Long Range Plan

for the Federal Courts

As Approved by the Judicial Conference

Judicial Conference of the United States

December 1995

December 15, 1995

TO ALL INTERESTED PARTIES:

I am pleased to present the Long Range Plan for the Federal Courts approved by

 the Judicial Conference of the United States. Although it is based in large part on the

Proposed Long Range Plan submitted by the Committee on Long Range Planning in March

1995, this version of the Plan includes a number of substantive and technical revisions

among its recommendations, implementation strategies, and supplemental text.

Judicial Conference approval of the Long Range Plan extends only to the 93

recommendations and 76 implementation strategies. All other text in the Plan, including

commentary on the approved items, serves to explain the drafters' reasoning and provide

background information but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Judicial Conference.

As the federal judiciary faces the challenges of the next century, the Long Range

Plan will provide an integrated vision and valuable framework for policy making and

administrative decisions by the Conference, its committees, and other judicial branch

authorities. While continuing to reflect our shared, enduring values, the specific goals

and objectives set forth in the Plan can be expected to evolve as necessary to meet the

needs of a changing world.

Any questions about the Long Range Plan can be directed to the Long Range

Planning Office, Administrative Office of the United States Courts, at (202) 273-1810.

V

L. Ralph Mecham

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

iii

Table of Contents

Foreword ....................................................................................................... vii

Chapter 1. Introduction .................................................................................. 1

Why Plan? ................................................................................................................ 1

History of Federal Courts Planning and the Genesis of the Current Plan ................ 2

Chapter 2. Conserving Core Values, Yet Preserving Flexibility ............................. 5

The Vision................................................................................................................ 5

Mission..................................................................................................................... 6

Core Values.............................................................................................................. 7

The Federal Courts Today........................................................................................ 9

Conserving Core Values........................................................................................... 13

Has the Crisis Arrived? ............................................................................................ 14

Chapter 3. An Alternative Future for the Federal Courts?.................................... 17

A Possible Scenario for the Future........................................................................... 18

Another Possible Scenario for the Future................................................................. 19

Chapter 4. Judicial Federalism ......................................................................... 21

Defining and Maintaining a Limited Federal Jurisdiction........................................ 23

Criminal Proceedings ................................................................................... 24

Civil Proceedings ......................................................................................... 28

Confronting the Effects of Allocating Jurisdiction................................................... 37

Impact of Legislation.................................................................................... 37

Growth of the Article III Judiciary ............................................................. 38

Chapter 5. Structure....................................................................................... 41

Organization of the Appellate Function ................................................................... 42

Courts of Appeals......................................................................................... 43

Circuit Size and Workload ........................................................................... 44

Resolution of Intercircuit Conflicts .............................................................. 46

Review of Administrative Proceedings ........................................................ 46

Appeals in Bankruptcy Cases....................................................................... 47

Appeals of Magistrate Judge Decisions........................................................ 49

Organization of the Trial Function ........................................................................... 49

District Courts .............................................................................................. 50

District Alignment........................................................................................ 50

Bankruptcy Courts........................................................................................ 52
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

iv

Chapter 6. Adjudication.................................................................................. 57

Rules of Practice and Procedure............................................................................... 58

Sentencing in Criminal Cases................................................................................... 59

The Jury System ....................................................................................................... 62

Pro Se Litigation....................................................................................................... 63

Costs of Litigation.................................................................................................... 66

The Need for Case Management .............................................................................. 66

Case Management in the Courts of Appeals................................................. 67

Case Management in the District Courts...................................................... 70

Chapter 7. Governance: Management and Accountability .................................. 73

Distribution of Authority.......................................................................................... 75

Effective Organization and Operation...................................................................... 76

Participation ............................................................................................................. 83

Administrative Autonomy........................................................................................ 85

Accountability .......................................................................................................... 88

Chapter 8. Resources ..................................................................................... 93

Obtaining Adequate Resources ................................................................................ 93

Ensuring Lifetime Service on the Bench.................................................................. 96

Making Most Effective Use of Judicial Resources................................................... 98

Diminishing the Problem of Judicial Vacancies....................................................... 102

Managing Judicial Branch Resources....................................................................... 105

Budget Decentralization ............................................................................... 105

Technology and Facilities............................................................................. 106

The Federal Courts' Workforce of the Future .............................................. 108

Chapter 9. The Federal Courts and Society....................................................... 111

Equal Justice............................................................................................................. 112

Keeping Federal Courts Affordable ......................................................................... 116

Representation of Criminal Defendants ................................................................... 118

Ensuring Justice for Those Who Cannot Afford Counsel

 in Civil Cases ........................................................................................................ 121

Customer Service Orientation .................................................................................. 122

Communications with Other Branches of Government and the Public.................... 125

Communications with the Bar.................................................................................. 128

Chapter 10. Confronting the Alternative Future................................................. 129

Threshold for Considering Changes......................................................................... 130

Restructuring Appellate Review............................................................................... 131

Limiting the Right to Appeal.................................................................................... 132

Making Best Use of Trial Court Resources.............................................................. 133

Diverting the Civil Caseload .................................................................................... 134

Limiting Jurisdiction ................................................................................................ 134

Maintaining Effective Governance........................................................................... 135

Appointing Article III Judges................................................................................... 137
TABLE OF CONTENTS þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

v

Conclusion................................................................................................................ 140

Chapter 11. Implementation and Future Planning .............................................. 141

The Plan as a Guide.................................................................................................. 141

Coordinated Planning............................................................................................... 142

Implementing this Plan............................................................................................. 143

Continuing Nature of Planning................................................................................. 144

Future Editions of the Plan....................................................................................... 144

Appendix A. Current Trends and Projections..................................................... 145

Appendix B. History of the Judicial Conferences Long Range

 Planning Process......................................................................... 165

Appendix C. Profile of the Long Range Planning Committee:

 Members, Staff, Consultants, and Contributors............................... 175

Appendix D. The Judicial Conference of the United States and

 Its Committees, September 1995 ................................................. 187

Index ............................................................................................................. 201

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The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

54
 State

Judiciary

UNITED STATES COURT OFINTERNATIONAL TRADE

THE UNITED STATES COURT SYSTEM

UNITED STATES COURT OF FEDERAL CLAIMS

BANKRUPTCY APPELLATE PANELS(in circuits where established)

UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE FEDERAL CIRCUIT

 United States

 Tax Court

United States

 Court of Veterans Appeals

Administrative Agencies

 UNITED STATES BANKRUPTCY COURTS (units of the U.S. District Courts)

UNITED STATES COURTS OF APPEALS (12 geographic circuits)

 UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURTS

 (and territorial District Courts)

State Courts

Federal questionsarising in casesdecided in thehighest courts ofthe 50 states, theSupreme Court ofPuerto Rico, andthe District ofColumbia Court ofAppeals

 Other Federal Tribunals

 United States

 Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces

 FederalJudiciary

UNITED STATES

SUPREME COURT

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

55

CHAPTER 5 / STRUCTURE

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`b_WbQ]cRUU^S_ebQWUTd_T_c_

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

73

Chapter 7

Governance: Management

and Accountability

UDICIAL governance involves the

development and implementation of

administrative policies that support the

federal courts' adjudicatory activities. Although deciding cases is the independent act

of one or more judges in a particular court,

the management of judicial resources and

formulation of administrative policy is essentially a cooperative process. Through

that process the third branch preserves its

own necessary autonomy, while at the same

time reaffirming its fiscal and administrative

accountability to Congress and the taxpayers.

The nature and mission of the

federal courts require an approach to internal

governance rather different than that of executive branch agencies and other more

hierarchical institutions. Unlike other

forms, judicial governance is derived from,

and must adhere to, the following principles:

Separation of powers. Under Articles I and

III of the Constitution, Congress is authorized to structure the federal courts, define

their jurisdiction, and determine what

resources will be allocated for their use.

Although those prerogatives necessarily

require some congressional policy making

and oversight in judicial administration, the

courts are a co-equal branch of government.

It is essential that Congress consult with the

courts in the exercise of its constitutional

responsibilities vis-a-vis the third branch.

And, to the extent practicable, Congress

Key functions of judicial branch governance include:

 budget formulation and execution

 assignment of caseloads

 resource allocation and administration

 personnel management

 procedural rulemaking

 financial and property controls

 enforcement of ethical and legal standards

 program management

 data collection and dissemination

 interbranch, intergovernmental and public 

relations

 strategic planning

 research and education

should allow those in whom the Constitution

vests judicial power to govern the courts

autonomously.

Judicial independence and accountability.

The federal courts are charged with the administration of justice under law. To do so

effectively, they must be free from political

pressure by other governmental entities,

and from the heated public and political

sentiments of the day. This adjudicatory

independence requires a substantial degree

J
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

74

of administrative independence. At the

same time, the courts are accountable to the

public for the efficient administration of

justice. Through internal coordination and

review, the organs of judicial governance

promote the responsible use of tax dollars

and equitable, appropriate treatment of litigants, witnesses, jurors, and the public.

Although tension may exist between the

twin goals of judicial independence and efficient management, the latter, if pursued

with careful deference to constitutional

principles, can also enhance the courts' effectiveness as an independent branch within

the federal government.

Decentralized authority. Under Article III

of the Constitution, judicial power is vested

directly in the respective courts of appeals,

district courts, and other courts whose

judges serve during good behavior with

undiminished compensation. Because

governance is ancillary to the adjudicative

function, primary responsibility for establishing and executing administrative policy

naturally resides with each court.

Broad participation. The governance

process of the federal courts is broadly

participatory because autonomous judges

are the ultimate source of judicial branch

authority. In such an environment,

informed policy making requires full consideration of a wide range of opinions and

options. Accordingly, the courts rely for

national policy making on the 27-member

Judicial Conference, which is in turn advised

by 25 committees with a rotating membership of nearly 300. More than one federal

judge in six plays a role in national judicial

governance through membership on: the

Judicial Conference or one of its committees; the Board or an advisory committee of

the Federal Judicial Center; or an ad hoc

advisory group for the Administrative Office

of the United States Courts. Participation is

also high at the regional and local levels

through membership on circuit councils and

conferences, committees attached to both,

and governance mechanisms in the circuit,

district, and bankruptcy courts. With substantial numbers of judges involved in this

process there are opportunities, perhaps otherwise unavailable, for exchanging ideas and

perspectives on legal as well as administrative issues from different parts of the

country.

Functional, not proportional representation.

Judicial governance bodies represent the interests of all judges. Membership in those

bodies is based on the need to bring together

institutional experience and opinion found at

all levels of the judiciary. While individual

members inevitably bring their own perspectives (as a trial judge, appellate judge,

etc.) to the task, they are not intended to

serve as agents of specific courts, circuits, or

categories of judges. For that reason, judges

from a smaller circuit have the same number

of votes in the Judicial Conference as judges

from a large circuit, and circuit judges serve

on the Conference and councils without regard to their proportionate numbers in the

larger judicial population.

Evolutionary development. Over time,

the federal courts' governance institutions

have developed sufficient administrative

authority to meet effectively the evolving

administrative needs of the courts in

a rapidly changing society.1

 Although

governance authority has tended to be concentrated in fewer hands over time, the

degree of consolidation has, appropriately,

been modest. It has been directed largely at

rationalizing administration in an expanding

 1 The Judicial Conference, which began as a purely advisory body in 1922, acquired administrative authority in

1939 when the Administrative Office was created to act

under its supervision. It has more recently delegated to its

Executive Committee the authority to act for, and steer, the

Conference on a day to day basis. Likewise, the circuit

judicial councils, created in 1939 solely to supervise district

docket management, have acquired greater responsibility to

oversee judicial administration at the regional level.
CHAPTER 7 / GOVERNANCE: MANAGEMENT AND ACCOUNTABILITY þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

75

 judiciary, and at providing effective oversight against abuse and inefficiency. The

concept of strong, centralized authority and

autocratic leadership is foreign to the courts,

inconsistent with the deliberative, consensus-oriented decision making appropriate to

a judicial institution, and contrary to current

management trends generally. Instead, the

judiciary will continue to govern itself

through the institutions that have served it

well, but with an eye toward incremental

improvements in structure and process.

The following recommendations are

intended to provide the federal courts with

the means to retain their unique character

and perform their constitutional mission,

while at the same time meeting their legal,

ethical, and societal responsibilities.

Distribution of Authority

^ RECOMMENDATION 40: In the interests

of administrative efficiency, accountable resource utilization, and effective

external relations, the present distribution of governance authority among

the national, regional (circuit), and

individual court levels should be preserved. Governance structures and

mechanisms should continue to strike

a careful balance among individual

judge autonomy, local court initiative

and control, and coordination of effort.

Implementation Strategies:

40a The judicial branch should obtain

funding for the operation of the courts

solely through appropriations administered by the Administrative Office of the

United States Courts and expended under the direction and supervision of the

Judicial Conference of the United States.

Appropriated funds should not be obtained directly by a circuit council or

any other regional or local body.

40b The agencies of judicial administration at the national level should

continue to decentralize administrative

responsibility wherever appropriate,

while maintaining sufficient oversight to

ensure that courts are accountable for

the proper use of the authority vested in

them.

For most of their history, the federal

courts have been administratively autonomousboth individually and collectively

subject only to the common administrative

support provided, in turn, by the Treasury,

Interior, and Justice Departments, and

occasional management oversight by the

Supreme Court justices assigned to the

respective circuits. In 1922, however, Congress established the Conference of Senior

Circuit Judges (the forerunner of the present

Judicial Conference of the United States),

primarily as an advisory and coordinating

body. In 1939, Congress transferred national administrative responsibility for the

courts from the executive branch to a newly

created Administrative Office of the United

States Courts, which functions under the

Conference's supervision. At the same time,

Congress created a Judicial Council in each

circuit, initially to monitor the district

courts' dockets.

These national and regional bodies

(and others added since) have evolved and

grown to meet changing needs. The circuit

judicial councilsthrough their statutory

power to oversee regional judicial administrationand the Judicial Conference

through its control of the judicial budget and

supervision of the Administrative Office

exercise significant authority to formulate

and execute policies for the entire judicial
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

76

branch. The individual courts, however, remain autonomous in important ways and

continue to have primary responsibility for

their own administration.2

Most members of the judiciary believe that this allocation of authority has

served the federal courts well and should

be retained as a general matter. There is,

however, less consensus on the appropriate

structure for circuit-level administration

and its relationship to individual districts.

For that reason, judicial policy makers

should continue to study regional and individual court governance with a view toward

improving the balance of power and responsibility between those levels (see

Recommendation 47 and Chapter 11 infra).

Broad participation and consensus at each

level, as well as deference by national and

regional policy makers to localized initiative

and control, are essential in a judicial system that constitutionally must honor the

independence of individual jurists.

By the same token, national or regional coordination or direction is necessary

to ensure efficiency and economies of scale,

accountability in the discharge of the public

trust, and effective relations with the other

branches of government, the bar, and the

general public. Budgetary policy is a key

area in which national coordination is necessary to ensure that resources are adequately

obtained and properly allocated: appropriations should not be obtained directly from

Congress by a circuit council or any other

regional or local judicial authority.

As a general rule, authority to make

policy and spending choices should reside

with those whose interests are most directly

 2

 Indeed, even though circuit councils may issue

"necessary and appropriate orders for the effective and

expeditious administration of justice within [the] circuit,"

28 U.S.C. § 332(d)(1) (1988), that power is used only

sparingly to remedy exceptional problems arising at the

district court level.

affected. This is consistent with the current

management theoryarticulated in the

1993 report of the National Performance

Reviewthat "empowerment" of front-line

managers and employees results in more

efficient, less costly operations.3

 Put differently, decentralization provides the tools

needed for appellate, district, and bankruptcy courts to administer themselves.

With increased authority, however,

should come increased accountability.

Through their respective functions and activities, the Judicial Conference and the

national judicial support agencies should

encourage court personnel to manage decentralized resources wisely, always with the

aim of better serving the public.

The Administrative Office should

continue to delegate to individual courts appropriate programmatic responsibility in the

areas of budget execution and personnel

classification and management, consistent

with the broader interests of the judicial

branch and the responsibilities that Congress

imposes on the Administrative Office by

statute or through the appropriations process. Likewise, the Federal Judicial Center

should continue to encourage and, through

technical and financial support, assist individual courts in making local education

programs a key element of personnel management and organizational development.

Effective Organization and Operation

The success of the existing governance institutions is attributable in significant

part to Congress's appropriate willingness to

entrust to the courts responsibility for most

operational details. This has allowed the

organization and methods of judicial ad-

 3

 See CREATING A GOVERNMENT THAT WORKS BETTER &

COSTS LESSREPORT OF THE NATIONAL PERFORMANCE

REVIEW 69-72 (1993).
CHAPTER 7 / GOVERNANCE: MANAGEMENT AND ACCOUNTABILITY þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

77

ministration to evolve and adapt to meet the

changing needs of the federal courts. For

that reason, the governance system should

maintain its current flexible distribution of

authority and responsibility, making only

slight adjustments in the role and organization of various institutions to ensure

adequate capacity for well-informed, coordinated, and timely action.

^ RECOMMENDATION 41: The Chief

Justice of the United States should

remain the head of the federal judicial

system, retaining the traditional

authority and responsibility of that

office in matters of judicial administration.

By statute and custom, the Chief

Justice, in consultation with the Judicial

Conference and others, structures federal

judicial administration at the national level

according to his or her management preferences. To create effective administrative and

working relationships, the Chief Justice can

allocate responsibility (other than statutorily

prescribed functions) among the Director of

the Administrative Office, the Director of

the Federal Judicial Center, the Administrative Assistant to the Chief Justice, and the

chair of the Judicial Conference Executive

Committee.4

 This approach assures needed

flexibility in judicial governance arrangements while preserving the Chief Justice's

permanent role as head of the judicial

branch.

The current system is adaptable, and

it works well. It is unnecessary to establish

an additional high-level management positionsuch as a "chancellor," "associate

justice for administration" or "executive

judge"to oversee judicial administration.

 4

 See RUSSELL R. WHEELER & GORDON BERMANT,

FEDERAL COURT GOVERNANCE 49 (Federal Judicial Center

1994).

Existing institutions can be structured, as

needed, to ensure prompt, effective decision

making. Creation of a permanent statutory

office with a new and fixed mandate would

only reduce the system's flexibility and undermine regional and local administrative

autonomy.

^ RECOMMENDATION 42: Consistent

with the authority conferred by Congress, the Judicial Conference of the

United States should continue to develop policy and exercise oversight

with respect to matters of judicial

branch administration in which a unified national approach is necessary

and appropriate. The Conference

should continue to focus attention on

broad-scale policies and critical issues.

The Judicial Conference of the

United States consists of the Chief Justice,

the chief judge of each circuit, a district

judge representative from each circuit,

and the chief judge of the Court of International Trade. Its structure and function

complement the unique nature of the judicial branch. The primary role of judicial

governance is to ensure that judges receive

the support they need to perform their

constitutional duties. A large, broadly representative Conference, supported by an

effective committee structure and administrative staff, is the best suited to preserving

broad-based judicial control and involvement in carrying out that role.

It should be kept in mind, of course,

that the Judicial Conference meets only

twice a year. No body with that schedule

can or should be expected to provide day-today administrative oversight and control of a

complex organization. For that reason, the

Conference will need to focus its attention

on providing broad policy direction for ju-
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

78

dicial branch administration and addressing

issues of strategic importance to the federal

courts.

This does not mean that Conference

procedures and internal organization should

remain static. In 1986-87, the Chief Justice

commissioned a Committee to Study the

Judicial Conference that reviewed the

decision-making process and committee organization and recommended a series of

significant modifications in how the Conference transacts its business. Among the

recommendations adopted by the Conference was a policy requiring internal review

of the Conference committee structure every

five years.

It is important that these periodic

studies continue, and that they focus not

only on committee operations but also on

the manner in which the Conference itself

makes decisions. In an age of increasingly

complex and technical problems, it is

essential that Conference members have

sufficient, accurate informationfrom

committee reports and other sourcesto

evaluate policy alternatives and make wellinformed decisions. Also, with increasing

judicial participation in Conference activity,5

the effectiveness of the Conference as a deliberative body will be tested. Use of

executive sessions and greater limitations on

staff participation should be studied as possible means of preserving the Conference

members' ability to debate issues in a relatively small, collegial forum.

^ RECOMMENDATION 43: The leadership role of the Judicial Conference's

Executive Committee should be enhanced.

 5 See Implementation Strategy 44b and Recommendations

45 and 50 infra.

Implementation Strategies:

43a The Executive Committee should

be allowed a more active role in steering

the Conference and acting on its behalf.

Because the size of the Judicial Conference makes a more frequent meeting

schedule impractical, a smaller body is

needed to make timely decisions and manage relations with the Congress and the

executive branch in rapidly changing areas

of policy development. In recent years, the

Executive Committee has assumed that

role, becoming the arm of the Conference

primarily responsible for acting on the judiciarys behalf when time-sensitive issues

arise between semiannual sessions. 

Given the increasing number and

range of administrative issues confronting

the federal courts, it is appropriate that the

Judicial Conference focus on fundamental or

long-term policies and matters on which a

full airing of views is needed, leaving more

routine matters to the Executive Committee.

Indeed, this reallocation of responsibility

should be expanded so that the Conference

can utilize its limited meeting time more effectively. For example, the Executive

Committee could assume a more proactive

role in determining both the content of the

Conference agenda and the manner and order in which it is considered. In addition,

many of the ministerial and routine matters

now placed on the "consent" calendar at

Conference sessions could be formally delegated to the Executive Committee.

More broadly, the Conference might

wish to consider greater system-wide leadership for this body. For example, Executive

Committee members could serve as policy

advocates and emissaries who encourage

courts to exercise decentralized budget and

personnel management authority to improve
CHAPTER 7 / GOVERNANCE: MANAGEMENT AND ACCOUNTABILITY þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

79

and enhance services to court users and

other aspects of judicial administration.

With expanded authority, the Executive Committee's ability to make prompt and

sound decisions will become even more essential. That ability will depend in large

part on the expertise of its members. The

full Judicial Conferencefrom which the

Executive Committee ordinarily is drawn

typically includes judges with wide ranging

experience and expertise. However, there

are policy areas in which special knowledge

of current issues and problems may be critical. Accordingly, the Executive Committee

may find it helpful to continue the practice of including in its deliberations, where

appropriate, the chairs of Conference committees responsible for the programs or

activities under discussion.

43b Consideration should be given to

at least partial reduction in the chair's

judicial workload, so as to offset the time

required for performance of administrative duties.

An expansion of Executive Committee responsibility would naturally impose

greater time demands on its members, especially the chair. It is not clear, at present,

whether the judge chairing the Executive

Committee in fact needs a special measure

of docket relief. In time, however, the administrative duties of that position may grow

to the point where at least some relief from

judicial duties will be needed.6

 6 Docket relief can be provided in more than one way. For

example, inter- and intra-circuit assignments could be used

to bring visiting judges to the chair's home court so that

the chair could devote a greater amount of time to Executive Committee work. Alternatively, Congress could

authorize a temporary judgeship for the chair's home

court, either in all cases or whenever the Chief Justice certifies the need to relieve the chair of some or all judicial

duties. A similar approach is already taken whenever a

full-time judge assumes an "office of federal judicial administration"presently defined as the Director of the

Administrative Office, the Director of the Federal Judicial

^ RECOMMENDATION 44: The Judicial

Conference should continue to rely on

a broad committee structure for policy

development. It should strengthen the

committees' ability to provide sound

advice and needed information.

Implementation Strategies:

44a Membership in Conference

committees should continue to rotate periodically, to provide new and diverse

perspectives while at the same time preserving the insight, experience, and

legislative contacts that come with longterm committee service.

In setting policies on the tenure and

composition of committee membership, the

Conference should balance the need for

fresh perspectives against the value of

continuity and experience. Before 1987,

committee members served indefinite terms,

severely reducing the number of judges who

could become involved in national judicial

administration. A key element of the reforms adopted that year was establishment

of a fixed three-year term for committee appointments and an overall six-year limit on

service by an individual judge on any

committee. Although exceptions to the limits have been made on rare occasions, these

norms have been credited with the much

broader degree of judge participation in

Conference work in recent years.

The difficulty with any rule of this

kind is that it deprives the organization of

valuable service and expertise at the same

time that it provides a needed infusion of

new and different ideas. Whether a particular limit on committee service is the

appropriate one depends, in large part, on

the context. If the work of a particular

 

Center, or the Administrative Assistant to the Chief Justice.

See 28 U.S.C. § 133(b) (Supp. V 1993).
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

80

committee exposes a member to a substantial "learning curve" or involves lengthy

projects (the federal rules process is a good

example but by no means the only one), the

appropriate balance between continuity and

renewal may be found in longer terms for

its members or chairs, or in the occasional

waiver of the overall committee service

limit.

44b The Conference should afford the

committee chairs a meaningful role in

relevant Conference debates and an opportunity to meet together at least once a

year.

Because of the familiarity and expertise they acquire with their committees'

subject areas, Conference committee chairs

are a valuable resource that should be utilized more effectively. Although the chair of

a committee whose report is on the Conference discussion agenda typically is invited

to make an oral presentation at the Conference session, there are other situations (e.g.,

not involving a proposal of that specific

committee) when it would be helpful for

Conference members to hear the views of a

committee chair on an issue generally within

his or her committee's area of concern.

It is not uncommon for issues to

arise that cut across the jurisdictions of more

than one Conference committee. Proposals

to authorize electronic or facsimile filing of

court documentswhich fall within the respective bailiwicks of the committees

responsible for court administration, rules of

practice and procedure, and automationare

only a recent example. Staff-level coordination can help considerably in avoiding

duplication of effort or misunderstanding

among the committees. But regular meetings of the committee chairs also would be

useful to promote information sharing on

common issues and an awareness of matters

under consideration elsewhere. These gatherings should not, of course, become a policy-making forum in lieu of the Conference

or any particular committee.

^ RECOMMENDATION 45: The number

of judges participating in the Judicial

Conference and its committees should

not increase in proportion to growth

in the judiciary overall.

At present, 17 to 18 percent of all

life-tenured and fixed-term judges serve on

the Judicial Conference and its committees.

To maintain a decentralized, consensusoriented process for administrative decision

making, the judicial branch should preserve

and, indeed, expand on this wide degree of

participation in governance structures.7

However, if the Article III judiciary were to

increase in size to 2,700 judges but keep

its current proportion of judges holding

governance appointments, the size of the

Conference organization would increase

from approximately 300 to around 475

judges. Although a governance process with

that number of participants might still be

manageable, at some point the problems of

coordination and effective discussion will

outweigh the benefits of large-scale participation.

^ RECOMMENDATION 46: The Administrative Office of the United States

Courts and the Federal Judicial Center should retain their separate

institutional status and respective

missions. The officially adopted policies of the Judicial Conference

represent the view of the judicial

branch on all matters and should be

respected as such by the Administrative Office and the Federal Judicial

 7

 See Recommendation 50 infra.
CHAPTER 7 / GOVERNANCE: MANAGEMENT AND ACCOUNTABILITY þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

81

Center when dealing with members of

Congress or the executive branch.

The functions of the Administrative

Office and the Federal Judicial Center are

sufficiently distinct to merit the retention of

two separate organizations. Although these

agencies must work cooperatively and in a

coordinated fashion, maintaining distinct but

mutually supportive agencies for administration and policy support and education

and research, respectively, will be important

in years to come. When shortages occur in

funding and other resources, it will be necessary to ensure that research and education

are not sacrificed for the sake of day-to-day

operational needs. 

In carrying out their respective functions, both of these agencies must operate

within the policy framework established by

the Judicial Conference. As the Chief Justice explained in his year-end report for

1994, the Conference is the body established to speak for the federal judiciary in

its dealings with the other branches of the

federal government.

^ RECOMMENDATION 47: The basic

organization and authority of governance institutions at the regional and

individual court levels should be retained.

As noted under Recommendation 40,

there is general consensus in the judiciary on

the need to maintain a three-tiered system of

judicial governance (national, regional, and

individual court), with an emphasis on decentralized control. There is, however, far

less agreement among judges, and particularly between circuit and district judges, as

to the appropriate role of regional authority

vis-a-vis local courts, and the balance required between local court autonomy and

regional coordination. Although the basic

governance structure is sound, the powers

and composition of regional governance

bodies should be studied carefully to assess

the degree to which refinements or more

extensive changes are appropriate (see

Chapter 11 infra).

Implementation Strategies:

47a Circuit judicial councils should

continue to provide administrative coordination and oversight to all courts

within the respective regional circuits.

The judicial circuits are an essential

component in the machinery of federal judicial administration. As the courts face a

future of increasingly scarce resources, it

will become more, not less, important to

have a regional mechanismthe circuit judicial councilin which collective needs

and interests of all courts (appellate and

trial, large and small, urban and rural, overworked and underworked) can be weighed

before resources are allocated. Because

the appellate and trial courts face different

problems and issues, proposals have been

made to eliminate circuit judge involvement

in regional oversight and coordination of

district court administration.8

 On the other

hand, some observers believe that their

participation affords judicial council deliberations a broad perspective and detachment

that are very useful in confronting difficult

issues. With that in mind, the role of circuit

judges in judicial councils should be reassessed as part of an overall examination of

the circuit-district relationship (see Chapter

11 infra).

47b The chief judges of the courts of

appeals and district courts should con

 8

 See, e.g., Report of the Judicial Conference Committee

on Court Administration and Case Management to the Judicial Conference Committee on Long Range Planning

(Feb. 1993 & Jan. 1994).
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

82

tinue to be selected on the basis of seniority subject to statutory limitations on

age and tenure.

Currently, chief circuit and district

judges rise to those positions based on seniority in their courts, subject to statutory age

and length of service limitations. The value

of this system lies in the certainty it provides, and in ensuring equal opportunity and

avoiding the divisiveness of an electoral

process. Although many judges consider the

seniority system flawed because it does not

ensure administrative ability, the alternative

methods suggested to date (e.g., merit selection or election by the court) also meet with

skepticism. Given that the current system

has generally worked well in practice, this

plan does not propose to abandon it. The

better approach is to continue studying possible alternatives to the seniority model (see

Chapter 11 infra), and to concentrate on

training and technical assistance to chief

judges so that they can effectively discharge

their increasingly complex administrative

responsibilities.

^ RECOMMENDATION 48: To assist the

governance process and enforce its

decisions, the judicial branch should

continue to develop and enhance the

capabilities of court administrators

and managers.

The need for staff support of court

operations has expanded to an even greater

degree than additional judge power requirements: judges now constitute less than 9

percentas compared with nearly 25 percent in 1970of the total judicial branch

workforce. Accordingly, the key to successful administration of the federal courts lies

more than ever in strong, effective court

managers (circuit executives, clerks of court,

etc.) and in adequate funding for administrative as well as adjudicative functions. As

discussed in greater detail in Chapter 8,9

an expanded, concerted effort by the federal courts to recruit, train, and retain the

services of highly qualified, competent administrators will enhance the judges' ability

to perform their constitutional functions. It

will also foster the efficient, responsible use

of judicial branch resources required in an

era of tight budgets and close public scrutiny.

^ RECOMMENDATION 49: All judicial

governance institutions should continue to develop and integrate long

range planning capabilities into their

policy-making processes.

In its 1990 report, the Federal Courts

Study Committee recommended that the

Judicial Conference and the circuit judicial

councils undertake or enhance their respective capacities for long rangeas opposed

to short-term or operationalplanning. In

addition to this national plan, successful

planning efforts are continuing by Judicial

Conference committees and have taken root

at the circuit and district court levels. The

judicial branch is well served by continuing

national planning efforts in, among other

areas, the automation, judicial security, and

space and facilities programs. The long

range planning process in the Ninth Circuit

Court of Appeals is a landmark effort that

has begun implementation. Successful

planning efforts have occurred, with training

and technical assistance from the Administrative Office10 and the Federal Judicial

Center, in several individual courts and judicial branch programs. As described more

 9

 See Recommendations 74 and 77 infra. 10 In support of the Long Range Planning Committee's

charge to promote and encourage planning within the judicial branch, the Administrative Office of the United

States Courts has published a Judicial Branch Planning

Guide and a Planning Handbook for Federal Courts that

have been used by local planning committees.
CHAPTER 7 / GOVERNANCE: MANAGEMENT AND ACCOUNTABILITY þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

83

fully in Chapter 11, a continuing planning

process is essentialnot only to establish

formal goals or objectives, but also to ensure

well-informed, coherent day-to-day decision

making. Planning should continue and be

expanded at all levels as an integral part of

the governance process.

Participation

Judicial governance should represent

all judges. It is essential that the different

perspectives and experiences of trial and appellate judges, and of life-tenured and fixedterm judges, be reflected in the decision

making process. Over the years, the membership of federal court governance bodies

has become steadily broader and more inclusive. Nevertheless, there is room for improvement.

^ RECOMMENDATION 50: There should

be broad, meaningful participation of

judges in governance activities at all

levels.

Implementation Strategies:

50a District judges should be afforded

the opportunity to participate effectively

in national and regional governance. To

that end

(1) district judge members of the Judicial Conference should be afforded

a term of service comparable to the

average tenure of chief circuit

judges (i.e., five years); and

(2) each circuit judicial council should

have an equal number of district

judge and circuit judge members,

including the chief circuit judge.

District judges have participated in

the Judicial Conference since 1957, and in

circuit judicial councils since 1980. However, the rules governing their membership

in these bodies continue to place them at a

disadvantage vis-a-vis circuit judges. For

example, an inequality between district and

circuit judges can be found in the tenure

of Conference members: although district

judge members have a statutory term of

three years, the circuit judges are represented on the Conference by their chief

judges who may serve for up to seven years.

Many district judges with experience

in national leadership believe that the threeyear terms disadvantage district judge members. Because in fact most chief circuit

judges serve between four and five years, a

five-year term for district judge members of

the Conference is appropriate, notwithstanding the fact that extending the term will

reduce the number of district judges who can

serve on the Conference over time. A longer

term would make the district judge member

a more effective participant in the decision

making processthus better reflecting the

district judge perspective and improving the

overall quality of Conference deliberations.

Despite the fact that the work of circuit judicial councils, as a practical matter, is

focused primarily on trial-level administration, circuit judges continue to represent a

majority on those bodies. In 1990, Congress

amended the council statute to include "an

equal number of circuit judges and district

judges of the circuit," but allowed the chief

circuit judge to remain as presiding officer.11

Although the governance relationship between circuits and districts remains under

study (see Chapter 11 infra), circuit judges

should continue to participate in council

business,12 but on an equal footing with the

 11 See Federal Courts Study Committee Implementation

Act of 1990, Pub. L. No. 101-650, § 323, 104 Stat. 5104,

5120 (codified at 28 U.S.C. § 332(a)(1) (Supp. V 1993)).

12 See Implementation Strategy 47a supra.
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

84

district judges. In other words, the chief circuit judge should be counted among the

"equal" number of circuit judge members on

the council.13 This is consistent with the

above-mentioned principle of sound managementthat those closest to problems

should have the authority and responsibility

for developing solutions.

50b Senior judges should be afforded

a greater opportunity to participate in

governance. To that end

(1) senior judges should be expressly

authorized to serve on the Judicial

Conference;

(2) senior judges should be authorized

to serve on the Board of the Federal Judicial Center;

(3) senior judges should be authorized

to serve on circuit judicial councils;

and

(4) individual courts should take appropriate steps to include senior

judges in local governance mechanisms.

As discussed further in Chapter 8,14

senior circuit and district judges provide an

invaluable resource to the federal courts.

They should be treated with the respect and

consideration befitting their experience and

dedication to the law and public service.

Although they serve on Judicial Conference

committees and, occasionally, on local court

committees, both statute and prevailing

practice often exclude senior judges from

governance activity.15 This not only de-

 13 This plan does not suggest any change in the role of the

chief circuit judge as presiding officer of the judicial

council.

14 See Recommendations 59, 63, and 64 infra. 15 Thus, the legislation excluding all but "circuit and district judges in regular active service" from membership on

prives senior judges of a voice in making

policies that apply to them, it also deprives

the governance process of views acquired

through years of judicial service. To rectify

this problem, both law and practice should

be amended to guarantee senior judges who

remain substantially active a role in national

and regional governance.16

Unlike most governance mechanisms discussed in this plan, many important

mechanisms in individual courts (e.g.,

boards and committees) are not founded by

statute or national rule, and thus are not

amenable to national prescription. Nevertheless, each court is encouraged to establish

goals for broader senior judge participation

that parallel those suggested here for national and regional bodies.

50c Non-Article III judges should be

afforded the opportunity for meaningful

participation in governance. To that

end

(1) the Board of the Federal Judicial

Center should include a magistrate

judge as well as a bankruptcy

judge; and

(2) individual district courts should

take appropriate steps to involve

 

circuit judicial councils, 28 U.S.C. § 332(a)(3) (Supp. V

1993), and requiring active status for circuit and district

judge members of the Federal Judicial Center's Board, 28

U.S.C. § 621(a)(2) (1988), should be amended to make

senior judges eligible to serve as circuit or district judge

members of those bodies. Similarly, the statute that governs representation in the Judicial Conference, 28 U.S.C.

§ 331 (1988), should be amended to clarify that senior

district judges certified under 28 U.S.C. § 371(f) (see note

16 infra) may serve as district judge members of the Conference. (While senior judges are not expressly excluded

from Conference membership, the statutory language is

open to differing interpretations.)

16 Those senior judges who continue to carry 25 percent of

an active judge's workload, and are accordingly certified to

receive salary increases payable to judges in regular active

service (28 U.S.C. § 371(b)(1), (f) (Supp. V 1993)), should

be considered substantially active.
CHAPTER 7 / GOVERNANCE: MANAGEMENT AND ACCOUNTABILITY þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

85

bankruptcy judges and magistrate

judges in local governance.

Governance of the judicial branch is

principally the responsibility of judges who

enjoy life tenure and undiminished compensation under Article III of the Constitution.

There is, however, an appropriate role in the

governance process for fixed-term judges of

courts in the judicial branch of government.17 

These judges perform many similar

duties to the Article III judges. They also

have relevant, and sometimes unique, perspectives that can inform and enrich the

decision-making process. This is especially

true at the local court level, where many

decisions affect all judges equally, and in the

research and educational activities needed to

aid and enhance the performance of judicial

duties. Involvement of fixed-term judges

will enhance communication and problemsolving among all judges. With respect to

magistrate judges, it will likely lead to

 17 The United States Court of Federal Claims presents an

anomaly. Unlike bankruptcy judges and magistrate judges,

the fixed-term judges of that court serve on a tribunal

established under Article I, not Article III, of the Constitution. 28 U.S.C. § 171(a) (1988 & Supp. V 1993). Although the Court of Federal Claims is lodged within

the judicial branch for administrative purposes, see id.

§§ 176, 178, 460, 604, 610, that arrangement derives

largely from the fact that an Article III body, the former

United States Court of Claims, previously had exercised

much of the present Article I courts jurisdiction. See, e.g.,

28 U.S.C. §§ 792, 2503 (1976 & Supp. V 1981). In a real

sense, however, the judges of the present court are the legal

successors of the fixed-term trial judges of that court, not

the judges whose tenure and compensation were protected

under Article III (and whose legal successors are judges of

the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit). See Federal

Courts Improvement Act of 1982, Pub. L. No. 97-164,

§§ 165, 167(a), 96 Stat. 25, 50.

The other Article I courtsthe United States Tax

Court, United States Court of Veterans Appeals, and

United States Court of Military Appealseither exist as

independent entities or receive administrative support from

the executive branch. Absent a change to Article III status,

future planning should include consideration of whether the

Court of Federal Claims would be better served by an administrative arrangement similar to that of other Article I

courts.

their more effective utilization (see Recommendation 65 infra) and add to their

productivity. Greater bankruptcy judge participation in governance will better integrate

the bankruptcy courts into the judiciary generally.

In recent years, fixed-term judges

have become involved, to an increasing

degree, in the governance process at the national level (as members of most Judicial

Conference committees and the Federal Judicial Center Board18), the regional level

(as regular observers in many circuit councils), and the local level (as participants in

court meetings and members of court rules

committees and other administrative or

planning bodies). These efforts should

be continued and, where appropriate, expanded. Although this plan does not seek

to specify when, and under what conditions,

fixed-term judges should participate in

national, regional, or local governance activity, it is important that their views be

heard, and perspectives taken into account,

whenever decisions are made on the many

administrative, fiscal, and policy issues relating to their work.

Administrative Autonomy

^ RECOMMENDATION 51: Administration of federal court facilities,

programs, or operations should be

primarily the responsibility of the

judicial branch.

 18 Although the Federal Judicial Center Board already

includes a bankruptcy judge, 28 U.S.C. § 621(a)(2) (1988),

similar provision should be made for a magistrate judge.

Magistrate judge participation in the Board is consistent

with the basic principles stated above, and with the general

policy of comparable treatment for bankruptcy judges and

magistrate judges in administrative matters, including salaries and resource allocation.
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

86

Implementation Strategies:

51a Administrative oversight and

policy-making responsibility for the following programs should reside with the

institutions of judicial governance or

agencies operating under their supervision:

 judicial space and facilities program;

 court and judicial security program;

and

 bankruptcy estate administration (i.e.,

the U.S. trustee system).

The federal courts are a constitutionally created, co-equal branch of

government. They should and must operate

with all reasonable autonomy. It is incongruous and inappropriate that they should be

required to rely on the executive branch for

administrative support in any area. This

principle dates back to 1939, when Congress

established the Administrative Office to

handle many of the functions previously performed by the Justice Department.

There are today three significant

areasbuildings,19 judge and courthouse

security,20 and bankruptcy estate administrationin which the executive branch

retains substantial responsibility for programs or activities directly related to judges,

 19 See Chapter 8, Recommendation 71 infra. For the past

five years, the Judicial Conference has sought legislation to

obtain authority, independent of the General Services Administration (but subject to congressional authorization and

oversight), "to determine and execute the judiciary's priorities with respect to space and facilities management."

REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE JUDICIAL CONFERENCE

OF THE UNITED STATES 81 (Sept. 1989). Although coordination of effort with GSA has improved since that time, the

need for judicial (rather than executive) branch control

over the assessment of need, and the design, construction,

and management of judicial space and facilities ultimately

remains.

20 See Chapter 8, Recommendation 61 infra.

litigation, or other court operations. Transfer of that responsibility to the third branch

will not adversely affect Congress's legislative oversight or budgetary authority

regarding these three program areas. Rather,

it would remove executive branch control

over areas that should logically and appropriately be within the purview of judicial

branch administration and policy making.

In seeking to establish programmatic

oversight of security matters within the judicial branch, this plan does not recommend

a change in the institutional status of the

United States Marshals Service, a bureau

within the Department of Justice. However,

the Service's "primary role and mission [is]

. . . to provide for the security and to obey,

execute, and enforce all orders of the United

States District Courts, the United States

Courts of Appeals and the Court of International Trade."21 On occasion, concerns have

arisen about the relative priority of marshals' duties relating to court and judicial

security vis-a-vis their other law enforcement responsibilities. To ensure that the

Marshals Service can fulfill its primary responsibility (particularly in an era of limited

resources), the Judicial Conference and its

committees should be responsible for reviewing, and developing when necessary,

policy relevant to court security matters.

Among other things, the Conference should

have final oversight authority with respect to

preparation and execution of the courts' security budget.

Transfer of oversight authority for

bankruptcy estate administration was among

the measures recommended nearly five years

ago by the Federal Courts Study Committee.22 Placing the U.S. trustee system under

judicial branch control would eliminate 

separation of powers issues and avoid po-

 21 See 28 U.S.C. § 566(a) (1988). 22 REPORT OF THE FEDERAL COURTS STUDY COMMITTEE

77-78 (1990).
CHAPTER 7 / GOVERNANCE: MANAGEMENT AND ACCOUNTABILITY þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

87

tential conflicts of interest in cases where the

federal government, represented by the Justice Department, is a creditor. It would also

be considerably less expensive to operate,

and would minimize duplication of function

and case management conflicts between the

U.S. trustees and the bankruptcy courts.23

At the very least, the parallel bankruptcy

administrator program in the judicial branch

should be permitted to continue in those

districts that currently operate outside the

U.S. trustee system or may in the future

elect to do so.

51b Responsibility for developing and

presenting to Congress requests for

funding of the federal courts and agencies of judicial administration should

remain solely within the judicial branch.

For the first 150 years of the

federal court system, the executive branch

(ultimately the Department of Justice) was

responsible for managing the financial affairs of the lower courts, including the

preparation of budget estimates.24 The obvious separation of powers issue prompted

the transfer of that responsibility, in 1939,

from the Attorney General to the Director of

the newly created Administrative Office.

In the legislative history of the Administrative Office Act, the authors noted

the importance of relieving the executive

 23 Final Report and Recommendations of the Long-Range

Planning Subcommittee of the Committee on the Administration of the Bankruptcy System of the Judicial

Conference of the United States 18-19 (June 1, 1993).

24 Until the early part of this century, the Supreme Court

not only prepared its own budget requestsa function it

still performs todaybut also submitted them directly to

Congress. Although Congress, in 1921, required the Court

to forward its estimated expenditures and proposed appropriations to the President for submission as part of the

budget for the entire Government, the President was enjoined to include those items in the budget "without

revision." Budget and Accounting Act, ch. 18, § 201(a),

42 Stat. 20 (previously codified at 31 U.S.C. § 11(a)(5)

(1976)). This arrangement was later extended to the entire

judicial branch (see note 26 infra and accompanying text).

branch of responsibility for the federal

courts' budget:

[T]he result of the provisions of the

bill as now written, it is expected,

will provide, first of all, the separation of the Department of Justice

from immediate and actual and intimate participation in the monetary

affairs of the courts, so that it will

not be necessary for a judge to importune the Attorney General before

getting a typewriter, or an addition to

his library, . . . or some other matter

of that kind . . . .25

Although Congress requires the

President to include in the annual budgets

both estimated expenditures and proposed

appropriations for the entire federal government, the spending estimates and funding

requests for the judicial and legislative

branches are to be submitted to Congress

"without change."26 Thus, with respect to

the judicial budget, "neither [the Office of

Management and Budget] nor the President

exercise any discretion . . . [and] inclusion of

th[o]se items in the annual budget is merely

a ministerial act."27

As the federal government continues

to chart its course through an era of fiscal

austerity, the judicial branch must maintain

its independence from fiscal oversight or

control by the executive branch. Although

statutory law already reflects this principle,

there have been and may continue to be efforts by the executive branch to protect the

funding of other federal programs at the expense of the courts. If the courts are to

 25 S. Rep. No. 426, 76th Cong., 1st Sess. 3 (1939). 26 Budget and Accounting Act, as amended, 31 U.S.C.

§ 1105(a)(5), (b) (1988 & Supp. V 1993).

27 Matter of W. Wasserstein, No. B-198507, B-198507

L/M, 1980 WL 16612 (Comp. Gen. 1980) (applying the

same restriction to OMB and presidential involvement with

legislative budget requests).
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

88

perform their constitutional mission, these

efforts must be resisted.

Accountability

^ RECOMMENDATION 52: The judicial

branch should continue to develop and

enhance a mechanism for effective

coordination and review in budget

formulation and execution.

Independence from executive branch

oversight and control in the budgetary process carries with it important obligations of

fiscal responsibility, accountability, and efficiency in all court and judicial support

operations. By establishing an "Economy

Subcommittee" under its Committee on the

Budget,28 the Judicial Conference has acknowledged the importance of a permanent,

analytical and systematic means of developing final budget estimatesone akin to that

provided by the Office of Management and

Budget in the executive branch. In the years

ahead, the Conference and its committees

should continue to scrutinize thoroughly

funding requests from the various components of the judicial family, before they are

submitted to Congress.

The mechanism by which that scrutiny is exercised must, of course, respect the

principles of collegial decision making and

local autonomy that characterize judicial

governance generally. Indeed, budget formulation is a challenge in an institutional

culture where decentralized budget execution is the norm. If a rural district and an

urban district spend their resources in two

markedly different ways, yet each delivers

superior judicial services to the people of

those districts, should one approach be favored over the other in the courts' budget

 28 REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE JUDICIAL

CONFERENCE OF THE UNITED STATES 42 (Sept. 1993).

submission to Congress? A single judicial

budget should be submitted which, in the

main, treats every court session the same,

according to the kind of work involved,

when measured against nationwide benchmarks for such work.

^ RECOMMENDATION 53: The existing

mechanisms for judicial discipline

should be retained. In particular, the

impeachment process should continue

to be the sole method of removing Article III judges from office.

Impeachment is the only means set

forth in the Constitution for removing an

Article III judge from office and barring that

individual from the further exercise of judicial power. While the constitutional regime

favors a judiciary of substantial independence, removal through impeachment is an

explicit qualification on judicial independence, and one of a number of permissible

mechanisms to make a judge accountable

for his or her actions.

Recent impeachment proceedings

that proved burdensome to Congress

prompted an extensive study of the

impeachment process by the National

Commission on Judicial Discipline and

Removal. Without endorsing all its

recommendations, this plan concurs in the

Commission's central recommendation

that impeachment should remain the sole

method for removing life-tenured federal

judges from office. While cumbersome, the

impeachment process has proven itself effective in removing from office judges who

fail to honor their oaths, while at the same

time insulating honest members of the judiciary from political attack.

As the Commission recognized,

there are significant individual and institutional constraints on federal judges, apart
CHAPTER 7 / GOVERNANCE: MANAGEMENT AND ACCOUNTABILITY þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

89

from impeachment, that assure their accountability and fidelity to their oath of

office. Foremost among these constraints

are the character and self-discipline of individual judges, as well as the combined effect

of the requirement to provide written, reasoned opinions, the doctrine of stare decisis,

and the "watchful eye" of the bar. Institutional constraints include: peer pressure

among judges sitting in a court; the Code of

Conduct for United States Judges; formal

disciplinary mechanisms under the Judicial

Councils Reform and Judicial Conduct and

Disability Act of 1980; and congressional

oversight under that Act. These formal and

informal constraints guarantee the everyday

accountability of federal judges yet ensure

that impeachment is an exceedingly rare

event.
 Federal Judicial Center

• Board consists of the Chief Justice (chair);

two active circuit judges, three active districtjudges, and one active bankruptcy judgeelected by the Judicial Conference; and theDirector of the Administrative Office

• Director and Deputy Director are appointed by

the Board

• Principal functions:

- educational programs for judges and

court employees

- research and planning support to the

courts and the Judicial Conference

 Administrative Office of the United States Courts• Director and Deputy Director are appointed by the

Chief Justice after consulting the Judicial Conference

• Principal functions:

- staff support for the Judicial Conference

and its committees

- legislative representation and liaison to

other agencies

- administrative and management support to

the courts (e.g., long range planning, legalservices, budget, personnel, programmanagement, automation, supplies, spaceand facilities)

- statistics and public information

Chief Justice of the United States

• Presides over the Judicial Conference

and the Federal Judicial Center Board

• Appoints all members of Judicial

Conference committees

• Appoints Director and Deputy Director

of the Administrative Office inconsultation with the JudicialConference

Committees of the Judicial Conference

• The Executive Committee:

- acts for the Conference in emergencies and between sessions- sets Conference agenda- resolves differences among other Conference committees- approves the federal courts’ spending plan for each fiscal year- coordinates judicial branch relations with Congress and the executive branch

• 19 other standing committees and 1 ad hoc committee—each with a defined subject area• Members appointed by the Chief Justice, generally for 3-year terms with a 6-year maximum term of

service on any committee; most committees consist solely of judges, but some include academics,practicing attorneys, and state judges

• Meet twice each year (the Executive Committee and some other committees meet more frequently)• Administrative Office performs secretariat and general staff support functions; upon request, the

Federal Judicial Center may provide research, advice, and educational support

Federal Court Governance—National Institutions

 Judicial Conference of the United States• Members: Chief Justice (chair); chief circuit judge from each

circuit; one district judge from each of the 12 regional circuits,elected by all Article III judges in the circuit at the annual circuitjudicial conference; chief judge of the Court of InternationalTrade

• Meetings: Required to meet annually but actually assembles

twice each year, in March and September

• Functions: Serves as the central policy-making body for the

federal court system; surveys business of the courts and suggestsimprovements in the administration of justice; approvesappropriations requests for submission to Congress; recommendschanges in federal rules of procedure and evidence; supervisesthe Administrative Office; establishes court fees; performsnumerous other statutory duties

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

90
Circuit Judicial Council

• Members: Chief judge of the court of appeals for the circuit (chair); equal number

of active circuit and district judges of the circuit (precise numbers, terms, andmode of selection determined by vote of all active Article III judges of the circuit);and, in some circuits, senior judges, bankruptcy judges, and/or magistrate judges asnon-voting observers

• Meetings: Required to meet at least twice a year but often does so more often• Functions: Makes “necessary and appropriate orders for the effective and expeditious administration of justice” within the circuit (all judges and employees in the

circuit are required by statute to give effect to council orders); considers complaintsof judicial misconduct and disability if referred by the chief circuit judge; reviewsand may abrogate district court rules; appoints the circuit executive (who issecretary to the council); authorizes law clerk and other chambers personnel;approves chambers and courtroom space; performs numerous other duties asprescribed by statute or Judicial Conference policy

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference. District Court • The chief judge—who has precedence over other judges in the court and presides at any session he or she attends—is the district judge most senior in commission with at least one year of service but less than 65 years of age at the time of becoming chief judge. A judge may serve as chief district judge for no more than 7 years or until he or she attains the age of 70, whichever occurs first. • The chief district judge is responsible for enforcing court rules governing the division of business among the judges, and he or she is authorized to divide business and assign cases to the extent not provided in the court rules. Though not statutorily mandated, the chief judge is generally considered responsible for the effective and efficient administration of the district court in compliance with statutes, Judicial Conference and circuit judicial council policies, and regulations issued by the Administrative Office with Conference approval. • The district court (i.e., the body of all district judges in regular active service) appoints magistrate judges as judicial officers of the court and designates the chief bankruptcy judge (where there is one). The court also appoints the clerk of court, court crier, and court reporters, and it approves the appointments of deputy clerks, clerical assistants, and other court employees (other than chambers staff). The court adopts its own local rules of practice and procedure. Bankruptcy Court • The bankruptcy court is a unit of the district court. Judges of the bankruptcy court are appointed by the court of appeals and the chief bankruptcy judge (in districts with more than one bankruptcy judge) is designated by the district court. • The chief bankruptcy judge (where there is one) is statutorily responsible for enforcing the rules of the district court and the bankruptcy court and seeing that bankruptcy court business is handled effectively and expeditiously. • The bankruptcy court (i.e., the bankruptcy judges in regular active service) appoints the clerk of the bankruptcy court and approves the appointment of deputy clerks.

Federal Court Governance—Regional and Local Institutions (except special courts)

CHAPTER 7 / GOVERNANCE: MANAGEMENT AND ACCOUNTABILITY

Court of Appeals

• The chief judge—who has precedence over other judges in the court and

presides at any session he or she attends—is the circuit judge most seniorin commission with at least one year of service but less than 65 years ofage at the time of becoming chief judge. A judge may serve as chiefcircuit judge for no more than 7 years or until he or she attains the age of70, whichever occurs first.

• Though not statutorily mandated, the chief circuit judge is generally

considered responsible for the effective and efficient administration of thecourt of appeals in compliance with statutes, Judicial Conference andcircuit judicial council policies, and regulations issued by the Administrative Office with Conference approval.

• The court of appeals (i.e., the body of all circuit judges in regular active

service) appoints bankruptcy judges as judicial officers of the districtcourt. The court also appoints the clerk of court, court crier, and circuitlibrarian, and it approves appointments of the court’s staff attorneys,deputy clerks, and other court employees (other than chambers staff). Thecourt adopts its own local rules of practice and procedure.

91

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

93

Chapter 8

Resources

ESOURCEShuman and economicprovide the means for the

federal courts to carry out their mission. The near future will continue to be

an era of austerity as far as federal budgets

are concerned, and the judicial branch will

have to do more with less. The plan contemplates that the federal courts will have

to redouble previous efforts to cut red tape,

streamline the budget process, add flexibility

to personnel and procurement practices, decentralize decision making, and eliminate

inefficient and unnecessary activities.

The plan also assumes that court personnel will be subject to growing demands,

and that the federal judiciary will have to

compete vigorously for the new talent necessary to maintain the standard of excellence

that is the hallmark of the federal system.

From judges' chambers to clerks' offices to

probation and pretrial services operations,

the federal courts must implement strong

resource management practices.

Justice is expensive, and legislative

additions to the federal courts' jurisdiction

are not cheap. The federal courts must

continue to seek the resources necessary to

carry out the tasks assigned by Congress

and the Constitution, and they will remind

the nation and the political branches that

maintaining the traditional standards of the

federal courts will be worth the added cost.

The extent of that cost will depend on which

vision of justice the nation decides should be

the next centurys reality.

This chapter's recommendations assume that the federal courts will avoid the

dramatic expansion of size and role discussed in Chapter 3. A greater magnitude

of resources and far more resource management would be required by a federal court

system with significantly greater workload

and personnel. A system of such gargantuan

proportions would, if it were to provide justice anything like that which we know today,

generate costs that the nation will quite

simply be unable to afford. The recommendations are also based on the belief that the

nation cares about quality justice and will

pay a fair price to obtain it. A few of the

resource issues raised by the alternative future of the federal courts are discussed in

Chapter 10.

Obtaining Adequate Resources

^ RECOMMENDATION 54: The federal

courts should obtain resources adequate to ensure the proper discharge

of their constitutional and statutory

mandates.

Any comparison to the state courts

discloses that the federal courts have been

well funded. During the past decade, Congress has provided the judicial branch with

a rate of resources growth about equal to

that of the Department of Justice, but well

above that of executive branch agencies and,

in recent years, that of the Congress itself.

Congressional penury has not placed the

R
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

94

federal courts in their current circumstances.

Rather, the current situation results from

the increased workload of the federal courts

and their honest adherence to empirical

workload formulae as the basis for budget

justification. Where workload has increased, the federal judiciary has argued that

resources ought to increase as well. Where

workload remains flat or decreases markedly, budget requests are correspondingly

limited or reduced.

The regrettable reality is that while

recent judicial budgets have shown sizeable

increases, the increases have not kept pace

with the volume and costs of additional

tasks that the courts have assumed under

new congressional mandates. Insufficient

resources are ultimately a threat to judicial

branch independence. Overload and delay

become the first consequence. Some judicial responses to delay may reduce the

quality of federal justice. On the other hand,

failure to decide cases more quickly creates

access barriers to litigants unable to bear the

costs and consequences of delay.

Separation of powers principles require that no branch of government deprive

another of either the powers or resources it

needs to perform its core functions. Discharge of the judicial function as an

independent branch requires resources sufficient for the judiciary to perform all its

constitutional and statutory mandates. Unlike several state judiciaries, which have

asserted an inherent right to compel funding

beyond regular appropriations for judicial

functions, federal courts depend on the Congress to provide them with sufficient

resources. Chronic failure to provide adequate resources puts federal judges in the

unfortunate position of supplicants, constantly begging the Congress for funds.

^ RECOMMENDATION 55: Congress,

when enacting legislation affecting the

federal courts, should be encouraged

to appropriate sufficient funds to accommodate the cost to the courts of

the impact of new legislation.

The Administrative Office of the

United States Courts currently prepares and

makes available to Congress judicial impact

statements on legislation potentially affecting the judiciary, on the principle that

funding should be commensurate with

responsibility. Congress should be

encouraged to refrain from enacting new

legislation that adds to the workload of the

federal courts without also approving sufficient funds for the judiciary to meet its

obligations under that legislation. Alternatively, in lieu of appropriating new funds

to support the performance of new judicial

responsibilities, Congress should be urged to

reduce the judiciarys existing obligations

sufficiently to offset the impact of any new

legislation with a quantifiable judicial impact.1

^ RECOMMENDATION 56: Federal judges

should receive adequate compensation

as well as cost-of-living adjustments

granted to all other federal employees.

Implementation Strategies:

56a Congress should be encouraged

to refrain from the current practice of

linking judicial and congressional pay

raises.

56b Congress should be encouraged to

repeal section 140 of Public Law No. 97-

92.

 1

 See Chapter 4, Recommendation 13 supra.
CHAPTER 8 / RESOURCES þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

95

The real compensation of Article III

judges must not be diminished. The matter

of adequate compensation, including routine

cost-of-living adjustments, is at the heart of

an independent judiciary. The erosion of the

real compensation of judges amounts to a de

facto diminution in the salary of the judicial

office. While perhaps not violating the irreducible salary clause of Article III, any

denial violates the spirit of the clause and

undermines the independence of the judiciary from Congress. Current practice from

time to time has forced federal judges to

serve with inadequate compensation, to

leave the bench, or to ask Congress for compensation while at the same time sitting in

review of congressional enactments. It also

threatens the ability of the judiciary to attract

and retain judges.

The present mechanisms for setting

judicial compensation have failed to protect

federal judges from erosion in their real pay.

This may be attributable, in part, to section

140 of Public Law No. 97-92, which requires affirmative congressional approval of

a judiciary pay increase.2

 It is important to

seek repeal of this statute, and to devise a

system to protect against diminution in the

salary of the judicial office. Formerly, the

Quadrennial Commission played a useful

though imperfect role in facilitating pay increases. A similar mechanism should be

devised in place of the present non-viable

structure.

At present, federal judicial compensation has fallen to more than 20% below

 2 Pub. L. No. 97-92, § 140, 95 Stat. 1183, 1200 (1982).

This provision, enacted in a continuing appropriations

resolution 13 years ago, bars all automatic cost-of-living

adjustments for federal judges except as specifically

authorized by Congress. Although the sponsor of the provision originally intended that it apply only to a single

year, it has been interpreted by the Comptroller General as

permanent law. The Comptroller General recommended

repeal of section 140 to the 99th Congress, but Congress

instead has adopted a practice of suspending application of

section 140 to particular cost-of-living raises.

that received in 1969 as adjusted for inflation. Consequently, consistent with the

spirit of the irreducible salary clause, federal

judges should automatically receive salary

increases when other federal employees receive them.

^ RECOMMENDATION 57: Congress

should be encouraged to include appropriations for the constitutionally

mandated functions of federal courts

as part of the non-discretionary federal budget.

Several of the current functions of

the judicial branch are constitutionally mandated. As such, costs for these budgets are

not discretionary with the judiciary or the

Congress. Therefore, the political branches

should be urged to treat these items of

the judicial budgets as non-discretionary

spending, and to afford appropriations

automatically once these items are budgeted

by the judiciary.

^ RECOMMENDATION 58: The federal

courts, including the bankruptcy

courts, should obtain funding primarily through general appropriations.

Federal courts are an indispensable

forum for the protection of individual constitutional rights; their costs are properly

borne by all citizens. Unlike other governmental operations such as national parks, for

which substantial funding through user fees

may be appropriate, the mission of federal

courts could not be performed if users were

denied access because of an inability to pay

reasonable user fees.

At least three reasons support continued reliance on general appropriations

instead of user fees. First, given that the
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

96

frequency of federal court filings can vary

substantially from year to year, economic

uncertainty about the amount of revenue that

can be raised annually through user fees

makes user fees an unreliable and, therefore,

undesirable source of funding. Second,

with that uncertainty, constant fee adjustments might be necessary in order to sustain

ongoing judicial programs. Finally, and

most importantly, litigants should not be so

burdened with fees as to effectively eliminate the access of some low and moderate

income users to our federal forum. The reasonableness of fees and principles relating to

revenues and fees are discussed in the next

chapter at Recommendation 90.

The bankruptcy courts and bankruptcy cases should be treated similarly.

Before the Bankruptcy Reform Act of 1978,

the bankruptcy system had been financed

through fees, with general revenue covering

operating deficits in the system. The Commission on the Bankruptcy Laws of the

United States recognized that the system

could not be self-supporting without significantly raising financial burdens on debtors

and creditors, and therefore recommended

discontinuing court financing through fees.

Legislative history of the 1978 Act reflects

that the bankruptcy court, like other federal

courts, should be financed through appropriations.3

Ensuring Lifetime Service on the Bench

^ RECOMMENDATION 59: Incentives

should be created to allow the courts

to attract and retain the best-qualified

persons as judges and eliminate disincentives to long judicial service.

Federal judges should be encouraged

 3 See 124 CONG. REC. S 17406 (Oct. 6, 1978) (statement by

Senator DeConcini upon introducing the Senate amendment to the House amendment to H.R. 8200), reprinted in

1978 U.S.C.C.A.N. 6505, 6554.

to stay on the bench for the lifetime

tenure that the Constitution contemplates and guarantees.

The primary resource of the federal

courts is the men and women who serve as

judges. Preserving the core value of excellence depends on the federal courts' ability

to attract the highest caliber of lawyers and

retain those persons for a lifetime of service.

Constant turnover in the federal bench,

through resignation or retirement, has undesirable consequences. Experienced judges

who leave the bench take with them significant expertise, and, under current practice,

those judges are seldom replaced for several

years.

As long as their physical and mental

capabilities allow them to, federal judges

should continue to serve, first as active

judges and then, when they reach senior

status eligibility and wish to slow down,

as senior judges. There should be an expectation of a lifetime commitment for federal

judges from the time of appointment

(despite the possible financial sacrifice). It

should be made clear that "revolving door"

judgesthose who stay on only a few

yearsdo not best serve the interests of the

judicial branch and the nation. (This excludes those judges who choose to accept

exceptional appointments to serve the public

in high positions in the executive or legislative branchas several FBI Directors,

Attorneys and Solicitors General, a Senate

Majority Leader, and a Counsel to the President have done.) Nor are those interests

served by those few judges who, when appointed, already intend to remain only for

the requisite years until eligible for retirement and then return to practice or go on to

other careers.

Measures that encourage judges to

leave the bench after serving for specified

periods of time should be avoided. For ex-
CHAPTER 8 / RESOURCES þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

97

ample, until fairly recently, a judge who left

the bench entirely at age 65 would not continue to receive a full salary (as pension) for

life. That was changed in 1984, so that now

a judge eligible for senior status under the

rule of 80 (age 65 and 15 years of service)

can leave the bench entirely, practice law

or teach or engage in any other private

endeavor, and still receive full pay (as pension). Such measures should be avoided in

the future. For instance, lowering eligibility

under the rule of 80, to an age 60 and 20

years of service requirement (as is now being considered) or change to a rule of 75

should apply only to judges who take senior

status and stay on the bench.4

^ RECOMMENDATION 60: Service-year

credit toward benefits vesting for

service already rendered as federal

judicial officers should be awarded to

bankruptcy and magistrate judges

elevated to the Article III bench.

Current law contains disincentives

for sitting bankruptcy and magistrate judges

to accept elevation to the Article III bench.

Upon elevation, these judicial officers receive no service-year credit under the

retirement and disability benefits plan for

Article III judges for service rendered as a

federal judicial officer. These disincentives

are an unnecessary impediment to the judiciary's ability to attract the best qualified

persons to the Article III bench, and illogically penalize those who have served and

will continue to serve in the federal courts.

 4 See also Recommendation 56 regarding judicial compensation. For over 25 years, the Judicial Conference has

supported expansion of the rule of 80 to allow earlier eligibility for senior status, not for complete retirement from

the bench. See, e.g., REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE

JUDICIAL CONFERENCE OF THE UNITED STATES 54 (Oct.-

Nov. 1969); id. at 77 (Oct. 1970); id. at 11-12 (Mar. 1978).

^ RECOMMENDATION 61: Adequate security protection should be provided

for judges and court personnel at all

court facilities and when they are away

from the courthouse.

Implementation Strategies:

61a Where necessary, home security

systems and portable emergency communications devices should be provided.

61b New judges and their families

should receive security briefings.

61c Training for judges in security

should be made available.

61d Judges and probation officers

should receive information whenever

prisoners are released. The notification

should include an assessment of the

violent nature of the prisoner and the

potential risk he or she poses to judicial

branch personnel.

The judiciary should be directly

involved in the development of security

policy, the establishment of security priorities, the implementation of a comprehensive

security program, and the monitoring of the

use of judicial security resources.5

The Judicial Conference Security,

Space and Facilities Committee has noted

the need to bring all federal judicial court

buildings under judicial branch direction in

order to comply more effectively with

security standards. In addition, that committee has proposed changing courthouse

design, where possible, to allow only one

public entrance and to have at least one

maximum security courtroom, as well as to

avoid housing judicial facilities in multi-use

 5

 See Chapter 7, Implementation Strategy 51a supra.
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

98

facilities. Current federal property regulations should be modified to permit needed

new courthouses to be placed in areas representing new and projected population

centers. Moreover, security briefings should

be offered to judges and court personnel

at least annually.

All judicial officers should be provided with an appropriate level of security

protection at all times when they are away

from the courthouse. The level of off-site

security provided should be determined

based upon an assessment utilizing risk

management principles. Previously, the Judicial Conference has called for legislation

to enable judicial officers to carry firearms,

for ensuring the safety of judicial officers

while they are away from the courthouse,

and for establishment of court security as the

primary duty of the United States Marshals.6

The Judicial Conference should assume responsibility for overseeing the

assignment of court security personnel in

accordance with recently developed standards for deploying court security officers

for all districts. This deployment should be

accomplished with sufficient flexibility to

address the particular needs of a specific

district, taking into consideration the districts size, location, number of judges, past

history of violence, and future projections.

Making Most Effective Use of Judicial

Resources

To ensure continued access to

quality federal justice, the structure and

processes for judicial resource allocation

should be made more efficient and flexible.

All judgesincluding senior judges, magistrate judges, and bankruptcy judgesshould

 6

 REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE JUDICIAL CONFERENCE OF THE UNITED STATES 69 (Sept. 1990); id., at 12-

13 (Mar. 1989).

be used effectively, efficiently, and fully.

Only in so doing will the goal of carefully

controlled growth of the federal judiciary be

attained.

^ RECOMMENDATION 62: Standards

and procedures for the assignment of

circuit, district, magistrate, and bankruptcy judges to perform judicial

duties in other jurisdictions should be

flexible.

Workloads frequently shift among

judicial districts, often with little relation to

the number of judges serving in them. Intermittent increases in filings cannot be

addressed effectively through creation

of additional judgeships or realignment of

boundaries. What is needed is greater

flexibility and efficiency in the use of existing judicial resources.

Consolidation of districts can assist

in equalizing workloads and thus ameliorate

some of the worst workload/resource imbalances. But there is a growing need for

visiting circuit, district, magistrate, and

bankruptcy judges to provide temporary assistance. For many years inter-circuit and

intra-circuit assignments have been used to

direct judge power from courts with less

burdensome dockets to those where additional help is needed. Although critical to

the judiciary's success in meeting workload

demands to date, these procedures are often

cumbersome, potentially frustrating prompt

relief of overburdened courts even where

sufficient judicial resources exist within the

system at large.7

 7

 An example of this potential can be seen where a judge

cannot travel short distances to assist a court in another

district without the approval of the chief circuit judge or

circuit judicial council (located two or three states distant

in some cases) or, if the other district lies within another

circuit, the Chief Justice of the United States. Large metropolitan areas such as Kansas City, New York City, St.

Louis, and Washington, D.C., are each divided among two
CHAPTER 8 / RESOURCES þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

99

The present alignment of judicial

districts calls for rethinking the rigid allocation of judges to individual courts. New

standards and procedures are needed for the

temporary assignments of judges to overburdened courts, and to ensure adequate

space, staff, and other resources when they

get there. In an October 1992 survey,

just over 71 percent of the respondents

(approximately 75 percent of active judges

responding) supported easier movement of

judges for purposes of holding court in districts requiring temporary assistance.8

To assist in the development of this

long range plan, the Judicial Conference

Committee on Intercircuit Assignments examined the current process for assigning

judges to temporary duty on other courts and

generally reviewed the impact of district

and/or circuit boundaries on efficient deployment of judicial resources.9

 Although

the idea of requiring judges to accept temporary assignments to courts in serious need of

assistance was rejected as potentially divisive and disruptive of courts and individual

judges efforts to manage their time and

caseload,10 the committee recognized the

importance of making the system "simpler

and more flexible."11

 

or more districts, sometimes falling into different circuits.

Unnecessary expenditures of judicial time on travel result

in places where circuit and district boundaries are combined with substantial distances between places of holding

court. An example of this can be found at New Albany

(located in the Southern District of Indiana, Seventh Circuit), which is adjacent to Louisville (principal place of

holding court in the Western District of Kentucky, Sixth

Circuit), but must be served by judges travelling more than

100 miles from Indianapolis thrice annually.

8

 PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE: RESULTS OF A 1992 FEDERAL

JUDICIAL CENTER SURVEY OF UNITED STATES JUDGES 12,

34, 56, 78, & 100 (Federal Judicial Center 1994).

9 Report of the Judicial Conference Committee on Intercircuit Assignments to the Judicial Conference Committee on

Long Range Planning (Jan. 31, 1994).

10 See id. at 12. The committee agreed, however, to seek a

statutory amendment allowing delegation of the power to

authorize intercircuit assignments if the Chief Justice finds

that responsibility to be "cumbersome." Id. at 10. 11 To that end, the committee agreed to undertake the following measures: (1) recommend to the Chief Justice

appropriate amendments to the Guidelines on Intercircuit

In the event that the federal judicial

system is unable to address future judge

power needs in a prompt and efficient manner, the judiciary should consider structural

changes to streamline temporary assignment

authority. One approach might be to

authorize district judges to hold court in any

district located within a certain distance or

travel time of their permanent duty stations

upon designation by the chief judges of the

respective courts.

Another innovative approach, already employed in some districts and

circuits, employs a standing agreement for

a set period, e.g., one year, among several

contiguous districts, and approved by the

councils of the concerned circuits, to permit

immediate cross-assignment of judicial personnel upon request and agreement between

the two courts involved. Although sound

reasons may exist to retain oversight and

control of judicial movements in general,

there is little to recommend in a process that

frustrates access by overburdened courts to

nearby, underutilized judicial resources.

Further steps may be taken to cope

with disparate workloads:

 Corporate venue and transfer statutes

should be amended to remove all obstacles to the interdistrict transfer of cases

for judicial economy.

 Obstacles, such as funding restraints, to

the interdistrict and intercircuit assign-

 

Assignments; (2) publicize more widely the availability of

temporary assignments as a case management tool;

(3) identify courts that may benefit from the services of

visiting judges; (4) survey active judges to determine who

may be underutilized and willing to assist courts in other

circuits; (5) recommend long-term (i.e., up to one year)

open assignments of senior judges on an experimental basis; and (6) evaluate, through voluntary, post-assignment

reports, the overall effectiveness and impact of visiting

judges on court caseloads, staff and facilities. The committee believes that "major improvements will result" from

these actions, enabling it "to meet current and future requirements." Report, supra note 9, at 10-12.
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

100

ment of judges to districts in need should

be removed.

 Rules and procedures should be promulgated to make clear a judges authority

to conduct proceedings in a case in another district from the judges home

district.

 Judicial emergency teams comprised,

in one instance, of an available district

judge and an accompanying magistrate

judge, should be an alternative for dispatch to districts seriously understaffed

or overburdened by caseload.12

^ RECOMMENDATION 63: The courts

should use senior and recalled

judgesa significant portion of federal judge poweras much as needed

to achieve the goal of carefully controlled growth.

Senior judges carry a significant

portion of the caseload of the federal judiciary, accounting (in the statistical year ended

June 30, 1995) for 17,532 appellate participations and conducting 3,723 trials. This

amounted, respectively, to about 17% of all

appeals and about 19% of all trials. In many

districts and circuits, the work of senior

judges has been indispensable to the effective performance of the work of the federal

courts. Senior judges also take up the slack

caused by vacancies in courts across the nation and contribute significantly to the

administration of the federal judicial system.

Without their efforts, the federal judiciary would need substantially more

 12 Such a judicial emergency team has been formed in the

Southern District of Iowa. See Statement of Chief Judge

Charles R. Wolle to Committee on Long Range Planning,

in Transcript of Public Hearing on the Proposed Long

Range Plan for the Federal Courts, Dec. 16, 1994, at 151,

161ff.

judges to handle its caseload. In 1995, senior judges provided service equivalent to

100 active district judges. According to an

estimate made in 1989, the nation would

need an additional 80 judges, at an annual

cost of approximately $45 million, to compensate for the loss of senior judges. With

the number of senior judges much higher

now than it was in 1989, this estimate is

probably much too low.

When a judge takes senior status, it

creates an immediate vacancy on the court

even though the judge continues to work.

This means that a younger full-time judge

will be appointed to fill that spot. When a

senior judge continues to work, the court has

both a new judge and the assistance of an

experienced senior judge often working halftime. As a result, the court enjoys in that

judgeship a 50 percent increase in judge

power.

New legislation allows recall of

bankruptcy judges and magistrate judges to

render judicial services as needed. This enables the courts to benefit further from the

experience these judges bring to the courts

they serve.

^ RECOMMENDATION 64: The value of

senior judge status should be recognized, and policies and procedures that

affect senior judges should be periodically reviewed, in order to insure that

senior judge status is an attractive alternative.

In recent decades, there has been a

new and alarming trend for federal judges to

leave the bench entirely when they reach

retirement eligibility, rather than take senior

status. From the early days of the federal

judiciary, few judges voluntarily left the

bench before the age of 70. In the last 25

years, however, 81 have left, only 16 of
CHAPTER 8 / RESOURCES þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

101

whom were age 70 or over. The reasons for

the recent trend are many, but it can be safely assumed that in most cases economic,

workload, and status-related factors played

a decisive role.

Senior judges should suffer no discrimination upon assuming that status. To

the contrary, they should be treated with the

consideration that their years of service justify. Fearing the impact of prejudicial

policies, some active judges may decide to

remain in full-time active status, when, because of advancing years, they should

change their status to senior. Other active

judges may decide to forego senior status

when eligible and simply leave the bench

altogether. A fair, responsive policy for

utilizing this invaluable resource will deter

the use of either of these alternatives.

Responses to a recently conducted

survey of senior judges and active judges

eligible or soon to be eligible for senior

status indicate that the treatment of senior

judges often ignores their important contributions. Examples of disincentives to taking

senior status and remaining on the bench,

ranging from major to petty, abound. For

example, the 1989 legislation concerning

salaries of federal judges limits the potential

pay increases for certain senior judges.13

This distinction should be eliminated when

practicable. In some circuits, senior judges

are not considered to be "judges of the

court" for purposes of comprising panels under 28 U.S.C. § 46(b). Also, some but not

all circuits treat senior judges unwisely with

respect to a variety of matters, including

chambers assignment, provision of court reporters, sitting preferences, participation and

voting in court meetings unless otherwise

provided by statute, the placing of a senior

judge on the bench in panels of three and in

court ceremonies, and dissemination of in-

 13 28 U.S.C. § 371(b)(2), (f) (Supp. V 1993).

formation and inclusion of senior judges "in

the loop."

In all these situations, senior judges

should be treated, if practicable, as though

they were active judges with the same seniority. Each court of appeals and district

court should review their practices and

policies (including those dealing with annual

recertification of senior judges) to ensure

that senior judges are accorded full court

participation and treated with the respect

and dignity which is their due. Among other

things, they should be referred to, if so desired, as judge rather than senior judge.

In addition, current statutory provisions

limiting the powers and rights of senior

judges should be reexamined as appropriate.

Consistent with this aim, the Judicial Conference at its September 1995 session

adopted a resolution recogniz[ing] that

senior judges provide an invaluable resource

to the Federal courts . . . [and] should be

provided the same level of respect and deference as their active colleagues, and . . .

suffer no diminution in status because of

their retirement from active service.14

^ RECOMMENDATION 65: Magistrate

judges should perform judicial duties

to the extent constitutionally permissible and consistent with sound judicial policy. Individual districts should

retain flexibility, consistent with the

national goal of effective utilization of

all magistrate judge resources, to have

magistrate judges perform judicial

services most needed in light of local

conditions and changing caseloads.

As adjunct judicial officers of the

Article III district courts, magistrate judges

 14 REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE JUDICIAL CONFERENCE OF THE UNITED STATES __ (Sept. 1995)

(forthcoming).
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

102

are indispensable resources who are readily

available to supplement the work of lifetenured district judges in meeting workload

demands. Maintaining an appropriate division of labor between district judges and

magistrate judges will pose a continuing

challenge to the courts. Maximum flexibility

should be retained in the district courts to

promote the most effective use of magistrate

judges in each district in light of local conditions and changing caseload needs.

Although each district court exercises discretion in its use of magistrate judges, the

effort to encourage effective utilization of

magistrate judges must be national in approach and effect.

The need to conserve the increasingly scarce time of district judges will

make effective and extensive use of magistrate judges (including those retired judges

available for recall service) a practical necessity in virtually all courts. Expanding the

role of the magistrate judge in the area of

felony criminal trials should be examined,

taking into account constitutional considerations and sound judicial policy. The district

courts should expand the use of magistrate

judges to conduct civil proceedings with

the parties' consent as currently authorized

by 28 U.S.C. § 636(c). Use of magistrate

judges for this purpose may necessitate

reassessment of how they perform other

functions. It has been suggested, for example, that where only an issue of law must be

resolved, use of the report and recommendation procedure is inefficient because it is

a duplicative use of resources.

District courts should adopt comprehensive plans for using magistrate judges

in accordance with Judicial Conference

guidelines. This process could lead to development of minimum standards to ensure

that existing magistrate judge resources are

used effectively before additional positions

are authorized. Magistrate judges should be

provided adequate staff, clerical, research,

and other support services to enhance their

ability to perform the functions specified

above.

^ RECOMMENDATION 66: Magistrate

judges should be vested with a limited

contempt power to punish summarily

for misbehavior committed in their

presence, and to punish for disobedience or resistance to their lawful

orders in civil cases referred to them

for disposition with the consent of the

parties.

To be recognized and utilized as

fully effective judicial officers in the district

court, magistrate judges must possess the

requisite legal authority and status, including

an ability to enforce their own orders. Although 28 U.S.C. § 636(e) provides that

certain acts or conduct in proceedings assigned to a magistrate judge constitute a

contempt of the district court, the authority

of the magistrate judge in such instances is

limited to certifying the operative facts to a

district judge and serving a show cause order on the alleged contemner. The power

to punish litigants directly for contempt is

essential in all cases of misbehavior in a

magistrate judges presence, and in cases of

disobedience or resistance to a lawful order

issued in civil matters referred to a magistrate judge for disposition with the consent

of the parties. Indeed, the present lack of

contempt power for magistrate judges can be

a major detriment to their performance of

judicial functions.

Diminishing the Problem of Judicial

Vacancies

^ RECOMMENDATION 67: Attention

should be given to the problem of fre-
CHAPTER 8 / RESOURCES þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

103

quent, prolonged judicial vacancies in

the federal courts. The executive

branch and the Senate should be encouraged to fill vacancies promptly,

and the judicial branch should utilize

procedures and policies to mitigate the

impact of vacancies on the capacity of

the courts to conduct judicial business.

Research aimed at eliminating obstacles to efficiency in the federal courts

shows two disturbing trends: (1) an increasing percentage of vacant judgeships; and

(2) a lengthening average time from the occurrence of a vacancy to the confirmation of

a successor judge. Unfortunately, while the

judicial vacancy rate is among the more serious problems facing the federal courts, the

solution to the problem lies primarily outside the judicial branch.

By constitutional design, the very

nature of judicial appointments is political.

Any potential solution that seeks to remove

politics from, and to shorten, the appointments process would also dramatically

change the nature of the appointment

process and may require a constitutional

amendment.15 This plan does not endorse

such drastic remedies. Nonetheless, several

ideas for addressing the problem are outlined here as a means of emphasizing how

serious the problem is and why it requires

prompt attention and appropriate action.16

At present, nominees for court of appeals, district court, Court of International

Trade, and Court of Federal Claims judgeships are selected through a variety of

methods that depend on the type and geographic location of the positions to be filled,

the decision making styles of persons in-

 15 See Chapter 10, notes 11-17 and accompanying text

infra. 16 Chapter 10 also discusses the judicial vacancies

problem, suggesting more far-reaching solutions in the

event of an alternative, much less favorable, future.

volved in the process, and the prevailing 

political realities. Predictably, the results

vary. It is not the province of the judiciary

to instruct the executive and legislative

branches on how they should discharge their

responsibilities. Nevertheless, the other

branches might consider measures aimed

at speedier, perhaps surer decisions. For

example, they might wish to undertake periodic review and enhancement of the procedures used to identify and screen judicial

candidates, as well as devote additional financial and personnel resources to the

selection process.

Ultimately it may be more worthwhile to address the effect of the vacancy

problem rather than its various causes.

The impact of prolonged vacancies is invariably the same: courts are required to

manage caseloads without adequate judicial

resources. Although it may be possible to

expedite the appointment process, vacancies

undoubtedly will continue to occur more

rapidly than the system can fill them. The

courts, in order to continue to meet their

mandates, must maintain the ability to function well at less than full strength.

Implementation Strategies:

67a Delays in filling judicial vacancies should be reduced by encouraging

retiring judges and those taking senior

status to provide substantial (i.e., sixmonth or one-year) advance notice of

that action.

The lengthiest delays in filling

judgeships arise in the process of identifying

and evaluating the suitability of potential

nominees. If that process can be routinely

commenced before a vacancy arises, the period of time in which a court is required

to operate at less than full strength can be

substantially reduced if not eliminated. Advance notice can be used to achieve this
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

104

result in two ways: (1) directly apprising

executive and legislative branch officials of

the impending need for a judicial appointment; and (2) allowing local bar and civic

organizations to use their resources to encourage the President and the Senate to act

speedily in appointing a new judge.

Timely selection of successor judges

depends, of course, on prompt notice of retirement decisions as they are made. Because this entails voluntary cooperation from

individuals who, for various reasons, may

not otherwise choose to make their retirement plans known in advance, it will be

necessary to remind judges periodically of

the Judicial Conference policy, adopted in

March 1988, urging advance notification of

impending retirements from active service

or the bench.17

67b Statistics should be maintained

concerning the number, length, and impact of judicial vacancies (including data

which relates to judicial emergencies) in

each court, and benchmarks or timelines

should be created for the nomination and

confirmation of all judges. The judicial

branch should publicize all vacancies

extending beyond these limits, and all

data on judicial emergencies, to Congress and the President by means

of semi-annual reports.

It is essential that judicial appointments be viewed as an important task that

will be performed expeditiously. The stark

impact of vacancies on each courts ability

to function should be documented through

the statistical presentations of judicial

workload. In addition, reasonable time

frames should exist for completing the

appointment process. A useful approach

would be the voluntary acceptance of

 17 REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE JUDICIAL

CONFERENCE OF THE UNITED STATES 31-32 (Mar. 1988).

"benchmarks" or "timelines" for nominations and confirmations. If generally

recognized in the legal and political communitiese.g., with support from bar

organizations, scholars, and the pressan

expectation would be created that vacancies

will be filled promptly. Periodic reports

to Congress and the President would reinforce the point by reminding the other two

branches, and the public at large, of any

vacancies extending beyond the suggested

time frames. In addition, the policy of declaring judicial emergencies in courts with

vacancies of 18-months or longer duration

should be continued.18

67c Procedures for the temporary assignment of judges should emphasize the

importance of providing assistance to

courts with vacant judgeships.

As described earlier in this chapter,19

a flexible, efficient system of bringing judicial resources temporarily to the aid of

overworked courts will be needed to an

ever-increasing extent. In particular, courts

operating at less than full strength should

be encouraged to seek assistance of senior

judges and other volunteer judges from

courts able to spare them. One useful

approach might be to dispatch judicial

emergency teams of available district

judges, magistrate judges, and support staff

to aid understaffed districts with overwhelming dockets.20

67d Procedures and policies governing the transaction of court business

should seek to address special circumstances arising as a result of prolonged

judicial vacancies. Among other things,

rules governing the number of visiting

 18 Id. 19 See Recommendation 62 supra. 20 See note 12 supra and accompanying text.
CHAPTER 8 / RESOURCES þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

105

or senior judges serving on panels in the

courts of appeals should be held in abeyance during the existence of vacancies on

a court constituting a judicial emergency.

The individual courts should be

active in devising means of coping with

long-standing vacancies. Although various

measures can (and should) be taken at the

national or circuit levels, each court should

take responsibility for developing emergency procedures (including exceptions

to normal methods of operation, where

permissible) to expedite the handling of judicial business when required to operate at

less than full judge strength.

For example, applicable law requires

that a majority of judges on any court of appeals panel be judges of that court. But

the same law allows for exceptions if such

judges cannot sit because recused or disqualified, or when the chief judge of that

court certifies that there is an emergency including, but not limited to, the unavailability

of a judge of the court because of illness.21

Although the circuits differin local rules,

decisional law, or practiceon whether

senior judges are judges of th[e] court for

purposes of panel composition, the statute

clearly empowers a court to deviate from the

requirement, however defined, if an emergency arises. The courts of appeals should

therefore be encouraged to take advantage of

all available judicial resources, including

senior and visiting judges, when vacancies

seriously threaten their ability to function

effectively. Of course, these emergency

panels should be utilized sparingly given the

possible impact on the coherence and consistency of circuit law.

 21 28 U.S.C. § 46(b) (1988).

Managing Judicial Branch Resources

The governance structure of the federal courts reserves considerable local

autonomy to individual courts and their

judges. Recently, the decentralization of

management authority has increased. With

this trend has come increased accountability

and responsiveness to centralized leadership.

The trend is consistent with modern management theory, which emphasizes the

efficiency benefits of empowering those

small units closest to an enterprises core

mission.

Budget decentralization and

expanded local roles in personnel and procurement have made judges and court

administrators increasingly responsible for

the direction and operations of their units.

Planningboth near- and long-termhas

become even more crucial.22 In an environment of inadequate resources, priorities will

constantly need to be set and reset. Thus

while budget decentralization deals with the

limited spending authority over these insufficient resources allocated to individual

courts, the larger problem of resource allocation among the various levels of the

judicial branch remains. Development and

implementation of administrative policies, as

noted in Chapter 7, might affect the decentralized governance of resource

management.

Budget Decentralization

^ RECOMMENDATION 68: To match responsibility with authority, the budget

execution function should be further

decentralized so that each court may

 22 See, e.g., Henry Mintzberg, The Fall and Rise of Strategic Planning, 72 HARV. BUS. REV. (No. 3) 107, 112ff.

(1994).
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

106

control spending of appropriated

funds to meet its needs.

Budget decentralization has its roots

in the collegiality and local autonomy of the

federal courts. In this period of fiscal austerity, the workability of the model will

surely be tested.

Budget decentralization should be

gradual. It should promote institutional

cohesiveness and equity through implementation of a central audit function. That

function should include spending oversight

and responsibility for the submission of a

single budget for the courts. To date, each

step in budget decentralization has been mirrored by an increasing sophistication in the

audit trail. This process must continue while

at the same time preserving sufficient local

flexibility to allow productive differences in

local court cultures.

A proposal meriting further consideration is to employ a fixed formula in

the budget process used to allot a specific

number of dollars to a court per case or

judgeship so as to produce a more predictable form of funding. Judges and staff

would be accordingly stimulated to plan

more effectively, although courts would still

be permitted to establish special funding

needs over and above the formula.

Technology and Facilities

Technology will bring vast change in

how people meet, interact, conduct business,

and resolve their disputes. Growth in communications abilities will change where

people work, as well as how they work.

While face-to-face meetings may remain the

norm in some situations, increasing reliance

will be placed on electronic media. The

courthouse of the future may not always be a

finite physical space. Critical issues about

technology, including data security and due

process rights, must be resolved, however,

before these changes take effect.

^ RECOMMENDATION 69: Use of courtrelated technology should be expanded

to improve the ability of the federal

courts to provide efficient, fair, and

comprehensible service to the public.

The federal courts' experience with

technological innovation is explored in

depth in the Long Range Plan for Automation in the Federal Judiciary, a document

generated and reviewed by umbrella and

user groups of judges, Administrative Office

officials, court administrators, and support

staff. It is a well-conceived plan for testing

and bringing the best technological innovations to the courts.

In the future, technology must continue to facilitate the work of the courts.

To do so, the approach to its adoption

must be integrated. A true federal courts

information management and national communications network is emerging. For the

courts to successfully embrace the technological future, however, everyone involved

in court operationsnot only technically

expert staffmust be capable of identifying

how and where new technological tools will

improve performance.

^ RECOMMENDATION 70: The courts

must remain current with emerging

technologies and how they can be employed to improve the administration

of justice generally.

The concept of the "electronic" or

"virtual" courthousea system that networks computers to permit parties to

litigation and the court to exchange materi-
CHAPTER 8 / RESOURCES þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

107

als on-line, and to conduct meetings and

hearings over the network (including use of

simultaneous video conferencing) in lieu of

the participants assembling at the same locationshould be assessed to determine its

suitability to meet the needs of court users

and the judiciary. When courts are able to

receive documents electronically from parties already equipped to submit their cases

in this manner, the concept of the "virtual

courthouse" envisions a court able to

schedule proceedings through visual telecommunication, with participants at

different locations, lessening the need for

a "physical courthouse."

^ RECOMMENDATION 71: The judicial

branch should maintain a comprehensive space and facilities program,

giving careful attention to economy in

a time of austerity.

Almost all the federal district and

circuit courts have completed long range

plans for facilities and space requirements.

Working through the Judicial Conference,

the courts should continue to participate

actively in needs assessments, and in the

design, construction and management of

space and facilities for judicial officers and

court employees. At a time of extreme

budgetary austerity, it is essential that the

courts exercise prudence and economy in the

design of new facilities.

Using Conference-approved planning and space standards, a long range

facility planning program should be periodically updated. That plan should be the basis

for funding requests to Congress for new

court and court unit facilities. It should address increasingly the need for and the likely

impact of new technology. The Conference

should adopt a real property capital budget

and pursue alternatives to financing new

construction through annual appropriations.23

^ RECOMMENDATION 72: To achieve

economies of scale, eliminate unnecessary duplication, and otherwise improve administrative efficiency and

effectiveness, the courts should study

alternative methods of organizing and

allocating judicial support functions.

Efficiency and cost savings are possible through voluntary sharing of such

personnel as administrators, clerks, and

probation officers, among districts. To expedite feasible, common sense solutions to

resource needs, unnecessary procedural

barriers should be eliminated. Given the

courts commitment to decentralized court

administration and budgeting, local courts

should have the ability freely to allocate

their personnel resources. A number of districts or circuits should be selected to test

more flexible methods of organizing judicial

support activities. Such experiments will

surely suggest more far-reaching structural

changes and innovations at the district court

level.24

^ RECOMMENDATION 73: To refine both

operations and policy, the federal

courts should define, structure and,

as appropriate, expand their datacollection and information-gathering

capacity.

 23 See Chapter 7, Implementation Strategy 51a supra. 24 This kind of resource sharing is already permitted in the

defender services program under the Criminal Justice Act.

See 18 U.S.C. § 3006A(g)(1) (1994) (two adjacent districts

or parts of districts are authorized to establish a defender

organization to serve both areas).
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

108

Implementation Strategies:

73a To obtain better data for reporting, policy-making, and planning

purposes, the Judicial Conference should

establish a steering group to coordinate

and define the process. Members of the

group should include representatives

from all primary data sources, judicial

branch users, and outside researchers.

73b This steering group should:

(1) Conduct a data needs assessment

that includes but is not limited to:

courts of appeals, district courts,

and bankruptcy courts; magistrate

judge reporting; Administrative

Office program reporting; research; budgetary impact analysis;

and long range planning.

(2) Inventory and catalog data collection efforts. Utilize recent surveys

conducted by Conference committees and other organizations.

(3) Evaluate the ability of current statistical data holdings to support

planning and policy.

(4) Determine how best to collect and

maintain such data. Determine how

best to organize and manage such

efforts. Determine training requirements.

(5) Design the most appropriate single

or coordinated network of data

bases.

In determining the judiciary's need

for statistical data and other information, the

federal courts should seek input from interested persons outside the system, including

scholars and researchers who study the

courts. Judicial data collection should

include the statistical data and other information needed for planning purposes, e.g.,

data on historical trends and their impact on

the judiciary, and on the demographics of

court users. However, expansion of judicial

data collection should be preceded by careful research to determine what precisely is

needed in order to run the courts fairly and

efficiently.

Clearly, a broad-based inquiry into

what data and statistics should be regularly

collected and how they are used must be

made a high, immediate priority. Personnel

from all levels and units of the federal court

system, and others, should participate in

specifying the contours of these data and

statistics. The Judicial Conference should

support and promote information resources

management to meet the information needs

of the courts, the public, the bar, and litigants.

The Federal Courts Workforce

of the Future

The workforce of the federal courts

of the future will be shaped by trends similar

to those that have created the workforce of

today. The current workforce is larger than

ever, reflecting significant workload growth.

It rose in size by more than 90% since 1982,

from 14,400 to nearly 28,000 in 1994. Most

of the growth has been in supporting personnel: the number of judicial officers has

grown only about 17%. Because the business before the courts reflects conditions in

society generally, staffing in probation and

pre-trial services, bankruptcy and public defender offices has almost tripled in size in

the past decade.

The federal courts workforce today

is far more diverse than in the past. Since
CHAPTER 8 / RESOURCES þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

109

the early 1980s the number of women in

professional positions has increased over

170%. Women now hold a majority, about

53%, of the judiciary's professional positions (legal, administrative and technical),

compared to 1982 when the judiciary's professional workforce was about 36% female.

The entire judiciary workforceincluding

both professional and clerical personnel

has grown from 63% female in 1982 to 69%

female in 1991. The federal courts have also

made substantial gains in minority employment. African-Americans, Latinos, Asians

and Native Americans have more than doubled in number; their percentage in both the

total workforce and its professional component has increased. Latinos represent the

greatest number of new minority employees;

their representation in the courts professional workforce has grown by 213% since

1982.

What does this hold for the future?

At the very least, the proportion of women

and minorities in the federal courts will

continue to increase, particularly in professional and technically skilled positions.

These jobs now constitute 60% of the federal courts non-judicial positions.

^ RECOMMENDATION 74: The courts

should maintain and foster highquality judicial support services.

The effective operation of court units

requires highly qualified, well-trained managers. The courts and national judicial

administration agencies should recruit and

retain the best possible professional and

support staff, and develop their skills assiduously.

Increasingly, the federal courts will

be competing with other employers for educated, professional, competent workers. To

demonstrate that the system supports and

rewards exceptional talent and strong performance:

 judicial branch employees must be recognized and compensated appropriately

 court personnel at all levels should be

used extensively to assist the courts in

administration and policy development,

and

 continuing education must be integrated

into both the schedule of the courts and

each employee's work.

^ RECOMMENDATION 75: The courts

should improve working conditions

and arrangements for all court support personnel.

The courts must be adequately

staffed to perform all needed functions.

Working conditions for court support personnel should be progressive and make

provision for: family leave, flexible work

arrangements, and ombudsmen to consider

concerns and complaints.

^ RECOMMENDATION 76: High-quality

continuing education for judges

should focus on the law, case management, (including use of appropriate

dispute-resolution processes), and cultural diversity.

Education and training are as important for maintaining and expanding the skills

of the experienced judge as for orienting the

new judge. "Judicial education should not,

however, end with orientation or yearly circuit conferences but should be a life-long

process and pursuit."25 Social, technological,

 25 REPORT OF THE FEDERAL COURTS STUDY COMMITTEE 170

(1990).
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

110

and demographic changes will require a

higher level of judicial competence.

In the future, large dockets will test

the management abilities of even the best

judges. Intensive case management training

will be essential. Appropriate dispute resolution must be the reality; it will demand

judges who are expert and creative in "fitting the forum to the fuss."

To limit inconvenience and downtime for judges, the Federal Judicial Center

should wherever possible educate judges

via interactive video, computer-generated

courtroom simulation, teleconferences,

and other innovations. The federal courts

strong tradition of quality judicial education

should be continued.

^ RECOMMENDATION 77: All federal

court staff should be trained to ensure

outstanding service to the public

through adopting a "customer service" approach to justice. They should

be educated regularly in the use of

court technology.

An emphasis on customer service

and appropriate dispute resolution will

create new opportunities for court system

employees. Technology will free support

personnel from the crush of paper record

keeping for new, important jobs in the

courts. New labor-saving systems will free

staff for work that cannot be performed mechanically.

Nonjudicial court personnel should

continue to be trained as service providers

and facilitators. Their primary responsibility

should continue to be the provision of

timely, accurate, and efficient service to all

persons having business with the courts, and

assisting litigants in reaching the next step in

resolving their disputes.
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The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

129

Chapter 10

Confronting the

Alternative Future

RESERVING the core values that

have undergirded the federal courts'

long tradition of excellence is the fundamental vision of this plan. By

planning for the future, the courts will be

able to meet with confidence the numerous

challenges they face. Still, the courts cannot

control the societal trends that have placed

the core values at significant risk in recent

decades.

This chapter considers how the

judicial branch might adapt if caseloads increase at even half the rate suggested in the

"alternative future" discussed in Chapter 3.

Suppose, for example, that in the year 2020

only 500,000 cases are filed in the district

courts or that there are only 336 appellate

judges? Even that scenario is daunting and

would have undesirable consequences.

As shown in Chapter 3, projections

based on historical trends indicate that, in

another 25 years, there would be as many as

1,660 appellate court judgeships and more

than 1,060,000 cases commenced annually

in district courts. This four-fold increase

over present-day conditions could well result in the following court statistics in 2020:

 median time from filing to disposition

for civil cases in the district courts

exceeds 30 months, with 30% of

cases pending more than 3 years

 trials are held in 44% of criminal cases;

the median length for criminal trials

reaches 4 days; and 80% of total district

court judge time is consumed by criminal trials

 of the 174,500 criminal cases terminated in the district courts in 2019,

37% (47,000) are appealed

 of the 156,000 appeals terminated this

year, 107,500 are procedural terminations; only 48,500 are terminated on

the merits

 10% of merit terminations occur after

oral argument; the remainder are decided

on submission of briefs

 slightly more than 20,000 petitions for

review on writ of certiorari are received

by the Supreme Court, of which 125, or

0.6% are granted.

This plan rejects drastic alternatives

as neither desirable nor inevitable. The

discussion in this chapter, then, must be

viewed in the limited context of an undesirable alternative future that would require

significant changes in federal court structure, jurisdiction, and resources. In sum,

the alternatives presented here should be

pursued only if the coming decades bring:

 great expansion in federal court jurisdiction and caseloads;

P
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

130

 substantial growth in the number of

judges and supporting staff at all levels

of the courts; and

 sharp increases in the courts' need for

new buildings and equipment.

Threshold for Considering Changes

Efforts to streamline the trial and appellate processes should continue to be

pursued before major structural change is

considered. If innovations in court procedures and efforts to control jurisdictional

expansion do not stem the rising caseloads,

however, more radical changes may be required to allow the federal courts to carry

out their mission. Moreover, experience

shows that incremental changes in how the

federal courts do business often produce inadvertent, but fundamental, changes in the

quality of federal justice delivered.

For these reasons, the Judicial Conference should monitor a wide variety of

statistical and other indicators to determine

whether trial and appellate court structures

remain adequate to meet the stresses of increasing caseload. The Conference should

consider and evaluate the totality of relevant circumstances in gauging the apparent

direction of the judicial system and determining what should be done. The choice

of quantitative or qualitative indicators used

for this purpose is, to some extent, arbitrary.

The purpose, however, is not to seek authoritative harbingers of danger, but rather to

study evolving conditions in order to identify whether the circumstances facing the

judiciary require a fundamental change in

strategy. No single indicator may point to a

breakdown in the present system. Statistics

are only a starting point, not the end, of the

evaluative process.

A representative but non-exclusive

group of statistical signposts might include

the following:

 total numbers of filings in the courts of

appeals and/or district courts

 number of judicial circuits and corresponding increases in intercircuit case

law conflicts

 number of court of appeals judges in an

individual circuit and corresponding increases in intracircuit conflicts

 average number(s) of merits participations per judge in the courts of appeals

 ratio of criminal to civil trials

 average number of lengthy trials (civil

and criminal) per court

 number and percentage of cases in which

trials are not held

 average number of trials (civil and

criminal) per judge

 average number of criminal filings per

judge

 rate at which district court judgments are

reversed on appeal1

 number and percentage of civil cases

pending over 3 years

 number and percentage of motions

pending over 6 months

 number and percentage of bench trials in

which a decision has been pending over

6 months

 median disposition times for courts of

appeals and/or district courts

 percentage of district or magistrate judge

hours spent on the bench

 average number of defendants per felony

case

 1

 Reversal rates should take into account all published and

unpublished decisions in criminal and civil cases, cases

presenting issues of first impression, and cases in which the

decision below was affirmed or reversed in part. Above

all, the significance of a particular reversal must be evaluated in light of the reasons stated by the appellate court.

See Edward R. Becker, Patrick E. Higginbotham, and William K. Slate, II, Why the Numbers Don't Add Up, 73

A.B.A. J. 83 (Oct. 1987) (response to Brian L. Weakland,

Judging the Judges, 73 A.B.A. J. 58-60 (June 1987)

(discussing federal judges' affirmance and reversal records

before the courts of appeals)).
CHAPTER 10 / CONFRONTING THE ALTERNATIVE FUTURE þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

131

 number of staff assigned to U.S. Attorneys' offices

 number of attorneys in active federal

district court practice.

Restructuring Appellate Review

If caseload volume renders the courts

of appeals unable to complete their tasks

with dispatch and fairness, the Judicial

Conference should consider fundamental

revision of the appellate court structure.2

There are two basic approaches to restructuring appellate justice. One method would

increase the number of judicial officers responsible for adjudicating appeals. The

other method would limit the number of

judges required to decide an appeal. These

approaches may be outlined as follows:

(a) Add to the number of judicial officers

in the present courts of appeals by increasing the number of circuit judgeships, or by

expanding the role of adjunct judicial officers, such as appellate commissioners.

(b) Add a new tier of appellate tribunals

between the district and the circuit courts,

and provide for discretionary review in the

circuit courts.

(c) Assign certain appellate functions to

district judges through an "appellate term"

or "appellate division" at the district level.

(d) Reduce the size of appellate panels to

two judges and/or allow single judges to

review certain cases.

Simply expanding the number of circuit judges, and/or expanding the role of

 2

 For a detailed discussion of various options, see JUDITH

A. MCKENNA, STRUCTURAL AND OTHER ALTERNATIVES

FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS OF APPEALSREPORT TO THE

UNITED STATES CONGRESS AND THE JUDICIAL CONFERENCE

OF THE UNITED STATES 105-39 (Federal Judicial Center

1993).

adjunct judicial officers (e.g., appellate

commissioners), may, however, lead to

inconsistency and incoherence in circuit law.

Likewise, if the addition of Article III judgeships results in the creation of more circuits,

the system's capacity for resolving intercircuit conflicts must be expanded. Alternative

means of resolving intercircuit conflicts

have been described in the work of the Federal Courts Study Committee and the

Federal Judicial Center.3

If the appellate bench grows significantly, realignment of the circuits to produce courts of appeals of relatively equal

size and workload deserves serious consideration. Although the matter would require

careful consideration, the need to maintain

coherent, consistent precedent and administrative efficiency in the face of massive

dockets may outweigh countervailing concerns.

Alternatively, the circuit-based

courts of appeals could remain at approximately their present size and number if firstline appellate review were provided in a new

tier of appellate tribunals established at an

intermediate level between the districts and

the circuit. If this approach were taken, the

"circuit" courts would be in a position to

maintain a relatively consistent and coherent

body of circuit law through discretionary

review of decisions rendered in the lower

appellate courts.

Another method to expand the system's capacity for appellate review would be

an "appellate term" or "appellate division" at

the district level.4

 These panels would exist

 3

 Id.; REPORT OF THE FEDERAL COURTS STUDY COMMITTEE

125-30 (1990).

4

 The idea of some appellate review being located at the

district court level is not new. See Roscoe Pound, APPELLATE PROCEDURE IN CIVIL CASES 390 (1941); Louis H.

Pollak, Amici Curiae, 56 U. CHI. L. REV. 811, 825-826

(1989) (book review). Moreover, Roscoe Pound's proposal

also would limit litigants in such a forum to the arguments

already made in the trial court. See Letter
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

132

primarily to ensure correction of errors and

screen legal issues for possible review in the

court of appeals. Two elements would be

key to implementing such a system. First,

district judges should not review cases arising out of their own districts. Second, if

current caseload conditions persist, the

number of district judges and/or magistrate

judges would have to be expanded significantly to carry out both trial and appellate

functions. Since creation of additional district judgeships is not a desirable method to

address a workload crisis at the appellate

level, appellate panels should not be drawn

from areas where district judges routinely

carry a maximum trial-level caseload.

A district-level appellate panel might

consist of one circuit judge and two district

judges, perhaps from outside the circuit.

District judges sitting on review panels

could be assigned for substantial terms (e.g.,

three years) to give them time to gain experience in their new role and to staff their

chambers accordingly. Further review

would be in the discretion of the courts of

appeals on petition, unless the first appellate

panel certified the case, or some portion of

it, for review. The program would be instituted first on a pilot basis and, perhaps,

limited to certain categories of cases (e.g.,

diversity actions, social security disability

claims). After assessing the results of the

pilot program, jurisdiction of appellate

panels might be expanded to additional

categories of cases, or even to all matters

originating in the district courts.

Finally, the appellate system could

also address rising caseloads by limiting the

number of appellate judges required to decide an appeal. Although the judiciary is

currently committed to the principle of

three-judge review as the standard for ap-

 

from Professor Paul D. Carrington to the Honorable Edward R. Becker 2 (Nov. 3, 1993).

peals, rising caseloads may require reducing

the size of appellate panels to two judges,

or allowing for single-judge review of some

cases. Experiments with single-judge review might be conducted in cases that

involve single issues and deferential standards of review, i.e., "abuse of discretion"

by the district court, or "substantial evidence" to support an agency order.

Alternatively, courts organized on a geographic basis might move toward greater

specialization by routinely assigning individual judges or panels to handle particular

subject areas. Creating new courts with

more limited subject-matter jurisdiction

also might be considered.

Limiting the Right to Appeal

Fundamental restructuring of the appellate function is one possible approach to

a dramatic increase in the appellate workload. It would likely require a reevaluation

of the principle that each litigant is guaranteed at least one appeal as of right before a

panel of three Article III judges. Thus, if

conditions seriously deteriorate in the courts

of appeals, it may be necessary to consider

some limitations on the right to appeal. The

right to appeal could be eliminated completely in certain types of cases, such as

administrative cases in which the district

court acts as the reviewer of agency action

and certain types of "federal question" cases

in which state law issues predominate. In all

(or some) other cases appellate review could

be discretionary.

These options should be pursued

only as a last resort. It does not presently

appear that the stress on the courts of

appeals is serious enough to justify abandoning the statutory right to appeal in all case

types. Except for certain agency cases and

diversity actions, this plan does not identify

discrete case types whose elimination from
CHAPTER 10 / CONFRONTING THE ALTERNATIVE FUTURE þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

133

the appellate docket (while retaining district

court jurisdiction) would be fair and workable, yet provide substantial caseload relief.

Discretionary review also could have

the unintended effect of increasing the

burden on district judges to provide more

written support for decisions made at the

trial level. It would pose difficulties in ensuring, and appearing to ensure, that all

classes of litigants are treated fairly and are

not cut off from the protections of the appellate process by virtue of their status.

Outright elimination of appellate review should be considered only for cases in

which the "law declaration" function of appellate review is not at stake. Examples of

such cases might include some administrative cases involving district court review of

agency action, and cases raising primarily

state law issues.5

Making Best Use of Trial Court

Resources

A drastic increase in the workload of

the district courts would require significant

changes in the use of judicial resources.

Such changes may include the following:

(a) Require judges to be more readily

available for temporary assignment.

(b) Authorize adjunct judicial officers of

the district courts (i.e., magistrate judges

and bankruptcy judges) to conduct a wider

variety of proceedings.

A vastly expanded caseload will require the maximum utilization of existing

 5

 This plan also contains recommendations concerning the

possibility of making appellate review discretionary in

some types of administrative agency cases. See Chapter 4,

Recommendation 9, and Chapter 5, Recommendation 20

supra.

judicial resources. Although a system of

mandatory assignments may not be appropriate for Article III judges, incentives

should be used to allow courts to make

greater and more effective use of visiting

judges, and to encourage judges to be available for temporary assignment. Another,

more debatable, solution might be a system

of floating assignments based on judgeships not permanently tied to a particular

court, or rotation of judges between a permanent duty station and an extended period

of temporary duty in various courts. 6

Assuming that any constitutional

questions could be resolved, magistrate

judges and bankruptcy judges could be

assigned, as needed, to conduct a wider variety of district court proceedings with the

consent of the parties. For example, magistrate judges might expand on their current

role in conducting civil and non-felony

criminal proceedings by playing a greater

part in felony prosecutions, including the

conduct of trials and/or sentencing. Similarly, bankruptcy judges might be assigned

cases on the regular district court docket

(e.g., complex commercial actions) in

which their background and experience

would be particularly relevant.

The Standing Committee on Rules of

Practice and Procedure should also reexamine Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 53 to

evaluate how support for judges in the district court might be expanded through the

 6

 Federal judges have nearly always been drawn from, and

identified with, the region or locality in which they serve.

Use of "floater" judgeships, even on a limited basis, would

constitute a departure from tradition that may be unacceptable, either on political or other grounds. The only

previous experiment of this kindthe Commerce Court

early in this centurywas unsuccessful. It would be difficult to find qualified individuals who are willing to assume

and remain in this kind of "roving" assignment. Rather

than attempt to recruit new judges permanently for such

positions, it might be more feasible to authorize the Chief

Justice to assign existing judges to "floater" service for

limited periods (e.g., 18 months to two years).
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

134

greater use of special masters or other adjunct officers.

Diverting the Civil Caseload

If the increase in civil cases causes

excessive delay in obtaining trial dates,

the district courts could employ a broad

range of alternative dispute resolution

techniquespossibly including mandatory

processes. If such a situation comes about,

the Judicial Conference should seek legislation or otherwise adopt appropriate

measures to:

Encourage each federal court to expand the

scope and availability of alternative methods of dispute resolution.

Over the past decade the increase in

civil causes of action in federal courts, the

continuing federalization of many criminal

offenses, implementation of sentencing

guidelines, and other factors have made it

more difficult for civil litigants to receive

early and firm trial dates. Accordingly, in

addition to reducing the time and costs of

trials, each federal court should be able to

provide its litigants expanded alternative

methods of dispute resolution.

The availability of such alternative

procedures would often allow litigants to

resolve their disputes in a more efficient,

expeditious and cost-effective manner.

Along with allowing litigants to choose

the dispute resolution procedure most appropriate to their cases, the provision of

alternative procedures would conserve the

judiciary's unique and precious resource

the trial, whether bench or juryfor those

disputes in which it is most needed. The

diversion of disputes from a traditional trial

process to other methods of resolution will

enable judges to concentrate on improving

the management and conduct of cases that

proceed to trial.7

Limiting Jurisdiction

If caseload volume renders the courts

of appeals and district courts unable to deliver timely, well-reasoned decisions and

speedy trials with procedural fairness, the

Judicial Conference could consider seeking

more extensive reductions in federal court

jurisdiction to fulfill the mission of the federal courts, as listed below:

(a) Restore a minimum amount-incontroversy requirement for federal question

cases, either generally or in specific categories.

(b) Eliminate or substantially curtail the

jurisdiction of the district court in those

categories of cases that may be appropriately resolved in federal administrative or

state forums.

(c) Establish additional jurisdictional requirements, based on the nature and scope

of the controversy, for litigating in federal

court particular matters in which state

courts have concurrent jurisdiction.

Restriction of federal jurisdiction is

a step that should not be easily taken and, in

practice, is likely to be taken only as a last

resort. Nevertheless, it may become necessary to restrict access to the courts to the

extent constitutionally permissible (i.e., limit

review to constitutional issues) so that the

limited resources of the federal courts may

be applied to those disputes that, under the

 7

 It should be emphasized that traditional case management

and trial procedures have been, and are, working well.

Those procedures best preserve the core values undergirding the federal courts' long tradition of excellence. This

chapter, however, is concerned with problems that may

arise in the future.
CHAPTER 10 / CONFRONTING THE ALTERNATIVE FUTURE þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

135

principles of judicial federalism (see Chapter 4 supra), ought to be resolved in that

forum.

In addition to restoration of a minimum amount-in-controversy requirement

for federal question cases, federal court jurisdiction could be curtailed in cases

appropriately resolved in Article I tribunals,

administrative agencies, or state courts.

Examples of such case categories include

social security benefit claims, contract

claims, benefit claims under ERISA welfare

plans, forfeiture proceedings, and cases primarily involving state law issues (e.g., many

FIRREA proceedings,8

 products liability,

and ordinary tort claims). Finally, notions

of comity might support enactment of additional criteria relating to the nature and

scope of the controversy for invoking federal court jurisdiction in cases where

concurrent state court jurisdiction exists.9

Maintaining Effective Governance

If federal court caseloads and the attendant need for judicial resources

dramatically increase, governance of an expanded judicial system should emphasize

(1) provision of administrative coordination

and direction, and (2) preservation of a

broadly participatory governance process

encouraging expression of diverse perspectives.

Changes in governance might be required if the three branches are unable to

avoid a great expansion in federal court jurisdiction and caseloads. These increases

might require substantial growth in the

 8

 Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery, and Enforcement Act of 1989, Pub. L. No. 101-73, 103 Stat. 183, as

amended.

9

 If this approach were followed, the implementing

legislation would have to be drafted carefully to avoid

creating satellite litigation that merely replaces one

workload burden for another. Objective criteria must be

developed and applied so that courts do not decide

subjectively which cases are litigated in a federal forum.

numbers of judges and supporting staff

members at all levels of court organization.

The extent of this growth could also require

greatly increased use of adjunct judicial officers and technologically different ways of

doing business. Growth of this magnitude

might be accompanied by a relative reduction in resource allocation from Congress.

The historically adequate resource base afforded federal courts has been due in large

part to the court system's modest size.

Under these conditions, structural

changes in the courts' adjudicative framework would likely be required. For

example, hard choices would have to be

made among

(a) increasing the number of circuits while

keeping each circuit relatively small (e.g.,

no larger than any current circuit); or

(b) keeping the numbers of circuits small

while allowing each circuit to grow to contain more than 100 active circuit judges and

several times that many district judges; or

(c) abandoning altogether the concept of

regional circuits in favor of subject matter

courts and traveling judges, perhaps serving

in both trial and appellate capacities; or

(d) reconsidering the membership of the

Judicial Conference to account for more

circuits and the role of small specialized

courts.

None of these alternatives is attractive from the viewpoint of protecting the

best features of current court governance

arrangements. Thus, they should not be taken as desirable alternativesonly as what

may be the best among a series of bad

choices. On the other hand, it bears emphasis that governance is merely instrumental.

Governance structures should not dictate

court jurisdiction or structure.
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

136

(e) Governance authority should increasingly be grounded in procedural rules and

safeguards because an increased complement of Article III judges could know only a

small fraction of their colleagues well, if at

all.

Effective participation of a reasonable proportion of judges in governance

might only be accomplished through some

form of enhanced representational structures

and procedures. There would be inevitable

pressures to create democratic (electoral)

procedures for the selection of governance

representatives at national, regional, and local levels. These pressures would arise from

competition for ever-scarcer resources to

perform court work. Because judges could

know only a small fraction of their colleagues well, if at all, governance authority

grounded on personal acquaintance and trust

would probably be replaced with authority

grounded on hierarchy, procedural rules, and

safeguards.

It is likely that judicial branch interest groups would become further stratified

by category of judge (circuit, district,

bankruptcy, magistrate, active, senior, or

whatever other groups emerged through

structural change, e.g., national or local,

permanent or floating) as well as by regional and local court units. The larger the

judiciary becomes, the more formalized, impersonal, and bureaucratic the governance

apparatus will become.

(f) Some judges should take on full-time

management responsibilities, if judges are to

remain as the courts' governors.

It is inconceivable that a judiciary of

3,000 to 5,000 or more life-tenured judges

could function with the same degree of collegiality in administrative decision making

as is now possible. Although some increase

in executive authority would be necessary,

the major changes contemplated here would

require a fundamental change in governance

arrangements. It would not be possible to

manage the courts as a part-time job. If

judges are to remain as the courts' governors, some of them might have to take on

full-time management responsibilities from

time to time, and the idea of a "chancellor"

or "executive judge" to assume some of the

Chief Justice's national leadership responsibilities could be revisited.10

(g) The judicial branch should protect the

core decisional independence of judges in a

vastly expanded administrative infrastructure supporting the operation of chambers,

courtrooms, and judicial activities.

A greatly expanded federal court

system could function efficiently only with a

similar expansion of the courts' administrative apparatus. Such an expansion should be

accomplished, however, without any loss

of judicial autonomy with respect to the basic separation of powers among the three

branches. In fact, if the judiciary were to

gain control of its own space, facilities, and

security programs, and retrieve from the

executive branch the administration of bankruptcy estates, as recommended above, the

courts would become a substantial administrative entity within the government

generally.

It seems likely, however, that such

an expanded federal court system would

be under increased congressional scrutiny

through authorizations, appropriations,

and oversight. The executive branch also

would be tempted to seek greater authority

to monitor judicial branch operations in the

name of government-wide economy. Within

the judicial branch itself, establishment of

strong, centralized administration might

impinge on judicial independence if the new

 10 Cf. RUSSELL R. WHEELER & GORDON BERMANT,

FEDERAL COURT GOVERNANCE 47-62 (Federal Judicial

Center 1994) (discussing the idea of an "executive judge"

for the federal courts).
CHAPTER 10 / CONFRONTING THE ALTERNATIVE FUTURE þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

137

administrators seek to impose uniformity in

the timing and form of judges' decisions.

Even without increased oversight,

there would be some risk of erosion of the

independence of the individual judge's administrative decision making. Although

regional and local administrative structures

might vitiate some of the dangers of a vastly

increased central support structure, changes

instituted at either the national or regional

level certainly would affect ongoing local

court operations. Resource demands made

by a judiciary of even 3,000 life-tenured

judges would likely strain the capacity of the

judicial support structure to provide the type

of personalized services judges currently

receive. Greater standardization and less

room for exceptions to administrative rules

would probably flow from the combination

of large numbers and relatively reduced resources. Under these circumstances, the

judiciary will face a major challenge in protecting the core decisional independence of

judges from those responsible for managing

the equipment, supplies, and reimbursements that constitute the administrative

infrastructure of chambers, courtrooms, and

judicial activities generally.

(h) The allocation of policy making

and administrative authority should be reevaluated. If substantial reallocation of

governance authority becomes necessary,

the alternatives to be considered should include

(1) concentrating authority in fewer hands

at all levels,

(2) centralizing authority at the national

level, and

(3) decentralizing authority to regional or

local levels.

Even in a greatly expanded judiciary,

national governance institutions should

honor the principle that regional and local

matters should be decided at regional and

local levels. This principle assumes the procedures for establishing representative

governance are fair, and are perceived to be

fair, by judges generally. In that scenario,

an appropriate balance of authority among

court levels can be sustained, even though it

will differ from the current balance. But

there may be a need for greater executive

authority nationally, as well as regionally,

just by virtue of the greater numbers of

people whose performance must be monitored and whose needs and legitimate

interests must be met.

The accurate, reliable and efficient

channeling of input about governance questions will have to be established within each

level of governance and between them. This

will require more governance "apparatus,"

which will create new overhead costs.

Even as a vast expansion in the judiciary will encourage a thrust toward

increased centralization, it will also promote

countervailing pressure for assigning more

regional governance authority to the circuitsif the regional circuit structure

survives such growth. Circuits as large as

today's entire federal appellate bench may

present powerful arguments for substantial

reallocation of authority to the circuit level,

including direct authority to seek and obligate appropriations (rather than only

delegated authority to expend appropriated

money).

Appointing Article III Judges

If judicial vacancies cannot be filled

expeditiously, disabling the judiciary and

leaving no other viable remedy, the political

branches may have to consider alternative

methods for appointing Article III judges

that otherwise would be unacceptable (even
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

138

if constitutional revision is required). For

example:

(a) The President and the Senate might

each be authorized to act alone in filling

judgeships that remain vacant due to inaction by the other branch in nominating or

confirming new judges. For example

(1) judicial nominations might be confirmed automatically, or recess

appointments continued in effect

until vacancies are filled, if the Senate

fails to act on nominations within a

prescribed time; and

(2) the Senate might appoint judges sua

sponte if the President fails to submit

a nomination (or make a recess appointment) within a prescribed period

after a vacancy arises.

This alternative is premised on the

likelihood that the present judicial appointment process would be overwhelmed by the

massive increase in the size of the federal

judiciary anticipated by some forecasts. If

that process cannot continue to function, the

need to consider an approach of the kind

discussed here would be clear.

This approach would put "teeth" in

any statutory time limits imposed on the

President and the Senate with regard to

making judicial appointments. It not only

might provide impetus for more efficient

procedures but also encourage resolution of

political disputes that postpone nominee selection and confirmation proceedings. This

approach may, of course, create additional

problems in the appointment process.

Although delays sometimes occur

in obtaining presidential decisions or in

scheduling Senate committee or floor action,

much of the delay in filling judicial vacancies arises at the preliminary stages in which

executive and legislative branch staff

identify and review potential or actual

nominees. By focusing solely on the end

result, a mechanism that eliminates either

the President or the Senate from the appointment process in the event of delay

might serve only indirectly to expedite the

necessary staff work. Thus, rather than facilitate a desirable outcome, this approach

might simply encourage hasty, ill-considered action by both parties.

Legislation that reallocates the power

to appoint Article III judges raises serious

constitutional concerns. Like other federal

officers, judges must be appointed in accordance with the "Appointments Clause" (U.S.

Const. art. II, § 2, cl. 2) which authorizes the

President to "nominate, and by and with the

Advice and Consent of the Senate, . . . appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers

and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court,

and all other Officers of the United States,

whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be

established by Law." Although that clause

also permits Congress to vest the appointment of "inferior" officers "in the President

alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads

of Departments," the legislative branch cannot reserve to itself the power to appoint

"officers of the United States."11 Therefore,

no statute can authorize the Senate to act on

its own initiative in making judicial appointments.

The constitutional issue does not

end there. Although the matter has never

been adjudicated, a persuasive argument can

be made that Article III judges are "principal" (not "inferior")12 officers whom the

 11 Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1, 132-33 (1976). As defined by the Supreme Court, "officers of the United States"

include "any appointee exercising significant authority

pursuant to the laws of the United States." Id. at 126. 12 Admittedly, circuit, district and Court of International

Trade judges sit on "inferior courts" established by Congress under Article III, Section 1 of the Constitution. See

Morrison v. Olson, 487 U.S. 654, 719-20 (1988) (Scalia, J.,

dissenting) (the Constitution's use of "inferior" in that
CHAPTER 10 / CONFRONTING THE ALTERNATIVE FUTURE þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

139

President must nominate and the Senate

confirm.13 If so, any statute purporting to

authorize presidential appointment of judges

without Senate confirmation (or appointment by any officer or authority other than

the President) would be invalid under the

Appointments Clause absent a constitutional

amendment.14

(b) The Judicial Conference (or individual

courts) might designate temporary judges to

exercise Article III jurisdiction whenever

circuit or district judgeships remain vacant

beyond a prescribed time and the affected

court demonstrates an urgent need for additional judge power that cannot be met

otherwise through existing resources.

 

context "plainly connotes a relationship of subordination").

But "from the early days of the Republic '[t]he practical

construction has uniformly been that [judges of the inferior

courts] are not . . . inferior officers.'" Weiss v. United

States, 114 S. Ct. 752, 768 n.7 (1994) (Souter, J., concurring) (citing 3 JOSEPH STORY, COMMENTARIES ON THE

CONSTITUTION 456 n.1 (1833)). Indeed, the Supreme

Court's recent interpretation of the Appointments Clause

suggests that an "inferior officer" must be "to some degree

'inferior' in rank and authority," have power to "perform

only certain, limited duties," hold an office "limited in jurisdiction," and enjoy "limited . . . tenure"attributes not

easily reconciled with the independent status and broad

authority of circuit, district and Court of International

Trade judges. See Morrison, 487 U.S. at 671-72

(upholding court appointment of "independent counsels"

under the Ethics in Government Act).

13 An exception to this rule applies in the context of

"recess" appointments under article II, section 2, clause 3.

On two occasions, courts of appeals have upheld the historical practice of using the recess appointment power to

fill judicial vacancies pending the completion of Senate

action on the President's nominations. See United States v.

Woodley, 751 F.2d 1008 (9th Cir. 1985) (en banc), cert.

denied, 475 U.S. 1048 (1986); United States v. Allocco,

305 F.2d 704 (2d Cir. 1962), cert. denied, 371 U.S. 964

(1963).

14 A different question might be presented by a policy

under which judicial nominations are deemed confirmed

without formal action if the Senate fails to act on them

within a prescribed time period. Since each House of Congress possesses broad authority to "determine the Rules of

its Proceedings" (U.S. CONST. art. I, § 5, cl. 2), it seems

plausible that the Senate might adopt a rule (or consent to

legislation) that either makes confirmation "automatic" or

accords a nomination priority over all other business (thus

requiring some kind of action) if the Senate does not confirm or reject a judicial nominee within a certain time after

his or her name is received.

Like the preceding option, a measure

that allows the courts to fill judicial vacancies would encourage the other two

branches to act more promptly in nominating and confirming judges. Although it is

unlikely that either the President or the

Senate would relinquish the power to

appoint judges, they might find it more acceptable to grant courts the authority to

make interim appointments, particularly if

such authority is reserved for filling vacancies in exigent circumstances. An analogy

to that approach is the procedure by which

district courts may appoint a person to serve

as United States Attorney until a vacancy in

that position is filled in the ordinary manner.

15 The key difference, of course, is that

executive branch officials do not have constitutionally protected tenure.

As a means of ensuring that judicial

vacancies are filled, though, the utility of

this solution is uncertain. A court seeking to

appoint a judge to serve on a permanent or

interim basis would require the same if not

a greater amount of time to identify and

screen possible candidates. Although some

time might be saved if persons already

serving as non-life tenured judges were appointed, an FBI background investigation

might still be required, at least to update the

information on file.16 To avoid the need for

a full background investigation, a court or

other judicial branch authority could either

assign a bankruptcy judge or magistrate

judge to sit temporarily on the affected

court, or appoint a special master to conduct

specified proceedings. The fundamental

problem with either method would be the

judicial officer's limited tenure and unprotected compensationfactors that, under

 15 See 28 U.S.C. § 546(d) (1988). 16 See, e.g., Granfinanciera, S.A. v. Nordberg, 492 U.S. 33

(1989); CFTC v. Schor, 478 U.S. 833 (1986); Northern

Pipeline Const. Co. v. Marathon Pipe Line Co., 458 U.S.

50 (1982).
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

140

existing law, could preclude exercise of

full Article III jurisdiction.

Again, the idea of an alternative or

"backup" mechanism for making judicial

appointments presents difficult constitutional questions. Legislation that shifts the

power of appointing judges to a court or

other judicial branch authority would pose

the same issue of whether a life-tenured Article III judge can be an "inferior officer"

within the meaning of the Appointments

Clause. In addition, the Article III requirements of "good behavior" tenure and

undiminished compensation preclude Congress from authorizing interim (i.e., limitedterm) appointments to the bench.17

 17 U.S. CONST. art. III, § 1. Although recess appointments

to the bench (see note 13 supra) are limited in duration,

they are based on express constitutional language. See

United States v. Woodley, 751 F.2d at 1014 ("We must

therefore view the recess appointee . . . as the extraordinary

exception to the prescriptions of article III.").

Conclusion

This chapter has focused on alternatives that should be confronted if the less

fundamental changes outlined in this plan

prove inadequate to allow the courts to meet

the stresses of an increasing caseload. These

are strategies that must be considered if the

courts are to be prepared for the future, but

they should be pursued only if essential to

maintaining a viable judicial system. The

premise of this plan is that rapid and drastic

change in the federal court system is neither

desirable nor necessary today. Nonetheless,

it is prudent to identify possible alternatives

should the plan's vision not be achieved.
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The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

175

Appendix C

 Profile of the Long Range Planning

 Committee: Members, Staff,

 Consultants, and Contributors

Members of the Committee

Otto R. Skopil, Jr. of Portland, Oregon, has

served on the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit since 1979,

taking senior status in 1986. Previously, he

had served as a United States District Judge

for the District of Oregon, 1972-1979 (Chief

Judge, 1976-1979). He is a graduate of

Willamette University and its law school.

He served on the Board of the Federal Judicial Center in 1979. Judge Skopil was a

member of the Judicial Conference Committee on the Administration of the Federal

Magistrates System, 1977-1987, and was

Chairman, 1980-1987. He was also a member of the Ad Hoc Committee on Judicial

Review Provisions in Regulatory Reform

Legislation, 1981-1984. Since its creation in

1990, Judge Skopil has served as the Chairman of the Committee on Long Range

Planning. 

Sarah Evans Barker of Indianapolis, Indiana, has served as a United States District

Judge for the Southern District of Indiana

since 1984 and as its Chief Judge since

January 1994. She is a graduate of Indiana

University and the American University

College of Law. Prior to her coming to the

bench, she was United States Attorney for

the Southern District of Indiana from 1981-

1984. In 1988 Judge Barker was elected to

the United States Judicial Conference for a

three year term, She served as a member of

the Executive Committee from 1988 until

1991 and was a member of the Committee

on Rules of Practice and Procedure from

1987 until 1991. In 1991, she served on the

Ad Hoc Committee to Study the Relationship between the Federal Judicial Center and

the Administrative Office. Judge Barker

joined the Committee on Long Range Planning in 1991.

Edward R. Becker of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, has been a United States Circuit

Judge for the Third Circuit since 1981. 

Prior to his appointment to the appellate

bench, Judge Becker served as a United

States District Judge for the Eastern District

of Pennsylvania from 1970-1981. He

graduated from the University of Pennsylvania and the Yale Law School. From 1975-

1976, Judge Becker was a member of the

advisory committee for the Federal Judicial

Center's District Court Studies Project.

From 1979-1987, he served as a member of

the former Committee on the Administration

of the Probation System. From 1985 to

1990, he served on the FJC Committee to

Advise on Education Programs on the Crime

Control Legislation. In 1987, Judge Becker

became Chairman of the restructured
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

176

Committee on Criminal Law and Probation

Administration. From 1985 to 1990, he

served on the FJC Committee on Sentencing, Probation and Pretrial Services. In

1991, he joined the Board of the FJC. Judge

Becker has served on the Committee on

Long Range Planning since its inception in

1990.

Wilfred Feinberg of New York, New York,

was appointed United States Circuit Judge for

the Second Circuit in 1966. He served as

Chief Judge from 1980 through 1988, taking

senior status in 1991. He had previously

served as United States District Judge for the

Southern District of New York from 1961-

1966. He is a graduate of Columbia College

and Columbia Law School. Judge Feinberg

was a member of the United States Judicial

Conference from 1980 until 1988; he was

Chairman of the Executive Committee from

1987-88. He has also served on the Advisory Committee on Civil Rules, 1965-1970;

the Subcommittee on Supporting Personnel,

1969-71; the Subcommittee on Judicial

Statistics, 1971-76; the Federal Judicial

Center's Advisory Committee on Experimentation in the Law; the Committee to

Study Law Clerks Selection Process, 1982-

1985; the Ad Hoc Committee on Judgeship

Vacancies, 1982; and the Committee to

Study the Judicial Conference, 1986-1987.

Since 1990 he has served on the Committee

on Long Range Planning.

Elmo B. Hunter of Kansas City, Missouri,

has served as a United States District Judge

for the Western District of Missouri since

1965; he served as Chief Judge in 1980

until he took senior status at the end of that

year. He is a graduate of the University of

Missouri and its law school, and has done

post graduate work at the University of

Michigan. Prior to joining the federal

bench, Judge Hunter was Circuit Judge for

the 16th Judicial Circuit, State of Missouri,

1952-1957; and Appellate Judge, Court of

Appeals at Kansas City, 1957-1965. He

served on the Committee on Court Administration, 1969-1987 (appointed Chairman in

1978); and served as Chairman of its Subcommittee on Judicial Improvements, 1976-

1978. He was also a member of the Ad Hoc

Committee on Judicial Review Provisions in

Regulatory Reform Legislation, 1981-1984;

and the Ad Hoc Committee on the Media

Petition ("Cameras in the Courtroom"),

1983-1984. In 1990, Judge Hunter joined

the Committee on Long Range Planning.

James Lawrence King of Miami, Florida,

was appointed United States District Judge

for the Southern District of Florida in 1970

and served as Chief Judge from 1984-1991.

He took senior status in 1992. He is a

graduate of the University of Florida and its

law school. Before joining the federal

bench, Judge King was a Circuit Judge,

Eleventh Judicial Circuit of Florida, 1964-

1970 and a member of the Board of Regents

of Florida, 1963-1964. He served

on the Advisory Committee on Judicial Activities, 1973-1976; the Committee on

Standards for Admission of Attorneys to

Federal Practice, 1976-1979; and the Ad

Hoc Advisory Committee on the Administrative Office, 1985. He was Chairman of

the Implementation Committee on Admission of Attorneys to Federal Practice from

1979-1985. He was a member of the Judicial Conference of the United States from

1984 through 1987 and a member of the Judicial Council of the Eleventh Circuit, 1989-

1992. Judge King has been a member of the

Committee on Long Range Planning since

its creation in 1990.

Virginia M. Morgan of Detroit, Michigan,

has served as a United States Magistrate

Judge for the Eastern District of Michigan

since 1985. She is a graduate of the University of Michigan, the University of

Toledo College of Law and has done graduate work at the University of San Diego.
APPENDIX C / PROFILE OF THE LONG RANGE PLANNING COMMITTEE þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

177

She was an Assistant United States Attorney

from 1979-1985. Judge Morgan has served

on the Advisory Group of Magistrate Judges

since 1988. In 1991 she joined the Committee on Long Range Planning.

A. Thomas Small of Raleigh, North Carolina, has been a United States Bankruptcy

Judge for the Eastern District of North

Carolina since 1982. He has served as Chief

Judge since 1992. He is a graduate of Duke

University and Wake Forest University

School of Law. Judge Small has served on

the Committee on Long Range Planning

since 1991.

Harlington Wood, Jr. of Springfield, Illinois, has served as a United States Circuit

Judge for the Seventh Circuit since 1976.

Formerly, he was a United States District

Judge for the Southern District of Illinois,

1973-1976. He is a graduate of the University of Illinois and its law school. He

served as United States Attorney for the

Southern District of Illinois, 1958-1961;

Associate Deputy Attorney General, 1969-

1972; and Assistant Attorney General, 1972-

1973. Judge Wood was a member of the

Committee on Bankruptcy Legislation,

1978-1979; he served on the Advisory

Committee on Judicial Activities, 1978-

1979; the Committee on Court Administration, 1981-1987; the Ad Hoc Committee

on the Media Petition ("Cameras in the

Courtroom"), 1983-1984; and the Ad Hoc

Committee on Automation, 1983. From

1987 until 1991, Judge Wood served as

Chairman of the Committee on the Administrative Office. He joined the Committee

on Long Range Planning in 1990.

Staff

Peter G. McCabe, Assistant Director for

Judges Programs, Administrative Office of

the United States Courts. A.B., Columbia

College; J.D., Harvard University

Jeffrey A. Hennemuth, Chief, Long Range

Planning Office (Senior Attorney, 1993-95),

Administrative Office of the United States

Courts. B.A., Baldwin-Wallace College;

J.D., Ohio State University

Richard B. Hoffman, Senior Planning

Counsel, Long Range Planning Office,

Administrative Office of the United States

Courts, 1992-95. B.S., Cornell University;

J.D., Harvard University; Fellow, Institute

for Court Management

William M. Lucianovic, Senior Planning

Advisor, Long Range Planning Office,

Administrative Office of the United States

Courts. A.B., University of Rochester;

M.A. & Ph.D., Case Western Reserve University

William T. Rule, II, Economist & Econometrician, Long Range Planning Office,

Administrative Office of the United States

Courts. B.A., Macalester College; Ph.D.,

Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University

Robert P. Deyling, Attorney-Advisor, Long

Range Planning Office, Administrative Office of the United States Courts. Judicial

Fellow, Administrative Office of the United

States Courts, 1994-95. B.A., Stanford University; J.D., New York University

Charles W. Nihan, Chief, Long Range

Planning Office, Administrative Office of

the United States Courts, 1991-94. B.A.,

University of Massachusetts; M.A., Harvard

University; M.S., The American University;

J.D., Georgetown University
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

178

Consultants

Robb M. Jones, Director of the Judicial

Education Division, Federal Judicial Center; Administrative Assistant to the Chief

Justice, United States Supreme Court, 1991-

94. A.B., Grove City College; M.A. & J.D.,

University of Virginia

Thomas M. Mengler, Dean & Professor of

Law, University of Illinois College of Law.

B.A., Carlton College; M.A. & J.D., University of Texas

Gordon Bermant, Director of the Planning

& Technology Division, Federal Judicial

Center. A.B., University of California at

Los Angeles; M.A. & Ph.D., Harvard University; J.D., George Mason University

Harvey Rishikof, Administrative Assistant

to the Chief Justice, United States Supreme

Court; Tom C. Clark Judicial Fellow,

Administrative Office of the United States

Courts, 1993-94. B.A., McGill University;

M.A., Brandeis University; J.D., New York

University

Thomas C. Carter, Law Clerk to the Honorable Otto R. Skopil, Jr., United States

Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.

B.S., University of Missouri; J.D., University of Oregon

Jeffrey Jackson, Professor of Law, Mississippi College School of Law; Tom C. Clark

Judicial Fellow & Research Analyst, Long

Range Planning Office, Administrative Office of the United States Courts, 1991-93.

B.A., Haverford College; J.D., University

of Pittsburgh

Stephen P. Johnson, Court planner, writer,

editor. B.A., University of Pennsylvania;

J.D., University of Virginia

Maurice Rosenberg, Harold R. Medina

Professor of Procedural Jurisprudence, Columbia University School of Law. A.B.,

Syracuse University; LL.B., Columbia University; LL.D., University of Vermont

Wendy S. Pachter, Long Range Planning

Attorney, Planning & Technology Division,

Federal Judicial Center, 1992-95. B.A.,

McGill University; Ph.D., University of

Vermont; J.D., Columbia University

Russell R. Wheeler, Deputy Director,

Federal Judicial Center. B.A., Augustana

College; M.A. & Ph.D., University of Chicago
APPENDIX C / PROFILE OF THE LONG RANGE PLANNING COMMITTEE þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

179

Contributors: Individuals

Eleanor D. Acheson, Esq.

Honorable William M. Acker, Jr.

Honorable Louise DeCarl Adler

Beth A. Alpert, Esq.

James K. Archibald, Esq.

Honorable Richard S. Arnold

Nan Aron, Esq.

Ms. Rita Arrington

Honorable Donald C. Ashmanskas

Scott J. Atlas, Esq.

Donald B. Ayer, Esq.

Roxanna Bacon, Esq.

W. Reece Bader, Esq.

Mr. Thomas J. Bak

Professor Thomas E. Baker

Honorable William J. Bauer

Elizabeth B. Bazan, Esq

John M. Beal, Esq.

Robert T. Berendt, Esq.

Honorable Harold Berger

Honorable John W. Bissell

Terree Bowers, Esq.

Honorable Pasco M. Bowman II

Mark W. Braswell, Esq.

Jerome Braun, Esq.

Honorable Stephen Breyer

Brad D. Brian, Esq

Steven A. Brick, Esq.

Honorable Charles L. Brieant, Jr.

Steven Brill, Esq.

Honorable D. Brock Hornby

Honorable Vincent L. Broderick

Robert F. Brown, Esq

Honorable James R. Browning

David R. Bryant, Esq.

Honorable Samuel L. Bufford

Professor Daniel J. Bussel

Honorable Wm. Matthew Byrne, Jr.

Honorable José A. Cabranes

Honorable Edward N. Cahn

Professor Emily Calhoun

Honorable Levin H. Campbell

Denise A. Cardman, Esq.

Honorable Thomas E. Carlson

Professor Paul Carrington

Ralph C. Cavanagh, Esq.

Nancy Chang, Esq.

Professor Erwin Chemerinsky

Benjamin R. Civiletti, Esq.

Honorable Leif M. Clark

Honorable Howell Cobb

Ronald J. Cohen, Esq.

Honorable Avern Cohn

William T. Coleman, Jr., Esq.

Honorable Robert B. Collings

Roxanne Barton Conlin, Esq.

Mr. David L. Cook

Michael A. Cooper, Esq.

Jack Corinblit, Esq.

Miles C. Cortez, Jr., Esq.

Honorable John C. Coughenour

Gene Crescenzi, Esq.

Talbot D'Alemberte, Esq.

Frederick J. Daley, Esq.

Peter W. Davis, Esq.

Jarett B. Decker, Esq.

Mr. Ralph DeLoach

Honorable Gustave Diamond

Donald L. Dotson, Esq.

Dennis J. Drasco, Esq.

Samuel J. Dubbin, Esq.

Lee Smalley Edmon, Esq.
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

180

Mr. David L. Edwards

Honorable G. Thomas Eisele

Mr. Ross Eisenman

Ford Elsaesser, Esq.

Rudy A. Englund, Esq.

Honorable Sam J. Ervin, III

Robert D. Evans, Esq.

Honorable Benson Everett Legg

Andrew M. Federhar, Esq.

Frederick L. Feinstein, Esq.

Nathan B. Feinstein, Esq.

Honorable Lisa Hill Fenning

Fred Fielding, Esq.

Carol H. Fines, Esq.

Professor Owen Fiss

Collins T. Fitzpatrick, Esq.

Mr. Steven Flanders

Mr. Homer C. Floyd

Adrian M. Foley, Jr., Esq.

Honorable J. Owen Forrester

Lawrence J. Fox, Esq.

John P. Frank, Esq.

George H. Fraser, Esq.

Kenneth C. Frazier, Esq.

Burton D. Fretz, Esq.

Professor Leon Friedman

Susan M. Gaddy, Esq.

Kevin R. Gallagher, Esq.

Barry H. Garfinkel, Esq.

Honorable Lloyd D. George

Marcy Goldblum, Esq.

Gerald H. Goldstein, Esq.

Mr. John R. Golmant

Jimmy K. Goodman, Esq.

Honorable Susan P. Graber

Honorable John F. Grady

Mr. John M. Greacen

Mr. E.B. Grebenstein, Jr.

Mark Greenberg, Esq.

Marcia D. Greenberger, Esq.

Robert A. Greenfield, Esq.

Hayden W. Gregory, Esq.

Honorable Thomas F. Griesa

Honorable Joseph R. Grodin

Robert Haberman, Esq.

Joan M. Hall, Esq.

Karen M. Hanchett, Esq.

Professor Milton Handler

Herbert J. Hansell, Esq.

Daniel J. Harrigan, Esq.

Honorable Orrin Hatch

Michael D. Hawkins, Esq.

Dale Hayes, Esq.

Susan Hayes, Esq.

Honorable Carol E. Heckman

Professor Arthur D. Hellman

Thomas A. Henderson, Esq.

Antonia Hernandez, Esq.

Honorable John G. Heyburn II

Honorable Patrick E. Higginbotham

Honorable Irving Hill

Honorable Douglas W. Hillman

Thomas C. Hnatowski, Esq.

William G. Hoerger, Esq.

Edward B. Hoffman, Esq.

Honorable James A. Horn

Ellis J. Horvitz, Esq.

Honorable David W. Houston, III

Professor J. Woodford Howard, Jr.

Seth M. Hufstedler, Esq.

Shirley M. Hufstedler, Esq.

Honorable Procter R. Hug, Jr.

Mr. John M. Hughes

Lee Ann Huntington, Esq.
APPENDIX C / PROFILE OF THE LONG RANGE PLANNING COMMITTEE þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

181

Wendy Jennis, Esq.

Ms. Magdeline E. Jensen

Arthur C. Johnson, Esq.

Honorable Nathaniel R. Jones

Robert L. Jones, III, Esq.

Gregory P. Joseph, Esq.

Andrew J. Kahn, Esq.

Miriam Kass, Esq.

Laura A. Kaster, Esq.

Professor Robert A. Katzmann

Honorable Robert E. Keeton

William L. Keller, Esq.

Donald Kempf, Esq.

Honorable William J. Keys

Loren Kieve, Esq.

Mr. Kenneth R. Kimbrough

Michael Kimerer, Esq.

Professor Lawrence P. King

Honorable Carolyn D. King

Honorable William A. Knox

Honorable Charles P. Kocoras

Jan L. Kodner, Esq.

Richard Kohn, Esq.

Janet S. Kole, Esq.

Edward I. Koren, Esq.

Professor Larry Kramer

Karen M. Kremer, Esq.

Philip A. Lacovara, Esq.

Honorable Thomas D. Lambros

Louise A. LaMothe, Esq.

Honorable Kathryn Landreth

Professor Stephan Landsman

Peter S. Latham, Esq.

Donna H. Lee, Esq.

Douglas A. Lee, Esq.

Mr. Clarence A. Lee, Jr.

Robert E. Lehrer, Esq.

Edward P. Leibensperger, Esq.

Mr. Gregory J. Leonard

Eileen M. Letts, Esq.

Honorable Pierre N. Leval

Barry Levenstam, Esq.

Nathan Lewin, Esq.

Joanne Lewis, Esq.

Lee S. Liberman, Esq.

Roberta D. Liebenberg, Esq.

Professor Carol B. Liebman

Michael Lightfoot, Esq.

Sara D. Lipscomb, Esq.

Harry P. Litman, Esq.

Professsor Rory K. Little

Honorable James K. Logan

Sherman V. Lohn, Esq.

Edwin J. Lopez-Soto, Esq.

Honorable John W. Lungstrum

Barbara M.G. Lynn, Esq.

Ms. Marlene A. Maddalone

Edward W. Madeira, Jr., Esq.

Dr. A. Fletcher Mangum

Honorable Paul Mannes

Honorable Stanley Marcus

Mr. Emerson Markham

John W. Martin, Jr., Esq.

Abel J. Mattos, Esq.

Philip J. Mause, Esq.

Professor Gary M. Maveal

Ms. Cathy A. McCarthy

Thomas J. McDermott, Esq.

Honorable Frank J. McGarr

George F. McGunnigle, Esq.

Honorable Monroe G. McKay

Dr. Judith A. McKenna

M. Margaret McKeown, Esq.

Richard McMillan, Jr., Esq.
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

182

Barry F. McNeill, Esq.

Professor Daniel J. Meador

Honorable L. Ralph Mecham

Honorable Gilbert S. Merritt

Jane Michaels, Esq.

Honorable Paul R. Michel

Judith A. Miller, Esq.

Christine Milliken, Esq.

Robert B. Millner, Esq.

Ms. Diane K. Minnich

Professor Paul J. Mishkin

Mark S. Miskovsky, Esq.

Paul W. Mollica, Esq.

Janice R. Morgan, Esq.

John Morland, Esq.

Alan Morrison, Esq.

Sean Moylan, Esq.

Michael J. Mueller, Esq.

Molly Munger, Esq.

Honorable John A. Mutter

Honorable John F. Nangle

Honorable David A. Nelson

Honorable Jon O. Newman

Honorable Eugene H. Nickerson

Honorable Helen W. Nies

Honorable Donald P. OConnell

Honorable William C. O'Kelley

Honorable Diarmuid F. O'Scannlain

Honorable Louis F. Oberdorfer

Ronald L. Olson, Esq.

Honorable Owen M. Panner

Honorable Robert M. Parker

Thomas E. Patton, Esq.

Honorable John G. Penn

Honorable Ellen A. Peters

Honorable Trudy Huskamp Peterson

Honorable James D. Phillips, Jr.

Honorable S. Jay Plager

L. Steven Platt, Esq.

Richard W. Pogue, Esq.

Honorable Sam C. Pointer, Jr.

Honorable Henry A. Politz

Michael A. Pope, Esq.

Honorable Richard A. Posner

Honorable Philip M. Pro

Professor Doris Marie Provine

John K. Rabiej, Esq.

Mr. Stephen J. Rackmill

Honorable Randall R. Rader

Arthur N. Read, Esq.

Patricia Lee Refo, Esq.

Honorable Stephen Reinhardt

Honorable Charles B. Renfrew

Professor Judith Resnik

Dean Lauren Robel

Charles Robert, Esq.

Honorable Aubrey E. Robinson, Jr.

Honorable Eduardo C. Robreno

Curt N. Rodin, Esq.

Ms. Thomasina V. Rogers

John A. Rogovin, Esq.

Steven O. Rosen, Esq.

Mark D. Rosenbaum, Esq.

Mr. Elliot H. Rosenberg

Marc Rosenblum, Esq.

Professor Thomas D. Rowe, Jr.

Leonard S. Rubenstein, Esq.

Honorable Vanessa Ruiz

Honorable Barefoot Sanders

Ms. Elena Ruth Sassower

Honorable Mary M. Schroeder

John L. Schwabe, Esq.

Honorable William W Schwarzer

Dr. Steven R. Schlesinger
APPENDIX C / PROFILE OF THE LONG RANGE PLANNING COMMITTEE þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

183

Honorable Morey L. Sear

Thomas C. Seawell, Esq.

Honorable Ila Jeanne Sensenich

Norman Sepenuk, Esq.

Honorable Randall T. Shepard

Christine Sherry, Esq.

Karen K. Siegel, Esq.

William K. Slate, Esq.

Honorable Dolores K. Sloviter

Honorable Loren A. Smith

Alan D. Smith, Esq.

Gerald K. Smith, Esq.

Ms. Stephanie Smith

Mr. Kent Snapp

Jerold S. Solovy, Esq.

Joseph A. Sonneman, Esq.

Neil R. Sonnett, Esq.

Honorable Arthur D. Spatt

Mr. David F. Spinelli

Robert D. St. Vrain, Esq.

Larry S. Stewart, Esq.

Mr. David R. Stickman

Honorable Alicemarie H. Stotler

Jim Strain, Esq.

Paul Strauss, Esq.

Stephen D. Susman, Esq.

Francis F. Szczebak, Esq.

Honorable Deanell Reece Tacha

Fredric C. Tausend, Esq.

Steven M. Tevlowitz, Esq.

W. Neill Thomas, III, Esq.

Honorable Gerald B. Tjoflat

C. Steven Tomashefsky, Esq.

Honorable Philip W. Tone

Ms. Linda Tosti-Lane

Joanne L. Tosti-Vasey, Ph.D.

Michael Traynor, Esq.

Honorable Jeffrey Tureck

Professor Gerald F. Uelmen

Dr. Gere Unger

Honorable Bruce M. Van Sickle

Honorable Patricia M. Wald

Honorable John M. Walker, Jr.

Honorable J. Clifford Wallace

H. Scott Wallace, Esq.

Mr. Patrick Walker

Mr. Gregory B. Walters

Honorable J.Q. Warnick, Jr.

Professor Stephen L. Wasby

Ronald F. Waterman, Esq.

Honorable Rodney S. Webb

David C. Weiner, Esq.

Honorable Jack B. Weinstein

Honorable Joseph F. Weis, Jr.

Honorable Harry W. Wellford

H. Thomas Wells, Jr., Esq.

Professor Marianne Wesson

Professor Jay L. Westbrook

Joe R. Whatley, Jr., Esq.

Ms. Catherine J. Whitaker

Robert L. Wiggins, Jr., Esq.

Honorable Ann C. Williams

Honorable Richard L. Williams

Honorable Alfred L. Wilson

Cynthia A. Wilson, Esq.

Lively M. Wilson, Esq.

Honorable William R. Wilson, Jr.

Lee Winston, Esq.

Carolyn B. Witherspoon, Esq.

Richard A. Wolff, Esq.

Honorable Charles R. Wolle

Mr. Donald E. Womack

Honorable Henry Woods

Mr. Don Wortman
þ LONG RANGE PLAN FOR THE FEDERAL COURTS

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

184

Honorable William G. Young

Frances K. Zemans, Esq.

Mr. Markus B. Zimmer

Paul A. Zingg, Esq.

Honorable Rya W. Zobel

Norman E. Zoller, Esq.

Robert T. Zung, Esq.

Contributors: Organizations

American Bar Association Litigation Section,

Subcommittee on Rules Enabling Act

Academy of Rail Labor Attorneys

Administrative Conference of the United States

Age Discrimination Victims Reparations

Registry

Alliance for Justice

American Arbitration Association

American Bankruptcy Institute

American Bar Association

American Civil Liberties Union

American Civil Liberties Union Foundation

American College of Trial Lawyers

American Judges Association

American Judicature Society

American Lawyer Media, L.P.

Arkansas Bar Association

Association of the Bar of the City of New York,

Committee on Legal Issues Affecting People

with Disabilities

Association of the Bar of the City of New York,

Special Committee on Alternative Dispute

Resolution

Association of Trial Lawyers of America

California Rural Legal Assistance, Inc.

California State Bar, Litigation Section, Federal

Practice Committee

Case Advocacy Network
APPENDIX C / PROFILE OF THE LONG RANGE PLANNING COMMITTEE þ

The Judicial Conference of the United States has approved the recommendations and implementation strategies in this Long Range Plan to guide future

administrative action and policy development by the Conference and other judicial branch authorities. All other text in this Plan, including commentary on

individual recommendations and strategies, explains and supplements the approved items but does not necessarily reflect the views of the Conference.

185

Center for Judicial Accountability, Inc.

Chicago Bar Association, Social Security Law

Committee

Chicago Council of Lawyers

Chicago Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights

Under Law, Inc.

Committee on Social Security Law

Conference of Chief Justices

Consortium for Citizens with Disabilities,

Rights Task Force

Council for Court Excellence

D.C. Bar Association/Litigation Committee

Disability Advocacy Program of Western New

York

Farmworkers Support Committee

Federal Administrative Law Judges Conference

Federal Bar Association

Federal Bar Association, Los Angeles Chapter

Federal Judges Association

Federal Magistrate Judges Association

Federal Public Defenders and Community

Defenders

Idaho State Bar

Illinois Trial Lawyers Association

Lawyer Representative Coordinating

Committee, Ninth Circuit Judicial Conference

Lawyers for Civil Justice

Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights Under

Law

Los Angeles County Bar Association

Litigation Section

Los Angeles County Bar Association

Commercial Law and Bankruptcy

Section, Bankruptcy Committee

Maryland Advisory Council for Individuals with

Disabilities

Mexican American Legal Defense and

Educational Fund

Migrant Legal Action Program

National Asian Pacific American Bar

Association

National Association of Attorneys General

National Association of Criminal Defense

Lawyers

National Bankruptcy Conference

National Center for Law & Learning Disabilities

National Employment Lawyers Association

National Legal Aid and Defender Association

National Senior Citizens Law Center

Pennsylvania Human Relations Commission

Pro Se Law Clerks & Staff Attorneys

Association

Public Buildings Service, General Services

Administration

Public Citizen Litigation Group

The Governance Institute

The Legal Aid Society

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