II 

112TH CONGRESS 

1ST SESSION S. 629 

To improve hydropower, and for other purposes. 

IN THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES 

MARCH 17, 2011 

Ms. MURKOWSKI (for herself, Mr. BEGICH, Mr. BINGAMAN, Ms. CANTWELL, 

Mr. CRAPO, Mrs. MURRAY, Mr. RISCH, Mr. WHITEHOUSE, and Mr. 

WYDEN) introduced the following bill; which was read twice and referred 

to the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources 

A BILL 

To improve hydropower, and for other purposes. 

1 Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representa2 tives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, 

3 SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE; TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

4 (a) SHORT TITLE.—This Act may be cited as the 

5 ‘‘Hydropower Improvement Act of 2011’’. 

6 (b) TABLE OF CONTENTS.—The table of contents of 

7 this Act is as follows: 

Sec. 1. Short title; table of contents. 

Sec. 2. Findings. 

Sec. 3. Definitions. 

Sec. 4. Sense of the Senate on the use of hydropower renewable resources. 

Sec. 5. Competitive grants for improvements for increased hydropower production. 

Sec. 6. Plan for research, development, and demonstration to increase hydropower capacity. 


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Sec. 7. Promoting hydropower development at nonpowered dams and closed 

loop pumped storage projects. 

Sec. 8. Promoting conduit hydropower projects and small hydroelectric power 

projects. 

Sec. 9. FERC authority to extend preliminary permit terms. 

Sec. 10. Study of non-Federal hydropower development at Bureau of Reclamation projects. 

Sec. 11. Study of potential hydropower from conduits. 

Sec. 12. Study of pumped storage. 

Sec. 13. Report on memorandum of understanding on hydropower. 

Sec. 14. Nonapplication to Federal Power Marketing Administrations. 

Sec. 15. Budgetary effects. 

1 SEC. 2. FINDINGS. 

2 Congress finds that— 

3 (1) hydropower is the largest source of clean, 

4 renewable electricity in the United States; 

5 (2) as of the date of enactment of this Act, hy6 dropower resources, including pumped storage facili7 ties, provide— 

8 (A) nearly 7 percent of the electricity gen9 erated in the United States, avoiding approxi10 mately 200,000,000 metric tons of carbon emis11 sions each year; and 

12 (B) approximately 100,000 megawatts of 

13 electric capacity in the United States; 

14 (3) only 3 percent of the 80,000 dams in the 

15 United States generate electricity so there is sub16 stantial potential for adding hydropower generation 

17 to nonpower dams; 

18 (4) in every State, a tremendous untapped 

19 growth potential exists in hydropower resources, in20 cluding— 


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1 (A) efficiency improvements and capacity 

2 additions; 

3 (B) adding generation to nonpower dams; 

4 (C) conduit hydropower; 

5 (D) conventional hydropower; 

6 (E) pumped storage facilities; and 

7 (F) new marine and hydrokinetic re8 sources; and 

9 (5) improvements in increased hydropower pro10 duction in the United States have the potential— 

11 (A) to increase the clean energy generation 

12 of the United States; 

13 (B) to improve project performance and re14 sult in better environmental outcomes; and 

15 (C) to provide ancillary benefits that in16 clude grid reliability, energy storage, and inte17 gration services for variable renewable re18 sources. 

19 SEC. 3. DEFINITIONS. 

20 In this Act: 

21 (1) CONDUIT.—The term ‘‘conduit’’ means any 

22 tunnel, canal, pipeline, aqueduct, flume, ditch, or 

23 similar manmade water conveyance that is operated 

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1 ipal, or industrial consumption and not primarily for 

2 the generation of electricity. 

3 (2) SECRETARY.—The term ‘‘Secretary’’ means 

4 the Secretary of Energy. 

5 (3) SMALL HYDROELECTRIC POWER

6 PROJECT.—The term ‘‘small hydroelectric power 

7 project’’ has the meaning given the term in section 

8 4.30 of title 18, Code of Federal Regulations. 

9 SEC. 4. SENSE OF THE SENATE ON THE USE OF HYDRO10 POWER RENEWABLE RESOURCES. 

11 It is the sense of the Senate that the United States 

12 should increase substantially the capacity and generation 

13 of clean, renewable hydropower which will improve the en14 vironmental quality of resources in the United States and 

15 support local job creation and economic investment across 

16 the United States. 

17 SEC. 5. COMPETITIVE GRANTS FOR IMPROVEMENTS FOR 

18 INCREASED HYDROPOWER PRODUCTION. 

19 (a) IN GENERAL.—As soon as practicable after the 

20 date of enactment of this Act, the Secretary shall establish 

21 in the Department of Energy a program under which the 

22 Secretary shall make competitive grants to eligible entities 

23 (including States and political subdivisions) that— 


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1 (1) in the case of a hydroelectric power gener2 ating facility in existence on the date of enactment 

3 of this Act— 

4 (A) make efficiency improvements or ca5 pacity additions at the facility; or 

6 (B) address aging infrastructure at the fa7 cility; 

8 (2) add hydropower generation to a nonpower 

9 dam in existence as of the date of enactment of this 

10 Act; 

11 (3) develop hydroelectric generation within ex12 isting conduits; 

13 (4) develop and perform studies to meet appli14 cable environmental requirements for increased hy15 dropower production; or 

16 (5) carry out necessary environmental mitiga17 tion measures. 

18 (b) ADMINISTRATION.— 

19 (1) IN GENERAL.—The Secretary shall establish 

20 terms and conditions, including eligibility, for the re21 ceipt of grants under this section. 

22 (2) INCLUSIONS.—In carrying out this section, 

23 the Secretary shall ensure that powerhouses and 

24 projects that require new infrastructure are included 


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1 among the eligible entities that may receive grants 

2 under this section. 

3 (c) COST SHARING.—The Secretary shall carry out 

4 the program under this section in compliance with sections 

5 988 and 989 of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (42 U.S.C. 

6 16352, 16353). 

7 (d) FUNDING.—From amounts made available under 

8 section 625(e) of the Energy Independence and Security 

9 Act of 2007 (42 U.S.C. 17204(e)), the Secretary may use 

10 to carry out this section $50,000,000 for each of fiscal 

11 years 2012 through 2016, of which not more than 20 per12 cent of the amount made available for a fiscal year may 

13 be used to carry out an individual project. 

14 SEC. 6. PLAN FOR RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT, AND DEM15 ONSTRATION TO INCREASE HYDROPOWER 

16 CAPACITY. 

17 (a) IN GENERAL.—Not later than 270 days after the 

18 date of enactment of this Act, the Secretary shall establish 

19 and implement a plan— 

20 (1) to facilitate through research, development, 

21 and demonstration the increased use and generation 

22 of renewable hydropower; and 

23 (2) to coordinate research and development on 

24 innovative technological advancements in hydropower 


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1 equipment, efficiency, and operations that can sub2 stantially improve environmental quality. 

3 (b) ADMINISTRATION.—The Secretary shall— 

4 (1) review and update the plan on an annual 

5 basis; and 

6 (2) report on progress made pursuant to the 

7 plan on an annual basis to the Committee of Energy 

8 and Natural Resources of the Senate and the Com9 mittee on Energy and Commerce of the House of 

10 Representatives. 

11 (c) TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE.— 

12 (1) IN GENERAL.—As part of the plan estab13 lished under this section, the Secretary shall provide 

14 technical assistance to applicants and licensees cov15 ered by part I of the Federal Power Act (16 U.S.C. 

16 792 et seq.) to develop and perform environmental 

17 studies, or comply with applicable environmental re18 quirements, to obtain or renew licenses for hydro19 power projects. 

20 (2) CONSULTATION.—The Secretary shall carry 

21 out this subsection in consultation with (as appro22 priate)— 

23 (A) the Secretary of the Interior; 

24 (B) the Secretary of Commerce; 

25 (C) the Secretary of Agriculture; and 


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1 (D) the Administrator of the Environ2 mental Protection Agency. 

3 (d) COORDINATION.—The Secretary shall coordinate, 

4 to the maximum extent practicable, activities under this 

5 section with other programs of the Department of Energy 

6 and other Federal research programs. 

7 (e) FUNDING.—From amounts made available under 

8 section 812(g) of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (42 

9 U.S.C. 16161(g)), the Secretary may use to carry out this 

10 section $50,000,000 for each of fiscal years 2012 through 

11 2016. 

12 SEC. 7. PROMOTING HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT AT 

13 NONPOWERED DAMS AND CLOSED LOOP 

14 PUMPED STORAGE PROJECTS. 

15 (a) IN GENERAL.—To improve the regulatory process 

16 and reduce delays and costs for hydropower development 

17 at nonpowered dams and closed loop pumped storage 

18 projects, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (re19 ferred to in this section as the ‘‘Commission’’) shall inves20 tigate the feasibility of the issuance of a license for certain 

21 hydropower development during the 2-year period begin22 ning on the date of commencement of the prefiling licens23 ing process of the Commission (referred to in this section 

24 as a ‘‘2-year process’’). 


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1 (b) WORKSHOPS AND PILOTS.—The Commission 

2 shall— 

3 (1) not later than 60 days after the date of en4 actment of this Act, hold an initial workshop to so5 licit public comment and recommendations on how 

6 to implement a 2-year process; 

7 (2) develop criteria for identifying projects fea8 turing hydropower development at nonpowered dams 

9 and closed loop pumped storage projects that may be 

10 appropriate for licensing within a 2-year process; 

11 (3) not later than 180 days after the date of 

12 enactment of this Act, develop and implement pilot 

13 projects to test a 2-year process, if practicable; and 

14 (4) not later than 3 years after the date of im15 plementation of any pilot project to test a 2-year 

16 process, hold a final workshop to solicit public com17 ment on the effectiveness of the pilot project. 

18 (c) MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING.—The Com19 mission shall, to the maximum extent practicable, enter 

20 into a memorandum of understanding with any applicable 

21 Federal or State agency to implement a pilot project de22 scribed in subsection (b). 

23 (d) REPORTS.— 

24 (1) PILOT PROJECTS NOT IMPLEMENTED.—If 

25 the Commission determines that the pilot projects 


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1 described in subsection (b) are not practicable, not 

2 later than 240 days after the date of enactment of 

3 this Act, the Commission shall submit to the Com4 mittee on Energy and Natural Resources of the Sen5 ate and the Committee on Energy and Commerce of 

6 the House of Representatives a report that— 

7 (A) describes the public comments received 

8 as part of the initial workshop held under sub9 section (b)(1); and 

10 (B) identifies the process, legal, environ11 mental, economic, and other issues that justify 

12 the determination of the Commission that a 2- 

13 year process is not practicable, with rec14 ommendations on how Congress may address or 

15 remedy the identified issues. 

16 (2) PILOT PROJECTS IMPLEMENTED.—If the 

17 Commission develops and implements pilot projects 

18 involving a 2-year process described in subsection 

19 (b), not later than 60 days after the date of comple20 tion of any final workshop held under subsection 

21 (b)(3), the Commission shall submit to the Com22 mittee on Energy and Natural Resources of the Sen23 ate and the Committee on Energy and Commerce of 

24 the House of Representatives a report that— 


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1 (A) describes the outcomes of the pilot 

2 projects; 

3 (B) describes the public comments from 

4 the final workshop on the effectiveness of the 

5 pilot projects; and 

6 (C)(i) outlines how the Commission will 

7 adopt policies under existing law (including reg8 ulations) that result in a 2-year process; 

9 (ii) outlines how the Commission will pro10 ceed with a rulemaking to adopt a 2-year proc11 ess in the regulations of the Commission; or 

12 (iii) identifies the process, legal, environ13 mental, economic, and other issues that justify 

14 the determination of the Commission that a 2- 

15 year process is not practicable, with rec16 ommendations on how Congress may address or 

17 remedy the identified issues. 

18 SEC. 8. PROMOTING CONDUIT HYDROPOWER PROJECTS 

19 AND SMALL HYDROELECTRIC POWER 

20 PROJECTS. 

21 (a) CONDUIT HYDROPOWER PROJECTS.— 

22 (1) IN GENERAL.—Section 30 of the Federal 

23 Power Act (16 U.S.C. 823a) is amended— 

24 (A) in subsection (a), by striking para25 graphs (1) and (2) and inserting the following: 


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1 ‘‘(1) is located on non-Federal lands or Federal 

2 lands; and 

3 ‘‘(2) uses for the generation only the hydro4 electric potential of a conduit.’’; 

5 (B) in subsection (c)— 

6 (i) in the matter preceding paragraph 

7 (1), by striking ‘‘the United States’’ and 

8 all that follows through ‘‘and the State 

9 agency’’ and inserting ‘‘the Secretary of 

10 the department that supervises the land on 

11 which the facility is or will be located, the 

12 United States Fish and Wildlife Service, 

13 the National Marine Fisheries Service, and 

14 the State agency’’; and 

15 (ii) in paragraph (1), by striking ‘‘the 

16 Fish and Wildlife Service National Marine 

17 Fisheries Service’’ and inserting ‘‘the Sec18 retary of the department that supervises 

19 the land on which the facility is or will be 

20 located, the United States Fish and Wild21 life Service, the National Marine Fisheries 

22 Service,’’; and 

23 (C) by adding at the end the following: 


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1 ‘‘(f) SAVINGS CLAUSE.—Nothing in this section al2 ters or affects the authority of the Secretary of the Inte3 rior under the reclamation laws— 

4 ‘‘(1) to authorize private hydropower develop5 ment under a lease of power privilege; or 

6 ‘‘(2) to develop other hydropower generation at 

7 facilities of the Bureau of Reclamation. 

8 ‘‘(g) DEFINITION OF CONDUIT.—In this section, the 

9 term ‘conduit’ means any tunnel, canal, pipeline, aque10 duct, flume, ditch, or similar manmade water conveyance 

11 that is operated for the distribution of water for agricul12 tural, municipal, or industrial consumption and not pri13 marily for the generation of electricity.’’. 

14 (2) MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING ON

15 CONDUIT HYDROPOWER PROJECTS.—Not later than 

16 180 days after the date of enactment of this Act, the 

17 Federal Energy Regulatory Commission shall enter 

18 into a memorandum of understanding with relevant 

19 Federal agencies that have conditioning authority 

20 under section 30(c)(1) of the Federal Power Act (16 

21 U.S.C.823a(c)(1))— 

22 (A) to establish a coordinated and more ef23 ficient approach to any environmental impact 

24 statement or similar analysis required under the 

25 National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 


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1 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.) relating to the consider2 ation of conduit hydropower projects; 

3 (B) to develop and carry out an expedited 

4 approval process for conduit hydropower 

5 projects, including using existing authority— 

6 (i) to aggregate appropriate conduit 

7 projects for consideration in a consolidated 

8 license or exemption; and 

9 (ii) to remove a conduit project from 

10 the aggregated projects if the removal is 

11 necessary to facilitate approval of the con12 solidated license or exemption. 

13 (3) PUBLIC WORKSHOPS AND PILOT PROJECTS

14 ON CONDUIT HYDROPOWER PROJECTS.— 

15 (A) IN GENERAL.—As soon as practicable 

16 after the date of enactment of this Act, the 

17 Commissioner of Reclamation and the Federal 

18 Energy Regulatory Commission shall conduct 3 

19 regional public workshops with relevant stake20 holders, including water users and the environ21 mental community, to identify ways in which 

22 the conduit approval process may be modified— 

23 (i) to reduce barriers to conduit hy24 dropower projects, including barriers cre25 ated by project costs or the timeframe to 


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1 approve and maintain adequate environ2 mental, health, and safety protections; 

3 (ii) to develop pilot projects in con4 junction with voluntary participants to 

5 demonstrate flexible and innovative ways 

6 to reduce barriers to conduit hydropower 

7 while maintaining adequate environmental, 

8 health, and safety protections; and 

9 (iii) to develop a category of micro10 hydropower conduit projects, such as 

11 projects involving municipal pressure re12 duction valves and the pressurization of ex13 isting irrigation conveyances, that may be 

14 approved through a simple application 

15 process while maintaining adequate envi16 ronmental, health, and safety protections. 

17 (B) REPORT.—Not later than 180 days 

18 after the date of completion of the regional 

19 workshops under subparagraph (A), the Com20 missioner of Reclamation and the Federal En21 ergy Regulatory Commission shall submit to the 

22 appropriate committees of Congress a report 

23 that describes any recommendations for the 

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1 shops and pilot projects described in subpara2 graph (A). 

3 (C) FUNDING.—From amounts made 

4 available under section 812(g) of the Energy 

5 Policy Act of 2005 (42 U.S.C. 16161(g)), the 

6 Commissioner of Reclamation and the Federal 

7 Energy Regulatory Commission may use to 

8 carry out pilot projects described in subpara9 graph (A)(ii) $5,000,000 for the period of fiscal 

10 years 2012 through 2016, to remain available 

11 until expended. 

12 (b) SMALL HYDROELECTRIC POWER PROJECTS.— 

13 (1) IN GENERAL.—As soon as practicable after 

14 the date of enactment of this Act, the Federal En15 ergy Regulatory Commission shall conduct 3 re16 gional public workshops with relevant stakeholders, 

17 including States and the environmental commu18 nity— 

19 (A) to reduce barriers for small hydro20 electric power projects, including barriers cre21 ated by project costs or the timeframe to ap22 prove and maintain adequate environmental, 

23 health, and safety protections; 

24 (B) to develop pilot projects in conjunction 

25 with voluntary participants to demonstrate 


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1 flexible and innovative ways to reduce barriers 

2 for small hydroelectric power projects while 

3 maintaining adequate environmental, health, 

4 and safety protections; 

5 (C) to use existing authority— 

6 (i) to aggregate appropriate small hy7 droelectric power projects for consideration 

8 in a consolidated license or exemption; and 

9 (ii) to remove a small hydroelectric 

10 power project from the aggregated projects 

11 if the removal is necessary to facilitate ap12 proval of the consolidated license or exemp13 tion; and 

14 (D) to determine whether the rated capac15 ity for small hydroelectric power projects estab16 lished by the Commission should be increased 

17 from 5 electrical megawatts. 

18 (2) REPORT.—Not later than 180 days after 

19 the date of completion of the workshops under para20 graph (1), the Federal Energy Regulatory Commis21 sion shall submit to the appropriate committees of 

22 Congress a report that describes any recommenda23 tions developed in the workshops and pilot projects 

24 described in paragraph (1). 


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1 (3) FUNDING.—From amounts made available 

2 under section 812(g) of the Energy Policy Act of 

3 2005 (42 U.S.C. 16161(g)), the Federal Energy 

4 Regulatory Commission may use to carry out pilot 

5 projects described in paragraph (1)(B) $5,000,000 

6 for the period of fiscal years 2012 through 2016, to 

7 remain available until expended. 

8 SEC. 9. FERC AUTHORITY TO EXTEND PRELIMINARY PER9 MIT TERMS. 

10 Section 5 of the Federal Power Act (16 U.S.C. 798) 

11 is amended— 

12 (1) by designating the first, second, and third 

13 sentences as subsections (a), (c), and (d), respec14 tively; and 

15 (2) by inserting after subsection (a) (as so des16 ignated) the following: 

17 ‘‘(b) EXTENSION.—The Commission may extend the 

18 term of a preliminary permit once for not more than 2 

19 additional years if the Commission finds that the per20 mittee has carried out activities under the permit in good 

21 faith and with reasonable diligence.’’. 


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1 SEC. 10. STUDY OF NON-FEDERAL HYDROPOWER DEVELOP2 MENT AT BUREAU OF RECLAMATION 

3 PROJECTS. 

4 (a) STUDY OF NON-FEDERAL HYDROPOWER DEVEL5 OPMENT AT BUREAU OF RECLAMATION PROJECTS.—Not 

6 later than 180 days after the date of enactment of this 

7 section, the Commissioner of Reclamation (in consultation 

8 with the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, pref9 erence power customers, water users, and other interested 

10 stakeholders) shall— 

11 (1) conduct a study of barriers to non-Federal 

12 hydropower development at Bureau of Reclamation 

13 projects; and 

14 (2) report to Congress the results of the study. 

15 (b) MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING.— 

16 (1) IN GENERAL.—Not later than 180 days 

17 after the date of enactment of this section, the Com18 missioner of Reclamation and the Federal Energy 

19 Regulatory Commission shall develop and issue an 

20 interagency memorandum of understanding to im21 prove the coordination and timeliness of the non22 Federal development of hydropower resources at Bu23 reau of Reclamation projects. 

24 (2) CONTENT.—The memorandum of under25 standing described in paragraph (1) shall identify— 


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1 (A) which agency has responsibility for 

2 permitting and licensing non-Federal develop3 ment of hydropower at each Bureau of Rec4 lamation project; and 

5 (B) the process or procedure to be followed 

6 for non-Federal hydropower development, in7 cluding conduit hydroelectric power, at each 

8 Bureau of Reclamation project. 

9 (c) ADMINISTRATION.—Nothing in this section alters 

10 or affects the authority of the Secretary of the Interior 

11 under the reclamation laws— 

12 (1) to authorize private hydropower develop13 ment under a lease of power privilege; or 

14 (2) to develop other hydropower generation at 

15 facilities of the Bureau of Reclamation. 

16 SEC. 11. STUDY OF POTENTIAL HYDROPOWER FROM CON17 DUITS. 

18 (a) IN GENERAL.—The Secretary shall conduct a 

19 study of the potential quantity of hydropower that may 

20 be obtained from conduits in the United States. 

21 (b) REPORT.—Not later than 1 year after the date 

22 of enactment of this Act, the Secretary shall submit to 

23 the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources of the 

24 Senate and the Committee on Energy and Commerce of 

25 the House of Representatives a report that describes the 


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1 results of the study conducted under subsection (a), in2 cluding any recommendations. 

3 SEC. 12. STUDY OF PUMPED STORAGE. 

4 (a) IN GENERAL.—The Secretary, in coordination 

5 with the Director of the United States Geological Survey, 

6 shall conduct a study (including identification) of Federal 

7 and non-Federal land that is well-suited for pumped stor8 age sites and is located near existing or potential sites of 

9 intermittent renewable resource development, such as 

10 wind farms. 

11 (b) REPORT.—Not later than 1 year after the date 

12 of enactment of this Act, the Secretary shall submit to 

13 the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources of the 

14 Senate and the Committee on Energy and Commerce of 

15 the House of Representatives a report that describes the 

16 results of the study conducted under subsection (a), in17 cluding any recommendations. 

18 SEC. 13. REPORT ON MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING 

19 ON HYDROPOWER. 

20 Not later than 180 days after the date of enactment 

21 of this Act, the President shall submit to the Committee 

22 on Energy and Natural Resources of the Senate and the 

23 Committee on Energy and Commerce of the House of 

24 Representatives a report on actions taken by the Depart25 ment of Energy, the Department of the Interior, and the 


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1 Corps of Engineers to carry out the memorandum of un2 derstanding on hydropower entered into on March 24, 

3 2010, with particular emphasis on actions taken by the 

4 agencies to work together and investigate ways to effi5 ciently and responsibly facilitate the Federal permitting 

6 process for Federal and non-Federal hydropower projects 

7 at Federal facilities, within existing authority. 

8 SEC. 14. NONAPPLICATION TO FEDERAL POWER MAR9 KETING ADMINISTRATIONS. 

10 (a) IN GENERAL.—This Act and the amendments 

11 made by this Act shall not limit the authority of the Bu12 reau of Reclamation to develop new hydropower at existing 

13 Federal projects in a manner that is consistent with Fed14 eral law, power and nonpower operating requirements of 

15 the Federal projects, and laws governing Federal Power 

16 Marketing Administrations. 

17 (b) MODIFICATIONS.—Nothing in this Act limits the 

18 authority under existing law of a Federal Power Mar19 keting Administrator in the event that operations at Fed20 eral projects with hydropower facilities are modified. 

21 SEC. 15. BUDGETARY EFFECTS. 

22 The budgetary effects of this Act, for the purpose of 

23 complying with the Statutory Pay-As-You-Go Act of 2010, 

24 shall be determined by reference to the latest statement 

25 titled ‘‘Budgetary Effects of PAYGO Legislation’’ for this 


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1 Act, submitted for printing in the Congressional Record 

2 by the Chairman of the Senate Budget Committee, pro3 vided that such statement has been submitted prior to the 

4 vote on passage. 

Æ 


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