevention activities and other services rather than 

exclusively on suppression functions. Stations now include the following:

ĵ Administrative offices for the various functions of the organization, such as fire 

prevention and fire education.

ĵ Decontamination rooms.

ĵ PPE storage rooms.

ĵ Community meeting rooms.

ĵ Fitness rooms.

ĵ Training props.

ĵ Workshops.

Firefighters and EMS personnel no longer went to the fire house to be trained by their 

peers, but instead needed specialized training and training facilities.

As the fire and emergency services departments’ attention turns to the flexibility of the 

station, several questions are raised:

ĵ Can the facility be used for other municipal functions?

ĵ Can organizational needs be met with shared facilities?

ĵ Can the facility be incorporated into a private development?
36 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

ĵ How long should these facilities last?

ĵ What are the most cost effective ways to build these facilities?

ĵ What should be the land size and space requirements of stations?

ĵ What are the interior space requirements?

ĵ What are the standards and regulations that must be considered in the design and 

construction process?

ĵ How can the organization maintain its present level of service and be ready to grow 

in the future?

ĵ How can the organization take on additional services — perhaps unforeseen?

Design factors

Fire and EMS station designs have changed over the past decades. They are being 

increasingly recognized as specialized facilities with their own specific design approaches. 

Design and facility features differ among fire stations, EMS stations, and other types of 

facilities based on a variety of factors, including:

ĵ The role of the station.

ĵ The type of organization and expected response level.

ĵ Specific functions of the facility.

ĵ Integration with joint or shared facilities.

ĵ Community restrictions.

ĵ Future requirements.

ĵ Available resources.

These same factors also can impact the level of safety and health for personnel working 

and living at these stations.

Differences in station design can occur because of slightly different roles of the specific 

organization. For example, departments with integrated emergency medical responsibilities 

have additional station design requirements for accommodating EMS needs.

One way to look at the overall design of a fire and emergency services facility is from a 

performance perspective. These top 10 performance goals are useful to help formulate 

goals and keep the design focused on the “big picture”:

1. Response.

2. Training.

3. Health and safety.

4. Evaluations (ISO, Accreditation, etc.).

5. Culture (camaraderie).

6. Special functions (may not be applicable for every facility).

7. Technology.

8. Durability.

9. Sustainability.

10. Aesthetics.
Chapter 4: Overview of Design Process and Applicable Construction Components 37

The following eight images show a typical chronological order of the design and construction 

phases for a new fire and emergency services facility. (See Figures 4.1 through 4.8.)

Figure 4.1 — The first Schematic Design 

(SD) Phase.

Photo courtesy of Ken Newell, Stewart-Cooper-Newell Architects.

Figure 4.2 — The second SD Phase.

Photo courtesy of Ken Newell, Stewart-Cooper-Newell Architects.

Figure 4.3 — The third SD Phase.

Photo courtesy of Ken Newell, Stewart-Cooper-Newell Architects.

Figure 4.4 — The first Design 

Development (DD) Phase.

Photo courtesy of Ken Newell, Stewart-Cooper-Newell Architects.

Figure 4.5 — The second DD Phase.

Photo courtesy of Ken Newell, Stewart-Cooper-Newell Architects.

Figure 4.6 — The Construction 

Document (CD) Phase.

Photo courtesy of Ken Newell, Stewart-Cooper-Newell Architects.
38 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Figure 4.7 — The Bid/Negotiation (B/N) 

Phase.

Photo courtesy of Ken Newell, Stewart-Cooper-Newell Architects.

Figure 4.8 — The Construction 

Administration (CA) Phase.

Photo courtesy of Ken Newell, Stewart-Cooper-Newell Architects.

Impact of Emergency Medical Services on station design

Key safety and health concerns for the following functions are often related to the number 

of people that the facility must accommodate:

ĵ Special storage requirements (e.g., secure spaces for drugs, refrigerated medical supplies).

ĵ Possible routine handling of medical gases (oxygen).

ĵ Possible segregation of station alerting system (fire versus EMS).

ĵ Possible differences in shift length/separate quarters.

ĵ Differences in vehicle requirements.

Staffing levels and the number of personnel on duty are important. The total number of 

people that can be in the facility at any one time (due to training, a disaster, or community 

event) must be considered.

Type of department and expected response level

There are differences in station design — whether the facility is in a metropolitan area, 

suburban area, or a rural area (see Figures 4.9a and Figures 4.9b). These areas usually 

impact whether they are career, volunteer or combination organizations. The overall 

response level also affects aspects of station design. For example, stations that are 

required to do multiple runs in the immediate local area of the community, compared to 

other stations, may have infrequent demand but cover relatively larger areas.

Figure 4.9a — A classic fire station in a 

major city environment.

Photo courtesy of Mike Wieder, Stillwater, OK.

Figure 4.9b — An example of an EMS 

station in a small, rural community.

Photo courtesy of Mike Wieder, Stillwater, OK.
Chapter 4: Overview of Design Process and Applicable Construction Components 39

Examples for the impact of department type and response level on station design:

ĵ Designs for career organizations must be based on the assumption that members will be 

responding to the apparatus from anywhere in the station. This consideration dictates 

the layout of the facility in terms of apparatus bay accessibility to all areas. Multiple 

access points to the apparatus bay area will improve response time. In addition, the 

fewer turns a responder must take to access the bay will safely improve response time.

ĵ Volunteer organizations are more apt to be less formal and more group oriented. 

Sleeping quarters may not be needed, but these stations often require ample parking 

for effective response and building security measures.

ĵ Combination departments require flexible facility designs to accommodate the needs 

for both volunteer and career responders.

Questions addressing these issues:

ĵ Is it a volunteer station that is to be unmanned for long periods of time; a volunteer 

station with individuals in and out of it daily; a combination station; or a career station?

ĵ Is the facility located in a rural area, industrial area, commercial district, or residential 

community? Each of these sites and applications require different design approaches. 

Furthermore, each of these types of departments may require a different source of 

funding to complete the task.

Specific functions

Once the type of department is known and the community it serves is defined, the specific 

functions for the facility must be determined. A rural department with residential and small 

commercial occupancies would not consider aerial ladder apparatus or similar vehicles in 

its station design and planning. For EMS service, it may also be important to consult with 

the local hospital for compatibility between the department and hospitals to enhance the 

responsiveness of both facilities. If the station is permanently staffed, then station occupant 

comforts should be addressed. If the station will be used as a community gathering place, 

consideration must be given to provide a separation between the functional, response part 

of the station and the civic side of the facility. The organization’s administration should 

decide how long the station is to last, what its growth will be, how to use the facility to 

meet the community needs, and how to look after its members.

Other functional assignments of the stations will affect facility design. Headquarters 

buildings may require central offices, dispatch facilities, and training areas. Some facilities 

may also be a site for apparatus maintenance, a marine unit/fire boat, or other special 

functions. There are often different safety and health concerns for these special functions.

Local geography

Geography and climate affect several aspects of station design in terms of safety and 

health. Examples:

ĵ Roof design for local weather conditions (wind/snow loads).

ĵ Choice of substructure and structural elements to withstand seismic activity.

ĵ Terrain for actual facility layout, particularly driveways and aprons.

ĵ Exterior/Interior drainage that prevents ice buildup during winter months.

ĵ Adjacent roadway visibility for apparatus access.

ĵ Overall space for accommodating the entire station layout (some locations accommodate 

drive-through apparatus bays; others do not).
40 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Most of these aspects will be specific to the area and usually within the common knowledge 

of the architect, but only if the architect is made aware of the special needs that fire and 

EMS have compared to regular industrial facilities.

Community restrictions

Community restrictions can take two forms:

1. The community may have its own building codes and regulations to which the station 

must adhere.

2. The community may have certain expectations that the facility fits with the rest of the 

architecture in the area, or at least does not interfere negatively with the community.

Many communities have specific laws governing use of utilities, construction materials, and 

right-of-ways. It is impossible to list the various restrictions that can be imposed. Nevertheless, 

this aspect of station design is usually handled in the review of building permits where proposed 

designs and layouts are reviewed against existing local codes, zoning and ordinances. Some 

communities require that facilities appear to blend with other structures in the community. 

In these cases, the appearance of the station may be critical from an aesthetic point of view.

Fire department officials should meet with community leaders to discuss the station’s 

design and to solicit their input. The neighborhood should be sought as an ally to work 

with so as to avoid future problems. While this practice may only affect certain elements 

of the station’s exterior design, some requirements can affect station layout and overall 

safety. Commonly, facilities are required to shield neighboring structures from noise by 

using landscaping, and response functions should be tied into local traffic signals. As 

stated earlier, a guiding principle should be that the interior of the facility belongs to the 

organization; the exterior belongs to the community.

Flexibility for future requirements

Facility requirements change with time. This can occur as service needs change or as 

department functions are added or deleted. What is often built to meet the department’s 

current needs requires periodic re-evaluation and possible upgrading or expansion to meet 

future demands. As the fire and emergency services grow and expand, new facilities are 

needed to house equipment, training, and possibly personnel. Examples of changes that 

have occurred in recent years:

ĵ Special training props (such as mezzanines or training towers).

ĵ Decontamination rooms or areas.

ĵ Fitness rooms.

ĵ Accommodations for female emergency responders.

ĵ Dedicated PPE storage rooms.

ĵ Addition of more personnel.

ĵ Additional apparatus (particularly specialized vehicles).

ĵ Consolidation with law enforcement or EMS.

ĵ Emergency management services.
Chapter 4: Overview of Design Process and Applicable Construction Components 41

To meet these challenges, some structures must be redesigned accordingly. Separate 

facilities might be designated to have capabilities for specialized training and activities:

ĵ Decontamination.

ĵ Confined space.

ĵ High-angle rescue.

ĵ Auto-extrication.

ĵ Fire-pump testing.

ĵ Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) maze training.

ĵ Ladder testing.

ĵ SCBA testing and maintenance.

ĵ Apparatus maintenance.

This practice enables departments to evenly spread resources while having qualified 

individuals in all areas.

In addition, departments must consider how the fire service will change in the longterm future. Just as incorporating EMS represented a major change in fire department 

responsibilities and impacted station requirements, so should other areas which some 

fire departments are currently considering. For example, fire prevention has long been a 

service of fire and emergency services organizations. The future might include new services, 

such as illness/accident prevention. Facilities may need to include space to administer 

preventive care. Emergency responders may need small, dedicated vehicles to call upon 

citizens who are home-bound and require periodic treatment and assessments.

Resources

Every organization would like to build a station which possesses state-of-the-art equipment 

and uses the best materials. Unfortunately, most organizations are constrained by limited 

resources and must often make trade-offs between desired features and practical design

needs. Nevertheless, these choices should not compromise personnel safety and must 

obviously be in full compliance with all applicable codes and regulations. Failure to meet 

these requirements often results in expensive redesigns and renovations. Even though 

it may be difficult to justify, it is also important for station and other facility designs to 

anticipate future requirements. These requirements are often in the form of increased 

functionality or accommodation of new equipment. However, station designs should also 

forecast new regulations as new safety concerns are identified. For example, the Americans 

with Disabilities Act (ADA) created the need for stations across the U.S. to be modified.

Fire and emergency services building design process

The following process serves as a model for designing a new facility.

Site selection

There are several basic items to consider when selecting a site:

ĵ Create a four-minute response time map using local GIS data.

ĵ Determine available property in the area where response times are not being met.
42 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

ĵ Be skeptical of available property that is “too good to be true,” and try to eliminate 

properties that are odd shaped, have steep-terrain, are in a flood plain, or are otherwise 

unsuitable for construction.

ĵ Revisit the GIS maps, and model the effectiveness of the potential site candidates to 

see if there are any hidden conditions — too close to existing emergency services, too 

far from major arterial streets, etc.

ĵ Property cost: municipalities are only allowed to pay appraised market value. What 

will the purchase of the property do to the overall cost of the project?

ĵ Thoroughly study the proposed property utilities. The availability will have immediate 

impact on the budget and should be known before purchasing a proposed property. 

Are all primary services on site:

Ý Water meter.

Ý Sewer tap.

Ý Electricity.

Ý Natural gas or propane.

Have geotechnical studies and/or testing performed to determine suitability of soils for 

construction. This too should be a condition of purchase. If the site has shallow bedrock; 

or is a swamp, marsh or watershed zone; consists of sandy loam, clay or other unsuitable 

material foundation, the costs can be insurmountable.

Note: For more information on site selection, refer to Chapter 3.

Facility programing and functional analysis

Once a site is selected, the basis of the facilities function should be determined. Things 

to consider:

ĵ What are the intended service needs? What specific apparatus will be housed at this 

location, and how many? Plan for future growth.

ĵ Will the facility house career or volunteer crews, or both? Is there potential for the 

future of a volunteer facility to become a career facility?

ĵ Based on the quantity of apparatus, determine the number of staff, and plan on future 

expansion. For example: four crew per pumper, five per tower, two per ambulance, 

five per heavy rescue, two per battalion, etc.

ĵ Determine the quantity and arrangement of dormitory space:

Ý Unisex open dormitory space.

Ý Split men’s and women’s open dormitory space.

Ý Individual bunk rooms.

ĵ Determine common space needs: restrooms, kitchen, dining, day or living space, 

storage, lockers, cleaning, decontamination, PPE, SCBA, etc.

ĵ Determine the adequate number of showers and the appropriate hot water supply.

ĵ Determine square-foot needs per space. 
Chapter 4: Overview of Design Process and Applicable Construction Components 43

Facility design development

Once the equipment, staff and functional needs have been determined, the architect can 

begin the design development phase of the project. This is where the floor plan can begin 

to take shape. This is also where the “look” of the facility begins to be discussed. This phase 

is one of the most important phases of the project and should be given the most time 

and effort by the team. This phase is also where the organization will have involvement 

and will need to make critical decisions affecting the outcome. This phase is where the 

architect’s knowledge and experience in fire and emergency services will be evident!

ĵ What are the neighborhood characteristics the facility will serve? These circumstances 

should contribute to the look of the facility (suburban residential, urban residential, 

high-occupancy, light industrial, heavy industrial).

ĵ Begin to orient the bubble diagram on the site plan. Experiment with the massing 

placement; direction of apparatus travel; locations of the nearest intersections; the 

sun angles (summer and winter); the weather extremes, both in temperature and 

rainfall. Discuss any other environmental conditions or concerns. These issues will all 

have an impact on the look of the facility.

ĵ Understand the basic impacts of code compliance. What building codes are applied 

locally, and are there any amendments to the code by local planning and zoning 

officials? Determine the occupancy and space separation requirements (this can 

lead to expensive construction costs if there are too many “barriers” or “fire ratings” 

required to separate spaces). Apply ADA requirements to the interior and exterior; 

determine the public, semipublic, semiprivate and private space relationships and 

their accessibility versus use.

Note: The application of the ADA is not an option. The ADA is a federal law and is 

administered to all public buildings regardless of occupancy or use.

ĵ The state and local use of either the Uniform Building Code (UBC) or the International 

Building Code is also law, and compliance is required.

ĵ The use of NFPA and other emergency services documents is not always included in 

the local code, but should always be included in the design discussion if they are not 

officially adopted in the local code.

ĵ Discuss finishes, fixtures and equipment:

Ý Drywall.

Ý Masonry.

Ý Concrete.

Ý Carpet.

Ý Tile.

Ý Faucets.

Ý Sinks.

Ý Appliances.

Ý Light fixtures.

Ý Air conditioning types.

Ý Technology needs.

Ý Security.

Ý Dispatch.
44 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

These issues all have an impact on the functional design and can alter the size of any given 

space, leading to changes in the exterior elevations of the facility. These issues will also 

directly affect the budget.

With all this in mind, cost estimating should begin. Any adjustments to scope need to 

be applied to the budget. The department must be firm and clearly communicate the 

necessary versus optional aspects of the design to the architect. Mistakes in this phase 

will lead to costly changes during construction. Any adjustments to the budget need to be 

implemented now to avoid complications and/or cancellation of the project.

Construction document phase

After a thorough review and budget analysis of the design phase of the project has been 

completed by the department, the construction document phase can begin. This is the 

phase that applies the notes, dimensions, specifications, details and overall constructability 

of the project into the drawings. User groups and planning officials should have input and 

should hold public meetings to finalize the project’s intent. Formal budgets are finalized, 

and schedules for completion are created to determine timelines to complete the following: 

begin ancillary planning; order equipment; hire personnel and support staff; deliver or 

relocate apparatus; and determine the impact the new facility will have on the overall 

department. These should include payroll, utility costs, traffic flow, and support from other 

municipal departments, public works, equipment management, and city management.

ĵ Determine the delivery method of construction if not already established. The budget 

can have a role in this decision, as some methods may lower design fees but increase 

construction costs, and vice versa.

ĵ This is also a good time to determine some contingency budgets, and possible items 

or a scope to have on an “Additive Alternate” list. It is generally accepted that adding 

an item or broadening the scope is more effective than “deducting” it from a scope 

of work. Some items that are commonly found on “Additive Alternate” lists include:

Ý Bay doors — upgrade from overhead sectional to four-fold.

Ý Window frames — upgrade from aluminum to vinyl.

Ý Flooring — upgrade from ceramic to porcelain tile.

Ý Floor plan increases — add additional square footage, an additional apparatus 

bay, or a dormitory wing.

ĵ The department should hold a final public meeting and acquire written acceptance 

from any involved user groups, homeowners’ associations, governing boards and/or 

planning commissions.

ĵ Thoroughly read and edit the specifications! Understand that when a conflict arises, the 

specifications always take precedent over a drawing or graphical representation of intent.

Construction bids and permits

Upon completion of the construction documents and specifications, a final review and 

acceptance of the project are made by the organization. Depending on the delivery method, 

but regardless of circumstances, all projects must have permits to build. It is common for 

municipalities to advertise for bids prior to having a permit in place. However, no contracts 

should be signed, or fees finalized, without a permit in place; the project’s plan review 

process will often require amendments to the drawings and specifications that can have 

a direct effect on the scope and costs.
Chapter 4: Overview of Design Process and Applicable Construction Components 45

Construction

Construction begins upon the acceptance of the bids and the contractor’s ability to meet 

the local bonding and insurance requirements. The contractor becomes the “owner” of 

the project and the site it is built upon. This means that the contractor is responsible for 

all activities on the project site, including all safety, traffic flow to and from the site, access, 

security, theft, vandalism, etc.

The contractor will begin holding weekly or biweekly meetings. Initially, there will be a lot 

of “submittals” provided that must be reviewed by either the architect, department, or 

preferably both. The submittals are the product literature that formally state what the 

subcontractors will be providing in order to build the facility. Submittals cover everything 

from faucets in the kitchen, to the density of the concrete in the apparatus bay. This is also 

the opportunity for the department to ensure they are going to get what they want. The 

acceptance of the submittal becomes the binding document. The department or architect 

cannot change the outcome after accepting the submittal of a particular product or system.

The contractor will provide meeting minutes, a submittal checklist, schedules and spreadsheets 

listing Requests for Information (RFIs), and the subsequent Architects Supplemental 

Instructions. It is also common for the contractor to keep a record of cost adjustments due to 

changes in submittals, conflict resolution, or unknown circumstances causing delays, such as 

weather conditions or delays in delivery of critical path construction materials or equipment.

Project completion, closeout and warranty commencement is the final aspect of construction. 

As the project nears completion, a transition will take place when occupancy of the building 

is determined.

The first significant completion milestone is establishing “Substantial Completion.” This is a 

date where the organization, architect, user groups, and sometimes the building inspector 

walk the job and create a “punch list” of items needing correction or containing deficiencies. 

This list is mutually agreed upon and is attached to the “Substantial Completion” document. 

The punch list should be a manageable list of correctable basic items, such as, but not 

limited to the following: scuffs; mars; paint touch-up; drywall patching; heating, ventilating 

and air conditioning (HVAC) filter replacement; and minor equipment adjustments. Major 

damage or significant errors or omissions should cause the delay of substantial completion 

until the list is manageable.

Transition documents to the organization:

ĵ The issuance of a substantial completion letter and attached punch list is when 

warranties and guarantees go into effect.

ĵ The contractor should also provide all closeout documents, operation and maintenance 

manuals, as-built drawings, keys to the building, and final payment application.

ĵ This is also a common point for the transition of utilities from the contractor to the 

owner (either department or municipality).

ĵ A formal Certificate of Occupancy is obtained. All final inspections and “green tags” 

must be issued before this certificate is given.
46 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Note: In some circumstances, a temporary Certificate of Occupancy can be issued by the 

building official so the organization can move in and start functioning out of the facility. 

However, this will be with restrictions that typically have a time constraint applied to them. 

(If the facility is shared with another agency, a temporary Certificate of Occupancy can be 

issued so that one agency can begin use while the other waits for an issue to be resolved.)

Grand opening

This event should be held on site by the local government. It is an opportunity for the 

participants to be recognized and for dedications to be made. Plenty of time should be 

allotted for this event, and it should be held on a Saturday in the spring or fall to allow for 

the largest public participation. During the grand opening, the organization should consider 

facility tours, hold demonstrations, give rides on apparatus, and allow the community 

to take pride and ownership of their new facility. The contractor can also participate by 

assisting in the tours, displaying construction techniques used in the project, and providing 

barbecue meals and/or refreshments.

Applicable construction components

This section reviews various components that go into constructing a new facility.

Foundations

The soils are the starting point for any new design and construction process. Pertinent 

considerations:

ĵ Footings.

ĵ Foundations to take the heavy load of today’s heavier apparatus.

ĵ Ensuring adequate safety factors for the station in either good or bad soil conditions. 

(With many new structures, casing holes are drilled to solid ground and then filled 

with concrete. These casing holes are often reinforced with rebar for strength. Similar 

methods are used for remodeling.)

Apparatus bay floors

Station floors are required to meet the local building codes and should be substantially 

reinforced in apparatus areas.

Drains

Bay floors should include trench drains that lie directly under where the apparatus are 

parked. Trench drains are recommended to be 24 feet for each apparatus parking spot. 

The floor should be sloped to allow water to flow to each of the trench drains. Having a 

dedicated trench drain for each parking spot minimizes the possibility of water standing 

in foot passageways. Slips and falls are a common cause of member injury, and everything 

should be done to minimize the accumulation of slippery liquids on bay floors. Bay floors 

should never be sloped right-to-left or vice-versa to cause liquids to flow to one central drain. 

This design will cause problems to the suspension of apparatus. Unlike many heavy-duty 

trucks, fire apparatus remain loaded all the time. They always park in the same place and 

remain there for far more hours than other heavy-duty trucks.
Chapter 4: Overview of Design Process and Applicable Construction Components 47

Coatings

Apparatus floor slabs should be finished to become slip-resistant. Sealed concrete is very 

durable and easy to maintain. However, there are concrete floor coatings available now 

that provide excellent slip resistance and are very attractive. These coatings are available 

in various colors, and the use of colors to designate apparatus positioning is common with 

these types of coatings. Floor coating systems, such as methyl methacrylate (MMA) acrylic 

resinous flooring, offer excellent slip resistance, increase visibility, and improve sanitation. 

High performance coatings are far superior to paint. They have a strong resistance to moisture, 

chemicals and high heat, and they are more resistant to abrasive cleanings. Floor markings, 

such as a different color for where the apparatus is parked, can be used to improve driver/

operator safety. The same application can be used to designate foot-traffic pathways. Graphics 

can be used to enhance the appearance and to show pride to members and the community.

If colored floor coatings are not used to designate vehicle positioning, then safety stripes 

should be applied on the floor for the positioning of the apparatus. For further safety in 

stations housing aerial apparatus, a marker should be painted on the apron of the station 

or in the street denoting where longer apparatus may start a turn when leaving the station.

Expansion joints

All building materials are temperature sensitive, and building walls will shrink and grow 

as the temperatures fluctuate. Concrete will crack; therefore, control joints are required. 

Control joints are reliefs in the surface of the wall to control cracking. Organizations 

should work with the architect to designate the most practical and effective positioning 

of expansion joints.

Structural systems

Framing

The structural system will usually be either a frame system, where a steel, concrete or 

wood skeleton supports the building, or a load bearing wall system, where the walls of the 

building, usually masonry, support the roof and possible second-floor framing. Often, a 

combination of systems is used. Usually, the choice is primarily based on economics, and 

secondly on the needs of the building. A partial list of structural methods:

ĵ Load-bearing masonry.

ĵ Conventionally framed steel.

ĵ Pre-engineered steel.

ĵ Conventionally wood-framed.

ĵ Pre-engineered wood.

ĵ Light-gauge framed.

ĵ Reinforced concrete.

ĵ Precast concrete.

ĵ Hybrid methods.

From a responder safety perspective, the frame should be designed to eliminate columns 

from apparatus bays since columns are both hazards to the apparatus and to members 

responding to the apparatus. (Columns can be eliminated by increasing the size of the 

framing members. This increases the cost of the building, but it is a worthwhile investment 

in terms of safety and future adaptability.)
48 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Walls

Tall, unbraced walls and columns have a natural tendency to deflect and buckle due to 

structural loads carried from above. Various methods, including horizontal bracing, wall 

thickening, increased reinforcing, and the insertion of piers, can be used to resist these 

forces. Excessive deflection in walls will result in cracks in masonry construction. By 

nature, apparatus bays are high spaces that require tall walls. Stacking living space or 

other necessary heavy applications above them further complicates the issue.

Walls provide shear resistance from a phenomenon known as racking. Racking is the 

movement of structural elements out of level or plumb created by forces such as stress, 

wind, or material shrinkage or expansion. Apparatus bay doors do not provide structural 

support, and their large openings create a natural weakness in the station’s ability to 

resist natural shear.

A variety of structural engineering methods can address shear. A few examples:

ĵ Diagonal bracing: This often consists of rods, cables, or smaller structural members 

that create an “X” between columns to ensure vertical elements remain square and 

parallel. They can present challenges for architects to coordinate window, door and 

mechanical openings.

ĵ Moment framed: These are connections that are essentially strong, rigid, welded or bolted 

connections that restrain two or more structural members to a specific design angle.

ĵ Shear walls: These are large areas of walls limited to a few smaller openings. The 

surface or the wall structure carries and resists the lateral load.

Walls can be either load-bearing or nonload-bearing. Load-bearing walls are usually 

limited to masonry construction — brick, concrete block, or both. Nonbearing walls can 

be masonry, precast concrete, metal panels, or any number of proprietary systems. The 

side and upper surfaces of the parapet wall (roof level) must be protected in areas where 

ladder drills will be carried out — front, top and rear. Different types of wall construction 

methods afford different advantages and disadvantages:

ĵ Masonry or precast concrete — Generally, masonry or precast concrete represent the 

most durable, cost effective, low maintenance wall system, but they must be designed 

and constructed carefully for proper performance. Both brick and block are available in 

a large variety of colors and textures. Precast concrete can be fabricated to almost any 

shape, texture and color. Its cost effectiveness varies from region to region, depending 

on transportation cost. Natural stone veneers are durable but expensive.

ĵ Metal panels — Metal panels can be inexpensive or very expensive, depending on the 

design and material selected. The joints tend to leak less, and less expensive systems 

deteriorate rapidly.

ĵ Exterior Finish and Insulation Systems (EFIS) — These systems represent one of the 

fastest growing new technologies in construction. They consist of a thin coating of 

synthetic acrylic or epoxy modified stucco applied to insulation bound over wood/

metal studs or a masonry back up. EFIS offer ease of construction combined with 

good insulation and highly decorative surfaces at very little cost. However, they may 

not be durable, may be easily damaged, and are combustible. They should be avoided 

in areas subject to abuse or vandalism.
Chapter 4: Overview of Design Process and Applicable Construction Components 49

Control joints

Control joints are reliefs in the surface of the wall to control cracking. Like concrete, masonry 

also requires control joints at regular intervals. Large buildings or additions may require 

expansion joints to accommodate movement of several inches. Organizations should work 

with the architect to carefully plan where control joints will be located.

Roofs

Roofs can be used-flat or pitched, representing differences in economy, performance, 

weather and seasonal conditions.

Flat roofs are pitched for drainage at about 1/8 to 2 inches per foot. Flat roofs are considered 

more economical because fewer materials are required in their construction. However, this 

construction increases the possibility that water will remain on the roof and find a hole or 

imperfection to penetrate. If appropriate materials are used, and if properly constructed, a 

flat roof will perform as well as a pitched roof. In geographical areas of the country where 

rain is prevalent, flat roofs generally do not provide adequate runoff. Flat roofs should be 

avoided in areas of the country where snow is a major factor because of the weight buildup.

Pitched roofs have slopes with 2 inches of rise for each foot of run — or steeper. These 

roofs can be covered with asphalt shingles, slate, tile or metal systems. Asphalt shingles 

are the least expensive and are available in multiple textures and colors. They can be 

expected to last 25 years or more. Slate and tile are more durable, but more expensive 

and harder to maintain. Metal systems require careful design and construction; in fact, 

the less expensive types should be avoided.

Windows

Window construction materials include wood, steel, aluminum or vinyl in custom or standard 

sizes. Construction cost and insulation performance of these window types vary. Wood-frame 

windows are considered strong, light-weight, and energy efficient. When the wood is protected 

by another material (such as metal or a heavy coating), durability is improved. Aluminum and 

steel windows in the heavy commercial grades are sturdy products intended for hard usage. 

However, cheaper grades of metal windows offer poor performance. Such windows require 

special thermal-break construction to obtain the same energy efficiency inherent in wood.

The selected glass work or glazing should be high performance, low-E insulated units 

with an R factor of 2.5 or better in all but the mildest climates. The slight increase in 

cost is easily justified in energy savings and personnel comfort. In high vandalism areas, 

polycarbonate, an impact-resistant plastic, should be considered. Alternatively, window 

screens or protective shutters can be used. The likelihood of glass breakage should also 

be factored into window selection. Where fire-rated glazing is required, wire glass is most 

commonly used. New technology fire-rated glass, gel and ceramic composites that eliminate 

the visual distraction of the wire are available, but they are much more expensive. Window 

designs that permit easier cleaning, such as double-hung vertical windows, should be 

considered to lessen the possibility of falls from cleaning.

NFPA 101 requires sleeping areas to have a minimum window size, usually 90 inches, as 

measured by vertical length and horizontal length, to accommodate emergency rescue.
50 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Walk-through doors

Two types of doors warrant consideration from a safety and health perspective: exterior 

doors and apparatus doors. Exterior doors are usually steel “hollow metal” or aluminum and 

glass. Wood doors can be used, but are not recommended. They are more susceptible to 

weathering and break-in. Proper weather stripping is important in cold climates. Hardware 

should be rust resistant, accessible and suitable for heavy usage. Hollow metal doors 

should be galvanized.

All interior doors leading onto the apparatus floor should swing toward the apparatus. A 

small window in the door will help prevent the door from striking a person on the other side. 

Any doors with glass should have safety glass or wire-reinforced glass. Doors leading to the 

apparatus bay should be metal, since they are susceptible to water exposure during cleaning. 

Wood doors, except hollow-core, are well-suited for the rest of the interior of the station.

Apparatus bay doors

Apparatus bay doors can be coiling, sectional types or vertically hinged four-fold. Coiling 

doors are more expensive, generally slower and rarely used anymore. Sectional doors are 

most common. However, four-fold doors offer many advantages, and they are becoming 

more common. They are faster when opening and closing, and they are less likely to be 

struck by an apparatus than roll-up doors (see Figure 4.10). Their initial cost is much more 

expensive, but their robustness causes minimal maintenance. Larger fire departments 

with multiple stations have found that the reduction in maintenance costs easily justify 

the higher initial cost of four-fold doors.

Figure 4.10 — The different colored panels on two of these roll-up doors indicate 

that they have been damaged in collisions.

Photo courtesy of Kevin Roche, FACETS Consulting, LLC.

Care should be taken to avoid large doors that accommodate two pieces of equipment 

responding out of the bay. These doors are heavy and subject to more failure. Doors should 

be large enough to accommodate the largest apparatus in the department’s fleet. Wood 

doors are acceptable in milder climates, and are easier and less expensive to repair when 

damaged. In colder climates, doors must be insulated. However, insulated wooden doors 

often warp and delaminate. Insulated and weather stripped steel or aluminum doors are 

best for these situations. 
Chapter 4: Overview of Design Process and Applicable Construction Components 51

Bay doors can be controlled in several ways, including push buttons adjacent to the door, 

push buttons near primary access to the bay (such as the watch room), remote control 

within the apparatus, and remote control from a communications center. Use of special 

lights, such as miniature traffic signals, are often used to indicate when the door is fully 

open, so the apparatus can safely leave the station.

The following tables list the pros and cons of different door types.

Table 4.1 — Pros and Cons of Different Doors

Advantages Disadvantages

Four-fold doors

Ample natural light Requires additional floor space

Minimal moving parts Initial cost

Low maintenance costs

Fast operating times

Minimal overhead clearance

Can be ballistic rated

Can be manually opened with little 

difficulty

Aesthetically pleasing

Aluminum/Glass sectional doors

Ample natural light Heavy

Requires minimal floor space High maintenance costs

Overhead clearance: The open position 

requires careful coordination with other 

ceiling systems.

Limited insulation values

Insulated sectional doors

Minimal natural light Heavy

Requires minimal floor space High maintenance costs

Overhead clearance: The open position 

requires careful coordination with other 

ceiling systems.

Above average insulation values

Apparatus not visible to community

(See Figures 4.11 through 4.13 for folding bay doors.)
52 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Figure 4.11 — One exterior view of a 

folding bay door.

Photo courtesy of Kevin Roche, FACETS Consulting, LLC.

Figure 4.12 — Another exterior view of 

a folding bay door.

Photo courtesy of Robert Tutterow, F.I.E.R.O.

Figure 4.13 — An interior view of a 

folding bay door.

Photo courtesy of Dave Hartman, Hartman Fire Station Consultants.

Station parking, ramps and exterior driveways

The primary areas directly outside the station must be properly designed to reduce the 

likelihood of accidents and to provide for efficient operations. The following should be 

taken into consideration:

ĵ Providing enough spaces for shift changes.

ĵ Designated visitor parking.

ĵ Handicapped parking per code.

ĵ Security fence.

ĵ Security cameras.

ĵ Security lights that are directed to the lot and do not impact adjacent properties.

ĵ Turning radius to accommodate the largest apparatus.

ĵ Bollards to protect bay entrances, fueling stations, gates, etc.

ĵ Ensuring adequate lighting in parking areas and walkways (street and exterior structure 

lights) at the station for improving security and providing for pedestrian safety at night.
Chapter 4: Overview of Design Process and Applicable Construction Components 53

Concrete should always be used for station ramps, instead of asphalt. Asphalt will not

withstand the heavy weight of fire apparatus or the sharp spurs of heavy ground ladders. 

Furthermore, asphalt softens during the hot weather, compounding these deficiencies, 

and patching asphalt creates uneven surfaces.

Despite attempts at variances, stations must comply with ADA requirements because 

they are public buildings. Many stations have community rooms and are used as polling 

places. This will require handicapped parking spaces, as well as ramps or lifts depending 

on the configuration of the facility.

Other exterior considerations

Several other considerations are important in the design for establishing appropriate 

levels of safety and health:

ĵ Planning the side yards of stations to be of sufficient width to accommodate long 

hoselays during drills and hose testing (which will not encumber adjacent sidewalks 

or create hazards for passing pedestrians).

ĵ Connecting the station alerting system to speakers at both the front and rear of the 

station to alert members working in those areas. These speakers should be silenced 

during the evening hours. This can be achieved by flipping an on/off switch located 

on the watch office console.

Note: The alerting system should not be confused with the station fire/evacuation 

alarm, which must remain active at all times.

ĵ Constructing a stand-alone building to house yard maintenance equipment, flammable 

liquids not carried on the apparatus, and items not requiring climate control.

ĵ Complying with fire and building codes, which require fueling pumps to be located 

outside station facilities.

ĵ Selecting 1 1/2-inch frost-proof gate valves (hose bibs) on the exterior wall of the drill 

area, as well as on the front and side of the structure. If the station does not have a hose 

tower, a dummy standpipe Siamese connection should be installed for drill purposes. 

Additionally, a hydrant needs to be installed in the drill area to facilitate realistic training.

ĵ Furnishing facilities with the necessary guards and markings that indicate a danger 

area where drafting pits are located.

ĵ Designing curbing at parking spots, so that vehicle overhang does not extend over 

sidewalks. This includes the overhang of vehicles that back into a parking space.

ĵ Equipping the stations with a covered public telephone or intercom near the entrance 

that goes to the communications center in the event the fire station is unoccupied.

ĵ Accessibility of garbage cans or dumpsters for the garbage collection trucks. These are 

located off the drill court. If garbage trucks access the property, they should drive on 

concrete rather than asphalt surfaces. The concrete area directly in front of a dumpster 

should be thicker and reinforced to withstand the weight of a loaded dumpster while 

it is being lifted.
54 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Interior design considerations

The ADA requires minimum hallway widths, hallways designed free of protruding objects, 

specific water fountain heights, and special fixtures and dimensions for bathroom facilities. 

All facilities should provide for adequate evacuation and emergency egress as defined in 

NFPA 101.

Walls

The principle concern for interior walls is their fire resistance and durability. Masonry-based 

construction should be used in areas subject to rough use, such as the apparatus bays. 

Gypsum board on metal studs is common for other spaces. Finishes need to be appropriate 

for activity in the space.

Areas of rough usage, such as washrooms and the laundry area, should include a spray 

glaze, high-gloss paint, or ceramic tile. High-performance drywall, especially along the lower 

half of a wall, is a viable option in hallways and other areas subject to bumps and scrapes. 

Drywall should never be less than 5/8-inch thick. Flat paint is usually not appropriate, 

except possibly in office areas.

Ceilings

Basic drywall is common for all living areas. Open ceilings work well in fitness rooms. The 

use of acoustical ceiling types might be considered to reduce unnecessary noise. Acoustic 

ceilings come in a wide variety of styles and sizes (e.g., 2-by-2 panels and 2-by-4 panels). 

Concealed spline ceilings and gypsum board ceilings interfere with maintenance of electrical 

and mechanical systems. Care must be taken to obtain the proper installation in areas 

where a fire resistive rating is required. In classrooms or meeting rooms, acoustic (sound) 

and illumination (lighting) considerations should be a priority.

Floor finishes

Interior floors should be selected to reduce the likelihood of slipping and falling. They 

should also be easy to clean and durable. Vinyl tile, ceramic tile, or terrazzo are appropriate. 

Choices of these material should be in heavy-duty grades. High-gloss concrete finishes 

should be avoided. Apparatus bay floors necessitate rugged yet slip resistant surfaces. 

Terrazzo (stone chips) is an expensive choice, but it requires minimal maintenance and 

will last for decades. Seamless floors, usually epoxy with a sand aggregate, are durable, 

easier to clean, wear resistant and minimize slipping hazards. They are applied in multiple 

layers to a thickness of about 1/8 inch. If improperly installed, however, they may peel 

up. Sealed concrete can also be economical. Though found in many stations, carpet is 

no longer considered a good choice. It is difficult to clean and decontaminate, and it is 

not especially durable. In areas, such as bedrooms or day rooms, where carpet might be 

considered necessary, consider smaller replaceable area rugs.
Chapter 4: Overview of Design Process and Applicable Construction Components 55

Heating, ventilating and air conditioning systems

HVAC systems make up a sizable portion of the construction, operation and maintenance 

budget of fire stations. HVAC systems also impact occupant safety and health, and should 

be selected carefully. Possible systems and relevant factors:

ĵ Heating provided by electricity, fuel oil, natural gas, or propane fuel. The availability 

of the fuel selected must be dependable. The fire hazards and potential leaks from 

storing fuel oil or propane must be anticipated. Many codes now require installing 

costly containment and leak detection systems for fuel storage tanks.

ĵ Heating provided via steam boiler systems. Boiler systems provide a high-quality, 

comfortable, controllable, efficient and even heat for each type of use within the 

building, but they are expensive to design and install.

ĵ Heating provided by hot water distribution systems. Hot water systems are economical 

to install, especially when combined with the air conditioning duct work, but they can 

be drafty and subject to wide variations in temperature. They usually will not serve 

the apparatus bays well and must be supplemented.

ĵ Heating provided by direct-fired, hot-air ducts or localized radiant heater systems. 

Radiant heaters are well suited to high spaces, such as apparatus bays, but inappropriate 

for the rest of the building. In colder climates, the apparatus bay system must be 

capable of heating up as quickly as possible for returning cold apparatus and personnel.

ĵ Air conditioning using wall units or central systems. Air conditioning through the 

wall units is only practical in very small stations. Central systems are generally more 

efficient and easier to control. In some areas of high electricity rates, gas absorption 

units (which burn gas to create cooling) are being reintroduced with some success.

In addition, the following concerns exist for general station ventilation:

ĵ Rapid removal of exhaust carcinogens and combustible vapors in 

apparatus bays, as well as prevention of fumes and vapors from 

reaching interior living areas or the compressor inlet for filling SCBA. 

Approaches for achieving this removal include engineering controls 

on the apparatus, direct ventilation, and source-capture methods 

(see Figure 4.14). There are debates on the most effective system. 

However, the general consensus among subject matter experts 

is that source-capture is essential. For the best in maintaining a 

healthy and safe station environment, both source-capture and 

direct ventilation should be used.

ĵ Ventilation of commercial grade kitchens via special hoods with 

grease filters, fire suppression systems, and makeup air systems 

where called for by energy conservation requirements.

ĵ Appropriate controls to obtain efficiency operation of HVAC systems 

(which are not overly complex systems and are easily understood 

and maintained by department personnel). There have been 

attempts by some local governments to control heating and air 

conditioning remotely. However, members will always figure a way 

to override these systems. It is always best to let the occupants 

control the station temperature.

Figure 4.14 — Exhaust removal 

systems only work if the hose 

is hooked to the vehicle’s 

exhaust pipe.

Photo courtesy of Mike Wieder, Stillwater, OK.
56 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Lighting and electricity

Lighting on the apparatus floor is critical to prevent injuries and to complete work in a 

safe manner. Artificial lighting through designs, such as clerestory windows and skylights, 

offers effective and very inexpensive day-time lighting. For artificial lighting, instant-on 

light-emitting diode fixtures are very effective and energy efficient. Lights should be located 

between the apparatus so that shadows are not cast on walking surfaces. Systems are 

available to control the amount of light from both natural and artificial lights. The bay area 

can be zoned as needed for light control. If overhead heaters are used, they should be 

located far enough away from lighting so there is no chance of combustion. Bay lighting 

should also be integrated with the station alerting system.

There are general electrical needs which should be considered in the design of the fire 

and emergency services facilities. For example:

ĵ Electrical outlets should be in ample supply throughout the facility.

ĵ Duplex outlets should be installed with ground fault indicators.

ĵ There should be outlets in all storage areas, locker rooms, and at least two outlets 

over work bench areas.

ĵ Extra cabling or conduit should be allowed in the construction of stations to 

accommodate future needs for expanding electrical and cable capabilities.

ĵ Back-up electrical generators should be considered.

Detection and fire suppression systems

Given the role of fire and emergency services organizations, the installation of sprinkler 

systems in all new and renovated facilities is necessary. Serious consideration should be 

given to retrofitting automatic sprinkler systems in existing stations. For existing stations, 

if a total retrofit cannot be funded, then serious thought should be given to adding a 

system to the apparatus bay. This is typically a very cost-effective retrofit. It must be noted 

that most station fires begin in apparatus parked in the station. These fires typically go 

undetected until the fire has spread to the station.

It is sensible that stations must also be equipped with smoke and carbon monoxide 

detectors. Smoke detectors should be placed in all living spaces, as well as work spaces. 

Similarly, carbon monoxide detectors should be placed in living and work spaces, as well 

as near any equipment that is gas fed.

Training and the fire station

Not only do well-trained emergency responders provide superior service, but they are 

less likely to be injured or killed on the job. For that reason, there is logic in designing a 

fire station in a manner that encourages classroom, online and hands-on training (see 

Figure 4.15). Often, these features can be added in a very effective, cost-beneficial way. 

Multiple cases exist where excellent training can be designed into the station for around 

2 percent of the overall construction costs.
Chapter 4: Overview of Design Process and Applicable Construction Components 57

Figure 4.15 — Rooms designed to hold training or meetings can serve many 

purposes.

Photo courtesy of Michael Pry and Michael Taylor, DP3 Architects.

Classroom/Online

There are many benefits of having a classroom in a fire station. These rooms should be 

equipped with the necessary audiovisual equipment. This includes the following items:

ĵ Screen(s).

ĵ Projector(s).

ĵ Recording capabilities.

ĵ Smartboards.

ĵ Easel pads.

ĵ Conference phones.

ĵ Dry-erase boards.

ĵ Adjustable lighting.

ĵ Internet access.

ĵ Tables with electrical outlets and information technology outlets.

Classrooms can be cost-effective by becoming multifunctional rooms. If parking and public 

access are available, the classroom can be used for the following:

ĵ Emergency Operations Center.

ĵ Polling places.

ĵ Community rooms.

ĵ Social gatherings.

ĵ Family events.

ĵ Rented to outside agencies for training.

Note: Kitchen facilities might be needed if the classroom is used as a multifunctional room.
58 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Figure 4.16 — This ladder training area 

is protected from the weather.

Photo courtesy of Dennis Ross, Pacheco Ross Architects.

Figure 4.17 — This facility supports 

elevated rescue training exercises 

inside the structure.

Photo courtesy of Bob Mitchell, Mitchell Associates, Architects.

Mezzanines

Mezzanine areas above single-story fire 

station living areas and adjacent to the 

apparatus bay floor are great spaces for 

integrating training props. Examples of 

mezzanine uses:

ĵ Ladder evolutions (see Figure 4.16).

ĵ Rope rescue.

ĵ Entanglement training.

ĵ Forcible entry.

ĵ Removal of victim from an upper floor 

(see Figure 4.17).

ĵ Confined space/maze training (see 

Figure 4.18).

ĵ Building props.

ĵ Prop storage.

Design considerations when using a mezzanine area for training:

ĵ Removable railings.

ĵ Rope anchors.

ĵ Edge protection.

ĵ Wall reinforcement.

ĵ Overhead clearance.

ĵ Protective blankets for apparatus wall.

ĵ Door opening with easily replaceable and disposable doors for forcible entry training.

Figure 4.18 — This training maze was 

constructed in the loft space of a fire 

station.

Photo courtesy of Bob Mitchell, Mitchell Associates, Architects.
Chapter 4: Overview of Design Process and Applicable Construction Components 59

Figure 4.19 — Rope rescue training that 

is protected from the weather may be 

conducted within a training tower.

Photo courtesy of Bob Mitchell, Mitchell Associates, Architects.

Figure 4.20 — Simulating the removal of 

a firefighter trapped on an upper level 

can be accomplished with a drill tower.

Photo courtesy of Bob Mitchell, Mitchell Associates, Architects.

Training tower

A training tower can be a nice architectural feature to a station, as well as a valuable space 

for on-site training. Examples of training evolutions that can be conducted in a tower:

ĵ Rope rescue (see Figure 4.19).

ĵ Rappelling.

ĵ Hose advancement.

ĵ Standpipe evolutions.

ĵ Sprinkler stoppage/change-out.

ĵ Artificial smoke space for SCBA training.

ĵ Rescue of personnel from upper floors (see Figure 4.20).

Design considerations when using a tower 

for training:

ĵ Slip-resistant steps.

ĵ Weather proof materials.

ĵ HVAC.

ĵ Electrical connections.

ĵ Lighting.

If resources allow, incorporating multiple 

training components into the design of 

a new fire station will provide maximum 

flexibility in conducting training exercises 

(see Figure 4.21).

Figure 4.21 — This cutaway drawing 

shows a fire station that provides 

multiple training options.

Photo courtesy of Mark Shoemaker, KZF Design, Inc.
60 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations
Chapter 5: Specific Safety Considerations 61

Chapter 5: Specific Safety 

Considerations

It is estimated that over 2,000 emergency responder injuries occur annually at fire and 

emergency services stations. This includes injuries that occur inside and outside the station. 

Some activities being performed at the time of injury:

ĵ Training.

ĵ Station maintenance.

ĵ Vehicle maintenance.

ĵ Normal activities.

ĵ Physical fitness.

There are several ways to examine a fire and emergency services facility for safety. The 

conventional approach considers each space and the specific hazards related to that space.

This approach lends itself to a design checklist or inspection system. Each station can be

divided into specific areas:

ĵ Station grounds.

Ý Driveways.

Ý Exterior training areas.

Ý Vehicle cleaning and maintenance areas.

ĵ General station interior.

Ý Public areas.

Ý Office/Meeting/Watch areas.

Ý Kitchen.

Ý Dormitory/Shower/Locker/Restroom areas.

ĵ Fitness rooms.

ĵ Support areas (storage, mechanical-electrical spaces, shops).

ĵ Apparatus bays.

ĵ Special areas (towers).

A second approach to address station safety is to identify specific safety concerns. As would 

be expected, certain hazards are common to more than one area of the station. Thus, 

design solutions for one area may also be applied to other areas of the station. Of course, 

it is understood that some hazards are specific to certain station areas. One advantage 

of this approach is that it allows personnel to match applicable regulations and codes to 

specific hazards. (Many regulations are not area-specific.) In this section, several applicable 

regulations have been identified that point to specific safety concerns.

Electrocution/Shock hazards

The possibility of electrocution exists wherever an electrical current contacts a person, 

usually through water, wire or another conductive medium. Pathways for electrical currents 

may be confined to the limbs that contact the live circuit, or more critically, the current 

may pass through the body, as in the case of hand-to-hand or hand-to-foot contact. This 

pathway has the most critical impact on heart function. About 10 percent of the current 

from a hand-to-foot pathway flows through the heart. Since many processes within the body 

are mediated and controlled by electrical activity, external voltage can affect individuals 

in a number of ways.
62 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Figure 5.1 — Faulty electrical equipment is a common cause of fires in fire stations.

Photo courtesy of Kevin Roche, FACETS Consulting, LLC.

Regrettably, many fire stations have several electrical hazards that go unnoticed (see Figure 

5.1). Many stations are never inspected to the same degree as other public facilities. There 

have been occurrences when OSHA has inspected stations, and the results did not reflect 

positively on fire and emergency services.

Extent of problem at the station

Several possible sources of electrocution arise in fire stations and older buildings:

ĵ Wiring may be exposed when not encased in conduit, when chewed by animals, or 

when exposed or otherwise frayed through age.

ĵ Waterproof covers may be missing, or outlets not located at a proper height above 

the ground.

ĵ Electric power tools and outlets may become ungrounded or may be improperly used.

ĵ Power lines in or around the station may be damaged, or may fall to the ground and 

come into contact with station personnel.

ĵ Water contained in tankers and other apparatus may leak onto the floor when tank 

seals age. Any electrical device that comes into contact with this water can electrocute/

shock a member in and around the apparatus bay.

ĵ Members extending electrical lines without following codes.

ĵ Older fire and emergency services stations may not meet today’s increased electrical 

demands.
Chapter 5: Specific Safety Considerations 63

After original systems are installed, the most common source of electrical hazards in the 

fire station is maintenance. Aboveground utility lines constitute electrical hazards when 

they are close to the station, aerial ladders or towers. A number of members have been 

seriously injured, and at least one fatality has occurred, as the result of contacting an 

overhead power line at the station with an aluminum ground ladder.

Relevant regulations and standards

The following are some of the regulations and standards that apply to electrical services 

in fire stations:

ĵ For OSHA regulations, see Appendix D.

ĵ NFPA 70, National Electrical Code®.

ĵ NFPA 70E, Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace®.

ĵ Locally adopted codes.

ĵ Specific organizations:

Ý Association of Edison Illuminating Companies.

Ý Association of Home Appliances Manufacturers.

Ý AIA.

Ý American Lighting Association.

Ý American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE).

Ý Electrical Generating Systems Association.

Ý Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers.

Ý Lightning Protection Institute.

Ý National Electrical Manufacturers Association.

Ý International Electrical Testing Association.

Ý Underwriters’ Laboratories (UL).

Preventive design requirements

Electric shock injuries can be reduced by protecting personnel, selecting and maintaining 

appropriate equipment, and (most importantly for this section) designing the station or 

equipment to minimize the possibility of contact with electricity. All electrical work at the 

station must be done by a licensed electrician, and then inspected by a qualified building/ 

electrical inspector. Specific station design requirements:

ĵ Ground all station electrical outlets, and connect to an electrical panel with circuit 

breakers sized to handle the load on that circuit. Circuit breakers must be clearly 

identified on the panel by function or area of coverage with a simple list on the panel 

door or a numbered facility diagram on the wall next to the panel.

ĵ Keep the main electrical panel area clear and free of storage (allow at least 3 feet of 

clearance). As with any facility, openings in the panel cover should be properly enclosed 

to keep live parts from being exposed.

ĵ Ensure that all receptacles and junction boxes are covered with appropriate plates.

ĵ Install ground fault interrupter circuits (GFICs) (designed to interrupt the current during 

a short to reduce the time a person is in contact with it) in areas that are wet or could be 

wet, such as bathrooms, apparatus bays, boiler rooms, roofs, outside lighting circuits, 

and kitchens. Because receptacles can become damaged and wear out, periodically 

use a circuit tester, including a GFIC tester, to evaluate their condition.
64 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

ĵ Extension cords should only be used for temporary applications.

ĵ Protect light bulbs from physical damage when located within 7 feet of the floor. 

Protection can be in the form of bulb sleeves, covers or plastic lenses.

ĵ When personnel are working on energized circuits or de-energized fixed equipment, 

follow OSHA’s lockout/tagout standard or NFPA 70E.

Station grounds

The following electrical safety considerations should be addressed in relation to the 

grounds surrounding the fire station:

ĵ Ensure that utility poles are placed at least 10 to 15 feet away from vehicle maneuvering 

areas to reduce the possibility of collisions and dropping “hot” lines onto the vehicle 

or building. Extended front bumpers on apparatus may project up to 3 feet beyond 

the visible end of the vehicle. They can be easily missed when turning and may come 

into contact with power poles.

ĵ Use bollards to protect ground-mounted transformers from impacts (Uniform Electrical 

Code) when placed within 10 feet of driveways or parking lots. A one-hour fire-resistive 

wall must be built to protect buildings or openings in them when occupants could be 

electrocuted or burned by a damaged or failed transformer.

Support areas

The following electrical safety considerations should be addressed in relation to support 

areas at the fire station:

ĵ Verify that all electrical powered tools or equipment are insulated to prevent an 

electrical shock to the user. Most portable or fixed equipment comes with a ground 

prong (pin) on the male attachment plug to provide a continuous path to ground if 

hazardous voltage escapes from the machine or equipment. If this prong is missing, 

the individual operating the tool or equipment may become the path to ground and 

receive a fatal electric shock. All electrical hand tools must either have a three-prong 

plug (ground) or must be labelled as “double insulated.” Worn or missing plugs must 

be replaced with UL-listed plugs compatible with the cord and specific equipment.

ĵ Do not use three-prong to two-prong adapters (“cheater” plugs) to operate any 

equipment (cheater plugs are designed for allowing three-prong plugs to fit into 

two-prong outlets).

Note: This requirement is not necessary if all station outlets are properly grounded.

ĵ Design all block heater coaxial cords to feed from an overhead location, with a reinforced 

flexible connection to a junction box. Floor-mounted cords can cause electrocution or 

can become a tripping hazard.

ĵ Install an alarm-activated service disconnect on all fixed cooking devices for all new 

stations containing a kitchen, as well as remodeled station kitchens. These devices 

shut off appliances when the alarm mobilizes personnel.
Chapter 5: Specific Safety Considerations 65

Slips and falls

Personnel slips and falls occur when individuals lose balance or traction due to surfaces 

that are wet, uneven or have poor traction; due to footwear that does not provide adequate 

slip resistance; or due to above surface standing or walking areas that are unguarded. 

While most slips and falls result in strains, sprains and broken bones, many can lead to 

debilitating injuries, such as chronic lower back injury or even death.

Extent of problem at the station

Falls within fire and emergency services facilities, or on station grounds, account for a 

significant number of reported injuries within the fire service (excluding incident falls). Most 

occur during a response or during training activities where rapid movements are required. 

Falls occur when a change of direction is required or where collisions with other personnel 

are possible, due to poor hallway layout, or where blind spots exist in the response line. 

Many areas of the station are prone to falling and slipping hazards, due to the following:

ĵ Standing liquid on apparatus bay floors.

ĵ Limited maneuvering space between apparatus.

ĵ Crowded corridors and exits during response.

ĵ High step and improper rail and grab handle design for some apparatus.

ĵ Poor tread design and lack of guardrails for stairways.

Elevated floor areas that have open sides require guardrails when the fall distance is greater 

than 6 feet (based on OSHA 29 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 1926.501). The probability 

of a fall resulting in traumatic injuries increases as the height increases, and when the area 

below is a nonflexible surface, such as hard-packed earth, concrete or asphalt. Guardrails 

form a system designed to prevent accidental falls. Areas commonly in need of guardrails:

ĵ Mezzanines.

ĵ Hose tower platforms.

ĵ Storage areas.

ĵ Stairwell landings.

ĵ Outside areas, such as decks.

ĵ Possibly building roofs, if the area is often used for training (including training towers).

Relevant regulations and standards

The following are some of the regulations and standards that apply to this slip and fall 

protection:

ĵ Locally adopted building and fire codes.

ĵ For OSHA regulations, see OSHA 1910.501, as well as Appendix D under “Interior 

Areas-Walking-Working Surfaces.”

ĵ American National Standards Institute (ANSI)/ASSE 359.1-92, Safety Requirements for 

Personal Fall Arrest Systems.

ĵ Specific organizations listed in Appendix E that provide guidance in this area:

Ý American Concrete Pavement Association (ACPA).

Ý American Concrete Institute (ACI).

Ý Asphalt Emulsion Manufacturers Association.
66 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Ý ANSI.

Ý ASSE.

Ý American Wood Protection Association.

Ý Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.

Ý National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association, Inc. (NTMA).

Preventive design requirements

Most design solutions for preventing slips and falls involve providing appropriate walking 

surfaces with good traction, controlling interior station traffic, and providing guardrails 

and other fall restraint devices. Specific spaces of facility design requirements include the 

following sections.

Station grounds

In the design of circulation pathways, the requirements should include training areas and 

vehicle aprons that are level, well-drained, nonslip surfaces. They should be constructed 

of either asphalt, concrete, corrugated steel plate, or fluid-applied membrane surfaces. 

(Note: Asphalt is not suitable for heavy apparatus, but is suitable for member and public 

parking areas when restricted to light vehicles.) Good safety design measures:

ĵ Apply a nonslip texture to concrete using a light to heavy broom finish immediately 

after placement.

ĵ Avoid large areas of painted asphalt surfaces because these surfaces are naturally 

nonslip, except when painted, stripped, or coated with oil droppings.

ĵ Use a checkered plate or a fluid-applied surface that contains sand or garnet for steel 

plates that are often used for covering underground vaults, test pits, or transition 

surfaces, such as ramps.

ĵ Require a coat of fluid-applied deck coating containing sand for decks or other surfaces, 

including drill towers, which are rendered slippery when wet. Heavy traffic areas may 

require repeated fluid coatings as part of an ongoing maintenance program.

ĵ Use run-off basins that are equipped with 

oil-water separators in areas for washing 

apparatus.

Station interiors

ĵ Maintain access to the apparatus bays in a 

generally straight line with one or more access 

points provided (see Figure 5.2).

ĵ Avoid access hallways with turns or hallways 

that connect in a “T” or “X” crossing condition.

ĵ Design access points in the apparatus bays so 

members can get to the bay with a minimum 

number of turns.

Figure 5.2 — Any station 

design should facilitate the 

expedient travel of personnel 

to the apparatus bays.

Photo courtesy of Lynn Reda, Hughes Group 

Architects.
Chapter 5: Specific Safety Considerations 67

ĵ If possible, locate support and storage areas on the same 

level as the living and working spaces. The logic of this is 

often overlooked in both new or older stations. Support or 

storage areas that require the use of stairs to access should 

be avoided as falls are more likely to occur when members are 

carrying items. In addition, vision is restricted on stairways 

or on ladders while grasping onto storage items.

ĵ A minimum 4-foot clearance shall be maintained (designed) 

around apparatus parked within the station, if permitted by 

the structure (see Figure 5.3). A minimum 6-foot clearance 

should be considered if the apparatus doors are four-fold. 

Aisles need to be established for spacing between apparatus, 

much like the fire code requires aisle spaces in public assembly 

buildings, for access to electrical panels, or around high-piled 

stock.

ĵ Use slip-resistant surfaces on apparatus bay floors where 

personnel would normally mount or dismount apparatus 

(see Figure 5.4).

Floor finishes for fall prevention

Fire apparatus bay areas are often finished with a smooth concrete 

surface and then given a seal coating. Serious consideration should 

be given to the need for nonslip surfaces, which reduces the 

potential for slip-trip injuries in those areas that are frequently 

wet, and where firefighters are moving quickly, mounting and 

dismounting apparatus (see Figure 5.4). Several manufacturers 

provide floor finishes that allow for safe, sure footing on wet 

surfaces. Once installed, the finishes remain permanently in place 

for extended periods and may be warranted for extended periods 

when properly maintained.

The installation of these floor finishes depends upon the manufacturer. Installation consists 

of applying a special formulation of nontoxic chemicals which react with surfaces in such a 

way as to make porous mineral surfaces safe when wet. These treatments can be applied 

simply and safely to many types of existing floors, both indoors and outdoors. The surface 

must be porous stone (e.g., granite, ceramic tile, quartz tile, terrazzo, concrete, brick, pool 

decking, marble, etc.). These floor finish systems will not work on linoleum, vinyl, tile or 

fiberglass. Some finishes may not be effective in greasy areas. They create a chemical 

reaction within the pores of the surface, resulting in a higher coefficient of friction when 

water is present. One manufacturer’s system cannot be detected on most surfaces after 

being applied. Another manufacturer’s system uses an epoxy and quartz sand formulation 

that produces a nonskid or “orange peel” finish.

One of the best floor coating systems is an MMA acrylic resinous coating. It is slip-resistant, 

easy to clean, and allows for lines, markings and graphics.

Note: Floor coatings that will withstand the extreme heat given off by apparatus tires 

following a response must be selected.

Figure 5.3 — A minimum 4-foot 

clearance shall be maintained 

(designed) around apparatus parked 

within the station.

Photo courtesy of Lynn Reda, Hughes Group Architects.

Figure 5.4 — Apparatus bay floor 

should have slip-resistant surfaces, 

especially in the primary travel areas.

Photo courtesy of Michael Pry and Michael Taylor, DP3 Architects.
68 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Stairways and guardrails

ĵ Design guardrails with top rails at 42 inches, mid-rails at 21 inches, support posts at 

specified distances, and toeboards as needed. Guardrail construction should conform 

to OSHA and ANSI specifications, which allow latitude in construction materials.

Note: These recommendations are based on OSHA requirements. Local requirements 

may be different based upon local building ordinances.

ĵ Use nonslip finishes or treads on stair treads and the nosing (edge of the tread 

surface). Treads wear out and must be replaced as often as necessary to maintain 

a slip-resistant surface.

ĵ Use a color or hue on the edge of the stair tread (nonskid material) that contrasts with 

the rest of the tread.

ĵ Place guardrails on the open sides of stairways (to prevent falls over the side) when 

there are four or more risers. Stairway rail height should be between 30 and 34 inches 

when measured vertically from the upper surface of the top rail to the surface of the 

tread that is in line with the face of the riser at the forward edge of the tread. The 

number of rails depends on the width of the stairs and the number of open or closed 

sides. Handrails must be easy to grasp, no more than 2 inches in diameter, and at a 

height of no less than 34 inches and no more than 38 inches above the tread nose and 

landings. They must be continuous and extend beyond the last step.

Note: These recommendations are based on OSHA requirements. The requirements 

in your area may be different; check your local building ordinance.

ĵ Use contrasting colors for guardrails to 

make them clearly visible compared to the 

rest of the stairway.

Slide poles

Slide poles are an iconic part of two-story 

fire stations (see Figure 5.5). There is no 

doubt they provide expedient access to 

lower levels. However, they are some of the 

most dangerous components of a station if 

not properly guarded and used. Emergency 

responders have sustained numerous injuries 

when sliding down poles, particularly to knees 

and ankles. Station tours often include a 

demonstration of the slide pole, and far too 

often, members allow the public to slide down 

the pole. Children are especially inquisitive 

about the pole and must be closely watched to 

make sure they do not attempt a slide. Some 

departments have installed slides instead 

of poles. A properly designed slide can be 

very effective and much safer than a pole. 

Figure 5.5 — There should be 

protective padding at the bottom of 

a slide pole.

Photo courtesy of Mike Wieder, Stillwater, OK.
Chapter 5: Specific Safety Considerations 69

To prevent and minimize injuries with a slide pole, remember the following guidelines:

ĵ Where sliding poles are used, guard the pole hole in accordance with the manufacturer’s 

instructions to prevent personnel from walking directly into the hole opening.

ĵ To absorb shock to sliding personnel, use a 3-foot diameter cushioned rubber mat or 

equivalent device at the bottom of all slide poles.

ĵ Establish rules, and install signage that limit one person on the pole at a time.

ĵ Establish rules, and install signage strictly prohibiting use of the pole except to members 

who have been trained on the proper technique of sliding down a pole.

Elevated surfaces

Elevated surfaces in a fire station include hose/training towers and mezzanines. General 

guidelines are as follows:

ĵ Equip floor openings in hose/training tower platforms and mezzanines with a 42-inch 

guardrail with a mid-rail at 21 inches capable of withstanding a force of 250 pounds 

applied in any direction at any point on the top rail. Equip each platform with toeboards 

(barriers at platform level erected along the exposed sides and ends to prevent materials 

falling off the platform).

ĵ When access ladders extend beyond 20 feet, require offset platforms and cage guards. 

(Permanent fixed ladders on the outside of drill towers and drill buildings are exempt 

from the requirements of offset platform landings and ladder cage guards).

ĵ Provide a rung clearance behind the hose/training tower ladders of at least 7 inches.

ĵ Do not have step-across distances that exceed 12 inches.

ĵ Design side rails greater than 16 inches wide.

ĵ Use ladder rung spacing of less than 12 inches.

ĵ Start ladder cages between 7 and 8 feet above a landing.

ĵ Use ladder pitch between 75 and 90 degrees.

Marine areas

Stations that are adjacent to bodies of water often use finger piers or docks to access 

water rescue craft:

ĵ Construct the dock or pier surface using nonslip materials. Piers of concrete (chambered 

construction) require either a broom-finish concrete or fluid-applied nonslip coating.

ĵ Locate all tie-off points, hose bibs, or electrical outlets away from walkways, and 

provide adequate space for access to watercraft.

ĵ In locations where water levels fluctuate, gangways are required to be designed for 

multiple angles of use. They must also be nonslip, using either raised treads, a nonslip 

surface, or both. All gangways are required to meet OSHA handrail standards.
70 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Falling objects

Injuries resulting from objects falling and striking personnel at the station are not 

uncommon in stations with overhead storage, such as lofts, high storage shelving or 

cabinets, mezzanines, or openings with slide poles. The problem can be classified into 

two primary areas of concern: objects dropped by others and unsecured objects falling 

or toppling onto station occupants.

Relevant regulations and standards

Relevant regulations that apply to protection from falling objects include:

ĵ Locally adopted building and fire codes.

ĵ Pertinent OSHA regulations (Appendix D).

ĵ Specific organizations, listed in Appendix E, which provide standards in this area:

Ý American Architectural Manufacturers Association.

Ý AIA.

Ý National Safety Council (NSC).

Preventive design requirements

Areas most often associated with falling object accidents are the gym, support or storage 

areas, and the apparatus bays. Items stored in or on file cabinets, storage shelving systems, 

and wall-mounted or hook-supported systems represent the highest frequency of reported 

injuries from falling objects.

Considerations for improving safety in storage areas:

ĵ The apparatus bay should not be considered a storage area, except possibly for a fire 

hose not carried on the apparatus.

ĵ Require all vertical files with three or more drawers to be of an interlock variety that 

allows only one drawer at a time to be opened. Secure all file cabinets to walls with 

lag screws and clamps or steel angles.

ĵ For storage shelving or high-rise storage systems, require that all shelving have a 

1/2-inch lip on the open edge of each shelf. Install one retaining wire 6 inches above 

each shelf, and secure each section of a storage system to the floor, or brace back to 

a wall or ceiling to prevent unit from falling.

ĵ For wall-mounted items, use a 1/2- to 1-inch lip for objects stored on a hook or ledger 

to prevent the item from being unintentionally dislodged.

ĵ Require installation of walls or guardrails that are a minimum of 42 inches high on all 

mezzanine storage areas to prevent objects or people from falling to the level below.

ĵ Isolate loft spaces, which are accessed through a hinged door or gate, with three restraining 

cables, chains or bars to prevent occupants from falling through unprotected openings.

ĵ Include a standard guardrail for a loft or landing platform with a toeboard, which is a 

vertical barrier, at floor level. Erect guardrails along exposed edges of a floor opening, 

wall opening, platform, runway or ramp to prevent material from falling.
Chapter 5: Specific Safety Considerations 71

ĵ In the design phase of station planning, always allow for additional storage space 

beyond what is currently anticipated. In some cases, due to budget constraints and 

the cost of a station being assessed on a per square-foot basis, it might be necessary 

to creatively assign space which can ultimately be used for storage.

ĵ Secure emergency medical drugs and limit access to only authorized personnel.

Explosions

Explosions occur when volatile vapors or gases come into contact with an ignition source, 

or when pressurized cylinders rupture from overheating or physical breaches. Ignited gases 

send a burst of flames and pressure into the area where gases have collected. Ruptured 

cylinders represent physical or projectile-type hazards. Both types of explosions can cause 

severe personnel injury near the incident. Gas explosions can also ignite combustibles in 

adjacent areas, creating additional hazards.

Extent of problem at the station

Refueling pumps and battery charging rooms pose a high risk of explosion or fire. Most 

common ignition sources are ungrounded outlets located less than 18 inches above the 

floor where vapor or gas accumulation occurs, or where equipment using unsealed switches 

is used in a room where gases have accumulated.

Other sources of explosions at the station involve pressurized cylinders or other vessels,

such as breathing apparatus bottles, fire extinguishers, and steam boilers.

Relevant regulations and standards

The following are some of the regulations and standards that apply to this topic:

ĵ Locally adopted building and fire codes.

ĵ For OSHA regulations, see Appendix D.

Ý OSHA 1910.94 Ventilation.

Ý OSHA 1910.101 Compressed gases (general requirements).

Ý OSHA 1910.106 Flammable and combustible liquids.

Ý OSHA 1910.110 Storage and handling of liquefied petroleum gases.

Ý OSHA 1910.169 Air receivers.

Ý NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code.

Ý NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages.

Ý NFPA 54, National Fuel Gas Code.

Ý NFPA 55, Compressed Gases and Cryogenic Fluids Code.

Ý NFPA 69, Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems.

Ý NFPA 85, Boiler and Combustion Systems Hazards Code.

Specific organizations, listed in Appendix E, that provide standards in this area include:

ĵ Associated Air Balance Council (AABC).

ĵ American Boiler Manufacturers Association.

ĵ American Gas Association.

ĵ American Petroleum Institute (API).

ĵ ASSE.

ĵ Battery Council International.
72 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

ĵ Compressed Air & Gas Institute.

ĵ Compressed Gas Association (CGA).

ĵ National Propane Gas Association (NPGA).

Preventive design requirements

In occupancy types with atmospheres that are classified as hazardous, NFPA 70 cites 

specific requirements and locations of electrical equipment in these spaces.

Hazardous atmospheres

ĵ In all spaces where the possibility of an explosion exists, mechanical ventilation of that 

space should be required in accordance with the Uniform Mechanical Code Sections. The 

apparatus bays, shop areas, mechanical rooms, vehicle wash equipment, reclaim rooms, 

and electrical panel rooms present the highest risk of explosions in buildings 10 years 

or older, where modern safety code requirements were not designed into the building.

ĵ Gas lines, or regulators serving a building, should be carefully researched. Regulators 

and manifolds should be located at least 20 feet (horizontally and vertically) away from 

fresh air intakes serving air-handling equipment where burners or electric coils are used.

ĵ Consider the installation of explosive gas monitors or sensors in the design of new or 

remodeled fire or EMS stations for hazardous classified spaces.

ĵ Do not use Class I or Class II flammable liquids for cleaning purposes to remove grease 

or dirt from apparatus.

ĵ Install eye wash stations near battery charging areas.

ĵ Install refueling pumps according to the provisions of the locally adopted building 

codes, or NFPA 30A.

ĵ Dispense Class I liquids as required by the locally adopted building code, or NFPA 30A.

ĵ Post “No Smoking” and “Stop Your Motor” signs in fueling areas.

ĵ Place a refueling pump shut-off switch a minimum of 50 linear feet away from the 

dispenser, and clearly post a sign, “Fuel Pump Shut-Off.” This requirement is based on 

what is considered a safe distance away from the potential hazard area.

Pressurized cylinders and vessels

ĵ Hydrostatically test pressurized cylinders at regular intervals. The frequency depends 

on the cylinder construction. Common cylinders requiring hydrostatic testing are 

stored pressure fire extinguishers, breathing air cylinders, cascade cylinders, oxygen 

cylinders, and fuel gas (acetylene) cylinders.

ĵ Require inspection and certification by a boiler inspector for pressure vessels, such

as boilers, some hot water heaters, and some air tanks.

ĵ Secure the cylinders in storage, or use them to prevent overturning. Use chain or 

cylinder band clamps for this purpose.
Chapter 5: Specific Safety Considerations 73

Vehicle hazards

Most fire departments rank vehicular accidents as the leading cause of station personnel 

injuries. The nature of activities in and around fire and emergency services stations 

involves rapid vehicle movements, as well as low speed backing or turning actions while 

responding to or preparing for a response to a call. Accidents that occur because of these 

vehicle movements often involve nonattentive members or station visitors unfamiliar with 

these activities. Most emergency response vehicles have large bulk and many blind spots, 

which further enhance the potential for an accident and injury.

Extent of problem at the station

A significant number of incidents resulting in injuries and death are related to vehicular 

use around stations. Deaths usually involve the member being crushed between two 

apparatus or between an apparatus and a wall. There have also been cases of members 

falling from the apparatus or being pinned against ceiling-mounted equipment.

Several of these accidents can be eliminated by using drive-through bays. However, 

many drive-through apparatus bays become “back-in” bays because of other vehicles or 

equipment staged behind primary response vehicles. Most in-station vehicular accidents 

are the result of apparatus backing up. It is imperative that organizations have a policy that 

requires spotters when an apparatus is backing up. This policy must be strictly enforced. 

Another type of accident occurs when the apparatus moves out onto adjacent roadways 

without proper traffic control. Lastly, apparatus bay doors are struck by apparatus or close 

on top of the apparatus as it exits the station. In many cases, the potential for injury to 

personnel is small; however, repair of doors can be difficult.

Relevant regulations and standards

The following are some of the regulations and standards that apply to this topic:

ĵ Locally adopted building and fire codes.

ĵ Pertinent OSHA regulations are provided in Appendix D under “Apparatus Area.”

ĵ Specific organizations (Appendix E) that provide standards in this area include:

Ý American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

Ý ACPA.

Site layout

Whenever permitted by the site, design the station with “one way” circulation drives (usually 

one bay deep) that are accessed in a drive-through manner. Avoid driveways that require 

more than one 90-degree turn to enter a public street. Stations requiring a vehicle to back 

into the bays will raise the risk of an accident, even when assistance is rendered by other 

firefighters, such as spotters.

Equip driveways that empty directly onto a public street from the fire station in high-volume 

traffic areas with traffic control lights. For extremely busy roadways, there should be a 

series of lights in either direction to get through traffic. Activation of these lights is best 

controlled through an apparatus on-board activation system. Activation can also be through 

a switch mounted in the station or through the station alerting system.

Install self-closing doors. These doors should have pressure switches at the bottom, so 

in the event they start to close when an apparatus is under them, they return to the open 

position and do not damage the apparatus or the door itself.
74 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Drowning

Drowning is a hazard at marine fire stations or for firefighters operating around piers 

or waterways. Contributing factors to drowning can include cold water, which causes 

hypothermia and limits mobility, and wearing heavy protective clothing and equipment.

Extent of problem at the station

Stations in marine settings may have the potential for drowning incidents. Unguarded pier 

and dock locations, combined with slippery conditions from either wet or cold weather, 

pose the highest risks for drowning.

Preventive design requirements

The primary means for preventing drowning is to follow the recommendations for slips and 

falls (see section above), and to require station personnel operating in unguarded areas 

around docks and piers to wear a U.S. Coast Guard approved Personal Flotation Device.

Natural disasters

Fire and emergency services facilities are 

often thought of as a place of safety and 

shelter. When the rest of the community 

is in a disaster, the structures of fire and 

emergency services should remain safe and 

functional. All stations should be designed 

to exceed all building codes to withstand 

the forces of nature (see Figure 5.6).

If a catastrophic event occurs in urban 

areas, consideration should be given to one 

or more stations. This may dictate the need 

for a special conference room where all local 

government officials meet and plan the city’s 

survival. This requires extra phone lines, 

restrooms, chalkboards, break-out rooms, 

and ample storage for emergency supplies.

The effects of earthquakes on structures are well-known. Current codes divide the U.S. 

into four seismic zones, ranging from high risk, to nonexistent or low risk. Current codes 

do not deal with the variables of geology within a seismic zone. Amplifications, caused 

by locally soft soils, can create much of this variability, which can vary significantly over a 

short distance. Good geological data is vital in developing designs for new fire stations or 

evaluating the survivability of an existing one.

Other natural disasters are possible, of course, including the effects of high winds, flooding 

and lightning associated with severe storms. The likelihood of these events will differ by 

region, as well as the specific location of the station. High winds pose particular problems for 

roofs and outside structures. Flooding will primarily affect low-lying areas or communities 

next to rivers or lakes. Lightning and severe storms can occur anywhere, but areas prone 

to tornados and hurricanes are especially at risk.

Figure 5.6 — As a result of a storm, 

this station roof buckled under the 

excessive water weight.

Photo courtesy of Don Collins, Collins Design Service.
Chapter 5: Specific Safety Considerations 75

Extent of problem at the station

Most building codes consider fire and emergency services facilities “essential structures”; 

therefore, their design is vital for the safety of the emergency response personnel and 

the citizens who depend on them. Essential structures are designed to 125 percent of the 

earthquake resistance standards required by other residential and public structures. Those 

basic standards range from Level 1 to Level 4, depending on the seismic zone risk in a particular 

area. In addition, survivability of the station must be considered for severe weather. For 

example, appropriate station locations must be considered in areas where flooding is possible.

Relevant regulations and standards

The primary source of regulations for withstanding earthquakes and other natural disasters 

is the locally adopted building code. Specific organizations, listed in Appendix E, that 

provide standards and guidance in this area include:

ĵ ACI.

ĵ AIA.

ĵ American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC).

ĵ American Institute of Timber Construction (AITC).

ĵ American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE).

ĵ Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute.

ĵ Construction Specifications Institute (CSI).

ĵ Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI).

ĵ Post-Tensioning Institute (PTI).

In addition, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has established the 

National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program (NEHRP), and they have produced several 

guidelines, including “NEHRP Recommended Seismic Provisions for New Buildings and 

Other Structures.”

Earthquakes

In the design for a building to resist earthquake motions, the designer works within certain 

constraints, such as the architectural configuration of the building, the foundation conditions, 

the nature and extent of the hazard should a failure or collapse occur, the possibility of an 

earthquake, the possible intensity of earthquakes in the region, the cost or available capital 

for construction, and similar factors. The designer must have some basis for the selection 

of the strength and the proportions of the building, and for the various support members 

in it. The required strength depends on factors, such as the intensity of the earthquake 

motions to be expected, the flexibility of the structure, and the ductility or reserve strength 

before damage occurs. Because of the interrelations among flexibility and strength of a 

structure, as well as the forces generated in it by earthquake motions, the dynamic design 

procedure must take those factors into account. The ideal to be achieved is one involving 

flexibility and an energy-absorbing capacity that will permit the earthquake’s displacements 

to take place without generating unduly large forces. To achieve this end, control of the 

construction procedures and appropriate inspection practices are necessary. The attainment 

of the ductility required to resist earthquake motion must be emphasized.

The UBC has an entire section on earthquake construction requirements for structures by 

occupancy. These are the latest state-of-the-art concepts based on nationally recognized 

good practices. Furthermore, building permits will not be issued until earthquake designs 
76 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

have been considered, and building officials have approved the design or lack of design in 

writing. For the parts of the country where snow is a major consideration, weight factors 

also need to be considered when preparing the station design.

The design should consider several factors to avoid adverse impacts and potential harm,

and to ensure safe, stable and compatible development appropriate to site conditions. 

These should include, but not be limited to the following:

ĵ Review of available literature regarding the site and surrounding areas.

ĵ Detailed topographic analysis.

ĵ Subsurface data and exploration logs.

ĵ Ground surface profiles.

ĵ Analysis of relationship of vegetated cover and slope stability.

ĵ Site stability analysis.

ĵ Geotechnical considerations to reduce risk.

ĵ Construction and post-construction monitoring.

Before the 1970s, the structural design of buildings focused primarily on providing sufficient 

strength to overcome the forces resulting from an earthquake’s ground motion. The 

most glaring deficiency was the need for increased building ductility. Before that time, 

earthquake building codes required that structures be designed for a prescribed level of 

static force. An earthquake is a dynamic event, not a static one. Accordingly, structures 

need strength and the ability to sustain their strength for the duration of the earthquake. 

Criteria for such a design:

ĵ Provide a design with continuity in the floor plan from a structural perspective.

ĵ Employ structures with continuous earthquake load carrying systems. Stations with wall 

systems that are discontinuous or interrupted by changes in the floor plan perform poorly.

ĵ Steel-reinforced concrete has performed well in earthquakes.

ĵ Use cross-members, especially along walls with no openings.

ĵ Determine the level of earthquake resistance to be designed into the new station, or 

the degree to which an older one should be upgraded.

ĵ Base isolation is a design that should be considered. It involves floating a building above 

its foundation on a system of bearings, springs or padded cylinders. Engineers use 

a variety of bearing pad designs, but they often choose lead-rubber bearings, which 

contain a solid lead core wrapped in alternating layers of rubber and steel. The lead 

core makes the bearing stiff and strong in the vertical direction, while the rubber and 

steel bands make the bearing flexible in the horizontal direction. Bearings attach to 

the building and foundation via steel plates and then, when an earthquake hits, allow 

the foundation to move without moving the structure above it. Thus, the building’s 

horizontal acceleration is reduced, and it suffers far less deformation and damage.

ĵ Use an importance factor of 1.5 in the station design. The importance factor is a ranking 

of the need for building survivability as applied to structural integrity. It relates to 

the specification of materials and design techniques that allow building survivability.
Chapter 5: Specific Safety Considerations 77

Flooding

Generally, the station’s location is the first consideration to avoid the potential for flooding, 

with specific attention given to the area’s type of soils, water table, and drainage. The Federal 

Insurance Administration of FEMA, together with state and local authorities, establish the 

potential for area flooding by classifying flood risk in every region within the U.S.

If history has demonstrated susceptibility of existing stations to flooding or significantly 

hindering operations, consider relocating the station to a more desirable location. 

Justification for moving a station can cite the need to maintain operations when fire and 

EMS are often most needed, in addition to the costs to the community in terms of relatively 

slow response times.

Use some of the same factors that apply to earthquake-resistant design when designing 

structures to avoid potential flood damage. Not only must stations be designed to prevent 

the inflow of flood waters, they must also take into account forces of running water and 

pressure created by floodwaters. Particularly important:

ĵ Nearby sewer and runoff capacity.

ĵ Local area flood controls.

ĵ Eliminating basements and crawl spaces from station designs.

ĵ Design of adequate footings and foundations for anchoring structures.

ĵ Allowing appropriate subfloor drainage.

ĵ Waterproofing concrete and masonry walls.

ĵ Foundation elevation above the expected flood level.

ĵ Use of sump pumps and other devices to reduce groundwater accumulation.

Based on the 2012 massive flooding caused by Hurricane Sandy in the northeast, we 

learned that the following design considerations deserve special attention:

ĵ Electrical service and distribution systems.

ĵ Data systems.

ĵ HVAC systems.

ĵ Emergency power systems.

ĵ Elevators.

FEMA Publication 102, Floodproofing for Non-Residential Structures, offers detailed information 

for building design and construction to reduce damage associated with flooding.

Station design, including specially reinforced walls, reinforced roofs, and structural connections 

attributes importance in avoiding damage during severe storms, such as those associated 

with hurricanes. These design features generally add significantly to the cost of construction.

Fire (all types)

An emergency services station is one occupancy that should have no excuse to burn and 

should be constructed and maintained to make it practically immune to fire. In reality, 

fire stations are often just as susceptible to fires as other structures. Fires can be caused 

at stations by vehicle fires within the building, ignition of flammable gases or liquids, or 

electrical problems. Particularly dangerous are small, undetected fires resulting from 

improper or damaged wiring that can travel behind walls and in attic spaces. Dangerous 

fire conditions can also arise from the accumulation of fuel and flammable vapors in areas 

close to ignition sources.
78 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Extent of problem at the station

On average, 150 fires per year occur in fire stations. (Probably many more small ones go 

unreported.) The most common hazard is a fire that starts within an apparatus. Another 

leading cause is kitchen appliances left on during a response. Some of these fires have 

resulted in substantial damage and sometimes personnel injuries. A review of causes for 

the majority of these fires appear to relate to the following:

ĵ Faulty installation of apparatus cab electrical components.

ĵ Improper storage of cab equipment.

ĵ Faulty or improper wiring/electrical connections.

ĵ Station equipment/appliances left operating during a response.

ĵ Handling flammable substances within the station.

Relevant regulations and standards

The following are some of the regulations and standards that apply to this topic:

ĵ Locally adopted building and fire codes.

ĵ OSHA regulations are provided in Appendix D.

ĵ Specific OSHA regulations include:

Ý OSHA 1910.37 Means of Egress, General.

Ý OSHA 1910.38 Employee Emergency Plans and Fire Prevention Plans.

Ý OSHA 1910.157 Portable Fire Extinguishers.

Ý OSHA 1910.158 Standpipe and Hose Systems.

Ý OSHA 1910.159 Automatic Sprinkler Systems.

Ý OSHA 1910.160 Fixed Extinguishing Systems, General.

Ý OSHA 1910.161 Fixed Extinguishing Systems, Dry Chemical.

Ý OSHA 1910.162 Fixed Extinguishing Systems, Gaseous Agent.

Ý OSHA 1910.163 Fixed Extinguishing Systems, Water Spray and Foam.

Ý OSHA 1910.164 Fire Detection Systems.

ĵ Specific NFPA Standards include:

Ý NFPA 1, Fire Code.

Ý NFPA 10, Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers.

Ý NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems.

Ý NFPA 14, Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems.

Ý NFPA 70.

Ý NFPA 70E.

Ý NFPA 101.

Specific organizations, listed in Appendix E, that provide additional guidance in this 

area include:

ĵ AIA.

ĵ AISC.

ĵ AITC.

ĵ ASCE.

ĵ CSI.

ĵ NFPA.

ĵ Volunteer Firemen’s Insurance Service, Inc. (VFIS).
Chapter 5: Specific Safety Considerations 79

Preventive design requirements

Many of the safety concerns related to fire risk have been covered in previous sections, 

specifically those addressing electrocution/shock hazards, explosions and hazardous 

materials. Several specific concerns relative to fire protection exist at the fire and emergency 

services facilities, as in any large industrial or residential structure. These include systems 

for fire-resistive construction, fire detection, means of extinguishment, and providing 

adequate egress.

Fire-resistive construction

ĵ Separate apparatus and storage areas from living and sleeping areas, with at least 

one fire-resistive separation.

ĵ Install wiring, connections and appliance in accordance with NFPA 70 and NFPA 70E. 

For the latter standard, Chapter 2 (Wiring Design and Protection), Chapter 3 (Wiring 

Methods, Components, and Equipment for General Use) and Chapter 5 (Hazardous 

Locations) are particularly relevant.

ĵ Ensure that fire/EMS station design and construction is compliant with NFPA 101. This 

standard addresses use of compartmentalization construction, smoke barriers, special 

hazard protection, and interior finishes.

Fire detection and suppression systems

ĵ Require that all stations have both smoke and carbon monoxide detectors installed 

and directly wired with battery back-up.

ĵ Ensure that fire detectors and fire detection systems are tested and adjusted as often 

as needed to maintain proper reliability and operating conditions.

ĵ Select the number, spacing and location of fire detectors as based upon design 

data obtained from field experience, tests, engineering surveys, the manufacturer’s 

recommendations, or a recognized testing laboratory listing as required by local code.

ĵ Provide alarm systems which are recognizable from other alarms systems at the station.

ĵ Provide portable fire extinguishers that are mounted and located in readily visible 

and accessible locations.

ĵ Use only approved portable fire extinguishers, and be sure they are inspected monthly.

ĵ Ensure that portable fire extinguishers are maintained in a fully charged and operable 

condition, and kept in their designated places at all times except during use.

ĵ Install automatic sprinkler designs that provide the necessary discharge patterns, 

densities, and water flow characteristics for complete coverage of designated station 

areas. Use a Hazard Design of Ordinary Group I in accordance with NFPA 13. The USFA 

strongly recommends the use of sprinkler systems in the design of fire and EMS stations.

ĵ Sprinkler systems should be installed with consideration to maintenance, adequate 

water supplies, protection of piping, protection of sprinklers, sprinkler spacing, and 

appropriate sprinkler alarms.
80 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

ĵ There are three main types of fixed extinguishing systems:

Ý Dry chemical.

Ý Gaseous agent.

Ý Water spray and foam.

ĵ These specialized systems may be considered for working spaces where there is a 

high potential for fire hazards.

Means of egress

ĵ Design exits consistent with expected maximum occupancy, in accordance with the 

local building code and NFPA 101.

ĵ Mark every exit, and conspicuously indicate the routes for escape from any point. 

When more than one exit is required from a story or room, arrange at least two of 

the exits remote from each other to minimize the possibility of both being blocked by 

fire or another emergency condition.

ĵ Locate and maintain exits and exit access, so that they are always accessible.

ĵ Use side-hinged, swinging type doors from a room to an exit or to an exit access.

ĵ The minimum width of an exit access must not be less than 32 inches clear width and 

must provide adequate headroom of at least 7 feet, 6 inches.

ĵ Supply each exit with an exit sign illuminated by a reliable light source, giving a value 

of no less than 5 foot-candles on the illuminated surface.

ĵ Arrange exiting from sleeping and day room areas so that at least one exit route is 

available without going through the apparatus room.

ĵ Prepare emergency action plans. Post floor plans that clearly show the emergency 

escape routes, included in the emergency action plan. Color coding will aid employees 

in determining their route assignments.

ĵ Designate an emergency safe area or rendezvous point in the event of an emergency.

ĵ Practice emergency evacuation.

In each of these areas, the fire and EMS station should serve as the model for the community.

Theft, vandalism and violence

As with any public or private facility, fire and emergency services stations are subject to 

theft, vandalism and violence. For staffed stations, these acts are most likely to occur 

when emergency response personnel are on a call. This problem can be more severe for 

volunteer stations where no rotating occupants stay at the station. Problems can also arise 

during public functions or outside uses of the station. The specific location of the station 

within the community can also pose risks to station occupants and contents.
Chapter 5: Specific Safety Considerations 81

Relevant regulations and standards

Regulations and standards in this area are typically found in local codes. Specific 

organizations, listed in Appendix E, which provide guidance in this area:

ĵ UL.

ĵ VFIS.

Preventive design requirements

Common sense in securing valuable 

items will help prevent theft, as well as 

vandalism and violence. It is important 

that the necessary effort be made to 

reduce thefts of personal property and 

station equipment/supplies, as well 

as to minimize the opportunities for 

vandalism and violence. Access to the 

fire and emergency services facilities 

varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. 

Keys are hard to track, so other systems, 

such as card entry, are viable options 

(see Figure 5.7).

Department property

ĵ If practical, place equipment in its 

storage area at the close of each 

shift. Silhouette boards for items, 

such as tools, are a good way to 

identify items that are missing.

ĵ Inventory equipment frequently and at irregular intervals.

ĵ Install property tags on items. Adhesive labels that hold up very well are available, 

even on hand tools used in the firefighting environment.

ĵ Install security cameras at every outside door.

ĵ Be sure all utility entry points are located where they are not accessible except by members.

ĵ Drugs used for EMS calls should be secured at all times, with only authorized personnel 

allowed to access them.

Personal property

ĵ Always use dedicated, single lockers. The best locks are keyed, such as pin-tumbler 

padlocks with solid brass or steel bodies and hardened shackles at least 3/8 inches in 

diameter. The shackle should be locked at heel and toe. A high-quality combination 

padlock meeting the same specifications may also be used.

ĵ Establish natural surveillance points in areas where personnel leave belongings.

ĵ Recommend that personal items be engraved with an identifiable mark.

Figure 5.7 — Card access to fire stations is a viable option.

Photo courtesy of Mike Wieder, Stillwater, OK.
82 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

ĵ Most departments now mark their more valuable equipment in some manner. This 

is not done, however, for personal property. It is recommended that each fire and 

emergency services facility develop a system for marking personal property.

ĵ Ballistic protection over windows might be necessary in certain areas to minimize risks 

resulting from acts of violence.

ĵ Four-fold apparatus bay doors can be specified to meet ballistic standards.

Parking lots

ĵ Personal vehicles are often targeted for breaking and entering. Parking lots designated 

for members should be fenced, gated and locked.

ĵ Install lighting for the station perimeter, parking lots, walkways, entrances and any 

sensitive areas that would permit easy vandalism or theft during hours of darkness. 

In addition, internal lighting should be provided to assist personnel during times when 

the station is unoccupied.

ĵ Fence appearance is important in many neighborhoods. Be sure the fence has the 

aesthetic qualities to be accepted by the community. Security cameras should be 

placed to cover every angle.

ĵ Encourage members not to leave any valuables inside their vehicles.
Chapter 6: Specific Health Considerations 83

Chapter 6: Specific Health 

Considerations

One of the basic tenants of fire station design is ensuring that the station is a healthy place 

for the firefighters who work and live there, as well as for members of the public who visit. 

This chapter addresses specific health concerns that fire stations may encounter and how 

those hazards may be minimized or eliminated.

Cancer

Cancer rates among active and retired firefighters far exceed rates for the general public. 

Cancer has become an epidemic in the fire service. Several experts are now saying that 

the fireground is more of a health hazard than a hazardous materials incident, particularly 

because of the safety precautions that are used to mitigate hazardous materials incidents. 

The products of combustion, including diesel exhaust, contain carcinogens and other 

chemicals that are known to be hazardous to human health.

Extent of problem at the station

Fire and emergency services stations are the collection point for contaminated equipment 

from emergency scenes. In addition to hazards of direct skin contact with the contaminated 

equipment, there is off-gassing of contaminated equipment into the station environment.

Preventive design requirements

All stations must have decontamination areas and equipment for properly cleaning and 

disinfecting contaminated equipment.

Cancer overview

The composition of building materials and building furnishings has changed dramatically 

in recent years. Plastics and synthetic materials are so common that very few products 

used in construction and furnishings are made of natural materials. There are close to 

90,000 chemicals in use today that could be found in the firefighting environment. When 

these materials combust, the byproducts are far more hazardous to the health of humans 

than the natural materials used previously in construction and furnishings.

There is a growing body of knowledge that today’s house fires are more like hazardous 

materials incidents than house fires of the previous generations. Residential, commercial 

and vehicle fires have highly concentrated toxins. Even dumpster fires have unknown 

contaminants. Many of these toxins enter the body through the skin. It has been shown 

that the absorption rate for toxins increases 400 percent for every 5-degree increase in 

skin temperature.
84 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

From the Firefighter Cancer Support Network’s white paper, “Taking Action Against 

Cancer in the Fire Service”:

The design of fire stations, whether for new construction or renovation, 

must include such standard design features as state-of-the-art equipment 

and systems for adequate air flow, removal and capture of carcinogens 

and particulates, appropriate location and ventilation of storage rooms 

for contaminated PPE and other equipment, washer-extractor and gear 

drying equipment, as well as clear separation of living quarters from the 

apparatus floor. In short, architects should be working to design cancer out 

of fire stations. Responsible elected and appointed officials should require 

this type of expertise when hiring design professionals for fire stations.

Toxic chemicals that may be found in any given firefighting environment:

ĵ Acetaldehyde.

ĵ Acrolein.

ĵ Acrylonite.

ĵ Arsenic.

ĵ Asbestos.

ĵ Benzene.

ĵ Butadiene.

ĵ Coal — tar pitch.

ĵ Carbon monoxide.

ĵ Ethyl benzene.

ĵ Formaldehyde.

ĵ Hydrogen chloride.

ĵ Isocyanates.

ĵ Methyl methacrylate.

ĵ Naphthalene.

ĵ Nickel.

ĵ Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons.

ĵ Styrene.

ĵ Toluene.

ĵ Toluene diisocyanate.

ĵ Vinyl chloride.

ĵ Numerous PAHs.

Studies have shown that firefighters are more likely to get the following types of cancer, 

compared to the general public:

ĵ Testicular — 2.02 times.

ĵ Multiple myeloma — 1.53 times.

ĵ Non-hodgkin’s lymphoma — 1.51 times.

ĵ Skin — 1.39 times.

ĵ Brain — 1.32 times.

ĵ Malignant melanoma — 1.31 times.

ĵ Prostate — 1.28 times.

ĵ Colon — 1.21 times.

ĵ Leukemia — 1.14 times.
Chapter 6: Specific Health Considerations 85

The recent and ongoing studies about firefighter cancer are even more alarming considering 

emergency responders are typically physically fit. Furthermore, it is known that many 

emergency responder cancer cases go unreported to a national data base. This is especially 

true in the volunteer fire service.

Overall design considerations

The challenge in the design of fire and emergency services facilities 

to minimize the risks of cancer is to isolate, capture and remove the 

carcinogens. While these are simple concepts, they require a change 

that needs to be accepted in the emergency response culture.

There are three major sources of contamination that are typically 

brought into the station:

1. PPE (see Figure 6.1).

2. Fire and rescue equipment.

3. Apparatus (particularly the inside of cabs).

A commonsense approach to address this problem is to decontaminate 

all of the above before bringing them into the station. For example, 

many organizations are now bagging their contaminated PPE before 

leaving the scene. Fire equipment is now being washed more frequently 

at the scene before it is placed back onto the apparatus.

In cases where this is not feasible, the concept of “zoning” spaces within 

the fire station must be used (see Figure 6.2). For example, the colors 

of a traffic signal can be used to designate the following three zones:

ĵ Red — spaces exposed to carcinogens (hot zone).

ĵ Yellow — transition area between contaminated area and clean 

area (warm zone).

ĵ Green — clean area, such as living, 

kitchen, dormitory, etc., (cold/clean zone).

Red zone

ĵ Focus on the highest hazards (PPE, hose, 

etc.).

ĵ Contain the contaminants.

ĵ Separate the members from the 

contaminants.

ĵ Control or limit crossover to clean areas.

ĵ Isolated HVAC.

ĵ Apparatus bay.

ĵ Decontamination/Cleaning room.

ĵ PPE cleaning room.

ĵ Holding area for equipment and PPE to 

be cleaned.

Figure 6.1 — Signs may be used 

to remind personnel not to 

take or wear PPE into the livein areas of the station.

©2013-2016 Firefighter Cancer Support Network | firefightercancersupport.org

Photo courtesy of Keith Tyson, Firefighter Cancer 

Support Network.

Figure 6.2 — This station diagram shows the 

acceptable areas where potentially contaminated 

equipment is allowed.

Photo courtesy of Paul Erickson, LeMay Erickson Willcox Architects.
86 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Yellow zone

ĵ Place walk-off mats on floor.

ĵ Dedicated shower(s).

ĵ Dedicated toilet(s).

ĵ Provide area for washing boots.

ĵ Provide access to PPE cleaning room (if PPE is cleaned in-house).

ĵ Sink for hand washing.

ĵ Have separate and designated closet for cleaning and decontamination equipment 

and supplies.

ĵ Isolated HVAC (air-lock vestibule).

ĵ Hand sanitizer dispensers at all accesses to clean area.

Green zone (cold/clean)

ĵ Kitchen (ideal place for ice machine).

ĵ Dormitory.

ĵ Fitness room.

ĵ Offices.

ĵ Training rooms.

ĵ Restrooms.

ĵ Locker rooms.

ĵ Lobby.

ĵ Study/Library.

ĵ Meeting/Conference rooms.

ĵ Storage areas.

ĵ Isolated HVAC.

Important note: A “saddle-bag” designed station, with the apparatus bay located in the 

middle of the station, typically requires two yellow or transition zones. For example, many 

stations will have the sleeping, locker and shower areas on one side of the bay, and the 

dayroom, kitchen, offices, etc., on the other side of the bay. If this design is selected, it 

must be understood that the flow from red to yellow to green is more complicated. Also, 

this design severely limits the organization from adding additional bays.

Decontamination

The ability to safely and effectively decontaminate firefighters and their equipment has 

come to the forefront of the firefighter health and safety issue. All means must be taken 

to ensure both new and existing facilities are designed or renovated to allow for proper 

decontamination procedures to be conducted within them.

Equipment decontamination room

Gross decontamination/cleaning should occur at the scene. However, additional cleaning 

and decontamination is likely necessary at the station. For this reason, a designated room 

must be allocated for this purpose.

The room should be equipped with specialized equipment for cleaning:

ĵ Isolated HVAC system.

ĵ Hot and cold water.

ĵ Scrubbing tables.
Chapter 6: Specific Health Considerations 87

ĵ Soak tank(s).

ĵ Large stainless steel sink(s).

ĵ Floor drain to sanitary sewage.

ĵ Hand-held wands.

ĵ Foot scrubbers.

ĵ Special detergents.

ĵ Scrub brushes.

ĵ Hose cleaning machine.

ĵ Drying racks and hangars.

ĵ Disposable work gloves.

ĵ Hand sanitizer dispensers.

Personal protective equipment cleaning room

PPE is a major investment for any fire and emergency services organization. All elements 

(coats, pants, helmets, hoods, gloves, boots, SCBA, etc.) are designed and tested to 

perform under the hazardous conditions faced by emergency responders. The cost 

of PPE has risen dramatically over recent years, and there is every reason to believe 

these costs will continue to rise. It is life safety equipment!

Moreover, PPE protects the fire and emergency services most valuable asset — its 

members!

Fire and emergency services organizations can choose between cleaning their PPE in-house 

or contracting with an Independent Service Provider (ISP). Occasionally, an organization 

may decide to use a combination of the two.

NFPA 1851, Standard on Selection, Care, and Maintenance of Protective 

Ensembles for Structural Fire Fighting and Proximity Fire Fighting, sets 

forth requirements for cleaning PPE (see Figure 6.3). The standard 

includes an entire chapter on cleaning and decontamination. It is the 

default standard used by fire and emergency services organizations, 

as well as ISPs.

The PPE cleaning room should have the following design, equipment 

and supplies:

ĵ Dedicated large, nonagitator, washer/extractor(s) for garments. 

(To prevent cross-contamination, this machine must not be 

used to launder anything but PPE garments. Bed linens, towels, 

station work uniforms, workout clothing, etc., must be cleaned in 

equipment that is separate from the PPE cleaning room.)

Ý Space allocation per extractor of approximately 6 feet by 6 feet, 

plus allowance for maintenance access and possible trench drain.

Ý Smaller machines bolted to floor because of high revolutions 

per minute (rpm), and larger machines placed on a reinforced 

concrete pedestal (placing a washer/ extractor on the second 

floor of a facility is not recommended because of the weight 

and forces created).

Ý Electrical supply to power washer/extractor(s), three-phase recommended.

Figure 6.3 — NFPA 1851 

is an excellent source of 

requirements for health and 

wellness programs.

R

NFPA® 1851

Standard on

Selection, Care, and

Maintenance of

Protective Ensembles for

 Structural Fire Fighting and

Proximity Fire Fighting

 2014 Edition

NFPA®,1 Batterymarch Park, PO Box 9101, Quincy, MA 02269-9101, USA

An International Codes and Standards Organization

OD N1

1 Batterymarch Park, PO Box 9101, Quincy, MA 02269-9101

To Order Products, Call Toll-Free: 1-800-344-3555

or visit our on-line catalog at http://catalog.nfpa.org

1851

Photo courtesy of Yvonne Smith, NFPA.
88 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Ý Water temperature not to exceed 105 F.

Ý Detergents with a pH range of 6.0 to 10.5.

Ý Rpm not to exceed 100g-force.

Ý Plumbing to provide water to washer/extractor(s) and discharge of waste water; 

some machines require an open vent in the drain, while others need an open trench.

ĵ Isolated HVAC system.

ĵ Hot and cold water.

ĵ Dedicated SCBA mask cleaning machine (popular in Europe; these machines are often 

configured similar to dishwashers).

ĵ Scrubbing tables (for nongarment PPE items, such as helmets, footwear, SCBA, etc.).

ĵ Soak tank(s) (for nongarment items).

ĵ Large double-basin stainless steel sink(s) (for nongarment PPE items).

Ý Include a sprayer attachment with hand-held wand.

Ý Faucets should not require the user to grasp handle with their hands to turn on 

or off.

Ý All surfaces should be nonporous material with continuous molded counter top 

and splash panel surfaces.

ĵ Floor drain to sanitary sewage.

ĵ Foot scrubbers.

ĵ Special detergents.

ĵ Scrub brushes.

ĵ Disposable work gloves.

ĵ Hand sanitizer dispenser.

ĵ Computer for documenting cleaning.

Personal protective equipment drying

To minimize the mechanical damage of PPE garments, drying racks or nontumble drying 

machines are recommended. If a tumble dryer must be used, the drying temperature 

must not exceed 105 F. Forced air ventilation that allows dry air to transfer through the 

garment while the garment remains fixed is the preferred method.

To minimize the damage to protective fabrics, the drying area should remain dark, except 

when occupied by members. Motion sensor lights work well for this area.
Chapter 6: Specific Health Considerations 89

Personal protective equipment repairing

NFPA 1851 sets forth requirements for repairing PPE. There is an entire chapter dedicated 

to repair. Basically, manufacturers’ instructions must be followed at all times.

Very few fire and emergency services organizations have been third-party certified to 

perform repairs on their PPE. For those agencies, there should be a dedicated room with 

the necessary sewing machines, equipment, and supplies/materials as recommended by 

the PPE element manufacturer. A computer will be needed to document repairs.

Personal protective equipment storage

NFPA 1851 also sets forth requirements for storing PPE. There is an 

entire chapter within the standard on the subject. Historically, the 

most common place to store PPE is the apparatus bay. However, 

this is one of the worst places for two reasons: contamination 

from residual diesel exhaust and ultraviolet (UV) degradation.

PPE should be stored in a dedicated room with the following 

design elements (see Figure 6.4):

ĵ Isolated HVAC with good air movement to remove the residual 

contaminants of off-gassing.

Ý Air exhausted to the exterior of the building.

Ý Humidity levels kept as low as possible to minimize mold 

and mildew.

ĵ Totally dark room with motion sensor lights to minimize UV degradation.

ĵ Large open mesh storage racks (24-inch width recommended) to allow for plenty 

of ventilation through the garments and other PPE elements. Select racks that can 

accommodate more than just coats and trousers. For example:

Ý Special hangers for gloves.

Ý Special racks for helmets.

Fire and emergency services organizations are strongly advised to get a copy of NFPA 1851 

for complete details and explanatory language of the standard’s requirements.

Respiratory protection room (self-contained breathing apparatus inspection, 

testing and repair)

Organizations may choose to do their own SCBA testing and maintenance, or they may 

choose to use a contract vendor. NFPA 1852, Standard on Selection, Care, and Maintenance 

of Open-Circuit Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA), provides requirements for the 

inspection, testing and repair of SCBA. If a department chooses to perform their own 

SCBA inspection, testing and repair, a dedicated room with the following features and 

equipment will be needed:

ĵ All furnishings and finishes that are easily cleaned and decontaminated.

ĵ Electrical power supply capacity for air compressor.

ĵ Breathing air compressor with containment fill station.

ĵ Large work bench.

ĵ Tool box.

Figure 6.4 — A well-designed PPE 

storage room.

Photo courtesy of Ken Newell, Stewart-Cooper-Newell Architects.
90 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

ĵ SCBA flow test machine.

ĵ Abundant storage for parts.

ĵ Computer for data entry.

ĵ Hydrostatic testing equipment (if department does its own hydrostatic testing of SCBA 

cylinders).

Note: All cleaning of SCBA and masks should occur in the PPE cleaning room before being 

brought into the respiratory protection room.

Fitness rooms

Emergency responders face very difficult physical challenges. They must be constantly 

engaged in strength, cardio and flexibility training to provide effective customer service. 

Many injuries and illnesses can be eliminated or minimized if members are physically fit. 

Many of the sudden cardiac and stroke deaths occur to members who are not physically fit. 

It is the responsibility of the organization to provide access to physical fitness equipment.

Extent of problem at the station

The inclusion of a fitness room in fire and emergency services facilities is now standard 

practice. Physically fit members perform at higher levels. Physically fit members reduce 

the organization’s workers’ compensation costs, lost time on the job costs, and insurance 

costs. However, it must be understood that there are chances of injury and sudden death 

while performing physical fitness training. These risks are considerably less than the risks 

of having members who are not physically fit.

Relevant regulations and standards

NFPA 1583, Standard on Health-Related Fitness 

Programs for Fire Department Members, sets the 

requirements for fire and emergency services 

organizations to develop and maintain fitness 

programs (see Figure 6.5).

The standard requires that organizations assign a 

qualified health and fitness coordinator to manage 

the overall fitness program. The organization is 

also responsible for conducting an annual physical 

assessment of each member. A best practice for 

designing and equipping a fitness room is for the 

organization to form a committee or task group that 

understands the objectives of the fitness program. 

This task group should be charged with the following:

ĵ Understanding why certain pieces of equipment 

are needed or recommended.

ĵ Working with fitness manufacturers and 

suppliers to determine the optimal equipment.

ĵ Working with the architect to properly allocate 

the space and design of the room.

Figure 6.5 – Health-related 

fitness programs are the focus 

of NFPA 1583.

R

NFPA® 1583

 Standard on

Health-Related

Fitness Programs for

Fire Department Members

2015 Edition

NFPA®,1 Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02169-7471, USA

An International Codes and Standards Organization

OD N1

1 Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02169-7471

To Order Products, Call Toll-Free: 1-800-344-3555

or visit our on-line catalog at catalog.nfpa.org

1583

Photo courtesy of Yvonne Smith, NFPA.
Chapter 6: Specific Health Considerations 91

Fire and emergency services organizations 

are strongly advised to get a copy of NFPA 

1583 for complete details and explanatory 

language of the standard’s requirements.

Additionally, the International Association 

of Fire Chiefs/International Association 

of Fire Fighters “ Fire Ser vice Joint 

Labor Management Wellness-Fitness 

Initiative” provides information to guide 

fire departments in developing and 

implementing a program.

Exercises and equipment

Six of the best exercises, along with the 

equipment required to help emergency 

responders perform their job, are as follows:

1. Cardio (helps with endurance).

Ý Treadmill (legs and core) (see Figure 6.6).

Ý Elliptical (legs and core).

Ý Stair-climber.

Ý Stationary bike (legs, back, core, balance).

Ý Rowing machine (full body workout).

2. Deadlifts (helps with picking up heavy objects).

Ý Free weights (see Figure 6.7).

Ý Universal machine (see Figure 6.8).

3. Sled drag/push (helps with stretching hoselines, dragging a victim out of a fire).

Ý Sled.

Ý Tire.

Ý Rope.

Ý Large, straight area.

Figure 6.6 — Cardio equipment is one 

component of a physical fitness room.

Photo courtesy of Joe Mottola and John J. Mayo, H2M Architects 

+ Engineers.

Figure 6.7 — Free weights are used for 

strength training.

Photo courtesy of Ken Newell, Stewart-Cooper-Newell Architects.

Figure 6.8 — Universal machines 

facilitate a variety of strength training 

options.

Photo courtesy of Ken Newell, Stewart-Cooper-Newell Architects.
92 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

4. Upper body (helps with use of hand tools and balance).

Ý Bench press (an assisted bench press eliminates the need for a spotter).

Ý Pull-ups (pull-up bar).

Ý Push-ups (mats).

Ý Object carry (kettlebells).

5. Core and back (helps with working in PPE, carrying tools, balance).

6. Legs (helps with balance/stability — preventing falls, working in PPE, routine movement).

Ý Step-ups (step box).

Ý Squats.

Ý Leg-presses (universal machine or leg-press machine).

Design criteria

The following criteria should be used when designing the fitness room for maximum 

performance and benefit (see Figure 6.9):

ĵ Use a glass wall or an abundance of glass, so members in the station can see if a 

member is down due to injury or health reasons (see Figure 6.10).

ĵ Group equipment — cardio on one side of the room and strength training on the 

other side.

ĵ Incorporate as much natural light as possible. Do not be hesitant to locate the fitness 

room where it is visible to the public. It is good public relations for the community to 

see their emergency responders getting in, and remaining in, top physical condition.

ĵ Use floor finishes, such as seamless rubber flooring. Seamless rubber floor covering 

offers the following advantages:

Ý Absorbs sound.

Ý Absorbs shock to the feet, legs and spinal column.

Ý Less susceptible to damage from heavy weights than other floor coverings, including 

concrete.

Ý Easy to clean and decontaminate from sweating.

Note: Never select carpet as a floor covering for a fitness room.

Figure 6.9 — A diagram of a wellplanned fitness room.

Photo courtesy of Patrick Stone, H2M Architects + Engineers.

Figure 6.10 — It is important that 

there is a clear path of vision from the 

outside into the fitness room.

Photo courtesy of Joe Mottola and John J. Mayo, H2M Architects 

+ Engineers.
Chapter 6: Specific Health Considerations 93

ĵ Wall finishes should be smooth, hardened and easily scrubbed. Wall padding should 

be considered near free weights or where lifting objects are used.

ĵ The ceiling height should be high enough (12 feet recommended) to allow for the 

equipment, as well as exercises such as jump-rope.

ĵ Allow for an abundance of mirrors so members can observe their technique.

ĵ Provide televisions to help pass the time, especially when performing on cardio 

equipment, such as stationary bikes or treadmills. Also, televised sporting events are 

an ideal time for many to work out.

ĵ Provide an AED in the room.

ĵ Provide multiple hand sanitizers and sanitary wiping cloths to minimize infections, 

such as MRSA.

ĵ Consider hydration, such as a water dispenser with disposable cups.

ĵ Be sure the call-alarm notification is audible over the sound of equipment being used, 

and/or complement with a visible call-alarm, such as a strobe light.

ĵ Install an emergency help/call button for a member to press if he or she is in distress 

and needs assistance. This should be tied-in to the station alerting system.

ĵ Design the ventilation system so there is a frequent exchange of fresh air.

ĵ Open ceilings tend to work better than drop-in tile ceilings for fitness rooms.

ĵ Install multiple electrical outlets throughout the area for flexibility in powering 

equipment, especially cardiac strengthening equipment and other electronic equipment.

ĵ For convenience, locate the fitness room near showers and locker rooms.

ĵ Arrange equipment so that there are no obstacles for quick exit to board apparatus 

for emergency response.

Hazardous materials

Different chemicals present a variety of health, flammability and reactivity hazards. The 

specific hazards vary with the chemical. While many chemicals may produce severe effects 

upon exposure at high concentrations, these same chemicals may create chronic health 

problems (such as cancer) through repeated, low levels of exposure or even one-time, 

high-concentration exposures.

Fire stations in some cities are used as decontamination sites for city workers who have been 

exposed to toxic or hazardous material. In this case, it is necessary to have a designated

area outside of the structure with hot and cold water, and moderate enclosure along with 

a drain, so these individuals will not contaminate the entire facility. This concept could also 

apply in general for many stations.
94 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Extent of problem at the station

A variety of chemicals and solvents may be used around the station for maintenance and 

other applications. In addition, several fuels and lubricants may be at the station creating 

the potential for exposure at unacceptable levels.

Relevant regulations and standards

The following are some of the regulations and standards that apply to this concern:

ĵ Locally adopted building and fire codes.

ĵ OSHA 1910.94 Ventilation.

ĵ OSHA 1910.101 Compressed gases (general requirements).

ĵ OSHA 1910.106 Flammable and combustible liquids.

ĵ OSHA 1910.110 Storage and handling of liquefied petroleum gases.

ĵ OSHA 1910.1000 Air contaminants.

ĵ OSHA 1910.1200 Hazard communication.

ĵ NFPA 30.

ĵ NFPA 55.

Pertinent OSHA Regulations are provided in Appendix D.

Specific organizations, listed in Appendix E, that provide guidance and standards in this 

area include:

ĵ American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).

ĵ American Chemical Society (ACS).

ĵ American Institute of Chemical Engineers.

ĵ American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA).

ĵ API.

ĵ ASSE.

ĵ American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).

ĵ CGA.

ĵ NFPA.

ĵ NPGA.

ĵ NSC.

Preventive design requirements

All areas

ĵ Locate all chemicals in specific, appropriate storage areas. Store flammable chemicals 

in a flammable chemical storage cabinet. Do not repackage chemicals.

ĵ Ensure that all chemicals are properly labeled and placarded with the appropriate 

warnings.

ĵ Develop a written hazard communication program for the station, including a list of 

chemicals used at the station.

Maintain up-to-date Materials Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) on each chemical within the 

station area. OSHA Hazard Communication Standard 29 CFR 1910.1200: The goal of the 

Hazard Communication Standard is to reduce the occurrence of workplace illnesses and 

injuries caused by hazardous chemicals. The standard is designed to achieve this goal by 

providing information and training for employees who work with hazardous chemicals.
Chapter 6: Specific Health Considerations 95

The written program must include the following:

ĵ A description of how the criteria specified in the standard will be met — labels and 

other forms of warning for MSDS, and for employee information and training.

ĵ A list of hazardous chemicals known to be present. Use the chemical or common name 

that appears on the appropriate MSDS.

ĵ The methods used to inform employees of the hazards of nonroutine tasks and those 

hazards associated with chemicals in unlabeled pipes in their work areas.

ĵ A description of the methods used to inform any contractor of hazards in the workplace 

that they may be exposed to and appropriate protective measures.

In many jurisdictions, oil or fuel spilled within the apparatus area must run through an 

oil/water separator prior to entering the storm water system via the sewer system. When 

fuel oil is required to be stored on site, select aboveground storage tanks rather than 

underground tanks. If possible, both systems require secondary containment which will 

store any oil that leaks out of the primary tank. The installation of either aboveground or 

underground tanks should be in accordance with locally adopted building and fire codes, 

as well as state the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations.

Diesel and vehicle exhaust hazards

Diesel exhaust has been classified as carcinogenic to humans by the International Agency 

for Research on Cancer (IARC), a branch of the World Health Organization. Diesel engines, 

used in fire apparatus, produce a mixture of toxic particulates and gases as the result of 

the combustion process. The composition of this exhaust product depends on several 

factors, such as the specific fuel used, temperature of the engine, condition of the engine, 

cleanliness of the air intake filter, among others. An analysis of general diesel engine 

exhaust has revealed a variety of extremely toxic substances at significant concentrations:

ĵ Oxides of nitrogen — Any combustion in air will produce various nitrogen oxides. 

Short-term exposures can cause respiratory tract irritation and infections. Long-term 

exposures result in lung tissue damage and difficulty breathing.

ĵ Carbon monoxide — This chemical is produced as a by-product of combustion. Exposure 

to high levels of carbon monoxide causes death by tying up the hemoglobin in blood 

and preventing oxygen intake by the body. Exposure to carbon monoxide at lower 

concentrations causes headaches, dizziness, weakness and neurological problems.

ĵ Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) — These compounds are a class of carbon-based 

chemicals, such as benzene, toluene, phenol and chlorinated solvents. Many of these 

chemicals cause a variety of adverse health effects, such as headaches, nausea, 

neurological disorders, respiratory irritation, and liver damage. Some VOCs are known 

or suspected carcinogens.

ĵ Polyaromatic Nuclear Aromatics (PNAs) — PNAs are a class of relatively large, complex 

chemicals principally formed during the combustion processes. In diesel exhaust, these 

chemicals often adhere to the soot particles. Most PNAs are documented carcinogens.

Much of the diesel exhaust is invisible, including the smaller soot particles. This means 

that exposure cannot always be detected. Furthermore, diesel exhaust can penetrate into 

clothing, furniture and other items with which firefighters have routine contact, where it 

can be later released after the initial exposure or absorb into members’ skin.
96 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Extent of problem at the station

In addition to the IARC, both the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) 

and OSHA have declared human exposure to diesel exhaust as a potential occupational 

carcinogenic (cancer-causing) hazard through toxicological studies. NIOSH recommends 

that occupational exposures to diesel exhaust be kept to the lowest feasible concentration.

Relevant regulations and standards

The following are some of the regulations and standards that apply to this topic:

ĵ Locally adopted building and fire codes.

ĵ OSHA 1910.94 Ventilation.

ĵ OSHA 1910.1000 Air contaminants.

ĵ NFPA 1500.

ĵ Other OSHA regulations (Appendix D).

Appendix E lists specific organizations that provide guidance in this area:

ĵ AABC.

ĵ ACGIH.

ĵ ACS.

ĵ AIHA.

ĵ Air Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute.

ĵ American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE).

ĵ ASSE.

ĵ ASTM.

ĵ Institute of Clean Air Companies (ICAC).

ĵ NFPA.

ĵ NSC.

Preventive design methods

Various methods have been suggested 

for reducing diesel exhaust emissions at 

fire stations. These possible solutions take 

two different forms: filtration and source 

capture.

Filtration

Filtration uses forced air that filters the air in 

the station (see Figure 6.11). The filtration 

system units typically hang from the ceiling 

in the apparatus bay area. They typically have 

multiple stages of filtration within the units.

Automate the apparatus bay exhaust fan 

systems to work in conjunction with the 

opening and closing of the bay doors.

Figure 6.11 — A forced-air filtration 

system.

Photo courtesy of Sara Scialo, AIRVAC 911.
Chapter 6: Specific Health Considerations 97

Source capture (hose connection)

Source capture is the best solution to 

capture diesel exhaust. This method 

captures the emissions from the vehicle 

exhaust system before they are expelled 

into the apparatus bay (see Figure 6.12).

The source capture system is designed as 

follows:

ĵ An automatic disconnect nozzle

allowing vehicles to drive into and out 

of the fire station with the hoses still 

attached to the exhaust system. (The 

hose disconnects from the vehicle 

and retracts into the building allowing 

automatic doors to close.)

ĵ Automatic activation via an in-line 

pressure switch when the apparatus 

engine is started or when apparatus bay 

doors open (ensuring consistent use).

ĵ Timers to run exhaust fans until all 

residual gases have been removed from 

the system (manual operation is also 

provided).

Source capture (on-board system)

The onboard system is mounted underneath the apparatus and is integral with the 

exhaust system (see Figure 6.13). The system is about the size of a 5-gallon bucket. It is 

an automatic and self-contained system that does not require a hose to be connected to 

the tail-pipe. It automatically engages when the engine starts and when the apparatus 

is put in reverse. There is an override to activate the system while idling on the scene. 

The newer system for apparatus manufactured after 2007 activates immediately at cold 

start and low idle, both in the station and on scene. The system has a filter that has to be 

replaced. Busy metropolitan agencies report filter replacement is needed approximately 

every 12 months. Some volunteer departments report the filter lasting close to 10 years.

Figure 6.12 — A typical source capture 

exhaust filtration system.

Photo courtesy of Kerry Falzone, Plymovent Corporation.

Figure 6.13 — An apparatus-mounted 

exhaust capture system.

Photo courtesy of Brandon Carlisle, Ward Diesel.

Special note: For best results in achieving a healthy air environment for the bay, both 

a source capture and a filtration system should be used. The ventilation system will 

capture off-gassing of other contaminated equipment brought into the fire stations, 

such as fire hose, salvage covers and PPE that cannot be captured by a source capture.

Station alerting system

Fire and emergency services organizations must have a means of being quickly and safely 

notified of a request for emergency services. Sudden alarm activations, especially during sleep, 

cause extreme stress on the heart. The repeated exposure to this type of sudden awakening 

has a cumulative effect that is detrimental to the cardiovascular and nervous system.
98 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Extent of the problem at the station

This is not a problem for most all-volunteer stations. However, for staffed stations, especially 

those that are staffed during sleeping hours, the stress on the heart and overall mental 

functions can compromise the health of its members.

Preventive design requirements

Station alerting systems are tied into the organization’s dispatch or communications system. 

The alerting systems notify in-house crews of an alarm, as well as provide many other key 

features that enable a safe, healthy and quick response from the facility. However, there 

are ways to make this notification less stressful.

Studies have shown that the human heart rate doubles within 15 seconds after an alarm 

sounds. Clearly, this is a stress on the body rarely found in any other occupation. There is 

a big difference between being awakened in a normal manner and being startled awake by 

loud sounds and bright lights. Alarm tones should ring in, gradually increasing volume rather 

than at full volume from the onset, to help reduce the impact on the cardiovascular system. 

In addition, loud tones can also negatively impact hearing over the course of a firefighter’s 

career. The best station alerting systems offer the following features to minimize this impact:

ĵ Ramped-up tones that do not shock the human system. Such systems can be 

automatically set to activate louder during the day-time and quieter at night.

ĵ Softer voice messaging, such as a pre-announcement of a call.

ĵ Ramped-up lighting to allow the eyes to adjust.

ĵ Lighting that is focused solely on pathways rather than an entire dorm room.

ĵ Use of red lighting to further allow the eyes to adjust while providing good visibility.

ĵ Video messaging to minimize audio messaging.

ĵ Zoned alerting if the station has more than one company housed in the facility. This 

feature allows only the needed company to be alerted.

ĵ Speakers that can be focused so that only a certain member or bunks will hear the 

call. This keeps from disrupting the sleep of other members who may not be required 

to respond. It also minimizes sleep deprivation.

ĵ Automatically shut off cooking appliances when an alarm sounds.

ĵ Automatically open the appropriate apparatus bay door(s).

ĵ Automatically activate street traffic control devices.

ĵ Automatically activate security gates.

ĵ Automatically activate ventilation fans.
Chapter 6: Specific Health Considerations 99

Other features of a station alerting system:

ĵ Tied-in to door-bell/Camera to alert members of a visitor.

ĵ Connected to a printer.

ĵ A visible turn-out timer.

ĵ Vehicle present detector.

ĵ Acknowledgement button.

ĵ Ambient noise sensor.

ĵ Notification of off-site staff.

Radon exposure

Radon is a colorless, odorless, radioactive gas produced by the decay of radium-226, an 

element found in varying concentrations in many soils and bedrock. Because radon is a 

gas, it can easily move through small spaces, between particles of soil, and enter a building. 

Radon can enter a building as a component of soil gas and reach levels many times higher 

than outdoor levels. Radon levels are usually measured in picocuries per liter of air (pCi/L). 

The lower the radon level, the lower the health risk; therefore, radon levels should be 

reduced to as close to ambient levels as feasible (0.4 pCi/L). Radon is estimated to cause 

many thousands of lung cancer deaths each year. In fact, the Surgeon General has warned 

that radon is the second leading cause of lung cancer in the U.S. today.

Extent of problem at the station

The most common way for radon to enter a building is from soil gas through pressure-driven 

transport. Radon can also enter a building through diffusion, well-water, and construction 

materials. The U.S. EPA has collected data on radon to compile a National Radon Potential 

Map. The map integrated five factors to produce estimates of radon potential:

1. Indoor radon screening measurements.

2. Geology.

3. Soil permeability.

4. Aerial radioactivity.

5. Type of substructure.

The EPA map assigns every county of the U.S. to one of three radon zones (see Figure 6.14).
100 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Figure 6.14 — This map shows the various radon zones in the U.S.

EPA Map of Radon Zones

Photo courtesy of the U.S. EPA.

Relevant regulations and standards

The EPA has established “The Indoor Radon Abatement Act of 1998.” As stated in the act, 

the national long-term goal of the U.S., with respect to radon levels in buildings, is that the 

air within the buildings should be as free of radon as the ambient air outside the building. 

Additional information on radon can be obtained from a Radiation Program Manager or 

an EPA Regional Office.

Specific organizations, listed in Appendix E, that provide standards and guidance in this area:

ĵ AABC.

ĵ ACGIH.

ĵ AIHA.

ĵ Air Movement and Control Association International, Inc.

ĵ ASHRAE.

ĵ ASSE.

ĵ ASTM.

ĵ Brick Industry Association.

ĵ ICAC.

ĵ NSC.
Chapter 6: Specific Health Considerations 101

Preventive design requirements

Like most other indoor air contaminants, radon can best be controlled by keeping it out of 

the building in the first place. The three primary design/engineering means for achieving this:

1. Soil depressurization — A suction fan is used to produce a low-pressure field under 

the construction slab. This low-pressure field prevents radon entry by causing air to 

flow from the building into the soil.

2. Building pressurization — Indoor/Subslab pressure relationships are controlled to 

prevent radon entry. More outdoor air is supplied than exhausted so that the building is 

slightly pressurized compared to both the exterior of the building and the subslab area.

3. Sealing radon entry routes — The major routes for radon entry are blocked.

The most effective and frequently used radon reduction technique in existing buildings is 

active soil depressurization (ASD). An ASD system creates a low-pressure zone below the 

slab by using a powered fan to create negative pressure beneath the slab and foundation. 

This low-pressure field prevents soil gas from entering the building because it reverses 

the normal direction of airflow where the slab and foundation meet. If the low-pressure 

zone is extended through the entire subslab area, air will flow from the building into the 

soil, effectively sealing slab and foundation cracks and holes.

Difficulties in providing radon protection in an existing structure can include the following:

ĵ Poor communication below the floor slab (e.g., no aggregate, or aggregate with many 

fine particles or wide particle size distribution).

ĵ Barriers to subslab communication (internal subslab walls); radon entry points at 

expansion or control joints.

ĵ Ease of running the radon vent pipe and power source through and/or out onto the 

building’s roof.

ĵ Building depressurization caused by the HVAC system (or other fans) exhausting more 

air than is supplied.

Relevant regulations and standards

The following are some of the regulations and standards that apply to this issue:

ĵ Locally adopted building and fire codes.

ĵ OSHA 1910.1030 Bloodborne pathogens.

ĵ NFPA 1581.

ĵ OSHA regulations (Appendix D).

Specific organizations (Appendix E) that provide guidance in this area:

ĵ Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation.

ĵ AIHA.

ĵ American Public Health Association (APHA).

ĵ ASTM.

ĵ NFPA.

ĵ NSC.
102 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Water source

Water that is supplied to the fire station should be tested to assure it meets local standards. 

Water testing is a broad description for various procedures used to analyze water quality. 

Water can be provided via a public water system, a well, or through a supply tank.

Specific organizations that provide guidance in this area:

ĵ APHA.

ĵ AWWA.

ĵ EPA.

ĵ National Drinking Water Alliance.

ĵ National Sanitation Foundation (NSF).

ĵ U.S. Geological Survey.

ĵ Water Quality Association (WQA).

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

MRSA is bacterium that cause minor or severe skin infections, blood infections and 

pneumonia. It is spread by skin-to-skin contact with a person who is infected, or from 

contaminated items and surfaces. It can live for weeks on items and surfaces if they are 

not cleaned. Broken skin is the most likely path for MRSA to enter the body.

Extent of problem at the station

Emergency response personnel are most likely to become infected when dealing with 

infected patients. This contamination is easily spread to items, such as physical fitness 

equipment; door and sink handles; keyboards; TV remotes; and any fabric, such as 

upholstery, carpet, bed linens, and towels.

Relevant regulations and standards

The following is a list of links, regulations and standards that pertain to MRSA:

ĵ EPA (List H): www.epa.gov/oppad001/chemregindex.htm.

ĵ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): www.cdc.gov/MRSA/.

ĵ OSHA: https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/etools/hospital/hazards/mro/mrsa/mrsa.html.

ĵ OSHA 1910.1030 Bloodborne pathogens.

ĵ NFPA 1851.

Preventive design requirements

Fire and emergency services organizations should develop, adopt and enforce an exposure 

control plan that embraces universal precautions and other measures specific to the 

bacterium. Frequent hand washing is one of the best practices to adopt.
Chapter 6: Specific Health Considerations 103

Specific facility design and furnishings criteria

ĵ Replace all carpet with hard surface flooring.

ĵ Provide walk-off mats in the apparatus bay at the entrance to every door leading to 

and from the bay.

ĵ Provide automatic hand-sanitizing dispensers at every entrance door leading to and 

from the bay.

ĵ Provide touchless paper towel dispensers.

ĵ Provide hands-free faucet controls at every sink.

Specific practices to adopt

ĵ Always disinfect all medical equipment used immediately after the incident.

ĵ Clean and disinfect targeted areas of the station frequently.

ĵ Take special care to clean footwear.

ĵ Keep broken skin dry and bandaged.

ĵ Do not share personal items, such as towels, clothing, soap, etc.

ĵ Vacuum walk-off mats at least daily by using a vacuum cleaner with a HEPA filter.

ĵ Wash bed linens, towels and washcloths frequently in hot water.

ĵ Provide disposable covers for shared items, such as keyboards, TV remotes and 

portable radios.

Bed bugs

Bed bugs are small, brownish insects that feed on the blood of humans and animals. They 

prefer human blood. They are about 3/16 of an inch long and are brownish-red in color. 

They are mainly active at night and tend to hang around near their feeding sites. It takes a 

bed bug anywhere from three to 10 minutes to penetrate a human’s skin to obtain blood. 

Because of this slow process, the bite is painless. After feeding, they typically return to 

their hiding place and rarely remain on humans. Symptoms from a bite vary from person 

to person. Some people (approximately 30 percent) never experience any symptoms, while 

others will develop a red and itching welt. The welts are often confused with mosquito 

bites. They are not known to carry any diseases, except possibly helping spread MRSA.

Extent of problem at the station

Bed bugs are easily transmitted from location to location. They are most likely to be 

transported by PPE or station work uniforms from infested incident scenes. Once introduced 

into the station, they can easily move from room to room. However, they are most likely 

found in mattresses, box springs, bedding materials and personal lockers.

Relevant regulations and standards

The following is a list of regulations, links and standards that pertain to bed bugs:

ĵ CDC and EPA — joint statement on bed bug control in the U.S. from the U.S. CDC and 

the U.S. EPA: www.cdc.gov/nceh/ehs/Publications/Bed_Bugs_CDC-EPA_Statement.htm.

ĵ National Pest Management Association list of state regulations: https://www.pestworld.

org/all-things-bed-bugs/.
104 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Preventive design requirements

There are no specific facility design requirements to prevent bed bugs. However, a designated 

decontamination area that is properly used will minimize their spread.

Recommended practices

ĵ Wash bed linens in hot water (≥ 120 F) after each use.

ĵ Roll linens off the bed rather than pulling them off.

ĵ Use mattress covers.

ĵ Remove clutter from bedrooms.

ĵ Seal crevices and cracks.

If there is a bed bug infestation or suspected infestation, contact a reliable pest control 

company to assess the situation. There are various treatments available, depending on 

the extent of the infestation:

ĵ Freezing.

ĵ Steam cleaning.

ĵ Heating the entire room(s) to 120 F to 130 F.

ĵ Fumigation (restricted to certain areas of the country).

ĵ Encasing mattresses and box-springs.

There are companies that offer bedding material designed specifically for first responders. 

The bedding comprises a total set (fitted sheet, flat sheet, pillow case, comforter) and most 

importantly, has a built-in barrier material.

Food and waterborne infections

Multiple microorganisms are formed in spoiling food and sewage. If unclean conditions 

persist, certain microorganisms can grow at rates fast enough to harm humans. Other 

unwanted microorganisms and contamination can enter the station through crosscontamination of water supplies. Cross connections are links through which it is possible 

for polluted or contaminated materials to enter a potable water supply. Contamination 

enters the potable water system when the pressure of the polluted source exceeds the 

pressure of the potable source.

Extent of problem at the station

Station personnel may be susceptible to food and waterborne-based infections through 

improper food storage and backflow from sewage systems. At the fire or EMS station, cross 

contamination may occur in laundry facilities, sewage systems, and outdoor operations 

involving training.

Relevant regulations and standards

The following are some of the regulations and standards that apply to this area:

ĵ Locally adopted health, building and fire codes.

ĵ OSHA 1910.141 Sanitation.

ĵ NFPA 1581.

OSHA Regulations are provided in Appendix D.
Chapter 6: Specific Health Considerations 105

Specific organizations, listed in Appendix E, that provide guidance and standards in this 

area include:

ĵ APHA.

ĵ American Public Works Association.

ĵ ASTM.

ĵ AWWA.

ĵ Kitchen Cabinet Manufacturers Association.

ĵ Plumbing and Drainage Institute (PDI).

ĵ WQA.

Preventive design requirements

The kitchen area of a fire or EMS station is often the most neglected. Traditionally, individuals 

who held the purse strings thought spending money for comfort or health in a fire station 

was a waste of tax dollars. Often ranges or refrigerators had to be replaced many times, 

rather than buying what was needed in the first place. Besides being expensive to replace, 

improper kitchen equipment and design can contribute to unsanitary conditions.

Kitchen

ĵ Food preparation surfaces, as well as surfaces to store or hang food, must be nonporous.

Note: Stainless steel is antibacterial.

ĵ Select applicable products that are third-party certified by the NSF.

ĵ Use ranges that are commercial grade, self-cleaning, and that include hoods.

ĵ One or more dishwashers might be required, depending on the number of members 

assigned to the station at any one time.

Ý Select stainless steel dishwashers with stainless steel interiors.

Ý Select dishwashers capable of providing water temperatures at 140 F.

ĵ Select refrigerator/freezers with solid shelving rather than wire shelving. If the facility 

is staffed with shift members, each shift should have their own refrigerator/freezer.

Ý Refrigerator temperature must be between 33 F and 40 F.

Ý Freezer temperature must be 0 F or lower.

ĵ Require double sink basins or two sinks made of stainless steel.

Ý Sinks should have heavy-duty grade garbage disposals with matching rated drains.

Ý Sinks must be equipped with sprayer wand attachment.

Ý Install shelving or racks above sinks for drip-drying. All drainage from the shelving 

or racks must flow into the sink so it enters the sanitary sewage system.

ĵ Provide separate cabinets for food storage. Allow one storage cabinet for each shift.

ĵ Design the kitchen layout with a center island counter for the preparation of food 

and for availability to food once it is served. Stainless steel or granite countertops are 

recommended for durability.

ĵ All local health standards must be met.
106 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Ice machines

Ice machines are common in most fire stations 

because ice makers in refrigerators do not have 

enough capacity for a station that is staffed 24 hours 

a day, or a volunteer station that might have sporadic 

demand with high peak usage times. In addition, 

many departments carry coolers for post-incident 

hydration, and ice machines can supply coolers, 

whereas refrigeration ice makers lack the capacity. 

Criteria for ice machines:

ĵ Never install them on the apparatus bay floor 

because of exposure to residual diesel exhaust 

and off-gassing of contaminated equipment and 

PPE (see Figure 6.15).

ĵ Install them in an area that is climate controlled. 

Ice makers lose efficiency if they are stored in a 

warm or hot space.

ĵ Allow for water supply and drainage.

ĵ Consider the kitchen as the optimal location 

for an ice machine, as it is near where food and 

beverages are consumed.

Restrooms and showers

Restrooms must be designed with the highest sanitation requirements in mind. For 

example, they should be equipped with the following:

ĵ A floor drain to allow for ease of cleaning and to capture any overflow from sinks 

and toilets.

ĵ Hands-free faucets.

ĵ Hands-free toilet valves.

ĵ Hands-free towel dispensers.

ĵ Hands-free soap dispensers.

ĵ Push-to-open doors (no handles or knobs) for exiting — unless designed for single use.

ĵ Disposable toilet seat cover.

ĵ Automatic motion-sensing light activation.

ĵ Single-user restrooms should have internal activated locks for privacy.

ĵ Shower stalls should have at least three walls, and preferably a curtain to ensure privacy.

ĵ A clearly visible sign reminding members to wash their hands after every use.

Each facility must also have a restroom dedicated to public use. All sanitation requirements 

must meet state and local requirements.

Figure 6.15 — Ice machines 

should not be placed in areas 

subject to exhaust or other 

contamination.

Photo courtesy of Don Collins, Collins Design Service.
Chapter 6: Specific Health Considerations 107

Emergency medical equipment storage areas

All storage areas should be in dedicated and enclosed areas to protect the equipment 

from temperature degradation, physical damage and contamination. Particular attention 

must be given to emergency medical supplies. For example:

ĵ All drugs must be kept under lock and key with access limited to only designated personnel.

ĵ EMS supplies must be kept away from the following areas:

Ý Sleeping.

Ý Food preparation.

Ý Living.

Ý Personal hygiene.

Medical waste must be kept from the same areas and must be stored in a designated area 

until disposed. All sharps containers must be compliant with the following:

ĵ ASTM Standard F2132-01, Standard Specification for Puncture Resistance of Materials 

Used in Containers for Discarded Medical Needles and Other Sharps.

ĵ NIOSH Publication No. 97-111, Selecting, Evaluating, and Using Sharps Disposal Containers.

ĵ OSHA Bloodborne Pathogens Standard (29 CFR Part 1910.1030).

Local health codes must be followed.

Water supply cross-contamination prevention

A backflow on water outlets directly connected to a hose can cause back pressure or 

back siphoning. The solution requires the elimination of the cross connection and the 

installation of an air cap or backflow-prevention assembly. Several methods can be used 

for the prevention of backflow:

ĵ Air gap.

ĵ Reduced-pressure principle backflow-prevention assembly.

ĵ Double check valve assembly.

ĵ Pressure vacuum breaker.

ĵ Atmospheric vacuum breaker.

An air gap is the unobstructed vertical distance through air between the lowest point of 

a water supply outlet and the flood level rim of the fixture or assembly into which the 

outlet discharges.

The reduced-pressure principal backflow-prevention assembly consists of two independently 

acting, approved check-valves working together with a hydraulically-operating, mechanicallyindependent pressure differential relief valve located between the check-valves and below 

the first check-valve.

A double check-valve assembly consists of two internally loaded check-valves, either 

spring-loaded or internally weighted, installed as a unit between two tightly closing 

resilient-seated shutoff valves.

A pressure vacuum breaker consists of an independently-operating, internally-loaded 

check-valve and an independently-operating, loaded air inlet valve located on the discharge 

side of the check-valve.

An atmospheric vacuum breaker is an assembly that performs similarly to a pressure vacuum 

breaker. The atmospheric vacuum breaker consists of a float check, a check-seat, and an air 

inlet port. A shutoff valve immediately upstream may be an integral part of the assembly.
108 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations
Chapter 7: Key Points — Little Things Mean a Lot 109

Chapter 7: Key Points — Little Things 

Mean a Lot

This section will highlight key areas that are often overlooked but are 

critical to the successful design of a safe and healthy fire and emergency 

services station (see Figure 7.1). Some of the items were discussed in 

detail in previous sections. When planning the development of a new 

fire station, or renovating an existing station, the following concepts 

should be kept in mind:

The fire station and its status in the community as an 

environment for both working and living are of concern, 

in a special way, for no other local service public service 

agency has a parallel situation. When location and design 

of facilities are poor, morale is poor, and fire station related 

injuries increase, as do costs for maintenance, energy 

consumption and operations. (Bryan, 1979)

Initial versus ongoing costs

Far too often, poor design is the result of not paying attention to the 

little things. Simple mistakes made in the design of a fire station are 

likely mistakes that organizations will live with for 70 to 100 years. The 

following shows the “average” building initial cost as compared to the 

ongoing lifespan costs.

Initial costs

ĵ Land costs: less than 1 percent.

ĵ Design: 1 percent.

ĵ Construction: 20 percent.

ĵ Original furnishings: 6 percent.

Ongoing costs

The ongoing costs for a fire station are higher than an average building if it is occupied 24/7.

ĵ Replacement furnishings: 4 percent.

ĵ Operations and utilities: 16 percent.

ĵ Maintenance: 29 percent.

ĵ Interest on construction loans: 24 percent.

The point in this analysis is that allocating the funding to get the project right from the 

beginning has little financial impact on the overall cost of operating and maintaining the 

facility. With these thoughts in mind, note the following “little things mean a lot.”

Figure 7.1 — One door leads 

from the kitchen and one from 

the dayroom; both are hinged 

on the wrong side. There is 

also a hazardous step-down to 

the apparatus bay.

Photo courtesy of Don Collins, Collins Design Service.
110 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

General

Many communities require that the selected architect be a member of the community. If 

this is the requirement, and the selected architect has limited or no experience in station 

design, there is a very high probability there will be many design flaws, unless:

ĵ The organization and community require the architect to hire a subject matter consultant 

to work with the architect.

ĵ The architect subcontracts with an architect with experience in fire station design.

The following are some general items that should be considered/contemplated when 

developing:

ĵ Fire and emergency services facilities are very complex with multidisciplined needs 

that are unique. Health and safety considerations are the most critical of these unique 

aspects. For example, a fire station can have part of the following elements:

Ý Garage.

Ý Dormitory.

Ý Restaurant.

Ý Office building.

Ý Fitness facility.

Ý Decontamination facility.

Ý Repair shop.

Ý Warehouse.

Ý Educational facility.

Ý Training facility.

Ý Community functions.

Ý Voting place.

Ý Museum.

Ý Community disaster control center.

ĵ Despite many common beliefs, single-story fire stations are cheaper to build than 

two-story fire stations. However, due to site size restrictions, a two-story station may 

be necessary.

ĵ Buyer beware of free sites. Do your homework and do not hesitate to consult an 

architect for expert advice before accepting a (potentially costly) free site.

ĵ Understand the difficulties often experienced to get a station located in a neighborhood. 

A good rule of thumb: “The interior belongs to the members; the exterior belongs to 

the community.”

Exterior

The following issues relevant to the exterior portion of the station should be taken into 

consideration.

Sight lines

Be sure sight lines for entering the highway from the apparatus apron are long and 

unobstructed. This allows for the safety of the emergency responders, as well as the 

motoring public.
Chapter 7: Key Points — Little Things Mean a Lot 111

Access to roadways

Direct access to extremely busy roadways can be difficult for emergency response vehicles. 

If provided a choice, a better site location is one just off a busy roadway. Traffic signals are 

a must to access busy roadways.

Transition angles

Fire apparatus have three critical angles to consider when transitioning from one elevation 

to another: angle of approach, angle of departure, and break-over angle.

ĵ The angle of approach is the amount of clearance the front-most portion of the 

apparatus needs to make the transition without touching the ground. Extended front 

bumpers are common on apparatus, and this reduces the angle of approach.

ĵ The angle of departure is the amount of clearance the rear-most portion of the apparatus 

needs to make the transition without touching the ground. Mid-mounted aerial devices 

often have a long over-hang behind the rear-most axle, and this decreases the angle 

of departure.

ĵ Break-over angle is the amount of ground clearance the apparatus has between the 

front and rear axles. It is not uncommon for apparatus to have storage recessed below 

the center-line of the axles that reduces the break-over angle.

Bollards

Bollards must be placed anywhere a vehicle is subject to striking the station and other 

crucial fixed objects (see Figure 7.2). This includes both sides of every apparatus bay 

opening. The bollards must be placed so they are struck before the station is struck. It is 

recommended that bollards at bay door openings be offset 2 inches to 4 inches to the interior 

of the opening, so vehicles strike the bollard before striking the door track and station 

structure (see Figure 7.3). Other places include fuel pumps, standby station generators, 

yard hydrants, security gate openings and gate operators (see Figures 7.4a and 7.4b).

Bollards should be placed in concrete that has break joints (knockout panels) around the 

perimeter of the base of the bollard, so there is minimal damage to the concrete apron 

in the event the bollard is struck. This also makes replacement easier and less expensive.

Figure 7.2 — Bollards may be designed 

to complement the station exterior.

Photo courtesy of Kevin Roche, FACETS Consulting, LLC.

Figure 7.3 — Exterior bollards properly 

“inset” to protect the structure of a 

fire and emergency services facility.

Photo courtesy of Robert Tutterow, F.I.E.R.O.
112 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Figure 7.4a — These bollards protect 

the station’s emergency generator.

Photo courtesy of Robert Tutterow, F.I.E.R.O.

Figure 7.4b — These bollards protect 

the fuel pump and fuel storage.

Photo courtesy of Kevin Roche, FACETS Consulting, LLC.

Driveways and aprons

Driveways, especially for drive-through bays, must allow for the turning radius of the 

largest apparatus, remembering that in the future, larger apparatus might be assigned 

to the facility. If space allows, a good thumb rule is to add 50 feet of apron space to the 

longest apparatus that will be parked at the station. Concrete must be used for all aprons 

and any driveways where apparatus might be driven. Asphalt should only be used for 

drives and parking areas where apparatus will not drive or park.

Parking lots

Parking lots for members should be considered for most station locations. Member vehicles 

have been the target of break-ins by thieves who often wait to commit their crime when 

the crew goes on a call. Visitor parking must be clearly marked and located near the public 

entrance. Parking lots must be well-lit.

Walks

Walks should be well-lit and not butted against parking lot curbs. There should be enough 

grass or natural area between the parking lot curb and the walk to allow for vehicle 

overhang. Department members tend to back into parking spaces, and the rear overhang 

of a vehicle is considerably longer than the front overhang.

Public entry

The public entry must be clearly defined so that it is readily identifiable by the public. The 

entry should be well-lit at night and have a doorbell that is heard throughout the station. 

In addition, the entry should have a call-box or phone to notify 911 if the station is not 

occupied. Public parking should be as close to the public entry as possible.

Yard hydrant

Each station should have a hydrant for refilling booster tanks after training, maintenance 

or after an emergency response. The hydrant should be located off the roadway, so there is 

no interference with traffic. For stations with drive-through bays, the yard hydrant should 

be located at the rear of the station. Some organizations may opt to put a fill station inside 

the facility to also serve as a wash-down source. This might be a viable option in areas 

that have frequent freezing temperatures.
Chapter 7: Key Points — Little Things Mean a Lot 113

Dumpster

If the station is going to have a dumpster, it must be a designated area that is secure from 

the public. The space must be designed so the refuse truck can easily and safely access the 

dumpster for dumping. The area where the refuse truck stops to lift the dumpster must have 

a stronger pad to accommodate the heavy impact load of a refuse truck making the dump.

Rainwater collection

The capture of rainwater can be a huge benefit to a fire station. If the water can be captured 

in a storage tank and a pump can be installed, the rainwater can be used for the following:

ĵ Refill booster tanks.

ĵ Water the lawn and shrubbery.

ĵ Flush toilets.

ĵ Wash out the bay.

ĵ Wash apparatus.

Storage building

A separate storage building must be available to store yard maintenance equipment and 

tools. This building could also include other equipment and supplies that do not require 

conditioned air.

Security

Facility security is an issue for career, volunteer and combination organizations. There are 

three basic principles in security:

1. Deter.

Ý Lighting (entire exterior).

Ý Fencing (use attractive fencing commensurate with the neighborhood).

Ý Landscaping.

Ý Physical barriers.

2. Detect.

Ý Security cameras (exterior cameras at each corner of facility, interior cameras in 

apparatus bay, and class/community/multifunctional rooms).

Ý Motion detectors (lighting).

3. Delay.

Ý Secure all exterior entrances.

Ý Secure station from public vestibule.

Ý Secure class/community/multifunctional rooms.

Interior

The following issues relevant to the exterior portion of the station should be taken into 

consideration.

Flow

Pathway flow for members to access the apparatus bay floor is critical to the design of any 

station that is staffed. Clear, short and direct are the guiding principles. There should be 
114 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

a minimum, if any, hard right or left angle turns to minimize slips and falls, as well as to 

speed up response time. Doors to the apparatus bay should be hinged, so they swing into 

the apparatus bay. Doors should also have windows of sufficient size to allow members 

to see if they are opening the door into someone on the other side. Finally, doors should 

not protrude more than 7 inches into the pathway of responders.

Entrance lobby

The public entrance lobby must be a welcoming space, and a space that indicates to the 

community the value of the services provided. It is an excellent place to display historical 

memorabilia, photos, trophies and plaques.

Floor coverings

For ease of maintenance and sanitary reasons, seamless floor coverings work best 

throughout the living areas. Carpet is not a good choice of floor covering for emergency 

response stations.

Apparatus bay

The apparatus bay should not be used for storage, except for possibly the storage of fire 

hoses (see Figure 7.5). It is for apparatus only. Never store PPE on the apparatus floor 

because of UV degradation and residual diesel exhaust carcinogens. Never place an ice 

machine or breathing air machine on the apparatus floor because of residual diesel exhaust 

carcinogens (see Figure 7.6).

Figure 7.5 — Far too often, the 

apparatus bay becomes the all-purpose 

room, including living spaces, due to 

the lack of determining future needs.

Photo courtesy of Lynn Reda, Hughes Group Architects.

Figure 7.6 — Ice machines should not be 

on the apparatus bay floor.

Photo courtesy of Kevin Roche, FACETS Consulting, LLC.

Pathways to the apparatus bay should be as straight and short as possible. If members 

must make hard 90-degree turns to access the bay, response times will increase. In addition, 

the possibility of a slip and fall or collision with another member is increased.

The apparatus bay should be recessed below the other parts of the station. However, all 

the walk-through passageways from the living areas to the bay should have a ramp rather 

than a step.
Chapter 7: Key Points — Little Things Mean a Lot 115

Figure 7.7 — Floor markings composed of a slip-resistant floor coating designate 

passageways and parking alignment.

Photo courtesy of Rob Manns, Manns Woodward Studios, Inc.

One of the best floor coating systems for the apparatus bay is an MMA acrylic resinous 

coating. It is slip resistant, easy to clean, and allows for lines, markings and graphics 

(see Figure 7.7). Floor coatings must be able to withstand the extreme heat given off by 

apparatus tires following a response. Use painted lines or a floor coloring to help orient 

drivers for safely moving and parking the apparatus. Adhesive-tape stripes will not hold up.

Hot and cold water faucets for connecting garden hoses for apparatus 

cleaning might be a consideration, especially in colder climates. If these 

are installed, use a hose reel for neat and safe storage of the hose. Some 

organizations may opt for larger booster hose and hose reels for the 

cleaning. In these cases, the water source should probably come from 

outside of the station rather than the interior (domestic) water source. 

Floor trench drains should be placed directly under where each vehicle 

parks. There should be a trench drain for each parking position that does 

not extend beyond the front or rear of the vehicle. This will eliminate 

wet spots in pathways that cause slips and falls (see Figure 7.8).

LED light fixtures should be installed overhead and between where 

the vehicles are parked to illuminate passageways without creating 

shadows. These lights should also be tied to the station alerting system 

(if used). Be sure to assess the color of light wanted in the bay.

Omni-directional loudspeakers are more effective than directional 

speakers in bay areas.

Low-speed, high-volume large fans, 10 feet or larger in diameter, do 

a remarkable job of assisting the HVAC system to provide comfort to 

the bay.

Figure 7.8 — Improper 

placement of apparatus floor 

drains create wet spots that 

will cause slips and falls.

Photo courtesy of Don Collins, Collins Design Service.
116 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Apparatus bay doors

Bay door openings should be at least 14 feet wide and 16 feet high to allow for safe clearance.

Four-fold vertically hinged doors minimize the chances of a vehicle striking a bay door. Over 

the lifespan of the station, their heavy-duty design more than offsets the maintenance 

and replacement costs of roll-up bay doors. Some organizations place positioning stops 

on the apparatus floor to help position the apparatus. However, these become tripping 

hazards when the apparatus is out of the bay.

Safety light beams are recommended for bay door openings. The light beams automatically 

cause the door to go into the full-open position when there is an obstruction in the door 

opening. Signal lights, similar to traffic signals, are effective in letting the driver know the 

doors are fully open.

Diesel exhaust capturing systems

Source capture diesel exhaust systems are recommended for stations. There are source 

capture systems that are mounted on the apparatus, as well as systems that are installed 

in the station and manually connected directly to the exhaust tailpipe. However, they 

should be supplemented with other exhaust systems to filter the air from off-gassing of 

contaminated firefighting equipment and PPE. Advanced and cost-effective sensors can 

detect a wide range of unhealthy gases, including carbon monoxide. When quantities reach 

unsafe levels, fresh air intake and exhaust fans are automatically activated to exchange the 

volume of air in the building with fresh air. These systems can also be manually activated 

to assist with air circulation on hot days.

Bollards

Bollards should be placed on either side of each bay opening for the interior of the bay, 

just as they should be placed on the exterior. This will help protect against damage to the 

doors, as well as the structure of the station. As with exterior bollards, it is recommended 

that bollards at bay door openings be offset 2 inches to 4 inches to the interior of the 

opening, so vehicles strike the bollard before striking the door track and station structure. 

Bollards should be placed in concrete that has break joints (knockout panels) around the 

perimeter of the base of the bollard, so there is minimal damage to the concrete apron in 

case the bollard is struck. This also makes replacement easier and less expensive. Interior 

bollards are especially critical to protect four-fold bay doors.

Utility closest/sinks

There should be two utility closets, each with a sink for mops and station maintenance 

supplies. One of the closets should be located on or adjacent to the apparatus floor and 

should be used exclusively for the apparatus floor. The other closet should be located 

somewhere other than the apparatus bay floor and should be used only for the living areas. 

The use of a closet is preferred over an open area for improved station appearance and 

isolation from the rest of the station. Often, such closets are overlooked, which causes 

mops and brooms to be stored outside against a station wall.

Self-contained breathing apparatus cylinder refill stations

SCBA refill stations should not be placed on the apparatus bay floor. To prevent residual 

diesel exhaust carcinogen contamination, they should be placed in a room. 
Chapter 7: Key Points — Little Things Mean a Lot 117

Kitchen trash cans

Fire station kitchens generate far more trash than an average household. In addition to 

food preparation for multiple adults, many other activities occur around the kitchen table. 

As a result, many kitchens require large trash barrels. This creates a sanitation problem 

because architects rarely think of a designated enclosed space for a large waste barrel, 

and they are commonly found as afterthoughts somewhere in the kitchen.

In communities with recycling programs, consideration should be given to placing recyclable 

containers in the kitchen area and other living portions of the station.

Slide poles

Slide poles are an iconic part of multistory fire stations. They offer the quickest and most 

direct path from the upstairs living areas to the apparatus bay. However, they are among 

the leading causes of injury and cause higher workers’ compensation claims. They can 

also be a hazard to the public during station tours. If a station has slide poles, be aware, 

and correct the following potential safety and health hazards:

ĵ Landing pads are often missing or worn-out, and they can be a trip hazard on the bay 

floor. Effective pads must always be in place.

ĵ The opening between the two floors, if not properly sealed, allows residual carcinogenic 

diesel exhaust to enter the living space.

ĵ Slide pole openings are often left unguarded, and many station visitors, including children, 

have been injured while sliding a pole without proper instruction and supervision.

A safer alternative to a slide pole, is a properly designed sliding board. Particular attention 

must be given to providing a safe landing area.

Locker rooms

In post-occupancy interviews, it is common to hear members say their locker room is too 

small. For example, they don’t have room to sit on the bench with the locker door open. 

The other big complaint is that their lockers are too small. It is important for organizations 

and architects to understand what members store in their locker, how they use the locker 

room, and to design it accordingly. Another recommendation is to design the lockers so 

they reach the ceiling, or place a 45-degree top on the locker. Otherwise, the top of the 

lockers will become cluttered storage areas.

Hand sanitizers and wipes

Dispensers for hand sanitizers should be almost as common as light switches in a fire 

station. They must be in and around the decontamination areas and at every access 

point off the apparatus bay to the rest of the station. They should be in every restroom. 

Dispensers or wipes must be readily accessible throughout the fitness room. 

Personal protective equipment storage

PPE should be stored in a separate, dedicated room with excellent ventilation. Lighting 

for this room should be motion-sensor activated. Both natural and artificial light are the 

“kryptonite” to the flame and heat protective properties of the fibers used in PPE fabric. 
118 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

With the emphasis on cleaning PPE, more organizations are purchasing a second set of 

PPE for their members, so they can remain in service while dirty (contaminated) PPE is 

being cleaned. For this reason, the storage area and lockers should be a sufficient size to 

accommodate a second set of PPE.

Laundry (personal protective equipment)

If organizations clean their PPE in-house, there must be washer-extractors dedicated to 

cleaning PPE. Station work uniforms, workout clothing, bed linens, towels, personal clothing, 

and the like should never be washed in the same machines as PPE. PPE should never be 

taken home or to a public laundry facility for cleaning. Washer/Extractors for PPE require 

special design considerations.

Station alerting systems

Station alerting systems that offer “ramp-up” lighting and audio call alerts should be 

selected. Organizations must do a comprehensive analysis of the many features of alerting 

systems to find the one that provides the best benefits for their need.

General storage

It might be impossible to have too much storage in a fire station. For this reason, more 

than ample storage should be designed into the station to accommodate future growth 

and service delivery changes. Pay particular attention to organization. Closet organizer 

systems should be considered. Storage areas include, but are not limited to, the following:

ĵ Office supplies.

ĵ Janitorial supplies.

ĵ Janitorial equipment.

ĵ Kitchen items (food, pots, pans, utensils, etc.).

ĵ EMS supplies.

ĵ Spare emergency response equipment.

ĵ Firefighting foam.

ĵ Spill absorbent.

ĵ Mass casualty equipment and supplies.

ĵ Training materials and props.

ĵ Public education materials.

ĵ Seasonal use equipment (such as snow chains).

Fires

On average, there are about 150 fires per year reported in fire stations. Most of these 

originate from vehicle fires that start in the station. Cooking and electrical fires are also 

common. Fire stations must be the model of fire protection engineering and maintenance, 

yet many facilities would fail a basic safety inspection. Many fire and emergency services 

stations are under-insured or not insured. All new fire stations should have a code-compliant 

fire detection and alarm system, and should be fully sprinklered in accordance with NFPA 13.

Facility repair and maintenance

Fire and emergency services facilities must set the example for community safety by 

immediately fixing broken things and keeping the facilities in top maintenance condition. 

This includes exterior and interior appearance, as well as inside basic health, safety and 

house-keeping diligence. (See the monthly safety inspection checklist in Appendix F.)
Chapter 7: Key Points — Little Things Mean a Lot 119

Fundamentals for a successful project

A wealth of information has been provided to you up until this point in the report. The 

following section lists some of the keys points to consider, as well as to avoid, when planning 

your project. Some of the considerations that will help you get off to a successful start 

include the following:

Attend fire station design conferences, and insist that stakeholders, such as board members, 

planners and elected officials attend.

ĵ Do a comprehensive needs assessment before starting to plan the project.

ĵ Define the goals.

ĵ Set the priorities.

ĵ Be sure everyone understands what “completion” means.

ĵ Specify the items that will be provided by the organization.

ĵ Set up clear lines of communications.

Because of the unique nature of building fire and emergency services facilities, it can be 

wise to hire an “owner’s representative.” This is a person who has experience and expertise 

in fire station design and construction. This person(s) can serve as the liaison among the 

organization, the architect, and the construction company.

There are a number of pitfalls that can occur if there is a lack of planning and effective 

management of the construction process. Hopefully effective management and planning 

will allow the project to proceed without some of these issues:

ĵ Not enough money was budgeted to complete the desired project.

ĵ Negative reactions from the community regarding the cost, location, need or other 

aspects of the project.

ĵ Lack of attention reviewing RFI content and not recognizing or understanding substitutions.

ĵ Failure to accurately define the process from the outset.

ĵ Failure to accurately define the deliverables.

ĵ Losing sight of the agreed upon goal of the project.

ĵ Losing focus on the scope of the project.

ĵ Failure of the organization to specify items they will provide during the process.

ĵ Failure to have thoroughly documented meeting minutes.

ĵ Failure of the organizational representatives to stay involved in the process through 

completion.

ĵ Failure to ask for clarification of something the architect or general contractor is describing.

ĵ Failure to understand all the ramifications of the LEED, if compliance is mandated with 

the jurisdiction.

ĵ Too many decisions made by the committee rather than more qualified individuals.

ĵ Expecting the architect or construction company to make a change or add something 

for free.

ĵ Failure to pay attention to security, doors and door hardware until it is too late.
120 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations
Chapter 8: Compliance and Funding Issues 121

Chapter 8: Compliance and Funding 

Issues

Up to this point, this report has primarily focused on the aspects of determining the 

physical needs and functions of a new fire station that is being built. In this final chapter, 

we will take a brief look at three other aspects of fire station construction or renovation 

projects that must also be the focus of the group working on the project.

Determining compliance

As this manual has shown, there are numerous safety and health issues that apply to the 

design or operation of fire and emergency services facilities. While national and state 

regulations exist for determining compliance with respect to many of these issues, most 

regulations will be from local sources. Different regions of the country follow different 

codes. A check with the local authority (city, county or state government) will help to 

determine which set of codes apply in the area. In addition, there are several organizations 

that specialize in the development of model codes that have been adopted locally. These 

organizations, listed below, can provide assistance in identifying appropriate requirements 

for the specific building area:

ĵ Building Officials & Code Administrators, International.

ĵ International Code Council.

ĵ National Conference of States on Building Codes and Standards.

ĵ Southern Building Code Congress International.

One of the most important steps in the design process, following the needs assessment, 

is to acquire information about all pertinent regulations and alternatives for meeting the 

design goals. This manual has been intended to assist in this process. As specific safety and 

health concerns are identified in the design process, the pertinent sections of the manual 

should be consulted to identify relevant approaches and sources of additional information.

Another approach for ensuring compliance is to use a Compliance Check-Off List. Appendix G

provides a representative (generic) check-off list by area of the station. This check-off list 

is intended to be used in the design process to assist in remodeling, and can be used 

for a safety and health inspection of existing stations. The form is set up as a simple 

“check-the-box” format by station area, providing space for noting specific discrepancies 

in designs or existing stations. As with any system, it cannot account for all safety and 

health requirements specific to each area.

Note: It is important to use the check-off list throughout the design, construction and 

acceptance process.

Funding

A major consideration in the design or remodeling process is funding. One consideration 

is the insurance industry. These companies run smoke detector programs, scholarship 

programs, arson hot line reward programs, and a multitude of other programs related to the 

fire service. If a fire or EMS department can show a reduction in fire loss due to aggressive fire 

prevention, insurance savings could go to enhancing an existing facility or building new ones.
122 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

A number of alternative funding sources are available to the fire and EMS stations:

ĵ Fees for special services.

ĵ Benefit assessments.

ĵ Impact development fees.

ĵ Donations (developers, corporate partners, individuals).

ĵ Subscription charges.

ĵ Bond issues.

Major local government funding mechanisms include any combination of the following:

ĵ Taxes.

ĵ Borrowing.

ĵ Leasing.

ĵ Benefit assessment changes.

ĵ Fees.

ĵ Contracts.

ĵ Cost-sharing.

ĵ Subscriptions.

ĵ Impact development fees.

The latter is usually involved for purchase of new fire and EMS stations and their full 

complement of equipment. In addition to these sources, local governments can also obtain 

funding from state and federal programs. Federal program funds are often distributed 

through state programs. Among the various sources are the following:

ĵ Fire insurance surcharges.

ĵ Vehicle-related fees.

ĵ Special state grant programs.

ĵ General state revenues.

ĵ State-provided services.

ĵ Federal grant programs.

Some volunteer fire and emergency services organizations raise most of their funds from 

the private sector:

ĵ Direct solicitation.

ĵ Fundraising events.

ĵ Corporate donations.

ĵ Private foundations.

ĵ Community service clubs.

Urban and suburban departments might get a station funded by a developer to help get 

support and approval for the development by the local government and citizens.

A complete description of funding alternatives is offered in the USFA publication FA 331 

“Funding Alternatives for Emergency Medical and Fire Services” that was published in 2012 

through a cooperative agreement with the IFSTA by Oklahoma State University (OSU). This 

report provides extensive information on the following topics:

ĵ Writing an effective grant proposal.

ĵ Local revenue and funding alternatives.

ĵ Federal funding for EMS and fire agencies.
Chapter 8: Compliance and Funding Issues 123

ĵ Foundations and corporate grants.

ĵ Example of success stories.

This free report is available online at https://www.usfa.fema.gov/downloads/pdf/publications/

fa_331.pdf.

Achieving a safe and healthy work environment

Making department stations safe and healthy requires much more than simply meeting 

applicable regulations. It requires a commitment from the department at all levels to 

ensure that the station provides an example to the community in terms of safety and health 

standards. It requires the attitude that stations are more than a temporary residence for 

emergency responders. They are an asset for which communities will increasingly become 

dependent in the future. As with any safety and health-related endeavor, fire and emergency 

services should focus on the following with regard to station design:

ĵ Attend facility design symposia to learn as much as possible about the process.

ĵ Explicitly determine station needs based on department/community requirements.

ĵ Carefully supervise the design process to ensure that needs are addressed.

ĵ Thoroughly review the safety and health of the station as it is being constructed and 

periodically after it has been built.

ĵ Use “lessons learned” and experience to establish the basis for future needs.

Given sufficient funding and community support, this process will ensure that stations 

provide a safe and healthy environment for emergency responders (see Figure 8.1).

Figure 8.1 — One way to celebrate the completion of a new fire and emergency 

services facility is with a special “hose” cutting ceremony, as opposed to the 

traditional ribbon cutting ceremony.

Photo courtesy of Dennis Ross, Pacheco Ross Architects.
124 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations
Appendix A: Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regional Offices 125

Appendix A: Occupational Safety and 

Health Administration Regional Offices

There are 28 states with Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) approved 

plans. There are 22 state plans (20 states, U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico) that cover 

private, state and local government workplaces. Six state plans (Connecticut, Illinois, Maine, 

New Jersey, New York and the Virgin Islands) cover state and local government workers only.

OSHA is a Division of the U.S. Department of Labor and is headquartered at the following 

location:

Occupational Safety and Health Administration

200 Constitution Ave., NW

Washington, D.C. 20210

800-321-6742 (OSHA)

www.osha.gov

OSHA also has 10 regional offices as listed below:

Region I: Boston (Connecticut*, Massachusetts, Maine*, New Hampshire, 

Rhode Island, Vermont*)

*OSHA-approved state plan

JFK Federal Building

25 New Sudbury St., Room E340

Boston, MA 02203

Phone: 617-565-9860

Fax: 617-565-9827

Region II: New York (New Jersey*, New York*, Puerto Rico*, Virgin Islands*)

*OSHA-approved state plan

Federal Building

201 Varick St., Room 670

New York, NY 10014

Phone: 212-337-2378

Fax: 212-337-2371

Region III: Philadelphia (District of Columbia, Delaware, Maryland*, 

Pennsylvania, Virginia*, West Virginia)

*OSHA-approved state plan

U.S. Department of Labor/OSHA

The Curtis Center, Suite 740 West

170 S. Independence Mall West

Philadelphia, PA 19106

Phone: 215-861-4900

Fax: 215-861-4904
126 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Region IV: Atlanta (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky*, Mississippi, 

North Carolina*, South Carolina*, Tennessee*)

*OSHA-approved state plan

U.S. Department of Labor/OSHA

Sam Nunn Atlanta Federal Center

61 Forsyth St., SW

Room 6T50

Atlanta, GA 30303

Phone: 678-237-0400

Fax: 678-237-0447

Region V: Chicago (Illinois*, Indiana*, Michigan*, Minnesota*, Ohio, 

Wisconsin)

*OSHA-approved state plan

John C. Kluczynski Federal Building

230 South Dearborn St., Room 3244

Chicago, IL 60604

Phone: 312-353-2220

Fax: 312-353-7774

Region VI: Dallas (Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico*, Oklahoma, Texas)

*OSHA-approved state plan

A. Maceo Smith Federal Building

525 Griffin St., Suite 602

Dallas, TX 75202

Phone: 972-850-4145

Fax: 972-850-4149

FSO fax: 972-850-4150

Region VII: Kansas City (Iowa*, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska)

*OSHA-approved state plan

Two Pershing Square Building

2300 Main St., Suite 1010

Kansas City, MO 64108

Phone: 816-283-8745

Voice: 816-283-0545

Fax: 816-283-0547
Appendix A: Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regional Offices 127

Region VIII: Denver (Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, 

Utah*, Wyoming*)

*OSHA-approved state plan

Cesar Chavez Memorial Building

1244 Speer Blvd., Suite 551

Denver, CO 80204

Phone: 720-264-6550

Fax: 720-264-6585

Region IX: San Francisco (American Samoa, Arizona*, California*, Guam, 

Hawaii*, Nevada*, Northern Mariana Islands)

*OSHA-approved state plan

San Francisco Federal Building

90 7th St., Suite 18100

San Francisco, CA 94103

Phone: 415-625-2547 (Main Public — 8:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. Pacific)

Fax: 415-625-2534

Region X: Seattle (Alaska*, Idaho, Oregon*, Washington*)

*OSHA-approved state plan

Fifth and Yesler Tower

300 Fifth Ave., Suite 1280

Seattle, WA 98104

Phone: 206-757-6700

Fax: 206-757-6705
128 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations
Appendix B: Occupational Safety and Health Administration Approved State Plans Directory 129

Appendix B: Occupational Safety and 

Health Administration Approved State 

Plans Directory

(Listed alphabetically by state and includes contacts as of Feb 1, 2017.)

Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development

P.O. Box 111149

1111 W. 8th St., Room 304

Juneau, AK 99811

Heidi Drygas, Commissioner

Phone: 907-465-2700

Fax: 907-465-2784

Deborah Kelly, Director

Phone: 907-269-4955

Fax: 907-465-6012

Industrial Commission of Arizona

800 W. Washington

Phoenix, AZ 85007

James Ashley, Director

Phone: 602-542-4411

Fax: 602-542-7889

Bill Warren, Program Director

Phone: 602-542-5795

Fax: 602-542-1614

California Department of Industrial Relations

1515 Clay St., 19th Floor

Oakland, CA 94612

Christine Baker, Director

Phone: 510-622-3965

Fax: 510-286-7037

Juliann Sum, Chief, Cal/OSHA

Phone: 510-286-7000

Fax: 510-286-7037

Cora Gherga, Assistant Chief of Enforcement Administration, Cal/OSHA

Phone: 510-286-7000

Fax: 510-286-7037
130 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Connecticut Department of Labor

200 Folly Brook Blvd.

Wethersfield, CT 06109

Sharon Palmer, Commissioner

Phone: 860-263-6505

Fax: 860-263-6529

CONN-OSHA

38 Wolcott Hill Road

Wethersfield, CT 06109

Kenneth Tucker, Director

Phone: 860-263-6900

Fax: 860-263-6940

Hawaii Department of Labor and Industrial Relations (DLIR)

830 Punchbowl St.

Honolulu, HI 96813

Linda Chu Takayama, State Plan Designee and Director, DLIR

Phone: 808-586-8844

Fax: 808-586-9099

Norman Ahu, HIOSH Administrator

Phone: 808-586-9116

Fax: 808-586-9104

Illinois Department of Labor

900 South Spring St.

Springfield, IL 62702

Hugo Chaviano, Director

Phone: 217-782-6206

Fax: 217-782-0596

Ben Noven, Manager

Phone: 217-782-9386
Appendix B: Occupational Safety and Health Administration Approved State Plans Directory 131

Indiana Department of Labor

State Office Building

402 West Washington St., Room W195

Indianapolis, IN 46204

Rick J. Ruble, Commissioner of Labor

Phone: 317-232-2693

Fax: 317-233-3790

Tim Maley, Deputy Commissioner, IOSHA

Phone: 317-233-3605

Fax: 317-233-3790

Iowa Division of Labor Services

150 Des Moines St.

Des Moines, IA 50309

Michael A. Mauro, Labor Commissioner

Phone: 515-281-3447

Fax: 515-281-5631

Jens Nissen, IOSH Administrator

Phone: 515-281-3122

Fax: 515-281-7995

Kentucky Labor Cabinet

1047 US HWY 127 South, Suite 4

Frankfort, KY 40601

Derrick K. Ramsey, Secretary

Phone: 502-564-0684

Fax: 502-564-5387

Mike Nemes, Deputy Secretary

Phone: 502-564-0979

Fax: 502-564-5387

Ervin Nimeny, Commissioner, Department of Workplace Standards

Phone: 502-564-0977

Fax: 502-564-5387

Chuck Stribling, CSP, OSH Federal-State Coordinator, Department of Workplace 

Standards

Phone: 502-564-3070

Fax: 502-564-1682
132 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Maine Department of Labor

Workplace Safety and Health Division

45 State House Station

Augusta, ME 04333

Pamela Megathlin, Director, Bureau of Labor Standards

Phone: 207-623-7932

Fax: 207-623-7934

Steve Greeley, Director, MEOSH

Phone: 207-623-7916

Fax: 207-623-7934

Maryland Division of Labor and Industry

Department of Labor, Licensing and Regulation (DLLR)

Division of Labor and Industry

1100 North Eutaw St., Room 606

Baltimore, MD 21201

Matthew Helmeniak, Commissioner

Phone: 410-767-2241

Fax: 410-767-2986

Maryland Occupational Safety and Health (MOSH)

10946 Golden West Drive, Suite 160

Hunt Valley, MD 21031

William Dallas, Assistant Commissioner, MOSH

Phone: 410-527-4499

Fax: 410-527-4481

Michigan Department of Licensing and Regulatory Affairs (LARA)

Michigan Occupational Safety and Health Administration

P.O. Box 30643

Lansing, MI 48909

Shelly Edgerton, Director

Phone: 517-241-7124

Fax: 517-373-2129

Bart Pickelman, Acting Director, MIOSHA

Phone: 517-284-7777

Fax: 517-284-7775
Appendix B: Occupational Safety and Health Administration Approved State Plans Directory 133

Minnesota Department of Labor and Industry

Minnesota Department of Labor and Industry

443 Lafayette Road

St. Paul, MN 55155

Ken Peterson, Commissioner

Phone: 651-284-5010

Fax: 651-284-5721

James Krueger, Workplace Safety Manager

Phone: 651-284-5602

Fax: 651-284-5724

Cindy Valentine, Compliance Director, MNOSHA Compliance

Phone: 651-284-5110

Fax: 651-284-5741

Nevada Division of Industrial Relations

Department of Business & Industry

400 West King St., Suite 400

Carson City, NV 89703

Joseph Decker, Administrator

Occupational Safety and Health Administration

1301 N. Green Valley Parkway, Suite 200

Henderson, NV 89074

Phone: 702-486-9020

Jess Lankford, Chief Administrative Officer

Phone: 702-486-9020

Fax: 702-990-0358

New Jersey Department of Labor and Workforce Development

New Jersey Public Employees Occupational Safety and Health

1 John Fitch Plaza

P.O. Box 386

Trenton, NJ 08625

Howard Black, Director

Phone: 609-292-0501

Fax: 609-292-4409

Joe Eldridge, Director

Phone: 609-826-4920

Fax: 609-984-2779
134 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

New Mexico Environment Department

525 Camino de los Marquez, Suite 3

P.O. Box 5469

Santa Fe, NM 87502

Butch Tangate, Cabinet Secretary

Phone: 505-827-2855

Fax: 505-827-2836

Robert Genoway, Bureau Chief

Phone: 505-476-8700

Fax: 505-476-8734

New York Department of Labor

New York Public Employee Safety and Health (PESH) Bureau

State Office Campus Building 12, Room 158

Albany, NY 12240

Eileen Franko, Director, Division of Safety and Health (DOSH)

Phone: 518-457-3518

Fax: 518-457-5545

Normand Labbe, Program Manager, PESH

Phone: 518-457-1263

Fax: 518-457-5545

North Carolina Department of Labor

1101 Mail Service Center

Raleigh, NC 27699

Cherie Berry, Commissioner

Phone: 919-733-0359

Fax: 919-733-6197

Kevin Beauregard, Deputy Commissioner, OSH Director

Phone: 919-807-2863

Fax: 919-807-2856

Oregon Occupational Safety and Health Division

Department of Consumer and Business Services

350 Winter St. NE, Room 430

P.O. Box 14480

Salem, OR 97309

Michael Wood, Administrator

Phone: 503-378-3272

Fax: 503-947-7461

Julie Love, Deputy Administrator

Phone: 503-378-3272

Fax: 503-947-7461
Appendix B: Occupational Safety and Health Administration Approved State Plans Directory 135

Puerto Rico Department of Labor and Human Resources

Prudencio Rivera Martinez Building 21st Floor

505 Muñoz Rivera Ave.

Hato Rey, PR 00918

Carlos J. Saavedra Guiterrez, Secretary of Labor

Phone: 787-754-2119

Fax: 787-753-9550

Luis E. Pardo, Assistant Secretary of Labor

Phone: 787-754-2172

Fax: 787-767-6051

South Carolina Department of Labor, Licensing and Regulation (DLLR)

Synergy Business Park, Kingstree Building

110 Centerview Drive

P.O. Box 11329

Columbia, SC 29211

Emily Farr, Director

Phone: 803-896-4300

Fax: 803-896-4393

Dottie Ison, Administrator

Phone: 803-896-7686

Fax: 803-896-7670

Office of Voluntary Programs

Phone: 803-896-7787

Fax: 803-896-7750

Tennessee Department of Labor and Workforce Development

220 French Landing Drive

Nashville, TN 37243

Burns Phillips, Commissioner

Phone: 615-741-2582

Fax: 615-741-5078

Steve Hawkins, TOSHA Administrator

Phone: 615-741-2793

Fax: 615-741-3325
136 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Utah Labor Commission

160 East 300 South, 3rd Floor

P.O. Box 146600

Salt Lake City, UT 84114

Jaceson Maughan, Commissioner

Phone: 801-530-6848

Fax: 801-530-6390

Cameron Ruppe, Division Director, Utah Occupational Safety and Health

Phone: 801-530-6898

Fax: 801-530-7606

Vermont Department of Labor

5 Green Mountain Drive

P.O. Box 488

Montpelier, VT 05601

Lindsay H. Kurrie, Commissioner

Phone: 802-828-4000

Fax: 802-888-4022

Daniel Whipple, VOSHA Program Manager

Phone: 802-828-5084

Fax: 802-828-0408

Virgin Islands Department of Labor (VIDOL)

4401 Sion Farm

Christiansted, St. Croix, VI 00820

Catherine Hendry, Commissioner

Phone: 340-773-1994

Fax: 340-773-1858

Dean Andrews, VIDOSH Director

Phone: 340-773-1994 ext. 2161

Fax: 340-773-0094
Appendix B: Occupational Safety and Health Administration Approved State Plans Directory 137

Virginia Department of Labor and Industry

Main Street Centre

600 East Main St., Suite 207

Richmond, VA 23219

C. Ray Davenport, Commissioner

Phone: 804-786-2377

Fax: 804-371-6524

William Burge, Assistant Commissioner

Phone: 804-786-2377

Fax: 804-371-6524

Ronald L. Graham, VOSH Health Director

Phone: 804-786-0574

Fax: 804-371-6524

Jennifer Rose, VOSH Safety Director

Phone: 804-786-7776

Fax: 804-371-6524

Jay Withrow, Director, Division of Legal Support

Phone: 804-371-2327

Fax: 804-371-6524

Washington Department of Labor and Industries

General Administration Building

P.O. Box 44001

Olympia, WA 98504

Division of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH)

7273 Linderson Way SW

Tumwater, WA 98501

Anne Soiza, Assistant Director, Department of Labor and Industries, DOSH

Phone: 360-902-4805

Fax: 360-902-5619

Craig Blackwood, Deputy Assistant Director, DOSH

Phone: 360-902-5828

Fax: 360-902-5619
138 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Wyoming Department of Workforce Services

Workers’ Safety and Compensation Division

1510 East Pershing Blvd. — West Wing

Cheyenne, WY 82002

Jason Wolfe, Administrator, Office of Standards & Compliance

Phone: 307-777-7672

Fax: 307-777-5805

Dan Bulkley, Deputy Administrator OSHA

Phone: 307-777-3581

Fax: 307-777-3646
Appendix C: Additional Resources 139

Appendix C: Additional Resources

Avsec, R. (2012, November 15). The choice: 3 systems to remove engine exhaust. FireRescue1. 

Retrieved from https://www.firerescue1.com/fire-products/vehicle-equipment/

exhaust-removal-systems/articles/1368873-The-choice-3-systems-to-removeengine-exhaust/

Avsec, R. (2013, May 22). 3 firefighter PPE storage options. FireRescue1. Retrieved from https://

www.firerescue1.com/fire-products/Gear-Racks/articles/1450237-3-firefighterPPE-storage-options/

Avsec, R. (2015, August 13). 5 must-haves for firefighting gear washers. FireRescue1.

Retrieved from https://www.firerescue1.com/fire-products/fire-station-equipment/

articles/3025402-5-must-haves-for-firefighting-gear-washers/

Avsec, R. (2016, August 23). How to buy a fire station security system. FireRescue1.

Retrieved from https://www.firerescue1.com/fire-products/fire-station-equipment/

articles/119050018-How-to-buy-a-fire-station-security-system/

Ballem, E. (2015, July 15). Creating green and red zones in fire stations. Firehouse. Retrieved 

from http://www.firehouse.com/news/12092982/firehouse-magazine-stationdesign-conference-green-and-red-zones-in-fire-stations-promote-health

Ballem, E. (2015, July 16). Gender neutral fire stations are possible. Firehouse. Retrieved 

from http://www.firehouse.com/news/12092987/firehouse-magazines-fire-stationdesign-gender-neutral-fire-stations

Cash, J. (2010, September 1). Select the right architect for your new fire station. FireRescue. 

Retrieved from http://www.firerescuemagazine.com/articles/print/volume-5/

issue-9/firefighter-safety-health/select-the-right-architect-for-your-new-station.html

CDC. (2016). Oral health conditions. CDC. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/oralhealth/

conditions/index.html

CDC. (2017). Colorectal (colon) cancer. CDC. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/cancer/

colorectal/

CDC. (2017). Lung cancer. CDC. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/cancer/lung/

CDC. (2017). Mesothelioma and the environment. CDC. Retrieved from https://ephtracking.

cdc.gov/showCancerMesotheliomaEnv.action

Collins, D. (2015, March 5). Do’s and don’ts of fire station design. Fire Apparatus & Emergency 

Equipment. Retrieved from http://www.fireapparatusmagazine.com/articles/print/

volume-20/issue-3/features/do-s-and-don-ts-of-fire-station-design.html

Crupper, C. (2011, February 11). Tips for combating bedbug infestation. Fire Engineering. Retrieved 

from http://www.fireengineering.com/articles/2011/02/bedbug-infestation.html

Dahm, M. M., Bertke, S., Allee, S., & Daniels, R. D. (2015). Creation of a retrospective 

job-exposure matrix using surrogate measures of exposure for a cohort of US 

career firefighters from San Francisco, Chicago and Philadelphia. CDC. Retrieved 

from https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/firefighters/pdf/dahm_et_al_2015.pdf
140 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Daniels, R. D. (2014, December 17). Is there a link between firefighting and cancer? [Blog 

post]. CDC. Retrieved from https://blogs.cdc.gov/niosh-science-blog/2014/12/17/

cancer-ff/

Daniels, R. D., Bertke, S., Dahm, M. M., Yiin, J. H., Kubale, T. L., Hales, T. L., . . . Pinkerton, L. 

E. (2015). Exposure-response relationships for select cancer and non-cancer health 

outcomes in a cohort of US firefighters from San Francisco, Chicago and Philadelphia 

(1950-2009). CDC. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/firefighters/pdfs/

Daniels-et-al-(2015).pdf

Daniels, R. D., Kubale, T. L., Yiin, James H., Dahm, M., Hales, T., Baris, D., . . . Pinkerton, L. (2013, 

October 14). Mortality and cancer incidence in a pooled cohort of US firefighters 

from San Francisco, Chicago and Philadelphia (1950-2009). CDC. Retrieved from 

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/firefighters/pdfs/OEM_FF_Ca_Study_10-2013.pdf

Doyle, K. & Humphreys, J. (2016, August 23). Kitchen design in the modern fire station. 

Firehouse. Retrieved from http://www.firehouse.com/article/12248742/fire-stationkitchen-design-and-features

F.I.E.R.O. (Fire Industry Education Resource Organization) Annual Fire Station Design 

Symposium. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.fierofirestation.com

Firefighter Cancer Support Network. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://firefightercancersupport.org/

Firefighter Cancer Foundation. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.ffcancer.org/index.cfm

Garfield, L. (2016, August 7). This is the fire station of the future – And it costs $32 Million. 

Business Insider. Retrieved from http://www.businessinsider.com/studio-gang-firestation-new-york-2016-8

Guyer, J. P. (2010). Introduction to architectural design: Fire stations. Course #A02-003.

Hartman, D. & Hartman, M. (2015, August 1). 15 questions to ask your architect/engineer 

candidates. Firehouse. Retrieved from http://www.firehouse.com/article/12086976/

fire-station-design-supplement-15-questions

Hartman, D. (2004, November 4). Keys to building the perfect fire station for your 

department. Fire Apparatus & Emergency Equipment. Retrieved from http://www.

fireapparatusmagazine.com/articles/print/volume-19/issue-11/features/keys-tobuilding-the-perfect-fire-station-for-your-fire-department.html

Hoffman, J. (2014, May 1). Top 5 cardio equipment for firefighters. Fire Engineering. Retrieved 

from http://www.fireengineering.com/articles/2014/05/top-5-cardio-equipmentfor-firefighters.html

IAFF. (n.d.). Wellness-fitness initiative resource. Retrieved from http://www.iaff.org/hs/

wfiresource/default.html

ISO Mitigation. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.isomitigation.com

Kowalczyk, L. & Porter, R. (2016, October 25). Station furnishings: Creating your home away 

from home. Firehouse. Retrieved from http://www.firehouse.com/article/12272705/

choosing-fire-station-furniture-fire-station
Appendix C: Additional Resources 141

LeMasters, G. K., Genaidy, A. M., Succop, P., Deddens, J., Sobeih, T., Barriera-Viruet, H., 

. . . Lockey, J. (2006, November). Cancer risk among firefighters: A review and 

meta-analysis of 32 studies. JOccup Environ Med, 48(11), 1189–202.

MacNeal, J., Cone, D., & Wistrom, C. (2016). Effect of station-specific alerting and ramp-up 

tones on firefighters’ alarm time heart rates. Journal of Occup Environ Hyg., 13(11), 

866-870. doi: 10.1080/15459624.2016.1183018

McLure, J. (2016, February 23). The dirt on installing laundry equipment in a fire station. 

Firehouse. Retrieved from http://www.firehouse.com/article/12167643/fire-stationdesign-laundry-room-design-tips

Mion, E. G. (2009, June). Fire station. Whole building design guide.

Newell, K. (2012, August 1). Fire station design: The single story vs. the multi-story firehouse. 

Carolina Fire Rescue EMS Journal. Retrieved from http://www.carolinafirejournal.

com/Articles/Article-Detail/ArticleId/2285/Fire-Station-Design-the-single-storyvs-multi-story-firehouse

Newell, K. (2014, October 10). A “shelf-help” guide to station storage needs. Carolina Fire 

Rescue EMS Journal. Retrieved from http://www.carolinafirejournal.com/Articles/

Article-Detail/ArticleId/4332/A-8216-Shelf-Help-8217-guide-to-station-storage-needs

Newell, K. (2014, October 10). From Dalmatians to decontamination: 40 years of station 

evolution. Fire Apparatus & Emergency Equipment. Retrieved from http://www.

fireapparatusmagazine.com/articles/print/volume-19/issue-10/features/fromdalmatians-to-decontamination-40-years-of-station-evolution.html

NFPA. (2013). NFPA 1500, Standard on fire department occupational safety, health, and wellness 

program. Quincy, MA: Author.

NFPA. (2015). NFPA 1581, Standard on fire department infection control program. Quincy, 

MA: Author.

NFPA. (2015). NFPA 1583, Standard on health-related fitness programs for fire department 

members. Quincy, MA: Author.

NFPA. (2016). NFPA 1710, Standard for the organization and deployment of fire suppression 

operations, emergency medical operations, and special operations to the public by 

career fire departments. Quincy, MA: Author.

NFPA. (2014). NFPA 1720, Standard for the organization and deployment of fire suppression 

operations, emergency medical operations and special operations to the public by 

volunteer fire departments. Quincy, MA: Author.

NFPA. (2014). NFPA 1851, Standard on selection, care and maintenance of protective ensembles 

for structural fire fighting and proximity fire fighting. Quincy, MA: Author.

NFPA. (2016, November). Fourth needs assessment of the U.S. fire service. Retrieved from 

https://www.nfpa.org/news-and-research/fire-statistics-and-reports/fire-statistics/

the-fire-service/administration/needs-assessment

NIOSH. (2013, November). Frequently asked questions: NIOSH fire fighter cancer 

study. CDC. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/firefighters/pdfs/

FAQ-NIOSHFFCancerStudy.pdf
142 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

NIOSH. (2013, October 17). NIOSH study of firefighters finds increased rates of cancer [Press 

release]. CDC. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/updates/upd-10-17-13.html

NIOSH. (2016, July). Findings from a study on cancer among U.S. fire fighters. CDC. Retrieved 

from https://blogs.cdc.gov/niosh-science-blog/2017/05/10/ff-cancer-facts/

Oberklaid, S. (2015, August 25). Inside the most sustainable fire station in the USA: Fire 

station 20. The Urbanist. Retrieved from https://www.theurbanist.org/2015/08/25/

inside-the-most-sustainable-fire-station-in-the-usa-fire-station-20/

Petrillo, A. M. (2015, January 8). Fire station exhaust systems. Fire Apparatus & Emergency 

Equipment. Retrieved from http://www.fireapparatusmagazine.com/articles/print/

volume-21/issue-1/features/fire-station-exhaust-systems.html

Petrillo, A. M. (2015, July 9). More to alerting systems than alerting. Fire Apparatus & Emergency 

Equipment. Retrieved from http://www.fireapparatusmagazine.com/articles/print/

volume-20/issue-7/features/more-to-alerting-systems-than-alerting.html

Petrillo, A. M. (2015, June 3). More to apparatus floor finishes than on the surface. Fire 

Apparatus & Emergency Equipment. Retrieved from http://www.fireapparatusmagazine.

com/articles/print/volume-20/issue-6/features/more-to-apparatus-floor-finishesthan-on-the-surface.html

Petrillo, A. M. (2015, May 4). Fire station bay door options. Fire Apparatus & Emergency 

Equipment. Retrieved from http://www.fireapparatusmagazine.com/articles/print/

volume-20/issue-5/features/fire-station-bay-door-options.html

Petrillo, A. M. (2016, August 1). Kitchens: Designed to be “heart” of the fire station. Fire 

Apparatus & Emergency Equipment. Retrieved from http://www.fireapparatusmagazine.

com/articles/print/volume-21/issue-8/features/kitchens-designed-to-be-heart-ofthe-fire-station.html

Petrillo, A. M. (2016, February 11). Turnout gear cleaning and decon done both in station 

and by outside service providers. Fire Apparatus & Emergency Equipment. Retrieved 

from http://www.fireapparatusmagazine.com/articles/print/volume-21/issue-2/

features/turnout-gear-cleaning-and-decon-done-both-in-station-and-by-outsideservice-providers.html

Predmore, A. (2015, August 1). Building community support for a fire station. Firehouse. 

Retrieved from http://www.firehouse.com/article/12086450/fire-station-designsupplement-building-community-support

Sexton, J. & Reynolds, K. (2010). Exposure of emergency medical responders to methicillinresistant staphylococcus aureus. Am J Infect Control, 38(5), 368-373. doi: 10.1016/j.

ajic.2010.01.004

Steinitz, D. (2016, July 21). Selecting lighting for your next fire station project. Firehouse. 

Retrieved from http://www.firehouse.com/article/12235187/selecting-lighting-foryour-next-fire-station-project

U.S. DOT & FHWA. Manual on uniform traffic control devices. Retrieved from https://mutcd.

fhwa.dot.gov/
Appendix C: Additional Resources 143

University of Washington. (n.d.). Prevent MRSA – Maintain a “clean zone” in the fire station. 

Retrieved from http://deohs.washington.edu/sites/default/files/brochures/

preventMRSA.pdf

Wong, C. (2010, November). Privacy in the modern firehouse. FireWork. Retrieved from 

https://www.i-women.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Privacy-in-the-ModernFirehouse-Part-1.pdf
144 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 145

Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational 

Safety and Health Administration 

Regulations

Section 6(a) of the Williams-Steiger Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) of 1970 

(84 Stat. 1593) provides that “without regard to chapter 5 of Title 5, United States Code, 

or to the other subsections of this section, the Secretary shall, as soon as practicable 

during the period beginning with the effective date of this Act and ending 2 years after 

such date, by rule promulgate as an occupational safety or health standard any national 

consensus standard, and any established Federal standard, unless he determines that 

the promulgation of such a standard would not result in improved safety or health for 

specifically designated employees.” The legislative purpose of this provision is to establish, 

as rapidly as possible and without regard to the rule-making provisions of the Administrative 

Procedure Act, standards with which industries are generally familiar, and on whose 

adoption interested and affected persons have already had an opportunity to express 

their views. Such standards are either (1) national consensus standards on whose adoption 

affected persons have reached substantial agreement, or (2) Federal standards already 

established by Federal statutes or regulations.

The following requirements are OSHA regulations that could influence the construction/

remodel and maintenance of fire and emergency medical services stations from Part 

1910 - General Occupational Safety and Health Standards. Specific regulations are 

organized by area of the station and by types of hazards. This list may not contain all 

applicable OSHA regulations that apply to station design for safety and health. 

The following regulations are current through December 31, 2016.

General areas of highlighted OSHA regulations

ĵ Fire Protection

ĵ Means Of Egress

ĵ All Areas — Electrical

ĵ Living Spaces — General

ĵ Specific Interior Areas

ĵ Interior Areas — Walking-Working Surfaces

ĵ Equipment, Tools and Maintenance

ĵ Apparatus Area

ĵ Exterior Areas 
146 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Fire Protection

1910.38 Employee Emergency Plans and Fire Prevention Plans.

1910.38(a) Application. An employer must have an emergency action plan whenever an 

OSHA standard in this part requires one. The requirements in this section apply to each 

such emergency action plan.

1910.38(b) Written and oral emergency action plans. An emergency action plan must be in 

writing, kept in the workplace, and available to employees for review. However, an employer 

with 10 or fewer employees may communicate the plan orally to employees.

1910.38(c) Minimum elements of an emergency action plan. An emergency action plan must 

include at a minimum:

1910.38(c)(1) Procedures for reporting a fire or other emergency;

1910.38(c)(2) Procedures for emergency evacuation, including type of evacuation and 

exit route assignments;

1910.38(c)(3) Procedures to be followed by employees who remain to operate critical plant 

operations before they evacuate;

1910.38(c)(4) Procedures to account for all employees after evacuation;

1910.38(c)(5) Procedures to be followed by employees performing rescue or medical 

duties; and

1910.38(c)(6) The name or job title of every employee who may be contacted by employees 

who need more information about the plan or an explanation of their duties under the plan.

1910.38(d) Employee alarm system. An employer must have and maintain an employee 

alarm system. The employee alarm system must use a distinctive signal for each purpose 

and comply with the requirements in § 1910.165.

1910.38(e) Training. An employer must designate and train employees to assist in a safe 

and orderly evacuation of other employees.

1910.38(f) Review of emergency action plan. An employer must review the emergency action 

plan with each employee covered by the plan:

1910.38(f)(1) When the plan is developed or the employee is assigned initially to a job;

1910.38(f)(2) When the employee’s responsibilities under the plan change; and

1910.38(f)(3) When the plan is changed.

1910.157 Portable Fire Extinguishers.

1910.157(a) Scope and application. The requirements of this section apply to the placement, 

use, maintenance, and testing of portable fire extinguishers provided for the use of employees. 

Paragraph (d) of this section does not apply to extinguishers provided for employee use 

on the outside of workplace buildings or structures. Where extinguishers are provided but 

are not intended for employee use and the employer has an emergency action plan and 

a fire prevention plan that meet the requirements of 29 CFR 1910.38 and 29 CFR 1910.39 

respectively, then only the requirements of paragraphs (e) and (f) of this section apply.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 147

1910.157(b) Exemptions.

1910.157(b)(1) Where the employer has established and implemented a written fire safety 

policy which requires the immediate and total evacuation of employees from the workplace 

upon the sounding of a fire alarm signal and which includes an emergency action plan and 

a fire prevention plan which meet the requirements of 29 CFR 1910.38 and 29 CFR 1910.39 

respectively, and when extinguishers are not available in the workplace, the employer 

is exempt from all requirements of this section unless a specific standard in part 1910 

requires that a portable fire extinguisher be provided.

1910.157(b)(2) Where the employer has an emergency action plan meeting the requirements 

of 1910.38 which designates certain employees to be the only employees authorized to 

use the available portable fire extinguishers, and which requires all other employees in 

the fire area to immediately evacuate the affected work area upon the sounding of the 

fire alarm, the employer is exempt from the distribution requirements in paragraph (d) 

of this section.

1910.157(c) General requirements.

1910.157(c)(1) The employer shall provide portable fire extinguishers and shall mount, 

locate and identify them so that they are readily accessible to employees without subjecting 

the employees to possible injury.

1910.157(c)(2) Only approved portable fire extinguishers shall be used to meet the 

requirements of this section.

1910.157(c)(3) The employer shall not provide or make available in the workplace portable 

fire extinguishers using carbon tetrachloride or chlorobromomethane extinguishing agents.

1910.157(c)(4) The employer shall assure that portable fire extinguishers are maintained 

in a fully charged and operable condition and kept in their designated places at all times 

except during use.

1910.157(c)(5) The employer shall remove from service all soldered or riveted shell selfgenerating soda acid or self-generating foam or gas cartridge water type portable fire 

extinguishers which are operated by inverting the extinguisher to rupture the cartridge 

or to initiate an uncontrollable pressure generating chemical reaction to expel the agent.

1910.157(d) Selection and distribution.

1910.157(d)(1) Portable fire extinguishers shall be provided for employee use and selected 

and distributed based on the classes of anticipated workplace fires and on the size and 

degree of hazard which would affect their use.

1910.157(d)(2) The employer shall distribute portable fire extinguishers for use by employees 

on Class A fires so that the travel distance for employees to any extinguisher is 75 feet 

(22.9 m) or less.

1910.157(d)(3) The employer may use uniformly spaced standpipe systems or hose stations 

connected to a sprinkler system installed for emergency use by employees instead of Class 

A portable fire extinguishers, provided that such systems meet the respective requirements 

of 1910.158 or 1910.159, that they provide total coverage of the area to be protected, and 

that employees are trained at least annually in their use.
148 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.157(d)(4) The employer shall distribute portable fire extinguishers for use by employees 

on Class B fires so that the travel distance from the Class B hazard area to any extinguisher 

is 50 feet (15.2 m) or less.

1910.157(d)(5) The employer shall distribute portable fire extinguishers used for Class C 

hazards on the basis of the appropriate pattern for the existing Class A or Class B hazards.

1910.157(d)(6) The employer shall distribute portable fire extinguishers or other containers 

of Class D extinguishing agent for use by employees so that the travel distance from the 

combustible metal working area to any extinguishing agent is 75 feet (22.9 m) or less. 

Portable fire extinguishers for Class D hazards are required in those combustible metal 

working areas where combustible metal powders, flakes, shavings, or similarly sized 

products are generated at least once every two weeks.

1910.157(e) Inspection, maintenance and testing.

1910.157(e)(1) The employer shall be responsible for the inspection, maintenance and 

testing of all portable fire extinguishers in the workplace.

1910.157(e)(2) Portable extinguishers or hose used in lieu thereof under paragraph (d)(3) 

of this section shall be visually inspected monthly.

1910.157(e)(3) The employer shall assure that portable fire extinguishers are subjected to 

an annual maintenance check. Stored pressure extinguishers do not require an internal 

examination. The employer shall record the annual maintenance date and retain this record 

for one year after the last entry or the life of the shell, whichever is less. The record shall 

be available to the Assistant Secretary upon request.

1910.157(e)(4) The employer shall assure that stored pressure dry chemical extinguishers 

that require a 12-year hydrostatic test are emptied and subjected to applicable maintenance 

procedures every 6 years. Dry chemical extinguishers having non-refillable disposable 

containers are exempt from this requirement. When recharging or hydrostatic testing is 

performed, the 6-year requirement begins from that date.

1910.157(e)(5) The employer shall assure that alternate equivalent protection is provided 

when portable fire extinguishers are removed from service for maintenance and recharging.

1910.157(f) Hydrostatic testing.

1910.157(f)(1) The employer shall assure that hydrostatic testing is performed by trained 

persons with suitable testing equipment and facilities.

1910.157(f)(2) The employer shall assure that portable extinguishers are hydrostatically tested 

at the intervals listed in Table L-1 of this section, except under any of the following conditions:

1910.157(f)(2)(i) When the unit has been repaired by soldering, welding, brazing, or use 

of patching compounds;

1910.157(f)(2)(ii) When the cylinder or shell threads are damaged;

1910.157(f)(2)(iii) When there is corrosion that has caused pitting, including corrosion 

under removable name plate assemblies;

1910.157(f)(2)(iv) When the extinguisher has been burned in a fire; or
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 149

1910.157(f)(2)(v) When a calcium chloride extinguishing agent has been used in a stainless 

steel shell.

1910.157(f)(3) In addition to an external visual examination, the employer shall assure 

that an internal examination of cylinders and shells to be tested is made prior to the 

hydrostatic tests.

Table L-1

Type of extinguishers Test interval 

(years)

Soda acid (soldered brass shells) (until 1/1/82) (1)

Soda acid (stainless steel shell) 5

Cartridge operated water and/or antifreeze 5

Stored pressure water and/or antifreeze 5

Wetting agent 5

Foam (soldered brass shells) (until 1/1/82) (1)

Foam (stainless steel shell) 5

Aqueous Film Forming foam (AFFF) 5

Loaded stream 5

Dry chemical with stainless steel 5

Carbon Dioxide 5

Dry chemical, stored pressure, with mild steel, brazed brass or 

aluminum shells

12

Dry chemical, cartridge or cylinder operated, with mild steel shells 12

Halon 1211 12

Halon 1301 12

Dry powder, cartridge or cylinder operated with mild steel shells 12

1

Extinguishers having shells constructed of copper or brass joined by soft solder or rivets shall not be hydrostatically tested and 

shall be removed from service by January 1, 1982. (Not permitted)

1910.157(f)(4) The employer shall assure that portable fire extinguishers are hydrostatically 

tested whenever they show new evidence of corrosion or mechanical injury, except under 

the conditions listed in paragraphs (f)(2)(i)-(v) of this section.

1910.157(f)(5) The employer shall assure that hydrostatic tests are performed on 

extinguisher hose assemblies which are equipped with a shut-off nozzle at the discharge 

end of the hose. The test interval shall be the same as specified for the extinguisher on 

which the hose is installed.

1910.157(f)(6) The employer shall assure that carbon dioxide hose assemblies with a 

shut-off nozzle are hydrostatically tested at 1,250 psi (8,620 kPa).

1910.157(f)(7) The employer shall assure that dry chemical and dry powder hose assemblies 

with a shut-off nozzle are hydrostatically tested at 300 psi (2,070 kPa).

1910.157(f)(8) Hose assemblies passing a hydrostatic test do not require any type of 

recording or stamping.
150 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.157(f)(9) The employer shall assure that hose assemblies for carbon dioxide 

extinguishers that require a hydrostatic test are tested within a protective cage device.

1910.157(f)(10) The employer shall assure that carbon dioxide extinguishers and nitrogen 

or carbon dioxide cylinders used with wheeled extinguishers are tested every 5 years at 

5/3 of the service pressure as stamped into the cylinder. Nitrogen cylinders which comply 

with 49 CFR 173.34(e)(15) may be hydrostatically tested every 10 years.

1910.157(f)(11) The employer shall assure that all stored pressure and Halon 1211 types 

of extinguishers are hydrostatically tested at the factory test pressure not to exceed two 

times the service pressure.

1910.157(f)(12) The employer shall assure that acceptable self-generating type soda acid 

and foam extinguishers are tested at 350 psi (2,410 kPa).

1910.157(f)(13) Air or gas pressure may not be used for hydrostatic testing.

1910.157(f)(14) Extinguisher shells, cylinders, or cartridges which fail a hydrostatic pressure 

test, or which are not fit for testing shall be removed from service and from the workplace.

1910.157(f)(15)(i) The equipment for testing compressed gas type cylinders shall be of 

the water jacket type. The equipment shall be provided with an expansion indicator which 

operates with an accuracy within one percent of the total expansion or .1cc (.1mL) of liquid.

1910.157(f)(15)(ii) The equipment for testing non-compressed gas type cylinders shall 

consist of the following:

1910.157(f)(15)(ii)(A) A hydrostatic test pump, hand or power operated, capable of producing 

not less than 150 percent of the test pressure, which shall include appropriate check valves 

and fittings;

1910.157(f)(15)(ii)(B) A flexible connection for attachment to fittings to test through the 

extinguisher nozzle, test bonnet, or hose outlet, as is applicable; and

1910.157(f)(15)(ii)(C) A protective cage or barrier for personal protection of the tester, 

designed to provide visual observation of the extinguisher under test.

1910.157(f)(16) The employer shall maintain and provide upon request to the Assistant 

Secretary evidence that the required hydrostatic testing of fire extinguishers has been 

performed at the time intervals shown in Table L-1. Such evidence shall be in the form of 

a certification record which includes the date of the test, the signature of the person who 

performed the test and the serial number, or other identifier, of the fire extinguisher that 

was tested. Such records shall be kept until the extinguisher is hydrostatically retested 

at the time interval specified in Table L-1 or until the extinguisher is taken out of service, 

whichever comes first.

1910.157(g) Training and education.

1910.157(g)(1) Where the employer has provided portable fire extinguishers for employee 

use in the workplace, the employer shall also provide an educational program to familiarize 

employees with the general principles of fire extinguisher use and the hazards involved 

with incipient stage fire fighting.

1910.157(g)(2) The employer shall provide the education required in paragraph (g)(1) of 

this section upon initial employment and at least annually thereafter.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 151

1910.157(g)(3) The employer shall provide employees who have been designated to use 

fire fighting equipment as part of an emergency action plan with training in the use of the 

appropriate equipment.

1910.157(g)(4) The employer shall provide the training required in paragraph (g)(3) of 

this section upon initial assignment to the designated group of employees and at least 

annually thereafter. 

1910.158 Standpipe and Hose Systems.

1910.158(a) Scope and application.

1910.158(a)(1) Scope. This section applies to all small hose, Class II, and Class III standpipe 

systems installed to meet the requirements of a particular OSHA standard.

1910.158(a)(2) Exception. This section does not apply to Class I standpipe systems.

1910.158(b) Protection of standpipes. The employer shall assure that standpipes are 

located or otherwise protected against mechanical damage. Damaged standpipes shall 

be repaired promptly.

1910.158(c) Equipment.

1910.158(c)(1) Reels and cabinets. Where reels or cabinets are provided to contain fire 

hose, the employer shall assure that they are designed to facilitate prompt use of the 

hose valves, the hose, and other equipment at the time of a fire or other emergency. The 

employer shall assure that the reels and cabinets are conspicuously identified and used 

only for fire equipment.

1910.158(c)(2) Hose outlets and connections.

1910.158(c)(2)(i) The employer shall assure that hose outlets and connections are located 

high enough above the floor to avoid being obstructed and to be accessible to employees.

1910.158(c)(2)(ii) The employer shall standardize screw threads or provide appropriate 

adapters throughout the system and assure that the hose connections are compatible 

with those used on the supporting fire equipment.

1910.158(c)(3) Hose.

1910.158(c)(3)(i) The employer shall assure that every 1 1/2 inch (3.8 cm) or smaller hose 

outlet used to meet this standard is equipped with hose connected and ready for use. 

In extremely cold climates where such installation may result in damaged equipment, 

the hose may be stored in another location provided it is readily available and can be 

connected when needed.

1910.158(c)(3)(ii) Standpipe systems installed after January 1, 1981, for use by employees, 

shall be equipped with lined hose. Unlined hose may remain in use on existing systems. 

However, after the effective date of this standard, unlined hose which becomes unserviceable 

shall be replaced with lined hose.

1910.158(c)(3)(iii) The employer shall provide hose of such length that friction loss resulting 

from water flowing through the hose will not decrease the pressure at the nozzle below 

30 psi (210 kPa). The dynamic pressure at the nozzle shall be within the range of 30 psi 

(210 kPa) to 125 psi (860 kPa).
152 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.158(c)(4) Nozzles. The employer shall assure that standpipe hose is equipped with 

shut-off type nozzles.

1910.158(d) Water supply. The minimum water supply for standpipe and hose systems, 

which are provided for the use of employees, shall be sufficient to provide 100 gallons per 

minute (6.3 l/s) for a period of at least thirty minutes.

1910.158(e) Tests and maintenance.

1910.158(e)(1) Acceptance tests.

1910.158(e)(1)(i) The employer shall assure that the piping of Class II and Class III systems 

installed after January 1, 1981, including yard piping, is hydrostatically tested for a period 

of at least 2 hours at not less than 200 psi (1380 kPa), or at least 50 psi (340 kPa) in excess 

of normal pressure when such pressure is greater than 150 psi (1030 kPa).

1910.158(e)(1)(ii) The employer shall assure that hose on all standpipe systems installed 

after January 1, 1981, is hydrostatically tested with couplings in place, at a pressure of not 

less than 200 psi (1380 kPa), before it is placed in service. This pressure shall be maintained 

for at least 15 seconds and not more than one minute during which time the hose shall 

not leak nor shall any jacket thread break during the test.

1910.158(e)(2) Maintenance.

1910.158(e)(2)(i) The employer shall assure that water supply tanks are kept filled to the 

proper level except during repairs. When pressure tanks are used, the employer shall 

assure that proper pressure is maintained at all times except during repairs.

1910.158(e)(2)(ii) The employer shall assure that valves in the main piping connections to 

the automatic sources of water supply are kept fully open at all times except during repair.

1910.158(e)(2)(iii) The employer shall assure that hose systems are inspected at least 

annually and after each use to assure that all of the equipment and hose are in place, 

available for use, and in serviceable condition.

1910.158(e)(2)(iv) When the system or any portion thereof is found not to be serviceable, 

the employer shall remove it from service immediately and replace it with equivalent 

protection such as extinguishers and fire watches.

1910.158(e)(2)(v) The employer shall assure that hemp or linen hose on existing systems 

is unracked, physically inspected for deterioration, and reracked using a different fold 

pattern at least annually. The employer shall assure that defective hose is replaced in 

accordance with paragraph (c)(3)(ii).

1910.158(e)(2)(vi) The employer shall designate trained persons to conduct all inspections 

required under this section.

1910.159 Automatic Sprinkler Systems.

1910.159(a) Scope and application.

1910.159(a)(1) The requirements of this section apply to all automatic sprinkler systems 

installed to meet a particular OSHA standard.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 153

1910.159(a)(2) For automatic sprinkler systems used to meet OSHA requirements and installed 

prior to the effective date of this standard, compliance with the National Fire Protection 

Association (NFPA) or the National Board of Fire Underwriters (NBFU) standard in effect 

at the time of the system’s installation will be acceptable as compliance with this section.

1910.159(b) Exemptions. Automatic sprinkler systems installed in workplaces, but not 

required by OSHA, are exempt from the requirements of this section.

1910.159(c) General requirements.

1910.159(c)(1) Design.

1910.159(c)(1)(i) All automatic sprinkler designs used to comply with this standard shall 

provide the necessary discharge patterns, densities, and water flow characteristics for 

complete coverage in a particular workplace or zoned subdivision of the workplace.

1910.159(c)(1)(ii) The employer shall assure that only approved equipment and devices 

are used in the design and installation of automatic sprinkler systems used to comply 

with this standard.

1910.159(c)(2) Maintenance. The employer shall properly maintain an automatic sprinkler 

system installed to comply with this section. The employer shall assure that a main drain 

flow test is performed on each system annually. The inspector’s test valve shall be opened 

at least every two years to assure that the sprinkler system operates properly.

1910.159(c)(3) Acceptance tests. The employer shall conduct proper acceptance tests on 

sprinkler systems installed for employee protection after January 1, 1981, and record the 

dates of such tests. Proper acceptance tests include the following:

1910.159(c)(3)(i) Flushing of underground connections;

1910.159(c)(3)(ii) Hydrostatic tests of piping in system;

1910.159(c)(3)(iii) Air tests in dry-pipe systems;

1910.159(c)(3)(iv) Dry-pipe valve operation; and

1910.159(c)(3)(v) Test of drainage facilities.

1910.159(c)(4) Water supplies. The employer shall assure that every automatic sprinkler system 

is provided with at least one automatic water supply capable of providing design water flow 

for at least 30 minutes. An auxiliary water supply or equivalent protection shall be provided 

when the automatic water supply is out of service, except for systems of 20 or fewer sprinklers.

1910.159(c)(5) Hose connections for fire fighting use. The employer may attach hose 

connections for fire fighting use to wet pipe sprinkler systems provided that the water 

supply satisfies the combined design demand for sprinklers and standpipes.

1910.159(c)(6) Protection of piping. The employer shall assure that automatic sprinkler 

system piping is protected against freezing and exterior surface corrosion.

1910.159(c)(7) Drainage. The employer shall assure that all dry sprinkler pipes and fittings 

are installed so that the system may be totally drained.
154 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.159(c)(8) Sprinklers.

1910.159(c)(8)(i) The employer shall assure that only approved sprinklers are used on systems.

1910.159(c)(8)(ii) The employer may not use older style sprinklers to replace standard 

sprinklers without a complete engineering review of the altered part of the system.

1910.159(c)(8)(iii) The employer shall assure that sprinklers are protected from mechanical 

damage.

1910.159(c)(9) Sprinkler alarms. On all sprinkler systems having more than twenty (20) 

sprinklers, the employer shall assure that a local waterflow alarm is provided which sounds 

an audible signal on the premises upon water flow through the system equal to the flow 

from a single sprinkler.

1910.159(c)(10) Sprinkler spacing. The employer shall assure that sprinklers are spaced 

to provide a maximum protection area per sprinkler, a minimum of interference to the 

discharge pattern by building or structural members or building contents and suitable 

sensitivity to possible fire hazards. The minimum vertical clearance between sprinklers 

and material below shall be 18 inches (45.7 cm).

1910.159(c)(11) Hydraulically designed systems. The employer shall assure that hydraulically 

designed automatic sprinkler systems or portions thereof are identified and that the 

location, number of sprinklers in the hydraulically designed section, and the basis of the 

design is indicated. Central records may be used in lieu of signs at sprinkler valves provided 

the records are available for inspection and copying by the Assistant Secretary.

1910.160 Fixed Extinguishing Systems, General.

1910.160(a) Scope and application.

1910.160(a)(1) This section applies to all fixed extinguishing systems installed to meet a 

particular OSHA standard except for automatic sprinkler systems which are covered by 1910.159.

1910.160(a)(2) This section also applies to fixed systems not installed to meet a particular OSHA 

standard, but which, by means of their operation, may expose employees to possible injury, 

death, or adverse health consequences caused by the extinguishing agent. Such systems are 

only subject to the requirements of paragraphs (b)(4) through (b)(7) and (c) of this section.

1910.160(a)(3) Systems otherwise covered in paragraph (a)(2) of this section which are 

installed in areas with no employee exposure are exempted from the requirements of 

this section.

1910.160(b) General requirements.

1910.160(b)(1) Fixed extinguishing system components and agents shall be designed and 

approved for use on the specific fire hazards they are expected to control or extinguish.

1910.160(b)(2) If for any reason a fixed extinguishing system becomes inoperable, the 

employer shall notify employees and take the necessary temporary precautions to assure 

their safety until the system is restored to operating order. Any defects or impairments 

shall be properly corrected by trained personnel.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 155

1910.160(b)(3) The employer shall provide a distinctive alarm or signaling system which 

complies with 1910.165 and is capable of being perceived above ambient noise or light 

levels, on all extinguishing systems in those portions of the workplace covered by the 

extinguishing system to indicate when the extinguishing system is discharging. Discharge 

alarms are not required on systems where discharge is immediately recognizable.

1910.160(b)(4) The employer shall provide effective safeguards to warn employees against 

entry into discharge areas where the atmosphere remains hazardous to employee safety 

or health.

1910.160(b)(5) The employer shall post hazard warning or caution signs at the entrance 

to, and inside of, areas protected by fixed extinguishing systems which use agents in 

concentrations known to be hazardous to employee safety and health.

1910.160(b)(6) The employer shall assure that fixed systems are inspected annually by a 

person knowledgeable in the design and function of the system to assure that the system 

is maintained in good operating condition.

1910.160(b)(7) The employer shall assure that the weight and pressure of refillable 

containers is checked at least semi-annually. If the container shows a loss in net content 

or weight of more than 5 percent, or a loss in pressure of more than 10 percent, it shall 

be subjected to maintenance.

1910.160(b)(8) The employer shall assure that factory charged nonrefillable containers which 

have no means of pressure indication are weighed at least semi-annually. If a container 

shows a loss in net weight or more than 5 percent it shall be replaced.

1910.160(b)(9) The employer shall assure that inspection and maintenance dates are 

recorded on the container, on a tag attached to the container, or in a central location. A 

record of the last semi-annual check shall be maintained until the container is checked 

again or for the life of the container, whichever is less.

1910.160(b)(10) The employer shall train employees designated to inspect, maintain, 

operate, or repair fixed extinguishing systems and annually review their training to keep 

them up-to-date in the functions they are to perform.

1910.160(b)(11) The employer shall not use chlorobromomethane or carbon tetrachloride 

as an extinguishing agent where employees may be exposed.

1910.160(b)(12) The employer shall assure that systems installed in the presence of 

corrosive atmospheres are constructed of non-corrosive material or otherwise protected 

against corrosion.

1910.160(b)(13) Automatic detection equipment shall be approved, installed and maintained 

in accordance with 1910.164.

1910.160(b)(14) The employer shall assure that all systems designed for and installed in 

areas with climatic extremes shall operate effectively at the expected extreme temperatures.

1910.160(b)(15) The employer shall assure that at least one manual station is provided 

for discharge activation of each fixed extinguishing system.

1910.160(b)(16) The employer shall assure that manual operating devices are identified 

as to the hazard against which they will provide protection.
156 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.160(b)(17) The employer shall provide and assure the use of the personal protective 

equipment needed for immediate rescue of employees trapped in hazardous atmospheres 

created by an agent discharge.

1910.160(c) Total flooding systems with potential health and safety hazards to employees.

1910.160(c)(1) The employer shall provide an emergency action plan in accordance with 

1910.38 for each area within a workplace that is protected by a total flooding system which 

provides agent concentrations exceeding the maximum safe levels set forth in paragraphs 

(b)(5) and (b)(6) of 1910.162.

1910.160(c)(2) Systems installed in areas where employees cannot enter during or after 

the system’s operation are exempt from the requirements of paragraph (c) of this section.

1910.160(c)(3) On all total flooding systems the employer shall provide a pre-discharge 

employee alarm which complies with 1910.165, and is capable of being perceived above 

ambient light or noise levels before the system discharges, which will give employees time 

to safely exit from the discharge area prior to system discharge.

1910.160(c)(4) The employer shall provide automatic actuation of total flooding systems by 

means of an approved fire detection device installed and interconnected with a pre-discharge 

employee alarm system to give employees time to safely exit from the discharge area 

prior to system discharge.

1910.161 Fixed Extinguishing Systems, Dry Chemical.

1910.161(a) Scope and application. This section applies to all fixed extinguishing systems, 

using dry chemical as the extinguishing agent, installed to meet a particular OSHA standard. 

These systems shall also comply with 1910.160.

1910.161(b) Specific requirements.

1910.161(b)(1) The employer shall assure that dry chemical agents are compatible with 

any foams or wetting agents with which they are used.

1910.161(b)(2) The employer may not mix together dry chemical extinguishing agents of 

different compositions. The employer shall assure that dry chemical systems are refilled 

with the chemical stated on the approval nameplate or an equivalent compatible material.

1910.161(b)(3) When dry chemical discharge may obscure vision, the employer shall 

provide a pre-discharge employee alarm which complies with 1910.165 and which will give 

employees time to safely exit from the discharge area prior to system discharge.

1910.161(b)(4) The employer shall sample the dry chemical supply of all but stored pressure 

systems at least annually to assure that the dry chemical supply is free of moisture which 

may cause the supply to cake or form lumps.

1910.161(b)(5) The employer shall assure that the rate of application of dry chemicals is 

such that the designed concentration of the system will be reached within 30 seconds of 

initial discharge.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 157

1910.162 Fixed Extinguishing Systems, Gaseous Agent.

1910.162(a) Scope and application.

1910.162(a)(1) Scope. This section applies to all fixed extinguishing systems, using a gas as 

the extinguishing agent, installed to meet a particular OSHA standard. These systems shall 

also comply with 1910.160. In some cases, the gas may be in a liquid state during storage.

1910.162(a)(2) Application. The requirements of paragraphs (b)(2) and (b)(4) through (b)(6) 

shall apply only to total flooding systems.

1910.162(b) Specific requirements.

1910.162(b)(1) Agents used for initial supply and replenishment shall be of the type 

approved for the system’s application. Carbon dioxide obtained by dry ice conversion to 

liquid is not acceptable unless it is processed to remove excess water and oil.

1910.162(b)(2) Except during overhaul, the employer shall assure that the designed 

concentration of gaseous agents is maintained until the fire has been extinguished or is 

under control.

1910.162(b)(3) The employer shall assure that employees are not exposed to toxic levels 

of gaseous agent or its decomposition products.

1910.162(b)(4) The employer shall assure that the designed extinguishing concentration 

is reached within 30 seconds of initial discharge except for Halon systems which must 

achieve design concentration within 10 seconds.

1910.162(b)(5) The employer shall provide a distinctive pre-discharge employee alarm 

capable of being perceived above ambient light or noise levels when agent design 

concentrations exceed the maximum safe level for employee exposure. A pre-discharge 

employee alarm for alerting employees before system discharge shall be provided on 

Halon 1211 and carbon dioxide systems with a design concentration of 4 percent or greater 

and for Halon 1301 systems with a design concentration of 10 percent or greater. The 

pre-discharge employee alarm shall provide employees time to safely exit the discharge 

area prior to system discharge.

1910.162(b)(6)(i) Where egress from an area cannot be accomplished within one minute, 

the employer shall not use Halon 1301 in concentrations greater than 7 percent.

1910.162(b)(6)(ii) Where egress takes greater than 30 seconds but less than one minute, 

the employer shall not use Halon 1301 in a concentration greater than 10 percent.

1910.162(b)(6)(iii) Halon 1301 concentrations greater than 10 percent are only permitted 

in areas not normally occupied by employees provided that any employee in the area can 

escape within 30 seconds. The employer shall assure that no unprotected employees enter 

the area during agent discharge.

1910.163 Fixed Extinguishing Systems, Water Spray and Foam.

1910.163(a) Scope and application. This section applies to all fixed extinguishing systems, 

using water or foam solution as the extinguishing agent, installed to meet a particular OSHA 

standard. These systems shall also comply with 1910.160. This section does not apply to 

automatic sprinkler systems which are covered under 1910.159.
158 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.163(b) Specific requirements.

1910.163(b)(1) The employer shall assure that foam and water spray systems are designed 

to be effective in at least controlling fire in the protected area or on protected equipment.

1910.163(b)(2) The employer shall assure that drainage of water spray systems is directed 

away from areas where employees are working and that no emergency egress is permitted 

through the drainage path.

1910.164 Fire Detection Systems.

1910.164(a) Scope and application. This section applies to all automatic fire detection 

systems installed to meet the requirements of a particular OSHA standard.

1910.164(b) Installation and restoration.

1910.164(b)(1) The employer shall assure that all devices and equipment constructed 

and installed to comply with this standard are approved for the purpose for which they 

are intended.

1910.164(b)(2) The employer shall restore all fire detection systems and components to 

normal operating condition as promptly as possible after each test or alarm. Spare detection 

devices and components which are normally destroyed in the process of detecting fires 

shall be available on the premises or from a local supplier in sufficient quantities and 

locations for prompt restoration of the system.

1910.164(c)(1) The employer shall maintain all systems in an operable condition except 

during repairs or maintenance.

1910.164(c)(2) The employer shall assure that fire detectors and fire detection systems 

are tested and adjusted as often as needed to maintain proper reliability and operating 

condition except that factory calibrated detectors need not be adjusted after installation.

1910.164(c)(4) The employer shall assure that the servicing, maintenance and testing of fire 

detection systems, including cleaning and necessary sensitivity adjustments are performed 

by a trained person knowledgeable in the operations and functions of the system.

1910.164(c)(5) The employer shall also assure that fire detectors that need to be cleaned 

of dirt, dust, or other particulates in order to be fully operational are cleaned at regular 

periodic intervals.

1910.164(d)(3) The employer shall assure that detectors are supported independently of 

their attachment to wires or tubing.

1910.164(f) Number, location and spacing of detecting devices. The employer shall assure 

that the number, spacing and location of fire detectors is based upon design data obtained 

from field experience, or tests, engineering surveys, the manufacturer’s recommendations, 

or a recognized testing laboratory listing.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 159

Means of Egress

1910.36(a)(1) An exit route must be permanent. Each exit route must be a permanent part 

of the workplace.

1910.36(a)(2) An exit must be separated by fire resistant materials. Construction materials 

used to separate an exit from other parts of the workplace must have a one-hour fire 

resistance-rating if the exit connects three or fewer stories and a two-hour fire resistancerating if the exit connects four or more stories.

1910.36(a)(3) Openings into an exit must be limited. An exit is permitted to have only those 

openings necessary to allow access to the exit from occupied areas of the workplace, or 

to the exit discharge. An opening into an exit must be protected by a self-closing fire door 

that remains closed or automatically closes in an emergency upon the sounding of a fire 

alarm or employee alarm system. Each fire door, including its frame and hardware, must 

be listed or approved by a nationally recognized testing laboratory. 

1910.36(b) The number of exit routes must be adequate.

1910.36(b)(1) Two exit routes. At least two exit routes must be available in a workplace to 

permit prompt evacuation of employees and other building occupants during an emergency, 

except as allowed in paragraph (b)(3) of this section. The exit routes must be located as 

far away as practical from each other so that if one exit route is blocked by fire or smoke, 

employees can evacuate using the second exit route.

1910.36(b)(2) More than two exit routes. More than two exit routes must be available in 

a workplace if the number of employees, the size of the building, its occupancy, or the 

arrangement of the workplace is such that all employees would not be able to evacuate 

safely during an emergency.

1910.36(b)(3) A single exit route. A single exit route is permitted where the number of 

employees, the size of the building, its occupancy, or the arrangement of the workplace 

is such that all employees would be able to evacuate safely during an emergency.

Exit discharge

1910.36(c)(1) Each exit discharge must lead directly outside or to a street, walkway, refuge 

area, public way, or open space with access to the outside.

1910.36(c)(2) The street, walkway, refuge area, public way, or open space to which an exit 

discharge leads must be large enough to accommodate the building occupants likely to 

use the exit route.

1910.36(c)(3) Exit stairs that continue beyond the level on which the exit discharge is 

located must be interrupted at that level by doors, partitions, or other effective means 

that clearly indicate the direction of travel leading to the exit discharge.

1910.36(d)(1) Employees must be able to open an exit route door from the inside at all 

times without keys, tools, or special knowledge. A device such as a panic bar that locks 

only from the outside is permitted on exit discharge doors.

1910.36(d)(2) Exit route doors must be free of any device or alarm that could restrict 

emergency use of the exit route if the device or alarm fails.
160 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.36(e)(1) A side-hinged door must be used to connect any room to an exit route.

1910.36(e)(2) The door that connects any room to an exit route must swing out in the 

direction of exit travel if the room is designed to be occupied by more than 50 people or if 

the room is a high hazard area (i.e., contains contents that are likely to burn with extreme 

rapidity or explode).

1910.36(f)(1) Exit routes must support the maximum permitted occupant load for each 

floor served.

1910.36(f)(2) The capacity of an exit route may not decrease in the direction of exit route 

travel to the exit discharge.

1910.36(g)(1) The ceiling of an exit route must be at least seven feet six inches (2.3 m) 

high. Any projection from the ceiling must not reach a point less than six feet eight inches 

(2.0 m) from the floor.

1910.36(g)(2) An exit access must be at least 28 inches (71.1 cm) wide at all points. Where 

there is only one exit access leading to an exit or exit discharge, the width of the exit and 

exit discharge must be at least equal to the width of the exit access.

1910.36(g)(3) The width of an exit route must be sufficient to accommodate the maximum 

permitted occupant load of each floor served by the exit route.

1910.36(g)(4) Objects that project into the exit route must not reduce the width of the 

exit route to less than the minimum width requirements for exit routes.

1910.36(h)(1) The outdoor exit route must have guardrails to protect unenclosed sides if 

a fall hazard exists.

1910.36(h)(2) The outdoor exit route must be covered if snow or ice is likely to accumulate 

along the route, unless the employer can demonstrate that any snow or ice accumulation 

will be removed before it presents a slipping hazard;

1910.36(h)(3) The outdoor exit route must be reasonably straight and have smooth, solid, 

substantially level walkways; and

1910.36(h)(4) The outdoor exit route must not have a dead-end that is longer than 20 

feet (6.2 m).

1910.37 Means of Egress, General.

1910.37(a) The danger to employees must be minimized.

1910.37(a)(1) Exit routes must be kept free of explosive or highly flammable furnishings 

or other decorations.

1910.37(a)(2) Exit routes must be arranged so that employees will not have to travel toward 

a high hazard area, unless the path of travel is effectively shielded from the high hazard 

area by suitable partitions or other physical barriers.

1910.37(a)(3) Exit routes must be free and unobstructed. No materials or equipment may 

be placed, either permanently or temporarily, within the exit route. The exit access must 

not go through a room that can be locked, such as a bathroom, to reach an exit or exit 

discharge, nor may it lead into a dead-end corridor. Stairs or a ramp must be provided 

where the exit route is not substantially level.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 161

1910.37(a)(4) Safeguards designed to protect employees during an emergency (e.g., 

sprinkler systems, alarm systems, fire doors, exit lighting) must be in proper working 

order at all times.

1910.37(b) Lighting and marking must be adequate and appropriate.

1910.37(b)(1) Each exit route must be adequately lighted so that an employee with normal 

vision can see along the exit route.

1910.37(b)(2) Each exit must be clearly visible and marked by a sign reading “Exit.”

1910.37(b)(3) Each exit route door must be free of decorations or signs that obscure the 

visibility of the exit route door.

1910.37(b)(4) If the direction of travel to the exit or exit discharge is not immediately 

apparent, signs must be posted along the exit access indicating the direction of travel 

to the nearest exit and exit discharge. Additionally, the line-of-sight to an exit sign must 

clearly be visible at all times.

1910.37(b)(5) Each doorway or passage along an exit access that could be mistaken for 

an exit must be marked “Not an Exit” or similar designation, or be identified by a sign 

indicating its actual use (e.g., closet).

1910.37(b)(6) Each exit sign must be illuminated to a surface value of at least five footcandles (54 lux) by a reliable light source and be distinctive in color. Self-luminous or 

electroluminescent signs that have a minimum luminance surface value of at least .06 

footlamberts (0.21 cd/m2) are permitted.

1910.37(b)(7) Each exit sign must have the word “Exit” in plainly legible letters not less 

than six inches (15.2 cm) high, with the principal strokes of the letters in the word “Exit” 

not less than three-fourths of an inch (1.9 cm) wide.

1910.37(c) The fire retardant properties of paints or solutions must be maintained. 

Fire retardant paints or solutions must be renewed as often as necessary to maintain 

their fire retardant properties.

1910.37(d) Exit routes must be maintained during construction, repairs, or alterations.

1910.37(d)(1) During new construction, employees must not occupy a workplace until the 

exit routes required by this subpart are completed and ready for employee use for the 

portion of the workplace they occupy.

1910.37(d)(2) During repairs or alterations, employees must not occupy a workplace unless the 

exit routes required by this subpart are available and existing fire protections are maintained, 

or until alternate fire protection is furnished that provides an equivalent level of safety.

1910.37(d)(3) Employees must not be exposed to hazards of flammable or explosive 

substances or equipment used during construction, repairs, or alterations, that are beyond the 

normal permissible conditions in the workplace, or that would impede exiting the workplace.

1910.37(e) An employee alarm system must be operable.

Employers must install and maintain an operable employee alarm system that has a 

distinctive signal to warn employees of fire or other emergencies, unless employees can 

promptly see or smell a fire or other hazard in time to provide adequate warning to them. 

The employee alarm system must comply with § 1910.165.
162 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

All Areas — Electrical

General

1910.303(b)(2) Installation and use. Listed or labeled equipment shall be installed and used 

in accordance with any instructions included in the listing or labeling.

1910.303(b)(3) Insulation integrity. Completed wiring installations shall be free from short 

circuits and from grounds other than those required or permitted by this subpart.

1910.303(b)(4) Interrupting rating. Equipment intended to interrupt current at fault levels 

shall have an interrupting rating sufficient for the nominal circuit voltage and the current 

that is available at the line terminals of the equipment. Equipment intended to interrupt 

current at other than fault levels shall have an interrupting rating at nominal circuit voltage 

sufficient for the current that must be interrupted.

1910.303(b)(5) Circuit impedance and other characteristics. The overcurrent protective 

devices, the total impedance, the component short-circuit current ratings, and other 

characteristics of the circuit to be protected shall be selected and coordinated to permit the 

circuit protective devices used to clear a fault to do so without the occurrence of extensive 

damage to the electrical components of the circuit. This fault shall be assumed to be either 

between two or more of the circuit conductors, or between any circuit conductor and the 

grounding conductor or enclosing metal raceway.

1910.303(b)(6) Deteriorating agents. Unless identified for use in the operating environment, 

no conductors or equipment shall be located in damp or wet locations; where exposed 

to gases, fumes, vapors, liquids, or other agents that have a deteriorating effect on the 

conductors or equipment; or where exposed to excessive temperatures.

1910.303(b)(7) Mechanical execution of work. Electric equipment shall be installed in a neat 

and workmanlike manner.

1910.303(b)(7)(i) Unused openings in boxes, raceways, auxiliary gutters, cabinets, equipment 

cases, or housings shall be effectively closed to afford protection substantially equivalent 

to the wall of the equipment.

1910.303(b)(7)(ii) Conductors shall be racked to provide ready and safe access in 

underground and subsurface enclosures that persons enter for installation and maintenance.

1910.303(b)(7)(iii) Internal parts of electrical equipment, including busbars, wiring terminals, 

insulators, and other surfaces, may not be damaged or contaminated by foreign materials 

such as paint, plaster, cleaners, abrasives, or corrosive residues.

1910.303(b)(7)(iv) There shall be no damaged parts that may adversely affect safe operation 

or mechanical strength of the equipment, such as parts that are broken, bent, cut, or 

deteriorated by corrosion, chemical action, or overheating.

1910.303(b)(8)(i) Electric equipment shall be firmly secured to the surface on which it is 

mounted.

1910.303(b)(8)(ii) Electric equipment that depends on the natural circulation of air and 

convection principles for cooling of exposed surfaces shall be installed so that room 

airflow over such surfaces is not prevented by walls or by adjacent installed equipment. 

For equipment designed for floor mounting, clearance between top surfaces and adjacent 

surfaces shall be provided to dissipate rising warm air.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 163

1910.303(b)(8)(iii) Electric equipment provided with ventilating openings shall be installed 

so that walls or other obstructions do not prevent the free circulation of air through the 

equipment.

1910.303(c) Electrical connections.

1910.303(c)(1) General. Because of different characteristics of dissimilar metals:

1910.303(c)(1)(i) Devices such as pressure terminal or pressure splicing connectors and 

soldering lugs shall be identified for the material of the conductor and shall be properly 

installed and used;

1910.303(c)(1)(ii) Conductors of dissimilar metals may not be intermixed in a terminal or 

splicing connector where physical contact occurs between dissimilar conductors (such as 

copper and aluminum, copper and copper-clad aluminum, or aluminum and copper-clad 

aluminum) unless the device is identified for the purpose and conditions of use; and

1910.303(c)(1)(iii) Materials such as solder, fluxes, inhibitors, and compounds, where 

employed, shall be suitable for the use and shall be of a type that will not adversely affect 

the conductors, installation, or equipment.

1910.303(c)(2) Terminals.

1910.303(c)(2)(i) Connection of conductors to terminal parts shall ensure a good connection 

without damaging the conductors and shall be made by means of pressure connectors 

(including set-screw type), solder lugs, or splices to flexible leads. However, No. 10 or smaller 

conductors may be connected by means of wire binding screws or studs and nuts having 

upturned lugs or equivalent.

1910.303(c)(2)(ii) Terminals for more than one conductor and terminals used to connect 

aluminum shall be so identified.

1910.303(c)(3) Splices.

1910.303(c)(3)(i) Conductors shall be spliced or joined with splicing devices identified for 

the use or by brazing, welding, or soldering with a fusible metal or alloy. Soldered splices 

shall first be spliced or joined to be mechanically and electrically secure without solder and 

then soldered. All splices and joints and the free ends of conductors shall be covered with 

an insulation equivalent to that of the conductors or with an insulating device identified 

for the purpose.

1910.303(c)(3)(ii) Wire connectors or splicing means installed on conductors for direct 

burial shall be listed for such use.

1910.303(d) Arcing parts. Parts of electric equipment that in ordinary operation produce 

arcs, sparks, flames, or molten metal shall be enclosed or separated and isolated from 

all combustible material.

1910.303(e) Marking.

1910.303(e)(1) Identification of manufacturer and ratings. Electric equipment may not be 

used unless the following markings have been placed on the equipment:

1910.303(e)(1)(i) The manufacturer’s name, trademark, or other descriptive marking by 

which the organization responsible for the product may be identified; and
164 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.303(e)(1)(ii) Other markings giving voltage, current, wattage, or other ratings as 

necessary.

1910.303(e)(2) Durability. The marking shall be of sufficient durability to withstand the 

environment involved.

1910.303(f) Disconnecting means and circuits.

1910.303(f)(1) Motors and appliances. Each disconnecting means required by this subpart 

for motors and appliances shall be legibly marked to indicate its purpose, unless located 

and arranged so the purpose is evident.

1910.303(f)(2) Services, feeders, and branch circuits. Each service, feeder, and branch circuit, 

at its disconnecting means or overcurrent device, shall be legibly marked to indicate its 

purpose, unless located and arranged so the purpose is evident.

1910.303(f)(3) Durability of markings. The markings required by paragraphs (f)(1) and (f)

(2) of this section shall be of sufficient durability to withstand the environment involved.

1910.303(f)(4) Capable of accepting a lock. Disconnecting means required by this subpart 

shall be capable of being locked in the open position.

1910.303(f)(5) Marking for series combination ratings.

1910.303(f)(5)(i) Where circuit breakers or fuses are applied in compliance with the series 

combination ratings marked on the equipment by the manufacturer, the equipment 

enclosures shall be legibly marked in the field to indicate that the equipment has been 

applied with a series combination rating.

1910.303(f)(5)(ii) The marking required by paragraph (f)(5)(i) of this section shall be 

readily visible and shall state “Caution -- Series Combination System Rated_____Amperes. 

Identified Replacement Component Required.”

1910.1000 Air contaminants.

Living Spaces — General

Sanitation

1910.141(a) General.

1910.141(a)(1) Scope. This section applies to permanent places of employment.

1910.141(a)(2) Definitions applicable to this section.

Non-water carriage toilet facility means a toilet facility not connected to a sewer.

Number of employees means unless otherwise specified, the maximum number of employees 

present at any one time on a regular shift.

Personal service room means a room used for activities not directly connected with the 

production or service function performed by the establishment. Such activities include, but are 

not limited to, first-aid, medical services, dressing, showering, toilet use, washing, and eating.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 165

Potable water means water that meets the standards for drinking purposes of the State or 

local AHJ, or water that meets the quality standards prescribed by the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency’s National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (40 CFR 141).

Toilet facility means a fixture maintained within a toilet room for the purpose of defecation 

or urination, or both.

Toilet room means a room maintained within or on the premises of any place of employment, 

containing toilet facilities for use by employees.

Toxic material means a material in concentration or amount which exceeds the applicable 

limit established by a standard, such as 1910.1000 and 1910.1001 or, in the absence of an 

applicable standard, which is of such toxicity so as to constitute a recognized hazard that 

is causing or is likely to cause death or serious physical harm.

Urinal means a toilet facility maintained within a toilet room for the sole purpose of urination.

Water closet means a toilet facility maintained within a toilet room for the purpose of both 

defecation and urination and which is flushed with water.

Wet process means any process or operation in a workroom which normally results in 

surfaces upon which employees may walk or stand becoming wet.

1910.141(a)(3) Housekeeping.

1910.141(a)(3)(i) All places of employment shall be kept clean to the extent that the nature 

of the work allows.

1910.141(a)(3)(ii) The floor of every workroom shall be maintained, so far as practicable, 

in a dry condition. Where wet processes are used, drainage shall be maintained and false 

floors, platforms, mats, or other dry standing places shall be provided, where practicable, 

or appropriate waterproof footgear shall be provided.

1910.141(a)(3)(iii) To facilitate cleaning, every floor, working place, and passageway shall be 

kept free from protruding nails, splinters, loose boards, and unnecessary holes and openings.

1910.141(a)(4) Waste disposal.

1910.141(a)(4)(i) Any receptacle used for putrescible solid or liquid waste or refuse shall 

be so constructed that it does not leak and may be thoroughly cleaned and maintained 

in a sanitary condition. Such a receptacle shall be equipped with a solid tight-fitting cover, 

unless it can be maintained in a sanitary condition without a cover. This requirement does 

not prohibit the use of receptacles which are designed to permit the maintenance of a 

sanitary condition without regard to the aforementioned requirements.

1910.141(a)(4)(ii) All sweepings, solid or liquid wastes, refuse, and garbage shall be removed 

in such a manner as to avoid creating a menace to health and as often as necessary or 

appropriate to maintain the place of employment in a sanitary condition.

1910.141(a)(5) Vermin control. Every enclosed workplace shall be so constructed, equipped, 

and maintained, so far as reasonably practicable, as to prevent the entrance or harborage 

of rodents, insects, and other vermin. A continuing and effective extermination program 

shall be instituted where their presence is detected.
166 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.141(b) Water supply.

1910.141(b)(1) Potable water.

1910.141(b)(1)(i) Potable water shall be provided in all places of employment, for drinking, 

washing of the person, cooking, washing of foods, washing of cooking or eating utensils, 

washing of food preparation or processing premises, and personal service rooms.

1910.141(b)(1)(iii) Portable drinking water dispensers shall be designed, constructed, and 

serviced so that sanitary conditions are maintained, shall be capable of being closed, and 

shall be equipped with a tap.

1910.141(b)(1)(vi) A common drinking cup and other common utensils are prohibited.

1910.141(b)(2) Non-potable water.

1910.141(b)(2)(i) Outlets for non-potable water, such as water for industrial or firefighting 

purposes, shall be posted or otherwise marked in a manner that will indicate clearly that 

the water is unsafe and is not to be used for drinking, washing of the person, cooking, 

washing of food, washing of cooking or eating utensils, washing of food preparation or 

processing premises, or personal service rooms, or for washing clothes.

1910.141(b)(2)(ii) Construction of non-potable water systems or systems carrying any 

other non-potable substance shall be such as to prevent backflow or back siphonage into 

a potable water system.

1910.141(b)(2)(iii) Non-potable water shall not be used for washing any portion of the 

person, cooking or eating utensils, or clothing. Non-potable water may be used for cleaning 

work premises, other than food processing and preparation premises and personal 

service rooms: Provided, that this non-potable water does not contain concentrations of 

chemicals, fecal coliform, or other substances which could create unsanitary conditions 

or be harmful to employees.

1910.141(c) Toilet facilities.

1910.141(c)(1) General.

1910.141(c)(1)(i) Except as otherwise indicated in this paragraph (c)(1)(i), toilet facilities, in toilet 

rooms separate for each sex, shall be provided in all places of employment in accordance 

with table J-1 of this section. The number of facilities to be provided for each sex shall be 

based on the number of employees of that sex for whom the facilities are furnished. Where 

toilet rooms will be occupied by no more than one person at a time, can be locked from the 

inside, and contain at least one water closet, separate toilet rooms for each sex need not 

be provided. Where such single-occupancy rooms have more than one toilet facility, only 

one such facility in each toilet room shall be counted for the purpose of Table J-1.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 167

Table J-1

Number of employees Minimum number of water closets1

1 to 15 1

16 to 35 2

36 to 55 3

56 to 80 4

81 to 110 5

111 to 150 6

Over 150 (

2)

1

Where toilet facilities will not be used by women, urinals may be provided instead of water closets, except that the number of 

water closets in such cases shall not be reduced to less than 2/3 of the minimum specified.

2

1 additional fixture for each additional 40 employees.

1910.141(c)(1)(iii) The sewage disposal method shall not endanger the health of employees.

1910.141(c)(2) Construction of toilet rooms.

1910.141(c)(2)(i) Each water closet shall occupy a separate compartment with a door and 

walls or partitions between fixtures sufficiently high to assure privacy.

1910.141(d) Washing facilities.

1910.141(d)(1) General. Washing facilities shall be maintained in a sanitary condition.

1910.141(d)(2) Lavatories.

1910.141(d)(2)(i) Lavatories shall be made available in all places of employment. The 

requirements of this subdivision do not apply to mobile crews or to normally unattended 

work locations if employees working at these locations have transportation readily available 

to nearby washing facilities which meet the other requirements of this paragraph.

1910.141(d)(2)(ii) Each lavatory shall be provided with hot and cold running water, or tepid 

running water.

1910.141(d)(2)(iii) Hand soap or similar cleansing agents shall be provided.

1910.141(d)(2)(iv) Individual hand towels or sections thereof, of cloth or paper, air blowers 

or clean individual sections of continuous cloth toweling, convenient to the lavatories, 

shall be provided.

1910.141(d)(3) Showers.

1910.141(d)(3)(i) Whenever showers are required by a particular standard, the showers 

shall be provided in accordance with paragraphs (d)(3)(ii) through (v) of this section.

1910.141(d)(3)(ii) One shower shall be provided for each 10 employees of each sex, or 

numerical fraction thereof, who are required to shower during the same shift.
168 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.141(d)(3)(iii) Body soap or other appropriate cleansing agents convenient to the 

showers shall be provided as specified in paragraph (d)(2)(iii) of this section.

1910.141(d)(3)(iv) Showers shall be provided with hot and cold water feeding a common 

discharge line.

1910.141(d)(3)(v) Employees who use showers shall be provided with individual clean towels.

1910.141(e) Change rooms. Whenever employees are required by a particular standard to 

wear protective clothing because of the possibility of contamination with toxic materials, 

change rooms equipped with storage facilities for street clothes and separate storage 

facilities for the protective clothing shall be provided.

1910.141(f) Clothes drying facilities. Where working clothes are provided by the employer 

and become wet or are washed between shifts, provision shall be made to insure that 

such clothing is dry before reuse.

Illumination

1910.305(a)(2)(ix) All lamps for general illumination shall be protected from accidental 

contact or breakage by a suitable fixture or lampholder with a guard. Brass shell, paperlined sockets, or other metal-cased sockets may not be used unless the shell is grounded.

1910.305(j)(1) Lighting fixtures, lampholders, lamps, and receptacles.

1910.305(j)(1)(i) Fixtures, lampholders, lamps, rosettes, and receptacles may have no live 

parts normally exposed to employee contact. However, rosettes and cleat-type lampholders 

and receptacles located at least 2.44 m (8.0 ft) above the floor may have exposed terminals.

1910.305(j)(1)(ii) Handlamps of the portable type supplied through flexible cords shall 

be equipped with a handle of molded composition or other material identified for the 

purpose, and a substantial guard shall be attached to the lampholder or the handle. Metal 

shell, paper-lined lampholders may not be used.

1910.305(j)(1)(iii) Lampholders of the screw-shell type shall be installed for use as 

lampholders only. Where supplied by a circuit having a grounded conductor, the grounded 

conductor shall be connected to the screw shell. Lampholders installed in wet or damp 

locations shall be of the weatherproof type.

1910.305(j)(1)(iv) Fixtures installed in wet or damp locations shall be identified for the 

purpose and shall be so constructed or installed that water cannot enter or accumulate 

in wireways, lampholders, or other electrical parts.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 169

1926.56(a) General. Construction areas, ramps, runways, corridors, offices, shops, and 

storage areas shall be lighted to not less than the minimum illumination intensities listed 

in Table D-3 while any work is in progress:

Table D-3 — Minimum illumination intensities in foot-candles

Foot-candles Area of operation

5 General construction area lighting.

3 General construction areas, concrete placement, excavation and waste 

areas, access ways, active storage areas, loading platforms, refueling, 

and field maintenance areas.

5 Indoors: warehouses, corridors, hallways, and exitways.

30 First aid stations, infirmaries, and offices.

Source: https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10630

1926.56(b) Other areas. For areas or operations not covered above, refer to the American 

National Standard A11.1-1965, R1970, Practice for Industrial Lighting, for recommended 

values of illumination.

Noise

1910.95(a) Protection against the effects of noise exposure shall be provided when the 

sound levels exceed those shown in Table G-16 when measured on the A scale of a standard 

sound level meter at slow response.

1910.95(b)(1) When employees are subjected to sound exceeding those listed in Table 

A-X, feasible administrative or engineering controls shall be utilized. If such controls fail to 

reduce sound levels within the levels of Table G-16, personal protective equipment shall 

be provided and used to reduce sound levels within the levels of the table.

1910.95(b)(2) If the variations in noise level involve maxima at intervals of 1 second or 

less, it is to be considered continuous.

Table G-16 — Permissible noise exposures

Duration per day, hours Sound level dBA slow response

8 90

6 92

4 95

3 97

2 100

1 1/2 102

1 105

1/2 110

1/4 or less 115
170 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Specific Interior Areas

Medical-related areas

1910.151(b) In the absence of an infirmary, clinic, or hospital in near proximity to the 

workplace which is used for the treatment of all injured employees, a person or persons 

shall be adequately trained to render first aid. First aid supplies approved by the consulting 

physician shall be readily available.

1910.1000 Air contaminants.

1910.1030 Bloodborne pathogens.

1910.1030(a) Scope and Application. This section applies to all occupational exposure to 

blood or other potentially infectious materials as defined by paragraph (b) of this section.

1910.1030(b) Definitions. For purposes of this section, the following shall apply:

Assistant Secretary means the Assistant Secretary of Labor for Occupational Safety and 

Health, or designated representative.

Blood means human blood, human blood components, and products made from human blood.

Bloodborne Pathogens means pathogenic microorganisms that are present in human blood 

and can cause disease in humans. These pathogens include, but are not limited to, hepatitis 

B virus (HBV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

Clinical Laboratory means a workplace where diagnostic or other screening procedures 

are performed on blood or other potentially infectious materials.

Contaminated means the presence or the reasonably anticipated presence of blood or 

other potentially infectious materials on an item or surface.

Contaminated Laundry means laundry which has been soiled with blood or other potentially 

infectious materials or may contain sharps.

Contaminated Sharps means any contaminated object that can penetrate the skin including, 

but not limited to, needles, scalpels, broken glass, broken capillary tubes, and exposed 

ends of dental wires.

Decontamination means the use of physical or chemical means to remove, inactivate, or 

destroy bloodborne pathogens on a surface or item to the point where they are no longer 

capable of transmitting infectious particles and the surface or item is rendered safe for 

handling, use, or disposal.

Director means the Director of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, or designated representative.

Engineering Controls means controls (e.g., sharps disposal containers, self-sheathing needles, 

safer medical devices, such as sharps with engineered sharps injury protections and needleless 

systems) that isolate or remove the bloodborne pathogens hazard from the workplace.

Exposure Incident means a specific eye, mouth, other mucous membrane, non-intact skin, 

or parenteral contact with blood or other potentially infectious materials that results from 

the performance of an employee’s duties.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 171

Handwashing Facilities means a facility providing an adequate supply of running potable 

water, soap, and single-use towels or air-drying machines.

HBV means hepatitis B virus.

HIV means human immunodeficiency virus.

Licensed Healthcare Professional is a person whose legally permitted scope of practice allows 

him or her to independently perform the activities required by paragraph (f) Hepatitis B 

Vaccination and Post-exposure Evaluation and Follow-up.

Needleless systems means a device that does not use needles for:

(1) The collection of bodily fluids or withdrawal of body fluids after initial venous or arterial 

access is established;

(2) The administration of medication or fluids; or

(3) Any other procedure involving the potential for occupational exposure to bloodborne 

pathogens due to percutaneous injuries from contaminated sharps.

Occupational Exposure means reasonably anticipated skin, eye, mucous membrane, or 

parenteral contact with blood or other potentially infectious materials that may result 

from the performance of an employee’s duties.

Other Potentially Infectious Materials means

(1) The following human body fluids: semen, vaginal secretions, cerebrospinal fluid, 

synovial fluid, pleural fluid, pericardial fluid, peritoneal fluid, amniotic fluid, saliva in dental 

procedures, any body fluid that is visibly contaminated with blood, and all body fluids in 

situations where it is difficult or impossible to differentiate between body fluids;

(2) Any unfixed tissue or organ (other than intact skin) from a human (living or dead); and 

(3) HIV-containing cell or tissue cultures, organ cultures, and HIV- or HBV-containing culture 

medium or other solutions; and blood, organs, or other tissues from experimental animals 

infected with HIV or HBV.

Parenteral means piercing mucous membranes or the skin barrier through such events as 

needlesticks, human bites, cuts, and abrasions.

Personal Protective Equipment is specialized clothing or equipment worn by an employee 

for protection against a hazard. General work clothes (e.g., uniforms, pants, shirts or 

blouses) not intended to function as protection against a hazard are not considered to be 

personal protective equipment.

Production Facility means a facility engaged in industrial-scale, large-volume or high 

concentration production of HIV or HBV. 

Regulated Waste means liquid or semi-liquid blood or other potentially infectious materials; 

contaminated items that would release blood or other potentially infectious materials 

in a liquid or semi-liquid state if compressed; items that are caked with dried blood or 

other potentially infectious materials and are capable of releasing these materials during 

handling; contaminated sharps; and pathological and microbiological wastes containing 

blood or other potentially infectious materials.
172 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Research Laboratory means a laboratory producing or using research-laboratory-scale 

amounts of HIV or HBV. Research laboratories may produce high concentrations of HIV 

or HBV but not in the volume found in production facilities.

Sharps with engineered sharps injury protections means a nonneedle sharp or a needle device 

used for withdrawing body fluids, accessing a vein or artery, or administering medications 

or other fluids, with a built-in safety feature or mechanism that effectively reduces the 

risk of an exposure incident.

Source Individual means any individual, living or dead, whose blood or other potentially 

infectious materials may be a source of occupational exposure to the employee. Examples 

include, but are not limited to, hospital and clinic patients; clients in institutions for the 

developmentally disabled; trauma victims; clients of drug and alcohol treatment facilities; 

residents of hospices and nursing homes; human remains; and individuals who donate or 

sell blood or blood components. 

Sterilize means the use of a physical or chemical procedure to destroy all microbial life 

including highly resistant bacterial endospores. 

Universal Precautions is an approach to infection control. According to the concept of 

Universal Precautions, all human blood and certain human body fluids are treated as if 

known to be infectious for HIV, HBV, and other bloodborne pathogens.

Work Practice Controls means controls that reduce the likelihood of exposure by altering 

the manner in which a task is performed (e.g., prohibiting recapping of needles by a 

two-handed technique).

1910.1030(c) Exposure Control.

1910.1030(c)(1) Exposure Control Plan.

1910.1030(c)(1)(i) Each employer having an employee(s) with occupational exposure as 

defined by paragraph (b) of this section shall establish a written Exposure Control Plan 

designed to eliminate or minimize employee exposure.

1910.1030(c)(1)(ii) The Exposure Control Plan shall contain at least the following elements:

1910.1030(c)(1)(ii)(A) The exposure determination required by paragraph (c)(2),

1910.1030(c)(1)(ii)(B) The schedule and method of implementation for paragraphs (d) 

Methods of Compliance, (e) HIV and HBV Research Laboratories and Production Facilities, 

(f) Hepatitis B Vaccination and Post-Exposure Evaluation and Follow-up, (g) Communication 

of Hazards to Employees, and (h) Recordkeeping, of this standard, and

1910.1030(c)(1)(ii)(C) The procedure for the evaluation of circumstances surrounding 

exposure incidents as required by paragraph (f)(3)(i) of this standard.

1910.1030(c)(1)(iii) Each employer shall ensure that a copy of the Exposure Control Plan 

is accessible to employees in accordance with 29 CFR 1910.20(e).

1910.1030(c)(1)(iv) The Exposure Control Plan shall be reviewed and updated at least 

annually and whenever necessary to reflect new or modified tasks and procedures which 

affect occupational exposure and to reflect new or revised employee positions with 

occupational exposure. The review and update of such plans shall also:
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 173

1910.1030(c)(1)(iv)(A) Reflect changes in technology that eliminate or reduce exposure 

to bloodborne pathogens; and

1910.1030(c)(1)(iv)(B) Document annually consideration and implementation of appropriate 

commercially available and effective safer medical devices designed to eliminate or minimize 

occupational exposure.

1910.1030(c)(1)(v) An employer, who is required to establish an Exposure Control Plan shall 

solicit input from non-managerial employees responsible for direct patient care who are 

potentially exposed to injuries from contaminated sharps in the identification, evaluation, 

and selection of effective engineering and work practice controls and shall document the 

solicitation in the Exposure Control Plan.

1910.1030(c)(1)(vi) The Exposure Control Plan shall be made available to the Assistant 

Secretary and the Director upon request for examination and copying.

1910.1030(d)(1) General. Universal precautions shall be observed to prevent contact with 

blood or other potentially infectious materials. Under circumstances in which differentiation 

between body fluid types is difficult or impossible, all body fluids shall be considered 

potentially infectious materials.

1910.1030(d)(2) Engineering and Work Practice Controls.

1910.1030(d)(2)(i) Engineering and work practice controls shall be used to eliminate or 

minimize employee exposure. Where occupational exposure remains after institution of 

these controls, personal protective equipment shall also be used.

1910.1030(d)(2)(ii) Engineering controls shall be examined and maintained or replaced 

on a regular schedule to ensure their effectiveness.

1910.1030(d)(2)(iii) Employers shall provide handwashing facilities which are readily 

accessible to employees.

1910.1030(d)(2)(iv) When provision of handwashing facilities is not feasible, the employer 

shall provide either an appropriate antiseptic hand cleanser in conjunction with clean cloth/

paper towels or antiseptic towelettes. When antiseptic hand cleansers or towelettes are 

used, hands shall be washed with soap and running water as soon as feasible.

1910.1030(d)(2)(viii) Immediately or as soon as possible after use, contaminated reusable 

sharps shall be placed in appropriate containers until properly reprocessed. These containers 

shall be:

1910.1030(d)(2)(viii)(A) Puncture resistant;

1910.1030(d)(2)(viii)(B) Labeled or color-coded in accordance with this standard;

1910.1030(d)(2)(viii)(C) Leakproof on the sides and bottom; and

1910.1030(d)(2)(viii)(D) In accordance with the requirements set forth in paragraph (d)

(4)(ii)(E) for reusable sharps.

1910.1030(d)(2)(xiii) Specimens of blood or other potentially infectious materials shall 

be placed in a container which prevents leakage during collection, handling, processing, 

storage, transport, or shipping.
174 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.1030(d)(2)(xiii)(A) The container for storage, transport, or shipping shall be labeled or 

color-coded according to paragraph (g)(1)(i) and closed prior to being stored, transported, or 

shipped. When a facility utilizes Universal Precautions in the handling of all specimens, the 

labeling/color-coding of specimens is not necessary provided containers are recognizable 

as containing specimens. This exemption only applies while such specimens/containers 

remain within the facility. Labeling or color-coding in accordance with paragraph (g)(1)(i) 

is required when such specimens/containers leave the facility.

1910.1030(d)(2)(xiii)(B) If outside contamination of the primary container occurs, the 

primary container shall be placed within a second container which prevents leakage 

during handling, processing, storage, transport, or shipping and is labeled or color-coded 

according to the requirements of this standard.

1910.1030(d)(2)(xiii)(C) If the specimen could puncture the primary container, the primary 

container shall be placed within a secondary container which is puncture-resistant in 

addition to the above characteristics.

1910.1030(d)(2)(xiv) Equipment which may become contaminated with blood or other 

potentially infectious materials shall be examined prior to servicing or shipping and shall be 

decontaminated as necessary, unless the employer can demonstrate that decontamination 

of such equipment or portions of such equipment is not feasible.

1910.1030(d)(2)(xiv)(A) A readily observable label in accordance with paragraph (g)(1)

(i)(H) shall be attached to the equipment stating which portions remain contaminated.

1910.1030(d)(2)(xiv)(B) The employer shall ensure that this information is conveyed to all 

affected employees, the servicing representative, and/or the manufacturer, as appropriate, 

prior to handling, servicing, or shipping so that appropriate precautions will be taken.

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii) Regulated Waste.

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(A) Contaminated Sharps Discarding and Containment.

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(A)(1) Contaminated sharps shall be discarded immediately or as soon 

as feasible in containers that are:

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(A)(1)(i) Closable;

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(A)(1)(ii) Puncture resistant;

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(A)(1)(iii) Leakproof on sides and bottom; and

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(A)(1)(iv) Labeled or color-coded in accordance with paragraph (g)(1)

(i) of this standard.

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(A)(2) During use, containers for contaminated sharps shall be:

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(A)(2)(i) Easily accessible to personnel and located as close as is feasible 

to the immediate area where sharps are used or can be reasonably anticipated to be found 

(e.g., laundries);

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(A)(2)(ii) Maintained upright throughout use; and

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(A)(2)(iii) Replaced routinely and not be allowed to overfill.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 175

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(A)(3) When moving containers of contaminated sharps from the area 

of use, the containers shall be:

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(A)(3)(i) Closed immediately prior to removal or replacement to prevent 

spillage or protrusion of contents during handling, storage, transport, or shipping;

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(A)(3)(ii) Placed in a secondary container if leakage is possible. The 

second container shall be:

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(A)(3)(ii)(A) Closable;

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(A)(3)(ii)(B) Constructed to contain all contents and prevent leakage 

during handling, storage, transport, or shipping; and

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(A)(3)(ii)(C) Labeled or color-coded according to paragraph (g)(1)(i) of 

this standard.

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(A)(4) Reusable containers shall not be opened, emptied, or 

cleaned manually or in any other manner which would expose employees to the risk of 

percutaneous injury.

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(B) Other Regulated Waste Containment.

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(B)(1) Regulated waste shall be placed in containers which are:

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(B)(1)(i) Closable;

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(B)(1)(ii) Constructed to contain all contents and prevent leakage of 

fluids during handling, storage, transport or shipping;

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(B)(1)(iii) Labeled or color-coded in accordance with paragraph (g)(1)

(i) this standard; and

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(B)(1)(iv) Closed prior to removal to prevent spillage or protrusion of 

contents during handling, storage, transport, or shipping.

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(B)(2) If outside contamination of the regulated waste container occurs, 

it shall be placed in a second container. The second container shall be:

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(B)(2)(i) Closable;

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(B)(2)(ii) Constructed to contain all contents and prevent leakage of 

fluids during handling, storage, transport or shipping;

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(B)(2)(iii) Labeled or color-coded in accordance with paragraph (g)(1)

(i) of this standard; and

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(B)(2)(iv) Closed prior to removal to prevent spillage or protrusion of 

contents during handling, storage, transport, or shipping.

1910.1030(d)(4)(iii)(C) Disposal of all regulated waste shall be in accordance with applicable 

regulations of the United States, States and Territories, and political subdivisions of States 

and Territories.
176 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.1030(d)(4)(iv) Laundry.

1910.1030(d)(4)(iv)(A) Contaminated laundry shall be handled as little as possible with a 

minimum of agitation.

1910.1030(d)(4)(iv)(A)(1) Contaminated laundry shall be bagged or containerized at the 

location where it was used and shall not be sorted or rinsed in the location of use.

1910.1030(d)(4)(iv)(A)(2) Contaminated laundry shall be placed and transported in bags or 

containers labeled or color-coded in accordance with paragraph (g)(1)(i) of this standard. 

When a facility utilizes Universal Precautions in the handling of all soiled laundry, alternative 

labeling or color-coding is sufficient if it permits all employees to recognize the containers 

as requiring compliance with Universal Precautions.

1910.1030(d)(4)(iv)(A)(3) Whenever contaminated laundry is wet and presents a reasonable 

likelihood of soak-through of or leakage from the bag or container, the laundry shall be 

placed and transported in bags or containers which prevent soak-through and/or leakage 

of fluids to the exterior.

1910.1030(d)(4)(iv)(B) The employer shall ensure that employees who have contact 

with contaminated laundry wear protective gloves and other appropriate personal 

protective equipment.

1910.1030(d)(4)(iv)(C) When a facility ships contaminated laundry off-site to a second 

facility which does not utilize Universal Precautions in the handling of all laundry, the facility 

generating the contaminated laundry must place such laundry in bags or containers which 

are labeled or color-coded in accordance with paragraph (g)(1)(i).

1910.1030(g) Communication of Hazards to Employees.

1910.1030(g)(1) Labels and Signs.

1910.1030(g)(1)(i) Labels.

1910.1030(g)(1)(i)(A) Warning labels shall be affixed to containers of regulated waste, 

refrigerators and freezers containing blood or other potentially infectious material; and 

other containers used to store, transport or ship blood or other potentially infectious 

materials, except as provided in paragraph (g)(1)(i)(E), (F) and (G).

1910.1030(g)(1)(i)(B) Labels required by this section shall include the following legend:
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 177

1910.1030(g)(1)(i)(C) These labels shall be fluorescent orange or orange-red or predominantly 

so, with lettering and symbols in a contrasting color.

1910.1030(g)(1)(i)(D) Labels shall be affixed as close as feasible to the container by string, 

wire, adhesive, or other method that prevents their loss or unintentional removal.

1910.1030(g)(1)(i)(E) Red bags or red containers may be substituted for labels.

1910.1030(g)(1)(i)(F) Containers of blood, blood components, or blood products that are 

labeled as to their contents and have been released for transfusion or other clinical use 

are exempted from the labeling requirements of paragraph (g).

1910.1030(g)(1)(i)(G) Individual containers of blood or other potentially infectious materials 

that are placed in a labeled container during storage, transport, shipment or disposal are 

exempted from the labeling requirement.

1910.1030(g)(1)(i)(H) Labels required for contaminated equipment shall be in accordance with 

this paragraph and shall also state which portions of the equipment remain contaminated.

1910.1030(g)(1)(i)(I) Regulated waste that has been decontaminated need not be labeled 

or color-coded.

1910.1030(g)(1)(ii) Signs.

1910.1030(g)(1)(ii)(A) The employer shall post signs at the entrance to work areas specified 

in paragraph (e), HIV and HBV Research Laboratory and Production Facilities, which shall 

bear the following legend: 

(Name of the Infectious Agent)

(Special requirements for entering the area)

(Name, telephone number of the laboratory director or other responsible person.)

1910.1030(g)(1)(ii)(B) These signs shall be fluorescent orange-red or predominantly so, 

with lettering and symbols in a contrasting color.
178 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Interior Areas — Walking-Working Surfaces

General

1910.22(a)(1) All places of employment, passageways, storerooms, and service rooms 

shall be kept clean and orderly and in a sanitary condition.

1910.22(a)(2) The floor of every workroom shall be maintained in a clean and, so far as possible, 

a dry condition. Where wet processes are used, drainage shall be maintained, and false 

floors, platforms, mats, or other dry standing places should be provided where practicable.

1910.22(b)(1) Where mechanical handling equipment is used, sufficient safe clearances 

shall be allowed for aisles, at loading docks, through doorways and wherever turns or 

passage must be made. Aisles and passageways shall be kept clear and in good repairs, 

with no obstruction across or in aisles that could create a hazard.

1910.22(b)(2) Permanent aisles and passageways shall be appropriately marked.

1910.22(c) Covers and guardrails. Covers and/or guardrails shall be provided to protect 

personnel from the hazards of open pits, tanks, vats, ditches, etc.

1910.22(d)(1) In every building or other structure, or part thereof, used for mercantile, 

business, industrial, or storage purposes, the loads approved by the building official shall 

be marked on plates of approved design which shall be supplied and securely affixed by the 

owner of the building, or his duly authorized agent, in a conspicuous place in each space 

to which they relate. Such plates shall not be removed or defaced but, if lost, removed, or 

defaced, shall be replaced by the owner or his agent.

1910.23(a) Protection for floor openings.

1910.23(a)(1) Every stairway floor opening shall be guarded by a standard railing constructed 

in accordance with paragraph (e) of this section. The railing shall be provided on all exposed 

sides (except at entrance to stairway). For infrequently used stairways where traffic across 

the opening prevents the use of fixed standard railing (as when located in aisle spaces, etc.), 

the guard shall consist of a hinged floor opening cover of standard strength and construction 

and removable standard railings on all exposed sides (except at entrance to stairway).

1910.23(a)(2) Every ladderway floor opening or platform shall be guarded by a standard 

railing with standard toeboard on all exposed sides (except at entrance to opening), with 

the passage through the railing either provided with a swinging gate or so offset that a 

person cannot walk directly into the opening.

1910.23(a)(3) Every hatchway and chute floor opening shall be guarded by one of the following:

1910.23(a)(3)(i) Hinged floor opening cover of standard strength and construction equipped 

with standard railings or permanently attached thereto so as to leave only one exposed 

side. When the opening is not in use, the cover shall be closed or the exposed side shall 

be guarded at both top and intermediate positions by removable standard railings.

1910.23(a)(3)(ii) A removable railing with toeboard on not more than two sides of the 

opening and fixed standard railings with toeboards on all other exposed sides. The 

removable railings shall be kept in place when the opening is not in use. Where operating 

conditions necessitate the feeding of material into any hatchway or chute opening, protection 

shall be provided to prevent a person from falling through the opening.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 179

1910.23(a)(4) Every skylight floor opening and hole shall be guarded by a standard skylight 

screen or a fixed standard railing on all exposed sides.

1910.23(a)(5) Every pit and trapdoor floor opening, infrequently used, shall be guarded 

by a floor opening cover of standard strength and construction. While the cover is not 

in place, the pit or trap opening, shall be constantly attended by someone or shall be 

protected on all exposed sides by removable standard railings.

1910.23(a)(6) Every manhole floor opening shall be guarded by a standard manhole cover 

which need not be hinged in place. While the cover is not in place, the manhole opening shall 

be constantly attended by someone or shall be protected by removable standard railings.

1910.23(a)(7) Every temporary floor opening shall have standard railings, or shall be 

constantly attended by someone.

1910.23(a)(8) Every floor hole into which persons can accidentally walk shall be guarded 

by either:

1910.23(a)(8)(i) A standard railing with standard toeboard on all exposed sides, or

1910.23(a)(8)(ii) A floor hole cover of standard strength and construction. While the 

cover is not in place, the floor hole shall be constantly attended by someone, or shall be 

protected by a removable standard railing.

1910.23(a)(9) Every floor hole into which persons cannot accidentally walk (on account 

of fixed machinery, equipment, or walls) shall be protected by a cover that leaves no 

openings more than 1 inch wide. The cover shall be securely held in place to prevent tools 

or materials from falling through.

1910.23(a)(10) Where doors or gates open directly on a stairway, a platform shall be provided, 

and the swing of the door shall not reduce the effective width to less than 20 inches.

1910.23(b) Protection for wall openings and holes.

1910.23(b)(1) Every wall opening from which there is a drop of more than 4 feet shall be 

guarded by one of the following:

1910.23(b)(1)(i) Rail, roller, picket fence, half door, or equivalent barrier. Where there is 

exposure below to falling materials, a removable toe board or the equivalent shall also be 

provided. When the opening is not in use for handling materials, the guard shall be kept in 

position regardless of a door on the opening. In addition, a grab handle shall be provided 

on each side of the opening with its center approximately 4 feet above floor level and of 

standard strength and mounting.

1910.23(b)(1)(ii) Extension platform onto which materials can be hoisted for handling, 

and which shall have side rails or equivalent guards of standard specifications.

1910.23(b)(2) Every chute wall opening from which there is a drop of more than 4 feet shall 

be guarded by one or more of the barriers specified in paragraph (b)(1) of this section or 

as required by the conditions.

1910.23(b)(3) Every window wall opening at a stairway landing, floor, platform, or balcony, 

from which there is a drop of more than 4 feet, and where the bottom of the opening is 

less than 3 feet above the platform or landing, shall be guarded by standard slats, standard 

grill work (as specified in paragraph (e)(11) of this section), or standard railing. Where the 

window opening is below the landing, or platform, a standard toeboard shall be provided.
180 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.23(b)(4) Every temporary wall opening shall have adequate guards but these need 

not be of standard construction.

1910.23(b)(5) Where there is a hazard of materials falling through a wall hole, and the 

lower edge of the near side of the hole is less than 4 inches above the floor, and the far 

side of the hole more than 5 feet above the next lower level, the hole shall be protected 

by a standard toeboard, or an enclosing screen either of solid construction, or as specified 

in paragraph (e)(11) of this section.

1910.23(c) Protection of open-sided floors, platforms, and runways.

1910.23(c)(1) Every open-sided floor or platform 4 feet or more above adjacent floor or ground 

level shall be guarded by a standard railing (or the equivalent as specified in paragraph (e)

(3) of this section) on all open sides except where there is entrance to a ramp, stairway, or 

fixed ladder. The railing shall be provided with a toeboard wherever, beneath the open sides,

1910.23(c)(1)(i) Persons can pass,

1910.23(c)(1)(ii) There is moving machinery, or

1910.23(c)(1)(iii) There is equipment with which falling materials could create a hazard.

1910.23(c)(2) Every runway shall be guarded by a standard railing (or the equivalent as 

specified in paragraph (e)(3) of this section) on all open sides 4 feet or more above floor 

or ground level. Wherever tools, machine parts, or materials are likely to be used on the 

runway, a toeboard shall also be provided on each exposed side. Runways used exclusively for 

special purposes (such as oiling, shafting, or filling tank cars) may have the railing on one side 

omitted where operating conditions necessitate such omission, providing the falling hazard is 

minimized by using a runway of not less than 18 inches wide. Where persons entering upon 

runways become thereby exposed to machinery, electrical equipment, or other danger not 

a falling hazard, additional guarding than is here specified may be essential for protection.

1910.23(c)(3) Regardless of height, open-sided floors, walkways, platforms, or runways 

above or adjacent to dangerous equipment, pickling or galvanizing tanks, degreasing units, 

and similar hazards shall be guarded with a standard railing and toeboard.

1910.23(d) Stairway railings and guards.

1910.23(d)(1) Every flight of stairs having four or more risers shall be equipped with standard 

stair railings or standard handrails as specified in paragraphs (d)(1)(i) through (v) of this 

section, the width of the stair to be measured clear of all obstructions except handrails:

1910.23(d)(1)(i) On stairways less than 44 inches wide having both sides enclosed, at least 

one handrail, preferably on the right side descending.

1910.23(d)(1)(ii) On stairways less than 44 inches wide having one side open, at least one 

stair railing on open side.

1910.23(d)(1)(iii) On stairways less than 44 inches wide having both sides open, one stair 

railing on each side.

1910.23(d)(1)(iv) On stairways more than 44 inches wide but less than 88 inches wide, 

one handrail on each enclosed side and one stair railing on each open side.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 181

1910.23(d)(1)(v) On stairways 88 or more inches wide, one handrail on each enclosed side, 

one stair railing on each open side, and one intermediate stair railing located approximately 

midway of the width.

1910.23(d)(2) Winding stairs shall be equipped with a handrail offset to prevent walking 

on all portions of the treads having width less than 6 inches.

1910.23(e) Railing, toe boards, and cover specifications.

1910.23(e)(1) A standard railing shall consist of top rail, intermediate rail, and posts, and 

shall have a vertical height of 42 inches nominal from upper surface of top rail to floor, 

platform, runway, or ramp level. The top rail shall be smooth-surfaced throughout the 

length of the railing. The intermediate rail shall be approximately halfway between the 

top rail and the floor, platform, runway, or ramp. The ends of the rails shall not overhang 

the terminal posts except where such overhang does not constitute a projection hazard.

1910.23(e)(2) A stair railing shall be of construction similar to a standard railing but the 

vertical height shall be not more than 34 inches nor less than 30 inches from upper surface 

of top rail to surface of tread in line with face of riser at forward edge of tread.

1910.23(e)(3)(i) For wood railings, the posts shall be of at least 2-inch by 4-inch stock 

spaced not to exceed 6 feet; the top and intermediate rails shall be of at least 2-inch by 

4-inch stock. If top rail is made of two right-angle pieces of 1-inch by 4-inch stock, posts 

may be spaced on 8-foot centers, with 2-inch by 4-inch intermediate rail.

1910.23(e)(3)(ii) For pipe railings, posts and top and intermediate railings shall be at least 

1 1/2 inches nominal diameter with posts spaced not more than 8 feet on centers.

1910.23(e)(3)(iii) For structural steel railings, posts and top and intermediate rails shall 

be of 2-inch by 2-inch by 3/8-inch angles or other metal shapes of equivalent bending 

strength with posts spaced not more than 8 feet on centers.

1910.23(e)(3)(iv) The anchoring of posts and framing of members for railings of all types 

shall be of such construction that the completed structure shall be capable of withstanding 

a load of at least 200 pounds applied in any direction at any point on the top rail.

1910.23(e)(3)(v) Other types, sizes, and arrangements of railing construction are acceptable 

provided they meet the following conditions:

1910.23(e)(3)(v)(a) A smooth-surfaced top rail at a height above floor, platform, runway, 

or ramp level of 42 inches nominal;

1910.23(e)(3)(v)(b) A strength to withstand at least the minimum requirement of 200 

pounds top rail pressure;

1910.23(e)(3)(v)(c) Protection between top rail and floor, platform, runway, ramp, or stair 

treads, equivalent at least to that afforded by a standard intermediate rail;

1910.23(e)(4) A standard toeboard shall be 4 inches nominal in vertical height from its top 

edge to the level of the floor, platform, runway, or ramp. It shall be securely fastened in 

place and with not more than 1/4-inch clearance above floor level. It may be made of any 

substantial material either solid or with openings not over 1 inch in greatest dimension. 

Where material is piled to such height that a standard toeboard does not provide protection, 

paneling from floor to intermediate rail, or to top rail shall be provided.
182 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.23(e)(5)(i) A handrail shall consist of a lengthwise member mounted directly on a 

wall or partition by means of brackets attached to the lower side of the handrail so as to 

offer no obstruction to a smooth surface along the top and both sides of the handrail. 

The handrail shall be of rounded or other section that will furnish an adequate handhold 

for anyone grasping it to avoid falling. The ends of the handrail should be turned in to the 

supporting wall or otherwise arranged so as not to constitute a projection hazard.

1910.23(e)(5)(ii) The height of handrails shall be not more than 34 inches nor less than 

30 inches from upper surface of handrail to surface of tread in line with face of riser or 

to surface of ramp.

1910.23(e)(5)(iii) The size of handrails shall be: When of hardwood, at least 2 inches in 

diameter; when of metal pipe, at least 1 1/2 inches in diameter. The length of brackets 

shall be such as will give a clearance between handrail and wall or any projection thereon 

of at least 3 inches. The spacing of brackets shall not exceed 8 feet.

1910.23(e)(5)(iv) The mounting of handrails shall be such that the completed structure 

is capable of withstanding a load of at least 200 pounds applied in any direction at any 

point on the rail.

1910.23(e)(6) All handrails and railings shall be provided with a clearance of not less than 

3 inches between the handrail or railing and any other object.

1910.23(e)(7) Floor opening covers may be of any material that meets the following 

strength requirements:

1910.23(e)(7)(i) Trench or conduit covers and their supports, when located in plant roadways, 

shall be designed to carry a truck rear-axle load of at least 20,000 pounds.

1910.23(e)(7)(ii) Manhole covers and their supports, when located in plant roadways, 

shall comply with local standard highway requirements if any; otherwise, they shall be 

designed to carry a truck rear-axle load of at least 20,000 pounds.

1910.23(e)(7)(iii) The construction of floor opening covers may be of any material that 

meets the strength requirements. Covers projecting not more than 1 inch above the floor 

level may be used providing all edges are chamfered to an angle with the horizontal of 

not over 30 degrees. All hinges, handles, bolts, or other parts shall set flush with the floor 

or cover surface.

1910.23(e)(8) Skylight screens shall be of such construction and mounting that they are 

capable of withstanding a load of at least 200 pounds applied perpendicularly at any one 

area on the screen. They shall also be of such construction and mounting that under 

ordinary loads or impacts, they will not deflect downward sufficiently to break the glass 

below them. The construction shall be of grillwork with openings not more than 4 inches 

long or of slatwork with openings not more than 2 inches wide with length unrestricted.

1910.23(e)(9) Wall opening barriers (rails, rollers, picket fences, and half doors) shall be of 

such construction and mounting that, when in place at the opening, the barrier is capable 

of withstanding a load of at least 200 pounds applied in any direction (except upward) at 

any point on the top rail or corresponding member.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 183

1910.23(e)(10) Wall opening grab handles shall be not less than 12 inches in length and 

shall be so mounted as to give 3 inches clearance from the side framing of the wall opening. 

The size, material, and anchoring of the grab handle shall be such that the completed 

structure is capable of withstanding a load of at least 200 pounds applied in any direction 

at any point of the handle.

1910.23(e)(11) Wall opening screens shall be of such construction and mounting that 

they are capable of withstanding a load of at least 200 pounds applied horizontally at 

any point on the near side of the screen. They may be of solid construction, of grillwork 

with openings not more than 8 inches long, or of slatwork with openings not more than 

4 inches wide with length unrestricted.

Fixed stairs (hose towers)

1910.24(a) Application of requirements. This section contains specifications for the safe 

design and construction of fixed general industrial stairs. This classification includes interior 

and exterior stairs around machinery, tanks, and other equipment, and stairs leading to 

or from floors, platforms, or pits. This section does not apply to stairs used for fire exit 

purposes, to construction operations to private residences, or to articulated stairs, such 

as may be installed on floating roof tanks or on dock facilities, the angle of which changes 

with the rise and fall of the base support.

1910.24(b) Where fixed stairs are required. Fixed stairs shall be provided for access from 

one structure level to another where operations necessitate regular travel between levels, 

and for access to operating platforms at any equipment which requires attention routinely 

during operations. Fixed stairs shall also be provided where access to elevations is daily or 

at each shift for such purposes as gauging, inspection, regular maintenance, etc., where 

such work may expose employees to acids, caustics, gases, or other harmful substances, 

or for which purposes the carrying of tools or equipment by hand is normally required. (It 

is not the intent of this section to preclude the use of fixed ladders for access to elevated 

tanks, towers, and similar structures, overhead traveling cranes, etc., where the use of 

fixed ladders is common practice.) Spiral stairways shall not be permitted except for 

special limited usage and secondary access situations where it is not practical to provide 

a conventional stairway. Winding stairways may be installed on tanks and similar round 

structures where the diameter of the structure is not less than five (5) feet.

1910.24(c) Stair strength. Fixed stairways shall be designed and constructed to carry a 

load of five times the normal live load anticipated but never of less strength than to carry 

safely a moving concentrated load of 1,000 pounds.

1910.24(d) Stair width. Fixed stairways shall have a minimum width of 22 inches.

1910.24(e) Angle of stairway rise. Fixed stairs shall be installed at angles to the horizontal 

of between 30 deg. and 50 deg. Any uniform combination of rise/tread dimensions may be 

used that will result in a stairway at an angle to the horizontal within the permissible range. 

Table D-1 gives rise/tread dimensions which will produce a stairway within the permissible 

range, stating the angle to the horizontal produced by each combination. However, the 

rise/tread combinations are not limited to those given in Table D-1.
184 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Table D-1

Angle to horizontal Rise (in inches) Tread run (in inches)

30 deg. 35’ 6 1/2 11

32 deg. 08’ 6 3/4 10 3/4

33 deg. 41’ 7 10 1/2

35 deg. 16’ 7 1/4 10 1/4

36 deg. 52’ 7 1/2 10

38 deg. 29’ 7 3/4 9 3/4

40 deg. 08’ 8 9 1/2

41 deg. 44’ 8 1/4 9 1/4

43 deg. 22” 8 3/4 9

45 deg. 00’ 8 3/4 8 3/4

46 deg. 38’ 9 8 1/2

48 deg. 16’ 9 1/4 8 1/4

49 deg. 54’ 9 1/2 8

1910.24(f) Stair treads. All treads shall be reasonably slip-resistant and the nosings shall be 

of nonslip finish. Welded bar grating treads without nosings are acceptable providing the 

leading edge can be readily identified by personnel descending the stairway and provided 

the tread is serrated or is of definite nonslip design. Rise height and tread width shall be 

uniform throughout any flight of stairs including any foundation structure used as one or 

more treads of the stairs.

1910.24(g) Stairway platforms. Stairway platforms shall be no less than the width of a 

stairway and a minimum of 30 inches in length measured in the direction of travel.

1910.24(h) Railings and handrails. Standard railings shall be provided on the open sides of 

all exposed stairways and stair platforms. Handrails shall be provided on at least one side 

of closed stairways preferably on the right side descending. Stair railings and handrails 

shall be installed in accordance with the provisions of 1910.23.

1910.24(i) Vertical clearance. Vertical clearance above any stair tread to an overhead 

obstruction shall be at least 7 feet measured from the leading edge of the tread.

Fixed ladders (hose towers/mezzanines)

1910.27(a) Design requirements.

1910.27(a)(1) Design considerations. All ladders, appurtenances, and fastenings shall be 

designed to meet the following load requirements:

1910.27(a)(1)(i) The minimum design live load shall be a single concentrated load of 200 

pounds.

1910.27(a)(1)(ii) The number and position of additional concentrated live-load units of 

200 pounds each as determined from anticipated usage of the ladder shall be considered 

in the design.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 185

1910.27(a)(1)(iii) The live loads imposed by persons occupying the ladder shall be considered 

to be concentrated at such points as will cause the maximum stress in the structural 

member being considered.

1910.27(a)(1)(iv) The weight of the ladder and attached appurtenances together with the 

live load shall be considered in the design of rails and fastenings.

1910.27(a)(2) Design stresses. Design stresses for wood components of ladders shall 

not exceed those specified in 1910.25. All wood parts of fixed ladders shall meet the 

requirements of 1910.25(b). 

For fixed ladders consisting of wood side rails and wood rungs or cleats, used at a pitch 

in the range 75 degrees to 90 degrees, and intended for use by no more than one person 

per section, single ladders as described in 1910.25(c)(3)(ii) are acceptable.

1910.27(b) Specific features.

1910.27(b)(1) Rungs and cleats.

1910.27(b)(1)(i) All rungs shall have a minimum diameter of three-fourths inch for metal 

ladders, except as covered in paragraph (b)(7)(i) of this section and a minimum diameter 

of 1 1/8 inches for wood ladders.

1910.27(b)(1)(ii) The distance between rungs, cleats, and steps shall not exceed 12 inches 

and shall be uniform throughout the length of the ladder.

1910.27(b)(1)(iii) The minimum clear length of rungs or cleats shall be 16 inches.

1910.27(b)(1)(iv) Rungs, cleats, and steps shall be free of splinters, sharp edges, burrs, or 

projections which may be a hazard.

1910.27(b)(1)(v) The rungs of an individual-rung ladder shall be so designed that the foot 

cannot slide off the end. 

1910.27(b)(2) Side rails. Side rails which might be used as a climbing aid shall be of such cross 

sections as to afford adequate gripping surface without sharp edges, splinters, or burrs.

1910.27(b)(3) Fastenings. Fastenings shall be an integral part of fixed ladder design.

1910.27(b)(4) Splices. All splices made by whatever means shall meet design requirements 

as noted in paragraph (a) of this section. All splices and connections shall have smooth 

transition with original members and with no sharp or extensive projections.

1910.27(b)(5) Electrolytic action. Adequate means shall be employed to protect dissimilar 

metals from electrolytic action when such metals are joined.

1910.27(b)(6) Welding. All welding shall be in accordance with the “Code for Welding in 

Building Construction” (AWSD1.0-1966).

1910.27(b)(7) Protection from deterioration.
186 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.27(b)(7)(i) Metal ladders and appurtenances shall be painted or otherwise treated to 

resist corrosion and rusting when location demands. Ladders formed by individual metal 

rungs imbedded in concrete, which serve as access to pits and to other areas under floors, 

are frequently located in an atmosphere that causes corrosion and rusting. To increase 

rung life in such atmosphere, individual metal rungs shall have a minimum diameter of 1 

inch or shall be painted or otherwise treated to resist corrosion and rusting.

1910.27(b)(7)(ii) Wood ladders, when used under conditions where decay may occur, shall 

be treated with a nonirritating preservative, and the details shall be such as to prevent or 

minimize the accumulation of water on wood parts.

1910.27(b)(7)(iii) When different types of materials are used in the construction of a ladder, 

the materials used shall be so treated as to have no deleterious effect one upon the other.

1910.27(c) Clearance.

1910.27(c)(1) Climbing side. On fixed ladders, the perpendicular distance from the centerline 

of the rungs to the nearest permanent object on the climbing side of the ladder shall be 

36 inches for a pitch of 76 degrees, and 30 inches for a pitch of 90 degrees (fig. D-2 of this 

section), with minimum clearances for intermediate pitches varying between these two limits 

in proportion to the slope, except as provided in subparagraphs (3) and (5) of this paragraph.

1910.27(c)(2) Ladders without cages or wells. A clear width of at least 15 inches shall be 

provided each way from the centerline of the ladder in the climbing space, except when 

cages or wells are necessary.

1910.27(c)(3) Ladders with cages or baskets. Ladders equipped with cage or basket are 

excepted from the provisions of subparagraphs (1) and (2) of this paragraph, but shall 

conform to the provisions of paragraph (d)(1)(v) of this section. Fixed ladders in smoothwalled wells are excepted from the provisions of subparagraph (1) of this paragraph, but 

shall conform to the provisions of paragraph (d)(1)(vi) of this section.

1910.27(c)(4) Clearance in back of ladder. The distance from the centerline of rungs, cleats, 

or steps to the nearest permanent object in back of the ladder shall be not less than 7 

inches, except that when unavoidable obstructions are encountered.

1910.27(c)(5) Clearance in back of grab bar. The distance from the centerline of the grab bar 

to the nearest permanent object in back of the grab bars shall be not less than 4 inches. Grab 

bars shall not protrude on the climbing side beyond the rungs of the ladder which they serve.

1910.27(c)(6) Step-across distance. The step-across distance from the nearest edge of 

ladder to the nearest edge of equipment or structure shall be not more than 12 inches, 

or less than 2 1/2 inches.

1910.27(c)(7) Hatch cover. Counterweighted hatch covers shall open a minimum of 60 

degrees from the horizontal. The distance from the centerline of rungs or cleats to the 

edge of the hatch opening on the climbing side shall be not less than 24 inches for offset 

wells or 30 inches for straight wells. There shall be no protruding potential hazards within 

24 inches of the centerline of rungs or cleats; any such hazards within 30 inches of the 

centerline of the rungs or cleats shall be fitted with deflector plates placed at an angle of 

60 degrees from the horizontal.

1910.27(d) Special requirements.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 187

1910.27(d)(1) Cages or wells.

1910.27(d)(1)(iii) Cages shall extend a minimum of 42 inches above the top of landing, 

unless other acceptable protection is provided.

1910.27(d)(1)(iv) Cages shall extend down the ladder to a point not less than 7 feet nor 

more than 8 feet above the base of the ladder, with bottom flared not less than 4 inches, 

or portion of cage opposite ladder shall be carried to the base.

1910.27(d)(1)(v) Cages shall not extend less than 27 nor more than 28 inches from the 

centerline of the rungs of the ladder. Cage shall not be less than 27 inches in width. The 

inside shall be clear of projections. Vertical bars shall be located at a maximum spacing 

of 40 degrees around the circumference of the cage; this will give a maximum spacing of 

approximately 9 1/2 inches, center to center.

1910.27(d)(1)(vi) Ladder wells shall have a clear width of at least 15 inches measured each 

way from the centerline of the ladder. Smooth-walled wells shall be a minimum of 27 inches 

from the centerline of rungs to the well wall on the climbing side of the ladder. Where 

other obstructions on the climbing side of the ladder exist, there shall be a minimum of 

30 inches from the centerline of the rungs.

1910.27(d)(2) Landing platforms. When ladders are used to ascend to heights exceeding 20 

feet (except on chimneys), landing platforms shall be provided for each 30 feet of height 

or fraction thereof, except that, where no cage, well, or ladder safety device is provided, 

landing platforms shall be provided for each 20 feet of height or fraction thereof. Each 

ladder section shall be offset from adjacent sections. Where installation conditions (even 

for a short, unbroken length) require that adjacent sections be offset, landing platforms 

shall be provided at each offset.

1910.27(d)(2)(i) Where a man has to step a distance greater than 12 inches from the 

centerline of the rung of a ladder to the nearest edge of structure or equipment, a landing 

platform shall be provided. The minimum step-across distance shall be 2 1/2 inches.

1910.27(d)(2)(ii) All landing platforms shall be equipped with standard railings and 

toeboards, so arranged as to give safe access to the ladder. Platforms shall be not less 

than 24 inches in width and 30 inches in length.

1910.27(d)(2)(iii) One rung of any section of ladder shall be located at the level of the 

landing laterally served by the ladder. Where access to the landing is through the ladder, 

the same rung spacing as used on the ladder shall be used from the landing platform to 

the first rung below the landing.

1910.27(d)(3) Ladder extensions. The side rails of through or side-step ladder extensions 

shall extend 3 1/2 feet above parapets and landings. For through ladder extensions, the 

rungs shall be omitted from the extension and shall have not less than 18 nor more than 24 

inches clearance between rails. For side-step or offset fixed ladder sections, at landings, the 

side rails and rungs shall be carried to the next regular rung beyond or above the 3 1/2 feet.

1910.27(d)(4) Grab bars. Grab bars shall be spaced by a continuation of the rung spacing 

when they are located in the horizontal position. Vertical grab bars shall have the same 

spacing as the ladder side rails. Grab-bar diameters shall be the equivalent of the roundrung diameters.
188 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.27(d)(5) Ladder safety devices. Ladder safety devices may be used on tower, water 

tank, and chimney ladders over 20 feet in unbroken length in lieu of cage protection. 

No landing platform is required in these cases. All ladder safety devices such as those 

that incorporate lifebelts, friction brakes, and sliding attachments shall meet the design 

requirements of the ladders which they serve.

1910.27(e) Pitch.

1910.27(e)(1) Preferred pitch. The preferred pitch of fixed ladders shall be considered to 

come in the range of 75 degrees and 90 degrees with the horizontal.

1910.27(e)(2) Substandard pitch. Fixed ladders shall be considered as substandard if they 

are installed within the substandard pitch range of 60 and 75 degrees with the horizontal. 

Substandard fixed ladders are permitted only where it is found necessary to meet conditions 

of installation. This substandard pitch range shall be considered as a critical range to be 

avoided, if possible.

1910.27(e)(3) Scope of coverage in this section. This section covers only fixed ladders within 

the pitch range of 60 degrees and 90 degrees with the horizontal.

1910.27(e)(4) Pitch greater than 90 degrees. Ladders having a pitch in excess of 90 degrees 

with the horizontal are prohibited.

Sliding Poles

1910.23(a)(8) Every floor hole into which persons can accidently walk shall be guarded 

by either:

(i) A standard railing with standard toeboard on all exposed sides; or

(ii) A floor hole cover of standard strength and construction. While the cover is not in 

place, the floor hole shall be constantly attended by someone or shall be protective by a 

removable standard railing.

Equipment, Tools and Maintenance

Batteries

1910.151(c) Where the eyes or body of any person may be exposed to injurious corrosive 

materials, suitable facilities for quick drenching or flushing of the eyes and body shall be 

provided within the work area for immediate emergency use.

1910.178(g)(2) Facilities shall be provided for flushing and neutralizing spilled electrolyte, 

for fire protection, for protecting charging apparatus from damage by trucks, and for 

adequate ventilation for dispersal of fumes from gassing batteries.

1910.178(g)(4) A conveyor, overhead hoist, or equivalent material handling equipment 

shall be provided for handling batteries.

1910.305(j)(7) Storage batteries. Provisions shall be made for sufficient diffusion and 

ventilation of gases from storage batteries to prevent the accumulation of explosive mixtures.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 189

Jacks

1910.244(a)(1)(i) The operator shall make sure that the jack used has a rating sufficient 

to lift and sustain the load.

1910.244(a)(1)(ii) The rated load shall be legibly and permanently marked in a prominent 

location on the jack by casting, stamping, or other suitable means.

Servicing multi-piece and single piece wheels

1910.177(d)(3)(i) Each restraining device or barrier shall have the capacity to withstand the 

maximum force that would be transferred to it during a rim wheel separation occurring at 150 

percent of the maximum tire specification pressure for the type of rim wheel being serviced.

1910.177(d)(5) Current charts or rim manuals containing instructions for the type of wheels 

being serviced shall be available in the service area.

Power tools

1910.94 Ventilation.

1910.94(a)(8) Scope. This paragraph (a) applies to all operations where an abrasive is forcibly 

applied to a surface by pneumatic or hydraulic pressure, or by centrifugal force. It does 

not apply to steam blasting, or steam cleaning, or hydraulic cleaning methods where work 

is done without the aid of abrasives.

1910.94(b) Grinding, polishing, and buffing operations.

1910.94(b)(1) Definitions applicable to this paragraph.

1910.94(b)(1)(i) Abrasive cutting-off wheels. Organic-bonded wheels, the thickness of 

which is not more than one forty-eighth of their diameter for those up to, and including, 

20 inches in diameter, and not more than one-sixtieth of their diameter for those larger 

than 20 inches in diameter, used for a multitude of operations variously known as cutting, 

cutting off, grooving, slotting, coping, and jointing, and the like. The wheels may be “solid” 

consisting of organic-bonded abrasive material throughout, “steel centered” consisting 

of a steel disc with a rim of organic-bonded material molded around the periphery, or of 

the “inserted tooth” type consisting of a steel disc with organic-bonded abrasive teeth or 

inserts mechanically secured around the periphery.

1910.94(b)(1)(ii) Belts. All power-driven, flexible, coated bands used for grinding, polishing, 

or buffing purposes.

1910.94(b)(1)(iv) Cradle. A movable fixture, upon which the part to be ground or polished 

is placed.

1910.94(b)(1)(v) Disc wheels. All power-driven rotatable discs faced with abrasive materials, 

artificial or natural, and used for grinding or polishing on the side of the assembled disc.

1910.94(b)(1)(vi) Entry loss. The loss in static pressure caused by air flowing into a duct or 

hood. It is usually expressed in inches of water gauge.
190 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.94(b)(1)(viii) Grinding wheels. All power-driven rotatable grinding or abrasive wheels, 

except disc wheels as defined in this standard, consisting of abrasive particles held together 

by artificial or natural bonds and used for peripheral grinding.

1910.94(b)(1)(xiii) Polishing and buffing wheels. All power-driven rotatable wheels composed 

all or in part of textile fabrics, wood, felt, leather, paper, and may be coated with abrasives 

on the periphery of the wheel for purposes of polishing, buffing, and light grinding.

1910.94(b)(1)(xiv) Portable grinder. Any power-driven rotatable grinding, polishing, or 

buffing wheel mounted in such manner that it may be manually manipulated.

1910.94(b)(1)(xv) Scratch brush wheels. All power-driven rotatable wheels made from wire 

or bristles, and used for scratch cleaning and brushing purposes.

1910.94(b)(2) Application. Wherever dry grinding, dry polishing or buffing is performed, 

and employee exposure, without regard to the use of respirators, exceeds the permissible 

exposure limits prescribed in 1910.1000 or other sections of this part, a local exhaust 

ventilation system shall be provided and used to maintain employee exposures within 

the prescribed limits.

1910.94(b)(3)(ii) Grinding wheels on floor stands, pedestals, benches, and special-purpose 

grinding machines and abrasive cutting-off wheels shall have not less than the minimum 

exhaust volumes shown in Table G-4 with a recommended minimum duct velocity of 4,500 

feet per minute in the branch and 3,500 feet per minute in the main. The entry losses from 

all hoods except the vertical-spindle disc grinder hood, shall equal 0.65 velocity pressure 

for a straight takeoff and 0.45 velocity pressure for a tapered takeoff.

Table G-4 — Grinding and abrasive cutting-off wheels

Wheel diameter (inches) Wheel width (inches) Minimum exhaust 

volume (feet (3)/min.)

To 9 1 1/2 220

Over 9 to 16 2 390

Over 16 to 19 3 500

Over 19 to 24 4 610

Over 24 to 30 5 880

Over 30 to 36 6 1,200

For any wheel wider than wheel diameters shown in Table G-4, increase the exhaust volume 

by the ratio of the new width to the width shown. 

1910.94(b)(3)(iii) Scratch-brush wheels and all buffing and polishing wheels mounted on 

floor stands, pedestals, benches, or special-purpose machines shall have not less than 

the minimum exhaust volume shown in Table G-5.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 191

Table G-5 — Buffing and polishing wheels

Wheel diameter (inches) Wheel width (inches) Minimum exhaust 

volume (feet (3)/min.)

To 9 2 300

Over 9 to 16 3 500

Over 16 to 19 4 610

Over 19 to 24 5 740

Over 24 to 30 6 1,040

Over 30 to 36 6 1,200

1910.169 Air receivers.

1910.169(a) General requirements.

1910.169(a)(1) Application. This section applies to compressed air receivers, and other 

equipment used in providing and utilizing compressed air for performing operations such as 

cleaning, drilling, hoisting, and chipping. On the other hand, however, this section does not 

deal with the special problems created by using compressed air to convey materials nor the 

problems created when men work in compressed air as in tunnels and caissons. This section 

is not intended to apply to compressed air machinery and equipment used on transportation 

vehicles such as steam railroad cars, electric railway cars, and automotive equipment.

1910.169(a)(2) New and existing equipment.

1910.169(a)(2)(i) All new air receivers installed after the effective date of these regulations 

shall be constructed in accordance with the 1968 edition of the A.S.M.E. Boiler and Pressure 

Vessel Code Section VIII, which is incorporated by reference as specified in Sec. 1910.6.

1910.169(a)(2)(ii) All safety valves used shall be constructed, installed, and maintained in 

accordance with the A.S.M.E. Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII Edition 1968.

1910.169(b) Installation and equipment requirements.

1910.169(b)(1) Installation. Air receivers shall be so installed that all drains, handholes, 

and manholes therein are easily accessible. Under no circumstances shall an air receiver 

be buried underground or located in an inaccessible place.

1910.169(b)(2) Drains and traps. A drain pipe and valve shall be installed at the lowest point 

of every air receiver to provide for the removal of accumulated oil and water. Adequate 

automatic traps may be installed in addition to drain valves. The drain valve on the air 

receiver shall be opened and the receiver completely drained frequently and at such 

intervals as to prevent the accumulation of excessive amounts of liquid in the receiver.

1910.169(b)(3) Gauges and valves.

1910.169(b)(3)(i) Every air receiver shall be equipped with an indicating pressure gauge 

(so located as to be readily visible) and with one or more spring-loaded safety valves. 

The total relieving capacity of such safety valves shall be such as to prevent pressure in 

the receiver from exceeding the maximum allowable working pressure of the receiver by 

more than 10 percent.
192 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.169(b)(3)(ii) No valve of any type shall be placed between the air receiver and its 

safety valve or valves.

1910.169(b)(3)(iii) Safety appliances, such as safety valves, indicating devices and controlling 

devices, shall be constructed, located, and installed so that they cannot be readily rendered 

inoperative by any means, including the elements.

1910.169(b)(3)(iv) All safety valves shall be tested frequently and at regular intervals to 

determine whether they are in good operating condition.

1910.212(a) Machine guarding.

1910.212(a)(1) Types of guarding. One or more methods of machine guarding shall be 

provided to protect the operator and other employees in the machine area from hazards 

such as those created by point of operation, ingoing nip points, rotating parts, flying chips 

and sparks. Examples of guarding methods are-barrier guards, two-hand tripping devices, 

electronic safety devices, etc.

1910.212(a)(2) General requirements for machine guards. Guards shall be affixed to the 

machine where possible and secured elsewhere if for any reason attachment to the machine 

is not possible. The guard shall be such that it does not offer an accident hazard in itself.

1910.212(a)(3) Point of operation guarding.

1910.212(a)(3)(i) Point of operation is the area on a machine where work is actually 

performed upon the material being processed.

1910.212(a)(3)(ii) The point of operation of machines whose operation exposes an employee 

to injury, shall be guarded. The guarding device shall be in conformity with any appropriate 

standards therefor, or, in the absence of applicable specific standards, shall be so designed 

and constructed as to prevent the operator from having any part of his body in the danger 

zone during the operating cycle.

1910.212(a)(3)(iii) Special handtools for placing and removing material shall be such as to 

permit easy handling of material without the operator placing a hand in the danger zone. 

Such tools shall not be in lieu of other guarding required by this section, but can only be 

used to supplement protection provided.

1910.212(a)(5) Exposure of blades. When the periphery of the blades of a fan is less than 

seven (7) feet above the floor or working level, the blades shall be guarded. The guard 

shall have openings no larger than one-half (1/2) inch.

1910.212(b) Anchoring fixed machinery. Machines designed for a fixed location shall be 

securely anchored to prevent walking or moving.

1910.243(a) Portable powered tool.

1910.243(a)(1) Portable circular saws.

1910.243(a)(1)(i) All portable, power-driven circular saws having a blade diameter greater 

than 2 in. shall be equipped with guards above and below the base plate or shoe. The upper 

guard shall cover the saw to the depth of the teeth, except for the minimum arc required 

to permit the base to be tilted for bevel cuts. The lower guard shall cover the saw to the 
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 193

depth of the teeth, except for the minimum arc required to allow proper retraction and 

contact with the work. When the tool is withdrawn from the work, the lower guard shall 

automatically and instantly return to covering position.

1910.243(a)(1)(ii) Paragraph (a)(1)(i) of this section does not apply to circular saws used 

in the meat industry for meat cutting purposes.

1910.243(a)(2) Switches and controls.

1910.243(a)(2)(i) All hand-held powered circular saws having a blade diameter greater 

than 2 inches, electric, hydraulic or pneumatic chain saws, and percussion tools without 

positive accessory holding means shall be equipped with a constant pressure switch or 

control that will shut off the power when the pressure is released. All hand-held gasoline 

powered chain saws shall be equipped with a constant pressure throttle control that will 

shut off the power to the saw chain when the pressure is released.

1910.243(a)(2)(ii) All hand-held powered drills, tappers, fastener drivers, horizontal, 

vertical, and angle grinders with wheels greater than 2 inches in diameter, disc sanders 

with discs greater than 2 inches in diameter, belt sanders, reciprocating saws, saber, scroll, 

and jig saws with blade shanks greater than a nominal one-fourth inch, and other similarly 

operating powered tools shall be equipped with a constant pressure switch or control, and 

may have a lock-on control provided that turnoff can be accomplished by a single motion 

of the same finger or fingers that turn it on.

1910.243(a)(2)(iii)(a) All other hand-held powered tools, such as, but not limited to, platen 

sanders, grinders with wheels 2 inches in diameter or less, disc sanders with discs 2 inches 

in diameter or less, routers, planers, laminate trimmers, nibblers, shears, saber, scroll, and 

jig saws with blade shanks a nominal one-fourth of an inch wide or less, may be equipped 

with either a positive “on-off” control, or other controls as described by paragraph (a)(2)

(i) and (ii) of this section.

1910.243(a)(2)(iii)(b) Saber, scroll, and jig saws with nonstandard blade holders may use 

blades with shanks which are nonuniform in width, provided the narrowest portion of the 

blade shank is an integral part in mounting the blade.

1910.243(a)(2)(iii)(c) Blade shank width shall be measured at the narrowest portion of the 

blade shank when saber, scroll, and jig saws have nonstandard blade holders.

1910.243(a)(2)(iii)(d) “Nominal” in this subparagraph means + or - 0.05 inch.

1910.243(a)(2)(iv) The operating control on hand-held power tools shall be so located as 

to minimize the possibility of its accidental operation, if such accidental operation would 

constitute a hazard to employees.

1910.243(a)(2)(v) This subparagraph does not apply to concrete vibrators, concrete breakers, 

powered tampers, jack hammers, rock drills, garden appliances, household and kitchen 

appliances, personal care appliances, medical or dental equipment, or to fixed machinery.

1910.243(a)(3) Portable belt sanding machines. Belt sanding machines shall be provided 

with guards at each nip point where the sanding belt runs onto a pulley. These guards shall 

effectively prevent the hands or fingers of the operator from coming in contact with the 

nip points. The unused run of the sanding belt shall be guarded against accidental contact.
194 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.243(a)(4) Cracked saws. All cracked saws shall be removed from service.

1910.243(a)(5) Grounding. Portable electric powered tools shall meet the electrical 

requirements of subpart S of this part.

1910.243(b) Pneumatic powered tools and hose.

1910.243(b)(1) Tool retainer. A tool retainer shall be installed on each piece of utilization 

equipment which, without such a retainer, may eject the tool.

1910.243(b)(2) Airhose. Hose and hose connections used for conducting compressed air to 

utilization equipment shall be designed for the pressure and service to which they are subjected.

1910.243(c)(5) Mounting and inspection of abrasive wheels.

1910.243(c)(5)(i) Immediately before mounting, all wheels shall be closely inspected and 

sounded by the user (ring test, see Subpart O, 1910.215(d)(1)) to make sure they have not 

been damaged in transit, storage, or otherwise. The spindle speed of the machine shall be 

checked before mounting of the wheel to be certain that it does not exceed the maximum 

operating speed marked on the wheel.

1910.243(c)(5)(ii) Grinding wheels shall fit freely on the spindle and remain free under 

all grinding conditions. A controlled clearance between the wheel hole and the machine 

spindle (or wheel sleeves or adaptors) is essential to avoid excessive pressure from mounting 

and spindle expansion. To accomplish this, the machine spindle shall be made to nominal 

(standard) size plus zero minus .002 inch, and the wheel hole shall be made suitably 

oversize to assure safety clearance under the conditions of operating heat and pressure.

1910.243(c)(5)(iii) All contact surfaces of wheels, blotters, and flangers shall be flat and 

free of foreign matter.

1910.243(c)(5)(iv) When a bushing is used in the wheel hole it shall not exceed the width 

of the wheel and shall not contact the flanges.

1910.243(c)(5)(v) Requirements for the use of flanges and blotters, see Subpart O, 1910.215(c).

1910.243(c)(6) Excluded machinery. Natural sandstone wheels and metal, wooden, cloth, or 

paper discs, having a layer of abrasive on the surface are not covered by this paragraph.

Abrasive wheel machinery

1910.215(a)(2) Guard design. The safety guard shall cover the spindle end, nut, and flange 

projections. The safety guard shall be mounted so as to maintain proper alignment with 

the wheel, and the strength of the fastenings shall exceed the strength of the guard.

1910.215(a)(4) Work rests. On offhand grinding machines, work rests shall be used to 

support the work. They shall be of rigid construction and designed to be adjustable to 

compensate for wheel wear. Work rests shall be kept adjusted closely to the wheel with a 

maximum opening of one-eighth inch to prevent the work from being jammed between 

the wheel and the rest, which may cause wheel breakage. The work rest shall be securely 

clamped after each adjustment. The adjustment shall not be made with the wheel in motion.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 195

1910.215(b)(3) Bench and floor stands. The angular exposure of the grinding wheel periphery 

and sides for safety guards used on machines known as bench and floor stands should 

not exceed 90 deg. or one-fourth of the periphery. This exposure shall begin at a point 

not more than 65 deg. above the horizontal plane of the wheel spindle.

Compressed gases

1910.101(b) Compressed gases. The in-plant handling, storage, and utilization of all 

compressed gases in cylinders, portable tanks, rail tankcars, or motor vehicle cargo tanks 

shall be in accordance with Compressed Gas Association Pamphlet P-1-1965.

1910.101(c) Safety relief devices for compressed gas containers. Compressed gas cylinders, 

portable tanks, and cargo tanks shall have pressure relief devices installed and maintained 

in accordance with Compressed Gas Association Pamphlets S-l. l-1963 and 1965 addenda 

and S- 1.2-1963.

1910.110 Storage and handling of liquefied petroleum gases.

1910.110(a) Definitions applicable to this section. As used in this section:

1910.110(a)(3) Container assembly - An assembly consisting essentially of the container and 

fittings for all container openings, including shutoff valves, excess flow valves, liquid-level 

gaging devices, safety relief devices, and protective housing.

1910.110(a)(4) Containers - All vessels, such as tanks, cylinders, or drums, used for 

transportation or storing liquefied petroleum gases.

1910.110(a)(5) DOT - Department of Transportation.

1910.110(a)(6) DOT container - A container constructed in accordance with the applicable 

requirements of 49 CFR Chapter 1.

1910.110(a)(7) “Liquefied petroleum gases” - “LPG” and “LP-Gas” - Any material which 

is composed predominantly of any of the following hydrocarbons, or mixtures of them; 

propane, propylene, butanes (normal butane or iso-butane), and butylenes.

1910.110(a)(16) DOT Specifications - regulations of the Department of Transportation 

published in 49 CFR Chapter I.

DOT cylinders-cylinders meeting the requirements of 49 CFR Chapter I.

1910.110(b) Basic rules -All liquefied petroleum gases shall be effectively odorized by an 

approved agent of such character as to indicate positively, by distinct odor, the presence 

of gas down to concentration in air of not over one-fifth the lower limit of flammability. 

Odorization, however, is not required if harmful in the use of further processing of the 

liquefied petroleum gas, or if odorization will serve no useful purpose as a warning agent 

in such use or further processing.

1910.110(b)(2) Approval of equipment and systems.

1910.110(b)(2)(i) Each system utilizing DOT containers in accordance with 49 CFR Part 178 shall 

have its container valves, connectors, manifold valve assemblies, and regulators approved.

1910.110(b)(6) Location of containers and regulating equipment.
196 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.110(b)(6)(i) Containers, and first stage regulating equipment if used, shall be located 

outside of buildings, except under one or more of the following:

1910.110(b)(6)(i)(a) In buildings used exclusively for container charging, vaporization 

pressure reduction, gas mixing, gas manufacturing, or distribution.

1910.110(e)(1)(ii) Fuel containers and pertinent equipment for internal combustion engines 

using liquefied petroleum gas where installation is of the stationary type are covered by 

paragraph (d) of this section. This paragraph does not apply to containers for transportation 

of liquefied petroleum gases nor to marine fuel use. All requirements of paragraph (b) of 

this section apply to this paragraph, unless otherwise noted in paragraph (b) of this section.

1910.110(e)(2) General.

1910.110(e)(2)(i) Fuel may be used from the cargo tank of a truck while in transit, but not 

from cargo tanks on trailers or semitrailers. The use of fuel from the cargo tanks to operate 

stationary engines is permitted providing wheels are securely blocked.

1910.110(e)(2)(ii) Passenger-carrying vehicles shall not be fueled while passengers are 

on board.

1910.110(e)(2)(iii) Industrial trucks (including lift trucks) equipped with permanently 

mounted fuel containers shall be charged outdoors. Charging equipment shall comply 

with the provisions of paragraph (h) of this section.

1910.110(e)(2)(iv) LP-Gas fueled industrial trucks shall comply with the Standard for Type 

Designations, Areas of Use, Maintenance and Operation of Powered Industrial Trucks, NFPA 

505-1969, which is incorporated by reference as specified in Sec. 1910.6.

1910.110(e)(2)(v) Engines on vehicles shall be shut down while fueling if the fueling operation 

involves venting to the atmosphere.

Hazard materials

1910.1200(e)(1) Hazard Communication Program. Employers shall develop, implement, 

and maintain at each workplace, a written hazard communication program which at least 

describes how the criteria specified in paragraphs (f), (g), and (h) of this section for labels 

and other forms of warning, material safety data sheets, and employee information and 

training will be met, and which also includes the following:

1910.1200(e)(1)(i) A list of the hazardous chemicals known to be present using an identity 

that is referenced on the appropriate material safety data sheet (the list may be compiled 

for the workplace as a whole or for individual work areas); and,

1910.1200(e)(1)(ii) The methods the employer will use to inform employees of the hazards 

of non-routine tasks (for example, the hazards associated with chemicals contained in 

unlabeled pipes in their work areas.

1910.1200(f)(1) Labelling. The chemical manufacturer, importer, or distributor shall ensure 

that each container of hazardous chemicals leaving the workplace is labeled, tagged or 

marked with the following information:

1910.1200(f)(1)(i) Product identifier;
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 197

1910.1200(f)(1)(ii) Signal word;

1910.1200(f)(1)(iii) Hazard statement(s);

1910.1200(f)(1)(iv) Pictogram(s);

1910.1200(f)(1)(v) Precautionary statement(s); and,

1910.1200(f)(1)(vi) Name, address, and telephone number of the chemical manufacturer, 

importer, or other responsible party.

1910.1200(f)(8) The employer is not required to label portable containers into which 

hazardous chemicals are transferred from labeled containers, and which are intended 

only for the immediate use of the employee who performs the transfer. For purposes of 

this section, drugs which are dispensed by a pharmacy to a health care provider for direct 

administration to a patient are exempted from labeling.

1910.1200(f)(9) The employer shall not remove or deface existing labels on incoming 

containers of hazardous chemicals, unless the container is immediately marked with the 

required information.

1910.1200(f)(10) The employer shall ensure that labels or other forms of warning are 

legible, in English, and prominently displayed on the container, or readily available in the 

work area throughout each work shift. Employers having employees who speak other 

languages may add the information in their language to the material presented, as long 

as the information is presented in English as well.

1910.1200(g)(1) Material safety data sheets. Chemical manufactures and importers shall 

obtain or develop a material safety data sheet for each hazardous chemical they produce 

or import. Employers shall have a material safety data sheet in the workplace for each 

hazardous chemical which they use.

Apparatus Area

1910.22(a)(1) All places of employment, passageways, storerooms, and service rooms 

shall be kept clean and orderly and in a sanitary condition.

1910.22(a)(2) The floor of every workroom shall be maintained in a clean and, so far as possible, 

a dry condition. Where wet processes are used, drainage shall be maintained, and false 

floors, platforms, mats, or other dry standing places should be provided where practicable.

1910.22(b)(2) Permanent aisles and passageways shall be appropriately marked.

1910.22(d)(1) In every building or other structure, or part thereof, used for mercantile, 

business, industrial, or storage purposes, the loads approved by the building official shall 

be marked on plates of approved design which shall be supplied and securely affixed by the 

owner of the building, or his duly authorized agent, in a conspicuous place in each space 

to which they relate. Such plates shall not be removed or defaced but, if lost, removed, or 

defaced, shall be replaced by the owner or his agent.

1910.22(d)(2) It shall be unlawful to place, or cause, or permit to be placed, on any floor or 

roof of a building or other structure a load greater than that for which such floor or roof 

is approved by the building official.
198 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

1910.144(a)(3) Yellow. Yellow shall be the basic color for designating caution and for marking 

physical hazards such as: Striking against, stumbling, falling, tripping, and “caught in between.”

1910.1000 Air contaminants.

Exterior Areas

Parking areas

1910.144(a)(3) Yellow. Yellow shall be the basic color for designating caution and for marking 

physical hazards such as: Striking against, stumbling, falling, tripping, and “caught in between.”

1910.304(d) Location of outdoor lamps. Lamps for outdoor lighting shall be located below 

all live conductors, transformers, or other electric equipment, unless such equipment is 

controlled by a disconnecting means that can be locked in the open position or unless 

adequate clearances or other safeguards are provided for lamping operations.

Refueling areas

1910.106(g)(8) There shall be no smoking or open flames in the areas used for fueling, 

servicing fuel systems for internal combustion engines, receiving or dispensing of flammable 

or combustible liquids. Conspicuous and legible signs prohibiting smoking shall be posted 

within sight of the customer being served. The motors of all equipment being fueled shall 

be shut off during the fueling operation.

1910.178(f)(2) The storage and handling of liquefied petroleum gas fuel shall be in accordance 

with NFPA Storage and Handling of Liquefied Petroleum Gases (NFPA No. 58-1969).

1910.307(c) Electrical installations. Equipment, wiring methods, and installations of equipment 

in hazardous (classified) locations shall be intrinsically safe, approved for the hazardous 

(classified) location, or safe for the hazardous (classified) location. Requirements for each 

of these options are as follows:

1910.307(c)(1) Intrinsically safe. Equipment and associated wiring approved as intrinsically 

safe is permitted in any hazardous (classified) location for which it is approved;

1910.307(c)(2) Approved for the hazardous (classified) location.

1910.307(c)(2)(i) Equipment shall be approved not only for the class of location, but also 

for the ignitable or combustible properties of the specific gas, vapor, dust, or fiber that 

will be present.

Note to paragraph (c)(2)(i) of this section: NFPA 70, The National Electrical Code, lists or 

defines hazardous gases, vapors, and dusts by “Groups” characterized by their ignitable 

or combustible properties.
Appendix D: Pertinent Occupational Safety and Health Administration Regulations 199

Marine areas

1910.106(a)(22) Marine service station shall mean that portion of a property where 

flammable or combustible liquids used as fuels are stored and dispensed from fixed 

equipment on shore, piers, wharves, or floating docks into the fuel tanks of self-propelled 

craft, and shall include all facilities used in connection therewith.

1910.106(g)(4)(i)(b) Dispensing shall be by approved dispensing units with or without 

integral pumps and may be located on open piers, wharves, or floating docks or on shore 

or on piers of the solid fill type.

1915.75(a) A gangway, ramp or permanent stairway of not less than 20 inches walking 

surface, of adequate strength, maintained in safe repair and securely fastened, shall be 

provided between a floating dry dock and the pier or bulkhead.

1915.75(b) Each side of such gangway, ramp or permanent stairway, including those 

which are used for access to wing walls from dry dock floors, shall have a railing with a 

midrail. Such railings on gangways or ramps shall be approximately 42 inches in height; 

and railings on permanent stairways shall be not less than approximately 30 or more than 

approximately 34 inches in height. Rails shall be of wood, pipe, chain, wire, or rope, and 

shall be kept taut at all times.

1915.75(c) Railings meeting the requirements of paragraph (b) of this section shall be 

provided on the means of access to and from the floors of graving docks.

1915.75(d) Railings approximately 42 inches in height, with a midrail, shall be provided on 

the edges of wing walls of floating dry docks and on edges of graving docks.

1915.75(e) When employees are working on the floor of a floating dry dock where they are 

exposed to the hazard of falling into the water, the end of the dry dock shall be equipped 

with portable stanchions and 42 inch railings with a midrail. When such a railing would be 

impracticable or ineffective, other effective means shall be provided to prevent employees 

from falling into the water.

1915.75(f) Access to wing walls from floors of dry docks shall be by ramps, permanent 

stairways or ladders meeting the applicable requirements of 1915.72.

1915.75(g) Catwalks on stiles of marine railways shall be no less than 20 inches wide 

and shall have on at least one side a guardrail and midrail meeting the requirements of 

1915.71(j)(1) and (2).
200 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations
Appendix E: Organizations With Related Standards 201

Appendix E: Organizations With 

Related Standards

Organization Information provided

AABC

Associated Air Balance Council

www.aabc.com

Ventilation and exhaust system design 

requirements.

AACE 

International 

Association for the Advancement of 

Cost Engineering

www.aacei.org

Guidelines and standards for preparing cost 

estimates for construction projects.

AAMA

American Architectural Manufacturers 

Association

www.aamanet.org

Specifications and standard for various 

building products. Building products 

information regarding strength of materials 

and fire resistivity.

AAMI

Association for the Advancement of 

Medical Instrumentation

www.aami.org

Specifications for the selection, use and 

maintenance of emergency medical equipment 

that is used in hospitals and the fire service.

AASHTO

American Association of State Highway 

and Transportation Officials

www.transportation.org

Standards for road and highway design. Refer 

to for specifying access road design and traffic 

control for fire and emergency response 

facilities.

ABMA

American Boiler Manufacturers 

Association

www.abma.com

Standards and specifications for heating and 

hot water systems. High efficiency equipment 

designs for energy conservation.

ABYC

American Boat and Yacht Council, Inc.

www.abycinc.org

Standards and specifications for the design and 

build of emergency response vessels, such as 

fire boats and search and rescue equipment.

ACGIH

American Conference of Governmental 

Industrial Hygienists

www.acgih.org

National standards for employee safety, 

health and toxicological issues. Resource for 

ventilation and indoor air quality, hazardous 

materials communications, bloodborne 

pathogens, noise and hearing conservation, 

and ergonomics.
202 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Organization Information provided

ACPA

American Concrete Pavement 

Association

www.acpa.org

Specification for the design and installation of 

concrete roads, driveways and foundations.

ACI

American Concrete Institute

www.concrete.org

Testing and evaluating structural concrete 

mixtures. Specifications for the selection 

of concrete for strength, fire resistivity and 

seismic integrity.

ACS

American Chemical Society

www.acs.org

Standards and information for the 

development, use, and disposal of 

industrial chemicals. Resource for selecting 

building coatings and determining risks to 

adjacent properties, pesticides and overall 

environmental health and safety.

ACSM

American Congress on Surveying and 

Mapping

http://landsurveyorsunited.com/acsm

Standards for the surveying and mapping of 

project sites, environmental issues, geological 

topography, and cartography.

AEIC

Association of Edison Illuminating 

Companies

www.aeic.org

Standards for power generation, lighting, heat 

and other uses of electrical power.

AEMA

Asphalt Emulsion Manufacturers 

Association

www.aema.org

Standards for roadway, driveway, foundation 

and roof sealing products. Beneficial in the 

reduction of damage due to flooding, freezing 

and chemical agents.

AGA

American Gas Association

www.aga.org

Testing and certification of natural gas, 

propane and other hydrocarbon-gas fired 

equipment. Boilers, furnaces and dryers are 

influenced by this association.

AHA

American Heart Association

www.heart.org

Guidelines for minimizing the risk of heart 

disease. Guidelines for establishing exercise 

programs and facilities, emergency services, 

CPR, and walk-in services.

AHAM

Association of Home Appliance 

Manufacturers

www.aham.org

Develops standards for the home appliance 

industry, and advocates for appliance safety 

and energy efficiency.
Appendix E: Organizations With Related Standards 203

Organization Information provided

AHRI

Air Conditioning, Heating and 

Refrigeration Institute

www.ahrinet.org

Develops standards and guidelines for the 

production of HVAC and refrigeration products. 

Also, has a certification program.

AIA

American Institute of Architects

www.aia.org

Standards for the design and building of 

facilities and structures. Important resource 

for new construction and renovating historical 

buildings.

AIChE

American Institute of Chemical 

Engineers

www.aiche.org

Standards and technical manuals for the 

production and use of chemical products.

AIHA

American Industrial Hygiene 

Association

www.aiha.org

Guidelines for employee safety, health and 

toxicological issues. Resource for ventilation 

and indoor air quality, hazardous materials 

communications, bloodborne pathogens, noise 

and hearing conservation, and ergonomics.

AISC

American Institute of Steel 

Construction

www.aisc.org

Standards and specifications for the fabrication 

and use of steel products, and design 

standards for steel construction.

AISI

American Iron & Steel Institute

www.steel.org

Design standards and documents for the use 

of steel and iron products in the construction 

industry.

AITC

American Institute of Timber 

Construction

www.aitc-glulam.org

Technical information on the design and 

use of timber products in the construction 

industry. Standards for structural integrity, fire 

resistivity, and preservation.

ALA

American Lighting Association

www.americanlightingassoc.com

Guidelines and standards for the 

manufacturing and installation of lighting 

equipment. Useful for the design and 

installation of general, emergency and security 

lighting systems.

ALSC

American Lumber Standard Committee

www.alsc.org

Standards for the manufacture and use of 

lumber and wood products in construction.
204 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Organization Information provided

AMCA

Air Movement and Control Association 

International, Inc.

www.amca.org

Standards for the application and certification 

of ventilation and exhaust systems. Guidelines 

for indoor air quality and vehicle exhaust 

control.

ANSI

American National Standards Institute

www.ansi.org

National consensus safety standards for 

design, installation and use of various types 

of equipment. Recognized as one of the major 

safety standard organizations.

APA

The Engineered Wood Association

www.apawood.org

Provides field, quality, and technical services 

for plywood, oriented strand board, gluedlaminated timber (glulam), wood I-joists and 

structural composite lumber.

APHA

American Public Health Association

www.apha.org

Standards for minimizing health risk 

when working with the public. A source of 

information for emergency medical providers.

API

American Petroleum Institute

www.api.org

Standards for fuel processing, storage and 

handling. Useful in design in fuel dispensing at 

fire and emergency services facilities.

APWA

American Public Works Association

www.apwa.net

Standard for public and private water supplies 

and sewer systems. Quality control and 

certification of water supply pipes, valves and 

other appurtenances.

ARM

Asphalt Roofing Manufacturers 

Association

www.asphaltroofing.org

Quality control standards and product 

certification of roofing systems and materials.

ASCE

American Society of Civil Engineers

www.asce.org

Standards, manuals, reports on engineering 

practices relating to structures, concrete, steel 

and design practices.

ASHRAE

American Society of Heating, 

Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning 

Engineers, Inc.

www.ashrae.org

Standards and certification of heating, 

cooling, exhaust and ventilation systems and 

equipment.

ASME

American Society of Mechanical 

Engineers

www.asme.org

Standards, certification of boilers, pressure 

vessels, welding and other mechanical 

systems.
Appendix E: Organizations With Related Standards 205

Organization Information provided

ASNT

American Society for Nondestructive 

Testing, Inc.

www.asnt.org

Testing standards for metal fatigue, concrete 

strength and other material assemblies. Listing 

of qualified testing agencies and vendors.

ASSE

American Society of Safety Engineers

www.asse.org

Society of engineers, technicians and 

consultants specializing in the field of safety 

engineering. Publications and interpretation of 

safety laws, ordinances and standards.

ASSE International

American Society of Sanitary 

Engineering

www.asse-plumbing.org

Standards and guidelines for the management 

of solid waste and hazardous materials.

ASTM

American Society for Testing and 

Materials

www.astm.org

Certification of testing and materials 

laboratories. Standards and guidelines on a 

variety of building supplies and other products.

AWCI

Association of The Wall and Ceiling 

Industry

www.awci.org

Standards for wall and ceiling assemblies and 

materials.

AWI

Architectural Woodwork Institute

www.awinet.org

Standards for use, function and selection of 

wood products.

AWPA

American Wood Protection Association

www.awpa.com

Standards for the preservation of wood 

products. Fire-resistive, moisture, and insect 

decay are key elements.

AWS

American Welding Society

www.aws.org

Standards, codes and specifications for the 

safety, health and quality assurance of welding 

operations.

AWWA

American Water Works Association

www.awwa.org

Standard for public and private water supplies 

and sewage systems. Quality control and 

certification of water supply pipes, valves, etc.

BCI

Battery Council International

www.batterycouncil.org

Standards for the design of electrical storage 

batteries, safe handling and storage, and 

emergency power systems.
206 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Organization Information provided

BIA

Brick Industry Association

www.gobrick.com

Technical notes on the application of clay bricks 

in the construction industry.

BIFMA

Business & Industrial Furniture 

Manufacturers Association

www.bifma.org

Standards for the design and manufacturing 

of furniture. Key elements include ergonomics, 

fire resistant and functionality.

BSSC

Building Seismic Safety Council

(A division of the National Institute of 

Building Sciences)

www.nibs.org

Deals with the complex technical, regulatory, 

social and economic issues involved in 

developing and promulgating building 

earthquake risk mitigation.

CAGI

Compressed Air & Gas Institute

www.cagi.org

Standards for compressed air and gas cylinders 

used in cascade systems.

CGA 

Compressed Gas Association

www.cganet.com/

Standards for the storage and handling of 

compressed gases. Safety standards for 

cylinder storage, pressure relief valve and 

piping systems.

CISCA

Ceilings & Interior Systems 

Construction Association

www.cisca.org

Guidelines and development of ceilings and 

interior finish systems.

CISPI

Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute

www.cispi.org

Standards for the manufacture and installation 

of cast iron piping systems.

CLFMI

Chain Link Fence Manufacturers 

Institute

www.chainlinkinfo.org

Standards for the design and installation of 

chain link fencing.

CPB

Contractors Pump Bureau

(Division of the Association of 

Equipment Manufacturers)

www.aem.org

Develops and publishes industry consensus 

standards for contractor pumps and auxiliary 

equipment.

CRSI

Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute

www.crsi.org

Standards, guidelines and testing information 

about structural concrete assemblies.
Appendix E: Organizations With Related Standards 207

Organization Information provided

CSI

Construction Specifications Institute

www.csinet.org

Standard specifications for construction 

project design documents.

DHI

Door and Hardware Institute

www.dhi.org

Standards and specifications for door 

hardware, as well as fire ratings, ADA 

compliance and product test information.

EGSA

Electrical Generating Systems 

Association

www.egsa.org

Information about emergency power 

generators.

EIMA

Exterior Insulation Manufacturers 

Association

www.eima.com

Standard for insulation as a building material. 

Key elements include: energy conservation, 

moisture control, durability and design.

EJMA

Expansion Joint Manufacturers 

Association

www.ejma.org

Standards and information for expansion 

joint products. Key elements are seismic and 

structural strain relief.

F.I.E.R.O.

Fire Industry Education Resource 

Organization

www.fierofirestation.com

Annual symposium on the design of fire 

stations. Subject matter experts cover a wide 

array of topics. Event includes design award 

competition and exhibits.

GA

Gypsum Association

www.gypsum.org

Standards for gypsum use. Key elements are 

fire rating and structural test information.

HEI

Heat Exchange Institute

www.heatexchange.org

Standards and information for heating and 

cooling equipment.

HFES

Human Factors and Ergonomics 

Society

www.hfes.org

Standards and information for the study 

and prevention of injuries caused by poorly 

designed work spaces.

IAFC

International Association of Fire Chiefs

www.iafc.org

Information about fire and emergency services 

health and safety.
208 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Organization Information provided

IAFF

International Association of Fire 

Fighters

www.iaff.org

Multiple reports and resources about the 

health and safety of emergency responders.

IAPMO

International Association of Plumbing 

and Mechanical Officials

www.iapmo.org

Standards, materials, installation and product 

materials on plumbing fixtures and piping.

ICAC

Institute of Clean Air Companies

www.icac.com

Standards and information on electrostatic, 

fabric and charcoal air filtering systems.

ICC

International Code Council

www.iccsafe.org

Model codes and standards used in the design, 

build and compliance process to construct 

safe, sustainable, affordable and resilient 

structures. Adopted by many jurisdictions.

IEEE

Institute of Electrical and Electronics 

Engineers

www.ieee.org

Standards for the electrical and electronics 

industry.

IES

Illuminating Engineering Society

www.ies.org

Lighting energy management, design guides, 

technical memos, education and publications.

IMSA

International Municipal Signal 

Association

www.imsasafety.org

Information on the design of traffic control 

systems.

KCMA

Kitchen Cabinet Manufacturers 

Association

www.kcma.org

Standards and products for kitchens and 

cafeterias; certification program.

LPI

Lightning Protection Institute

www.lightning.org

Educational information on minimizing the 

risks to life, structures and equipment from 

lightning.

MBMA

Metal Building Manufacturers 

Association

www.mbma.com

Standards and product information on metal 

building construction techniques.
Appendix E: Organizations With Related Standards 209

Organization Information provided

NCMA

National Concrete and Masonry 

Association

www.ncma.org

Standards and product information on 

concrete foundations, walls and other 

structures.

National Drinking Water Alliance 

http://www.drinkingwateralliance.com

Nationwide clearinghouse for essential 

drinking water research and resources. 

NEII

National Elevator Industry, Inc.

www.neii.org

Standards and information on the design and 

installation of elevators.

NEMA

National Electrical Manufacturers 

Association

www.nema.org

Standards and product information on 

electrical wiring installation and repair.

NETA

InterNational Electrical Testing 

Association

www.netaworld.org

Standards for testing electrical circuits and 

appliances.

NFPA

National Fire Protection Association

www.nfpa.org

Multiple standards related to fire protection 

and life safety, as well as multiple standards 

related to emergency responder health and 

safety.

NFP(A)

National Fluid Power Association

www.nfpa.com

Standard practices and information for 

estimating building water flow requirements.

NFSA

National Fire Sprinkler Association

www.nfsa.org

Technical assistance and educational material 

on the benefits of fire sprinkler systems.

NIA

National Insulation Association

www.insulation.org

Technical bulletins and guides on insulation.

NPGA

National Propane Gas Association

www.npga.org

Standards and product information on the 

installation and use of propane gas.

NRCA

National Roofing Contractors 

Association

www.nrca.net

Guidelines for roof materials and construction.
210 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Organization Information provided

NSC

National Safety Council

www.nsc.org

Multiple publications on a wide array of safety 

areas, including ergonomics, electrical, air 

quality, fall protection, and industrial hygiene.

NSF 

National Sanitation Foundation 

http://www.nsf.org

Develops public health standards and 

certifications that help protect food, water, 

consumer products and the environment.

NTMA

National Terrazzo and Mosaic 

Association, Inc.

www.ntma.com

Specifications and design tools for the 

installation of terrazzo and mosaic floors.

NVFC

National Volunteer Fire Council

www.nvfc.org

Publications and information about the health 

and safety of emergency responders.

PCI

Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute

www.pci.org

Standards and product information on precast 

concrete use in building construction.

PDI

Plumbing and Drainage Institute

www.pdionline.org

Standards and product information on 

plumbing and drain fixtures.

PPI

Plastic Pipe Institute

www.plasticpipe.org

Product information on the selection and 

installation of plastic piping.

PTI

Post-Tensioning Institute

www.post-tensioning.org

Code development, education and research 

related to the use and installation of building 

posts.

SDI

Steel Deck Institute

www.sdi.org

Standards and product information on steel 

decks and platforms.

SJI

Steel Joist Institute

www.steeljoist.org

Publications and design tools for steel joists.

SSPC

Steel Structures Painting Council

www.sspc.org

Recommend practices for the painting of steel 

structures.
Appendix E: Organizations With Related Standards 211

Organization Information provided

STI/SPFA

Steel Tank Institute/Steel Plate 

Fabricators Association

www.steeltank.com

Standards and product information on 

specification and use of steel tanks for aboveand below-ground applications.

SWI

Steel Windows Institute

www.steelwindows.com

Standards and product information on steel 

windows.

UL

Underwriters’ Laboratories

www.ul.com

Standards and product information. Listed 

products catalogue of electrical, fire and safety 

equipment.

USGBC

U.S. Green Building Council

(A division of the EPA)

www.usgbc.org

Resources for green buildings, including 

Leadership in Energy and Environmental 

Design (LEED).

VFIS

Volunteer Firemen’s Insurance 

Service, Inc.

www.vfis.com

Information on property risk management, 

injury prevention tips, and safety tools that are 

specific to fire and emergency facilities.

WQA

Water Quality Association

www.wqa.org

Standards and test methods for water quality.

WRI

Wire Reinforcement Institute

www.wirereinforcementinstitute.org

Technical documents to assist the concrete 

industry with the use of welded wire as a 

reinforcement material.
212 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations
Appendix F: Sample Monthly Safety Inspection Checklist 213

Appendix F: Sample Monthly Safety 

Inspection Checklist

 = okay X = needs attention n/a = not applicable

Fire protection

____ Fire alarm/detectors functional.

____ Sprinkler system in state of readiness.

____ Fire extinguishers not blocked or obscured.

____ Fire extinguishers checked (tag marked) monthly.

____ Exit doors not blocked.

____ Exit signs properly placed; illumination (if applicable) working.

____ Emergency evacuation lights tested.

Fall protection

____ Stair handrails and treads in place and secure.

____ Exterior walkways well-illuminated without trip hazards.

____ Floor tiles and carpet secure and not loose.

____ “Pole hole” guard in place when not in use.

____ “Pole hole” landing area free of obstructions, with safety landing pad in place.

____ Apparatus floor free of standing water or lubricants.

____ Roof access ladder secure and unobstructed (if equipped).

Hazardous materials

____ Compressed gas cylinders chained or in a rack.

____ Flammable liquids labeled and stored away from building.

____ Oily/Greasy rags in a closed, metal container.

____ Hazard communication program and MSDS sheets in order.

____ UST permit posted and current.

____ Bio-hazard room free of unauthorized items.

____ All chemical containers labeled with manufacturer’s label.
214 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

____ Emergency eyewash station tested and functional.

____ No contaminated PPE in living areas.

____ Diesel exhaust system in use and in proper working order.

Electrical hazards

____ Electrical panel boxes covered and not obstructed within 3 feet.

____ All circuit breakers/disconnects labeled.

____ No knockouts missing from electrical boxes.

____ All outlet and switch cover plates are in place.

____ No lightweight, ungrounded extension cords in use.

____ No electrical cords fixed to building surface or run through ceiling/wall.

____ No frayed, cut or damaged electrical cords.

____ No missing or burned-out light bulbs.

Maintenance areas

____ Floor free of trip hazards.

____ All power tools properly grounded.

____ Grinding wheels properly guarded.

____ Work rests on grinding wheels 1/8 inch from wheel.

____ All tools and supplies safely stored, except when in use.

____ All machine pulleys, chains and sprockets properly guarded.

____ No broken handles and grips.

____ All work areas clean and well-illuminated.

Exterior

____ Public entrance clearly marked and illuminated.

____ No trip hazards on walkways, driveways and parking lot.

____ Security lighting functional.

____ Parking areas and parking lines clearly visible.

____ Security fence not compromised.

____ Fuel pumps properly guarded.
Appendix F: Sample Monthly Safety Inspection Checklist 215

____ Underground fuel storage tank permit up-to-date and visibly posted.

____ All garbage cans and dumpsters emptied on regular basis.

____ Back-up generator operational.

Signs present

____ OSHA notice properly posted on bulletin board.

____ Handicapped parking, safe place, no dangerous weapons, and emergency first-aid 

signs posted on exterior of building.

____ All washers/extractors and dryers clearly marked for their dedicated use (separate 

equipment for PPE only).

____ Clear instructions posted on proper use of washing and drying equipment.

Miscellaneous

____ Exhaust system functional; water drained from compressor.

____ Fitness equipment in proper working order.

____ Clothing dryer exhaust free of lint build-up.

____ No combustibles stored within 3 feet of gas appliances.

____ Carbon monoxide detector present and operational.

____ Door bell operating and entrances illuminated.

____ Citizen call-box (with instructions) at public entrance, in case station is empty.

____ Active test of citizen call-box function.

____ Fuel tanks adequately filled.

____ No broken glass in doors or windows.

____ Breathing air compressor in operational order with log book (per OSHA 29 CFR 

1910.134), to include date bottle filled, hydrostatic test date, identification number, 

and person filling cylinder.

____ Phase 1 and 2 keyed elevator switch cycle test.

____ Elevator inspection up to date and notice posted in elevator.

In addition, NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational Safety and Health Program, has a stand-alone annex with 

similar information.
216 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations
Appendix G: Sample Safety and Health Design, Construction and Acceptance Check-Off List 217

Appendix G: Sample Safety and Health 

Design, Construction and Acceptance 

Check-Off List

Site layout

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1 Phase 1 environmental site 

assessment conducted.

2 Station with “one-way” 

circulation drive, if possible.

3

Adjacent street traffic areas 

equipped with traffic signal 

lights controlled by the crew 

or station alerting system.

4 Turns less than 90 degrees 

to enter public street.

General site construction

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1

Fire resistance ratings for 

structure meet local building 

codes.

2

Active soil depressurization 

system installed or similar 

technique used for areas 

where radon hazard exists.

3

Structural design consistent 

with earthquake resistance 

(seismic performance) as 

appropriate for area.

4 Storm water mitigation 

addressed.
218 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

All areas

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1

Electrical outlets grounded 

and connected to electrical 

panel with appropriate 

sized circuit breaker.

2 Circuit breakers clearly 

identified.

3 Electrical panel area clear 

and free of storage.

4 Electrical panel provided 

with cover.

5

All electrical receptacles 

and junction boxes covered 

with appropriate plates.

6

Ground fault interrupt 

circuits installed in wet 

areas (including bathrooms, 

apparatus bays, boiler 

rooms, rooms, outside 

areas, and kitchens).

7 Sufficient receptacles in 

each space.

8 All electrical appliances 

grounded.

9 All electrical motors 

adequately ventilated.

10

Cage or other protection 

provided for lights within 7 

feet of floor.

11

Smoke alarms installed into 

main electrical system in 

each area.

12

Carbon monoxide sensors 

installed in each living 

space.
Appendix G: Sample Safety and Health Design, Construction and Acceptance Check-Off List 219

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

13

Portable fire extinguishers 

provided as required by 

code.

14 Automatic sprinkler system 

installed.

15

Number of exits consistent 

with size of structure 

and expected maximum 

occupancy.

16 Exits located remotely from 

each other.

17 Exits conspicuously marked 

with illuminated “Exit” sign.

18

Exit doors a minimum of 

28-inches wide and 7-feet 

6-inches high.

19

Clear, full length glass doors 

and windows properly 

marked.

20 Alarm/Security system 

installed.

21

Alarm/Security system 

contacts and sensors 

well-hidden.

22

Control system for alarm/

security system in locked 

room or closet away from 

high traffic areas.

23 Receptacle for combustible 

waste provided.

24 ADA compliant.
220 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Station grounds

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1

Utility poles space 10 

to 15 feet from vehicle 

maneuvering areas.

2

Ground mounted 

transformers protected 

from impact when 10 feet 

from driveways or parking 

lots (a one-hour rated fire 

wall is recommended).

3 Ground fault interrupt 

circuits installed.

4

Driveways (circulation 

pathways, training areas, 

and vehicle aprons), level, 

well-drained and use 

nonslip surfaces rated for 

weight of apparatus.

5

Nonslip texture applied 

to concrete walkways and 

other surfaces.

6 Painting minimized for 

asphalt surfaces.

7

Checked metal plate or 

other nonslip surface 

covering for underground 

vaults, test pits, or 

transition surfaces.

8 Exterior lighting adequate 

in all areas.

9

Nonslip surfaces applied for 

drill towers and other heavy 

traffic areas.

10

Run-off basins with oilywater separators provided 

for apparatus washing 

areas.

11

Aboveground storage tanks 

chosen before underground 

tanks.
Appendix G: Sample Safety and Health Design, Construction and Acceptance Check-Off List 221

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

12

Secondary containment for 

aboveground storage tank 

equals volume of primary 

storage tank.

13

System in place to prevent 

backflow and crosscontamination.

14

Noise or sound control 

breaks (buffer zone) placed 

on sides of station property.

15 Pedestrian warning signs 

posted next to station.

16 Sufficient parking provided, 

which is secure and well-lit.

17 Visitor parking designated 

and clearly marked.

18

Handicapped parking 

designated and designed 

per code.

19 Sign stating no tobacco or 

e-cigarette use on property.

20

Dumpster/Trash containers 

located at least 25 feet from 

building.

21

Heating provided under 

sidewalks and other areas 

prone to freezing.

22 Doorbell for main public 

entrance.

23

Emergency call feature to 

communications center 

when station is unoccupied.

24 Vandalism and violence 

proof windows installed.
222 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Apparatus bay

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1 Ground fault circuit 

interrupters installed.

2

Provide at least 4 feet of 

clearance around each 

vehicle in the apparatus bay.

3 Nonslip surface on 

apparatus bay floor.

4 Bay doors obstruction 

feature installed.

5 Painted lines on apparatus 

bay floor for guiding vehicle.

6 Source capture diesel 

exhaust removal system.

7

Ventilation system installed 

to remove off-gassing of 

contaminated equipment.

General station interior

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1

Access from quarters to 

apparatus bays in straight 

line (hallways and crossing 

areas avoided).

2

Access ways to the 

apparatus bay at front or 

rear of apparatus bay.

3

Ventilation in interior 

living spaces at a positive 

pressure relative to 

apparatus.

4 Halls and corridors a 

minimum of 5 feet wide.
Appendix G: Sample Safety and Health Design, Construction and Acceptance Check-Off List 223

Heating, ventilating and air conditioning

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1 Heating equipment sized 

appropriately for structure.

2

Heating equipment 

properly insulated from 

combustible materials.

3

Heating and air conditioning 

equipment spaces are 

restricted areas.

4

Heating and air conditioning 

equipment spaces free of 

storage.

Bedroom(s)

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1 Acoustically designed and 

furnished for sleeping.

2

Has “ramped up” lighting 

tied to station alerting 

system.

3 Separated from noisy areas 

of the station.

4 Individual lockers provided 

for all personnel (with lock).

Watch/Dispatch area

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1 Controls for traffic lights, 

alarms.

2 Switches for fuel pumps.

3 Slip-resistance floor 

surface.

4 Proper lighting.
224 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Offices

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1

Vertical files with interlock 

allowing only one drawer 

open at a time.

2 Has proper lighting.

3 Separated from noisy areas 

of the station.

4 Ergonomically designed 

chairs furnished.

5 Information technology 

infrastructure in place.

Class/Meeting room

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1 Separated from noisy areas 

of the station.

2 Controlled lighting.

3 Audio/Visual equipment 

installed.

4 Information technology 

infrastructure in place.
Appendix G: Sample Safety and Health Design, Construction and Acceptance Check-Off List 225

Kitchen

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1 Ground fault circuit 

interrupters installed.

2

Alarm-activated service 

disconnect of all fixed 

cooking devices installed.

3

Range top protected with 

automatic fire extinguishing 

system.

4 Hood and duct system 

installed properly.

5

Grease filters UL listed 

for grease extraction and 

installed properly.

6 Commercial grade cook-top 

installed.

7

Double sinks with heavy 

duty garbage disposals 

provided.

8 Separate storage cabinets 

for food storage.

9 Stainless steel appliances 

throughout.

10 Designated area for trash 

can.
226 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Bathrooms

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1 Separate gender-specific 

facilities.

2 Separate toilet facilities for 

public.

3 Ground fault circuit 

interrupters installed.

4 Nonslip shower floors.

5 Nonporous, easily cleaned 

surfaces for shower stalls.

6

System in place to prevent 

back flow and crosscontamination.

7 Hands-free sink faucets.

8 Hands-free flushing toilets.

9 Hands-free flushing urinals.

10 Hands-free paper towel 

dispensers or hand dryers.
Appendix G: Sample Safety and Health Design, Construction and Acceptance Check-Off List 227

Support areas

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1 All electrical powered tools 

or equipment insulated.

2 All electrical outlets have 

ground wire.

3 Work areas well-lit.

4 Machine guards properly 

installed.

Disinfecting room

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1 Separate space provided for 

disinfection.

2 Ventilation to outside.

3 Proper lighting.

4 Drains connected to a 

sanitary sewer system.

5

Disinfection area has 

minimum of two sinks with 

hot and cold water faucets 

and sprayer attachment.

6

Sink faucets designed for 

hands-free operation; foot 

pedals recommended.

7 Sink and adjacent surfaces 

made of stainless-steel.

8

Equipped with rack shelving 

of nonporous material for 

drip-drying equipment.

9

Drainage from rack goes 

into sink or sanitary sewer 

system.
228 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Cleaning room

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1 Separate space provided for 

cleaning of PPE.

2 Has ventilation to outside.

3 Has proper lighting.

4 Drains connected to a 

sanitary sewage system.

5

Area physically separate 

from food preparation, 

kitchen, sleeping, living and 

disinfection areas.

6

Commercial-grade washer/

extractor installed for 

cleaning of protective 

clothing (if performed 

in-house).

Personal protective equipment storage room

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1

Dedicated room for PPE 

storage located just off the 

bay floor.

2

No natural light; artificial 

light controlled by motion 

sensor (to prevent UV 

degradation).

3 Separate ventilation to the 

exterior of the building.

4

Locker large enough to 

allow space for plenty of 

ventilation to assist with 

off-gassing.
Appendix G: Sample Safety and Health Design, Construction and Acceptance Check-Off List 229

Fitness room

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken 1 Rubberized flooring for 

equipment.

2 Only department approved 

fitness equipment in place.

3

Room equipped with 

large glass in walls, so if a 

member is down, it is visible 

from the outside.

4

Hand disinfectant 

dispensers or wipes 

installed near each piece of 

fitness equipment.

Stairways

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken 1

Guardrails placed on open 

side of stairways where there 

are more than four rises.

2

Stairway rail height 

between 30 and 34 inches 

(measured from forward 

edge of tread to upper 

surface of top rail).

3 Handrails no more than 2 

inches in diameter.

4 Handrails height between 

34 and 38 inches.

5 Handrails continuous and 

extend beyond the last step.

6 Guardrails with top rails 42 

inches high.

7 Guardrails with midrails 21 

inches high.

8

Nonslip finishes or tread 

on stair treads and tread 

nosing.

9 Tread color contrasts with 

rest of step.
230 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

Slide poles

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1

Guard provided around 

pole hole to prevent falling 

through.

2

Three-foot diameter 

cushioned mate at bottom 

of slide pole.

3 Sign posted that pole is used 

only by one person at a time.

4

Sign posted that slide 

pole is to only be used by 

authorized and trained 

personnel.
Appendix G: Sample Safety and Health Design, Construction and Acceptance Check-Off List 231

Hose towers and other elevated platforms

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1

Guardrail capable of 

withstanding a force of 

250 pounds applied in any 

direction at any point on 

the top rail.

2 Toe guards equipped on 

each platform.

3

Offset platforms and 

cage guards equipped on 

platforms when access 

ladders extend beyond 

20 feet (permanently fixed 

ladders on outside of drill 

towers and buildings are 

exempt).

4

Rung clearance of at least 

7 inches behind hose tower 

ladder.

5 Step-across distances not 

greater than 12 inches.

6 Side rails greater than 

16 inches wide.

7 Ladder rung spacing less 

than 12 inches.

8 Ladder cases between 7 

and 8 feet above landing.

9 Ladder pitch between 75 

and 90 degrees.
232 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

General storage areas

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1 Located on same level as 

living and working spaces.

2

Pressurized cylinders 

secured to prevent 

overturning.

3

Emergency medical 

supplies and equipment 

stored in dedicated space.

4

Secure spaces provided for 

storage of sensitive medical 

supplies (e.g., drugs).

5 Refrigeration provided for 

applicable drugs.

6

Wall or rails on all 

mezzanine storage areas 42 

inches high.

7

Access to mezzanine areas 

by 4-foot wide sliding or 

rolling gate.

8

Walled off loft spaces with 

access gate or door that has 

three restraining cables, 

chains or bars.

9 Toe boards on all elevated 

storage areas.

10

Chemicals in original, 

labelled containers and 

segregated by hazard.

11

Materials Safety Data 

Sheets (MSDS) provided on 

each chemical at station 

and kept in central location.

12 Location of MSDS posted.

13 Sufficient storage space for 

all supplies.
Appendix G: Sample Safety and Health Design, Construction and Acceptance Check-Off List 233

Refueling areas

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1

Refueling pumps installed 

in accordance with local 

requirements.

2 “No Smoking” and “Stop 

Your Motor” signs posted.

3

Refueling pump shut-off 

switch placed a minimum 

of 50 to 60 linear feet away 

with sign, “Fuel Pump 

Shut-Off.”

Pressurized cylinders

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1

Pressure vessels (e.g., 

boilers, large air-tanks) 

inspected and certified.

2

Pressurized cylinders 

secured to prevent 

overturning.

Marine areas

No. Item Yes No N/A Action taken

1 Dock or pier constructed of 

nonslip materials.

2 Nonslip finish applied to 

concrete areas along water.

3

Tie-off points, hose bibs, 

and electrical outlets 

located away from 

walkways.

4

Gangways designed for 

multiple angles of use with 

nonslip surfaces.

5 Area well-lit.
234 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations
Acronyms 235

Acronyms

AABC Associated Air Balance Council

ACGIH American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists

ACI American Concrete Institute

ACPA American Concrete Pavement Association

ACS American Chemical Society

ADA Americans with Disabilities Act

AED automatic external defibrillator

AIA American Institute of Architects

AIHA American Industrial Hygiene Association

AISC American Institute of Steel Construction

AITC American Institute of Timber Construction

ANSI American National Standards Institute

APHA American Public Health Association

API American Petroleum Institute

ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers

ASD active soil depressurization

ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning 

Engineers

ASSE American Society of Safety Engineers

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

AWWA American Water Works Association

B/N Bid/Negotiation

CA Construction Administration

CD Construction Design

CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

CGA Compressed Gas Association

CPR cardiopulmonary resuscitation

CSI Construction Specifications Institute
236 Safety and Health Considerations for the Design of Fire and Emergency Medical Services Stations

DD Design Development

DLIR Department of Labor and Industrial Relations

DLLR Department of Labor, Licensing and Regulation

DOSH Division of Occupational Safety and Health

EFIS Exterior Finish and Insulation Systems

EMS Emergency Medical Services

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

F.I.E.R.O. Fire Industry Education Resource Organization

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency

GFICs ground fault interrupter circuits

GISs Geographic Information Systems

GMPs Guaranteed Maximum Prices

HSO Health and Safety Officer

HVAC heating, ventilating, and air conditioning

IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer

ICAC Institute of Clean Air Companies

IFSTA International Fire Service Training Association

ISO Insurance Services Office

ISP Independent Service Provider

LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design

LODDs line-of-duty deaths

MEP Mechanical, electrical and plumbing engineers

MMA methyl methacrylate

MOSH Maryland Occupational Safety and Health

MRSA Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

MSDS Material Safety Data Sheets

NEHRP National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program

NFPA National Fire Protection Association

NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

NPGA National Propane Gas Association
Acronyms 237

NSC National Safety Council

NSF National Sanitation Foundation

NTMA National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association, Inc.

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration

OSU Oklahoma State University

PAHs polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

pCi/L picocuries per liter of air

PESH Public Employee Safety and Health

PNAs Polyaromatic Nuclear Aromatics

PPC Public Protection ClassificationTM

PPE personal protective equipment

RFIs Requests for Information

RFQ Request for Qualifications

rpm revolutions per minute

SCBA self-contained breathing apparatus

SD Schematic Design

UBC Uniform Building Code

UL Underwriters Laboratories

USFA U.S. Fire Administration

USGBC U.S. Green Building Council

UV ultraviolet

VFIS Volunteer Firemen’s Insurance Services, Inc.

VOCs Volatile Organic Compounds

WQA Water Quality Association
16825 South Seton Ave.

Emmitsburg, MD 21727

www.usfa.fema.gov

May 2018