Firefighter Fatalities in the 

United States in 2016 

December 2017

Firefighter Fatalities in 

the United States in 2016

Prepared by

U.S. Department of Homeland Security

Federal Emergency Management Agency

U.S. Fire Administration

National Fire Data Center

and

The National Fallen Firefighters Foundation

https://www.firehero.org

In memory of all firefighters

who answered their last call in 2016

To their families and friends

To their service and sacrifice

Mission Statement

We provide national leadership to foster a solid foundation for 

our fi re and emergency services stakeholders in prevention, 

preparedness and response.

Table of Contents i

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... 1

Background .......................................................................................................................... 1

Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 3

Who is a firefighter?........................................................................................................... 3

What constitutes an on-duty fatality?............................................................................. 3

Sources of initial notification ........................................................................................... 4

Procedure for including a fatality in the study .............................................................. 5

2016 Findings........................................................................................................................ 7

Career, volunteer and wildland agency deaths ............................................................. 8

Gender................................................................................................................................. 9

Multiple firefighter fatality incidents .............................................................................. 9

Wildland firefighting deaths............................................................................................. 10

Type of Duty ......................................................................................................................... 13

Fireground operations ...................................................................................................... 14

Type of fireground activity ............................................................................................... 14

Fixed property use for structural firefighting deaths................................................... 15

Responding/Returning...................................................................................................... 15

Training................................................................................................................................ 15

Nonfire emergencies......................................................................................................... 16

After the incident............................................................................................................... 16

Cause of Fatal Injury ........................................................................................................... 17

Caught or trapped ............................................................................................................. 17

Collapse............................................................................................................................... 17

Exposure ............................................................................................................................. 18

Fall........................................................................................................................................ 18

Lost or disoriented ............................................................................................................ 19

Out of air ............................................................................................................................. 19

Stress or overexertion....................................................................................................... 20

Struck by object ................................................................................................................. 20

Suicide ................................................................................................................................. 22

Vehicle crashes................................................................................................................... 22

Other ................................................................................................................................... 26

Nature of Fatal Injury.......................................................................................................... 27

Firefighter Ages.................................................................................................................... 29

Deaths by Time of Injury .................................................................................................... 31
ii Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016

Firefighter Fatality Incidents by Month of Year .............................................................. 31

State and Region.................................................................................................................. 33

Analysis of Urban/Suburban/Rural Patterns in Firefighter Fatalities.......................... 39

Appendix............................................................................................................................... 41

Acronyms.............................................................................................................................. 45
Acknowledgments | Background 1

Photo/Mark A. Whitney

Acknowledgments

This study of firefighter fatalities would not have been possible without the cooperation 

and assistance of many members of the fire service across the United States. Members of 

individual fire departments; chief fire officers; wildland fire service organizations, such as 

the U.S. Forest Service, the National Park Service, the Bureau of Land Management, the 

Bureau of Indian Affairs, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; as well as the U.S. Department 

of Justice, the National Fire Protection Association, and many others, contributed 

important information to this report.

The National Fallen Firefighters Foundation was responsible for compilation of a large 

portion of the information used in this report. Their cooperation and work toward 

reducing firefighter deaths is gratefully acknowledged.

The ultimate objective of this effort is to reduce the number of firefighter deaths 

through an increased awareness and understanding of their causes and how they can be 

prevented. Firefighting, rescue and other types of emergency operations are essential 

activities in an inherently dangerous profession, and unfortunate tragedies do occur. 

These are the risks that all firefighters accept every time they respond to an emergency 

incident. However, the risks can be greatly reduced through efforts to improve training, 

emergency scene operations, and firefighter health and safety.

Background

For 40 years, the U.S. Fire Administration (USFA) has tracked the number of firefighter 

fatalities and conducted an annual analysis. Through the collection of information on 

the causes of firefighter deaths, the USFA is able to focus on specific problems and direct 

efforts toward finding solutions to reduce the number of firefighter fatalities in the future. 

This information is also used to measure the effectiveness of current programs directed 

toward firefighter health and safety.

Several programs have been funded by the USFA in response to this annual report. For 

example, the USFA has sponsored significant work in the areas of general emergency 

vehicle operations safety, fire department tanker/tender operations safety, firefighter 

incident scene rehabilitation, and roadside incident safety. The data developed for this 

report are also widely used in other firefighter fatality prevention efforts.

In addition to the analysis, the USFA, working in partnership with the National Fallen 

Firefighters Foundation (NFFF), develops a list of all on-duty firefighter fatalities and 

associated documentation each year. If certain criteria are met, the fallen firefighter’s 
2 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016

next of kin, as well as members of the individual’s fire department, are invited to the 

annual National Fallen Firefighters Memorial Service. The service is held at the National 

Emergency Training Center (NETC) in Emmitsburg, Maryland, during Fire Prevention Week 

in October of each year. The 36th Annual National Fallen Firefighters Memorial Weekend 

will be held Oct. 7 and 8, 2017. Additional information regarding the memorial service can 

be found at https://www.firehero.org, or by calling the NFFF at 301-447-1365.

Other resources and information regarding firefighter fatalities, including current fatality 

notices, the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial database, and links to the Public Safety 

Officer Benefits (PSOB) program, can be found at https://apps.usfa.fema.gov/firefighterfatalities/.
Introduction 3

Introduction

This report continues a series of annual studies by the USFA of on-duty firefighter fatalities 

in the U.S.

The specific objective of this study is to identify all on-duty firefighter fatalities that 

occurred in the U.S. and its protectorates in 2016 and to analyze the circumstances 

surrounding each occurrence. The study is intended to help identify approaches that 

could reduce the number of firefighter deaths in future years.

Who is a firefighter?

For the purpose of this study, the term “firefighter” covers all members of organized 

fire departments with assigned fire suppression duties in all 50 states; the District of 

Columbia; and the territories of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, American Samoa, the 

commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, and Guam. It includes career and 

volunteer firefighters; full-time public safety officers acting as firefighters; fire police; state, 

territory and federal government fire service personnel, including wildland firefighters; 

and privately employed firefighters, including employees of contract fire departments 

and trained members of industrial fire brigades, whether full-time or part-time. It also 

includes contract personnel working as firefighters, or assigned to work in direct support 

of fire service organizations (e.g., air-tanker crews).

Under this definition, the study includes not only local and municipal firefighters, but also 

seasonal and full-time employees of the U.S. Forest Service, the National Park Service, 

the Bureau of Land Management, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service, and state wildland agencies. The definition also includes prison inmates serving 

on firefighting crews; firefighters employed by other governmental agencies, such as the 

U.S. Department of Energy; military personnel performing assigned fire suppression 

activities; and civilian firefighters working at military installations.

What constitutes an on-duty fatality?

An on-duty fatality includes any injury or illness that was sustained while on duty and 

proves fatal. The term “on duty” refers to being involved in operations at the scene of an 

emergency, whether it is a fire or nonfire incident; responding to, or returning from, an 

incident; performing other officially assigned duties, such as training, maintenance, public 

education, inspection, investigations, court testimony or fundraising; and being on call, 

under orders or on standby duty (except at the individual’s home or place of business). An 

individual who experiences a heart attack or other fatal injury at home, while he or she 

prepares to respond to an emergency, is considered on duty when the response begins. 

A firefighter who becomes ill while performing fire department duties and suffers a heart 

attack shortly after arriving home (or at another location) may be considered on duty since 

the inception of the heart attack occurred while the firefighter was on duty.

On Dec. 15, 2003, the president of the U.S. signed the Hometown Heroes Survivors 

Benefit Act of 2003 into law. After being signed by the president, the act became Public 

Law 108-182. The law presumes that a heart attack or stroke is in the line of duty if the 

firefighter was engaged in nonroutine, stressful or strenuous physical activity while on 

duty, and the firefighter becomes ill while on duty, or within 24 hours after engaging 
4 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016

in such activity. The full text of the law is available at https://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/

cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=108_cong_public_laws&docid=f:publ182.108.pdf.

The inclusion criteria for this study have been affected by this change in the law. Before 

Dec. 15, 2003, firefighters who became ill as the result of a heart attack or stroke after 

going off duty needed to register a complaint of not feeling well while still on duty in order 

to be included in this study. For firefighter fatalities after Dec. 15, 2003, firefighters will 

be included in this report if they became ill as the result of a heart attack or stroke within 

24 hours of a training activity or emergency response. Firefighters who became ill after 

going off duty, where the activities while on duty were limited to tasks that did not involve 

physical or mental stress, will not be included.

A fatality may be caused directly by an accidental or intentional injury in either emergency 

or nonemergency circumstances, or it may be attributed to an occupationally related fatal 

illness. A common example of a fatal illness incurred on duty is a heart attack. Fatalities 

attributed to occupational illnesses also include a communicable disease contracted 

while on duty that proved fatal when the disease could be attributed to a documented 

occupational exposure.

Firefighter fatalities are included in this report even when death is considerably delayed 

after the original incident. When the incident and the death occur in different years, the 

analysis counts the fatality as having occurred in the year in which the incident took place.

There is no established mechanism for identifying fatalities that result from illnesses, 

such as cancer, that develop over long periods of time and may be related to occupational 

exposure to hazardous materials or toxic products of combustion. It has proved to be very 

difficult to provide a complete evaluation of an occupational illness as a causal factor in 

firefighter deaths due to the following limitations: the exposure of firefighters to toxic 

hazards is not sufficiently tracked; the often delayed long-term effects of such toxic hazard 

exposures; and the exposures firefighters may receive while off duty.

Sources of initial notification

As an integral part of its ongoing program to collect and analyze fire data, the USFA solicits 

information on firefighter fatalities directly from the fire service and from a wide range 

of other sources. These sources include the PSOB program administered by the U.S. 

Department of Justice (DOJ), the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 

(NIOSH), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the U.S. Department 

of Defense, the National Interagency Fire Center, and other federal agencies.

The USFA receives notification of some deaths directly from fire departments, as well as 

from such fire service organizations as the International Association of Fire Chiefs, the 

International Association of Fire Fighters, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), 

the National Volunteer Fire Council, state fire marshals, state fire training organizations, 

other state and local organizations, fire service internet sites, news services, and fire 

service publications.
Introduction 5

Procedure for including a fatality in the study

In most cases, after notification of a fatal incident, initial telephone contact is made with 

local authorities by the USFA to verify the incident, its location, the jurisdiction, and the 

fire department or agency involved. Further information about the deceased firefighter 

and the incident may be obtained from the chief of the fire department, designee over 

the phone, or by other forms of data collection. After basic information is collected, a 

notice of the firefighter fatality is posted at the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial site 

in Emmitsburg, Maryland, as well as on the USFA website. A notice of the fatality is also 

transmitted by email to a large list of fire service organizations and fire service members.

Information that is routinely requested from fire departments that have experienced 

a fatality includes National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS)-1 (incident) and 

NFIRS-3 (fire service casualty) reports; the fire department’s own incident and internal 

investigation reports; copies of death certificates and autopsy results; special investigative 

reports; law enforcement reports; photographs and diagrams; and newspaper or media 

accounts of the incident. Information on the incident may also be gathered from NFPA or 

NIOSH reports.

After obtaining this information, a determination is made as to whether the death qualifies 

as an on-duty firefighter fatality according to the previously described criteria. With the 

exception of firefighter deaths after Dec. 15, 2003, the same criteria were used for this 

study as in previous annual studies. Additional information may be requested by the USFA, 

either through follow-up with the fire department directly, from state vital records offices, 

or other agencies. The final determination as to whether a fatality qualifies as an on-duty 

death for inclusion in this statistical analysis is made by the USFA. The NFFF criteria as a 

line-of-duty death (LODD) for inclusion in the annual National Fallen Firefighters Memorial 

Service is made by the NFFF.
6 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016
2016 Findings 7

2016 Findings

Eighty-nine firefighters died while on duty in 2016, one less than 

the 2015 total of 90, and five fewer than the 94 firefighter fatalities 

in 2014. The 2016 total includes 22 firefighters who died under 

circumstances that were part of inclusion criteria changes resulting 

from the Hometown Heroes Survivors Benefit Act. When not including 

these fatalities for the purposes of a trend analysis, there were 67 

non-Hometown Hero firefighter fatalities in 2016, the second lowest 

annual total since the USFA began this study.

An analysis of multiyear firefighter fatality trends needs to 

acknowledge the changes from the December 2003 Hometown 

Heroes Survivors Benefit Act. Some graphs and charts in this report 

may not indicate the Hometown Heroes portion of the total. However, 

this does not diminish the sacrifices made by any firefighter who dies 

while on duty, or the sacrifices made by his or her family and peers.

In the same light, when conducting multiyear comparisons of firefighter 

fatalities in this report, the losses resulting from the attacks on the 

World Trade Center in New York City on Sept. 11, 2001, are sometimes 

also set apart for illustrative purposes. This action is by no means a 

minimization of the supreme sacrifice made by these firefighters.

Figure 1. On-duty firefighter fatalities (1977-2016)

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

1977197819791980198119821983198419851986198719881989199019911992199319941995199619971998199920002001200220032004200520062007200820092010201120122013201420152016

Number of deaths

Year

152

173

126

140

136

128

113

119119

108108

107

104

100100

93

115

106

450

102

112

108

99

93

107

110

81

74

65

70

100

69

75

67

77

82

126

122

132

136

plus 1 Hometown Heroplus 17 Hometown Heroesplus 15 Hometown Heroesplus 15 Hometown Heroesplus 13 Hometown Heroesplus 14 Hometown Heroesplus 16 Hometown Heroesplus 22 Hometown Heroesplus 14 Hometown Heroesplus 9 Hometown Heroesplus 26 Hometown Heroesplus 15 Hometown Heroesplus 22 Hometown Heroes

From 1997 to 2006, 

there were only 

three years with 

fewer than 100 

firefighter fatalities; 

w hereas , f rom 

2007 to 2016, there 

were only three 

years with 100 or 

more firefighter 

fatalities.
8 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016

Figure 2. Firefighter fatalities per 100,000 fires*

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

1997199819992000200120022003200420052006200720082009201020112012201320142015

Number of deaths

Year

3.34

2.96

4.50

3.34

3.29

3.73

3.79

3.42

2.81

2.98

3.53

3.86

2.97

2.33

2.52

2.33

4.84

2.39

2.45**

*NFPA.

**The 2016 ratio will be included in the 2017 report.

Averages

From 1990 to 2003, there was an average of 129 firefighter fatalities each year 

in the U.S. (There were 117 each year when not including firefighter deaths on 

Sept. 11, 2001.) The first full year of inclusion criteria changes resulting from 

the Hometown Heroes Survivors Benefit Act was 2004. This act resulted in an 

additional average of 16 firefighter deaths each year recognized in this report. 

Even with this change, the many individual, group and organizational efforts 

to reduce firefighter deaths have resulted in fewer firefighter deaths per year. 

From 2004 to 2016, there was an annual average of 102 firefighter fatalities (86 

each year when not including Hometown Hero firefighter fatalities).

Career, volunteer and wildland agency deaths

In 2016, firefighter fatalities included 23 career firefighters, 56 volunteer firefighters, and 

10 part-time or full-time members of wildland or wildland contract fire agencies (Figure 3).
2016 Findings 9

Figure 3. Career, volunteer and wildland agency deaths (2016)

Firefighter fatalities

89 total deaths

Career

23 deaths

Rural fire

departments

0 deaths

Urban/Suburban

fire departments

23 deaths

Full time

5 deaths

Part time or 

seasonal

5 deaths

Rural fire

departments

37 deaths

Urban/Suburban

fire departments

19 deaths

Volunteer

56 deaths

Wildland agency

10 deaths

Gender

Of the 89 firefighters who died while on duty in 2016, 87 were male and two were female.

Multiple firefighter fatality incidents

The 89 deaths in 2016 resulted from a total of 85 fatal incidents, including three 

multiple firefighter fatality incidents taking the lives of seven firefighters. One structural 

collapse took the lives of three career firefighters, and two motor vehicle crashes killed, 

respectively, two wildland firefighters each.

Table 1. Multiple firefighter fatality incidents

Year Number of incidents Total number of deaths

2016 3 7

2015 3 7

2014 2 4

2013 4 34

2012 4 10

2011 3 6

2010 4 8

2009 6 13

2008 5 18

2007 7 21
10 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016

Wildland firefighting deaths

In 2016, 15 firefighters were killed during activities involving brush, grass or wildland 

firefighting. This total includes part-time and seasonal wildland firefighters, full-time 

wildland firefighters, and municipal or volunteer firefighters whose deaths are related to 

a wildland fire (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Firefighter fatalities related to wildland firefighting (2006 to 2016)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Number of deaths

Year

11

26

17

12

10

16

31

11 12

15

Table 2. Firefighter deaths associated with wildland firefighting

Year Total number 

of deaths

Number of 

fatal incidents

Number of 

firefighters killed 

in multiple-death 

incidents

2016 15 13 4

2015 12 9 5

2014 11 11 0

2013 31 13 19

2012 16 12 6

2011 10 9 2

2010 12 12 0

2009 17 14 5

2008 26 15 14

2007 11 11 0
2016 Findings 11

Table 3. Wildland firefighting aircraft deaths

Year Total number 

of deaths

Number of 

fatal incidents

2016 0 0

2015 2 1

2014 2 2

2013 0 0

2012 6 2

2011 0 0

2010 0 0

2009 5 3

2008 16 4

2007 1 1

In 2016, there were no firefighter fatality incidents from an aircraft 

crash related to wildland firefighting.

An excellent online 

m a p p i n g t o o l t o 

geographically search 

and contex tualize 

U . S . f i r e f i g h t e r 

fatalities, including 

links to independent 

in-depth investigations 

conduc ted by the 

NIOSH Fire Fighter 

Fatality Investigation 

a n d P r e v e n t i o n 

Program, can be found 

at https://wwwn.cdc.

gov/wisards/fffmap/.
12 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016
Type of Duty 13

Type of Duty

Activities related to emergency incidents resulted in 

the deaths of 36 firefighters in 2016 (Figure 5). This 

includes all firefighters who died responding to an 

emergency or at an emergency scene, returning from 

an emergency incident, and during other emergencyrelated activities. Nonemergency activities accounted 

for 53 fatalities. Nonemergency duties include training, 

administrative activities, performing other functions 

that are not related to an emergency incident, and 

post-incident fatalities where the firefighter does not 

experience the illness or injury during the emergency.

A multiyear historical perspective relating to the 

percentage of firefighter deaths that occurred during 

emergency duty is presented in Table 4.

Figure 5. Firefighter deaths 

by type of duty (2016)

Emergency

40%

Nonemergency (36)

60%

(53)

Table 4. Emergency duty firefighter deaths

Year Percentage of all deaths Percentage of all deaths 

excluding Hometown Heroes

2016 40 54

2015 49 59

2014 46 63

2013 73 77

2012 56 65

2011 54 70

2010 55 67

2009 63 82

2008 64 70

2007 64 72

The number of deaths by type of duty being performed is shown in Table 5 and presented 

graphically in Figure 6 for 2016. Fireground duties were again the most common type of 

duty for firefighters killed while on duty.

Table 5. Firefighter deaths by type of duty (2016)

Type of duty Number of deaths

Returning 3

Training 9

Responding 10

On-scene nonfire 13

Other on-duty 16

On-scene fire 17

After 21

Total 89
14 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016

Figure 6. Firefighter deaths by type of duty (2016)

Number of deaths

0 10 20 30 40

After

On-scene fire

Other on-duty

On-scene nonfire

Responding

Training

Returning 3

9

10

13

16

17

21

Fireground operations

Seventeen firefighters experienced fatal injuries during fireground operations in 2016. 

Of these fatalities, eight were at the scene of a structure fire, three were at the scene of a 

vehicle fire, and six others were at the scene of a wildland or outside fire. The average age 

of the firefighters killed during fireground operations was 48, with the youngest being 20 

years old and the oldest being 78 years old. Eight of those killed were volunteer, six were 

career and three were wildland firefighters. The nature of fatal injury while engaged in 

fireground operations for seven of the firefighter deaths was heart attack (41 percent). 

The nature of fatal injury for the other 10 deaths include: asphyxiation (three), trauma 

(five), burns (one), and pulmonary embolism (one).

Type of fireground activity

Table 6 shows the types of fireground activities in which firefighters were engaged when 

they sustained their fatal injuries or illnesses. This total includes all firefighting duties on 

the fireground, such as wildland firefighting and structural firefighting.

Table 6. Type of activity (2016)

Water supply 1

Support 1

Search and rescue 1

Scene safety 1

Pump operations 2

Other 2

Incident command 2

Unknown 3

Advance hoselines 4
Type of Duty 15

Fixed property use for structural firefighting deaths

There were eight fatalities in 2016 where firefighters became ill or injured while on the scene 

of a structure fire. Table 7 shows the distribution of these deaths by fixed property use.

Table 7. Structural firefighting deaths by fixed property use (2016)

Residential 6

Commercial 1

Street 1

Responding/Returning

In 2016, 13 firefighters died or experienced an onset of symptoms while responding to or 

returning from 12 emergency incidents; 10 while responding to, and three while returning 

from an incident. 

Table 8. Firefighter deaths while responding to or returning from an incident

Year Number of firefighter deaths

2016 13

2015 8

2014 13

2013 14

2012 17

2011 11

2010 17

2009 15

2008 25

2007 26

Training

In 2016, nine firefighters died while engaged in training activities. Two of the nine 

firefighters died from heart attacks. There were three deaths from traumatic injuries: one 

resulting from a vehicle collision — watercraft; one from a vehicle collision — fire apparatus; 

and one from a fall — trauma. One firefighter died from heat exhaustion. The nature 

of fatal injury for the three remaining “other” training related deaths were hypertrophic 

cardiomyopathy, aortic rupture, and cardiac ischemia related to rhabdomyolysis. All 16 of 

the training fatalities from 2014 and 2015 were from heart attacks. 

For the nine firefighters who died while engaged in training activities, three firefighters 

died while performing fire department mandated physical fitness training; one died while 

involved in driver training; one died during an apparatus drill; one during search and 

rescue training at a local fire academy; one died after falling from a helicopter while 

participating in a monthly “hoist training” exercise; one died during water rescue training; 

and one firefighter died at the station shortly after completing unspecified training of a 

non-routine physical nature.
16 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016

The average age of the nine firefighters was 46 years old. The youngest was 31, and the 

oldest was 63.

Table 9. Firefighter fatalities while engaged in training

Year Number of firefighter deaths

2016 9

2015 7

2014 9

2013 7

2012 8

2011 8

2010 12

2009 10

2008 12

2007 11

Nonfire emergencies

In 2016, 13 firefighters were killed during emergency duties not related to fire. These 

response calls included five Emergency Medical Services (EMS) calls, four motor vehicle 

accidents, two technical rescues, one hazmat incident (illicit drug lab explosion), and one 

rescue/extrication response call (collapse of a dock into a lake).

Two of the 13 firefighters died from traumatic injuries, including one killed by a charter 

bus that crashed into a motor vehicle accident scene, and the second was struck by debris 

from an illicit drug lab explosion. Two firefighters died from gun violence on two separate 

calls: one EMS and one welfare check. Two firefighters died from asphyxiation, one while 

diving to recover the body of a reported drowning victim and one was swept away by a 

flash flood while responding to a community hit hard by a violent storm. Five firefighters 

died of heart attacks, and one from a stroke, who were an average of 52 years old. The 

youngest of these five firefighters was 38 years old, and the oldest was 67 years old.

After the incident

In 2016, 21 firefighters died after the conclusion of their on-duty activities: 19 from heart 

attacks and two from strokes. The average age was 55 years old. The youngest was 31, 

and the oldest was 73. All of the 21 deaths were classified as Hometown Heroes where no 

symptom or complaint of illness became evident or was reported during duty.
Cause of Fatal Injury 17

Cause of Fatal Injury

The term “cause of injury” refers to the action, lack of action, or circumstances that directly 

resulted in the fatal injury. The term “nature of injury” refers to the medical cause of the 

fatal injury or illness, which is often referred to as the physiological cause of death. A fatal 

injury is usually the result of a chain of events, the first of which is recorded as the cause.

Figure 7 shows the distribution of deaths by cause of fatal injury or illness in 2016.

Figure 7. Fatalities by cause of fatal injury (2016)

Number of deaths

0 10 20 30 40 50

Other

Vehicle collision

Suicide

Struck by

Stress/Overexertion

Out of air

Lost

Fall

Exposure

Collapse

Caught/Trapped 1

3

1

1

5

2

43

8

1

19

5

Caught or trapped

Being caught or trapped covers firefighters in wildland and structural fires who were 

unable to escape due to rapid fire progression and the byproducts of smoke, heat, toxic 

gas and flames. This classification may also include firefighters who drowned and those 

who were trapped and/or crushed. In 2016, one firefighter was killed while responding 

under a mutual-aid agreement with a nearby community; he was trying to aid citizens in 

distress. The private vehicle that the firefighter was driving washed into a harbor from 

flash-flood waters, and the firefighter perished from drowning.

Collapse

In 2016, three firefighters perished in a single residential fire incident as the result of a 

structural collapse.

At 0256 hours, fire department units were dispatched to a report of a structure fire. 

When firefighters arrived on the scene, they found a working fire in a two-story rowhouse 

with a basement. Firefighters advanced hoselines into the building to control the fire. 

As firefighters worked in the interior, a floor collapse occurred. Two firefighters (1 and 

2) fell into the basement of the building and were trapped by fire and debris. Another

firefighter (3) entered the basement, located firefighter (1), and was attempting to remove 

the firefighter when a subsequent collapse occurred and trapped both firefighters.
18 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016

Firefighters (1) and (3) were pronounced dead as a result of their injuries on the date of the 

incident. Firefighter (2) was rescued and treated for extensive burns, but died as a result 

of injuries a little over two months later. The cause of death for firefighters (1) and (3) was 

asphyxiation and thermal injuries. The cause of death for firefighter (2) was complications 

from burns.

The fire was intentionally set.

Exposure

Two firefighters were killed in 2016 when they came into contact with or were exposed 

to harm.

ĵ One industrial firefighter was on duty at a steel plant, conducting fire equipment 

checks in an elevator control motor room. The air in the room had been displaced with 

nitrogen gas. The firefighter was overcome and was later found deceased. OSHA fined 

the steel company for several violations, including failure to adequately train workers 

using pneumatic tools powered by nitrogen and the safety related to the use of these 

tools. The firefighter died of asphyxiation.

ĵ One fire cadet was a member of a metropolitan fire department cadet class. He and 

other cadets were participating in self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) training 

in the Survival House located at the fire department training facility. He was wearing 

full structural personal protective clothing and SCBA. The interior of the Survival 

House is air conditioned, and no live fire is used. A smoke generator is used in some 

parts of the house. Instructors are able to monitor the progress of students through 

the course by direct observation and video.

The cadet complained to another cadet that he was hot prior to entering the course. 

He entered the course at 1025 hours. At approximately 1107 hours, an instructor heard 

the cadet stop, followed shortly by the activation of his personal alert safety system 

device. A MAYDAY was called, and the cadet was removed from the course. CPR was 

initiated, and a medic unit at the training facility was summoned.

The cadet was provided with paramedic-level EMS care, including aggressive cooling. 

He was transported to the hospital, but did not recover. He was pronounced dead at 

1248 hours. The cause of death is listed as hyperthermia and dehydration.

The Texas State Fire Marshal’s Office prepared a detailed report of this incident. The 

report is available at https://www.tdi.texas.gov/reports/fire/documents/fmfffwhitfield.pdf.

Fall

Five firefighters died in 2016 as the result of falls.

ĵ While assigned to an EMS incident in January 2016, one firefighter suffered a shoulder 

injury as the result of a fall. The firefighter was off duty pending surgery after his injury. 

The surgery occurred in late June. He was discharged from the hospital, but became 

ill and died in early July 2016. The cause of death was a pulmonary embolism.
Cause of Fatal Injury 19

ĵ One firefighter was a member of a fire department and state air rescue team. During 

training on helicopter hoist operations, the firefighter fell from the helicopter skid and 

was fatally injured. For additional information about this crash, consult the National 

Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) website at https://www.ntsb.gov/news/pressreleases/_layouts/ntsb.aviation/Index.aspx — NTSB identification ERA16LA253.

ĵ One firefighter was preparing to leave home for a response call to assist law enforcement 

with gaining access to the roof of a building. The firefighter tripped and fell, suffering 

a severe injury. The firefighter was treated by fellow responders and transported to 

the hospital where, despite all efforts, he succumbed to his injuries several days later. 

The cause of death was blunt force trauma.

ĵ One firefighter reported to the fire station for a company drill. He remained alone at 

the station to perform maintenance duties while other company members attended 

the drill. At some point, the firefighter ascended a ladder inside the station for these 

maintenance duties. When fire department personnel returned from the drill, they found 

the firefighter entangled in the fallen ladder. Despite lifesaving efforts, the firefighter 

was pronounced dead shortly thereafter. It is unknown whether the firefighter suffered 

a medical emergency while atop the ladder and then fell, or if the ladder had fallen 

while he was on it, causing his trauma.

ĵ One firefighter had been deployed for several weeks to a southern state to help fight 

wildland fires in the area. He was walking to his hotel from dinner around midnight. 

In an unfamiliar area, he fell over a concrete railing into a parking garage. He suffered 

head and leg injuries. He remained in intensive care until he died nearly one month 

later. The firefighter was scheduled to return to his home base in the Northwest the 

day after he was injured.

Lost or disoriented

One firefighter died in 2016 by becoming lost or disoriented inside of a burning structure. 

The firefighter and members of his fire department were dispatched to a structure fire 

in a commercial occupancy. The firefighter entered the structure with other firefighters 

and became disoriented. A MAYDAY was called, and the firefighter was removed from the 

structure. He was transported to the hospital, but was pronounced deceased. The cause 

of death was reported as inhalation of combustion products.

Out of air

One firefighter died in 2016 from an arterial gas embolism when he ran out of air during 

a recovery operation for the body of a drowning victim. The evening before, firefighters 

were able to locate a possible target at the bottom of the lake, but called off the recovery 

process for the night based on weather and lack of light. When firefighters responded 

back to the lake to commence recovery operations, firefighter (1) and firefighter (2), aided 

by sonar, entered the water at approximately 1541 hours. After being under water for 

approximately 15 minutes, the divers were ordered back to the surface. The divers paused 

at approximately 20 feet during their ascent for a safety stop. At this point, firefighter (1) 

ran out of air and was in distress. The mask of the other diver was knocked off, he surfaced, 

and sounded the alarm that a diver was down. Initial attempts to rescue firefighter (1) were 

unsuccessful, but recovery efforts brought the deceased firefighter to the surface.
20 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016

Stress or overexertion

Firefighting is extremely strenuous, physical work, and it can be one of the more physically 

demanding of human activities.

Stress or overexertion is a general category that includes all firefighter deaths that are 

cardiac or cerebrovascular in nature, such as heart attacks and strokes, as well as other 

events, such as extreme climatic thermal exposure. Classification of a firefighter fatality 

in this “cause of fatal injury category” does not necessarily indicate that a firefighter was 

in poor physical condition.

In 2016, 43 firefighters died as a result of stress or overexertion:

ĵ Thirty-nine firefighters died due to heart attacks.

ĵ Four firefighters died due to cerebrovascular accident (CVA) — stroke.

ĵ Twenty-two were Hometown Heroes.

Table 10. Deaths caused by stress or overexertion

Year Number Percent of 

fatalities Hometown Heroes

2007 56 46.6 13

2008 55 45 12

2009 52 55.3 12

2010 56 62.2 16

2011 54 62 21

2012 48 57.1 14

2013 39 36.1 9

2014 63 67 24

2015 60 66.7 15

2016 43 48.3 22

10-year average 52.6 54.6 15.8

Struck by object

Being struck by an object was the third leading cause of fatal injuries for firefighters in 

2016, resulting in eight firefighter fatalities.

ĵ One firefighter responded to an emergency medical incident at a residence. The 

firefighter was wearing a fire department jacket and carrying EMS equipment as he 

entered. As the firefighter walked down a hallway inside of the home, the patient shot 

him multiple times. The firefighter was pronounced dead at the scene. The shooter in 

the incident was under the influence of illegal drugs and was convicted of manslaughter.
Cause of Fatal Injury 21

ĵ One firefighter was working as part of a hand crew in a steep ravine on a wildland fire 

incident when a large rock fell about 100 feet from the hillside above and struck the 

firefighter in the head. The firefighter was immediately treated on-scene by fellow 

firefighters. He was quickly hoisted into a helicopter and airlifted to a medical center, 

where he succumbed to his injuries the following day.

ĵ One firefighter was working at the scene of a residential structure fire. According to 

the law enforcement report on the incident, the firefighter attempted to jump onto 

the back step of an engine apparatus that was backing up at approximately 5 mph; 

he became entangled in the hose at the rear of the apparatus. He was crushed by the 

apparatus as it moved backward.

ĵ Firefighters were dispatched to a residence to check on the welfare of an occupant. 

The resident’s brother called 911 to report that he had not been able to contact him 

for two days. Firefighters made their presence known by knocking and shouting to 

elicit a response from inside the home. Firefighters made the decision to force entry 

into the dwelling through the front door. As firefighters entered the home, the resident 

discharged multiple gunshots from a handgun. One firefighter was struck in the chest. 

He was transported immediately to a local hospital, but did not survive.

ĵ One firefighter was engaged in tree falling operations on a wildland fire. He was 

struck by a falling tree as he worked. Firefighters provided treatment, and he 

was extracted from the scene by helicopter. Upon his arrival at a helibase, he 

was assessed by paramedics and pronounced deceased. Additional information 

about this incident can be found at https://www.wildfirelessons.net/orphans/

viewincident?DocumentKey=b8c4e15c-4c37-40c5-bbd8-41f95b6e750c.

ĵ One firefighter was killed while working at a vehicle crash. A charter bus entered the 

scene and crashed into responders. The driver of the charter bus was charged with two 

counts of negligent homicide, driving without a license, and reckless operation of a vehicle.

ĵ At 0632 hours, fire department units were dispatched to a reported natural gas leak. 

Upon their arrival, firefighters encountered a strong odor of natural gas. Firefighters 

were able to gain entry into the home and discovered a high-pressure gas pipe had 

broken and was leaking natural gas into the two-story private dwelling. Firefighters 

were able to shut off the gas at the curb valve. Upon further investigation inside the 

dwelling, units discovered a marijuana grow house on the second floor. The features of 

the grow house provided very little ventilation options on the second floor. This floor 

had many different forms of ventilation equipment, lights and fans that enhanced the 

growth of the marijuana. At 0732 hours, an explosion occurred, and one firefighter was 

struck with debris from the force of the blast. It was determined that a large section 

of roof, approximately 18 feet by 6 feet, weighing almost a ton, struck the firefighter 

while he was trying to take cover in the street from the explosion. The firefighter was 

transported to the hospital, but succumbed to his injuries shortly after he arrived.

ĵ One firefighter suffered head and arm injuries while working a wildland fire incident 

when a tree limb fell and struck him and the fire apparatus he was on. The firefighter 

was airlifted to a medical center for treatment, but succumbed to his injuries.
22 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016

Suicide

One firefighter took his own life in 2016.

Four on-duty firefighter deaths from suicide have been reported to the USFA 

since 1990, including one each in 2010, 2013, 2015 and 2016. While many 

more such deaths have undoubtedly occurred before and since 1990, only in 

recent years has the issue been recognized as a critical one in the fire service 

needing more attention and prevention/mitigation measures. Thanks to the 

many years of leadership and efforts by organizations, such as the Firefighter 

Behavioral Health Alliance (http://www.ffbha.org/), a subject once kept quiet 

is now being faced more squarely by the fire service as a whole.

Vehicle crashes

In 2016, a total of 19 firefighters — three career, 11 volunteer, and five wildland — lost 

their lives due to vehicle crashes. Vehicle crashes were the second leading cause of fatal 

firefighter injuries for the year, almost four times the previous year’s total. There were 

two double fatality crashes involving wildland firefighters. Thirteen of the firefighters 

died in crashes involving fire department vehicles (one was a backing incident), four 

involved privately-owned vehicles (POVs) (there were no POV-involved firefighter deaths 

the previous year), one death involved a watercraft, and one involved a dozer operated 

in difficult terrain that rolled over and crushed the operator on a wildland firefight. None 

of the vehicle crashes in 2016 involved an aircraft.

ĵ One firefighter was responding in his personal vehicle to an emergency medical 

incident — a heart attack with CPR in progress. As he responded, the firefighter’s 

vehicle crossed the center line of the roadway. The firefighter overcorrected to the 

right. The vehicle left the roadway and struck a ditch and two trees.

ĵ One firefighter was the driver of a breathing air support apparatus responding to a 

residential structure fire. The apparatus failed to negotiate a 90-degree turn in the 

roadway and traveled nearly 700 feet into a field before coming to rest. Law enforcement 

reports on the incident indicated that the firefighter may have suffered some sort of 

medical emergency prior to the crash. His death was caused by trauma. There were 

conflicting reports on the status of his seat belt.

ĵ One firefighter and his son, a junior firefighter, were returning from fighting a wildland 

fire. They were in their personal vehicle, a 2001 Dodge Dakota. As they drove along 

the highway at the posted speed of 55 mph, the vehicle suddenly veered to the side 

of the road and struck a parked logging trailer. Both occupants were trapped in the 

vehicle and had to be extricated. Both occupants were wearing their seat belts at the 

time of the crash. The firefighter died as the result of trauma.

ĵ One firefighter was participating in water rescue training. The firefighter was a passenger on 

a rescue sled being towed by a jet ski. He became separated from the rescue sled and was 

found floating in the water. The operator of the jet ski and an off-duty firefighter removed 

the injured firefighter from the water onto the beach and initiated CPR. Responding 

firefighters and emergency medical workers provided medical treatment and transported 

the injured firefighter to where he passed away from a spinal column injury.
Cause of Fatal Injury 23

ĵ One firefighter was assigned the responsibility of vehicle maintenance for his fire 

department. As a part of these duties, the firefighter would inspect and road test the 

three apparatus assigned to his station before the semi-monthly meetings of the fire 

department. While performing one such road test and negotiating a curve, the apparatus 

left the right side of the roadway. The firefighter overcorrected, and the apparatus flipped 

three times before leaving the roadway and coming to rest. The firefighter was killed 

in the crash and pronounced dead at the scene. The law enforcement report on the 

incident stated that the firefighter was wearing his seat belt at the time of the crash and 

that a text had been sent from the firefighter’s mobile phone at the time of the collision.

ĵ Firefighters were assigned to an engine as the lead vehicle in a four-vehicle group 

headed back from an assignment. The engine was a 2006 Unimog U500 with four large 

single tires, two front and two rear. The group was on a state highway and driving at 

approximately 60 mph. While operating at speed, the engine experienced a catastrophic 

failure of the right rear tire. The tire degraded, and the rim contacted the roadway. This 

pulled the vehicle to the right, and the driver attempted to compensate by turning the 

steering wheel to the left. The vehicle traveled approximately 320 feet before it began 

to roll. The engine rolled several times and came to rest on its wheels. During the roll, 

the structure of the cab was badly damaged. All three firefighter occupants of the 

engine were wearing their seat belts at the time of the crash, but the seat belts were 

compromised in the crash. Two firefighters, the driver and the right-front passenger, 

were declared dead at the scene — the driver having been ejected from the vehicle as it 

rolled. The third firefighter was transported by medical helicopter to a regional hospital. 

The interagency report on this incident is available at https://www.wildfirelessons.

net/orphans/viewincident?DocumentKey=83d3cae0-413d-44c6-a401-129627c6a15e.

ĵ One firefighter was performing maintenance at a county radio tower site. The firefighter 

was struck and killed by a pickup truck that was backing up on the tower site. He 

was transported to the hospital by ambulance, but was pronounced dead due to 

traumatic injuries.

ĵ Firefighters had completed a public service detail and were returning an apparatus into 

the bays of the fire station. One firefighter was behind a 2008 Peterbilt tanker (tender) 

directing the driver as the unit was backed into the station from a parking lot across 

the street. The firefighter was at the right rear of the apparatus. As the apparatus 

approached the bay door, the firefighter was struck and backed over by the tanker. 

The firefighter was pronounced dead at the scene.

ĵ A contracted bulldozer was in operation on a wildland firefight. The dozer was attempting 

to access an area where fireline was to be constructed. In order to access this area, 

the dozer had to maneuver around an engine which was pumping a hoselay. The 

engine was blocking the lower roadway, which led to the area where line was to be 

constructed. The dozer traveled east on a parallel road above the lower road, backed 

up and turned to travel down an embankment towards the lower road. The dozer 

proceeded slowly over the embankment in an effort to reach the lower road. During 

this maneuver, the dozer rolled onto its left side and roof. During the rollover event, 

the dozer operator was ejected from the cab and became pinned underneath the left 

sweep of the dozer. Other firefighters working nearby immediately responded and 

determined that the dozer operator was deceased. The CAL FIRE report on this incident 

is available at https://www.wildfirelessons.net/orphans/viewincident?DocumentKey

=68b83258-f54d-494e-adc7-4e534adce577.
24 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016

ĵ One firefighter was the driver of a tanker (tender) apparatus enroute to a parade in a 

nearby community. As the apparatus was driven on a highway, the driver’s side front 

tire failed. The apparatus left the roadway, crossed the median, crossed the opposing 

lanes, and rolled over into an embankment. The firefighter was ejected in the rollover. 

He was treated at the scene and transported to a hospital where he later died. The 

tanker came to rest on its wheels in a ditch. The law enforcement report on the crash 

concluded that neither driver nor the front seat passenger were wearing seat belts at the 

time of the crash. The vehicle’s speed just prior to the crash was estimated at 68 mph.

ĵ One firefighter was the rear seat passenger in a Ford F-150 pickup truck returning 

from a state police academy graduation ceremony. The firefighter’s attendance at the 

ceremony was approved by his fire chief to represent the fire department. The driver 

of the vehicle experienced a possible medical emergency, and the pickup crashed into 

woods in the median. The firefighter was killed in the crash. The cause of death was 

multiple traumatic injuries. The status of the firefighter’s seat belt was not determined.

ĵ Two firefighters in a wildland crew carrier were killed while in transit to a wildland fire 

occurring in a different state. There were a total of nine firefighters riding in the crew 

carrier on an interstate highway. For unknown reasons, the vehicle left the roadway, 

struck the median cable barriers, and rolled. The driver of the vehicle later told law 

enforcement officials that he was sleep deprived and had consumed illegal drugs in the 

days and hours before the crash. He was charged with two counts of vehicular homicide. 

The status of the seat belts for the deceased and injured firefighters are unknown.

ĵ One firefighter was driving an engine responding to a report of an oil-tank storage 

battery fire. The roadway was wet from recent heavy rain. An empty tractor trailer 

tanker approached from the other direction. As it approached the responding engine, 

the empty trailer began to hydroplane, and the entire tractor trailer unit drifted into the 

opposing lane of traffic. The tractor trailer struck the engine apparatus, which went off 

of the roadway and rolled. The firefighter was severely injured and had to be extricated 

from the apparatus. He was transported to the hospital, but was pronounced dead 

shortly after his arrival. The driver of the tractor trailer was charged with driving too 

fast for conditions and failure to remain in the travel lane. The firefighter was wearing 

his seat belt at the time of the crash. The Texas State Fire Marshal’s Office prepared a 

detailed report on this incident. The report is available at https://www.tdi.texas.gov/

reports/fire/documents/fmloddslaughter.pdf.

ĵ One firefighter was driving an engine apparatus responding to a report of a trailer fire. 

As the apparatus entered a left-hand curve, the vehicle went off of the right side of the 

roadway. The firefighter attempted to steer the apparatus back onto the roadway, but 

the rear of the apparatus came around counter-clockwise, and the vehicle began to 

roll. The driver was killed in the crash. Two other firefighters on-board were injured. 

All three firefighters on the apparatus were wearing their seat belts at the time of the 

crash, but the passenger compartment had been so compromised during the rollover 

that all three firefighters were fully ejected from the vehicle.

ĵ One firefighter was staffing a tanker (tender) on a wildland incident. The crew was 

assigned to perform support operations at a helibase. The firefighter was a passenger 

in the tanker as it drove from a hotel to its assigned work site for the day. Driving 

conditions that morning were complicated by darkness and heavy fog. At approximately 

0630 hours, as the apparatus entered a roundabout, the left-front tire of the vehicle 

struck a raised curb. The driver attempted to brake and gain control of the vehicle, but 
Cause of Fatal Injury 25

it rolled, coming to rest on its right side. The firefighter was restrained by a seat belt, 

but he received fatal injuries in the crash. He was later extricated from the vehicle and 

pronounced dead at the scene.

ĵ One firefighter was responding to the fire station in response to an emergency medical 

incident. He was in his personal vehicle, a 2008 Ford F-250. As he drove to the fire station, 

he crossed the center line to pass another vehicle, lost control, hit the guardrail, came 

back across the driving lanes, struck the other guardrail, and rolled. The firefighter 

was ejected during the roll and sustained fatal injuries.

ĵ One firefighter was responding to an emergency incident in his personal vehicle. His vehicle 

became trapped on railroad tracks and was struck by a passing train. The firefighter, 

who was intoxicated by a combination of drugs and alcohol, was killed in the collision.

Figure 8. Firefighter fatalities in vehicle collisions (including aircraft)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Number of deaths

Year

27 28

16

11

5

18

9 9

5

19

Setting an example

In 2016, of the 16 vehicle collision deaths where the firefighters could have 

been using seat belts, 10 of them were wearing seat belts at the time of the 

crash, setting an example even in a tragic loss. While the status of seat belt use 

remains unknown in three cases, in only three other cases were the deceased 

firefighters not wearing seat belts (and all three were fully ejected from their 

vehicles). Seat belts are proven to increase the likelihood of surviving a crash. 

The number of firefighters whose lives were saved by wearing seat belts in 

2016, like any year, remains unreported.
26 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016

Other

In 2016, five firefighters died from causes of fatal injuries not previously categorized.

ĵ One firefighter responded to an emergency medical incident at 0920 hours. Upon his 

return to the station, he went to a local school to exercise. As he exercised, he suffered 

a heart attack. Firefighters were dispatched to the scene and transported the firefighter 

to a hospital where he later died. His death was caused by undiagnosed hypertrophic 

cardiomyopathy, a disease where the heart muscle becomes abnormally thick and 

pumping blood becomes difficult.

ĵ One firefighter and the members of his engine company responded to a working 

vehicle fire at 1053 hours. Shortly after assisting with placing the unit back in service, 

the firefighter complained of not feeling well to other firefighters. The firefighter was 

discovered deceased in his bunk at 0714 hours the following day. His death was caused 

by a pulmonary embolism.

ĵ One firefighter was participating in a water supply drill for members of his fire 

department and other fire departments. He drove to the training site, attached hoselines 

to a fire hydrant, and joined other firefighters at the side of a portable water tank. 

Shortly after arriving at the water tank, the firefighter collapsed and bent forward 

toward the tank. Fellow firefighters immediately began CPR and other medical aid. 

The firefighter was transported to the hospital where he later died as the result of a 

ruptured aortic dissection.

ĵ One firefighter was on duty and participating in physical fitness activities with other 

firefighters. The crew had selected non-contact pass-and-catch football drills as a 

cardiovascular warm-up for that day. During the activity, the firefighter suffered acute 

muscle pain. The pain was so severe that the firefighter was transported to the hospital. 

The firefighter was discharged from the hospital several days later. The following day, 

the firefighter was found unresponsive at home. He was unable to be revived. His death 

was caused by cardiac ischemia related to rhabdomyolysis (a breakdown of muscle 

tissue that releases a damaging protein into the blood).

ĵ One firefighter responded with other members of his fire department to the collapse 

of a dock on a lake. A number of people had fallen into the water. He responded on 

a heavy rescue apparatus and donned a dry suit for the operation. Once on-scene, 

the firefighter assisted with the rescue of civilians over ground ladders. He was then 

directed to remove equipment from the apparatus in preparation for a dive. The dive 

was called off due to the current and due to the fact that everyone was accounted 

for. The firefighter suffered a medical emergency shortly thereafter. He was treated 

by firefighters and transported by ambulance to a local hospital. He was unable to be 

revived. His death was caused by an aortic dissection.
Nature of Fatal Injury 27

Nature of Fatal Injury

Figure 9 shows the distribution of the 89 firefighter deaths that occurred in 2016 by the 

medical nature of the fatal injury or illness. For heart attacks, Figure 10 shows the type 

of duty involved.

Figure 9. Fatalities by nature of fatal injury (2016)

Number of deaths

0 10 20 30 40 50

Heart attack

Trauma

Asphyxiation

Other

CVA

Violence

Crushed

Heat exhaustion

Burns 1 (1.1%)

2 (2.2%)

2 (2.2%)

1 (1.1%)

4 (4.5%)

6 (6.7%)

7 (7.9%)

26 (29.2%)

40 (44.9%)

Figure 10. Heart attacks by type of duty (2016)

Number of deaths

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

After

On-scene fire

Other on-duty

On-scene nonfire

Training

Returning 1 

6

5

2

7

19
28 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016
Firefighter Ages 29

Firefighter Ages

Figure 11 shows the percentage distribution of firefighter deaths by age (at the time of 

injury) and nature of the fatal injury. Table 11 provides a count of firefighter fatalities by 

age and the nature of the fatal injury.

Younger firefighters were more likely to have died as a result of traumatic injuries, such 

as injuries from an apparatus accident or becoming caught or trapped during firefighting 

operations. Stress-related deaths are rare below the 31- to 35-years-of-age category and, 

when they occur, often include underlying medical conditions.

Figure 11. Fatalities by age and nature (2016)

0

20

40

60

80

100

Heart attack/CVA/Other

Trauma/Asphyxiation

61 and

over

under 21 to 25 26 to 30 31 to 35 36 to 40 41 to 45 46 to 50 51 to 60

21

Firefighter ages

Percent

100%100%100%

57%

43%

71%

29%

38%

62%62%

38%

29%

71%

29%

71%

0%0%0%

Table 11. Firefighter ages and nature of fatal injury (2016)

Age range Heart attack/CVA/Other Trauma/Asphyxiation

under 21 0 1

21 to 25 0 6

26 to 30 0 4

31 to 35 4 3

36 to 40 2 5

41 to 45 8 5

46 to 50 5 8

51 to 60 15 6

61 and over 12 5
30 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016

In 2016, the U.S. fire service lost more than 1,700 years of active fire service 

experience as represented by those who gave the extreme sacrifice for their 

communities and the nation as a whole.

The youngest firefighter to die while on duty was 20 years old. He was shot and 

killed as he responded to an emergency medical incident in a residence. The 

firefighter was wearing a fire department jacket and carrying EMS equipment. 

As he entered the residence and walked down a hallway inside of the home, 

the patient shot him multiple times. 

The oldest firefighter to die while on duty in 2016 was 79 years old. He was at 

the fire station for a company drill. He remained alone at the station to perform 

maintenance duties while other company members attended the drill. At some 

point, the firefighter ascended a ladder inside the station for these maintenance 

duties. When fire department personnel returned from the drill, they found 

the firefighter entangled in the fallen ladder. Despite lifesaving efforts, the 

firefighter was pronounced dead shortly thereafter. It is unknown whether the 

firefighter suffered a medical emergency while atop the ladder and then fell, 

or if the ladder had fallen while he was on it, causing his trauma. An autopsy 

is pending to determine the official cause of the firefighter’s death.
Deaths by Time of Injury | Firefighter Fatality Incidents by Month of Year 31

Deaths by Time of Injury

For 2016, the distribution of firefighter deaths, according to the time of day when the fatal 

injury occurred, is illustrated in Figure 12. The time of fatal injury for six firefighters was 

either unknown or not reported.

Figure 12. Fatalities by time of fatal injury (2016)

Number of deaths

Time

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Unknown

2300 - 0059

2100 - 2259

1900 - 2059

1700 - 1859

1500 - 1659

1300 - 1459

1100 - 1259

0900 - 1059

0700 - 0859

0500 - 0659

0300 - 0459

0100 - 0259 8

7

4

13

12

9

7

6

6 

7

5

4

1

Firefighter Fatality Incidents by Month 

of Year

Figure 13 illustrates the 2016 firefighter fatalities by month of year.

Figure 13. Deaths by month of year (2016)

Number of deaths

Month of the year

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

December 

November 

October 

September 

August 

July 

June

May 

April

March 

February 

January 5

4

15

9

11

5

8

8 

8

4

7

5
32 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016
State and Region 33

State and Region

The distribution of firefighter deaths in 2016 by state is shown in Table 12. Firefighters 

based in 35 states died in 2016.

The highest number of firefighter deaths in 2016 (based on the location of the fire 

service organization) occurred in North Carolina with nine losses. Four states suffered 

six firefighter deaths: Michigan, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania. There were no 

other states with five or more on-duty firefighter deaths in 2016.

Table 12. Firefighter fatalities by state based on location of fire service* (2016)

State Fatalities Percentage

NC 9 10.1

MI 6 6.7

NJ 6 6.7

NY 6 6.7

PA 6 6.7

CA 4 4.5

DE 4 4.5

OH 4 4.5

TX 4 4.5

MO 3 3.4

NH 3 3.4

AR 2 2.2

IL 2 2.2

IN 2 2.2

KS 2 2.2

KY 2 2.2

MT 2 2.2

NE 2 2.2

NV 2 2.2

SC 2 2.2

WI 2 2.2

AL 1 1.1

CO 1 1.1

CT 1 1.1

FL 1 1.1

GA 1 1.1

HI 1 1.1

LA 1 1.1

*This list attributes the deaths according to the state in which the fire department or unit is based, as opposed to the state in 

which the death occurred. They are listed by those states for statistical purposes and for the National Fallen Firefighters Memorial 

at the NETC.
34 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016

Table 12. Firefighter fatalities by state based on location of fire service (2016) — 

continued

State Fatalities Percentage

MD 1 1.1

ME 1 1.1

MS 1 1.1

OR 1 1.1

TN 1 1.1

VT 1 1.1

WA 1 1.1
State and Region 35

Figure 14. Firefighter fatalities by region (2016)
36 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016 Figure 15. On-duty firefighter fatalities by fire department location (2016)
State and Region 37

Figure 16. On-duty firefighter fatalities by incident location (2016)
38 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016
Analysis of Urban/Suburban/Rural Patterns in Firefighter Fatalities 39

Analysis of Urban/Suburban/Rural 

Patterns in Firefighter Fatalities

The U.S. Census Bureau defines “urban” as a place having a population of at least 2,500, 

or lying within a designated urban area. “Rural” is defined as any community that is not 

urban. “Suburban” is not a census term, but may be taken to refer to any place, urban or 

rural, that lies within a metropolitan area defined by the Census Bureau, but not within 

one of the central cities of that metropolitan area.

Fire department areas of responsibility do not always conform to the boundaries used by 

the Census Bureau. For example, fire departments organized by counties or special fire 

protection districts may have both urban and rural coverage areas. In such cases, where 

it may not be possible to characterize the entire coverage area of the fire department as 

rural or urban, firefighter deaths were listed as urban or rural based on the particular 

community or location in which the fatality occurred.

The following patterns were found for 2016 firefighter fatalities. These statistics are based on 

answers from the fire departments, and when no data from the departments were available, 

the data were based upon population and area served, as reported by the fire departments.

Table 13. Firefighter deaths by coverage area type (2016)

Urban/Suburban Rural Total

42 47 89
40 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016
Appendix 41

Appendix

Firefighter Fatality Inclusion Criteria — National Fire Service 

Organizations

The NFPA, NFFF, USFA and other organizations individually collect information on 

firefighter fatalities in the U.S. Each organization uses a slightly different set of inclusion 

criteria that are based at least in part on the purposes of the information collection for 

each organization and data consistency.

As a result of these differing inclusion criteria, statistics about firefighter fatalities may be 

provided by each organization that do not coincide with one another. This section will explain 

the inclusion criteria for each organization and provide information about these differences.

The USFA includes firefighters in this report that died while on duty, became ill while on 

duty and later died, and firefighters that died within 24-hours of an emergency response 

or training regardless of whether the firefighter complained of illness while on duty. The 

USFA counts firefighter deaths that occur in the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and 

U.S. protectorates, such as Puerto Rico and Guam. Detailed inclusion criteria for this 

report appear starting on page four of this report.

For 2016, the USFA reported 89 on-duty firefighter fatalities.

Firefighter fatalities in 2016 for incidents occurring in 2016

0

20

40

60

80

100

USFA NFPA NFFF

Number of deaths

89

69

75

Inclusion criteria for NFPA’s annual firefighter fatality study

Introduction

Each year, the NFPA collects data on all firefighter fatalities in the U.S. that resulted from 

injuries or illnesses that occurred while the victims were on duty. The purpose of the 

study is to analyze trends in the types of illnesses and injuries resulting in deaths that 

occur while firefighters are on the job. This annual census of firefighter fatalities in its 
42 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016

current format dates back to 1977. (Between 1974 and 1976, the NFPA published a study 

of on-duty firefighter fatalities that was not as comprehensive.)

What is a firefighter?

For the purpose of the NFPA study, the term firefighter covers all uniformed members of 

organized fire departments, whether career, volunteer, combination or contract; full-time 

public service officers acting as firefighters; state and federal government fire service 

personnel; temporary fire suppression personnel operating under official auspices of one 

of the above; and privately employed firefighters, including trained members of industrial 

or institutional fire brigades, whether full- or part-time.

Under this definition, the study includes, besides uniformed members of local career 

and volunteer fire departments, those seasonal and full-time employees of state and 

federal agencies who have fire suppression responsibilities as part of their job description, 

prison inmates serving on firefighting crews, military personnel performing assigned fire 

suppression activities, civilian firefighters working at military installations, and members 

of industrial fire brigades. Impressed civilians would also be included if called on by the 

officer in charge of the incident to carry out specific duties. The NFPA study includes 

fatalities that occur in the 50 states and the District of Columbia.

What does “on duty” mean?

The term on duty refers to being at the scene of an alarm, whether a fire or nonfire 

incident; being en-route while responding to or returning from an alarm; performing 

other assigned duties, such as training, maintenance, public education, inspection, 

investigations, court testimony and fundraising; and being on call, under orders or on 

stand-by duty other than at home or at the individual’s place of business. Fatalities that 

occur at a firefighter’s home may be counted if the actions of the firefighter at the time of 

injury involved firefighting or rescue.

On-duty fatalities include any injury sustained in the line of duty that proves fatal, any 

illness incurred as a result of actions while on duty that proves fatal, and fatal mishaps 

involving nonemergency occupational hazards that occur while on duty. The types of 

injuries included in the first category are mainly those that occur at an incident scene, in 

training, or in accidents while responding to or returning from alarms. Illnesses (including 

heart attacks) are included when the exposure or onset of symptoms are tied to a specific 

incident of on-duty activity. Those symptoms must have been in evidence while the victim 

was on duty for the fatality to be included in the study.

Fatal injuries and illnesses are included even in cases where death is considerably delayed. 

When the onset of the condition and the death occur in different years, the incident is 

counted in the year of the condition’s onset. Medical documentation specifically tying the 

death to the specific injury is required for inclusion of these cases in the study.

Categories not included in the study

The NFPA study does not include members of fire department auxiliaries; non-uniformed 

employees of fire departments; emergency medical technicians who are not also 

firefighters; chaplains; or civilian dispatchers. The study also does not include suicides as 

on-duty fatalities even when the suicide occurs on fire department property.
Appendix 43

The NFPA recognizes that a comprehensive study of firefighter on-duty fatalities would 

include chronic illnesses (such as cardiovascular disease and certain cancers) that prove 

fatal and that arose from occupational factors. In practice, there is no mechanism for 

identifying on-duty fatalities that are due to illnesses that develop over long periods 

of time. This creates an incomplete picture when comparing occupational illnesses to 

other factors as causes of firefighter deaths. This is recognized as a gap the size of which 

cannot be identified at this time because of the limitations in tracking the exposure of 

firefighters to toxic environments and substances, and the potential long-term effects of 

such exposures.

2016 experience

In 2016, a total of 69 on-duty firefighter deaths occurred in the United States, according 

to the NFPA inclusion criteria. 

National Fallen Firefighters Foundation

In 1997, fire service leaders formulated new criteria to determine eligibility for inclusion 

on the National Fallen Firefighter Memorial. LODDs shall be determined by the following 

standards:

1. (a) Deaths of firefighters meeting the DOJ’s PSOB program guidelines, and those cases 

that appear to meet these guidelines whether or not PSOB staff has adjudicated 

the specific case prior to the annual National Fallen Firefighters Memorial Service.

(b) Deaths of firefighters from injuries, heart attacks or illnesses documented to show a 

direct link to a specific emergency incident or department-mandated training activity.

2. While PSOB guidelines cover only public safety officers, the Foundation’s criteria also 

include contract firefighters and firefighters employed by a private company, such as 

those in an industrial brigade, provided that the deaths meet the standards listed above.

3. Some specific cases will be excluded from consideration, such as deaths attributable 

to suicide, alcohol or substance abuse, or other gross abuses as specified in the 

PSOB guidelines.

The National Fallen Firefighters Memorial was built in 1981 in Emmitsburg, Maryland. The 

names listed there begin with those firefighters who died in the line-of-duty that year. 

The U.S. Congress created the NFFF to lead a nationwide effort to remember America’s 

fallen firefighters. Since 1992, the tax-exempt, nonprofit foundation has developed 

and expanded programs to honor our fallen fire heroes and assist their families and 

co-workers by providing them with resources to rebuild their lives. Since 1997, the 

Foundation has managed the National Memorial Service held each October to honor the 

firefighters who died in the line-of-duty the previous year.

As of this writing, the Foundation will be honoring 95 firefighters who died in the line-ofduty at the October 2017 Memorial Weekend. Seventy-five firefighters being honored are 

associated with incidents and deaths that occurred in 2016 and 20 deaths as the result of 

an incident that occurred prior to 2016.
44 Firefighter Fatalities in the United States in 2016
Acronyms 45

Acronyms

CPR cardiopulmonary resuscitation

CVA cerebrovascular accident

DOJ U.S. Department of Justice

EMS Emergency Medical Services

LODD line-of-duty death

mph miles per hour

NETC National Emergency Training Center

NFFF National Fallen Firefighters Foundation

NFIRS National Fire Incident Reporting System

NFPA National Fire Protection Association

NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

NTSB National Transportation Safety Board

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration

POVs privately-owned vehicles

PSOB Public Safety Officer Benefits

SCBA self-contained breathing apparatus

USFA U.S. Fire Administration
16825 South Seton Ave.

Emmitsburg, MD 21727

800-561-3356

www.usfa.fema.gov

December 2017