Wildland Urban Interface: 

A Look at Issues and Resolutions

A Report of Recommendations for Elected Officials, Policymakers 

and All Levels of Government, Tribal and Response Agencies

June 2022
Wildland Urban Interface:

A Look at Issues and Resolutions

A Report of Recommendations for Elected Officials, 

Policymakers and All Levels of Government, Tribal and 

Response Agencies

June 2022

Cover photo: Homes burned in Coffey Park, California, October 2017. (iStock)
Mission Statement

We support and strengthen fi re and emergency medical 

services and stakeholders to prepare for, prevent, mitigate 

and respond to all hazards.
Message from the U.S. Fire Administrator i

Message from the U.S. Fire 

Administrator

June 7, 2022

The U.S. experienced staggering losses caused by wildfires, especially in the wildland 

urban interface (WUI). Wildfires in these areas resulted in devastating losses of life, 

health, and property, and cascading financial losses. Considering certain land and fire 

management decisions, along with climate change, wildfires are now moving with a speed 

and intensity previously unseen. Additionally, recent population growth and decades of 

growing housing development in the WUI is leaving our nation vulnerable to further loss. 

Without significant collaborative efforts to facilitate change, our nation will continue to 

suffer catastrophic wildfire losses in the WUI. To trigger a sense of urgency and motivation 

to act, the U.S. Fire Administration, in collaboration with the U.S. Department of the 

Interior and U.S. Forest Service, developed this report, “Wildland Urban Interface: A Look 

at Issues and Resolutions,” to document opportunities for organizations and partners at 

every level to work with each other and resolve the challenges identified in the WUI. 

While the resolutions to the challenges identified may seem daunting, they are achievable. 

Developing federal, state, tribal, territorial, local and community wildfire prevention and 

control initiatives as recommended in this report will raise awareness about the WUI fire 

problem. These recommendations, if heeded, will also assist in the creation of greater 

fire-resilient communities, save lives and property, and help all partners better plan and 

prepare for, mitigate against, and safely and effectively respond to wildfires in the WUI. 

Together, we can take action to change the trajectory of the ever-increasing wildfire threat

in America and create resilient landscapes for generations to come.

Lori Moore-Merrell, DrPH, MPH

U.S. Fire Administrator

U.S. Fire Administration
Acknowledgments ii

Acknowledgments

The U.S. Forest Service (USFS), the U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI) and the U.S. 

Fire Administration (USFA) would like to thank the following individuals and respective 

organizations for their contributions to this project. It has been through these partnerships 

and collective efforts that this report was created.

Author

James R. “Jim” Karels

Support Author and Editor

Monica Corbin

Steering Committee

USFS

DOI

USFA

Stakeholder Group

American Planning Association

Association of Climate Change Officers

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), including the Federal Insurance and 

Mitigation Administration

Fire Adapted Communities

Insurance Institute for Business & Home Safety (IBHS)

International Association of Chiefs of Police

International Association of Fire Chiefs (IAFC)

International Association of Fire Fighters

International Association of Wildland Fire

International City/County Management Association

International Code Council (ICC)

International Association of Emergency Managers Intertribal Timber Council (ITC)

National Association of Counties (NACo)

National Association of Home Builders

National Association of State Fire Marshals

National Association of State Foresters (NASF)

National Emergency Management Association

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

National Governors Association (NGA)

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)

National League of Cities (NLC)

National Sheriffs Association

National Volunteer Fire Council (NVFC)

National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG)

NWCG Wildland Urban Interface Committee

Regional Strategy Committees

Tall Timbers Research Station and Land Conservancy

The Nature Conservancy (TNC)

The Wildfire Conservancy

U.S. Chamber of Commerce (U.S. Chamber)
Acknowledgments iii

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

U.S. Department of Defense (DOD)

U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS)

DOI, Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)

DOI, Bureau of Land Management

DOI, National Park Service

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Western Governors Association

Wildland Fire Leadership Council (WFLC)

WFLC Members:

ĵ USDA

ĵ DOI

ĵ DHS

ĵ DOD

ĵ State Governor, NGA

ĵ State Governor, Western United States

ĵ State Forester, NASF

ĵ President, ITC

ĵ County Commissioner, NACo

ĵ Mayor, NLC

ĵ Fire Chief, IAFC
Table of Contents iv

Table of Contents

Message from the U.S. Fire Administrator ...................................................................... i

Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... ii

Preamble............................................................................................................................... 1

Executive Summary............................................................................................................. 3

Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 5

Background .......................................................................................................................... 6

Increased population in the WUI................................................................................ 6

Reduced land management practices and dangerous increase of fuel buildup... 7

Climate change.............................................................................................................. 9

Methodology........................................................................................................................ 10

Issues and Recommendations........................................................................................... 12

Issue 1: Firefighter health and safety ........................................................................ 12

Issue 2: Public health and safety ................................................................................ 15

Issue 3: Evacuations...................................................................................................... 16

Issue 4: Forest and rangeland health and resiliency ............................................... 18

Issue 5: Climate change ............................................................................................... 22

Issue 6: Community planning and resiliency ............................................................ 23

Issue 7: Infrastructure and utilities ........................................................................... 25

Issue 8: Communications strategy and engagement operations ......................... 26

Issue 9: Socioeconomic impacts ................................................................................ 29

Issue 10: Recovery ........................................................................................................ 32

Issue 11: Emerging technology.................................................................................... 33

Issue 12: Data use and modeling ............................................................................... 35

Issue 13: Risk management in wildland fire ............................................................. 36

Summary of Key Recommendations ................................................................................ 40

Mitigation recommendations ..................................................................................... 40

Preparedness recommendations ............................................................................... 41

Response recommendations ...................................................................................... 42

Recovery recommendations ....................................................................................... 42

Conclusion............................................................................................................................ 43

Appendix A: References...................................................................................................... 44

Appendix B: Resources ....................................................................................................... 46

Appendix C: Acronyms........................................................................................................ 48
Preamble 1

Preamble

The wildland fire community has been working together across jurisdictional boundaries 

to address wildland fire challenges for decades. The National Fire Plan, developed in 2000, 

was the first framework to lay out new strategies to address the rising wildfire risks in 

the WUI, forests, rangelands and other public lands, and the increasing encroachment 

of communities on public lands. Recognizing the need to rethink the current policy and 

address the hazardous fuel problem, congressional funding for fuels and forest health 

treatments rose significantly. By 2008, there was a recognition that the wildfire challenges 

we faced called for a more comprehensive interdisciplinary and cross-jurisdictional 

approach. Building on the work of the National Fire Plan, a diverse group of federal, state, 

local, tribal and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) worked together to develop the 

“National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy,” which was released in 2014. Since 

that time, the interagency wildland fire community has been anchored to the 3 goals of the 

Cohesive Strategy: restoring and maintaining resilient landscapes, urging communities to 

become more fire adapted, and responding safely and effectively to wildfires. 

The Wildland Fire Mitigation and Management Commission Act of 2021 mandates 

establishment of a Wildland Fire Mitigation and Management Commission that 

includes representation from federal, state, tribal, county, municipal governments, and 

nongovernmental stakeholders. The commission builds on existing interagency efforts, 

including the White House Wildfire Resilience Interagency Working Group, which works 

to coordinate wildfire prevention strategies across jurisdictional boundaries, and the 

implementation of the “National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy” under 

the guidance of the Wildland Fire Leadership Council. The commission is tasked with 

recommending federal policies and strategies to enhance the ability to effectively prevent, 

mitigate, suppress and manage wildland fires and conduct rehabilitation activities. The 

highest priority recommendations from this DHS/FEMA/USFA report will be important 

sources of key information for both the Interagency Working Group and the commission.

The USFS recently released a report entitled “Confronting the Wildfire Crisis,” and the DOI 

released its “5-Year Monitoring, Maintenance and Treatment Plan”; both are focused on the 

Cohesive Strategy’s first goal of restoring and maintaining resilient landscapes. However, 

this report focuses on the Cohesive Strategy’s second goal of urging communities in the WUI 

to take steps to become more fire adapted. The WUI has seen exponential growth for the 

period of 1990-2010, experiencing a 43% increase or about 8 million new homes (Radeloff 

et al., 2018). Nationwide, approximately 89% of wildfires are human caused. In California, 

that number is approximately 94%. Human-caused wildfires have tripled the length of the 

wildfire season and tend to be more destructive because they are more likely to occur near 

homes in the WUI (National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), n.d.). Given these 

sobering numbers, if we are to change the trajectory of wildfire and its devastating impacts 

in the United States, it is imperative that WUI communities work with the wildland and local 

municipal firefighting community to take steps to reduce their wildfire risk. 

The USFA, USFS and DOI are working with partners to address many of the WUI 

challenges discussed in this report. These efforts include increasing forest and rangeland 

resiliency by means such as prescribed burning and mechanical thinning, strengthening 

communication strategies and engagement operations through wildfire prevention and 

mitigation programs, and proactively planning for and mitigating the continued effects 

of climate change. Simultaneously, to help ensure safe and effective response, the USFA, 
Preamble 2

USFS and DOI are also focused on firefighter health and safety, especially mental and 

behavioral health, and public safety through improving evacuation procedures with efforts 

such as Reverse 911.

To effectively address wildfire challenges, the wildland firefighting community must 

continue to address the primary overarching issues that comprise the 3 goals of the 

Cohesive Strategy. This report highlights the WUI issues in the United States and will help 

the wildland and structural firefighting community and WUI communities to coalesce 

around key actions to reduce risk to themselves, firefighters and the environment.
Executive Summary 3

Executive Summary

Wildfires are among the worst natural and man-made disasters currently facing our 

nation. The damage a wildfire causes is multifaceted as it affects multiple areas of 

civilization and the safety and health of responding firefighters. Today, factors such as 

climate change and reduced land management practices are significantly contributing to 

the cause, the increasing frequency and the greater intensity of wildfires, particularly in 

the WUI. 

As wildfires enter the WUI, the area between undeveloped and developed land, the issues 

become more numerous and complex. Additionally, as the United States’ population grows 

and development of wildland continues, the WUI expands, increasing vulnerability for 

thousands who choose to live in the space and the firefighters who respond to fight the 

fires that occur. This unique fire problem has become a high-risk public safety concern for 

life safety, public and responder health, private property and businesses, the economy, 

and the ecology in these regions. Without intervention, adverse consequences of wildfire 

in the WUI will worsen. 

Our nation is on the precipice of an all-hands moment in which landowners, citizens, 

communities, infrastructure organizations, academia, researchers, not-for-profit 

organizations, governmental agencies and others have critical roles in coordinating 

a collaborative approach to contain and control the threat of wildfire in the WUI. It is 

essential that elected officials and other government leaders allocate resources and 

support this imperative to address the WUI wildfire problem. 

FEMA/DHS/USFA developed the “Wildland Urban Interface: A Look at Issues and 

Resolutions” to stimulate action by raising awareness of the crisis that our nation faces 

related to wildfire in the WUI and lay out a unified, strategic approach to risk reduction at 

the national, state, regional and local levels. In developing this report, a cross-functional 

group of stakeholders and subject matter experts (SMEs) from across the nation convened 

to identify 33 challenges within 13 key WUI issues and develop recommendations 

to address each challenge. In total, 112 recommendations are presented. These 

recommendations address challenges in firefighter health and safety, public health 

and safety, evacuations, forest and rangeland health and resiliency, climate change, 

community planning and resiliency, infrastructure and utilities, communication strategy 

and engagement operations, socioeconomic impacts, recovery, emerging technology, data 

use and modeling, and risk management in wildland fire. The recommendations should 

be pursued together, forming a system of strategies that require urgent, sustained and 

actionable implementations. These recommendations are not quick fixes, but solutions 

for the long term. Leadership on and commitment to the implementation of these 

recommendations results in a safer America.
Executive Summary 4

WUI:

Areas where human development 

meets or intermingles with 

undeveloped w ildland and 

vegetative fuels that are both fire 

dependent and fire prone. It is the 

line, area or zone where structures 

and other human development 

transition or intermingle with 

un d e ve l o p e d w il dlan ds o r 

vegetative fuels.
Introduction 5

Introduction

Much of America’s landscape is a fire-adapted ecosystem, which means it depends on 

recurring fire to renew the forests, rangelands and habitats that support the plant and 

animal ecosystems. Before there were houses and roads, wildfires were primarily ignited by 

lightning and Indigenous peoples, and they naturally stopped at rivers and wetlands. These 

wildfires reduced overgrowth and sustained the natural ecosystems.

Today, however, wildfires have become more frequent, more 

intense, larger and harder to contain. A wildfire “season” 

no longer exists. Instead, wildfires are a year-round event 

nationwide. In addition, wildfires impact entire communities 

in the United States, and these annual occurrences are not 

limited to the West. 

When wildfire enters WUI areas, where human development 

meets or intermingles with undeveloped wildland or 

vegetative fuels (NWCG, 2022) that are both fire dependent 

and fire prone, the effects on communities can be 

catastrophic, causing environmental and socioeconomic 

devastation. Wildfires within the current WUI create 

conditions that overwhelm response capabilities, resulting 

in billions of dollars in economic losses, damage to natural 

resources, devastation to communities and tragic loss of 

human life (The White House, 2021). 

Wildfire entering the WUI has become the norm each 

year as first responders deal with ever-increasing impacts 

and catastrophic property losses throughout the nation, 

but with the most dramatic increases in the western and 

southeastern states. Between 2005 and 2020, wildfires 

have destroyed more than 89,000 structures in the 

United States, including homes and businesses. The most 

damaging wildfires have occurred in the last few years, 

accounting for 62% of the structures lost over the last 15 

years (Headwaters Economics, 2020). In addition, as America’s WUI continues to grow by 

approximately 2 million acres per year (USFA, 2021), conditions may become worse. 

All these statistics alone beg us — force us — to ask why. Why is there a significant 

increase in the severity, frequency and impact of wildfire in America’s WUI? Perhaps more 

importantly, what actions are we going to take to better plan and prepare for, respond to, 

and protect America from this unavoidable threat? 

Wildland fire: 

Any non-structure fire that 

occurs in vegetation or natural 

fuels. Includes wildfires and 

prescribed fires (NWCG, 2022). 

Wildfires in the United States 

inflict an estimated economic 

loss of bet ween $77.4 to 

$378.7 billion each year. This 

includes everything from fire 

suppression to evacuations 

to property loss and recovery 

e f f o r t s ( E n v i r o n m e n t a l 

Protection Agency (EPA), 2021a).

Previous page photo: Ellijay, a fire-adapted community in the north Georgia mountains. (iStock)
Background 6

Background

In 2002, the U.S. secretaries of Agriculture, Defense, Homeland Security and the Interior 

established the WFLC to provide strategic recommendations and ensure accountability and 

effective implementation and coordination of the Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy 

(DOI, 2001; DOI, 1995). WFLC is an intergovernmental committee comprised of federal, 

state, tribal, county and municipal officials. In addition to leadership representation from 

the 4 departments and their corresponding agencies and bureaus, nonfederal members 

include 2 state governors, representatives of the National Governors’ Association, the NASF, 

the Intertribal Timber Council, the NACo, the NLC and the IAFC.

In 2009, WFLC began to develop the National Cohesive 

Wildland Fire Management Strategy (Cohesive Strategy) and 

released the final report in 2014, which identified 3 goals: 

Resilient Landscapes, Fire Adapted Communities, and Safe 

and Effective Wildfire Response. 2 years later, the White 

House convened a roundtable and issued the WildlandUrban Interface Federal Risk Mitigation Executive Order 

13728 (The White House, 2016).

Despite progress made because of these initiatives and 

measurable gains from programs such as Firewise USA®

and Ready, Set, Go!TM, as well as efforts of Fire Adapted 

Communities Learning Network and Fire Safe Councils, 

the loss of life to civilians, firefighters and other first 

responders, and socioeconomic devastation, continues to 

rise due to wildfire in the WUI. 

There are underlying and comprehensive fac tors 

contributing to this rising wildfire threat placing millions 

of Americans at risk. Specifically, these factors are a 

growing population, reduced land management practices, 

a dangerous increase of fuel buildup and climate change. 

These factors are increasing the vulnerability of our nation’s 

citizens and first responders to further loss. Action must be 

taken to minimize their impact.

Wildfire:

A wildland fire originating 

from an unplanned ignition, 

such as lightning, volcanoes, 

unauthorized and accidental 

human- caused f ires, and 

prescribed fires that are declared 

wildfires (NWCG, 2022).

Increased population in the WUI

As the United States population continues to grow, the 

development in the WUI expands. From 1990 to 2010, the 

size of the WUI grew by 33% to over 190 million acres, and 

the number of homes on these lands expanded by more 

than 41%. The latest data show that close to 99 million 

people, or one-third of our population, now live in the WUI 

(Radeloff et al., 2018). In addition, more than 46 million 

homes, with an estimated value of $1.3 trillion, in 70,000 

communities are now at risk from the impacts of wildfire 

(USFA, 2022). As wildfire impacts more residents in the WUI, 

it will escalate harm to health and property, businesses, 

infrastructure and communities.

Dixie Fire, 2021. Photo courtesy of CAL FIRE.
Background 7

Reduced land management practices and dangerous increase of 

fuel buildup

For many decades, fire-dependent landscapes or ecosystems like prairies and coniferous 

forest that depend on fire for germination and reproduction, especially in the West, have 

not been maintained. This lack of maintenance is due to various factors, including a lack of 

workforce capacity, funding, restricted prescribed burn opportunities, air quality impact 

and public perception. Fire suppression over the last century and past land management 

decisions, including reduced use of mechanical methods and prescribed fire as land 

management tools, have resulted in over 100 million acres of federal land at high or severe 

risk to wildfire, and many more acres of state, tribal and private land are also likely at risk 

(Government Accountability Office (GAO), 2019). 

The long-time exclusion of fire and mechanical thinning in these areas has contributed to 

unhealthy forest, grassland and brush (e.g., chaparral and palmetto) conditions, including 

increased ground fuels and “overstocking” (when too many trees occupy the same growing 

space and compete against each other for limited resources). These overgrown and 

dense natural areas are vulnerable to damaging effects of drought, disease and wildfire. 

Changes in America’s grass and rangelands have also increased the impacts of wildfire. 

The proliferation of invasive species, such as cheatgrass, has altered fire regimes and 

places these important habitats at risk.

Following page photo: Camp Fire, 2018. Photo courtesy of CAL Fire.
Background 8

The following are significant losses due to wildfires 

in the United States over the last decade (National 

Interagency Fire Center (NIFC), 2011-2021): 

ĵ 2011 — Texas: 5,900 structures damaged or destroyed. 

ĵ 2012 — Colorado: 3 civilian fatalities and 605 homes lost 

on the High Park and Waldo Canyon Fires.

ĵ 2013 — Arizona: 19 firefighter fatalities and 129 structures 

destroyed in the Yarnell Hill Fire.

ĵ 2014 — California: 341 residences destroyed; Washington: 

342 residences destroyed.

ĵ 2015 — Washington: 3 firefighter fatalities, over 1 million 

acres burned, and 342 residences destroyed.

ĵ 2016 — Gatlinburg, Tennessee: 14 fatalities, 2,121 

residences destroyed. 

ĵ 2017 — California: 7,778 residences destroyed; Florida: 

44 residences destroyed. 

ĵ 2018 — Paradise, California: 88 civilian and firefighter 

fatalities and over 18,800 structures lost in the Camp Fire.

ĵ 2019 — California: 315 residences destroyed; Alaska: 57 

residences destroyed. 

ĵ 2020 — Oregon: 11 civilian and firefighter fatalities and 

more than 3,000 structures destroyed; California: 4.2 

million acres burned, more than double the previous 

record, 10,500 structures destroyed, and 33 civilian and 

firefighter fatalities.

ĵ 2021 — California: 1,329 structures destroyed, 3 

firefighter injuries and 1 firefighter death, and over $1 

billion worth of timber resources destroyed. 
Background 9

Without changes to past fire suppression policies and land management practices in 

conjunction with new initiatives to reduce fuel buildup and manage resilient landscapes 

(WFLC, 2014), America’s communities will continue to experience catastrophic wildfire events. 

Climate change

Combining the above land stewardship challenges with an increase in prolonged droughts 

and warmer conditions associated with changing climate creates a recipe for fire disaster 

in the WUI, resulting in the loss of human lives and the cascading effects of environmental 

and socioeconomic devastation to communities for years to come (EPA, 2020). 

Climate change (long-term change in climate conditions) includes increased or decreased 

precipitation, flooding and droughts. These conditions, along with warmer and drier 

climates, can be associated with an increase in the frequency, intensity and duration of 

wildfires, which can make them more difficult to control.

“Wildfire can threaten people and homes, particularly as building expands in fire-prone 

areas. Wildfires around Los Angeles from 1990 to 2009 caused $3.1 billion in damages 

(unadjusted for inflation). Respiratory illnesses and life disruptions from the Station Fire 

north of Los Angeles in 2009 cost an estimated $84 per person per day (in 2009 dollars)” 

(U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP), 2017). While the increase in acres 

burning is alarming, the intensity and severity in which these wildfires are burning and 

the way they are impacting communities is even more disturbing.

Dixie Fire, 2021. Photo courtesy of CAL Fire.
Methodology 10

Methodology

In 2018, the WFLC discussed the need for a report that presents a path forward in making 

risk reduction improvements related to the losses caused by wildfire in the WUI. Based 

on this discussion, the USFA, in collaboration with the DOI and the USFS, and through 

a contract with the IAFC which also collaborated with the WFLC, conducted this project 

to identify opportunities for federal organizations to work with partners at all levels to 

address the challenges of wildfire in the WUI. 

In 2019, the 3 federal agencies collaborating on and funding this 

project (USFA, DOI and USFS) initially created a steering committee. 

The USFA as overall project manager contracted with the IAFC 

as the contract administrator. The steering committee and IAFC 

established objectives and timelines for the project. The steering 

committee, in collaboration with the contractor, identified 13 

major issues related to wildfire in the WUI on which stakeholders 

and SMEs would be surveyed. These 13 issues were firefighter 

health and safety, public health and safety, evacuations, forest 

and rangeland health and resiliency, climate change, community 

planning and resiliency, infrastructure and utilities, communication 

strategy and engagement operations, socioeconomic impacts, 

recovery, emerging technology, data use and modeling, and risk 

management in wildland fire.

The IAFC presented the identified issues in an online survey format 

that was shared with all interested stakeholders. The stakeholders 

and SMEs surveyed during this project were from the federal, state, 

local, territorial and tribal (SLTT) governments, and other NGOs. 

More specifically, these stakeholders and SMEs included wildland 

fire leaders, community planners and developers, law enforcement 

and emergency service organizations, and wildland fire and climate 

change academia. Each stakeholder and SME received this online 

survey, developed by IAFC, that asked for input on the current 

challenges within the 13 major issues and were asked to make 

recommendations to address each challenge. 

With the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic and in place of in-person 

meetings, the IAFC hosted virtual meetings and conference calls 

throughout the project to conduct additional discussion, research 

and review. Once all surveys were submitted, the IAFC systematically 

reviewed and qualitatively analyzed the survey input to identify 

consistent themes and interconnections emerging from the data and then organized 

the findings. This resulted in the identification of 33 major WUI challenges and led to 112 

recommendations that are equitable and scalable at a national, regional or local level. Each 

recommendation is detailed and specific to the organization(s) with the capability and 

responsibility to carry it out.

A lead writer, who was contracted in 2020, then compiled the 33 challenges and 112 

recommendations into this report, “Wildland Urban Interface (WUI): A Look at Issues and 

Resolutions,” which can be used to guide all levels of leadership, including Congress, to 

address the threat of wildfire in the WUI and help residents learn and adapt to living safely 

within these regions.

In 2002, the WFLC was 

established by the U.S. 

secretaries of the Interior, 

A griculture, Defense 

and Homeland Security 

to prov ide s t rateg ic 

recommendations and 

ensure accountability and 

effective implementation 

and coordination of the 

Federal Wildland Fire 

M a n a g e m e n t P o l i c y 

(DOI, 2001; DOI, 1995). 

The council, or WFLC, is 

an intergovernmental 

committee comprised of 

federal, SLTT, county and 

municipal officials.
Methodology 11
Issues and Recommendations 12

Issues and Recommendations

Issue 1: Firefighter health and safety

Overview

From 1990 to 2020, 534 firefighters were killed during wildland fire operations in the 

U.S. — an average of 18 fatalities per year (NWCG, 1990–2020). Firefighters responding to 

WUI fires face increasing physical and mental health risks due to both short- and long-term 

smoke and toxic exposures associated with the burning of vegetation and manufactured 

products. There is also substantial traumatic event exposure from the overwhelming size 

of the events and the immeasurable catastrophic losses they endure while protecting their 

neighborhoods, friends and families.

Challenge 1

Increased risk to firefighter health and safety from their exposure to hazardous smoke and 

toxic materials associated with fire suppression efforts in the WUI. Additionally, there is 

insufficient access to mental health resources for firefighters following wildfire response 

in the WUI.

Recommendations

1. WFLC should support efforts to secure funding for a longitudinal health study on the 

long-term impact of smoke and materials exposure to firefighters in the WUI.

ĵ Enlist National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety (NIOSH) as one of the 

lead agencies for the study.

ĵ The study should incorporate lifestyle data, all genders and ethnicities.

ĵ Prioritize the utilization of the Firefighter Cancer Registry Act of 2018 as a first step 

at the national and SLTT levels to begin understanding the problem of cancer in 

firefighters.

ĵ Ensure USFA can provide incident-level data for exposure tracking.

2. Federal and SLTT agencies should improve coordination with the Centers for Disease 

Control and Prevention (CDC), NVFC and NWCG in developing and disseminating 

information and resources for wildland firefighters and first responder mental and 

behavioral health, including identifying opportunities for collaborative research, 

support services, education and training.

ĵ Efforts should also be made to identify potential barriers to accessing resources 

and services, including institutional resistance, insurance coverage, training and 

peer support programs.

ĵ Consider utilizing the following:

Ý Wildland Firefighter Foundation’s “One Foot in the Black” suicide prevention 

and resilience program.

Ý National Fallen Firefighters Foundation’s (NFFF’s) “Fire Service Behavioral Health 

Management Guide” reference. 

Ý NWCG’s Mental Health Subcommittee.

Ý NVFC’s Share the LoadTM resources.

Previous page photo: Portland, Oregon skyline during wildfire. (iStock)
Issues and Recommendations 13

3. USFS, in collaboration with the Department of Homeland 

Security (DHS) Science and Technology Directorate (S&T), 

should support research and development of improved 

personal protective equipment (PPE) for dermal and respiratory 

protection, e.g., reduced skin exposures and respiratory systems 

specifically for WUI incidents. See also Challenge 4. 

ĵ USFS should expand current cooperation with the NIOSH 

National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory, 

DHS’s First Responders Resource Group, and DHS S&T and 

manufacturers to develop and test improved PPE.

ĵ SLTT fire agencies should be included in the findings and 

PPE development.

ĵ Increase the presence of women and minorities as subjects 

in this fire research (USFA, 2019).

Challenge 2

Insufficient access to training, proper PPE and funding to better 

equip, train and provide for a growing, inclusive firefighter 

workforce (builds capacity) that is prepared, well-equipped and 

trained for suppression tactics in the WUI.

Photo courtesy of BIA.

Recommendations

1. USFS, DOI and DHS/FEMA should further invest in the 

firefighting workforce at all levels by increasing support and 

funding for the rural and volunteer fire programs, e.g., Volunteer 

Fire Assistance (VFA) and State Fire Assistance (SFA).

ĵ DHS/FEMA should review and adjust its programs to provide 

additional equitable support and funding to assist SLTT career and volunteer fire 

agencies in higher-risk WUI areas and underserved communities.

ĵ Bureau of Land Management’s (BLM’s) equipment transfer program to local 

firefighting organizations is an excellent example of what should be utilized by 

other DOI bureaus.

ĵ USFS/NASF should assign a task group to review increasing the VFA population cap 

(currently 10,000 or less) and consider underserved communities.

ĵ DHS/FEMA, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and DOI should prioritize and 

increase additional funding to support SLTT career and volunteer fire service 

agencies specifically for WUI training, cross-training of structural firefighters, PPE 

and response capabilities. 

2. Expand or develop a national initiative, e.g., USFS’s “Life First,” to further protect 

firefighters responding to WUI incidents from unnecessary risk while protecting 

communities from wildland fire.

ĵ NWCG should support a national interagency effort with representation and 

participation from SLTT and federal fire organizations in developing the firefighter 

safety and decision-making initiative. 

ĵ Utilize the NFFF’s “Everyone Goes Home in the Wildland” program (NFFF, 2018).

3. NWCG should develop training.

ĵ Develop suppression strategies and tactics training within the “Incident Response 

Pocket Guide.”

ĵ Develop additional firefighter and mitigation training courses specific to the WUI.
Issues and Recommendations 14

ĵ All training resources should be made available nationwide, including the local 

level, for wildland and structural firefighters. Utilize the National Fire Academy and 

state fire academies to reach broader audiences 

of firefighters.

4. DOI, USFS and USFA should complete the research 

on gender-specific risks and solutions to prevent 

injuries on the job, focusing on adapting tasks, 

gear and training to the specific needs of women 

firefighters (USFA, 2019).

5. WFLC, in conjunction with the National Institute of 

Standards and Technology (NIST), should convene 

a group to evaluate the current mutual aid process 

and better utilize the “closest emergency response 

resources concept.”

ĵ Determine if the current process can be 

improved or if a new National Mutual Aid 

System needs to be developed.

ĵ Federal and SLTT representatives should be part 

of this evaluation and development process.

Challenge 3

Lack of accountability for firefighting resources and 

insufficient real-time fire modeling in the WUI that can 

support, integrate and provide timely information that 

helps keep firefighters informed, accounted for and 

safe in the WUI.

Dixie Fire, 2021. Photo courtesy of CAL FIRE.

Recommendations

1. Increase federal funding to develop the next-generation decision support tool (coupled 

fire-atmosphere interactions) for wildlands and WUI settings that replaces outdated 

empirical models (Rothermel-based). 

ĵ Consider integrating existing fire decision-making support models (e.g., U.S. 

Department of Defense (DOD) FireGuard and NIST Wildland Ember Exposure 

Models) to update and replace the Rothermel model. This will be a more efficient 

and effective process and avoids developing a new model from scratch.

ĵ Build on current work being conducted with DHS S&T and the University of California 

San Diego WIFIRE Lab.

2. WFLC, in collaboration with NIST and DHS S&T should support a working group to 

adopt a standardized system for accountability and tracking of resources and develop 

an implementation schedule for integration into the interagency wildland/structural 

fire service.

ĵ The technology should use standardized geographic information systems (GISs) 

that integrate with local and state systems.
Issues and Recommendations 15

Challenge 4

Limited acceptance of new WUI fire respirator technologies by wildland fire agencies. 

Education and understanding of the illness and injuries associated with toxic respiratory 

exposure will drive the desire and the use of WUI fire respirators by responders. Growth 

in demand will push development and technological advancement in the private sector.

Recommendation

1. WFLC, in conjunction with federal research agencies (i.e., DHS S&T, NIST, USFS), should 

develop an interagency position to support new respirator technology for WUI firefighters.

ĵ All federal, state, tribal and local fire agencies should support the development of 

wildland respirators and increase the awareness of the need to protect firefighter 

airways.

ĵ Utilize existing NFPA standards developed for respirators (NFPA 1984, Standard 

on Respirators for Wildland Fire-Fighting Operations and Wildland Urban Interface 

Operations) as appropriate.

ĵ Consider powered air-purifying respirators and the Wildland Scarf Respirator (DHS 

S&T, 2022).

Issue 2: Public health and safety

Overview

More than 46 million residences in 70,000 

WUI communities in the United States are 

currently at risk for wildfire (Manzello, 2014).

Wildfire events, such as the Gatlinburg, 

Tennessee, wildfire of 2016 where 14 lives 

were lost; the Camp Fire that destroyed 

Paradise, California, in 2018 and resulted in 

88 fatalities; as well as the wildfires of 2020 

in Oregon and California where 11 and 33 

lives were lost, show the ever-increasing 

danger that wildfire inflicts in the WUI. 

In addition, short- and long-term smoke 

impacts on civilian populations need to be 

considered. Preplanning helps reduce the 

negative impact of wildfire smoke (CDC, 

2021; EPA, 2021a; EPA, 2021b).

Carr Fire, 2018. Photo courtesy of CAL FIRE.

Challenge 1

Lack of research and solutions for the health hazards of smoke exposure during large and/

or long-duration wildfires, especially when structures are involved.

Recommendations

1. WFLC should build upon existing public education campaigns to include the public 

health trade-offs of wildfire smoke exposure versus how we can manage smoke under 

controlled conditions with prescribed fire as a means of reducing fuels and preventing 

long-term exposures from wildfires.
Issues and Recommendations 16

2. The EPA, CDC and SLTT public health agencies, in partnership with FEMA, should develop 

guidelines for emergency breathing shelters to ensure communities can build them 

into their preplanning process.

ĵ Guidelines should also increase public communication on safety measures to 

reduce their exposure to smoke.

ĵ The guidelines should include the National Institute of Environmental Health 

Services Worker Training Program. 

3. The EPA and WFLC should partner with the U.S. Department of Health and Human 

Services to learn more about the effects of wildfire on public health, including the 

consideration of underserved communities.

4. The EPA should develop an incentive program that allows more equitable access to 

low-cost air filtration systems for homes and personal use. The program should include 

developing best practices and code change proposals related to smoke intrusion in 

the built environment.

Issue 3: Evacuations

Overview

Evacuations from wildfire in the WUI are 

substantially different in comparison to 

organized evacuations before a hurricane. 

Wildfire evacuations tend to come with 

very short notice, limited information and 

unpredictable wildfire behavior weather 

pattern movement, resulting in rapidly 

changing and dangerous situations. The 

reality for many WUI communities is that 

residents may not have time or existing 

road infrastructure to evacuate safely 

from an area threatened by wildfire.

There is a need for first responders 

to engage residents in pre-evacuation 

planning and coordination. A whole 

of community approach that involves 

e v e r y o n e , i n c l u d i n g u n d e r s e r v e d 

populations and residents with disabilities, 

must be incorporated in this process.

Burnt out cars during the Marshall Fire. Boulder, Colorado, 2021.

Challenge 1

There is a need for increased levels of communication and planning from SLTT leadership 

and the federal government to the public about wildfire safety measures, especially 

warnings and evacuations.

Recommendations

1. DHS/FEMA/USFA, and S&T in coordination with SLTT management response agencies, 

should research and develop enhanced community warning systems in high-risk areas 

with grant support from pre- and post-fire mitigation grants.
Issues and Recommendations 17

ĵ Consider improving the FEMA Integrated Public Alert and Warning System (IPAWS) 

to include wildfires and develop an interface with social media platforms.

ĵ Utilize geofence capability to notify all devices in a specific area, review opt-in 

systems versus opt-out systems, and emphasize hardening and redundancy of 

critical community communication infrastructure.

ĵ Identify and include safety zones in the warning systems.

2. WFLC, FEMA/USFA and SLTT emergency management agencies should develop 

evacuation communications in multiple languages, including American Sign Language, 

for use at the local level.

ĵ Include picture-based communication tools.

ĵ Fund and facilitate access to high-quality, professional translation and interpretation 

services to assist with messaging.

3. USFS, DOI, NIST and DHS/FEMA should fund research to develop best practices for 

residents that cannot evacuate. 

Challenge 2

Many established communities have poor 

emergency vehicle access and evacuee 

egress (1 way in/out; congested traf fic 

flow; steep, narrow, overgrown roadways), 

inadequate water resources (hydrants), and 

dangerous wildfire design, such as buildings 

on steep slopes and hilltop development. 

These preexisting conditions make early 

evacuation warnings, temporary safe zones 

and evacuation signage, and training critical 

to public safety in WUI communities.

Wildfire evacuation. (iStock)

Recommendations

1. WFLC and SLTT law enforcement and 

emergency management agencies in 

collaboration with federal agencies 

should develop best practices for wildfire 

evacuations that include community safe 

zones along evacuation routes that can be 

used as a “last resort safety zone.” These 

best practices should define how to design these safety zones, specifically what fuel 

setbacks will be needed, describe what capacity (persons and vehicles) they should 

have, as well as describe their recommended density, amount and location.

ĵ Best practices should include regional differences to be incorporated into local 

pre-wildfire planning and mitigation efforts utilizing Fire Safe Councils, Citizen’s 

Emergency Response Team (CERT) groups and other local organizations including 

schools, hospitals, animal rescue groups, etc.

ĵ Best practices must also account for those with disabilities and limited English 

proficiency.

ĵ Best practices should be developed with stakeholders that have real-life experience 

and SMEs.
Issues and Recommendations 18

2. NOAA, NIST, DHS S&T, FEMA and emergency management agencies should examine 

how existing programs, such as the National Fire Danger Rating System and the 

National Predictive Services, can be expanded to inform the public better and create 

increased situational awareness regarding wildfire prevention, home preparedness 

and evacuation.

ĵ Assess how other countries, particularly Australia, have used fire warning systems 

and what they have learned about more effective practices. 

3. USFS, DOD, NASA, NIST and DHS S&T should develop and fund real-time, next-generation 

wildfire and transportation modeling programs, e.g., WIFIRE, that help guide emergency 

responders on evacuation planning. 

ĵ Ensure models and funding for training are available for disadvantaged, rural and 

at-risk communities.

ĵ Funding should be available to support planning, preparedness, training and drills 

at the community level.

4. SLTT agencies and community leaders should spearhead efforts to plan and prepare for, 

fund, and implement community plans that incorporate wildfire evacuation best practices. 

ĵ Implementation should include developing a partnership with FEMA regions and SLTT 

agencies to support community evacuation planning throughout the United States.

ĵ Best practices should include proper ingress/egress for both fire suppression 

response and evacuation.

Issue 4: Forest and rangeland health and resiliency

Overview

W i l d f i r e s h a v e t h e m o s t 

des truc ti ve and expensi ve 

impact in the WUI. However, 

comparatively more acreage is 

burned by wildfires in remote 

and less developed forest and 

rangeland areas. To reduce the 

number and intensity of wildfires 

impacting communities, resilient 

forests and rangelands are 

needed (USFA, 2022). 

Like hurricanes, floods and 

o t h e r n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s , 

wildf ires do not adhere to 

jurisdictional boundaries and 

burn both public and private 

lands. Isolated efforts to restore 

forest and rangeland resiliency 

t o p r o t e c t c o m m u n i t i e s , 

watersheds and infrastructures 

are often not enough due to the 

size and frequency of megafires 

(a wildfire that burns more than 

100,000 acres).

Source: NIFC, 2021.
Issues and Recommendations 19

Challenge 1

Currently, land management agencies, private landowners and SLTT governments lack the 

resources to treat and mitigate acres at the scale or rate necessary to reduce the impact 

of wildfire threats. While several authorities are available to facilitate cross-boundary 

coordination and execution, these are underutilized and underfunded.

Recommendations

1. WFLC should work with the Community Mitigation Assistance Team (CMAT) to expand 

trained resource ordering through the Interagency Resource Ordering Capability to 

increase wildfire mitigation efforts.

ĵ Consider SLTT and federal qualifications and crosswalks that utilize well-trained 

practitioners from all forms of government and NGOs, such as Fire Adapted 

Communities Learning network and others.

2. WFLC should continue to support expanding programs that help communities identify 

and address wildfire mitigation barriers; create local, sustainable mitigation partnerships; 

and increase risk reduction actions across land ownerships, e.g., CMAT. 

3. USFS and DOI should expand their available workforce for wildfire mitigation efforts by 

increasing the use of private sector-qualified contractors and nonprofit organizations.

ĵ Efforts should include increasing educational opportunities for accomplishing 

wildfire mitigation efforts.

4. All agencies should collaborate together to expand the availability of wildfire mitigation 

training and recognition, including NFPA’s Certified Mitigation Specialist, Coalitions 

and Collaboratives, Inc.’s Mitigation Best Practices and the NWCG Mitigation Specialist 

(currently in development).

5. WFLC should support developing and implementing a nationwide additional reporting 

matrix for community protection, such as homes and structures protected rather than 

only acres treated and cost per acre to treat.

ĵ Consider reviewing BIA’s current mitigation reporting requirements.

6. DOI and USFS should develop and implement plans to shift seasonal firefighting 

positions to yearlong employees. This will provide more experienced firefighters and 

an increased workforce capacity that can train and specialize in wildfire, prescribed 

fire, fuel management and other mitigation efforts.

ĵ Plans should include salaries, benefits, training and experience required.

7. USFS and DOI should continue to expand the pace and scale of cross-boundary fuel 

reduction projects collaboratively with their partners on federal and nonfederal 

lands nationwide. 

8. WFLC should continue to work with the EPA, Army Corps of Engineers, Council on 

Environmental Quality, USDA and DOI to explore internal agency processes that 

improve the efficiency and effectiveness in decision-making and public engagement 

under the National Environmental Policy Act and associated laws, regulations and 

executive orders which are critical to increasing the pace and scale of fuel reduction 

projects in and around the WUI. 

ĵ Utilize existing categorical exemptions for mitigation and fuel reduction projects 

in the WUI.

ĵ Articulate roadblocks that reduce the pace and scale of wildfire mitigation and 

develop solutions to address them.
Issues and Recommendations 20

9. WFLC, USFS and DOI should expand opportunities for SLTT, federal and NGOs (such as 

TNC, Tall Timbers and others) to cooperate and share resources, reimburse expenses, 

and coordinate efforts across boundaries on prescribed fire, fuel management and 

other mitigation projects.

10. WFLC should support a task force to set standard policies for the use of wildland fire 

for resource benefits where appropriate.

ĵ Policies should include guidelines on when, where and how to utilize this tool to 

reduce threats to communities.

ĵ A task force should include DOI, USFS, NASF, national stakeholder organizations, 

SLTT fire agencies and other community stakeholders.

Challenge 2

Invasive species alter the natural forest and rangeland vegetative environments, increasing 

wildfire intensities and changing the return intervals of wildfire on the landscape.

Recommendations

1. WFLC should support the National Invasive Species Council initiative to address the 

impacts of fire on invasive species and the impacts of invasive species on wildfire activity.

2. DOI and USFS should support increased funding to expand the use of active management 

on both public and private lands and support incentives that reduce wildfire threats 

from overstocked forests, dense brush and rangelands infested with invasive species.

3. USDA should support, fund and prioritize fuel reduction practices for private landowners 

in high wildfire risk areas, including programs such as the Environmental Quality 

Incentives Program (EQIP), Emergency Forest Restoration Program (EFRP) and other 

USDA programs. 

4. WFLC should establish a working group that includes federal, SLTT and private SMEs, 

such as the National Cattlemen’s Beef Association, to develop policy that decreases 

barriers for grazing and supports fuel reduction around communities near federal lands. 

Challenge 3

The loss of wood utilization infrastructure and markets has increased the cost and ability to 

accomplish fuel reduction projects. This is particularly acute in underserved communities. 

Additionally, existing cost-share programs typically exclude underserved communities. 

Recommendations

1. USFS and states should enlist economic development authorities to improve markets 

for the wood and materials removed in hazardous fuel reduction projects. 

ĵ Improvement should include developing programs that help train the workforce 

needed to accomplish this work.

2. USDA should provide additional funding through its programs with the Farm Service 

Agency (FSA), Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) and USFS for nonindustrial 

private landowners for wildfire reduction projects adjacent to WUI communities.

ĵ USDA should consider removing or reducing cost-share assistance required in 

these programs where there is a direct benefit of reducing the wildfire threat 

adjacent to the WUI.
Issues and Recommendations 21

3. DOI and USFS, with support from NASF, should develop new grant programs and 

implement policies that research, build and invest in small-diameter wood products 

industries that utilize healthy forests and wildfire reduction project materials. 

4. USFS and DOI should consider long-term wood utilization contracts for fuel reduction 

measures to support new wood using market development. 

Challenge 4

Resource limitations, smoke and fire 

liabilit y concerns, and landowner 

ownership complexities challenge 

agency and organizational abilities 

to signif icantly accomplish more 

prescribed fire and other fuel mitigation 

treatments.

Recommendations

1. W F LC and t he w ildland f ire 

community should support the 

passage and implementation of 

funding for a national prescribed 

fire act. 

ĵ The national prescribed fire act 

should include increased liability 

protection; a national prescribed 

burner insurance program; 

increased public education, 

research, training and resource 

availability; and requirements 

for cooperation and collaboration between federal, state, tribal and local entities 

in support of more prescribed fire on the landscape.

2. The Coalition of Prescribed Fire Councils, NASF and Tall Timbers Research Station, and 

TNC should develop template liability protection language that can be used at the federal, 

state and local levels for prescribed fire burn bosses and certified burn managers.

3. DOI, USFS and all WFLC members should recognize, support and learn from 

indigenous and traditional burning practices for cultural purposes in support of 

wildfire mitigation efforts.

ĵ Identify opportunities to integrate beneficial practices within modern programs.

4. FEMA, with input from relevant NGOs, DOI and USFS, should update its pre- and 

post-wildfire mitigation grant programs to include prescribed fire as an acceptable 

mitigation practice. 

ĵ Funding priorities should be focused on WUI-adjacent community fuel mitigation 

efforts.

5. USFS and DOI should increase priorities for smoke model development and decision 

support tools that are scalable and help inform decisions by SLTT health and public 

policymakers. Prioritize the development of operational smoke models that can be 

used in real-time by fire managers.

Fuel management with prescribed fire on the Pompeys 

Pillar National Monument in Montana. Photo courtesy 

of BLM.
Issues and Recommendations 22

Issue 5: Climate change 

Overview

Throughout much of the United States and worldwide, 

wildfires are growing in intensity, size and destructiveness. 

Climate scientists are beginning to correlate the 

increasingly destructive nature of wildfires with warming 

global temperatures.

In the western U.S., the annual acreage burned could 

increase 2 to 6 times from the current numbers by the 

middle of the century because of the effects of climate 

change. The southeastern U.S. has the potential for 

larger fires (greater than 12,000 acres) to increase by 

300% to 400% by midcentury (USGCRP, 2017).

Challenge 1

Uncertainty regarding how climate change will impact 

future wildfires, including the length of wildfire seasons, 

and the ability to use prescribed fire. Additionally, other 

natural disasters, such as tornadoes and hurricanes, 

may complicate or exacerbate wildfire threat.

Recommendations

1. Federal and SLTT agencies, as well as nonprofit and 

local wildfire partners, should support a substantial 

increase to the pace and scale of prescribed fire 

through the passage of a national prescribed fire act. 

2. WFLC should continue to support fire-adapted communities by implementing the 

Cohesive Strategy’s 3 goals: resilient landscapes, fire-adapted communities, and safe 

and effective coordinated fire response.

3. USFS and DOI should review the need for better alignment of resources with changing 

fire regimes.

View of fire whirl created during Chaparrel Fire. 

Photo courtesy of CAL FIRE.

Storm surge damage caused by Hurricane Ike. Bolivar Peninsula, 

Texas, 2018. Photo courtesy of NOAA/Houston/Galveston 

National Weather Service Forecast Office; Houston Office of 

Emergency Management.

Tropical Storm Imelda causes closure of Interstate 10 in 

Houston, Texas due to high water. (iStock)
Issues and Recommendations 23

ĵ The review should implement studies to determine if certain seasonal firefighting 

resources should be converted to full-time positions to support both wildfire 

response and wildfire mitigation programs.

4. BIA should consider increasing resiliency funding available to tribes as recommended 

by the National Congress of American Indians.

Issue 6: Community planning and resiliency

Overview

More than 46 million residences in 70,000 communities in the United States are at risk 

for wildfire because of the increase 

in suburban development in the 

WUI (USFA , 2022). Preparedness 

efforts and risk reduction are shared 

responsibilities; they call for the 

involvement of everyone, not just 

the government. Joining forces will 

help reduce the impact on our nation 

(FEMA, 2020). 

Challenge 1

Many SLTT agencies cannot access 

FEMA Hazard Mitigation funding for 

wildland fuel mitigation projects. Many 

states have a disconnect between 

wildf ire mitigation planning and 

funding and other disaster mitigation 

planning and funding. While federal 

wildland fire agencies work directly 

with state forestry agencies, FEMA 

works directly with state emergency 

management agencies. There is often 

minimal coordination and collaboration 

at federal or state levels regarding 

mitigation project planning and funding.

Recommendations

1. WFLC and its SLTT partners working 

with FEMA should develop a list 

of programmatic, regulatory or 

statutor y changes needed to 

allow additional FEMA funding for 

hazardous fuel reduction projects.

ĵ A llow each s t ate to have 

2 Governor ’s Authorized 

Representatives (GARs), 1 which 

would specifically address wildland fire mitigation projects.

Wildfire community meeting. Photo courtesy of FEMA.

Preplanning with railroad crews in the event of a wildfire. 

Photo courtesy of CAL FIRE.
Issues and Recommendations 24

2. DOI should develop a suite of programs in their bureaus that allow greater engagement 

with communities such as USFS’s SFA or VFA programs.

Challenge 2

Developing climate-adapted, fireresistant and resilient homes and 

infrastructure in the WUI is difficult 

due to associated costs, homeowner 

desires for aesthetics and the lack of 

knowledge regarding resilient building 

practices. Defensible space standards 

and codes are widely misunderstood 

a n d n o t w i d e l y e m b r a c e d b y 

homeowners in the WUI.

Recommendation

1. WFLC should form a working group, 

including NGOs that are already 

developing codes and standards 

for wildfire-resilient construction, 

such as NIST, NFPA, ICC and IBHS.

ĵ The working group should 

identify immediate, short-term 

and long-term gaps in the 

availability and enforceability 

of wildfire-resilient building 

prac tices; identif y viable 

solutions for filling the gaps and 

addressing equity concerns.

ĵ The working group should address how to ensure the community is built back for 

wildfire resiliency. 

ĵ The working group should evaluate and develop strategies for local communities 

and state governments to adopt model building codes for wildfire resiliency, such 

as the International Wildland Urban Interface Code, and develop best practices 

based on research.

ĵ The working group should include the opportunity for voluntary or beyond-code 

standards to be recognized and adopted by local jurisdictions.

Challenge 3

There is a major disconnect in most places between land use planning and wildfire planning. 

Fire-resilient land planning and building codes are not widely adopted in WUI communities.

Recommendations

1. SLTT policymakers should support the WFLC working group (Challenge 2a) on the topic 

of developing climate-adapted, fire-resistant and resilient homes and infrastructure. 

ĵ NGOs, such as IAFC, NLC and NACo, should support the implementation of these 

recommendations.

Aerial view of defensible space. Photo courtesy of NIFC.
Issues and Recommendations 25

2. NIST and the Joint Fire Sciences Program, with support from USFS, DOI, DHS S&T and 

USFA, should increase fire research opportunities to develop and implement nextgeneration code standards that address modern wildfires utilizing the best available 

science and review of past wildfire losses. 

ĵ Efforts should include national codes and standards-making organizations.

3. USFS and DOI should integrate Community Wildfire Protection Plans (CWPPs) with other 

land management plans, including all-hazard mitigation plans, and/or fire management 

plans to facilitate fuels treatments across multiple jurisdictions.

4. SLTT agencies should consider CWPPs the most useful at the county and fire district 

level while utilizing the Ready, Set, Go! program; Fire Safe Councils; Fire Adapted 

Communities Learning network; and Firewise USA at the community level to allow 

for better community engagement and ease of development and implementation. 

Challenge 4

Community planning often occurs without sufficient collaboration.

Recommendations

1. DHS/FEMA/USFA, DOI and USDA should include the WFLC with the Mitigation Framework 

Leadership Group to coordinate mitigation efforts across federal and SLTT agencies.

2. WFLC should develop a leader’s intent that promotes agency participation in community 

planning along with SLTT members of communities. 

ĵ Review successful state programs that employ wildfire mitigation specialists who 

support collaboration with the community planning processes. 

3. WFLC should support wildfire hazard assessments that include projections of future 

wildfire risk as well as projected changes in population and land use. 

ĵ Future fire assessments should jointly prioritize mitigation projects around 

communities across federal, SLTT and private lands. 

Issue 7: Infrastructure and utilities 

Overview

Wildfires impact multiple sectors of our nation’s 

economy, including the infrastructure and utility 

sectors. Infrastructure and utilities can include 

human elements of the environment such as 

communication towers, power grids, water 

utilities, transportation corridors and community 

watersheds (DHS et al., 2019).

Challenge 1

There is a need for greater collaboration between 

communities, land management agencies and 

utilities to increase fire resiliency, investments 

and cross-boundary project coordination and 

expansion.

Wildfire burning under a high-voltage electrical 

transmission line. (iStock)
Issues and Recommendations 26

Recommendations

1. WFLC should develop a working group that includes the U.S. Department of Energy’s 

(DOE’s) Office of Electricity, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, NIST and utility 

partners to design and implement regional pilot projects and workshops with utility 

providers intended to coordinate and integrate utility wildfire mitigation efforts with 

SLTT fire and emergency services.

ĵ The pilot project should set standards for coordination and communication between 

utility providers and local fire service agencies. 

ĵ The pilot project should also develop a standard template that encourages and 

reflects wildfire risk coordination and prioritization concerning key infrastructure 

components for local communities.

ĵ Consider facilitating workshops for utility partners to share wildfire mitigation 

best practices and experiences.

2. WFLC, in conjunction with the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, Energy Sector 

Government Coordination Council and the Electricity Subsector Coordinating Council, 

should convene a working group of utility providers, utility regulators and wildland 

fire research entities to determine immediate research necessary to help prevent and 

reduce the impacts of wildfire associated on utilities. 

3. WFLC should establish a working group that includes utility organizations, public utility 

commissions and utility associations to develop wildfire safe standards for all utility 

infrastructure in the WUI and forest and range environments based on research. 

ĵ These standards can then be incorporated into CWPPs and other wildfire mitigation 

plans and programs.

ĵ Consider including required utility participation in CWPP development, recognizing 

utility watershed, water distribution, gas, electric and communication infrastructure. 

Challenge 2

The cost to create resilient utility infrastructures can be beyond the ability of many 

communities and utility companies. Grant funding is complicated, arduous and timeconsuming to receive and utilize.

Recommendation

1. FEMA should convene a working group with NASF, USFA, DOI, EPA and DOE to review 

and update grant programs, such as Building Resilient Infrastructure and Communities 

(BRIC), to better utilize funding at the ground level for wildfire mitigation projects.

ĵ Consider processes that would facilitate wildfire mitigation to include utilities and 

infrastructure in underserved, rural and tribal communities.

ĵ Consider including nonprofit organizations and SLTT entities in the federal funding 

review process to ensure the equitable distribution of resources.

Issue 8: Communications strategy and engagement operations 

Overview

Communication in the digital age has evolved dramatically in the last few decades and 

continues to transform daily. The worldwide COVID-19 pandemic has severely limited 

in-person communication and further highlights the public’s dependency on digital 

communication, especially social media. 

Since its inception in 1996, social media has reached half of the 7.7 billion people in the world. 

Social network platforms almost tripled their total user base in the last decade, from 970 
Issues and Recommendations 27

million in 2010 to the number passing 3.81 billion worldwide users in 2020. 70% of the total 

U.S. population have social network accounts, regardless of age. As of 2021, the average user 

has 8.6 accounts on different networking sites, and popular platforms have over 66% of their 

monthly users logging in to use social media daily (Dean, 2021). 

Effectively reaching various audiences is complex 

and requires traditional (television, radio, print) and 

digital (social media, video, audio/visual graphics) 

communication tactics. Expertise within all the 

mediums and specialties as well as wildland fire 

knowledge is critical for communication professionals 

responsible for reaching, educating and engaging the 

various audiences, especially residents living in WUI 

communities. Research shows that increasing funding 

for wildfire prevention education and communication 

can significantly reduce wildfire-related losses and 

suppression costs (Hermansen-Baez et al., 2011).

Challenge 1

Unified messages from the wildland fire community. 

Clear messages on wildfire risks, challenges and 

opportunities to prevent and prepare for wildfire in the 

WUI are needed. Inconsistent messaging confuses the 

public and policymakers.

2021 Wildfire Preparedness Week Kick-Off Press 

Conference, Orinda, California. Photo courtesy 

of CAL FIRE.

Recommendations

1. WFLC, collaborating with the USFS; DOI; FEMA/USFA; 

and the NWCG Communication, Education, and 

Prevention Committee (CEPC), should create a strategic communication coordinating 

group to provide consistent wildfire messaging and help align wildfire prevention and 

mitigation outreach across the federal and SLTT spectrum.

ĵ Ensure messaging promotes the Cohesive Strategy vision, guiding principles and 

goals as a national priority in all relevant policy, budget justification and other 

strategic communication opportunities.

ĵ Encourage WFLC member agencies and organizations to communicate consistent 

messaging about “living with wildland fire” or “how to live with fire” within the 

context of everyday life and utilize significant events as opportunities to promote 

Cohesive Strategy goals.

ĵ Build partnerships, e.g., EPA, CDC, DHS/FEMA/USFA and Department of 

Transportation, and develop communication channels to help disseminate wildfire 

messaging to new audiences, expanding a focus on WUI and wildland fire and 

implementing the Cohesive Strategy.

2. All federal and SLTT agencies should integrate social science in the planning, engagement 

and communications strategies that tie outreach to a specific local call to action (McCool 

et al., 2002).
Issues and Recommendations 28

Challenge 2

Lack of understanding about the concepts and differences of prescribed fire and wildfire, 

including the acceptance of prescribed fire. Additionally, there is a lack of education on 

both types of fire for new residents moving into the WUI areas.

Recommendations

1. EPA and WFLC, in partnership with NASF, 

the Coalition of Prescribed Fire Councils, 

TNC, Tall Timbers Research Station and Land 

Conservancy, and public health agencies 

should collaboratively develop consistent 

and improved messages.

ĵ Messaging should focus on the benefits 

of prescribed fire, wildfire risk reduction 

and ecological benefits.

ĵ Me s s age s should include how 

prescribed fire is planned, including 

permitting, smoke management, 

desired objectives, environmental 

conditions, and required personnel, 

equipment and training.

2. USFS, DOI, NASF, TNC, Tall Timbers Research 

Station and Land Conservancy, and others 

should develop improved messaging and 

public engagement through a national 

education campaign on the short-term, 

low-impact risks and smoke production 

from prescribed fire versus the longterm, high-impact risks and impacts from 

wildfires. 

3. SLT T fire agencies should establish 

and foster relationships with local 

meteorologists to support prescribed fire 

and wildfire messages. These partnerships 

will reach greater audiences and are viewed 

as reliable, science-based resources.

4. SLTT fire agencies should meet new 

residents on traditional and digital media 

platforms. 

ĵ Most people utilize smartphone apps 

to find their new home and community. 

Include these mediums in outreach 

efforts as well as real estate and 

apartment associations.

ĵ Notify residents that the neighborhood, 

community and/or region is subject 

to wildfire mitigation efforts such as 

prescribed burning.

Prescribed fire as part of a fuel reduction project. 

Photo courtesy of CAL FIRE.

Successful prescribed fire. Photo courtesy of CAL FIRE.
Issues and Recommendations 29

Challenge 3

Limited funding for local wildfire coordination and 

communication. Without adequate support, community 

outreach and education are inadequate.

Recommendations

1. Federal and SLTT agencies should invest in wildfire 

prevention and mitigation programs and hire 

wildfire mitigation specialists whose jobs are to help 

communities become fire resilient.

2. State and local agencies should stay consistently 

connected with the public to understand what they 

value and address key local concerns and barriers to 

empower them to prepare for and prevent wildfire.

ĵ Ensure resources are easy to access, relatable, 

based on research and in layperson’s terms.

ĵ Utilize recent and relevant stories that connect on 

a local level.

3. SLTT and federal agencies should develop a communications infrastructure that 

supports and meets the needs of diverse audiences through digital resources.

4. SLTT and federal agencies should invest in specialized communications personnel with 

hard skill sets that can merge both social science and forest/fire science to develop 

skill sets needed to encourage residents to take wildfire mitigation actions. Specialized 

communication personnel will decrease net costs long term and lag time when working 

with non-forest/fire professionals who struggle with understanding messaging. 

5. WFLC, working collaboratively with the NWCG CEPC, USFA, DOI and FEMA/USFA, should 

convene a working group focused on language access 

to ensure timely and accurate wildfire information 

availability before, during and after a wildfire.

Community engagement with Afghan refugees. 

Photo courtesy of CAL FIRE.

Issue 9: Socioeconomic impacts 

Overview

When wildfire enters the WUI, communities are impacted 

in many ways. Typically, fire agencies only track the cost to 

suppress wildfires as well as structures lost. These agencies 

usually do not evaluate the cascading economic and 

environmental impacts associated with wildfire and related 

smoke in the WUI. Examples include municipal watershed 

loss, transportation and utility disruption, business and job 

loss, loss of community tax base, the hidden cost of healthrelated issues from wildfire smoke, and the psychological 

stress associated with these very traumatic events.

Wildfires in the United States inflict an economic loss 

of $63 billion to $285 billion each year. This includes 

everything from fire suppression to evacuations to 

property loss and recovery efforts (Thomas et al., 2017). 

San Francisco, California, Sept. 9, 2020: The sky 

across California darkened and stayed orange 

during day as smoke from many wildfires 

across the state created a massive smoke 

cloud changing the sunlight to a perpetual 

orange glow. (iStock/Jason Doly)
Issues and Recommendations 30

A community’s ability to respond to a wildfire and protect itself can be a socioeconomic 

indicator of its ability to recover fully from the impacts of wildfire. Research indicates that 

low-income households are more likely to have lower to no fire response capabilities than 

higher-income households (Lynn & Gerlitz, 2005).

Challenge 1

There is a lack of understanding about wildfire’s true financial and personal cost; there is 

not always equitable treatment of underserved groups.

Recommendations

1. WFLC should support the Council of Western 

State Foresters in their efforts to update the 

true cost of wildfire. 

2. WFLC should develop a report of the true 

cost of wildfire for the entire United States 

by 2023.

3. WFLC should convene a working group 

focused on diversity, equity and inclusion 

to examine the existing inequities of 

the impact of wildfire in underserved 

communities.

ĵ The working group should make 

recommendations for federal wildfire 

programs to better meet the needs of 

all residents.

ĵ The working group should be composed 

of diverse stakeholders, including 

those traditionally underrepresented 

in wildfire planning.

A burnt down business building after the Camp Fire in Paradise, 

California, in 2018. (iStock)

Challenge 2

Underinsured and uninsurable households residing in the WUI. This situation makes it 

more difficult to rebuild and return to normal while mitigating and rebuilding in a resilient 

manner following a wildfire.

Recommendation

1. WFLC, working with NGOs (such as Headwaters Economics, NFPA and IBHS), should 

form a working group with a representative sample of insurance providers and/or 

insurance trade groups and insurance regulators from wildfire-prone states to identify 

and develop solutions for assessing, evaluating and incentivizing climate-adapted, 

fire-resistant and resilient homes and businesses in the communities with WUI risk. 

Challenge 3

Wildfires can have significant economic impacts on communities including but not limited 

to evacuations and sheltering costs, fire damage repairs, repairs from suppression 

damage, debris removal and the interruption to tourism affecting commerce.
Issues and Recommendations 31

Recommendation

1. FEMA should expand on their Preliminary Damage Assessment Teams to include 

wildfire-related issues such as burned area restoration on nonfederal lands that can 

support efforts in and around wildfire-impacted communities. 

ĵ Expansion should include deployable resources, such as Burned Area Emergency 

Response (BAER) teams, that come in after a wildfire impacts a community.

ĵ These teams should provide additional expertise on the recovery assistance 

programs related to wildfires and available to impacted homeowners and businesses.

ĵ States should also develop post-wildfire recovery teams.

ĵ Army Corps of Engineer’s Silver Jackets Program, the U.S. Geological Services 

(USGS), NRCS and FSA programs should integrate with these post-wildfire efforts.

ĵ CMATs serve under the authority of the USFS and are designed to help communities 

build sustainable local capacity for community wildfire mitigation during high-risk 

times before, during and after a wildfire when awareness for risk reduction and 

the likelihood of action is highest.

Challenge 4

Vulnerable homeowners, renters and communities with limited resources will require 

more focused mitigation efforts.

Recommendations

1. WFLC, working collaboratively with FEMA and the U.S. 

Census Bureau, USFA and DOI, and in conjunction 

with federal and SLTT agencies, should develop and 

implement a process to map high wildfire risk in 

underserved communities and additional research 

measures to concentrate mitigation support in these 

areas.

ĵ Expand the Wildfire Risk to Communities Project to 

ensure it fully captures underserved communities. 

2. FEMA, DOI and USDA should support at-risk and lowerincome residents through multiparty, leveraged funding 

initiatives with less burdensome match and reporting 

requirements.

ĵ Agencies should acknowledge that home-hardening 

activities are an allowable grant match. Allow “softmatch” to come in the form of home-hardening 

activities.

ĵ Support additional funding to areas where residents need additional support, 

such as rural, tribal and low-income communities, where the requirements for 

the match are reduced.

ĵ Consider making funding available based on income demographics, e.g., below 

poverty level. 

ĵ Reduce environmental compliance requirements for activities such as home 

hardening that have no potential to impact the environment adversely.

After the Camp Fire in Paradise, California, in 2018. 

(iStock)
Issues and Recommendations 32

Issue 10: Recovery 

Overview

Wildfires can have a traumatic ef fect on 

communities. Minimizing displacement and 

expediting rebuilding is critical to reducing 

the social and economic impacts of wildfire on 

communities. Recovery plans and procedures 

for these potential impacts should be developed 

and community staff trained well in advance of 

the actual event. Rebuilding with fire-resilient 

structures is critical to long-term resilience.

Challenge 1

BAER teams are currently limited to federal 

lands, including tribal lands, and do not 

provide critical rehabilitation efforts on state, 

local or private lands.

Burned neighborhood from Marshall wildfire, Louisville, Colorado, 

in 2021. (iStock)

Recommendation

1. USFS, DOI and DHS/FEMA should support 

congressional approval to develop a new 

federal policy that allows BAER teams 

to conduct rehabilitation work across 

jurisdictional boundaries, including private 

lands that are deemed at high risk to local 

communities. 

ĵ FEMA funding should be incorporated into this cross-jurisdictional process for 

private lands work completed by BAER teams or state resources if available.

ĵ USDA should prioritize and streamline programs such as NRCS’s EQIP to assist 

farmers and ranchers with recovery following a wildfire.

ĵ States should develop state BAER teams.

Challenge 2

Wildfire recovery programs are not timely and effective to help the victims recover and 

build a fire-resilient future.

Recommendation

1. NASF, IAFC, NACo, NLC, TNC, International Association of Fire Fighters, the Army Corps 

of Engineer’s Silver Jackets Program, USGS, NASF, the American Forest Foundation 

(AFF) and the greater wildland fire community should pursue congressional direction 

to revise federal programs and increase funding for post-wildfire recovery efforts that 

streamline and provide for better utilization of current programs.

ĵ FEMA should increase the BRIC noncompetitive allocations, specifically for postwildfire-related projects in the WUI.

ĵ FSA should streamline and improve the effectiveness of the EFRP that has been 

designed to help with forest recovery and resiliency efforts.

ĵ SLTT SMEs should be involved in the program improvement process.

ĵ SLTT agencies should be trained to utilize recovery grant programs.
Issues and Recommendations 33

Challenge 3

The recovery process for homeowners and landowners is confusing, with no guidebook 

to help direct citizens after a wildfire. Impacted citizens are left with confusing processes, 

inconsistent tools and complicated funding mechanisms that slow recovery. Agencies must 

develop processes for a coordinated response to improve recovery efforts. Educational 

materials are needed that direct and support residents on their road to recovery after a 

wildfire has impacted them.

Recommendations

1. FEMA/USFA, working with wildfire SMEs from SLTT agencies and insurance industry 

experts, should develop and share a best practices document for communities to 

follow during the pre-wildfire planning process and post-wildfire recovery efforts. 

Best practices should:

ĵ Connect homeowners/landowners directly to agencies with recovery programs 

that can provide support. 

ĵ Contain templates and checklists that can be distributed after the wildfire.

ĵ Contain pre-fire training templates that can help communities prepare and mitigate 

before a wildfire.

2. Agencies must develop processes for a coordinated response to improve recovery 

efforts. Educational materials are needed that direct and support residents on their 

road to recovery after a wildfire has impacted them.

Challenge 4

Communities that need the most assistance before and after a wildfire are often 

underserved with few resources to recover.

Recommendations

1. Congress should fund the conceptual navigator and road map proposals that have 

been developed by WFLC and the Western Governors’ Association (WGA) (After the 

Flames, n.d.) to further assist states and communities with mitigating post-wildfire 

impacts year-round.

ĵ The road map must address the needs of underserved communities. 

ĵ Training for SLTT agencies must be included in the program delivery.

2. Congress should make funding available to develop a comparable “road map” for the 

Northeast and Southeast regions.

Issue 11: Emerging technology

Overview

New and emerging technology that can be applied to wildland fire mitigation projects, 

wildfire incident response and wildfire recovery efforts have tremendous potential to guide 

agencies and local officials in planning and implementing safe and effective programs.

SLTT entities need wildfire technology that provides real-time, accurate information, which 

is critical to increasing civilian and firefighter safety and interoperability between first 

responders.
Issues and Recommendations 34

Challenge 1

There is a lack of new and improved tools 

and associated training for local and state 

professionals that can help assist communities, 

e.g., evacuation models, real-time wildfire 

prediction models, wildfire assessment models 

and prescribed fire forecast models.

Recommendations

1. Expand on the successfully collaborated 

efforts of NWCG, DHS/FEMA/USFA, WFLC 

and NASF Fire Committee to develop 

interagency fire databases, fire assessments 

and modeling programs. These tools should 

serve SLTT and federal needs and are 

interoperable and accessible to all.

2. DHS S&T and NIST, with support from 

DHS/FEMA/USFA, should evaluate the 

use of augmented reality technologies to 

seamlessly integrate real-world imagery and 

provide near-instant feedback on wildfire 

safety and preventative measures.

3. WFLC and its partners should support a 

business analysis to ensure that states have 

baseline systems necessary to capture and 

analyze data. This analysis should include 

any state deficiencies and solutions to 

improve state data collection systems.

4. NWCG should increase emphasis on 

adequate firefighter training for new 

technologies at the SLTT and federal levels.

5. USFS, NIST, DOI and DHS/FEMA/USFA 

should fund or otherwise support programs 

to utilize simulation software, such as 

QUIC-Fire, that provides 3D modeling of 

fire progression and incorporates critical 

influences in real-time on laptops, offering mobility and rapid information for fire 

managers (Linn et al., 2020). 

6. WFLC should develop an interagency committee to establish a standard database for 

reporting and mapping SLTT and federal wildfires and prescribed fires. 

ĵ The database should include the ability to pull information and show the outcome 

of current mitigation efforts and investments.

Big Hollow Fire, 2020. Photo courtesy of USFS Pacific Northwest.

Photo courtesy of CAL FIRE.
Issues and Recommendations 35

Challenge 2

There is a lack of regulations, policies and guidance for use of unmanned aircraft systems 

(UASs) by responders during wildfires.

Recommendations

1. NWCG and its interagency wildland aviation community should collaborate with 

NFPA 2400, Standard for Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems (sUAS) Used for Public Safety 

Operations, and the Federal Aviation Administration to disseminate a lessons-learned 

data site where new technology development can be posted and accessed by all 

agencies of UASs during wildfires.

ĵ Ensure dissemination to SLTT fire agencies.

2. DOI should resume its role in using and developing UASs for wildfire suppression and 

mitigation and ensure technology transfer of this vital information to all fire service agencies.

Challenge 3

Limited personnel trained to operate emerging technology in the SLTT.

Recommendations

1. USDA Rural Development, USFS, DHS S&T and DOI should partner with the Federal 

Communications Commission and develop measurable outcomes for increased 

broadband coverage in rural, tribal and underserved communities.

2. USFS, FEMA and DOI should develop or expand current grants that provide technical 

support and training to rural, tribal and underserved communities to utilize emerging 

technology.

Issue 12: Data use and modeling 

Overview

Data collection, analysis, management and 

use has become overwhelming for local 

communities and federal and SLTT agencies. 

To capture, manage and use the volume of 

new data available, agencies must develop 

interoperabilit y prac tices that require 

compatibility for data exchange to allow all 

agencies access and equitable use. 

Current systems are not frequent or accurate 

enough to relay real-time fire perimeters (DHS 

et al., 2019). In most cases, current wildfire 

models fail to adequately predict fire behavior 

under extreme conditions and within the built 

environment of the WUI. 

Challenge 1

Current wildfire behavior models are outdated, 

fail to predict fire behavior under extreme 

conditions in the built WUI, and require 

supercomputing requirements instead of 

desktop applications for fire managers.

An Incident Remote Automatic Weather Station 

used on the Boulder 2700 Fire in Montana 

helped to provide real-time weather data for 

wildfire managers. Photo courtesy of Flathead 

Agency, BIA.
Issues and Recommendations 36

Recommendation

1. USFS, DOI, DOD, FEMA, DHS S&T, NASA, NOAA, NIST, USGS and SLTT agencies should 

increase funding for ensembled approaches to wildfire behavior modeling that is near 

real-time and accessible to all communities.

ĵ These models can also be utilized for prescribed fire in the WUI and wildlands.

ĵ Support the development of fire simulation models that can incorporate the built 

environment as a fuel so that more realistic models can better determine future 

WUI community threats. 

Challenge 2

Lack of investment in data collection, including on-the-ground compilation and validation, 

resulting in the use of inferior data that produces inadequate fire behavior modeling.

Recommendation

1. WFLC should request the Wildland Fire Information Technology Group to identify the key 

challenges and recommendations in developing accurate, consistent and streamlined 

wildland fire and prescribed fire occurrence reporting by all fire agencies. 

ĵ Federal and SLTT representatives should be included in the group.

ĵ WFLC’s data nuances group should include in their report datasets and modeling 

efforts that better incorporate data and reporting efforts reflected by fire regimes 

of all regions.

Challenge 3

Wildfire smoke can have a significant impact on responders and communities, including 

contributing to health and socioeconomic issues.

Recommendation

1. USFS, DOI, DHS S&T and EPA should increase priorities for smoke model development.

ĵ Prioritize the development of operational smoke models that can be used in 

real-time by fire managers.

ĵ Priorities should also include decision support tools for local and regional health 

and public policymakers. 

ĵ Prioritize exposure tracking for firefighters.

Issue 13: Risk management in wildland fire 

Overview

Risk management in wildland fire is a continuous process that provides a systematic method 

for identifying and managing the risks associated with wildland fire operations. It entails 

adopting and applying best practices, many of which have evolved out of real wildland fire 

issues for which documented justifications are necessary (Thompson et al., 2016). 

Recommendations in this section are organized by FEMA’s 4 phases of emergency 

management: mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery.
Issues and Recommendations 37

National Cohesive Wildland Fire 

Management Strategy Vision: “To 

safely and effectively extinguish 

fire when needed; use fire where 

allowable; manage our natural 

resources; and as a nation, to live 

with wildland fire.” (WFLC, 2014)
Issues and Recommendations 38

Mitigation recommendations

1. WFLC should collaborate with FEMA to streamline the FEMA Hazard Mitigation Grant 

Program and redevelop this program into a proactive tool to help reduce wildland fire 

threats in the WUI. 

ĵ Include SLTT partners in the redevelopment process. 

2. USFS, DOI and DHS should work with Congress to develop or expand a program like 

the Civilian Conservation Corps that conducts wildfire mitigation work in high-risk, 

underserved communities across the nation. 

ĵ Expansion of AmeriCorps and veterans work programs could be part of this effort.

ĵ The additional workforce should also be part of wildfire suppression efforts.

3. WFLC, along with nonprofits and wildfire mitigation partners, should work with Congress 

to develop tax incentives for private lands fuel reduction efforts and private home 

fire-resilient retrofits, e.g., allowing structure hardening to be used as in-kind match 

to federally funded mitigation programs or as tax credits.

4. Federal and SLTT agencies should support and enhance programs to overcome local 

resource barriers to increased wildfire mitigation efforts and develop a mitigation 

workforce.

ĵ Programs should consider funding for positions, fuels treatment crews and 

equipment.

Preparedness recommendations

1. USFS, in partnership with NASF and in collaboration with the greater wildland fire 

community, should increase funding to develop a process to allow greater access to the 

NWCG Incident Qualifications and Certification Systems for all fire responding partners. 

ĵ Formalize process from resource access and deployment through normalized and 

efficient reimbursement. 

ĵ Prior learning and crosswalks for equivalent training should be considered.

2. DOI, USFS and NWCG, in coordination with 

USFA, should develop a proposal to train 

and equip urban/structural responders 

in local, tribal and state organizations to 

backfill federal response agencies when 

resource shortages occur due to regional 

or national deployment or other causes.

Response recommendations

1. WFLC, working with NWCG, USFA and 

the NFPA Technical Committee, should 

develop a concise, multipronged approach 

to increasing cross-training opportunities 

and reassess differing or mutual training 

standards for structural and wildland 

firefighters in the WUI. Caldor Fire, 2021. Photo courtesy of CAL FIRE.

Previous page photo: The Craig Hotshots, Mullen Fire, 2020. Photo courtesy of BLM.
Issues and Recommendations 39

2. WFLC partners should prioritize implementing compatible fire suppression strategies 

and tactics across SLTT and federal responding agencies.

3. WFLC partners should collaborate and establish an agreeable suppression doctrine. This 

will address the concern among some members who feel the current doctrine is not 

aggressive enough during initial attack, particularly among federal land management 

agencies.

4. WFLC, NASF, IAFC, NVFC and FEMA/USFA should develop a working group to streamline 

the process and time to receive Fire Management Assistance Grants and reimbursements 

for costs incurred. Include state and local fire agencies in the redevelopment process.

5. USFS and DOI should review the federal policy on hours for seasonal employees and 

pursue policy changes to increase seasonal employee hours for wildfire response 

and mitigation.

6. WFLC should support Congressional funding for wildland fire training and response 

for the National Guard across the nation.

Recovery recommendation

1. FEMA/USFA, in collaboration with CMAT, USGS, the Army Corps of Engineers Silver 

Jackets Program and insurance industry leaders, should establish a working group 

to develop a “Where to Start” guide to assist homeowners and renters who have lost 

everything during a wildfire. 

ĵ The guides should include programs, potential assistance, etc.
Summary of Key Recommendations 40

Summary of Key Recommendations

The following recommendations have been identified by the Steering Committee as those 

most likely to have the greatest impact. If implemented, these actions can most quickly 

and significantly improve the health and safety of firefighters and the public and provide 

resilient landscapes and fire-resilient communities across our nation.

Mitigation recommendations

1. WFLC should build upon existing public education campaigns to include the public 

health trade-offs of wildfire smoke exposure versus how we can manage smoke under 

controlled conditions with prescribed fire as a means of reducing fuels and preventing 

long-term exposures from wildfires (Issue 2, Challenge 1, Recommendation 1).

2. DOI and USFS should develop and implement plans to shift seasonal firefighting 

positions to year-long employees. This will provide more experienced firefighters and 

an increased workforce that can train and specialize in wildfire, prescribed fire, fuel 

management and other mitigation efforts (Issue 4, Challenge 1, Recommendation 6).

ĵ Plans should include salaries, benefits, training and diversifications.

3. USFS and DOI, collaborating with the Small Business Association, should consider 

long-term wood utilization contracts for fuel reduction measures to support new wood 

using market development (Issue 4, Challenge 3, Recommendation 4).

4. WFLC and the wildland fire community should support the passage and implementation 

of funding for a national prescribed fire act (Issue 4, Challenge 4, Recommendation 1). 

ĵ The national prescribed fire act should include increased liability protection; 

a national prescribed burner insurance program; increased public education, 

research, training and resource availability; and requirements for cooperation and 

collaboration between federal, state, tribal and local entities in support of more 

prescribed fire on the landscape.

5. WFLC and its SLTT partners, working with FEMA, should develop a list of programmatic, 

regulatory or statutory changes needed to allow additional FEMA funding for hazardous 

fuel reduction projects (Issue 6, Challenge 1, Recommendation 1).

ĵ Allow each state to have 2 GARs, 1 who would specifically address wildland fire 

mitigation projects.

6. WFLC should form a working group, including NGOs that are already developing codes 

and standards for wildfire-resilient construction, such as NIST, NFPA, ICC and IBHS 

(Issue 6, Challenge 2, Recommendation 1).

ĵ The working group should identify immediate, short-term and long-term gaps in 

the availability and enforceability of wildfire-resilient building practices; identify 

viable solutions for filling the gaps.

ĵ The working group should address how to ensure the community is built back for 

wildfire resiliency. 

ĵ The working group should evaluate and develop strategies for local communities 

and state governments to adopt model building codes for wildfire resiliency, such 

as the International Wildland Urban Interface Code.

ĵ The working group should include the opportunity for voluntary or beyond-code 

standards to be recognized and adopted by local jurisdictions.
Summary of Key Recommendations 41

7. FEMA should convene a working group with NASF, USFA, DOI, EPA and DOE to review 

and update grant programs, such as BRIC, to better utilize funding at the ground level 

for wildfire mitigation projects (Issue 7, Challenge 2, Recommendation 1).

ĵ Consider processes that would facilitate wildfire mitigation to include utilities and 

infrastructure in underserved, rural and tribal communities.

ĵ Consider including nonprofit organizations and state and local entities in the FEMA 

funding process.

8. WFLC should collaborate with FEMA to provide updated guidance for the Hazard 

Mitigation Grant Program to leverage it as a proactive tool to help reduce wildland fire 

threats in the WUI (Issue 13, Mitigation Challenge, Recommendation 1).

ĵ Include SLTT partners in the redevelopment process. 

Preparedness recommendations

1. DHS/FEMA/USFA and S&T, in coordination with SLTT emergency management response 

agencies, should develop enhanced community warning systems in high-risk areas 

with grant support from FEMA pre- and post-fire mitigation grants (Issue 3, Challenge 1, 

Recommendation 1).

ĵ Consider improving the FEMA IPAWS to include wildfires and develop an interface 

with social media platforms.

ĵ Utilize geofence capability to notify all devices in a specific area, review opt-in 

systems versus opt-out systems, and emphasize hardening and redundancy of 

critical community communication infrastructure.

ĵ Identify and include safety zones in the warning systems.

2. WFLC and law enforcement agencies and emergency management agencies in 

collaboration with federal agencies should collaboratively develop best practices for 

wildfire evacuations that include community safe zones along evacuation routes that 

can be used as a “last resort safety zone.” These best practices should define how to 

design these safety zones, specifically what fuel setbacks will be needed, describe what 

capacity (persons and vehicles) they should have, as well as describe their recommended 

density, amount and location (Issue 3, Challenge 2, Recommendation 1).

ĵ Best practices should include regional differences to be incorporated into local 

pre-wildfire planning and mitigation efforts utilizing CERT, Fire Safe Councils and 

other local organizations.

ĵ Best practices must also account for those with functional needs and limited 

English proficiency.

ĵ Best practices should be developed together with stakeholders that have real-life 

experience and SMEs.

3. USFS, DOI, DOD, FEMA, DHS S&T, NASA, NOAA, NIST, USGS and SLTT agencies should 

examine how existing programs, such as the National Fire Danger Rating System and 

the National Predictive Services, can be expanded to inform the public better and create 

increased situational awareness regarding wildfire prevention, home preparedness 

and evacuation (Issue 3, Challenge 2, Recommendation 2).

ĵ Assess how other countries, particularly Australia, have used fire warning systems 

and what they have learned about more effective practices. 
Summary of Key Recommendations 42

4. USFS, DOI, DOD, FEMA, DHS S&T, NASA, NOAA, NIST, USGS and SLTT agencies should 

increase funding and research for ensembled approaches to wildfire behavior 

modeling that is near real-time and accessible to all communities (Issue 12, Challenge 1, 

Recommendation 1).

ĵ These models can also be utilized for prescribed fire in the WUI and wildlands.

ĵ Support the development of fire simulation models that can incorporate the built 

environment as a fuel so that more realistic models can better determine future 

WUI community threats. 

Response recommendations

1. USFS, DOI and DHS/FEMA collaborating with NASF should further invest in the firefighting 

workforce at all levels by increasing support and funding for the rural and volunteer 

fire programs, e.g., VFA and SFA (Issue 1, Challenge 2, Recommendation 1).

ĵ FEMA should review and adjust its programs to provide additional support 

and funding to assist state and local fire agencies in higher-risk WUI areas and 

underserved communities.

ĵ BLM’s equipment transfer program to local firefighting organizations is an excellent 

example of what should be utilized by other DOI bureaus.

ĵ USFS/NASF should assign a task group to review increasing the VFA population cap 

(currently 10,000 or less) and consider underserved communities.

ĵ FEMA, USDA and DOI, collaborating with NASF, should prioritize and increase 

additional funding to support state and local fire service agencies specifically for 

WUI training, cross-training of structural firefighters, PPE and response capabilities. 

2. WFLC, in conjunction with NIST and DHS S&T, should support a working group to adopt 

a standardized system for accountability and tracking of resources and develop an 

implementation schedule for integration into the interagency wildland/structural fire 

service (Issue 1, Challenge 3, Recommendation 1).

ĵ The technology should use standardized GISs that integrate with local and state 

systems.

Recovery recommendations

1. WFLC should support congressional approval to develop a new federal policy that 

allows BAER teams to conduct rehabilitation work across jurisdictional boundaries, 

including private lands that are deemed as high risk to local communities (Issue 10, 

Challenge 1, Recommendation 1). 

ĵ FEMA funding should be incorporated into this cross-jurisdictional process for 

private lands work completed by BAER teams or state resources if available.

ĵ USDA should prioritize and streamline programs such as NRCS EQIP to assist 

farmers and ranchers with recovery following a wildfire.

ĵ States should develop state BAER teams.

2. Congress should fund the conceptual navigator and road map proposals that have been 

developed by WFLC and the WGA (After the Flames, n.d.) to further assist states and 

communities with mitigating post-wildfire impacts year-round (Issue 10, Challenge 4, 

Recommendation 1).

ĵ The road map must address the needs of underserved communities. 

ĵ Training for state and local agencies must be included in the program delivery.
Conclusion 43

Conclusion

The threat of catastrophic wildfire in America’s WUI 

demands national attention and a unified, multifaceted 

approach to prevention, mitigation, response, recovery 

and overall community risk reduction. This report not only 

assists in heightening attention on the WUI wildfire threat 

but also provides recommendations for a unified approach 

to decision-making regarding the future direction to 

address the WUI wildfire problem. 

WFLC, identified as a critical convener, is well-positioned 

to coordinate partners and move many of the report’s 

recommendations forward. With additional resources, 

WFLC has the capacity to lead the implementation and 

track the status of all actions. Additionally, elected and 

other government leaders can allocate resources and 

garner support to build the much-needed capability to 

carry out these recommendations.

Unless America builds a coalition of support that 

can assist all levels of authority to implement these 

recommendations and help residents learn and adapt to living safely in the WUI, the 

wildfire devastation will likely continue. With a clear and common vision across all levels 

of leadership, these recommendations and related actions will be a catalyst to reducing 

the threat of devastating wildfire in the WUI while improving public health and safety and 

decreasing socioeconomic and environmental impacts.

Fire tornado, the Pine Bulch Fire, Colorado, 2020. 

Photo courtesy of Eric Coulter, BLM. 
Appendix A: References 44

Appendix A: References

After the Flames. (n.d.). WFLC/WGA policy considerations. Coalitions & Collaboratives, Inc. 

https://aftertheflames.com/wflc-wga-policy-considerations/

CDC. (2021, August 2). Protect yourself from wildfire smoke. https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/

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firepovertydraft_11-21-05.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
Appendix A: References 45

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Appendix B: Resources 46

Appendix B: Resources

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Appendix B: Resources 47

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Appendix C: Acronyms 48

Appendix C: Acronyms

AFF American Forest Foundation

BAER Burned Area Emergency Response 

BIA Bureau of Indian Affairs 

BLM Bureau of Land Management 

BRIC Building Resilient Infrastructure and Communities

CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

CEPC Communication, Education, and Prevention Committee

CERT Citizen’s Emergency Response Team

CMAT Community Mitigation Assistance Team

CWPP Community Wildfire Protection Plan 

DHS U.S. Department of Homeland Security 

DOE U.S. Department of Energy

DOI U.S. Department of the Interior 

EFRP Emergency Forest Restoration Program

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

EQIP Environmental Quality Incentives Program

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency 

FSA Farm Service Agency

GAO Government Accountability Office

GAR Governor’s Authorized Representative

GIS geographic information system

IAFC International Association of Fire Chiefs 

IBHS Insurance Institute for Business & Home Safety

ICC International Code Council

IPAWS Integrated Public Alert and Warning System

ITC Intertribal Timber Council 

NACo National Association of Counties 

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Appendix C: Acronyms 49

NASF National Association of State Foresters

NFFF National Fallen Firefighters Foundation 

NFPA National Fire Protection Association 

NGA National Governors’ Association

NGO nongovernmental organization

NIFC National Interagency Fire Center 

NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology

NLC National League of Cities 

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service

NVFC National Volunteer Fire Council

NWCG National Wildfire Coordinating Group 

PPE personal protective equipment 

S&T Science and Technology Directorate

SFA State Fire Assistance

SLTT state, local, territorial and tribal

SME subject matter expert

TNC The Nature Conservancy 

UAS unmanned aircraft system

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture 

USFA U.S. Fire Administration 

USFS U.S. Forest Service 

USGCRP U.S. Global Change Research Program

USGS U.S. Geological Service

VFA Volunteer Fire Assistance 

WFLC Wildland Fire Leadership Council 

WGA Western Governors’ Association 

WUI wildland urban interface
16825 South Seton Ave.

Emmitsburg, MD 21727

usfa.fema.gov