Abstract 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                                            

 

 

Public Attitudes Toward the Use of Administrative Records 

 in the U.S. Census: Does Question Frame Matter? 

Nancy Bates, Monica J. Wroblewski, and Joanne Pascale1 

U.S. Census Bureau 

Keywords: Census, Administrative Records, Mindsets, Communications Campaign 

Due to the increasing and unsustainable cost of conducting censuses in the traditional manner, the Census Bureau is 

looking to leverage administrative records housed elsewhere in the government to supplement and/or replace costly 

nonresponse followup operations in future censuses. Before embarking on this new methodology, the agency must 

be mindful of public opinion as it poses new concerns about privacy, confidentiality, and informed consent. 

Previous research presents a somewhat conflicting picture of the topic – on one hand, public favorability toward the 

use of administrative records looks to be declining (Singer, Bates, Van Hoewyk, 2011). On the other hand, a recent 

study of public willingness to grant informed consent to record use paints a more optimistic picture (Pascale, 2011). 

In summer 2011, the Census Bureau conducted the second iteration of a survey designed to understand public 

attitudes toward the decennial census and the potential barriers and motivators to participating in the census. 

Included in the survey was a set of questions to evaluate overall attitudes toward using administrative records and 

various options for communicating the use of administrative records to the public. The instrument used a randomly 

assigned split-ballot questionnaire that presented three different framing contexts: framing the use of administrative 

records in terms of a cost savings, a decreased burden, and a control in which the questions are asked without 

reference to any benefits. Results enable the Census Bureau to better understand public opinion about the use of 

administrative records and how the agency might go about communicating the new method. Ultimately, the Census 

Bureau will use these results to inform the 2020 Census communications campaign and will allow administrative 

records usage messaging to be tailored to different segments of the population. 

Introduction and Background 

Over the last two decades, the cost of providing credible economic and social statistics for the U.S. population and 

businesses has increased dramatically. Increased difficulty contacting respondents, lower cooperation rates, and 

declining Federal government budgets all play a part. These factors combined with continually increasing business, 

state, and local demand for timely statistics has led to a profound conclusion -- “the current Census Bureau survey 

and census methods are simply unsustainable” (Groves, 2011). 

One cost-saving alternative is to collect data without direct participation by persons. This involves tapping data from 

administrative records previously collected for other purposes, for example, income tax records, social security 

records, and government program participation records such as food stamps, housing subsidy records, and 

Medicare/Medicaid records. Many industrialized countries have successfully developed new, less expensive 

methods using existing data from population registers to conduct their censuses. For example, Denmark, the 

Netherlands, and Finland have been using data from administrative population registers to conduct censuses since 

the 1980’s and early 1990’s (Mulalic, 2011; Asher, 2010), and Sweden is working on conducting their first recordsonly census (Jansson et al., 2011). Several other European countries including the Czech Republic, Estonia, Italy, 

Latvia , Lithuania, and Spain use a combination of registers and field enumeration simultaneously (Valente, 2010). 

1 Disclaimer: This report is released to inform interested parties of research and to encourage discussion. The views 

expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Census Bureau. 

1
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Currently, the Census Bureau is also looking to leverage administrative records housed elsewhere in the government 

to supplement and/or replace costly operations such as personal visit interviews. The Census Bureau has acquired 

combinations of administrative records and also developed efficient matching procedures that allow a powerful 

merge of administrative records with survey reports. Simply put, there is great potential to reduce overall costs. 

However, use of administrative records comes with a new set of challenges, for example, potential coverage 

problems, and concerns about accuracy. Furthermore, the agency must be mindful of public attitudes as it develops 

this new methodology. Use of administrative records poses concerns about privacy, confidentiality, and the 

perceived accuracy of using records in place of direct survey reports. How does the public perceive the trade-off 

between administrative records and privacy/confidentiality? As Madans (2011) notes “this is a key issue which has 

not been given sufficient attention but one which could determine how administrative records can best be 

incorporated into the production of national statistics”. 

Also of interest is the concept of informed consent. In the context of a federal statistical agency swapping (or 

augmenting) administrative records for survey or census responses, informed consent “refers to a person’s 

agreement to allow personal data to be provided for research and statistical purposes” (National Research Council, 

1993). In the U.S., a complex set of laws contain a number of requirements about informing individuals about how 

agencies will use and share the data they collect. A recent subcommittee of the Federal Committee on Statistical 

Methodology researched these statutes and provided numerous recommendations to facilitate data sharing and 

linking. In the report, the authors emphasize that “understanding how respondents react to informed consent 

notifications is critical to the process of obtaining that informed consent” (FCSM, 2011). One recent example is an 

experiment testing a notification of administrative record use in the 2010 Census mailing package – in this case, 

there were no adverse effects on unit nonresponse reported (see Hill, et al., 2011). 

As interest and use of administrative records has increased, a growing (albeit still small) body of survey literature 

exists around the topic of informed consent. One aspect of the research involves the fact that respondent consent to 

record use is not universal. If significant differences exist between consenters and non-consenters, this can lead to 

bias in the critical estimates of interest. Such studies typically seek to identify and understand the characteristics of 

those willing to consent versus not. For example, Korbmacher (2011) found that the respondent’s age and response 

to a household income question were correlated with consent, while Burton, Sala, and Knies (2011) found that 

respondents’ propensity to consent is related to privacy attitudes and community-mindedness. Likewise, Bates, and 

Pascale (2005) also found support for the hypothesis that privacy/confidentiality concerns can predict likelihood of 

consent. Tate, Calderwood, and Dezateux (2006) found that consent differed by demographic identifiers such as 

mother’s country of residence, age, and education. Pascale (2011) also reports that age and education is associated 

with level of consent. 

The above studies reflect outcomes from ‘real-life’ informed consent requests, that is, the researcher asks informed 

consent to pull a respondent’s administrative record for purposes of linking to survey data or in place of asking a 

direct report. In this case, actual (i.e., behavioral) consent is observed. Another body of literature is based on a 

hypothetical or more indirect measure of consent. In these studies, survey researchers gauge respondent favorability 

toward data linkage not by directly asking for consent but by asking for hypothetical consent and then examining the 

demographic and other characteristics associated with obtaining consent. A recent example is Singer, Bates, and 

Van Hoewyk (2011) which reported that, in a hypothetical context, younger persons, women, wealthier respondents 

and persons with high trust in government and low privacy concerns were more likely to favor use of administrative 

records to supplement or improve the decennial census. 

Studies of informed consent and attitudes toward record use also commonly include some type of framing 

experiment. In these cases, the survey poses questions about administrative record use (or informed consent to use 

administrative records) under a different set of circumstances or rationales. Such questionnaire design tests inform 

us if the desired outcome is higher or lower when framed in a particular context. For example Pascale (2011) 

framed informed consent to link survey answers with administrative records under three conditions: to improve 

accuracy of the results, to reduce costs, or to reduce respondent burden. While she found high overall levels of 

consent to linkage, she found no evidence that one frame yielded higher consent rates than another. Likewise, 

Singer, Bates, and Van Hoewyk (2011) also tested a cost versus accuracy frame when asking if respondents favored 

or opposed replacing decennial census forms with administrative data. They found that neither frame was very 

successful in persuading those who were opposed initially to the idea of swapping direct reports for administrative 

records. 

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In this paper, we report level of public favorability towards the hypothetical use of administrative records to 

enumerate households that fail to complete a census self-report. Additionally, we report results from a framing 

experiment whereby three different perspectives are offered: a control condition where no rationale was offered for 

the swap, a cost condition where a taxpayer savings is implied, and a burden condition where reduced respondent 

burden is implied. We expect these findings to inform how the Census Bureau constructs its communication 

outreach and plans to expand administrative record use to the next level. 

Previous Communications Research 

For the second time ever, in 2010, the Census Bureau conducted the decennial census using paid advertising as part 

of a multi-million dollar communications campaign designed to educate the population about the decennial census 

and motivate participation by mail. Designing a campaign suitable to reach a complex and diverse audience was no 

simple undertaking; to prepare, the Communications Directorate launched a series of qualitative, quantitative, 

attitudinal, and behavioral research initiatives including audience segmentation and the Census Barriers, Attitudes, 

and Motivators Survey (CBAMS). 

The audience segmentation research conducted prior to the 2010 Census delineated easy-to-count populations from 

the hard-to-count (HTC) as defined at the census tract level. It also helped to define the underlying constructs of 

HTC populations. In all, eight mutually exclusive segments were produced to help plan, target, and implement the 

2010 Census integrated communications campaign (Bates and Mulry, 2011). While audience segmentation 

answered questions about who the HTC are and where they reside, it did not provide any insight into why a segment 

may be less inclined to participate. To fill this gap, the Census Bureau commissioned the CBAMS. 

CBAMS, conducted in July and August 2008 to 4,064 respondents via in-person, landline telephone, and cellular 

telephone interviews, measured attitudes towards and knowledge of the decennial census, potential motivators and 

barriers to participation, ranking of potential messages, media consumption, and demographic information. CBAMS 

revealed five distinct mindsets among the population that varied in their knowledge of and attitudes toward the 

decennial census: Leading Edge, Head Nodders, Insulated, Unacquainted, and Cynical Fifth.2 

The information garnered from audience segmentation and CBAMS enabled the Census Bureau to funnel messaging 

and resources to each audience cluster relative to its propensity to respond by mail and with messaging that spoke to 

each groups’ unique motivators to overcome perceived barriers to participation. Through the process, the Census 

Bureau, still new to the field, realized the importance of communications research to its mission. With the 

conclusion of the 2010 Census, the Communications Directorate began planning a roadmap for robust 

communications research efforts beginning immediately and leading up to the 2020 Census communications 

campaign development. 

This approach is critical for multiple reasons: (1) the Census Bureau’s target audience, unlike any other entity, is the 

entire population of the United States;(2) the entire country is currently in the midst of a unique political and 

economic climate that may affect willingness to cooperate; and (3) the use of administrative records is gaining 

popularity as a cost saving measure that can also increase accuracy but which may evoke privacy and confidentiality 

concerns. Understanding how to communicate the Census Bureau’s message successfully in light of these obstacles 

will take considerable time and effort. We began the process by commissioning the second iteration of CBAMS 

(CBAMS II). 

The research goals for CBAMS II were to: 

i. Determine whether or not the CBAMS I mindsets have changed since the implementation of the 2010 

Census Integrated Communications Program (ICP); 

ii. Assess whether or not we can categorize mindsets differently moving forward, and if yes, find the best 

method for identifying census mindsets; 

iii. Understand the profiles of the new mindsets; and 

iv. Measure attitudes related to the possible use of administrative records to supplement future censuses. 

2

 For detailed information on CBAMS mindsets see Bates et al., 2009. 

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The CBAMS II report contains detailed analysis of research goals i-iii above (MACRO, 2011). In this paper, we 

focus on the fourth research goal -- understanding attitudes and consent of the Census Bureau’s proposed use of 

administrative records in a decennial census. Specifically, we explore: 

i. Does favorability toward administrative record use depend on how the question is framed? 

ii. Does favorability vary by respondent demographics? By mindsets? 

iii. Does the effect of framing vary by respondent demographics or by mindsets? 

iv. Assuming we find frame differences, how can we leverage these differences to devise a communication 

strategy and tailor messages? 

CBAMS II Methodology 

Macro International, under contract to the Census Bureau, fielded CBAMS II from May through July, 2011. 

CBAMS II was a nationally representative multi-mode survey that utilized landline and cell phone interviewing 

along with in-person interviews in areas considered particularly hard-to-count (HTC): American Indian 

Reservations, sites with high Hispanic population density, sites with high Asian population density, and rural areas 

with high poverty. As in CBAMS I, the landline survey sample was stratified into high, medium, and low HTC 

tracts located within big, medium, and small designated market areas (DMAs) to ensure that the sample captured 

various levels of HTC populations. 

In-person interviews were conducted in English, Spanish, Vietnamese, and Chinese, while telephone interviews 

were only conducted in English and Spanish. For the RDD sample that could be matched to an address, Macro 

mailed pre-notification letters alerting residents they were in-sample for CBAMS II; the pre-notification letters were 

sent to all addresses in the personal visit sample. To increase cooperation, a $10 cash gift was offered to in-person 

respondents. Participation was not required, but at least one person in the household needed to complete the 

screener in order to determine the selected respondent. 

Macro conducted a total of 4,071 completed interviews including 2,004 landline telephone interviews, 995 cell 

phone interviews, and 1,071 in-person interviews. The combined response rate was 33.6% (in-person 64%; landline 

26%; and cell phone 16%).3 For a more detailed description of the methodology, questionnaire, sample design, and 

weighting approach see the CBAMS II Final Report (Macro, 2011). 

The CBAMS II questionnaire was revised from the CBAMS questionnaire to support the CBAMS II research goals 

while allowing enough overlap to support comparisons between the two iterations. The CBAMS II survey 

instrument measured constructs such as census knowledge, attitudes, and awareness; self-reported response to the 

2010 Census; barriers and motivators to participation; phone and internet usage; and attitudes toward the potential 

use of administrative records to complete future censuses. On average, respondents completed the survey in 25 

minutes. 

The 2011 Mindsets 

The results of CBAMS II suggest that mindsets have changed from CBAMS I and can be categorized differently 

moving forward. We compared the results of three statistical approaches to mindset creation: Latent Class analysis 

(LCA), Q-Factor analysis, and K-Means analysis, and the following psychographic and demographic breakdowns 

are based on LCA, which we chose as the best method for creating the new mindsets.4

 The number of mindsets 

increased from five in CBAMS I to seven in CBAMS II. Seven mindsets allowed us to further differentiate groups 

with negative and positive views of the census while still producing actionable group sizes (i.e., the jump from seven 

to eight mindsets resulted in one group that only accounted for a very small percentage of the population, which is 

not practical from an advertising standpoint.). The final CBAMS II mindsets are: 

Government-Minded (19%) 

This group is characterized by positive attitudes toward the census and its purpose. Eighty-nine percent of this group 

knows that the decennial census is used to determine political representation and is set apart by the high priority they 

3

 Response rates calculated using AAPOR RR3 (AAPOR, 2010). 

4

 See the CBAMS II Final Report (Macro, 2011) for an in depth discussion of the mindset creation process. 

4
 

 

 

Compliant and Caring (15%) 

 

 

 

 

 

 

place on it. They also care about government administrative functions in fire and police stations, on roads and 

highways, and for public transportation. They care less than other groups about “softer” issues such as healthcare 

and childcare. 

Additionally, they are not concerned about sharing their information with the government and see the government’s 

attempts to collect information as important to government functions. They also know better than any other group 

what the census is not used for. This mindset is also: 

 Married (62%; average = 54%), 

 White, not Hispanic (84%; average = 68%), 

 Born in the United States (91%; average = 84%), 

 Speaks English-only at home (4% Speak language other than English at home; average = 11%), 

 Educated: attended college or more (45%; average = 27%), 

 Higher income (30% income < $50K; average = 52%), and 

 Use the Internet (94%; average = 80%). 

This mindset is also characterized by high affinity for the census and is quite similar to the Government-Minded 

segment; however, unlike that group, they do not put a high priority on political representation, feeling more 

strongly about social programs like those in schools and for elder care. This mindset is also: 

 Female (64%; average = 51%), 

 Less likely to be single (21%; average = 27%), and 

 Higher income (45% income < $50K; average = 52%). 

Dutiful (14%) 

While the first two high-affinity groups are characterized by a commitment to the specific goals of the census and 

have positive feelings related to the census, this mindset is characterized by a sense of duty to complete the census. 

They know what the census is for, although they also think it serves some functions that it actually does not. They 

do not have strong priorities for the political distribution of funds, but they do think it is their responsibility to be 

counted. This group resembles the general population of the United States; they represent diversity in sex, 

education, race, and socioeconomic background: 

 Married (55%; average = 54%), 

 White, not Hispanic (70%; average = 68%), 

 Black, not Hispanic (11%; average = 12%) 

 Born in the United States (86%; average = 84%), and 

 Age over 54 (33%; average = 32%). 

Local-Minded (12%) 

This group incorrectly identifies some of the purposes of the census, believing that it helps to track lawbreakers and 

is used for setting taxes. People in the Local-Minded group also tend to be ambivalent toward government, reporting 

that they tend to trust local governments more than the Federal Government, and they tend to think that refusing to 

complete the census is a good way to show the government that they are dissatisfied. At the same time, they tend to 

think that the government keeps their information safe, and that it has their best interests in mind. This group does 

not prioritize representation in government, but they do tend to care about schools, healthcare, and other soft issues. 

This group is also: 

 Female (65%; average = 51%), 

 Have children at home (47%, average = 39%), 

 Less educated: 

 No high school degree (20%; average = 14%), 

 Attended college or more (17%; average = 27%), 

 Diverse: 

 Black, not Hispanic (19%; average = 12%), 

 Hispanic (23%; average = 14%), 

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Suspicious (14%) 

 

 

 

 

 White, not Hispanic (49%; average = 68%), 

 Immigrants (70% born in the U.S.; average = 84%), 

 Speaks a language other than English at home (22%; average = 11%), 

 Low-income (70% had income < $50k; average = 52%), 

 Renters (36%; average = 27%), and 

 Less likely to use the Internet (68%; average = 80%). 

Uninformed (16%) 

People in this mindset cannot reliably report what the census is actually used for. Only about half of these people 

know that the census helps to determine government representation, and they are similarly poor at reporting the 

other uses for the census. This group tends to think that they will never see the results of the census, and that it 

should only ask about the number of household residents. Compared to others, this group is not very concerned 

about their personal information, but they prefer not to complete the census on the Internet. They also tend to put a 

high priority on healthcare and on care for the elderly. This mindset is also: 

 Less educated: 

 No high school degree (24%; average = 14%), 

 Attended college or more (16%; average = 27%), 

 Low income (67% had incomes < $50k; average = 52%), and 

 More likely to speak a language other than English at home (17%; average = 11%). 

Cynical (10%) 

This mindset is aware of the census, knows what it is used for, and is highly suspicious of it and of the government. 

Across all measures, the Cynical group has the lowest opinion of the government and expresses the most concern 

about the security of their personal information. Like the Government-Minded group, however, they place a 

premium on political representation and on government functions like fire and police protection. This mindset is 

also: 

 White, not Hispanic (82%; average = 68%), 

 Males (67%; average = 49%), 

 Born in the United States (92%; average = 84%), 

 Speaks English only at home (97%; average 89%), 

 Married (61%; average = 54%), but less likely to have children at home (34%; average = 39%), 

 Older (39% over age 54; average = 32%), and 

 Have a higher income (41% income < $50K; average = 52%). 

This mindset has the lowest self-reported intent to respond to the census, and has the lowest self-reported census 

awareness. Overall, they also tend to be less likely than other groups to complete paperwork on time. This group is 

not characterized by any particular political funding priorities and are the most likely to believe that the census can 

harm them. This group is also: 

 Young (Mean age = 39), 

 Single (43%; average = 27%), 

 Mobile: 

 Rent their homes (35%; average = 12%), 

 Have only a cell phone (38%; average = 30%), 

 Diverse: 

 Hispanic (20%; average = 14%), 

 Black, not Hispanic (16%; average = 12%), 

 White, not Hispanic (54%; average = 68%), 

 Less educated: 

 No high school degree (26%; average = 14%), 

 Attended college or more (13%; average = 27%), 

 Less savvy about technology: 

6
Results 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Use the Internet (68%; average = 80%), and 

 Use the Internet for social networking (71%; average = 64%). 

The CBAMS II survey items of interest involved a section on the Census Bureau’s use of administrative records in 

the context of the decennial census. To understand if answers vary by the context in which the request was 

presented, a framing experiment was embedded in the survey. Respondents were randomly assigned to one of three 

different panels: a CONTROL frame, whereby no rationale or justification was presented, a COST frame that 

suggested administrative records would save money, and a BURDEN frame that suggested the request would ease 

respondent burden. Specifically, the instrument asked how positive or negative respondents were to the idea of (1) 

the Census Bureau using government records to obtain information for households that didn’t mail back a census 

form, (2) allowing the Census Bureau to use SSNs to obtain information from other agencies, and (3) preference for 

having an interviewer visit homes to get information versus supplying the information from other government 

records. The three frames for the first item were: 

GET_RECORDS CONTROL FRAME: The Census Bureau is thinking about getting sex, age, date of 

birth, and race information from government records for people who don’t mail back their census forms 

next time. Suppose you didn’t send back your census form for one reason or another. One a scale from 1 to 

5 where 1 is completely negative and 5 is completely positive, how do you feel about the Census getting 

your information from other government records? 

GET_RECORDS COST FRAME: The 2010 Census cost over $10 billion. The Census Bureau is looking at 

saving money next time by getting sex, age, date of birth, and race information from government records 

for people who don’t mail back their census forms. Suppose you didn’t send back your census form for one 

reason or another. On a scale from 1 to 5 where 1 is completely negative and 5 is completely positive, how 

do you feel about the Census saving money by getting your information from other government records? 

GET_RECORDS BURDEN FRAME: Some people think that filling out and mailing back a census form is 

too much trouble. The Census Bureau is looking at ways to make the census easier next time by getting sex, 

age, date of birth, and race information from government records for people who don’t mail back their 

census forms. Suppose you didn’t send back your census form for one reason or another. One a scale from 

1 to 5 where 1 is completely negative and 5 is completely positive, how do you feel about the Census 

making things easier by getting your information from other government records? 

For this item, we first examine all three frames combined and focus on the positive percent, that is, those selecting a 

4 or 5 along the 5 point scale. We see that less than a majority (43.2 percent) indicate they are positive toward the 

idea of the Census Bureau substituting administrative records in cases where a household fails to mail back their 

census form (Table 1A). However, looking within the frame experiment, we find that significantly more 

respondents are positive to the idea when it is presented as a cost saving measure (48.2 percent), compared to when 

no justification is present (control = 37.6 percent). When presented within the context of reducing burden, the level 

of positive ratings (43.4 percent) is higher than the control but the difference is not statistically different from either 

the control or cost frame. 

Looking across demographic characteristics, we found, compared to the CONTROL, the COST frame consistently 

elicited higher favorability toward record use by both males and females, among those 25-34, and for non-Hispanic 

whites (see Tables 1A and 1B). Turning to the effectiveness of the burden frame, ratings were higher than the 

control for those 18-24 and for Hispanics. 

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Table 1B. How do you feel about Census getting your information from other government records? 

(% top 2 box on 5 point rating scale) 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 1A. How do you feel about Census getting your information from other government records? 

(% top 2 box on 5 point rating scale) 

Frame Total Male Female 18-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+ 

Total 

Cost 

Burden 

Control 

n 

n 

n 

n 

4011 

43.2 

(±2.4) 

1370 

48.2 

(±4.2) 

1332 

43.5 

(±4.2) 

1309 

37.6 

(±4.2) 

1754 

42.8 

(±3.5) 

566 

47.2 

(±6.4) 

625 

43.7 

(±5.9) 

563 

36.8 

(±6.2) 

2255 

43.6 

(±3.3) 

804 

49.0 

(±5.6) 

705 

43.2 

(±6.1) 

746 

38.2 

(±5.6) 

330 

38.9 

(±7.3) 

116 

42.8 

(±12.3) 

116 

45.0 

(±12.9) 

98 

26.2 

(±12.1) 

577 

44.1 

(±6.1) 

182 

49.8 

(±10.9) 

192 

47.4 

(±10.7) 

203 

35.2 

(±9.9) 

592 

48.0 

(±6.2) 

205 

52.6 

(±10.3) 

203 

46.6 

(±10.7) 

184 

43.2 

(±11.5) 

731 

42.9 

(±5.7) 

252 

47.2 

(±10.5) 

236 

39.1 

(±9.9) 

243 

43.3 

(±9.4) 

804 

42.1 

(±5.7) 

287 

44.3 

(±9.4) 

262 

46.2 

(±10.2) 

255 

36.0 

(±10.0) 

878 

44.0 

(±5.5) 

294 

51.3 

(±9.3) 

285 

41.1 

(±9.7) 

299 

39.0 

(±9.5) 

Frame Total 

NH NH 

Hispanic Black White 

Total n 4011 618 523 2137 

43.2 40.3 42.4 43.7 

(±2.4) (±6.2) (±7.2) (±3.0) 

Cost n 1370 209 172 745 

48.2 39.2 36.3 51.9 

(±4.2) (±10.5) (±12.0) (±5.2) 

Burden n 1332 209 178 688 

43.5 49.1 52.9 40.9 

(±4.2) (±10.9) (±13.3) (±5.2) 

Control n 1309 200 173 704 

37.6 30.8 38.8 38.1 

(±4.2) (±10.1) (±11.5) (±5.2) 

Turning to the mindsets, we found only two (Government-Minded and Dutiful) had a majority with positive 

response to use of administrative records as a substitute (50.6 percent and 51.1 percent based on all three frames, 

respectively. See Table 1C). We found that positive ratings were conditional upon frame for a few groups. 

Specifically, the Local-Minded and Cynical were significantly more positive to record use when presented in the 

cost-saving frame compared to the control (56.7 percent and 50.6 percent, respectively, versus 34 percent and 9.9 

percent for control). 

Overall, the Cynical group gave the lowest positive rating to administrative record use as a substitute for direct 

reports (28.9 percent were positive based on all three frames combined). However, there was a great deal of 

variation for this group depending upon frame. As noted above, around half (50.6 percent) of the Cynical were 

positive when the item was couched as a cost-saver; just over one-quarter were positive when presented as a burden 

reducer; and only around one in ten (9.9 percent) were positive when asked without any benefit context (control 

frame). For this group, both the BURDEN and COST garnered significantly higher rating than the control with 

COST edging out BURDEN. For the other mindsets, differences between frames were not significantly different 

albeit the small sample sizes undoubtedly play a part. See Figure 1 for a graph of the mean ratings by mindset. 

8
 

 

 

 

Table 1C. How do you feel about Census getting your information from other government records? 

(% top 2 box on 5 point rating scale) 

Frame Total 

Gov’t Compliant Local 

Minded & Caring Dutiful Minded Uninformed Cynical Suspicious 

Total n 4011 730 666 516 495 728 343 533 

43.2 50.6 47.5 51.1 46.1 37.0 28.9 35.1 

(±2.4) (±5.4) (±6.0) (±6.6) (±7.3) (±5.8) (±7.0) (±6.8) 

Cost n 1370 248 222 185 167 242 125 181 

48.2 54.9 46.9 56.1 56.7 40.8 50.6 29.4 

(±4.2) (±9.2) (±10.4) (±11.0) (±11.9) (±10.2) (±13.5) (±10.8) 

Burden n 1332 234 238 180 154 237 103 186 

43.5 51.6 52.8 48.6 45.0 36.8 26.6 35.1 

(±4.2) (±9.7) (±10.1) (±11.5) (±14.0) (±10.1) (±11.6) (±11.6) 

Control n 1309 248 206 151 174 249 115 166 

37.6 44.7 41.5 48.6 34.0 32.7 9.9 40.9 

(±4.2) (±9.4) (±10.3) (±11.7) (±11.4) (±10.2) (±6.9) (±12.4) 

Figure 1. How do you feel about Census getting your information from other government records? 

(Mean Ratings by Frame and Mindset) 

In sum, overall both cost and burden levels of favorability were higher than the control, but there was no significant 

difference between cost and burden. However, among subgroups where there were statistically significant 

differences, it was usually the cost frame that was mo re effective than the control but not always; for a few 

subgroups burden was hi gher than control. However, among the handful of subgroups where the f re was a significant 

difference between cost and burden, co st was always more favorable. 

9
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The second item with a clean frame test was presented as follows: 

CHOICE COST FRAME: If you have to choose, would you prefer that the Census save money by getting 

your household’s information from other government records or would you prefer that the Census spend 

more to send an interviewer to your home to ask for it? 

CHOICE BURDEN FRAME: If you have to choose, would you prefer that the Census make things easier 

by getting your household’s information from other government records or would you prefer that the 

Census send an interviewer to your home to ask for it? 

CHOICE CONTROL FRAME: If you have to choose, would you prefer that the Census gets your 

household’s information from other government records or would you prefer that the Census send an 

interviewer to your home to ask for it? 

Examining all three frames combined, we see that less than half (41.5 percent) indicate a preference for use of 

administrative records in place of a personal interviewer visit (see Table 2A). However, the level of preference was 

conditional upon whether COST or BURDEN was emphasized. COST garnered the highest preference (56.9 

percent preferred using records to a personal visit) followed by BURDEN (38.5 percent) followed by the control 

(28.2 percent). Unlike in the previous item, for this item the COST frame was always more effective than the 

BURDEN frame. 

Males and females expressed similar preference levels for administrative records over personal visits (43.8 percent 

and 39.4 percent, respectively). For males and females, both the COST and BURDEN frame were more effective 

than the CONTROL, and the COST frame was more effective than the BURDEN frame. Across all age groups the 

COST frame was more effective than the CONTROL. Among those aged 35-64, the BURDEN frame also resulted 

in significantly more choosing administrative records compared to the CONTROL. 

Table 2A. If you have to choose, would you prefer that the Census gets your household’s 

information from other government records or would you prefer that the Census send an 

interviewer to your home to ask for it? 

(% prefer records over personal visit) 

Frame Total Male Female 18-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+ 

Total 

Cost 

Burden 

Control 

n 

n 

n 

n 

3793 

41.5 

(±2.5) 

1284 

56.9 

(±4.3) 

1263 

38.5 

(±4.3) 

1246 

28.2 

(±3.9) 

1659 

43.8 

(±3.7) 

532 

59.6 

(±6.4) 

596 

39.9 

(±6.1) 

531 

31.2 

(±6.0) 

2132 

39.4 

(±3.4) 

752 

54.5 

(±5.8) 

665 

36.8 

(±6.2) 

715 

25.7 

(±5.2) 

315 

49.1 

(±7.7) 

109 

63.6 

(±12.9) 

111 

45.9 

(±13.1) 

95 

34.7 

(±13.4) 

556 

44.3 

(±6.2) 

174 

56.1 

(±11.1) 

185 

41.7 

(±10.8) 

197 

35.7 

(±10.1) 

564 

47.5 

(±6.4) 

196 

62.9 

(±9.9) 

192 

45.2 

(±11.1) 

176 

28.4 

(±10.4) 

695 

41.4 

(±5.8) 

233 

59.3 

(±10.6) 

226 

40.6 

(±10.4) 

236 

26.9 

(±8.3) 

755 

32.2 

(±5.4) 

266 

46.0 

(±10.0) 

249 

36.6 

(±10.4) 

240 

14.7 

(±6.1) 

830 

35.4 

(±5.5) 

275 

53.3 

(±9.7) 

273 

23.0 

(±8.2) 

282 

28.8 

(±9.5) 

Among the major race/ethnic groups, we found that for Hispanics, framing did not significantly affect preference for 

using administrative records in place of personal visits (Table 2B). However, non-Hispanic blacks and nonHispanic whites expressed higher preference under the cost-saving scenario (51.3 percent and 62.7 percent 

respectively,) compared to the control. Among non-Hispanic whites the BURDEN frame was also more effective

than the CONTROL frame (42.1 percent versus 28.3 percent). Finally, among non-Hispanic whites and blacks, the 

COST frame was significantly more favorable than the BURDEN frame. 

10
Table 2C. If you have to choose, would you prefer that the Census gets your household’s 

information from other government records or would you prefer that the Census send an 

interviewer to your home to ask for it? 

(% prefer records over personal visit) 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 2B. If you have to choose, would you prefer that the Census gets your household’s 

information from other government records or would you prefer that the Census send an 

interviewer to your home to ask for it? 

(% prefer records over personal visit) 

Frame Total 

NH NH 

Hispanic Black White 

Total n 3793 593 491 2028 

41.5 30.7 34.3 44.8 

(±2.5) (±5.8) (±7.2) (±3.1) 

Cost n 1284 195 159 703 

56.9 33.7 51.3 62.7 

(±4.3) (±10.0) (±13.4) (±5.2) 

Burden n 1263 202 169 661 

38.5 32.8 30.2 42.1 

(±4.3) (±10.3) (±12.5) (±5.5) 

Control n 1246 196 163 664 

28.2 24.6 21.2 28.3 

(±3.9) (±9.5) (±9.4) (±4.8) 

Frame Total 

Gov’t Compliant & Local 

Minded Caring Dutiful Minded Uninformed Cynical Suspicious 

Total n 3793 700 637 497 478 676 311 494 

41.5 43.3 40.5 44.0 33.0 39.4 49.3 41.9 

(±2.5) (±5.5) (±6.0) (±6.7) (±6.8) (±6.4) (±8.4) (±7.5) 

Cost n 1284 231 211 175 156 232 117 162 

56.9 57.9 50.0 70.7 51.9 53.4 73.9 44.5 

(±4.3) (±9.5) (±10.8) (±10.0) (±12.1) (±10.9) (±10.9) (±13.4) 

Burden n 1263 229 225 178 150 217 88 176 

38.5 34.8 42.5 39.6 22.2 36.4 48.1 46.2 

(±4.3) (±9.2) (±10.6) (±11.2) (±10.7) (±11.1) (±15.3) (±12.7) 

Control n 1246 240 201 144 172 227 106 156 

28.2 37.4 28.7 21.2 19.8 25.2 25.7 34.7 

(±3.9) (±9.1) (±9.6) (±9.1) (±9.5) (±9.9) (±12.2) (±12.8) 

Table 2C contains the percent expressing choice for administrative records over personal visit by frame by mindsets. 

With the exception of the Suspicious, the COST frame elicited higher preference for administrative records 

compared to the CONTROL. In some cases, the difference in the cost saving frame is dramatic, doubling or more 

the preference for using government records when compared to the CONTROL (i.e., for the Dutiful, Local-Minded, 

Uninformed, and Cynical, preference for using administrative records use was twice as much or higher). For the 

Suspicious, preference was not conditional upon the framing scenario. For both the Dutiful and Cynical, the 

BURDEN frame also produced higher preference for using administrative records (compared to CONTROL). In 

addition, for most of the mindsets (Government-Minded, Dutiful, Local-Minded, Uninformed, and Cynical), COST 

did better than BURDEN. Figure 2 contains a graphical presentation of the frame by mindset preference for records 

rather than interview visit. Here the interactions between frame and mindset can be clearly seen. 

11
 

 

Figure 2: Preference for Administrative Records Use Rather than Interviewer Visit by Mindset 

The third i tem asked about use of respondents social security number (SSN). As administrative record matching 

procedures become more and more sop histicated, the need for one’s SSN to perform data linkag e has decreased 

dramatical ly. Nonetheless, this item has been included on surveys in the past and serves as a benchmark for public 

sensitivity over unique identifiers – especially in light of increased concern around identify theft and data breaches. 

For this question all three panels asked identical wording without mention of a cost or burden savings: 

SSN ALL THREE: On a scale of 1 to 5 where 1 is completely unwilling and 5 is completely willing, how 

willing would you be to allow the Census Bu reau to use your Social Security Number to obtain your sex, 

age, date of birth, and race from other government agencies? 

Because the wording was not manipulated, any differences between frames are assumed to be a carry- over from the 

earlier context effects of wording experiments. As seen in Table 3, willingness to provide SSNs is very low. 

Overall only about two in ten (20.5 percent) indicated willingness to allow the Census Bureau access to SSNs for 

purpose of extracting demographic information from other agencies. While differences were not striking, 

respondents in the COSTpanel were significantly more willing than those in the BURDEN or C ONTROL to 

consent to SSN use (24.7 percent versus 19.3 and 17.4, respectively ). However, we found absolutely no difference

by panel among mindsets (see Table 3 and Figure 3). This was not altogether unexpected given the wording was 

identical across frames. 

12
 

 

 

 

732 

24.7

244 

29.7

237 

21.9

251 

22.4

Table 3. How willing to allow the Census Bureau to use SSN to obtain government records? 

(% top 2 box on 5 point rating scale) 

Frame Total 

Gov’t Compliant Local 

Minded & Caring Dutiful Minded Uninformed Cynical Suspicious 

Total n 4043 672 517 497 736 351 538 

20.5 20.8 26.0 22.5 18.3 12.4 15.5 

(±1.9) (±4.7) (±4.8) (±5.8) (±5.7) (±4.8) (±5.5) (±5.3) 

Cost n 1375 224 184 168 246 128 181 

24.7 22.2 28.7 27.0 22.9 17.1 21.3 

(±3.6) (±8.8) (±8.6) (±10.4) (±10.1) (±8.4) (±10.7) (±11.2) 

Burden n 1345 241 182 155 239 105 186 

19.3 22.3 24.5 16.7 17.2 15.1 14.1 

(±3.4) (±8.1) (±8.3) (±9.7) (±9.2) (±8.4) (±10.9) (±8.6) 

Control n 1323 207 151 174 251 118 171 

17.4 17.3 24.8 22.2 14.4 5.2 11.4 

(±3.1) (±7.5) (±7.7) (±9.9) (±9.8) (±8.3) (±5.2) (±7.1) 

Figure 3: How willing to allow the Census Bureau to use SSN to obtain government records? 

(Mean Ratings by Frame and Mindset) 

Lastly, we present findin gs from a battery of items that followed the SSN consent question. As r esearch and 

development of administrative record use progresses, it is becoming clear that a multitude of sources will be 

required to fill the gaps of direct reports, not a single source. Some of these will likely be government databases but 

others may originate from private-sector sources such as credit companies. Consequently, it is important to 

understand if there are different levels of sensitivity a ccording to source. To address this, respon dents were queried 

if they approved the Census Bureau getting demographic information from a variety of sources. 

13
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                                            

 

 

   

       

 

SOURCE CONTROL: In order to make it easier to do the Census, would you approve or disapprove the 

Census Bureau getting sex, age, date of birth and race information for your household from: 

(ROTATE ITEMS): 

Your most recent tax returns

 A credit bureau 

Your employment history 

Medical records from your doctor 

Information about your health insurance coverage 

Information on your government benefits such as unemployment or Social Security 

Your Medicare records. 

SOURCE COST: In order save money, would you approve or disapprove the Census Bureau getting sex, 

age, date of birth and race information for your household from: etc., 

SOURCE BURDEN: In order to make it easier to do the Census, would you approve or disapprove the 

Census Bureau getting sex, age, date of birth and race information for your household from: etc. 

Unfortunately, the question stem preceding the list was identical for both the CONTROL and BURDEN frames 

making a comparison amongst all three frames impossible. Consequently, we present data from all three panels 

combined below in Figure 4. 

Figure 4: Approval of Census Bureau using different administrative record 

sources to obtain age, sex, DOB and race 

Medical Records

Credit Bureau

Health Insurance

Medicare

Employment History

Government Benefits (e.g. Soc. Sec.)

Income Tax Returns 52.1

45

40.2

37.7

31.7

24.6

21.7

0 10 20 30 40 50

% approve

About half indicated they would approve the Census Bureau gathering sex, age, DOB, and race information from 

their most recent tax return (52.1 percent). Of the seven administrative sources offered, tax returns received the 

highest approval followed by government benefits (45 percent), employment history (40.2 percent), and Medicare 

records (37.7 percent). Respondents were less approving of the Census Bureau obtaining information from health 

insurance (31.7 percent), followed by credit bureaus (24.6 percent), and medical records (21.7 percent). While asked 

in a slightly different fashion, findings reported from a similar question in a 2010 study came to one similar 

conclusion, that is, public consent appears to be lowest for access to credit histories and medical records (Singer, 

Bates, and Van Hoewyk, 2011). Figure 5 further breaks out the approval rating by the mindsets. 

A few high level take-aways are offered. First, none of the mindsets appear widely in favor of any one source. The 

Government-Minded, Compliant and Caring, Dutiful, and Local-Minded all have small majorities5

 that approve 

5 We acknowledge that using point estimates to discuss results in terms of a “majority” or “minority” distribution 

can be misleading given the margins of error for some of the mindsets. 

14

60
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Government employment Your Medicare

Your income tax return benefits history records

Gov't Minded

Compliant and Caring

Dutiful

Local Minded

Uninformed

Cynical

Suspicious

0% 50% 0% 50% 0% 50% 0% 50%

   

     

 

using tax return data and come close to a majority (or just achieve it) in the case of government benefit data such as 

Social Security. However, majority approval stops there for these mindsets with all other sources falling short. For 

the other mindsets (Uninformed, Cynical, and Suspicious), no single source got a majority approval rating with the 

Cynical group particularly wary of everything except tax returns. 

Figure 5: Approval of the Census Bureau Using Different Administrative Record Sources 

to Obtain Age, Sex, DOB and Race by Mindset 

Your

Your medical

records

Your health insurance

Credit bureau

coverage

0% 50% 0% 50% 0% 50%

Gov't Minded

Compliant and Caring

Dutiful

Local Minded

Uninformed

Cynical

Suspicious

Conclusions and Future Research 

Results from the CBAMS II provide another data point for understanding public willingness to move away from 

direct survey reports towards the expanded use of pre-existing data sources, namely, administrative records. In the 

survey, we measured approval of using administrative records in place of self-completed census forms for 

households who fail to return a form. We did not request actual consent to access administrative records; therefore, 

our data reflect hypothetical behavior and not actual behavior. This is an important caveat to our study as attitudes 

and behaviors often do not mirror one another. 

We found that less than a majority were positive toward the Census Bureau getting information from other 

government records (43.2 percent). Less than majority would also choose records to replace a personal visit by a 

Census Bureau interviewer (41.5 percent). We found that less than one-quarter support the idea of using SSNs to 

obtain sex, age, date of birth, and race information from other agency records (20.5 percent). We also found that, 

with the exception of tax returns, approval to use different sources of administrative records always fell short of a 

majority. 

In addition to gauging overall approval to using administrative records, we sought to understand if opinions varied 

by the context of the request. This is a critical nuance as context effects can play a pivotal role when designing 

messages as part of a larger communication campaign to educate the public. For the most part, previous studies 

have failed to uncover strong and consistent framing effects around consent to use or approval of administrative 

records. For this reason it is noteworthy that our data does suggest a frame effect. We found that opinions were 

consistently and significantly more positive when presented within a cost-savings frame. In fewer cases, we also 

15
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

detected significantly higher approval ratings when asking within the context of reducing respondent burden (albeit 

far fewer compared to cost). 

We additionally uncovered some interactions between the frames and the CBAMS II mindsets. For example when 

asking respondents to choose between records or a personal visit, we found that communicating a cost savings was 

significantly effective among the Government-Minded, Compliant and Caring, Local-Minded, Uninformed, and 

Cynical. In addition to cost savings, the argument for reducing burden was also effective among the Dutiful and 

Cynical. On the other hand, neither of the experimental frames was significant in moving the Suspicious more 

towards choosing records over a personal visit. The latter group is problematic because they see the census as a 

burden, think it takes too long to complete, and believe the government already has their information. The relatively 

small size of this group and large margins of error likely contributed to non-findings as the absolute difference 

between the burden frame and control was actually sizable for this group (around 11 percent). 

One reason the cost frame may have “outperformed” the burden frame is the simple matter of how the two were 

presented. The cost wording mentioned that the 2010 Census cost $10 billion dollars while the burden frame 

referred to the census rather vaguely as being “too much trouble”. Furthermore, the final phrase in the burden frame 

was “...how do you feel about the Census making things easier by getting your information from other government 

records? “ The phrase “making things easier” may not have been translated to mean “saving you time” (though that 

was the intent). One could argue that the cost frame is a more powerful and influential cue, and this could be the 

reason why the CBAMS II found a cost framing effect where previous studies failed. For example, cost frame 

experiments in Pascale (2011) and Singer, Bates, and Van Hoewyk (2011) did not mention dollar figures but merely 

refer to “reduced costs”. Perhaps the lesson learned in this case is that for a communication message to be effective, 

it must boast a very large cost-saving efficiency. It’s an empirical question that deserves further testing. Another 

open question is the extent to which a more explicit message about saving the respondent time would be gauged as 

favorable. Finally, future research should focus on changes in public opinion to the cost message over the decade. 

Given the current economic climate, approval of administrative records when framed as cost savings may 

particularly resonate. 

The results of CBAMS II will not be used immediately to create targeted advertising as the 2010 Census is now 

complete, and the Census Bureau does not currently utilize a paid advertising campaign for its other surveys. 

However, the following illustrate how the Communications Directorate could use these results in future ad 

campaigns. For example, Hispanics answered more favorably to the use of other government records when framed 

as a burden reduction. Therefore, we would likely target this audience with messages that speak to a time savings 

rather than a financial savings. A second example might apply to a potentially negative finding. Given the very low 

percentage of respondents responding positively to the use of SSN, it would be in our best interest to develop acrossthe-board messages emphasizing that the Census Bureau will not need to collect SSN in order to utilize records. 

Finally, while we learned much from the framing experiment, there are still many unanswered questions. For 

example, what is behind the relatively low public perception of Census using administrative records? Perhaps it 

stems from fear that the records will yield less accurate statistics compared to self reports? Or perhaps the 

underlying concern is loss of control over personal data or fear that using administrative records will evolve into 

some type of population registry or the popular notion that the government possesses a single centralized database?

To help answer these questions, we suggest several things. 

First, as suggested by Gates (2011), the topic of administrative record use and linkage needs to enter the public 

debate. The Census Bureau Communications Directorate should spearhead this effort with press releases, blogs, and 

other media channels to “get people talking”. If done properly, we can raise awareness around the issue, educate the 

public on the pros and cons, and ultimately grow informed public opinions. It should also help surface the most 

significant issues that can then be addressed by the Census Bureau well before the 2020 Census. 

Second, we must constantly monitor public opinion pertaining to administrative record use. Recently, the Directors 

of several statistical agencies (including the Census Bureau) agreed to sponsor a daily public opinion tracking 

survey. The larger goal is to measure trust in official statistics by building upon a theoretical framework put forth by 

Ivan Fellegi and colleagues (OECD, 2010). This framework argues that trust in official statistics is predicated upon 

three sets of underlying factors: structural factors, statistical factors, and reputational factors. In addition to 

measuring the ‘trust’ construct, a subset of tracking questions pertain specifically to administrative records. These 

16
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

items strive to understand better how the public thinks about administrative records. For example, do they believe 

statistical agencies give personal information to the IRS and marketing firms? For purposes of creating statistics, do 

they prefer that statistical agencies get information like earnings histories and income directly from them or from the 

source agencies? Do these opinions vary whether the data source is the Social Security Administration versus 

Internal Revenue Service versus a credit card company? Having daily data points will allow us to study correlates 

of the attitudes around administrative records. Do they fluctuate by current events such as a well-publicized data 

breach? Are they correlated with certain political news? How long does it take to return to ‘normal’ following such 

events? These are further questions we must address before we can successfully harness the potential of 

administrative records and fully integrate their use into the 2020 Census. 

Acknowledgements 

The authors thank Mary Mulry for her assistance and guidance with the statistical testing, as well as Randy 

ZuWallack, Frederica Conrey, and Robynne Locke, all of ICF Macro, the CBAMS II contractor. 

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