# Patent

## Title
Fluid operated booster

## Abstract

A microdevice in the form of a microactuator or micropump. A microdevice for providing reciprocating motion at a high repetition rate, including a cell having an output wall with at least a portion movable, such as a diaphragm or inlet and outlet valves. A charge of gas in the cell and a source for cyclicly and directly heating the gas to increase the gas pressure in the cell and move the diaphragm or control the valves, the source for heating including a pulsed source for generating transient gas pressure increases in the cell at cycle times of not more than about 50 microseconds, with the cell including an arrangement for cooling the gas for reducing the gas pressure in the cell. In one embodiment, the source for heating includes a source of photons and an arrangement for directing the photons into the cell to the gas or to the cell inner surface. In another embodiment, the source for heating includes a thin film of resistance heating material on an inner surface of the cell, and an arrangement for connecting a pulsed electric power source to the film. Another embodiment includes an arrangement for producing electrical discharge pulses within the cell for heating the gas.

## Background
The present invention relates to microactuators and micromotors and methods for operating microactuators and micromotors, all generally referred to herein as microdevices. In particular the invention relates to new and improved transient energy release microdevices of smaller size and improved efficiency operating under nonequilibrium conditions. The term microdevice includes reciprocating devices such as microcompressors and vacuum pumps as well as single stroke actuators.

Considerable work is presently going on in the field of microdevices, which may be mechanical, electromagnetic, electrostatic, fluid or pneumatic in nature. By way of example, see:

A Microminiature Electric-to-Fluidic Valve, by Zdeblick and Angell in Transducers '87 page 827.

Silicon micromechanics: sensors and actuators on a chip, by Howe and Muller in IEEE Spectrum Jul. 1990 page 29.

Study on Microengines: Miniaturizing Stirling Engines for Actuators, by Nakajima et al in Sensors and Actuators (1989) at page 75.

Uses for microdevices will be readily apparent, including those recited in the above publications and in the references cited therein.

Microdevices, including pumps and tools, have been considered for application in medicine, optics, microassembly, industrial process automation, analytical instruments, photonics and aerospace. The present invention is particularly directed to microdevices utilizing gas pressure for producing high output forces and power by heating and cooling of a gas. Problems arise in this type of microdevice with respect to efficiency because of heat losses to the walls in the gas chambers.

In other pneumatically driven devices supplied with gas through feed lines the pressure drop in such transmission lines will typically be in the tens of atmospheres for a 100 micrometer diameter line one meter long. Sealed devices have been proposed that rely on phase changes of a liquid charge. These devices are relatively slow acting with response times greater than 1 millisecond, whereas response times or cycle times of 10 microseconds are much more attractive for microscale devices.

It is an object of the present invention to provide a new and improved microdevice and method of operation utilizing a gas as the output power source with the gas operating in a nonequilibrium mode to provide reciprocating motion at a high repetition rate, while also operating at high efficiency.

It is a particular object of the invention to provide a microdevice with overall dimensions in the order of 100 micrometers or less while producing output forces in the order of 10.sup.2 to 10.sup.4 dynes and greater at cycle thermal efficiencies on the order of 10%.

It is a further object of the invention to provide such a microdevice wherein the gas in a cell is cyclically and directly heated to increase the gas pressure and provide the output force and is thereafter rapidly cooled to reduce the gas pressure to provide transient output force pulses at cycle times of not more than about 50 microseconds, and under certain circumstances not more than about 5 microseconds.

It is a particular object of the invention to accomplish gas heating by direct heating of the gas itself by photon energy directed into the cell and by electrical discharge in the gas within the cell, and by heating of the gas from the inner wall of the cell with the wall heated by photon energy directed onto the wall and with the wall heated by an electrical resistance film on the inner surface of the wall.

A further object of the invention is to provide such a microdevice in the form of a microactuator for providing a force as an output and in the form of a micropump for operating as a vacuum pump or compressor.

Other objects, advantages, features and results will more fully appear in the course of the following description.

A microdevice for providing reciprocating motion at a high repetition rate, including a cell having an output wall with at least a portion movable, such as a diaphragm or a set of valves, to provide an actuating force, a charge of gas in the cell, and means for cyclicly and directly heating the gas to increase the gas pressure in the cell and move the diaphragm or control the valves, with the means for -heating including pulse means for generating transient gas pressure increases in the cell for periods or cycles of not more than about 50 microseconds, and with the cell including means for cooling said gas for reducing the gas pressure in said cell. In one embodiment, the means for cooling includes a cell wall of a material of good thermal conductivity. In another embodiment, the means for cooling includes a multilayer cell wall with an inner layer of a material of low thermal conductivity of an outer layer of material of good thermal conductivity.

In one embodiment, the means for heating includes a source of photons and means for directing said photons into the gas. In another embodiment the means for heating includes a thin insulating layer on the inner surface of the cell which layer is heated directly by photons. In another embodiment the means for heating includes a thin film of resistance heating material on the inner surface and covering a majority of the inner surface of said cell, and means for connecting a pulsed electric power source to said film. Another embodiment provided gas heating by pulsed electrical discharged within the gas.

The invention also includes particular details of the means for heating and means for cooling as are described and claimed herein below.

FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating the use of a microactuator for powering a tool or the like in a catheter or endoscope;

FIG. 2 is an enlarged sectional view through the actuator of FIG. 1;

FIG. 3 is a view similar to that of FIG. 2 showing an alternative embodiment of the actuator;

FIG. 4 is a view similar to that of FIGS. 2 and 3 showing another alternative embodiment of the actuator of the invention;

FIG. 5 is a view similar to those of FIGS. 2, 3 and 4 showing another alternative embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 6 is a view similar to those of FIGS. 2-5 showing another alternative embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 7 is a view similar to those of FIGS. 2-6 showing another alternative embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 8 is a view similar to that of FIG. 7, showing two of the microdevices constructed in cascade;

FIG. 9 is a view similar to that of FIG. 7 showing an alternative valve construction;

FIG. 10 shows another alternative embodiment using gas discharge for the transient energy release in a microactuator; and

FIG. 11 is a view similar to that of FIG. 10 for a microcompressor or pump configuration.

FIG. 1 illustrates a catheter 10 with a microactuator 11 at the distal end and a laser 12 at the proximal end. The catheter may be conventional in construction and includes a fiber optic 13 for coupling the output of the laser 12 to the actuator 11. Another fiber optic 14 may be included for viewing, and other lines 15 may be utilized for other conventional purposes. The laser 12 may be conventional in construction and operation and typically includes a control 18, a drive unit 19, and a beam chopper 20 for producing photon pulses to the actuator 11. Alternatively, a pulsed laser may be used.

One form for the microactuator 11 is shown in greater detail in FIG. 2, with the distal end of the fiber optic 13 positioned at the microactuator.

The microactuator includes a cell 21 with relatively rigid walls 22. One of the walls includes a diaphragm or other flexible member 23. A tool or shaft or other output member 24 is carried on the flexible member 23 for motion with the member 23.

The cell 21 is charged with a gas and sealed so that there is no gas flow in or out. Photons from the laser are directed into the gas within the cell through a lens 26 and a photon transparent window 27 in a wall of the cell.

In the embodiment illustrated, the cell wall is a multilayer wall, with an inner layer 29 of a material of good thermal conductivity and a second layer 30 over the inner layer to serve as an additional heat sink. Typically the layer 29 will be in the order of 5 to 100 micrometers thick. In an alternative embodiment, the thermal conducting wall 29 may be used alone. In another embodiment, a thin thermal insulating layer can be used on the inner surface of the layer 29 to lengthen the gas cooling time.

In operation, energy is transmitted through the window 27 directly into the gas, heating the gas. The increase in gas pressure resulting from the heating moves the flexible member 23 outward, providing a force at the output member 24. Almost instantaneously after being heated by the photon energy pulse, the gas is cooled by heat transfer from the gas through the layer 29 to the heat sink 30. The resultant decrease in pressure in the gas permits the flexible member 23 to return to its normal position. Thus the desired cyclic force at the output member 24 is obtained.

The laser pulses with a duration typically of less than 1 microsecond are provided at cycle times of not more than about 50 microseconds, and preferably at cycle times of not more than about 5 microseconds, to provide the nonequilibrium generation of transient pressure increases within the cell. The high repetition rate is achieved by means of the direct being of the gas rather than by heating the gas through the cell wall or by introducing heated gas from outside the cell, followed by the rapid cooling of the gas through the cell wall due to the large surface-to-volume ratio of the microvolume of the cell. The cell typically is square or cylindrical with outside dimensions no more than about 100 micrometers In another embodiment in order to decrease cooling time, or increase the deflection of the membrane, a pancake shaped cell may be used with the height (perpendicular to the membrane) smaller than the horizontal dimensions, typically up to ten times smaller.

The gas used in the cell should preferably be a gas having an electronic resonant absorbtion feature in the visible, near infrared or near ultraviolet spectral region. Gases with vibrational absorption features in these spectral ranges may also be used although their initial pressures would have to be higher (10's of atmospheres) in order to absorb efficiently. Typical suitable gasses are NO, CO.sub.2, NO.sub.2, NH.sub.3, and I.sub.2.

It is desirable for maximum efficiency of operation, to match the laser and the gas so that the gas has a photon absorption band corresponding to a wavelength of the laser. Examples of corresponding gas and laser are: NO and ArF plus dye; O.sub.2 and ArF; NH.sub.3 or NO.sub.2 and KrF plus dye; and I.sub.2 and Ar+.

The high thermal conductivity layer 29 typically may be silicon, which has a thermal conductivity of 1.49 watts per centimeter per degree Kelvin. Other materials with a thermal conductivity not less than about 0.1 watts per centimeter per degree Kelvin can be used, including nickel. The heat sink 30 may be a layer of metal including silicon or a Peltier device or other refrigeration system. A heat sink may also be provided by directing a cooling liquid or gas flow along the layer 29 or the layer 30.

An alternative construction for the microactuator is shown in FIG. 3, wherein components corresponding to those of FIG. 2 are identified by the same reference numbers. In the embodiment of FIG. 3, a diffusing lens 27a is used in place of the lens 26 and the window 27 of the embodiment of FIG. 2. Also, the photon source is mounted directly at the outer wall of the cell in a lamp housing 33. The cell is formed as a single layer 29 of high thermal conductivity material, with cooling occurring by radiation into the ambient atmosphere through the wall. The operation of the microactuator of FIG. 3 is the same as that of FIG. 2.

Further alternative embodiments for the microactuator construction are shown in FIG. 4, with the cell 21, flexible member 23 and output member 24. In this embodiment, the inner layer 35 of the cell is a very thin film of electrical resistance material, typically a layer of tungsten or other high temperature resistant electrical conductor in the order of 1 to 5 micrometers thick.

The electrical resistance film is applied over another layer 36 of the cell which is of a material of very low thermal conductivity, preferably not more than about 0.01 watts per centimeter per degree Kelvin. A nonporous ceramic is a preferred material for the layer 36, having a thermal conductivity of 0.004 watts per centimeter per degree Kelvin. The layer 36 typically is in the order of 1 to 10 micrometers thick, and typically is carried on a substrate 37 which is a material of relatively high thermal conductivity, preferably at least 0.5 watts per centimeter per degree Kelvin, typically silicon. This layer 37 should be thick enough to provide the physical support for the cell but the thickness is not critical.

An electric power source 39 is connected to the film 35 and is operated to provide power pulses typically of durations between 1 and 10 microseconds at periods greater than 10 microseconds.

With this arrangement, the heat generated in the thin film 35 is primarily directed into the gas substantially instantaneously to heat the gas and increase the pressure. There is a relatively slow flow of heat from the film 35 through the thermal insulating layer 36 to the substrate 37 during the time the gas is heating. The thickness and thermal characteristics of the layer 36 are selected so that the gas will cool during the interval between energy pulses, returning the gas to the normal pressure. With this arrangement, the desired nonequilibrium characteristic and transient pressure increases in the cell are produced, resulting in the reciprocating motion of the member 24 at the high repetition rate.

A further alternative embodiment of the invention is shown in FIG. 5, wherein the gas in the cell is heated by heating the inner wall of the cell with light from the exterior of the cell. In this embodiment a thin layer of a thermal insulator 36, preferably a non-porous ceramic with thermal conductivity less than 0.005 watts per centimeter per degree Kelvin, is provided as the inner surface of the cell 21, with the layer 36 carried on a substrate 37, as shown in FIG. 4. Light from a laser is introduced into the volume through a window, such as by the lens 27a and lamp housing 33 of FIG. 3, for periods preferably from about 1 to 10 microseconds. Total energy in the light pulse should be from about 10 to 100 microjoules. The insulating layer 36 should be between about 1 and 10 micrometers thick with the material 37 on which it is deposited being a good thermal conductor, preferably with thermal conductivity greater than about 0.5 watts per centimeter per degree Kelvin.

The energy for this laser heated wall mode of operation can be provided at arbitrary frequencies over a wide range of wavelengths. Thus a laser diode would be a good candidate source and could be mounted in close proximity to the microdevice. In general it is preferable to introduce the light, using a small fraction of the surface area, into the volume with an angular dispersion large enough to illuminate substantially uniformly the inner walls of the cell. In operation, the inner wall of the cell is rapidly heated by the light energy burst, with the gas being heated by the hot cell wall and with minimal heat loss through the layer 36. When the energy source is shut off the cell wall and the gas cool by heat flow to the sink 37, completing the heating and cooling cycle.

An alternative embodiment of the microdevice of FIG. 5 with multiple entry to the cell for improved uniform coverage of the cell inner wall is illustrated in FIG. 6. The pancake cell configuration is used with the internal dimension of the cell typically being 33 micrometers high, 170 micrometers long and 170 micrometers wide. Light energy may be introduced into the cell from each end through surface waveguides 40 positioned in the substrate 37. The waveguides may be illuminated from a single pulsed source 41, or by two sources operating in synchronism.

Gases for use in the microdevice of FIG. 4 should be chosen for the particular situation. For the most rapid gas heating, helium or hydrogen is preferred. For cases where slower response times are appropriate, nitrogen or argon might be used. However for applications where the wall heating mode is used for a compressor or vacuum micropump, the gas will be defined by needs outside of the requirements of the response times of the energy release cell. The configuration of FIG. 6 with the cell kept small in one dimension can be advantageous because it shortens the characteristic cycle time since the heating and cooling times depend on the second order of the dimensions of the volume. Thus the chamber in FIG. 6 which has about the same volume as a cubic chamber 100 micrometers to a side would heat or cool about ten times quicker than the cubic shape.

A microdevice suitable for use as compressors and vacuum pumps is shown in FIGS. 7 and 8. A single microcompressor or vacuum micropump is illustrated in FIG. 7, and two FIG. 7 units cascaded to produce higher pressure ratios are illustrated in FIG. 8. In the embodiment illustrated, the cell 21a typically is about 30 by 150 by 150 micrometers with a thin electrical resistance film 35 over a low thermal conductivity layer 36 on a substrate 37, for electrical pulse heating. Alternatively the wall layer 36 can be heated by light pulses as previously described.

A top member or cover 44 is used in place of the diaphragm 23, with an inlet valve 45 and an outlet valve 46 in the cover. The valves are preferably passive and could be flapper valves or of the type described by Esahi et al in Sensors and Actuators, volume 20, 1989, pages 163-170. The valve 45 provides a flow path from an inlet passage 47 to the interior of the cell, and the valve 46 provides a flow path from the cell to an outlet passage 48. With the gas in the cell at normal temperature, the valve 45 is open and the valve 46 is closed. When the gas is heated and expands, the increase of pressure in the cell closes the inlet valve 45 and forces gas out through the outlet valve 46 into the outlet passage 48. When the gas cools and the pressure in the cell drops, the inlet valve returns to its normal open condition, and the outlet valve is closed by the higher pressure in the outlet passage, permitting gas to flow into the cell from the inlet passage. Thus it is seen that the microdevice can function as a compressor or pump for the gas and as a vacuum pump.

Except in very unusual circumstances the working gas being compressed or pumped will likely not be a convenient absorber of photon energy, thus the transient wall heating mode of operation, such as is shown in FIGS. 4 and 5 will be necessary. In order for the microdevice to have as low a characteristic response time as possible, it will be preferable for the energy release cell or chamber to have a pancake shape. The volume described for the cell of FIG. 7 for instance would have a cycle time of about 20 microseconds. The response time of the cell is important in the wall heating case since the total energy per pulse required to reach a certain peak wall temperature varies with the time that the wall heat source is on. The shorter the heating time, the more efficient the microdevice.

In the embodiment of FIG. 8, two of the pumps of FIG. 7 are connected in cascade to provide an increase in performance. The valve 46 functions as the outlet valve for the cell 21a and as the inlet valve for the cell 21b. Another valve 46a is the outlet valve for the cell 21b. A cover 44a serves as the substrate for the cell 21b and as the cover for the cell 21a, while the substrate 37 serves as a cover for the cell 21b. The operation of the cells is as described for FIG. 7, with the two cells being energized alternatively.

An alternative construction for the valves 45, 46 is shown in FIG. 9, where the valves may be of the type shown by Smith and Hok, Proceedings of 1991 of International Conference on Solid State Sensors and Actuators pages 1049-1051.

In another alternative embodiment of the invention the transient energy releases in the cell are produced using a gas discharge or spark within the cell. A microactuator of the diaphragm type with gas discharge operation is shown in FIG. 10, and micropump type is shown in FIG. 11, with components corresponding to those of earlier drawing figures identified by the same reference numbers.

Electrodes 51, 52 are positioned within the cell, separated by electrical insulating material 53, with the inner ends of the electrodes positioned to approximately center the discharge 54 between the electrodes in the cell. A voltage pulse source 55 is connected across the electrodes, preferably with one electrode and the structure connected to ground.

In operation, a voltage pulse applied to the electrodes produces a discharge between the electrodes in the gas in the cell, resulting in an increase in gas pressure. After the termination of the pulse, the gas cools and the pressure drops. By way of example, the breakdown potential for an electrode spacing of 50 micrometers is around 200 volts for argon at one atmosphere of pressure. The corresponding field strength is 40 kv per cm. Very short current pulses can be formed by applying short voltage pulses, typically of duration less than one microsecond, to the electrode by known techniques. Preferably a positive voltage pulse will be used with the other electrode being at ground. In order to deposit 1 microjoule of energy in the gas for heating the gas, a 10 milliamp current across a 200 volt potential needs to flow for about 1 microsecond, taking into consideration normal losses in operation. Since a discharge can be initiated in all gases of practical interest, the discharge heating mode for the cell gas is of particular application to vacuum micropumps and microcompressors operating in various ambient gases. In this embodiment the thermally insulating wall layer 36 can be used to control the length of the pressure pulse and in some applications may not be necessary.

## Claims

1. A microdevice for providing motion at a high repetition rate, including in combination: change in pressure in said cell; pressure in said cell and move said output wall portion, pressure increases in said cell at cycle times of not more than about 50 microseconds; pressure in said cell.

2. A microdevice as defined in claim 1 wherein said transient gas pressure increases are generated at cycle times of not more than about 5 microseconds.

3. A microdevice as defined in claim 1 wherein said means for cooling includes a thin cell wall of a material of high thermal conductivity.

4. A microdevice as defined in claim 1 wherein said means for cooling includes a cell wall of thermal conductivity not less than about one watt per centimeter per degree Kelvin.

5. A microdevice as defined in claim 1 wherein said means for cooling includes a multilayer cell wall with a first inner layer of a material of low thermal conductivity and a second layer over said first layer of a material of high thermal conductivity.

6. A microdevice as defined in claim 5 including a heat sink over said second layer of said wall.

7. A microdevice as defined in claim 1 wherein said means for cooling includes a multilayer cell wall with a first inner layer of a material of thermal conductivity not more than about 0.01 watts per centimeter per degree Kelvin and a thickness in the range of about one to ten micrometers, and a second layer over said first inner layer of a material of thermal conductivity not less than about 1.0 watt per centimeter per degree Kelvin.

8. A microdevice as defined in claim 7 including a heat sink over said second layer of said wall.

9. A microdevice as defined in claim 1 wherein said means for heating includes a source of photons and means for directing said photons into said cell.

10. A microdevice as defined in claim 9 wherein said cell has a wall with a photon transparent window, and optic for directing said laser pulsed output to said cell transparent window.

11. A microdevice as defined in claim 9 wherein said cell includes a photon transparent window, and at said window.

12. A microdevice as defined in claim 9 wherein said photons are directed onto the inner wall of said cell.

13. A microdevice as defined in claim 12 wherein said means for cooling includes a multilayer cell wall with a first inner layer of a material of low thermal conductivity and a second layer over said first layer of a material of high thermal conductivity.

14. A microdevice as defined in claim 12 wherein said means for cooling includes a multilayer cell wall with a first inner layer of a material of thermal conductivity not more than about 0.01 watts per centimeter per degree Kelvin and a thickness in the range of about one to ten micrometers, and a second layer over said first inner layer of a material of thermal conductivity not less than about 1.0 watt per centimeter per degree Kelvin.

15. A microdevice as defined in claim 9 wherein said photons are directed into said gas in said cell.

16. A microdevice as defined in claim 15 with said photons are of a wavelength corresponding to a photon absorption band of said gas.

17. A microdevice as defined in claim 15 wherein said gas is a gas selected from the group consisting of NO, CO.sub.2, NO.sub.2, NH.sub.3 and I.sub.2.

18. A microdevice as defined in claim 15 wherein said means for cooling includes a thin cell wall of a material of high thermal conductivity.

19. A microdevice as defined in claim 15 wherein said means for cooling includes a cell wall of thermal conductivity not less than about 1 watt per centimeter per degree Kelvin.

20. A microdevice as defined in claim 1 wherein said means for heating includes: cell; and

21. A microdevice as defined in claim 20 wherein said means for cooling includes a multilayer cell wall with a first inner layer of a material of low thermal conductivity and a second layer over said first layer of a material of high thermal conductivity, with said thin film on said first inner layer.

22. A microdevice as defined in claim 20 wherein said means for cooling includes a multilayer cell wall with a first inner layer of a material of thermal conductivity not more than about 0.01 watts per centimeter per degree Kelvin and a thickness in the range of about one to ten micrometers, and a second layer over said first inner layer of a material of thermal conductivity not less than about 1.0 watt per centimeter per degree Kelvin.

23. A microdevice as defined in claim 1 wherein said means for heating includes means for producing an electrical discharge in said gas in said cell.

24. A microdevice as defined in claim 23 wherein said means for heating includes spaced electrodes positioned within said cell, and an electrical pulse source connected to said electrodes.

25. A microdevice as defined in claim 1 wherein said microdevice is a microactuator with said cell being closed and with said movable wall position providing a reciprocating actuating force.

26. A microdevice as defined in claim 1 wherein said microdevice is a micropump with said movable wall portion including an inlet valve and an outlet valve, with said inlet valve closing and said outlet valve remaining open when the pressure in said cell increases.

27. A method for providing reciprocating motion at a high repetition rate with a microdevice having a cell with an output wall having at least a portion movable in response to change in pressure in the cell, and a charge of gas in the cell, cell and move the output wall portion by generating transient gas pressure increases in the cell at cycle times of not more than about 50 microseconds; and

28. A method as defined in claim 27 including generating the transient gas pressure increases at cycle times of not more than about 5 microseconds.

29. A method as defined in claim 27 including cooling by providing a thin cell wall of a material of high thermal conductivity.

30. A method as defined in claim 27 including cooling by providing a cell wall of thermal conductivity not less than about one watt per centimeter per degree Kelvin.

31. A method as defined in claim 27 including cooling by providing a multilayer cell wall with a first inner layer of a material of low thermal conductivity and a second layer over said first layer of a material of high thermal conductivity.

32. A method as defined in claim 27 including cooling by providing a multilayer cell wall with a first inner layer of a material of thermal conductivity not more than about 0.01 watts per centimeter per degree Kelvin and a thickness in the range of about one to ten micrometers, and a second layer over said first inner layer of a material of thermal conductivity not less than about 1.0 watt per centimeter per degree Kelvin.

33. A method as defined in claim 27 including heating by directing photons from a photon source into the cell.

34. A method as defined in claim 27 including using a laser as the source of the photons.

35. A method as defined in claim 33 including directing the photons into the gas.

36. A method as defined in claim 35 using photons of a wavelength corresponding to a photon absorption band of the gas.

37. A method as defined in claim 35 using a gas selected from the group consisting of NO, CO.sub.2, NO.sub.2, NH.sub.3 and I.sub.2.

38. A method as defined in claim 35 including cooling by providing a thin cell wall of a material of high thermal conductivity.

39. A method as defined in claim 33 including directing the photons onto the inner wall of the cell.

40. A method as defined in claim 27 including heating by connecting a pulsed electric power source to a thin film of resistance heating material on an inner surface of the cell.

41. A method as defined in claim 40 including cooling by providing a multilayer cell wall with a first inner layer of a material of low thermal conductivity and a second layer over said first layer of a material of high thermal conductivity.

42. A method as defined in claim 27 including heating by periodically producing an electrical discharge within said cell.

43. A method as defined in claim 27 wherein the cell is a closed cell and the microdevice is a microactuator providing a reciprocating actuating force.

44. A method as defined in claim 27 wherein the microdevice is a micropump and the cell includes inlet and outlet valves with the inlet valve normally open and the outlet valve normally closed, with an increase in pressure in the cell closing the inlet valve and expelling gas through the outlet valve.