1

The Insular Cases and the Doctrine of the Unincorporated Territory and its Effects on the 

Civil Rights of the Residents of Puerto Rico

Overview Memorandum – Part I

Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights

February 2024

I. Introduction

In July 2022, the Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil 

Rights ("Committee") voted to examine the Insular Cases and the Doctrine of the 

Unincorporated Territory and its effects on the civil rights of the residents of Puerto Rico. To this 

end, the Committee agreed to focus on the following subtopics: (1) voting rights and lack of 

political representation, (2) racial and national discrimination, and (3) access to federal public 

programs. The Committee's plan includes organizing a series of briefings to receive input on 

these issues and publishing a memorandum for each subtopic over the course of its term, 

concluding in a final report with recommendations prepared by the Committee.

On May 10, 2023, the Committee held an in-person briefing to hear testimony focused on an 

overview of the main topic, the Insular Cases and the Doctrine of Unincorporated Territory and 

its effects on the civil rights of the residents of Puerto Rico.1 The Committee invited a variety of 

stakeholders to serve as panelists and prioritized a balance of different perspectives. They heard 

testimony from a historical, academic, and legal perspective and also from community 

representatives of organizations and individuals speaking about their own experiences and those 

of their respective communities. This memorandum is based on those testimonies. The 

Committee also held a virtual briefing on September 14, 2023, as a second part of this overview

phase of the project, which focused on the economic perspective of this topic. Most of that 

testimony will be the main focus of the upcoming memorandum – a second part of the 

overview.2

1 Meeting records and transcripts are available in Appendix A.

Briefing before the Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, May 10, 2023, (Inperson), Transcript (hereinafter cited as “Transcript 1”). 

Briefing before the Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, September 14, 2023, 

(web-based), Transcript (hereinafter cited as “Transcript 2”).

2

In accordance with the theme of each memorandum, the Committee has decided to use additional testimony from

Dr. Iyari Ríos in the second memorandum (upcoming) on economic perspectives. Likewise, it includes testimony 

from Dr. María Enchautegui who participated in the September 2023 virtual panel within this memorandum, since 

her testimony is largely related to public benefits.
2

This memorandum is intended to share the main findings identified in the testimony as they were 

directly described by the panelists, including most of the written testimony. It begins with 

historical context prepared by the Committee shortly after it selected its topic as part of its 

project proposal. It is followed by additional context provided and expanded upon by 

testimonials received. The final section is based on recommendations shared in the testimony. 

The findings and recommendations in this report do not reflect the views of the Committee. The 

Committee's recommendations will be included in this project's final report. The Committee 

offers these findings and its recommendations in order to provide a context to begin evaluating 

and analyzing the impact that the Insular Cases and the Unincorporated Territory Doctrine have 

had on the civil rights of the residents of Puerto Rico from as a foundation for the rest of its 

project.

II. Historical Context

The Treaty of Paris of 1898 sealed the end of the Spanish-American War that same year.3 Spain 

renounced all rights it had over Puerto Rico and ceded its territorial possessions to the United 

States.4 One of the provisions of the Treaty, specifically Article IX, stated that “the civil rights 

and political condition of the natural inhabitants of the territories ceded to the United States shall 

be determined by Congress.”5

The Supreme Court of the United States presided over several controversial cases related to the 

laws Congress enacted for the acquired territories, including the Philippines, Guam, Cuba, and 

Puerto Rico. These cases are referred to as the Insular Cases, in which the Supreme Court has 

articulated a theory of selective application of constitutional rights to newly acquired territories.6

Since the beginning of the 20th century, this series of opinions has declared that full constitutional 

law does not automatically apply in certain territories of the United States because they have not 

been incorporated into the Union.7

In 1900, Congress passed the Foraker Act that transitioned the military government to a civil one 

in Puerto Rico. The legislation affirmed American sovereignty and imposed a local government 

beholden to federal authority in Puerto Rico.8 This included the power to repeal legislation and 

the creation of a government structure that consolidated legislative and executive functions in a 

single body – composed for the majority by mostly non-native inhabitants – that imposed tariffs 

on goods exchanged between Puerto Rico and the United States and defined the limits of territorial 

authority.9

3 Treaty of Paris of 1898 (30 Stat. 1758).

4

Id.

5

Id.

6 See examples: De Lima v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 1 (1901); Goetze v. United States, 182 U.S. 221 (1901); Dooley v. 

United States, 182 U.S. 222 (1901); Dooley v. United States, 183 U.S. 151 (1901); Armstrong v. United States, 182 

U.S. 243 (1901); Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244 (1901); Crossman v. United States, 182 U.S. 221 (1901); Huus v. 

New York and Porto Rico Steamship Co., 182 U.S. 392 (1901); Balzac v. Porto Rico, 258 U.S. 298 (1922).

7

Id.

8 Foraker Act of April 12, 1900, 31 Stat. 77, c. 191, 48 U.S.C. § 731.

9

Id.
3

The Insular Cases have established a constitutional justification for the consolidation of different 

and unequal norms that have determined the indefinite relationship between the territories and the 

United States. These cases also established a political and racial framework that treats its 

inhabitants unequally and without voting representation, subject to the plenary powers of 

Congress under Article IV, Section 3 of the Constitution.10

The Committee will examine the Insular Cases and their continued applications by the Supreme 

Court of the United States and their effects on the civil rights of residents of Puerto Rico, 

beginning with Downes v. Bidwell (1901) to United States v. Vaello Madero (2022).

One of the most notorious Insular Cases, and perhaps most important with respect to Puerto Rico, 

is Downes v. Bidwell.11 The plaintiff argued that Puerto Rico ceased to be a foreign country in 

relation to the United States since the invasion of 1898.12 Therefore, a fifteen percent tariff could 

not be charged on goods from the island since the federal Constitution establishes that taxes and 

tariffs will be uniform in all parts of the United States.13

The Supreme Court decided that the tariff was valid as Puerto Rico belongs to, although it is not 

part of, the United States.14 To support this reasoning, a legal distinction was created by the United 

States Supreme Court based on its interpretation of the territorial clause.15 While incorporated 

territories were already part of the United States, unincorporated territories, such as Puerto Rico 

and Guam, were not.16 This decision recognized Congressional authority over the territory of 

Puerto Rico, allowing for the selective application of constitutional protections.

Associate Justice Edward Douglass White stated the following in his concurring opinion in 

Downes v. Bidwell: "there may nevertheless be restrictions of so fundamental a nature that they 

cannot be transgressed although not expressed in so many words in the Constitution."17 In other 

words, all constitutional clauses that were not reserved for the states would have applied to the 

incorporated territories; however, only the protection of “those rights that are considered 

fundamental” would have applied to unincorporated territories, although the Court failed to define 

what rights those were. White's concurring opinion became the legal justification for the Insular 

Cases.18

Congress passed the Jones-Shafroth Act in 1917, which conferred U.S. citizenship on residents of 

Puerto Rico and changed the government structure. This included the separation of Executive, 

10 U.S. Const. art. IV, § 3.

11 Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244, 244 & n.1 (1901).

12 Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244, 244 & n.1 (1901).

13 Id.

14 Id.

15 U.S. Const. art. IV, § 3.

16 Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244, 244 & n.1 (1901).

17 Id.

18 Id.
4

Legal and Legislative powers; the provision of civil rights to people; and the creation of a locally 

elected bicameral legislature at the local level.

19

 

The decisions made subsequently by the Supreme Court reaffirmed the continued territorial status 

of Puerto Rico. In Balzac v Porto Rico (1922) the Supreme Court decided that, although residents 

of Puerto Rico enjoy statutory citizenship, they are not guaranteed a jury trial in criminal cases as 

would be required under the Fifth Amendment of the United States.20 This opinion exemplifies 

the doctrine of Insular Cases regarding the selective application of constitutional rights to 

territories.

The Insular Cases doctrine and its broad interpretation of Congressional powers makes it possible 

for federal programs and benefits that are applied on the continent to be limited or inapplicable in 

Puerto Rico. This result was recently exemplified in U.S. v. Vaello Madero (2022) which

recognized the Congressional authority to legislate different eligibility criteria in federal programs 

for American citizens residing in Puerto Rico.21 

Furthermore, the Insular Cases doctrine, as recently reaffirmed by Justice Gorsuch in U.S. v. Vaello

Madero, is explicitly racist and discriminatory against residents of Puerto Rico and other territorial 

jurisdictions. The Insular Cases were decided on the grounds of an alleged inherent difference 

between residents of the United States and “alien races.”22 As Justice Gorsuch indicated in his 

concurring opinion in U.S. v. Vaello Madero, “The Insular Cases have no foundation in the 

Constitution and rest instead on racial stereotypes. They deserve no place in our law.”

23

 

The Territorial Doctrine in the Context of Racism in the United States

When evaluating the effects of the Insular Cases on Puerto Rico, it is important to highlight that 

Puerto Rico differs from the other territories due to its significantly larger population size. With a

19 Jones-Shafroth Act, Pub. L. No. 64-368, 39 Stat. 951 (1917), codified as amended at 48 U.S.C. § 731–751.

20 Balzac v. Porto Rico, 258 U.S. 298 (1922).

21 United States v. Vaello Madero, 212 L. Ed. 2d 496, 142 S. Ct. 1539 (2022).

22 Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244, 244 & n.1 (1901); The Committee would like to highlight the following quote 

from Downes v. Bidwell (1901) that reiterates the alleged inherent differences between United States residents and 

“alien races”: If those possessions are inhabited by alien races, differing from us in religion, customs, laws, methods 

of taxation, and modes of thought, the administration of government and justice according to Anglo-Saxon 

principles may for a time be impossible, and the question at once arises whether large concessions ought not to be 

made for a time, that ultimately our own theories may be carried out and the blessings of a free government under 

the Constitution extended to them. We decline to hold that there is anything in the Constitution to forbid such action. 

These cases are part of a broader jurisprudence framework that institutionalized doctrines such as “separated but 

equal,”, chastised by civil rights advocates.”

23 United States v. Vaello Madero, 212 L. Ed. 2d 496, 142 S. Ct. 1539 (2022).
5

population of over 3.2 million residents, which is larger than at least 20 U.S. states,24 its status as 

a territory hinders its full access to rights and resources.25

For Panelist Sam C. Erman, law professor at the University of Michigan, the origins of the 

Insular Cases date back to the U.S. annexation of Puerto Rico and the Philippines after the 

conclusion of the Spanish-American War.26 Dr. Erman explained that the U.S. authorities viewed 

Filipinos as racially degraded people who should not receive U.S. citizenship or full 

constitutional rights.27 This idea clashed with the constitutional principles of the time as agreed 

by what Dr. Erman calls the “Constitution of Reconstruction.”

28 These principles stated that 

Americans who were not American Indians were American citizens, all American lands were or 

would become states, and the Constitution applied in its entirety wherever the borders of the 

United States extended.29 If these applied to the Philippines, then Filipinos were full-fledged 

American citizens who would participate in the national government when the Philippines 

became a state.30 To avoid this, the American authorities invented a new constitutional theory 

that is known today as the doctrine of territorial non-incorporation.

31 Its purpose was to deny 

statehood, rights, and citizenship to Americans whom the U.S. authorities considered racially 

inferior and marked unincorporated territories as disadvantaged spaces and their residents as 

disadvantaged peoples, using terms such as "foreign races" and "savage tribes" to describe the 

people in the territories.32

Other panelists argued that the Insular Cases were used to legitimize colonialism and create the 

legal framework to govern the territory, based on anachronistic concepts, since several of the 

24 Governor Pedro Pierluisi, Governor of Puerto Rico, Written Statement submitted for Puerto Rico Advisory 

Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights Briefing, May 10, 2023, p. 3 (cited herein after as 

Pierluisi statement); See also: Puerto Rico Report. “The Population of Puerto Rico Exceeds the Populations of 20 

States.” https://www.puertoricoreport.com/population-puerto-rico-exceeds-populations-21-

states/#:~:text=This%20puts%20Puerto%20Rico%E2%80%99s%20population%20among%20U.S.%20States,all%2

0the%20other%20U.S.%20territories%2C%20and%20Washington%2C%20D.C (accessed November 3, 2023); See 

also: U.S. Census Bureau. “Quick Facts, Puerto Rico.” Population estimates as of July 2023. 

https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/PR/PST045222 (accessed February 15, 2024).

25Administrative Note: The U.S. Commission on Civil Rights (USCCR) has revised this paragraph from its original 

version published on February 12, 2024 that referenced panelist Gregorio Igartúa’s testimony on Puerto Rico being 

the only territory that meets the criteria to become a state due to its population. (See: Gregorio Igartúa, testimony. 

Public Briefing before the Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights, Hato 

Rey, PR, May 10, 2023, transcript. p. 12, 16 – p. 13, 7.) USCCR notes that there is currently no single process for 

state admission and the U.S. Congress has discretion on admission of states per Article IV, Section 3 of the U.S. 

Constitution.

26 Sam C. Erman, testimony. Public Briefing before the Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United States 

Commission on Civil Rights, Hato Rey, PR, May 10, 2023, transcript. p. 20, 7-11 (hereinafter cited as Hato Rey 

Briefing, Transcript 1).

27 Erman Testimony, Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1, p. 20, 12-18. 

28 Erman Testimony, Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1, p. 20, 23 – p. 21, 3.

29 Erman Testimony, Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 21, 1-11.

30 Erman Testimony, Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1, p. 21, 12-17.

31 Erman Testimony, Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1, p. 21, 18-22.

32 Erman Testimony, Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1, p. 24, 19 - p. 25, 3; See also: Anita Teekah, Chief of 

Advocacy, and Lia Fiol-Matta, Senior Counsel, LatinoJustice PRLDEF, Written Statement submitted for Puerto Rico 

Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights Briefing, May 10, 2023 (cited herein after as 

Teekah and Fiol-Matta statement).
6

judges who participated in the Downes v. Bidwell also participated in the Plessy v. Ferguson 

decision, which established the discriminatory practice in the United States of treating people 

“separate, but equal.”33 This group of opinions produced by the Supreme Court between 1901 

and 1922 articulated and consolidated the doctrine of unincorporated territories, allowing a 

selective application of constitutional rights that are considered fundamental.34

Having acquired Puerto Rico and other jurisdictions following the conclusion of the SpanishAmerican War, the United States decided to incorporate the new territories as its property but did 

not apply the Constitution in its entirety based on the Downes v. Bidwell decision, in which it 

was established that there could be incorporated and unincorporated territories.35 Panelist Charles 

Venator Santiago, Professor of Political Science at the University of Connecticut, commented 

that “although some fundamental rights are recognized for the residents of Puerto Rico, those 

fundamental rights are not defined, and it will be a historic process of determining which ones 

will be applied. There is a selective application of the Constitution.”36 Furthermore, Dr. Venator 

Santiago mentioned that Downes v. Bidwell creates contradictions that have not yet been resolved 

by establishing that an annexed territory can be governed as an external territory when 

convenient.37 Among the reasons given in Downes v. Bidwell for not applying the Constitution in 

its entirety in these new territories, it was believed that this would not be appropriate for “distant 

ocean communities of a different origin and language from those of our continental people.”

38 In 

additional testimony received by the Committee, it was also stated that it is important to take 

note that Judge Henry Brown wrote in the decision that Puerto Ricans are “foreign to the United 

States in a domestic sense.”39 This doctrine changed the trajectory of the territories because, prior 

to the Insular Cases, all the territories had followed a process towards statehood, and being a 

33 Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244, 244 & n.1 (1901); See also: Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896); See also: 

Efrén Rivera Ramos, testimony. Public Briefing before the Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United States 

Commission on Civil Rights, Hato Rey, PR, May 10, 2023, transcript. p. 36, 8-25 (hereinafter cited as Hato Rey 

Hearing, Transcript 1); See also: Igartúa testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1, p. 15, lines 10-18.

34 Córdova, Andrés L. “Puerto Rico and the Politics of Political Identity”. The Hill. July 29, 2017. 

https://thehill.com/blogs/congress-blog/politics/344362-puerto-rico-and-the-politics-of-legal-identity (Consultado el 

18 de octubre de 2023).

35 Treaty of Paris of 1898 (30 Stat. 1758); See also: Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244, 244 & n.1 (1901); See also: 

Erman, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcription 1. p. 21, 18 - p. 22, 4; See also: George H. Laws García, 

testimony. Public Briefing before the Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil 

Rights, Hato Rey, PR, May 10, 2023, transcript p. 285, 10-23 (cited herein after as Hato Rey, Transcript 1); See also: 

Igartúa, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 14, 23-25; See also: Erman, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, 

Transcript 1. p. 23, 6 - p. 24, 8.

36 Charles Venator Santiago, testimony. Public Briefing before the Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United 

States Commission on Civil Rights, Hato Rey, PR, May 10, 2023, transcript. p. 48, 25 - p. 49, 19 (cited herein after 

as Hato Rey, Transcript 1).

37 Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244, 244 & n.1 (1901); See also: Venator Santiago, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, 

Transcript 1. p. 49, 20 - p. 50, 5.

38 Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244, 244 & n.1 (1901); See also: Omar Marrero Díaz, Esq., Secretary of State, 

Department of State of the Government of Puerto Rico. Written Statement submitted for Puerto Rico Advisory 

Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights Briefing, May 10, 2023 (cited herein after as Marrero 

Díaz statement).

39 Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244, 244 & n.1 (1901); See also: Nathaniel Morrell González, Secretary, National 

Puerto Rican Equality Coalition, Written Statement submitted for Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United 

States Commission on Civil Rights Briefing, May 10, 2023, p. 2. (cited herein after as Morrell González statement).
7

territory was considered a transitory status.40 It also allowed the United States to have control 

over the territory without establishing a path towards statehood in the future.41 There is no text 

within the United States Constitution that supports the doctrine, and it is predicated on an ethnic 

and racial distinction that Puerto Ricans are political subjects who do not deserve the full 

protection of rights in the Constitution.42

The Balzac v. Porto Rico Case

Another of the Insular Cases, Balzac v. Porto Rico, reiterates that the right to a jury trial within 

the Sixth Amendment of the Constitution does not apply to unincorporated territories.

43 Panelist 

Francisco Ortiz Santini, Professor at the University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, 

explained that the Balzac case, which originates in a dispute over control of the mayor's office of 

Arecibo and has its origin in two articles published by Jesús María Balzac, editor of the 

newspaper El Baluarte who criticized the governor of that time, and this led to him being 

accused of criminal libel.44 For Dr. Ortiz Santini, this decision is an example that for the 

Supreme Court, locality was more important in considerations of how to apply the Constitution 

than the fact that the affected people were U.S. citizens.45 This case reiterates that providing 

citizenship does not change the unincorporated status in Puerto Rico politics.46 The irony of this, 

as Dr. Venator Santiago pointed out in his testimony, is that the case of Balzac v. Porto Rico

applies the doctrine of the Insular Cases to a territory with citizens, although it had originally 

been designed to govern territories without citizens, and despite this dichotomy, it is still in 

force.47

Role of the Constitution

Protected by the Territorial Clause, the U.S. federal government exercised its power to authorize 

the territorial legislature in Puerto Rico to convene the residents of the island to draft and 

40 Laws García, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 284, 24 - p. 285, 9; See also: Lopez-Morales, C. A. 

“Making the Constitutional Case for decolonization: Reclaiming the Original Meaning of the Territory Clause.” 

Columbia Human Rights Law Review. https://blogs.law.columbia.edu/hrlr/files/2022/04/Making-the-ConstitutionalCase-for-Decolonization-Cesar-A.-Lopez-Morales.pdf (Accessed December 18, 2023); See also: Igartúa, testimony. 

Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 12, 25 - 13, 6.

41 U.S. Const. art. IV, § 3; See also: Iyari Ríos González, testimony. Public Briefing before the Puerto Rico Advisory 

Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights, Hato Rey, PR, May 10, 2023, transcript p. p. 139, 6-15. 

(cited herein after as Hato Rey, Transcript 1).

42 Córdova, Andrés L. “A statehood manifesto: After 120 years, the US needs to fully embrace Puerto Rico.” The 

Hill. January 9, 2018. https://thehill.com/opinion/civil-rights/368128-a-statehood-manifesto-after-120-years-the-usneeds-to-fully-embrace (Accessed October 18, 2023).

43 Balzac v. Porto Rico, 258 U.S. 298 (1922).

44 Francisco Ortiz Santini, testimony. Public Briefing before the Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United 

States Commission on Civil Rights, Hato Rey, PR, May 10, 2023, transcript p. 31, 5 - p. 32, 4 (cited herein after as 

Hato Rey, Transcript 1).

45 Ortiz Santini, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 34, 6-12.

46 Córdova, Andrés L. “A statehood manifesto: After 120 years, the US needs to fully embrace Puerto Rico.” The 

Hill. January 9, 2018. https://thehill.com/opinion/civil-rights/368128-a-statehood-manifesto-after-120-years-the-usneeds-to-fully-embrace (Accessed October 18, 2023).

47 Venator Santiago, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 51, 1-12.
8

approve a constitution while reserving the right to give final approval of said constitution.48

When Puerto Rico approved its Constitution through a plebiscite in 1952, it did not come into 

effect until it was approved by Congress and the President of the United States.49 Although

Congress approved the Constitution, it amended it significantly, for example, removing Section 

20 of Article II, which established the right to work, an adequate standard of living, and social 

protection in old age or disease.50 This was the version that President Truman signed, and that the 

local legislature in Puerto Rico ratified.51 This local Constitution gave Puerto Rico the same level 

of autonomy over its jurisdiction as a state; however, the actions taken by Congress and the 

President demonstrated that Puerto Rico remained under the authority of Congress and received 

differential treatment from it.52

The power of Congress to selectively apply the Constitution and have control over local 

government has influenced arguments that the Constitution should be interpreted as a 'living' 

document, in which rights should be applied using current standards and not based on outdated 

decisions.53

III. Preliminary Findings

FINDING I - Panelists pointed to a colonial relationship between the United States 

government and Puerto Rico.

Colonial Relationship between Puerto Rico and the United States

Among the arguments provided by the panelists, testimony about the colonial relationship 

between Puerto Rico and the United States stood out as one of the main problems facing Puerto 

Rico, and they highlighted the fact that several constitutional rights do not extend to the island.54

Panelist Rafael Rodríguez, a lawyer at the Community Legal Office, Inc., stated that the fact that 

Puerto Rico a territory in itself constitutes its position as a colony, and argued that the colonies 

“have never been made so that they have all the corresponding benefits; however, they have been 

made to respond to the interests of the metropolis.”55 This idea that the colony benefits the entity 

with the power in the relationship is shared by Dr. Venator Santiago, who described two types of 

48 Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act. Pub.L. 81-600.

49 Id.

50 PR Const art II § 20, By Resolution number 34, approved by the Constitutional Convention and ratified in the 

Referendum held on November 4, 1962, section 20 of article II was eliminat

51 Id; See also: Pinto Lugo, Rene. “Puerto Ricans: The Inequality of “Equals” Through Time.” Law Review of the 

Universidad Interamericana de Puerto Rico. https://www.derecho.inter.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/PUERTORICANS-THE-INEQUALITY-OF-EQUALS-THROUGH-TIME-.pdf (Accessed November 1, 2023).

52 Marrero Diaz, Written Statement. p. 4-5.

53 Pinto Lugo, Rene. “Puerto Ricans: The Inequality of “Equals” Through Time.” Law Review of the Universidad 

Interamericana de Puerto Rico. https://www.derecho.inter.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/PUERTO-RICANSTHE-INEQUALITY-OF-EQUALS-THROUGH-TIME-.pdf (accessed November 1, 2023).

54 Rivera Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 40, 15-21.

55 Rafael E. Rodriguez Rivera, testimony. Public Briefing before the Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United 

States Commission on Civil Rights, Hato Rey, PR, May 10, 2023, transcript p. p. 175, 1-9 (cited herein after as Hato 

Rey, Transcript 1);
9

colonization in the 19th century – one based on expansionism that, after annexing the territory, 

organizes it and acquires it; and the other type that is based on imperialism, and uses the territory 

strategically to obtain economic and military benefit.56 The irony in the case of Puerto Rico and 

the United States is that the United States is based on the idea that the government derives power 

from those it governs as part of a social contract, and because of this, it has been a global 

example of democracy.57 However, these ideals have not materialized in the relationship between 

the United States and Puerto Rico. Panelist George H. Laws García, director of the Puerto Rico 

Statehood Council, commented that “unfortunately for 125 of those years, the United States 

government has not fulfilled the promise of government by consent in Puerto Rico, denying the 

residents of the island the right to vote at the federal level. This discrimination and political 

exclusion against the 3.1 million American citizens in Puerto Rico has its roots in the legal 

doctrine established by the so-called Insular Cases at the beginning of the 20th century.”58

Several panelists highlighted that these arguments have been validated by the United Nations and 

the treatment that Puerto Rico has received from the Supreme Court. Mr. Rodríguez shared that 

United Nations representatives commented during a visit to Puerto Rico that the populations of 

the territories are separate and distinct and have the right to self-determination.59 The United 

Nations agreed that “Puerto Rico is being controlled by an overseas colonial power to the 

detriment of its people, without any significant representation at the national level and without 

real capacity to govern itself as a non-self-governing territory, in the international sense.”

60 As 

for the Supreme Court, in deciding that rights can be applied selectively, Mr. Laws García

believes that it has allowed “systematic discrimination against the residents of the island as the 

indefinite perpetuation of a system of government where there is a clear democratic deficit that 

directly contradicts the fundamental principles of the American democratic system.”61

Civil society and political participation

The Committee heard arguments about the instability that this colonial relationship creates and 

the negative effects it has had on civic participation in Puerto Rico. “Puerto Rican communities 

fighting more and more for their empowerment and sustainable development,” said Adi Martínez 

Román, law professor and Co-Founder and Co-Director of the organization Right to Democracy 

in her public comment, “The government does not attend to their needs” and this does not allow 

people to have a direct role in determining their situation.62 This limitation extends from the 

56 Venator Santiago, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 44, 18 - p. 45, 5.

57 Laws García, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, p. 283, 13 - p. 284, 12.

58 Laws García, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, p. 283, 13 - p. 284, 12.

59 Rodríguez Rivera, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing. p. 155, 7 - p. 156, 4.

60 Ibid; See also: Human Rights Council. “Report of the Special Rapporteur on minority issues, Fernand de 

Varennes, on his visit to the United States of America.” https://www.splcenter.org/sites/default/files/report-unspecial-rapporteur-minority-issues-march-2022.pdf (Accessed November 7, 2023).

61 Laws García, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 285, 24 - p. 286, 10.

62 Adi Martínez Román, Co-Founder and Co-Director, Right to Democracy, Public Comment for Puerto Rico 

Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights Briefing, Hato Rey, PR May 10, 2023, p. 322, 

25 - p. 323, 6 (cited herein after as Martínez Román statement).: See also: Martínez Román, public comment. Hato 

Rey Briefing, Transcript 1, p. 323, 25 - p. 324, 5.
10

community level to the leadership of local government agencies. Edison Avilés Deliz, President 

of the Public Service Regulatory Board in Puerto Rico, submitted written testimony which said 

that “the lack of effective political participation at all levels of government of the residents of 

Puerto Rico not only greatly hinders our management, but delays our impact. Maintaining these 

discrepancies or rationalizing inferior treatment arbitrarily restricts our ability to fully develop 

within the United States.”63 Furthermore, Director Avilés Deliz cited the preamble of the InterAmerican Democratic Charter of the Organization of American States, an international, regional 

organization to which the United States belongs, and emphasized the declaration that 

“democracy is essential for social, political, and economic development of the peoples of the 

Americas.”64

The limitations imposed by the colonial relationship extend inequality in access and 

implementation of health programs, public education, and environmental protection, according to 

Dr. Michael González Cruz, Professor at the University of Puerto Rico, who shared a public 

comment and written testimony with the Committee.65 Additionally, Dr. González Cruz referred

to the plebiscite of November 6, 2012, when the majority of voters voted that they did not want 

to continue with the current territorial status of Puerto Rico.66 “Failure to comply with the will of 

the citizenry as expressed in a duly convened and held referendum constitutes a violation of the 

civil, constitutional, and human rights of the Puerto Rican electorate,” said González Cruz.67

According to Panelist Efré n Rivera Ramos, Law Professor at the University of Puerto Rico, Río 

Piedras Campus, this non-compliance is part of a political problem that could be resolved if the 

United States wanted.68

FINDING II - The testimony indicates that Puerto Rico has lived under unequal and 

discriminatory treatment by the United States government.

Several panelists shared that the fact that Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory has left the 

island in a state of limbo, and this has been an excuse that the United States Congress has used to 

not address civil rights or the political status of Puerto Rico in full.69 Yet, as American citizens, 

residents of Puerto Rico do not have many guaranteed civil rights, including the right to vote 

federally, nor do they have representation in Congress with voting power, which results in 

63 Edison Avilés Deliz, President, Public Service Regulatory Board of the Government of Puerto Rico, Written 

Statement submitted for Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights 

Briefing, May 10, 2023, p. 7 (cited herein after as Avilés Deliz statement).

64 Organization of American States. “Carta Democrática Americana.” 

https://www.oas.org/dil/esp/carta_democratica_interamericana_11sep2001.pdf (accessed November 7, 2023). 

65 Michael González Cruz, Professor, University of Puerto Rico, Written Statement submitted for Puerto Rico 

Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights Briefing, May 10, 2023, p. 2 (cited herein 

after as González Cruz statement).

66 Comisión Estatal de Elecciones. “Condición Política Territorial Actual.” 

http://168.62.166.179/eg2012/REYDI_Escrutinio/index.html#es/default/CONDICION_POLITICA_TERRITORIAL

_ACTUAL_ISLA.xml (Accessed November 2, 2023); See also: González Cruz, Written Statement, p. 2.

67 González Cruz, Written Statement, p. 2.

68 Rivera Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 42, 17-25.

69 Laws García, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 287, 1 - p. 288, 5.
11

unequal treatment between citizens living in the states and those who live on the island.70

According to Mr. Laws García, “This represents a fundamental democratic deficit because the 

residents of Puerto Rico are subject to the laws passed by Congress, the decisions of the Supreme 

Court, and the actions and public policy established by the president without being able to offer 

their consent through suffrage.”71 This creates two levels of discrimination for Puerto Rico –

aside from not being able to practice self-determination, U.S. law continually prevents this from 

happening.72 According to the written testimony submitted by social worker and attorney Hilda 

Sciera, “everything that is unequal or perceived as unfair or unjust is justified by 'status.’”

73

The testimony also attributes this discrimination to the territorial clause, which indicates that 

territory is property.74 This clause has been used as a basis to deny various rights, including equal 

access to federal programs such as nutrition assistance or Medicaid and Medicare, to which a 

different formula applies than to the states.75 The testimony received suggests that a formal plan 

and long-term resources are needed because the current situation has created an environment of 

uncertainty and instability that requires local agencies to adjust their plans and projections 

constantly.76 There can be no intermediate space for Puerto Ricans. Calling them equal citizens 

but, at the same time, treating them differently by limiting their rights is a contradiction and a 

stigma without justification.77

FINDING III - Panelists agreed that the Supreme Court is not the ideal vehicle through 

which to solve the problems caused by the Non-Incorporation Doctrine

The Committee heard testimony that pointed out that the status as a territory under the nonincorporation doctrine has placed Puerto Rico in a unique legal space because it represents the 

history of complex and discriminatory treatment towards the island.78 The non-incorporation 

doctrine treats residents of the territory as “less than” and has been used as an excuse for the 

continuation of colonial status for quite some time, indicating that it is one of the main obstacles 

70 Laws García, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 287, 1 - p. 288, 5; See also: Otoniel Font Nadal, 

testimony. Public Briefing before the Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil 

Rights, Hato Rey, PR, May 10, 2023, transcript p. 202, 24 - p. 203, 9 (cited herein after as Hato Rey, Transcript 1); 

See also: Roberto Ariel Fernández, Written Statement submitted for Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United 

States Commission on Civil Rights Briefing, May 10, 2023, p. 1 (cited herein after as Fernández statement); See 

also: Governor Pierluisi, Written Statement, p. 1.

71 Laws García, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 287, 1 - p. 288, 5.

72 Rodríguez Rivera, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 151, 10-16.

73 Hilda Sciera, Written Statement submitted for Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United States Commission 

on Civil Rights Briefing, May 10, 2023, p. 1 (cited herein after as Sciera statement);

74 U.S. Const. art. IV, § 3.

75 Luis Dávila Pernas, Executive Director, Federal Affairs Administration, Government of Puerto Rico, Public 

Comment for Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights Briefing, Hato Rey, 

PR May 10, 2023, p. 338, 23 - p. 339, 22. (cited herein after as Dávila Pernas public comment). 

76 Avilés Deliz, Written Statement, p. 6.

77 Pinto Lugo, Rene. “Puerto Ricans: The Inequality of “Equals” Through Time.” Law Review of the Universidad 

Interamericana de Puerto Rico. https://www.derecho.inter.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/PUERTO-RICANSTHE-INEQUALITY-OF-EQUALS-THROUGH-TIME-.pdf (accessed November 1, 2023).

78 Erman, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 24, 9-17.
12

to achieving decolonization.79 However, the Supreme Court cites the Insular Cases as legal 

precedent and panelists such as Brig. Gen. Victor Pérez, argued that the Insular Cases should not 

have to be recognized just because they have been a legal norm.80

Dr. Erman commented that the non-incorporation doctrine should have been rejected long ago, 

and that doing so would not present any major disruption to existing law because very little 

depends on the distinction between incorporated and unincorporated territories.81 Regarding 

statehood, the Constitution leaves to Congress the question of when and whether to admit new 

states.82 That has never been a question for the federal courts.83 Other contributions to the 

testimony established that, over time, it has emerged that, regardless of the Insular Cases, most of 

the fundamental rights in the Constitution extend to Puerto Rico, including freedom of speech

and due process of law.84 It is worth mentioning that other constitutional rights, such as the right 

to trial by jury, do not extend to Puerto Rico.85

The United States Congress has unilateral power over the territory and can also modify local 

government within Puerto Rico.86 Mr. Laws García shared an example from 2016, when 

Congress took action at the local level in Puerto Rico and approved the Puerto Rico Oversight 

Management and Economic Stability Act, better known as PROMESA.87 As part of the law, 

Congress established a Fiscal Oversight and Management Board comprised of appointed 

members with authority that allows them to review and determine the conformity of the laws that 

have been passed by the legislature and signed by the Governor with the Fiscal Plan approved by 

the Board, which has further increased what Mr. Laws García calls the democratic deficit.

88

Congress had given the Board the authority to block or nullify any local law that they did not 

believe was consistent with their financial priorities for Puerto Rico, a practice that gives 

extraordinary power to Congress that would not normally apply to a state and serves as another 

example of differential treatment under the Insular Cases.89 Dr. Rivera Ramos commented that 

79 Erman, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1, p. 25, 4-16.

80 Pérez, Brig. Gen. Victor, testimony. Public Briefing before the Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United 

States Commission on Civil Rights, Hato Rey, PR, May 10, 2023, transcript. p. 277, 6-11; Pérez, testimony. Hato 

Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 278, 1-4.

81 Erman, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 25, 22 - p. 26, 15.

82 Erman, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 26, 11-15.

83 U.S. Const. art. IV, § 3; See also: Erman, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 25, 22 - p. 26, 15.

84 Judicial Branch of Puerto Rico. “About the Judicial Branch.” https://poderjudicial.pr/eng/communityeducation/legal-topics/rights-and-duties/our-rights/ (accessed October 27, 2023); See also: Rivera Ramos, testimony. 

Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 39, 2-21.

85 Judicial Branch of Puerto Rico. “About the Judicial Branch.” https://poderjudicial.pr/eng/communityeducation/legal-topics/rights-and-duties/our-rights/ (accessed October 27, 2023); See also: Rivera Ramos, testimony. 

Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 55, 17-20.

86 U.S. Const. art. IV, § 3; See also: Laws García, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 288, 5-21.

87 48 U.S.C Chapter 20; See also: Laws García, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 288, 5-21.

88 48 U.S.C. § 2121(e)(2)(A); See also: 48 U.S.C. § 2128(a); See also: 48 U.S.C. § 2142(d)(1)(B); See also: 48 

U.S.C. § 2144(a)(5); See also: Pierluisi v. Financial Oversight & Management Board for Puerto Rico, No. 21-1071 

(1st Cir. 2022); See also: Laws García, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 288, 5-21.

89 48 U.S.C. Chapter 20; Marrero Diaz, Written Statement, p. 6.
13

Congress has used this power to discriminate against Puerto Rico, especially regarding public 

benefits.90

FINDING IV - The Committee heard testimony regarding the contradictions in the U.S.

citizenship of residents of Puerto Rico.

Although the residents of Puerto Rico are American citizens, this citizenship holds various 

contradictions and interpretations resulting from the Insular Cases. Dr. Venator Santiago 

commented that although the Supreme Court treats Puerto Rico as an external territory, “foreign 

in a domestic sense,” Congress has determined that being born in Puerto Rico after 1940 is being 

born in the United States - “In other words, citizenship by birth in an external territory, a

contradiction.”91 In 1917, Congress collectively naturalized the residents of Puerto Rico.92 Later, 

in 1940, Congress provided in the Immigration and Nationality Act that all persons born in 

Puerto Rico between the date of ratification of the Treaty of Paris in 1899 and January 12, 1941, 

were retroactively converted into citizens of the United States and that anyone born after January 

13, 1941, would be a citizen of the United States at birth.93 Before the Treaty of Paris, residents 

of Puerto Rico were citizens of Spain and could vote for their representatives there.94 The Treaty 

had no provision for the transfer of United States citizenship to Puerto Ricans; it did not specify 

the relationship they were going to have with the federal government.95

Dr. Erman explained that the Supreme Court has never taken a formal position on this issue – it 

has not answered whether birth in an unincorporated United States territory guarantees 

citizenship under the Constitution.96 Dr. Erman continued that Congress has granted citizenship 

based on place of birth in the United States territories (with the exception of American Samoa), 

and it is unclear whether local birth makes one a U.S. citizen or a U.S. national without 

citizenship.97 Furthermore, he proposed that this can be resolved by abandoning the doctrine of 

non-incorporation.98 Panelist José Julián Álvarez González, Professor at the School of Law at the 

90 Rivera Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 40, 2-14.

91 Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244, 244 & n.1 (1901); See also: Nationality Act of 1940, P.L. 76-853; 54 Stat. 1137; 

See also: Venator Santiago, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 67, 9-19.

92 Jones-Shafroth Act, Pub. L. No. 64-368, 39 Stat. 951 (1917), codified as amended at 48 U.S.C. § 731–751; See 

also: Venator Santiago, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 50, 22-25.

93 Nationality Act of 1940, P.L. 76-853; 54 Stat. 1137; See also: Álvarez González, José Julián, testimony. Public 

Briefing before the Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights, Hato Rey, PR, 

May 10, 2023, transcript p.128, 20 - p. 129, 5 (cited herein after as Hato Rey, Transcript 1); See also: Dennis 

Freytes, Written Statement submitted for Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on 

Civil Rights Briefing, May 10, 2023, p. 7 (cited herein after as Freytes statement).

94 Marrero Diaz, Written Statement, p. 2. Note from the Committee: Before the Treaty of Paris, residents of Puerto 

Rico born in Spain were considered citizens of Spain. When the Treaty of Paris was implemented, they had the 

option to declare their allegiance to Spain (“opt-in”) and those who did not opt for this automatically renounced it 

and adopted the nationality of the territory (“opt-out”). See Treaty of Paris of 1898 (30 Stat. 1758), Article IX.

95 Treaty of Paris of 1898 (30 Stat. 1758); Marrero Diaz, Written Statement, p. 2. Note from the Committee: The

Treaty of Paris did not have a provision for residents of Puerto Rico to opt for U.S. citizenship.

96 Erman, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 26, 16-22.

97 Erman, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 27, 2-12.

98 Ibid.
14

University of Puerto Rico, supports an idea related to the fact that the United States citizenship 

of those born in Puerto Rico comes from the laws that have granted it and not from the 14th 

Amendment. Under the principles established in the Insular Cases, those born in Puerto Rico 

were not born in the United States.99 Other testimony received in writing indicates that the only 

way to have all rights permanently is under the 14th Amendment to the Constitution, which does 

not mention the territories.100 In the case Rogers v. Bellei 401 US 815 (1970), it was decided that 

even if citizenship were to be granted on a statutory basis as an extension of the 14th 

Amendment, this would also be under the discretion of Congress.101 The other way that 

citizenship can be conferred would be under a status determined by Congress, which occurred in

Puerto Rico under 8 USC § 1402 that established that all persons born in Puerto Rico on or after 

April 11, 1899, and before January 13, 1941 would be declared citizens of the United States as of 

January 13, 1941.

102

Regarding whether imposing Compulsory Military Service on American citizens of Puerto Rico 

constitutes a violation of their civil rights, Dr. Rivera Ramos stated, “If you accept the 

legitimacy, validity, etc., of the doctrine established by the Insular Cases, what has been said 

about the power of Congress under the ‘Territorial Clause,’ it can be concluded that under its full 

powers, Congress can establish mandatory military service in Puerto Rico. I go further, it is 

possible that it could also be said that it could be established only for Puerto Rico under the 

‘Territorial Clause.’”

103

These contradictions that exist in the citizenship of the residents of Puerto Rico extend to the 

right to vote, a topic that the Committee will study in more depth in the near future as part of this 

project. However, it is relevant to mention that although residents of Puerto Rico are subject to 

federal laws without being able to participate in the federal legislative process, they can only 

exercise their right to vote at the federal level when they live permanently in a state, but not in 

Puerto Rico due to its status as a territory.104 Furthermore, Puerto Rico only has one 

representative in Congress – the Resident Commissioner who cannot vote, even though they

represent a population of more than 3 million people.105 This population is larger than 20 states 

and there are other members of Congress with full authority who represent significantly smaller 

populations.106 Only an amendment at the constitutional level could allow Puerto Ricans to vote 

99 Álvarez González, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 132, 12-22.

100 Freytes, Written Statement, p. 2.

101 Rogers v. Bellei 401 U.S. 815 (1970); See also: Freytes Written Statement, p. 6. 

102 8 USC § 1402; See also: Freytes Written Statement, p. 6.

103 Rivera Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 94, 6-16.

104 U.S. Const. art. IV, § 3; See also: Pinto Lugo, Rene. “Puerto Ricans: The Inequality of “Equals” Through Time.” 

Law Review of the Universidad Interamericana de Puerto Rico. https://www.derecho.inter.edu/wpcontent/uploads/2022/01/PUERTO-RICANS-THE-INEQUALITY-OF-EQUALS-THROUGH-TIME-.pdf (accessed 

November 1, 2023).

105 U.S. Const. art. IV, § 3; See also: Governor Pierluisi, Written Statement, p. 3. 

106 Governor Pierluisi, Written Statement, p. 3; See also: Puerto Rico Report. “The Population of Puerto Rico 

Exceeds the Populations of 20 States.” https://www.puertoricoreport.com/population-puerto-rico-exceedspopulations-21-

states/#:~:text=This%20puts%20Puerto%20Rico%E2%80%99s%20population%20among%20U.S.%20States,all%2

0the%20other%20U.S.%20territories%2C%20and%20Washington%2C%20D.C (accessed November 3, 2023).
15

in a presidential election, which Professor Álvarez González described in his testimony as 

something very difficult to achieve.107

FINDING V – Throughout the testimony, the Committee heard about the significant

impact that Puerto Rico’s status as an unincorporated territory has had on the limited 

access to social welfare programs.

Experience of José A. Hernández

The Committee heard the testimony of José A. Hernández, a member of the Board of Directors 

of the organization Movement for the Attainment of Independent Living, who shared his 

experience as a person with a physical disability in need of federal assistance programs when he 

lived temporarily in Florida after Hurricane Marí a. Mr. Hernández experienced firsthand the 

differential treatment towards Puerto Rico residents when it came to accessing public benefits. 

Within the first month of being in Florida, Mr. Hernández was able to seamlessly enroll in 

several programs including Medicare (including his choice of a new Medicare Advantage Plan), 

Medicare drug savings programs provided by funds from the supplemental assistance program, 

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), and gained access to group transportation 

services for people with physical disabilities.108

However, upon returning to Puerto Rico after the federal government ended a housing waiver for 

Puerto Ricans affected by the hurricane emergency that included seeking alternative housing in 

the states, Mr. Hernández had to re-register for all the services he had before leaving.109 He 

explained that the Social Security Administration required him to report when he was back in 

Puerto Rico because if he didn’t do so, it would be considered a violation.110 Upon his return to 

Puerto Rico, Mr. Hernández had to follow the re-registration process for each program 

individually, and he lost access to the transportation service.111 The process of accessing his 

medical services again and returning to his routine took him between six to twelve months, 

which caused his vulnerable health condition to worsen.112 Mr. Hernández described receiving 

107 Álvarez González, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p.190, 19 - p. 191, 2.

108 José A. Hernández, testimony. Public Briefing before the Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United States 

Commission on Civil Rights, Hato Rey, PR, May 10, 2023, transcript. p. 101, 24 - p. 102, 18 (cited herein after as 

Hato Rey, Transcript 1).

109 Federal Emergency Management Agency. “FEMA provides update on status of Transitional Sheltering Assistance 

as program deadline nears.” https://www.fema.gov/press-release/20230425/fema-provides-update-statustransitional-sheltering-assistance-program (accessed October 31, 2023).

110 Hernández, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1, p. 109, 13-22; See also: “How do I report a change of 

name or address to Medicare?” U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. December 8, 2022. 

https://www.hhs.gov/answers/medicare-and-medicaid/how-do-i-change-my-name-or-address-withmedicare/index.html (accessed January 25, 2024); See also: “Reporting Changes is Your Responsibility.” Social 

Security Matters. November 6, 2023. https://blog.ssa.gov/reporting-changes-is-your-responsibility/ (accessed 

January 25, 2023).

111 Hernández, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1, p. 109, 6 - p. 110, 10; See also: Hernández, testimony. 

Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 103, 12 - 104, 23.

112 Hernández, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1, p. 103, 12 - 104, 23.
16

unequal treatment after having the experience of accessing medical services in a state and on the 

island.113

Inequality in Federal Social Welfare Programs

Panelist Betzaida Ramos, Director of the organization, Movimiento para el Alcance de Vida 

Independiente (MAVI), based her testimony on a study that was carried out in collaboration with 

the federal agency National Disability Council on the state of the quality of life and resources for 

people with disabilities in Puerto Rico.114 She shared that the study's results prove that there are 

disparities in assistance programs such as Medicaid, SSI, Medicare, NAP versus SNAP, and 

disaster assistance when comparing Puerto Rico with the states and other territories.115

Additionally, Ms. Ramos explained that the amount of funds allocated to these programs is 

calculated through “block grant” programs, which are appropriated by Congress through 

formulas used for the territories, and these funds are considerably lower than what is allocated to 

the same programs in the states.

116 For example, the investment in Medicaid for a person in 

Puerto Rico is $1,980 annually, while in the United States it is $6,060 annually.117 Similarly, a 

person who receives nutrition assistance (NAP) in Puerto Rico receives, on average, 60 percent 

fewer benefits than those who receive SNAP in the United States.118

Regarding medical benefits, Ms. Ramos stated that there is disparate treatment in the Medicare 

program when it comes to the reimbursement rates for providers.119 Ms. Ramos explained that 

the reimbursement rate “is 43 percent below the national average and 26 percent below the US 

Virgin Islands, which shows us the reason why there is a current brain drain of health 

professionals in Puerto Rico.”120 More than 1,000 health professionals have migrated to the 

113 Hernández, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1, p. 108, 7-19.

114 National Council on Disability. “Disparate Treatment of Puerto Rico Residents with Disabilities in Federal 

Programs and Benefits.” https://ncd.gov/publications/2022/disparate-treatment-puerto-rico-residents-disabilitiesfederal-programs (accessed November 6, 2023); See also: Betzaida Ramos, testimonio. Audiencia Pública ante el 

Comité Asesor de Puerto Rico ante la Comisión de Derechos Civiles de los Estados Unidos, Hato Rey, PR, 10 de 

mayo de 2023, transcripción. p. 193 – 201. (citado en adelante como Audiencia Hato Rey, Transcripción 1). 

115 Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p.195, 14 23; See also: National Council on Disability. 

“Disparate Treatment of Puerto Rico Residents with Disabilities in Federal Programs and Benefits.” 

https://ncd.gov/publications/2022/disparate-treatment-puerto-rico-residents-disabilities-federal-programs (accessed 

November 6, 2023); See also: Congressional Research Service. “Community Services Block Grants (CSBG): 

Background and Funding.” https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/RL/RL32872 (accessed November 6, 2023). 

116 Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 196, 6-24.

117 Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1, p.197, 11-21; See also: Medicaid.gov. “State Overviews.” 

https://www.medicaid.gov/state-overviews/index.html (accessed November 2, 2023).

118 Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p.199, 8-16; See also: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. 

“A Brief Overview of Puerto Rico's Nutrition Assistance Program.” https://www.cbpp.org/research/a-briefoverview-of-the-nutrition-assistanceprogram#:~:text=Under%20regular%20NAP%20rules%20%28not%20including%20the%20recent,monthly%20NA

P%20benefits%20in%20March%20through%20June%202019. (accessed November 2, 2023). 

119 Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 200, 2-5.

120 Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript , p. 200, 6-11; See also: National Council on Disability. 

“Disparate Treatment of Puerto Rico Residents with Disabilities in Federal Programs and Benefits.” 
17

mainland in the last five years, leaving the residents of Puerto Rico with disabilities even more 

vulnerable.121

Regarding the Medicaid program, 39 percent of all residents of Puerto Rico receive health 

insurance through the Medicaid program compared to 10 percent in the states, even though 

Puerto Rico receives less federal funding than any state.122 Appropriations for the Medicaid 

program, in part, are calculated using the Federal Medical Assistance Percentage (FMAP) 

formula, which calculates per capita income against the nation's per capita income.123 Although 

this is intended to provide support to the poorest regions, Ms. Ramos explained that in Puerto 

Rico, despite being one of the poorest jurisdictions in the United States, the FMAP has been 

applied below other states and other territories, directly affecting the quality of life of the people 

who most need these resources.124 Panelist José Acaron, Director of AARP Puerto Rico, said that 

a possible reason behind this differential treatment in benefits is that with 3.2 million inhabitants, 

Puerto Rico has a larger population than other territories, and this can influence the costs for 

extend programs in Puerto Rico.125

Another factor that increases the level of inequality is the fact that the Supplemental Security 

Income (SSI) program, which provides financial support to people with low incomes, is not 

available to residents of Puerto Rico.126 In written testimony submitted by Anita Teekah and Lia 

Fiol-Matta of the organization Latino Justice PRLDEF, SSI is available in all 50 states, the 

District of Columbia, and the Mariana Islands, and it is estimated that 436,000 people in Puerto 

Rico can qualify for SSI if not for discriminatory treatment by Congress.127 Furthermore, they 

https://ncd.gov/publications/2022/disparate-treatment-puerto-rico-residents-disabilities-federal-programs (accessed 

November 6, 2023).

121 National Council on Disability. “Disparate Treatment of Puerto Rico Residents with Disabilities in Federal 

Programs and Benefits.” https://ncd.gov/publications/2022/disparate-treatment-puerto-rico-residents-disabilitiesfederal-programs (accessed November 6, 2023).

122 Ibid.

123 Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 197, 22 – p. 198, 1; See also: “...the U.S. territories are 

assigned a permanent FMAP of 50 percent, which was subsequently increased to 55 percent with the Patient 

Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA)... If Medicaid coverage in Puerto Rico was the same as in the states, its 

FMAP rate would be 87 percent.” in National Council on Disability. “Disparate Treatment of Puerto Rico Residents 

with Disabilities in Federal Programs and Benefits.” https://ncd.gov/publications/2022/disparate-treatment-puertorico-residents-disabilities-federal-programs (accessed November 6, 2023). Note from the Committee: The 

Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2023 amends the Social Security Act to increase the FMAP to 76% in Puerto 

Rico until fiscal year 2027. For more information, see: Public Law 117 - 328 - Consolidated Appropriations Act, 

2023; and, Congressional Research Service. “Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023 (P.L. 117-328): Medicaid and 

CHIP Provisions.” https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47821 (accessed December 18, 2023). 

124 Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 197, 22 – p. 198, 20.

125 José Acarón, testimony. Public Briefing before the Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United States 

Commission on Civil Rights, Hato Rey, PR, May 10, 2023, transcript p. 311, 12 – p. 312, 7 (cited herein after as 

Hato Rey, Transcript 1).

126 United States v. Vaello Madero, 596 U.S. ___ (2022); See also: Alex Ortiz, testimony. Public Briefing before the 

Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights, Hato Rey, PR, May 10, 2023, 

transcript p. 227, 18 - p. 228, 7 (cited herein after as Hato Rey, Transcript 1); See also: Lucy Cruz, testimony. Public 

Briefing before the Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights, Hato Rey, PR, 

May 10, 2023, transcript p. p. 221, 14 - p. 222, 2 (cited herein after as Hato Rey, Transcript 1).

127 Teekah and Fiol-Matta, Written Statement, p. 1; See also: Konish, Lorie. “Supreme Court decision may hurt 

Puerto Rico residents who need access to federal disability program, expert says.” CNBC. April 21, 2022. 
18

commented that “While this program was specifically designed to assist those ‘who have little to

no income’ with their basic needs and is intended for those who cannot work and, therefore, do 

not pay federal taxes, this clearly does not extend to those living in Puerto Rico.”128 The Aged, 

Blind, and Disabled Program (AABD), which is similar to SSI, does exist in Puerto Rico but 

provides a minimum amount of assistance compared to what SSI would provide if it were 

available - a person in Puerto Rico would receive 75 dollars per month [with AABD], while in 

the United States, it [the amount received] would be 841 dollars with SSI.129 Panelist Alex Ortiz, 

a military veteran and leader in Puerto Rico's veteran community, explained that this 

disproportionately affects disabled veterans who often need financial supports due to their 

inability to work or the additional costs associated with their disabilities in service to the 

American nation.130

Lack of Access to Supplemental Security Income (SSI)

As part of the written testimony for this project, the Committee also received legal reports on a 

pending case seeking access to SSI from attorney Isabel Abislaimán-Quílez, who represents 

Emanuel Rivera Fuentes through his father, and several individuals in need of SSI assistance as 

an example of the impact of differential treatment and the arguments in favor of expanding SSI 

to Puerto Rico.131 In 2019, Rivera Fuentes, who suffers from severe disabilities due to cerebral 

palsy, went to the Social Security Administration offices in Puerto Rico to apply for SSI and was 

placed on a waiting list. In July of that year, he received a letter with the determination of 

ineligibility saying: “SSI benefit (sic) are not payable in Puerto Rico.”132 Since this case began, 

11 additional people have joined as plaintiffs.133 Notably, this case was delayed waiting for the 

decision in the United case States v. Vaello Madero, 142 S. Ct. 1539 (2022), which also raised 

important questions about equal protection in access to SSI but was rejected by the Supreme 

Court.134

Attorney Abislaimán-Quílez argued that the plaintiffs have a constitutional right to the same 

protections and guarantees as other citizens of the United States, including equality before the 

law and freedom from discrimination by the federal government based on race or ethnicity, and 

since the Constitution applies wherever a citizen is, the rights of the plaintiffs are protected while 

https://www.cnbc.com/2022/04/21/supreme-court-decision-hurts-puerto-ricans-who-need-federal-benefits.html

(accessed October 20, 2023). 

128 Teekah and Fiol-Matta, Written Statement, p. 3; See also: Social Security. “Supplemental Security Income (SSI).

https://www.ssa.gov/ssi/ (accessed October 20, 2023).

129 Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p.199, 18 - p. 200, 1; See also: Benefits.gov. “Assistance in 

Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, and Guam”. https://www.benefits.gov/benefit/632 (accessed October 20, 2023).

130 Ortiz, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 227, 18 - p. 228, 7.

131 Rivera Fuentes, et al. v. Kijakazi, et al., No. 23-1511, U.S. Court of Appeals, 1st Circuit. Brief of PlaintiffsAppellants, Filed June 9, 2023.

132 Id, p. 29-32.

133 Id.

134 United States v. Vaello Madero, 142 S. Ct. 1539 (2022); See also: Rivera Fuentes, et al. v. Kijakazi, et al., No. 23-

1511, U.S. Court of Appeals, 1st Circuit, Brief for Appellees, Filed September 6, 2023, p. 10.
19

in Puerto Rico.135 Attorney Abislaimán-Quílez added that the plaintiffs have natural rights such 

as protecting their life and dignity, among other factors, and SSI has been fundamental in 

protecting the natural rights of people in need, so they should be eligible for this program.136 SSI 

exists to support seniors, people who are blind, and people with disabilities who are eligible 

based on income and other eligibility criteria.

137 As one of these requirements, the individual 

must be a resident of the United States, but for the purposes of SSI, the United States is defined 

in a geographic manner that includes the continental states and the District of Columbia.138

Furthermore, Abislaimán-Quílez argues that the Privileges and Immunities Clause of the 14th 

Amendment places limits on the Territorial Clause because it does not allow a separate category 

of citizens to be formed when Congress establishes statutes that are intended to benefit 

individuals with uniformity at the national level.139 According to the brief, the interpretation that 

the Territorial Clause gives complete power over the territories and their inhabitants is equivalent 

to treating those inhabitants as property at the discretion of Congress, which is only one branch 

of the federal government.140 The Territorial Clause does not describe or stratify different 

categories of territories or citizens.141

As part of the Rivera Fuentes case, the U.S. Department of Justice submitted a brief in 

September 2023 against the expansion of SSI in Puerto Rico. The Department of Justice said that 

participation in SSI is not a privilege of citizenship and agree that the Supreme Court's decision 

was appropriate.142 They explained that residents of the territories (except for the Mariana 

Islands) are not eligible for SSI and anyone who spends 30 consecutive days or more in the 

territories would not receive the benefit for that period.143 Instead, Congress offers the AABD 

program to help the same population, although it does not receive the same level of federal 

funding for this program.144 The difference between the two programs is important since the 

amount of SSI aid increases each year ($914 dollars in January 2023) while in Puerto Rico, the 

135 Rivera Fuentes, et al. v. Kijakazi, et al., No. 23-1511, U.S. Court of Appeals, 1st

. Brief of Plaintiffs-Appellants, 

Filed June 9, 2023. p. 37-38.

136 Id.

137 42 U.S.C. § 1382; See also: Rivera Fuentes, et al. v. Kijakazi, et al., No. 23-1511, U.S. Court of Appeals, 1st

Circuit. Brief for Appellees, Filed September 6, 2023, p. 11.

138 42 U.S.C. § 1382c(a)(1); See also: 42 U.S.C. § 1382c(c)(e); See also: Rivera Fuentes, et al. v. Kijakazi, et al., No. 

23-1511, U.S. Court of Appeals, 1st Circuit. Brief for Appellees, Filed September 6, 2023, p. 11, 12; Note from the 

Committee: There is an exception regarding the geographical definition of the Northern Mariana Islands through the 

Pact that converted them into a territory. For more information, see: Pub. L. No. 94-241, § 502(a)(1), 90 Stat. 263, 

268 (1976) (codified at 48 U.S.C. § 1801).

139 U.S. Const. amend. XIV, § 1; See also: U.S. Const. art. IV, § 3; See also: Rivera Fuentes, et al. v. Kijakazi, et al., 

No. 23-1511, U.S. Court of Appeals, 1st Circuit. Brief of Plaintiffs-Appellants, Filed June 9, 2023. p. 38.

140 Rivera Fuentes, et al. v. Kijakazi, et al., No. 23-1511, U.S. Court of Appeals, 1st Circuit. Brief of PlaintiffsAppellants, Filed June 9, 2023, p. 57.

141 Rivera Fuentes, et al. v. Kijakazi, et al., No. 23-1511, U.S. Court of Appeals, 1st Circuit. Reply Brief of PlaintiffsAppellants, Filed October 11, 2023, p. 11.

142 Rivera Fuentes, et al. v. Kijakazi, et al., No. 23-1511, U.S. Court of Appeals, 1st Circuit. Brief for Appellees, Filed 

September 6, 2023, p. 10.

143 C.F.R. § 416.1327(a); See also: Rivera Fuentes, et al. v. Kijakazi, et al., No. 23-1511, U.S. Court of Appeals, 1st

Circuit. Brief for Appellees, Filed September 6, 2023, p. 12.

144 42 U.S.C.§§ 301-306, 1201-1206, 1351-1355, 1381 note; 42 U.S.C. §§ 1381 note, 1382 note, 1383 note,

1384 note, 1385 note; See also: Rivera Fuentes, et al. v. Kijakazi, et al., No. 23-1511, U.S. Court of Appeals, 1st

Circuit. Brief for Appellees, Filed September 6, 2023, p. 12.
20

amount of the AABD program is set at $58 dollars.145 Abislaimán-Quílez argues that SSI is an 

advanced version of AABD.146

The U.S. Department of Justice argued why this case cannot be successful after the decision in 

United States v. Vaello Madero, which establishes that Puerto Rico's unique tax situation 

provides a rational basis for exclusion.147 They say that the exclusion of Puerto Rican residents is 

not racial discrimination and that, as in the Vaello Madero case, it is not necessary to involve the 

Insular Cases to resolve this case.148 Despite this statement that exclusion from SSI is not racial 

discrimination, attorney Abislaimán-Quílez emphasizes in her response that race and disability 

are overlapping identities, and that is why there is inequality before the law based on race.149

According to Abislaimán-Quílez, plaintiffs meet all SSI requirements, except for geographic 

exclusion, and the need for this assistance is more and more urgent, especially due to the 

growing elderly population.150“SSI does not provide a definition of geography. However, SSI 

does not apply to physical characteristics of the landscape; it applies to people,” says 

Abislaimán-Quílez.151 Geography considers the racial, ethnic, and ancestral characteristics of the 

inhabitants, and therefore exclusion based on geography does not ignore color [race].152

Abislaimán-Quílez argues that the fact that this emphasis on geography excludes a primarily 

Hispanic population demonstrates that it is at least partially based on race, ethnicity, and 

ancestry.153 This opinion is shared by Judge Gustavo Gelpí, who in his opinion in the Vaello

Madero case, stressed that this exclusion from federal law that is part de facto on a suspicious 

classification based on the Hispanic origin of its population, is constitutionally impermissible.154

Regarding differential treatment, Abislaimán-Quílez writes that “there is only one citizenry in 

one nation. Nowhere does the Constitution authorize Congress to redesign national lines, much 

less create categories of citizenship.”155 This most recent response filed in October 2023 asks the 

District Court to reverse its decision.156 In Rivera-Fuentes, plaintiffs reserved the argument to 

145 Rivera Fuentes, et al. v. Kijakazi, et al., No. 23-1511, U.S. Court of Appeals, 1st Circuit. Reply Brief of PlaintiffsAppellants, Filed October 11, 2023, p. 12-13.

146 Rivera Fuentes, et al. v. Kijakazi, et al., No. 23-1511, U.S. Court of Appeals, 1st Circuit. Brief of PlaintiffsAppellants, Filed June 9, 2023, p. 24.

147 United States v. Vaello Madero, 142 S. Ct. 1539 (2022); See also: Rivera Fuentes, et al. v. Kijakazi, et al., No. 23-

1511, U.S. Court of Appeals, 1st Circuit. Brief for Appellees, Filed September 6, 2023, p. 16-17.

148 Rivera Fuentes, et al. v. Kijakazi, et al., No. 23-1511, U.S. Court of Appeals, 1st Circuit. Brief for Appellees, Filed 

September 6, 2023, p. 18. 

149 Rivera Fuentes, et al. v. Kijakazi, et al., No. 23-1511, U.S. Court of Appeals, 1st Circuit. Reply Brief of PlaintiffsAppellants, Filed October 11, 2023, p. 13.

150 Id, p. 14.

151 Id, p. 24.

152 Id, p. 35.

153 Id, p. 24.

154 Córdova, Andrés L. “Algunos apuntes a U.S. v. Vaello Madero”. El Vocero. September 2, 2019. 

https://www.elvocero.com/opinion/algunos-apuntes-a-u-s-v-vaello-madero/article_e665c354-2c0c-11e9-9f28-

8378d31aff1c.html (accessed November 8, 2023).

155 Rivera Fuentes, et al. v. Kijakazi, et al., No. 23-1511, U.S. Court of Appeals, 1st Circuit. Reply Brief of PlaintiffsAppellants, Filed October 11, 2023, p. 28.

156 Id, p. 36.
21

repeal the Insular Cases because these cases create a system of inequality before the law by 

separating territories and citizens residing in them, without basis on the Constitution.157

Access to Benefits for People with Disabilities

In her testimony, Panelist Betzaida Ramos indicated that, in Puerto Rico, 21.7% of the 

population are people with disabilities, which represents around 687,000 people in Puerto 

Rico.158 The poverty level of people with disabilities in Puerto Rico is close to 48%; that is, 

almost half of the population are currently living below the poverty level. And of this nearly 

50%, only 23.7% are people who work, compared to 36% in the United States and 44% in the 

other territories.159

The inequality in the level of assistance provided through various federal programs imposes a 

unique challenge on people with disabilities in Puerto Rico. Even if a person with disabilities 

wants to work, they must meet Medicaid eligibility criteria in order to continue receiving that 

assistance.

160 This requirement forces individuals to decide between continuing to receive the 

minimum benefit that is barely enough to cover their expenses, or working and risking earning 

more than the eligibility cap and losing the benefit they need to maintain their health.

161 That is 

why many individuals often have to decide on what they will spend their minimal income on–

whether on food or medicine- and often, they face having to go to the United States to preserve 

their lives.162 Ms. Ramos said: “If we eliminate these barriers of discrimination, we allow them 

to contribute to life in society actively, and we would have more Puerto Ricans working, working 

hand in hand and demonstrating the capacity of Puerto Ricans in any area of life in society.”163

In the testimony, there were arguments about how disparities in access to federal programs and 

benefits contribute to social and economic challenges in Puerto Rico.164 In written testimony 

submitted by Resident Commissioner Jenniffer González Colón, she commented that “in those 

instances when Congress has chosen to treat Puerto Rico differently under a particular federal 

assistance program, it has relied, either explicitly or implicitly, on the argument that such

differential treatment is warranted because individuals and businesses in Puerto Rico do not 

157 Rivera Fuentes, et al. v. Kijakazi, et al., No. 23-1511, U.S. Court of Appeals, 1st Circuit. Brief of PlaintiffsAppellants, Filed June 9, 2023, p. 64.

158 Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 193, 24 - p. 194, 11.

159 Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 193, 24 - p. 194, 11; See also: National Council on 

Disability. “Disparate Treatment of Puerto Rico Residents with Disabilities in Federal Programs and Benefits.” 

https://ncd.gov/publications/2022/disparate-treatment-puerto-rico-residents-disabilities-federal-programs (accessed 

November 6, 2023).

160 “Quality of Care in Puerto Rico – Medicaid Overview.” Medicaid.gov. https://www.medicaid.gov/stateoverviews/puerto-rico.html (accessed January 22, 2024). 

161 Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p.198, 21 - p. 199, 7; See also: Departamento de Salud. 

“Programa Medicaid.” 

https://www.salud.pr.gov/CMS/85#:~:text=Documentos%20que%20debe%20proveer%20cuando%20acuda%20a%2

0su,menores%20que%20vivan%20en%20el%20hogar%20More%20items (accessed November 1, 2023).

162 Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 200, 20 - p. 201, 9.

163 Id, p. 238, 20 - p. 239, 7.

164 Governor Pierluisi, Written Statement, p. 4. 
22

contribute federal income taxes into the general fund to the same degree as their counterparts in 

the states.”165 The testimony of veteran Alex Ortiz captures the frustration of the residents of 

Puerto Rico regarding this inequality – “What many of us do not understand is why Congress 

and the judicial branch do not act on the issue in favor of the equality of the rights [of] Puerto 

Ricans who live on the island. At the center of the Insular Cases is the denial of basic civil rights 

guaranteed by the United States Constitution.”166

FINDING VI - The Committee heard testimony about the effects that limitations on access 

to public programs have had on certain social groups, including older adults, veterans, and 

families with minors.

Description of Effects on Older Adults

The Committee heard testimony about one of the most vulnerable populations who experience 

the impact of inequality in Puerto Rico every day – older adults, one of the largest social groups 

in Puerto Rico.167 Panelist Lucy Cruz, President of the community group Grupo de Ocho 

Comunidades Aledañas al Caño Martín Peña (G8), shared that her organization sees this reality 

often and sees how government aid is among the few support systems that older adults receive,

although it is not enough for their daily needs. She stated that local resources for this population 

have also decreased – “Almost all the senior centers in the Municipality of San Juan have closed 

for us. And we have been fighting for years to reopen help centers for the elderly because at least 

one plate of food a day, at least solves something for them.”168

Mr. José Acarón of AARP Puerto Rico shared that “Puerto Rico ranks seventh in the world in 

terms of having the oldest population.”169 Additionally, the poverty level in Puerto Rico is four 

times greater than in the states - in 2019, the poverty level was 43%, while in the United States, 

the average was 10.5%.

170

Mr. Acarón also noted that although many older adults live alone in the United States, there is 

usually some access to services in their communities, while, in contrast, that type of network 

165 Jenniffer González Colón, Resident Commissioner, U.S. Congress, Written Statement submitted for Puerto Rico 

Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights Briefing, May 10, 2023 (cited herein after as 

Resident Commissioner González Colón statement).

166 Ortiz, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript . p. 224, 24 - p. 225, 11.

167 Cruz, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 239, 16 - p. 241, 3.

168 Ibid.

169 Acarón, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 266, 15-17; See also: Rivera Marrero, Mildred. “Puerto 

Rico es uno de los países con más adultos mayores en el mundo”. El Nuevo Día. February 26, 2023. 

https://www.elnuevodia.com/noticias/locales/notas/puerto-rico-es-uno-de-los-paises-con-mas-adultos-mayores-en-el 

mundo/#:~:text=Puerto%20Rico%20ocupa%20el%20s%C3%A9ptimo%20lugar%20en%20el,las%20Naciones%20

Unidas%20%28ONU%29%20que%20fue%20publicado%20recientemente (accessed November 3, 2023). 

170 Acarón, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 269, 7-11; See also: Vargas-Ramos, Carlos, et al. 

“Pervasive Poverty in Puerto Rico: a Closer Look.” Center for Puerto Rican Studies at Hunter College. 

https://centropr.hunter.cuny.edu/reports/pervasive-poverty-in-puerto-rico/ (accessed November 3, 2023). 
23

does not exist in Puerto Rico.171 The loneliness of older adults was evident after Hurricane 

Maria, where it was observed that in many homes, older adults were living alone or even taking 

care of older people without support from anyone else.172 Mr. Acarón said that “finally, people 

understood that Puerto Rico is a country that has already aged. It is not aging; it has already 

aged, and we have not wanted to acknowledge our reality and create a support system for the 

population.”173 The experience of older adults in Puerto Rico points to the urgent need for 

programs like fully covered Medicaid and SSI, which could help approximately 700,000 

residents.174

Another challenge this population faces is the lack of a system of long-term care institutions in 

Puerto Rico. Mr. Acarón mentioned, "an industry of long-term care institutions has not 

developed, because Medicaid does not pay for the long-term care part either.”175 Along these 

lines, one of the services required under Medicaid that do not apply to Puerto Rico includes 

community-based home care services that help older adults receive the necessary care without 

leaving their homes.176 Acarón shared that AARP Puerto Rico conducted a survey in which "87% 

of the population wants to age in their home, but we do not have the funds, nor do we have the 

structure to provide those services. And what's happening, the social evils of, 'I don't have 

transportation, I live in isolation.' Social isolation causes cognitive conditions, it causes 

depression, it causes health conditions.”177

Description of Effects on Veterans 

The Committee also received testimony relevant to the experience of veterans in Puerto Rico and 

how differential treatment affects them. Panelist Alex Ortiz stated: “The Insular Cases have left 

Puerto Rican veterans in a state of limbo, denying them certain rights and benefits that they 

otherwise enjoy with their veterans in the United States. To enjoy these benefits, a veteran living 

in Puerto Rico only has to move to another state and that's it, as if nothing had happened.”

178

Puerto Rican veterans have contributed significantly to United States conflicts. Mr. Ortiz

informed the Committee that: “In the First World War, there were about 18,000; in the Second, 

over 65,000; in the Korean War, about 61,000 and where our “Borinqueneers” showed how 

171 Acarón, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 317, 14-21; See also: Matos-Moreno, Amílcar., et al. 

“Aging and the Left Behind: Puerto Rico and Its Unconventional Rapid Aging.” The Gerontologist. September 

2022. https://academic.oup.com/gerontologist/article/62/7/964/6607773 (accessed November 3, 2023).

172 Acarón, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 317, 25 - p. 318, 15; See also: Varney, Sarah. “Amid new 

hurricane season, Maria still taking a toll on Puerto Rico’s elderly”. PBS Newshour. 

https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/amid-new-hurricane-season-maria-still-taking-a-toll-on-puerto-ricos-elderly

(accessed November 3, 2023).

173 Acarón, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 317, 25 - p. 318, 15.

174 Acarón, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1, p. 269, 12 - p. 271, 5; See also: Coto, Danica. “US court 

upholds SSI for Puerto Ricans in key ruling”. Associated Press. April 10, 2020. 

https://apnews.com/article/908aeca623bc4a07b6c90ad8ac86d047 (accessed November 3, 2020).

175 Acarón, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 272, 15-20.

176 Acarón, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1, p. 271, 20 - p. 272, 13.

177 Ibid.

178 Ortiz, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1, p 224, 19 – p. 225, 2.
24

valuable we have been since then; 48,000 in the Vietnam War. And we still do not have official 

data on how many Puerto Ricans have participated in the war against terrorism, which includes 

Iraq and Afghanistan. We do know that since 2001 the Puerto Rico National Guard has been 

deployed more than 18,000 times in service to the nation, including combat zones.”179

The panelist Brig. Gen. Victor Pérez shared the following data about the participation of Puerto 

Rican residents in the Armed Forces: “More than 250,000 Puerto Ricans have served honorably 

and bravely throughout history, in all wars, and all contingencies. Per capita, more Puerto Ricans 

have served than most states in the United States. More than 100,000 veterans live on the island 

today, and approximately 35,000 men and women currently serve in different regions. It is 

incredible, after the service and sacrifice defending democracy, freedom, and justice around the 

world, we return to our country Puerto Rico and we are denied equality and the right to vote for 

senators and representatives and for the commander in chief of the Armed Forces, the president 

of the United States, who are the ones who send us to war.”180 Mr. Ortiz shares this frustration 

saying, “This lack of representation is what allows us to be subject to discriminatory treatment in 

many federal programs.”181 Given this limitation of being unable to participate as a citizen fully, 

testimony pointed out that from a pro-self-determination perspective, the requirement to register 

for military service can be seen as another form of discrimination resulting from the Territorial 

Clause.182 

Access to Federal Programs for Puerto Rican Veterans

Panelist Alex Ortiz shared that many veterans in Puerto Rico live below the poverty level and are 

of the age to qualify for Social Security.183 Regarding income, approximately 30,117 veterans in 

Puerto Rico live below the poverty line.184 He argued that SSI would be essential to help these 

veterans. 

Aside from these alarming income-related numbers, Puerto Rican veterans also face limited 

access to health services, including mental health services. Mr. Ortiz explained that retired 

veterans in the states have TRICARE Prime coverage, a free health plan option that is not 

available in Puerto Rico.185 Mr. Ortiz shared that according to the 2020 Census, 67.7% of 

179 Ortiz, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1, p. 226, 2-16.

180 Pérez, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 280, 13 - p. 281, 7.

181 Ortiz, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 224, 24 - p. 225, 12-24.

182 Rivera Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 94, 4-22.

183 Ortiz, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 228, 13 - p. 229, 10; See also: U.S. Department of Veteran 

Affairs. “Puerto Rico.” https://www.va.gov/vetdata/docs/SpecialReports/State_Summaries_Puerto_Rico.pdf

(accessed December 29, 2023). 

184 United States Department of Veterans Affairs. “PACT Act Overview.” 

https://www.va.gov/ADVISORY/docs/2021213FASFACSlides.pdf (accessed December 29, 2023).

185 Ortiz, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 229, 12 - p. 231, 1; See also: TRICARE. “TRICARE 

Prime.” https://www.tricare.mil/Plans/HealthPlans/Prime (accessed October 30, 2023). Note from the Committee:

Although the basic TRICARE plan exists in Puerto Rico, other options do not apply, including TRICARE Prime, 

which would offer more flexibility to beneficiaries in regard to their health care options.
25

veterans in Puerto Rico are over 55 years old.186 A significant problem that many of these 

veterans face is that in order to process any document with the Department of Veterans or the 

Department of Defense, most of the information is online only and is primarily in English.187 The 

DD-214 form required to request assistance is only in English, presenting barriers for Spanishspeaking veterans in their requests.

188 Additionally, a decline in the veteran population in Puerto 

Rico is projected in the coming decades, and this means that federal investments for medical 

services at the local level may also decline - one more reason why veterans who have gone to the 

United States do not want to return.189

Educational benefits are also applied differently in Puerto Rico. Mr. Ortiz explained that Puerto 

Rico is considered a foreign place for the GI Bill purposes, which means that the cost-of-living 

increase is not provided for this benefit.190 Compared to the states, these reduced benefits make it 

more difficult for veterans to achieve their educational and career goals within the island.191 Mr. 

Ortiz said that in his own experience, he received $2,700 through the GI Bill when he lived in 

Rhode Island and only $1,900 under the same law as a student in Puerto Rico.192

Among the veteran community in Puerto Rico, many people left for the states after Hurricane 

Maria, mainly Florida and Connecticut, to be with their families and receive an increase in 

benefits. In his testimony, Mr. Ortiz regrets that the same level of federal resources cannot be 

offered within Puerto Rico, something that could help keep the community intact in Puerto 

Rico.193 He said: “The reality is that many veterans leave for the United States precisely because 

they do not have the equality that they know you have when you are in one of the United States. 

They have SSI, better Medicaid, and better medical services, but not only that, we talk about the 

family and the children; they have better education. And then all that makes them stay there.”194

Child Tax Credit (CTC)

Panelist María Enchautegui, Director of Research and Public Policy at the Youth Development 

Institute, presented data on the Child Tax Credit (CTC) and its effect on the economy of Puerto 

Rico. Dr. Enchautegui explained how the child poverty rate has been relatively high and has 

186 Ortiz, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 241, 4-7; See also: United States Census Bureau. “Veteran 

Status.” https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020.S2101?g=040XX00US72 (accessed December 29, 2023).

187 Ortiz, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 241, 5 - p. 243, 3 y p. 247, 7 - p. 248, 9.

188 Ortiz, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1, p. 247, 7 - p. 248, 9.

189 Ortiz, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 250, 5 - p. 251, 6.

190 Ortiz, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 231, 16 - p. 232, 8; See also: U.S. Department of Veterans 

Affairs. “GI Bill Comparison Tool.” https://www.va.gov/education/gi-bill-comparisontool/?search=location&location=San%20Juan%2C%20Puerto%20Rico (accessed December 29, 2023). Note from 

the Committee: The benefit related to cost-of-living applies to housing, not tuition. 

191 Ortiz, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 231, 16 - p. 232, 8.

192 Ortiz, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1, p. 264, 1-22.

193 Ortiz, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1, p. 260, 23 - p. 261, 25.

194 Pérez, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 297, 22 - p. 298, 7.
26

changed less than the senior poverty rate since the year 2000.195 According to a report published 

in 2022 by the Youth Development Institute, “approximately 326,000 children, and young people 

live below the poverty level in Puerto Rico. Of these, over 75% live in households headed by 

women, with a median of $8,400 annually.”196

The CTC benefit began in Puerto Rico in 1997 with the Taxpayer Relief Act for families with 

three or more children and was mainly based on people who file income tax.197 In 2021, the 

benefit was significantly expanded under the American Rescue Plan (ARPA) and applied to all 

families with children up to age 17 and there was no requirement for proof of income.198 One 

significant update was that families with fewer than three children were eligible for the first 

time.199 Under ARPA, the CTC had a $1.78 billion impact on the economy and a 16% increase in 

the average family income.200

Since most people in Puerto Rico do not have a federal tax liability, the “Additional Child Tax

Credit” applies to them, which calculates 7.6% of their income and results in $1,500 per minor,

while, in the United States, 15% of income is calculated.201 This remains one of the most 

significant differences between Puerto Rico and the United States regarding the CTC.202 Under 

195 Maria Enchautegui, testimony. Public Briefing before the Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United States 

Commission on Civil Rights, Virtual, September 14, 2023, transcript p. 20 (cited herein after as Virtual Briefing 

Transcript 2).

196 Instituto del Desarrollo de la Juventud. “Child Tax Credit (CTC) Impacto trascendental a las familias con 

menores en Puerto Rico y aportación millonaria a la economía local.” January 11, 2022. 

https://mcusercontent.com/35b40b9cf147af1ed5717180c/files/812ac348-c1a4-ce60-c924-

7856ccbe747e/Child_Tax_Credit_impacto_trascendental_a_las_familias_conmenores_IDJ_enero_2022_.pdf

(accessed October 30, 2022).

197 Enchautegui, testimony. Virtual Briefing, Transcript 2. p. 20; See also: Sperling, Gene. “Getting the Child Tax 

Credit Right for Puerto Rico: The American Rescue Plan’s Permanent, Historic Changes to Tax Relief in Puerto 

Rico.” The White House. April 14, 2022. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/blog/2022/04/14/getting-thechild-tax-credit-right-for-puerto-rico-the-american-rescue-plans-permanent-historic-changes-to-tax-relief-in-puertorico/ (accessed October 30, 2023).

198 Enchautegui, testimony. Virtual Briefing, Transcript 2. p. 20; See also: Internal Revenue Service. “Resources and 

Guidance for Puerto Rico families that may qualify for the Child Tax Credit.” https://www.irs.gov/creditsdeductions/individuals/resources-and-guidance-for-puerto-rico-families-that-may-qualify-for-the-child-tax-credit

(accessed October 30, 2023); See also: Sperling, Gene. “Getting the Child Tax Credit Right for Puerto Rico: The 

American Rescue Plan’s Permanent, Historic Changes to Tax Relief in Puerto Rico.” The White House. April 14, 

2022. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/blog/2022/04/14/getting-the-child-tax-credit-right-for-puerto-ricothe-american-rescue-plans-permanent-historic-changes-to-tax-relief-in-puerto-rico/ (accessed October 30, 2023). 

Note from the Committee: The American Rescue Plan was a program to appropriate funds to the American 

population as financial support during the emergency of the coronavirus pandemic. It was approved by Congress in 

2021. For more information see: U.S. Department of the Treasury. “About the American Rescue Plan.”

https://home.treasury.gov/policy-issues/coronavirus/about-the-american-rescue-plan (accessed October 30, 2023).

199 Enchautegui, testimony. Virtual Briefing, Transcript 2. p. 18; See also: Balmaceda, Javier. “Tax Credit 

Expansions Expected to Significantly Reduce Poverty in Puerto Rico.” Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. 

March 14, 2022. https://www.cbpp.org/blog/tax-credit-expansions-expected-to-significantly-reduce-poverty-inpuerto-rico (accessed October 30, 2023).

200 Enchautegui, testimony. Virtual Briefing, Transcript 2. P. 21; See also: Balmaceda, Javier. “Tax Credit 

Expansions Expected to Significantly Reduce Poverty in Puerto Rico.” Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. 

March 14, 2022. https://www.cbpp.org/blog/tax-credit-expansions-expected-to-significantly-reduce-poverty-inpuerto-rico (accessed October 30, 2023).

201 Enchautegui, testimony. Virtual Briefing, Transcript 2. p. 20-21.

202 Enchautegui, testimony. Virtual Briefing, Transcript 2. p. 21.
27

the current CTC, we have only seen a 1% reduction in the child poverty rate and a 5% change in 

household income.203

An example of how differential treatment is materialized through the CTC is that it is determined 

that the funds are paid to taxpayers, and this is the argument for not giving certain funds to 

Puerto Rico.204 Dr. Enchautegui explained that the Youth Development Institute published a

report in which they analyzed the social welfare system in Puerto Rico and came to the 

conclusion that Puerto Rico is treated in a discretionary manner - sometimes as a state, 

sometimes like the other territories, and sometimes in a unique way – and frequently it has 

nothing to do with paying taxes.205

FINDING VII - Discrimination and differential treatment have directly affected the quality 

of life of the residents of Puerto Rico and have caused an increase in displacement from the 

island.

Several panelists agreed that, over time, the differential treatment towards residents of Puerto 

Rico, with roots in the Insular Cases, has had a negative effect on the general well-being of the 

population. Pastor Otoniel Font Nadal of the Fuente de Agua Viva Council of Churches shared in 

his testimony that the Insular Cases and the territorial doctrine “have affected the identity, the 

culture of the people of Puerto Rico, understood as culture, knowledge, beliefs, values, customs, 

and opinions of our people, among other factors. The ambivalence and insecurity of who we are, 

where we are, and where we are going has impacted the lives, mental health, self-esteem, ability 

for empowerment, and self-realization of many Puerto Ricans.”206 As a pastor, he has seen 

firsthand the people of his congregation go to the States to improve their quality of life and 

obtain benefits that they do not have on the island, and that is why he has opened churches in 

Florida to serve the community there.207 Pastor Font Nadal shared that he has seen the effect of 

the emotional issues this has created in the community – the depression that comes with leaving 

family and home for long periods – and he believes this is part of the social and mental crisis that 

exists.208

Panelist Lucy Cruz also spoke about seeing firsthand the effects of people leaving Puerto Rico. 

She described that after Hurricane Maria, people with damaged or destroyed homes received 

funds to go to the states for temporary shelter because the deeds to their property were not 

acknowledged in order to receive assistance for repairs or their homes had been destroyed.209

203 Enchautegui, testimony. Virtual Briefing, Transcript 2. p. 22.

204 Ibid.

205 Enchautegui, testimony. Virtual Briefing, Transcript 2. p. 22-23; See also: Enchautegui Román, María, Arroyo 

Quijano, Caridad, y Blakely Vallecillo, Vallerie. “Hanging by a thread: Puerto Rico's Safety Net and the economic 

mobility of families.” Instituto del Desarrollo de la Juventud. https://www.juventudpr.org/publicaciones/colgandode-un-hilo (accessed December 6, 2023). 

206 Font Nadal, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 209, 7-17.

207 Font Nadal, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 211, 22 - p. 212, 19.

208 Font Nadal, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 243, 5-24.

209 Cruz, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 219, 10-22; See also: Silva, Daniella. “2,300 Puerto Rican 

families displaced by Hurricane Maria are about to lose their FEMA housing assistance.” NBC News. June 6, 2018. 

https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/puerto-rico-crisis/2-300-puerto-rican-families-displaced-hurricane-maria-areabout-n880356 (accessed October 26, 2023). 
28

Although this was meant to be a short-term solution, some people stayed in the States because 

they no longer had the resources to rebuild their homes.210 While communities are being 

displaced in this way, Ms. Cruz said that Puerto Rico has been changing, attracting new people 

through Airbnb, and she suggests that it is urgent to find alternatives so that Puerto Rican 

residents can stay on the island.211

This departure of Puerto Rico residents to the States coincides with data shared by Mr. Laws

García, who quoted a drop in population of 11% according to the Census and said, “This means 

that the discrimination and inequality institutionalized by the Insular Cases are separating 

families and destroying communities on the island.”212 Laws García added that this is the 

cumulative result of the unequal treatment of Puerto Rico.213 This can also harm Puerto Rico 

since funds are received according to the population census numbers.214 Migration to the states 

reflects the urgent need to resolve the inequities faced by the residents of Puerto Rico, who seek 

the same opportunities to improve their quality of life as any other citizen.215 According to Mr. 

Acarón, this can only change with the creation of a holistic economic development plan that 

includes various social determinants and prioritizes quality of life and access to resources for 

Puerto Ricans.216

IV. Recommendations Proposed in the Testimony

Throughout the testimony, the Committee heard different perspectives on how the political 

situation and quality of life in Puerto Rico could be improved. Although these ideas are not 

recommendations that were formulated by the Committee, it is important to integrate them in this 

memorandum to present the options that stand out in the testimony. The Committee will use this 

information to develop its recommendations for the final report of this project.

210 Cruz, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 245, 12-22; See also: Schachter, Jason y Bruce, Antonio. 

“Estimating Puerto Rico’s Population After Hurricane Maria.” United States Census Bureau. August 19,2020. 

https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2020/08/estimating-puerto-rico-population-after-hurricane-maria.html

(accessed October 26, 2023).

211 Cruz, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 244, 19 - p. 246, 8; See also: Santiago-Bartolomei, Raúl, et 

al. “The Impact of Short-Term Rentals in Puerto Rico: 2014-2020.” Center for a New Economy. December 12, 2022. 

https://grupocne.org/2022/12/12/the-impact-of-short-term-rentals-in-puerto-rico-2014-2020/#conclusion (consultado 

el 26 de octubre de 2023). (accessed October 26, 2023).

212 Laws García, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 290, 7-14; See also: United States Census Bureau. 

“Puerto Rico Population Declined 11.8% from 2010 to 2020”. August 25, 2021. 

https://www.census.gov/library/stories/state-by-state/puerto-rico-population-change-between-census-decade.html

(accessed October 26, 2023).

213 Laws García, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 289, 23 - p. 290, 3.

214 Rodriguez Rivera, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 150, 10-21.

215 Luis Figueroa, Former Regional Director, Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration in Florida, Written 

Statement submitted for Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights 

Briefing, May 10, 2023 (cited herein after as Figueroa statement).

216 Acarón, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 300, 18 - p. 301, 9.
29

The Role of the Courts vs. the Political Process

According to several panelists, Puerto Rico will only emerge from the limitations it currently 

faces with the Insular Cases through a political process, and not a judicial one, since the courts 

have continually refused to resolve this problem.217 Dr. Rivera Ramos commented that the 

Supreme Court has “created a kind of political doctrine concerning the condition of the 

territories...therefore, the way out is the political route: putting pressure on Congress, putting 

pressure on the Executive, trying to join alliances, solidarity with sectors of the population of the 

United States that can understand this idea...it has to be a movement that is not focused only on 

the political issue, but that in some way has to be associated with social, economic, cultural 

aspects of the various sectors of the Puerto Rican population.”218 Several panelists argued that it 

must be demanded that Congress take action, although this is difficult without adequate 

representation.219 Currently, attention is only paid to Puerto Rico's situation periodically when 

there is a relevant case before the Supreme Court, but without this, there has been no action.220

The Role of International Law

Some panelists shared testimonies about the importance of managing Puerto Rico's territorial 

situation through the perspective of international law and not as a domestic issue of the United 

States. The United States has signed and ratified the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and 

Political Rights, which in its first article proclaims: “All peoples have the right to selfdetermination. By virtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue 

their economic, social, and cultural development."221 Along these lines, additional arguments 

maintain that Puerto Rico should not be considered an internal issue of the United States but 

rather as a nation that has been occupied for more than 125 years, whose access to international 

law has been violated, and can only move forward through decolonization and independence.222

Panelists recommended analyzing the issue of Puerto Rico within the global context with an 

emphasis on human rights.223 The challenge would be whether the United States government 

217 Venator Santiago, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 70, 25 - p. 71, 7; See also: Rivera Ramos,

testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 71, 20 - p. 73, 8.

218 Rivera Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 71, 20 - p. 73, 8.

219 Ortiz, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 234, 7-20.

220 Ibid.

221 Rivera Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 43, 2 - p. 44, 6; See also: United Nations General 

Assembly. “Resolution 2200A (XXI), International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.” December 16, 1966. 

https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-civil-and-political-rights

(accessed October 24, 2023).

222 Carlos Rafael Alicea Negrón, public comment. Public Briefing before the Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the 

United States Commission on Civil Rights, Hato Rey, PR, May 10, 2023, transcript p. 329, 12 - p. 331, 2 (cited 

herein after as Hato Rey, Transcript 1); See also: Carlos Rafael Alicea Negrón, Movimiento Ñin Negrón, Written 

Statement submitted for Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights 

Briefing, May 10, 2023 (cited herein after as Alicea Negrón statement); See also: Rodriguez Rivera, testimony. Hato 

Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 148, 14-25.

223 Rivera Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 74, 1-24; See also: Rodriguez Rivera, testimony. 

Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 149, 1-24.
30

would be willing to pass this situation on to international organizations with experience on 

colonial issues, since the United States has not complied with the International Covenant on 

Civil and Political Rights.224 The U.S. Congress must also confront the question of whether 

Puerto Rico is a colony under current understanding of international law.225

According to the testimony of Panelist Dr. Iyari Ríos González of the Association of Economists 

of Puerto Rico, this would be the best-case scenario since the problem of colonization is 

aggravated when the territory's residents are forced to depend on and migrate to the other 

entity.226 Panelist Rafael Rodríguez argued that Puerto Rico's territorial status has been the focus 

of countless forums, working groups, and other efforts. Still, these have not had significant 

results because they have not addressed the root of the problem – prioritizing self-determination 

under international law.227 Treating this as a domestic issue would be a repetition of previous 

efforts.228

Self-Determination

If self-determination were to be considered as an option for Puerto Rico, within a referendum, 

for example, the testimony maintains that the United States must comply with the principles of 

international law and collaborate with international organizations in the monitoring of the 

process to ensure that voters have access to all the information and be aware of the specific 

consequences of each option.

229 For the United States Congress to hold a public hearing on this 

issue to better understand the mechanics of how this process could be carried out would be an 

essential step forward.230 A self-determination process would be an essential step for 

democracy.231 According to Mr. Laws García, “For Puerto Rico to have an opportunity to 

definitively address its civil rights and the civil rights of American citizens in Puerto Rico, 

Congress must pass legislation to offer Puerto Rico the opportunity to decide between options 

that are not territorial. That would be the most important recommendation I think this Committee 

can make for the Commission.”232 In Mr. Laws García's perspective, Congress has the 

responsibility to legislate so that Puerto Rico can choose its political future and, in doing so, 

would act following its ideal of government by consent.233 Additionally, it was recommended 

224 Rodriguez Rivera, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 149, 1-24; See also: See also: United Nations 

General Assembly. “Resolution 2200A (XXI), International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.” December 16, 

1966. https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-civil-and-politicalrights (accessed October 24, 2023).

225 Córdova, Andrés L. “Why Puerto Rico cannot govern itself”. The Hill. February 13, 2018. 

https://thehill.com/opinion/campaign/373683-why-puerto-rico-cannot-govern-itself (accessed October 23, 2023).

226 Ríos González, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 167, 14 - p. 168, 8.

227 Rodríguez Rivera, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 154, 10 - p. 155, 1.

228 Ríos González, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 169, 14 - p. 170, 1.

229 Álvarez González, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 166, 8-20; See also: Avilés Deliz, Written 

Statement p. 5.

230 Avilés Deliz, Written Statement, p. 5.

231 Laws García, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 294, 7 - p. 295, 8.

232 Laws García, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 319, 14 - p. 320, 19.

233 Laws García, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 291, 21 - p. 292, 13.
31

that the Committee follow developments on legislative proposals that support selfdetermination.

234 Bills proposing a plebiscite between three options for voters in Puerto Rico 

were introduced in 2023 in both the House of Representatives (HR 2757, introduced for a second 

time) and Senate (S. 3231).

235

Elimination of the Insular Cases

Revoking the Insular Cases would not be the only solution since it does not resolve political 

discrimination, such as the inability to vote at the federal level, which is only reserved for the 

states. On the other hand, decolonization does not require the revocation of the Insular Cases.236

In written testimony submitted by Resident Commissioner Jenniffer González Colón, she also 

mentions that, furthermore, eliminating the Insular Cases would not put an end to discrimination, 

especially regarding the appropriation of funds and the availability of social programs.237 “Only 

by achieving a non-territorial status – either Statehood or Nationhood – can do that [resolving 

inequalities in Puerto Rico]; and only the U.S. Congress – not the courts – achieve that.”

238

In general, panelists stated that a political movement that transcends traditional divisions is 

necessary to decolonize Puerto Rico.239 Eliminating the Insular Cases could reduce disparities in 

society and eliminate the harmful contradictions with which Congress and the Supreme Court 

treat Puerto Rico – this would result in a different experience for residents.240 Calling for the 

revocation of the Insular Cases could be an important action taken by the U.S. Commission on 

Civil Rights that would promote recognition towards equality for Puerto Rico.241 It is important 

to reevaluate the relationship between Puerto Rico and the United States and work toward a 

solution, not only for the current problems but to advance equality and justice for the residents of 

Puerto Rico.242

Statehood

Another perspective is that, although there are three non-territorial options for Puerto Rico –

statehood, independence, and free association – statehood is the only one that offers equal 

treatment and the right to vote.243

234 González Cruz, Written Statement, p. 2.

235 Puerto Rico Status Act, H.R.2757, 118th Cong. (2023); See also: Puerto Rico Status Act, S. 3231, 118th Congress. 

(2023); See also: Laws García, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 291, 4-20.

236 Rivera Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 42, 1-15.

237 González Colón, Written Statement, p. 5.

238 Ibid.

239 Rivera Ramos, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 66, 14-21.

240 Venator Santiago, testimony. Hato Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 88, 16-24; See also: Igartúa, testimony. Hato 

Rey Briefing, Transcript 1. p. 90, 20-25.

241 Adi Martínez Román, public comment. Public Briefing before the Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United 

States Commission on Civil Rights, Hato Rey, PR, May 10, 2023, transcript p. 325, 1-8.

242 Figueroa, Written Statement, p. 1-2.

243 Freytes, Written Statement, p. 2. 
32

Other Recommendations

o Support House Resolution 314 which recognizes that the decisions of the United States 

Supreme Court discriminate against Puerto Ricans.244

o The Committee should recommend that Puerto Rico receive equal treatment under the 

TRICARE Prime program.

245

 

o It is recommended that the Committee consider a declaration that the Insular Cases are a 

form of discrimination against the civil rights of the residents of Puerto Rico.246

Conclusion

This memorandum was adopted by a unanimous vote of 9 to 0 at a Committee meeting held on 

January 24, 2024. There were no dissents or concurrences.

244 H.R. Res. 314, 118th Cong. (2023); See also: Anthony Carrillo, public comment. Public Briefing before the 

Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights, Hato Rey, PR, May 10, 2023, 

transcript p. 327, 14 - p. 328, 25.

245 Carrillo, public comment, p. 327, 14 - p. 328, 25.

246 Morell González, Written Statement, p. 4.
33

Appendix

Documents related to the Committee’s study of this topic may be accessed at the following 

link:

https://securisync.intermedia.net/us2/s/folder?public_share=409J0xbKeIQ2vuMJBvQond0011ef

58&id=L1BSL0luc3VsYXIgQ2FzZXM%3D

A. Briefing Agendas, Minutes, and Presentation Slides

B. Transcripts

C. Written Testimony
34

Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the 

U.S. Commission on Civil Rights

Term: January 21, 2022 to January 20, 2026

Andrés L. Córdova Phelps, Chair, Puerto Rico Advisory Committee, San Juan

Dan Santiago, Vice Chair, San Juan

Ever Padilla-Ruíz, Secretary, San Juan

Frank Arenal, Carolina Sergio Marxuach, Dorado

Ramón C. Barquín III, Guaynabo

Ariadna M. Godreau-Aubert, San Juan*

Charlotte Gossett Navarro, San Juan*

Cristina M. Miranda-Palacios, San Juan*

José O. Olmos, Guaynabo

William E. Villafañe Ramos, Bayamon

Manuel “Lin” Iglesias-Beléndez, San Juan

*Former members.
35

Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the 

United States Commission on Civil Rights

U.S. Commission on Civil Rights Contact

USCCR Contact Regional Programs Unit

U.S. Commission on Civil Rights

230 S. Dearborn, Suite 2120

Chicago IL, 60604

(312) 353-8311

This interim memorandum is the work of the Puerto Rico Advisory Committee to the U.S. Commission on 

Civil Rights. The interim memorandum, which may rely on studies and data generated by third parties, is 

not subject to an independent review by Commission staff. Advisory Committee reports to the Commission 

are wholly independent and reviewed by Commission staff only for legal and procedural compliance with 

Commission policies and procedures. Advisory Committee reports are not subject to Commission approval, 

fact-checking, or policy changes. The views expressed in this memorandum and the findings and 

recommendations contained herein are those of a majority of the Advisory Committee members and do not 

necessarily represent the views of the Commission or its individual members, nor do they represent the 

policies of the U.S. Government.