Race and Ethnicity in SNAP Administrative Records

James Noon, Maria Perez-Patron, Mehrgol Tiv, and Renuka Bhaskar, 

U.S. Census Bureau

Any opinions and conclusions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not represent the views of the U.S. Census Bureau. The 

Census Bureau has ensured appropriate access and use of confidential data and has reviewed these results for disclosure avoidance 

protection (Project 7508889: CBDRB-FY22-CES014-044; CBDRB-FY24-CES005-002).

Session B-4: Equity in STEM, Health, Poverty, 

and Race and Ethnicity Identification

2023 FCSM Research and Policy Conference 

October 24, 2023
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Source: SNAP National Data Bank estimates available from USDA

Great Recession COVID-19

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), 2000-2022

• Largest nutrition assistance program aimed at reducing domestic hunger by providing 

low-income households benefits that can be used to purchase food at authorized retailers

• SNAP has been shown to reduce food insecurity, improve health outcomes and has 

provided essential assistance in economic downturns and disaster situations
Race and Ethnicity in SNAP applications

• State agencies that administer SNAP are required to collect data on participants' 

race and ethnicity to help Food and Nutritional Services (FNS) to:

- Ensure that program benefits are distributed without regard to race, color, or national origin

- Determine how effectively FNS programs are reaching potential eligible persons and 

beneficiaries

• The application form must 

clearly indicate that the 

information is voluntary 

and that it will not affect 

the eligibility or the level 

of benefits

Example: MARYLAND DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES
State SNAP data sharing with the U.S. Census Bureau

As part of a joint project with USDA Economic Research Service and 

FNS, the U.S. Census Bureau has acquired SNAP data from several 

states 4

States with current SNAP data sharing agreements as of March 2023
Research Questions

1. To understand the availability and quality of race and ethnicity data in 

state SNAP administrative records

2. To compare SNAP data on race and ethnicity to Census and survey 

responses

• How well do race and ethnicity SNAP data match Census Bureau data?
Methods

1. To understand the availability and quality of race and ethnicity data in 

state SNAP administrative records

We will evaluate the availability and completeness of race and 

ethnicity information in administrative records 

2. To compare SNAP data on race and ethnicity to Census and survey 

responses

• How well do race and ethnicity SNAP data match Census Bureau data?

We will compare the distribution of race and ethnicity responses in the 

Administrative Records compared to Census Bureau Data (Title 13 data 

coming from responses to Census and ACS data)
Data

• State SNAP administrative records for 2019

• Only participants with Protected Identification Keys (PIKs) are included in the 

analysis 

- PIKs are assigned to protect privacy and allow record linkage*

- Very high rate of PIK assignment - z

• Census Bureau Race and Hispanic origin responses 

• From Census 2000, 2010 Census, and American Community Survey (ACS) data 

for 2001-2019

• Keep most recent response to questions on race and Hispanic origin

• As reported, no proxy or edited responses 

*For more information on the process of PIK assignment see Wagner & Layne, 2014: 

https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/working-papers/2014/adrm/carra-wp-2014-01.pdf 
To compare SNAP state administrative data on race and 

ethnicity to Census and survey responses

1) Restrict to individuals who participated in SNAP at any time in 2019 

and that were assigned a PIK

2) Recode race/ethnicity variables into consistent categories across 

states, as possible, and tabulate for all participants

3) Link state SNAP data to previous Census/ACS race and ethnicity 

responses by PIKs
Results
1. To understand the availability and quality of race and ethnicity 

data in state SNAP administrative records

0

10

20

30

40

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

% missing

States

SNAP State Administrative Records missing race and ethnicity information 

Missing race Missing Hispanic origin

Source: State SNAP administrative records for 2019

AIAN = American Indian or Alaska Native; NHPI = Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander

Approved for disclosure under: CBDRB-FY22-CES014-044; CBDRB-FY24-CES005-002. 
1. To understand the availability and quality of race and ethnicity 

data in state SNAP administrative records

0

10

20

30

40

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

% missing

States

SNAP State Administrative Records missing race and ethnicity 

information 

Missing race Missing Hispanic origin

Source: State SNAP administrative records for 2019

AIAN = American Indian or Alaska Native; NHPI = Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander

Approved for disclosure under: CBDRB-FY22-CES014-044; CBDRB-FY24-CES005-002. 
Race State A State B State C State D

White Alone 58.6 % 65.7 % 32.7% 44.8%

Black Alone 26.6 % 11.1 % 29.5% 15.1%

AIAN alone 1.1 % 11.1 % <1% <1%

Asian alone 3.2 % 1.1 % <1% 3.9%

NHPI alone 1.9 % <1% <1% <1%

Some Other Race alone - - 35.8% -

Two or More Races 8.4 % 2.7 % <1% -

Missing <1% 8.0 % <1% 35.7%

Hispanic Origin

Hispanic 29.9 % 34.2 % 31.6% 26.9%

Non-Hispanic 70.0 % 65.8 % 68.4% 50.8%

Missing <1% <1% 0% 22.3%

Race and Hispanic origin distribution for 2019 State SNAP Administrative Records

Source: State SNAP administrative records for 2019

AIAN = American Indian or Alaska Native; NHPI = Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander

Approved for disclosure under: CBDRB-FY22-CES014-044; CBDRB-FY24-CES005-002. 
Race State A State B State C State D

White Alone 58.6 % 65.7 % 32.7% 44.8%

Black Alone 26.6 % 11.1 % 29.5% 15.1%

AIAN alone 1.1 % 11.1 % <1% <1%

Asian alone 3.2 % 1.1 % <1% 3.9%

NHPI alone 1.9 % <1% <1% <1%

Some Other Race alone - - 35.8% -

Two or More Races 8.4 % 2.7 % <1% -

Missing <1% 8.0 % <1% 35.7%

Hispanic Origin

Hispanic 29.9 % 34.2 % 31.6% 26.9%

Non-Hispanic 70.0 % 65.8 % 68.4% 50.8%

Missing <1% <1% 0% 22.3%

Race and Hispanic origin distribution for 2019 State SNAP Administrative Records

Source: State SNAP administrative records for 2019

AIAN = American Indian or Alaska Native; NHPI = Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander

Approved for disclosure under: CBDRB-FY22-CES014-044; CBDRB-FY24-CES005-002. 
Race State A State B State C State D

White Alone 58.6 % 65.7 % 32.7% 44.8%

Black Alone 26.6 % 11.1 % 29.5% 15.1%

AIAN alone 1.1 % 11.1 % <1% <1%

Asian alone 3.2 % 1.1 % <1% 3.9%

NHPI alone 1.9 % <1% <1% <1%

Some Other Race alone - - 35.8% -

Two or More Races 8.4 % 2.7 % <1% -

Missing <1% 8.0 % <1% 35.7%

Hispanic Origin

Hispanic 29.9 % 34.2 % 31.6% 26.9%

Non-Hispanic 70.0 % 65.8 % 68.4% 50.8%

Missing <1% <1% 0% 22.3%

Race and Hispanic origin distribution for 2019 State SNAP Administrative Records

Source: State SNAP administrative records for 2019

AIAN = American Indian or Alaska Native; NHPI = Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander

Approved for disclosure under: CBDRB-FY22-CES014-044; CBDRB-FY24-CES005-002. 
Race State A State B State C State D

White Alone 58.6 % 65.7 % 32.7% 44.8%

Black Alone 26.6 % 11.1 % 29.5% 15.1%

AIAN alone 1.1 % 11.1 % <1% <1%

Asian alone 3.2 % 1.1 % <1% 3.9%

NHPI alone 1.9 % <1% <1% <1%

Some Other Race alone - - 35.8% -

Two or More Races 8.4 % 2.7 % <1% -

Missing <1% 8.0 % <1% 35.7%

Hispanic Origin

Hispanic 29.9 % 34.2 % 31.6% 26.9%

Non-Hispanic 70.0 % 65.8 % 68.4% 50.8%

Missing <1% <1% 0% 22.3%

Race and Hispanic origin distribution for 2019 State SNAP Administrative Records

Source: State SNAP administrative records for 2019

AIAN = American Indian or Alaska Native; NHPI = Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander

Approved for disclosure under: CBDRB-FY22-CES014-044; CBDRB-FY24-CES005-002. 
Race State A State B State C State D

White Alone 58.6 % 65.7 % 32.7% 44.8%

Black Alone 26.6 % 11.1 % 29.5% 15.1%

AIAN alone 1.1 % 11.1 % <1% <1%

Asian alone 3.2 % 1.1 % <1% 3.9%

NHPI alone 1.9 % <1% <1% <1%

Some Other Race alone - - 35.8% -

Two or More Races 8.4 % 2.7 % <1% -

Missing <1% 8.0 % <1% 35.7%

Hispanic Origin

Hispanic 29.9 % 34.2 % 31.6% 26.9%

Non-Hispanic 70.0 % 65.8 % 68.4% 50.8%

Missing <1% <1% 0% 22.3%

Race and Hispanic origin distribution for 2019 State SNAP Administrative Records

Source: State SNAP administrative records for 2019

AIAN = American Indian or Alaska Native; NHPI = Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander

Approved for disclosure under: CBDRB-FY22-CES014-044; CBDRB-FY24-CES005-002. 
2. To compare SNAP data on race and 

ethnicity to Census and survey responses

• How well do race and ethnicity SNAP data match Census Bureau 

data?

We will compare the distribution of race and ethnicity responses 

in the Administrative Records compared to Census Bureau Data 

(Title 13 data coming from responses to Census and ACS data)
Availability of previous Census responses for 2019 SNAP participants

% with Census responses available

State A State B State C State D

Race 63% 56% 63.2% 66.1%

White alone 63.6 61.1 73.0 77.8

Black alone 64.1 59.1 60.8 64.0

AIAN alone 43.9 23.6 59.0 62.2

Asian alone 69.6 55.7 64.5 69.0

NHPI alone 57.3 56.9 70.0 49.4

Some other race 51.9 45.8 56.2 ---

Two or more races 51.9 45.8 64.7 ---

Missing Race --- 56.8 66.1 52.2

Hispanic origin 63% 63% 62.1% 66.6%

Hispanic 54.4 56.6 57.9 62.0

Non-Hispanic 67.0 66.5 64.1 72.6

Missing Ethnicity --- --- --- 58.6

Source: State SNAP 2019 linked with most recent “as reported, no proxy” race and Hispanic origin response in Census 2000, 2010 Census, 2001 through 2019 ACS 1-year data. 

AIAN = American Indian or Alaska Native; NHPI = Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander. Approved for disclosure under: CBDRB-FY22-CES014-044; CBDRB-FY24-CES005-002. 
Availability of previous Census response for 2019 SNAP participants by Age

% with Census responses available

State C State D

Age Race Available Ethnicity Available Race Available Ethnicity Available

0-4 1.4 1.3 1.8 1.7

5-9 7.5 7.3 8.2 8.0

10-17 70.5 68.5 67.4 67.8

18-64 84.8 83.6 82.7 84.0

65+ 84.7 83.4 83.6 82.0

Source: State SNAP 2019 linked with most recent “as reported, no proxy” race response in Census 2000, 2010 Census, 2001 through 2019 ACS 1-year data. 

Approved for disclosure under: CBDRB-FY22-CES014-044; CBDRB-FY24-CES005-002. 
How well do race and ethnicity SNAP data match 

Census Bureau data?
How well do race and ethnicity SNAP data match 

Census Bureau data?
Discussion

• The general patterns of race agreement between ARs and Census 

Bureau data are similar to previous research using Medicaid and other 

administrative data (Fernandez et. al, 2018; Rastogi and O’Hara, 2012)

• White alone and Black alone populations tend to have high agreement rates

• While AIAN, NHPI, and Two or More Races populations have low agreement 

rates 

• We see some differences too

• High match rates among AIAN in State B

• High match rates among Hispanics as well as non-Hispanics in both states, both 

fairly diverse states, unlike Bhaskar et al., 2014 and Rastogi and O’Hara, 2012
Next Steps 

• Expand analysis to additional states

• Include 2020 Census data to increase linkage rate

• Linkage to Census records with more consistent timing

• Evaluate SNAP race and Hispanic origin distributions over time and 

further explore more detailed race coding in SNAP data
Thank you!

For comments or questions: james.noon@census.gov