© 2022 Ipsos 1

Randall K. Thomas, Frances M. Barlas, 

Megan A. Hendrich, & Kathleen Santos

Ipsos Public Affairs

Hitting the Target?: 

The Use of Targeted Samples in 

Probability-based Samples

2022 FCSM Research & Policy Conference

October 25th – October 27th, 2022

Washington D.C.
© 2022 Ipsos 2

Address-based (ABS) studies often attempt to obtain people with specific characteristics (e.g., black 

people, 18 to 24 year olds) at higher rates for more precision of group estimates. Households in the 

sample frame can have commercial-based information appended useful for targeted sample 

selection. Targeted samples can improve study efficiency and lower study costs. Though many 

researchers treat individuals with the desired characteristics from targeted sample as equivalent to 

those from non-targeted sample, individuals from targeted samples might differ. In the study we 

report, we were interested in obtaining higher rates of cigarette smokers. We first selected a nontargeted general population sample before selecting a targeted smoking sample. We compared the 

smokers obtained for each sample type and found that targeting was indeed associated with higher 

the prevalence of smokers, but also found differences in smoker characteristics – smokers from 

targeted households were older, smoked more, started smoking younger, and were less likely to use 

other tobacco products. We examined how weighting could offset the effect of targeting, but such 

adjustments can come at a cost in the unequal weighting effect. Our results show caution is 

recommended when using targeted samples.

Abstract
© 2022 Ipsos 3

When using address-based sample (ABS) for a general population study, the cost for 

just the materials, postage, and incentive costs alone (excluding labor) often 

amounts to a minimum of $100 per complete.

However, many times we are NOT interested not in a general population, but our 

interest is more focused on a particular subgroup, and this is often a group that 

occurs at low rates in the population (low incidence studies). 

For low incidence studies, the cost can rise dramatically to $1,000 or much more per 

complete, depending on the rarity of the participant.

To obtain more qualified completes with specific characteristics for a lower cost, 

many studies use targeted ABS sample. These targeted samples often have the 

desired participants at a higher rate than occurs in a non-targeted sample.

Study Background
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Targeted samples are created using information associated with the addresses in the 

frame – which includes location information (and associated characteristics of the 

location, like income levels in a zip code, etc.). 

In addition, commercial-based information can be appended to the addresses. This 

information can include such things as magazine subscriptions, coupons used, 

shopping scanner data, credit use, etc. that are associated with specific addresses. 

From this information, inferential associations can be made that increases the 

certainty that one or more people in the household have specific characteristics (e.g., 

age, race-ethnicity) or owns a particular product or has specific interests. 

Use of targeted samples can significantly decrease the cost of ABS mailings because 

it can enhance the incidence rate 2 or 3 times (or more) over the rate of its natural 

occurrence in an unscreened population.

Study Background – Two Type of Targeted Sample
© 2022 Ipsos 5

With cost constraints on most ABS projects, the use of targeted sample has become 

commonplace, and many researchers treat low-incidence participants in targeted 

sample as functionally equivalent to low-incidence participants from a general 

population sample.

However, there are many reasons why individuals from targeted samples might 

differ from those in non-targeted samples, especially if using ancillary commercialbased data. For example, to be ‘targeted’, those with a higher certainty of a given 

characteristic might also be ones who:

• Used coupons

• Resided at the addressfor a longer period of time

• Purchased the products of interest with a greater frequency

• Shopped at stores in higher income areas that tracked purchase behaviors. 

Study Background – Targeted Sample
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Ipsos had the opportunity to develop a direct comparison of targeted and nontargeted ABS sample that specifically focused on recruiting cigarette smokers for 

additional studies. Some of these recruited smokers were needed for a variety of 

studies looking for probability-based participants to participate in smoking cessation 

programs.

Our primary goal for the study was to compare the nature of the smokers obtained 

from a general population sample with those obtained from the targeted smoker 

stratum using ancillary commercial-based data.

Study Purpose
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Method
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General Population Recruitment Survey

• Invited to participate in online questionnaire (a push-to-web design)

• English and Spanish versions

• Average response rate was 9.3% (AAPOR – RR3).

• Fielded: 10 September to 2 October, 2018.

• Number of participants who completed the Recruitment Survey: 40,151

Study Design
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Address-based sample (ABS)

1. First drew a simple random sample from the DSF frame of all housing addresses, 

no stratification

2. Then the unselected addresses in remaining frame were partitioned into 4 strata:

1. At least 1 smoker adult smoker in HH with high likelihood

2. Hispanic 18-29, smoking unavailable

3. Other 18-29 (non-Hispanic/unavailable race-ethnicity, smoking unavailable)

4. Complement (30+ or unavailable age, smoking unavailable)

Study Design – Samples Used
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General Population Recruitment Survey

• Mailing Protocol

• Mailed invitation - $2 affixed to letter, contained online link and unique 

password

• 2 reminder postcards, with link and password

• Incentive Protocol:

• $2 in initial invitation

• $10 to complete a short 5 minute survey

• If an a current smoker, HH is deemed eligible, if more than one, randomly 

selected within the questionnaire – with an incentive of $20 more to complete 

a 12 minute survey for selected smoker (if in HH)

Study Design – ABS Mailing & Incentive Protocol
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ABS Strata Used & Response

Study Design

Survey yield rate is equal to (completes + break-offs)/sample sent.

Sample and Strata Description Frame Sample Complete Break-off Survey 

Yield

Completion 

Rate

Sample 1 - General Population 124,486,370 58,758 4,172 732 8.3% 85.1%

Sample 2 - Strata

1 - At least 1 smoker in HH 2,915,161 172,289 17,146 2,468 11.4% 87.4%

2 - Hispanic 18-29 786,667 19,440 1,117 203 6.8% 84.6%

3 - Other 18-29 4,347,181 70,622 5,691 866 9.3% 86.8%

4 - Complement 116,378,603 174,659 12,025 2,039 8.1% 85.5%

Sample 2 Overall 124,427,612 437,010 35,979 5,576 9.5% 86.6%
© 2022 Ipsos 12

Survey Structure

1. Establish initial respondent – the household informant – is at least 18

2. Questions on age, gender, ZIP, self-reported Health, ever smoke, number of 

cigarettes smoked in life, current smoker, Hispanic ethnicity, race, education, HH 

income, number of adults in HH.

3. Census of household adults – age, gender, and whether current smokers

4. Select 1 adult in HH 21+ who smokes cigarettes. If more than 1 adult 21+ smokes, 

then randomly select 1 of them for smoking survey.

5. Follow up with selected smoker to ask additional nicotine-related questions and 

demographics.

Study Design – Survey Design
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Results
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Characteristics of the primary household informant

Results – Unweighted Household Results

Sample and Strata Description Female 18 to 29 College + Hispanic HH Income -

100K+

Sample 1 - General Population 58.6% 14.1% 42.2% 10.3% 23.9%

Sample 2 - Strata

1 - At least 1 smoker in HH 60.3% 7.0% 33.9% 6.5% 23.7%

2 - Hispanic 18-29 66.9% 46.7% 24.1% 76.4% 10.9%

3 - Other 18-29 65.0% 34.2% 38.0% 5.0% 21.3%

4 - Complement 59.2% 11.9% 42.1% 9.5% 23.9%

Sample 2 Overall 60.9% 14.4% 37.0% 9.5% 23.0%
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Characteristics of the primary household informant

Results – Unweighted Household Results

Sample and Strata Description % Excellent/VG 

health Single Adult in HH HH % with at least 1 

smoker

# Smokers in 

Smoking HH

Sample 1 - General Population 59.6% 27.5% 23.5% 1.35

Sample 2 - Strata

1 - At least 1 smoker in HH 53.5% 17.5% 32.0% 1.44

2 - Hispanic 18-29 53.5% 18.3% 25.0% 1.37

3 - Other 18-29 60.5% 24.0% 27.1% 1.39

4 - Complement 58.7% 27.6% 23.5% 1.31

Sample 2 Overall 56.4% 22.0% 28.1% 1.40
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Characteristics of the selected smoker in HH

Results – Selected Smoker Results - unweighted

Sample and Strata Description Total N Female 21 to 29 College + Hispanic HH Income -

100K+

Sample 1 - General Population 794 47.1% 29.3% 15.0% 10.7% 12.7%

Sample 2 - Strata

1 - At least 1 smoker in HH 4,469 51.0% 20.8% 12.8% 6.3% 12.9%

2 - Hispanic 18-29 234 45.7% 44.5% 13.7% 71.8% 7.7%

3 - Other 18-29 1,336 47.5% 46.4% 11.2% 4.9% 10.8%

4 - Complement 2,389 49.0% 29.4% 15.6% 8.9% 12.3%

Sample 2 Overall 8,328 49.6% 27.8% 13.4% 8.6% 12.3%
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Characteristics of the selected smoker in HH

Results – Selected Smoker Results - unweighted

Sample and Strata Description Married % Full-time 

Employed

Not Moved in 

Past 5 Years

% Excellent/VG 

health % Obese

Sample 1 - General Population 42.2% 50.4% 44.9% 40.3% 31.4%

Sample 2 - Strata

1 - At least 1 smoker in HH 49.6% 48.3% 50.8% 38.2% 34.5%

2 - Hispanic 18-29 42.2% 58.6% 49.1% 34.6% 38.3%

3 - Other 18-29 36.8% 54.9% 47.2% 39.7% 32.2%

4 - Complement 40.8% 52.8% 43.2% 40.7% 30.3%

Sample 2 Overall 44.9% 50.9% 48.1% 39.0% 33.1%
© 2022 Ipsos 18

Both samples (Gen Pop and Stratified) were weighted overall for each 

sample. Within Sample 2, smokers in each stratum was also weighted. 

The targets used were derived from the PATH Wave 4 survey* for smokers:

Results – Demo Weighting Targets for Smokers

Region % Gender-age % Race-ethnicity %

Northeast 16.2% Male 21-24 2.6% White NH 70.9%

Midwest 24.7% Male 25-34 12.5% Black NH 12.4%

South 41.5% Male 35-44 10.8% Other NH 6.6%

West 17.6% Male 45-54 9.9% Hispanic 10.2%

Male 55+ 17.3%

Education % Female 21-24 2.6%

Less Than College 56.3% Female 25-34 9.3%

Some College 31.6% Female 35-44 8.8%

College+ 12.1% Female 45-54 10.1%

Female 55+ 16.1%

* Population Assessment of 

Tobacco and Health (PATH) 

Study
© 2022 Ipsos 19

There were some differences between the smokers from the general 

population sample and those from the targeted smoker stratum.

Smoking Behaviors – weighted to smoker demos

Sample and Strata Description Days smoked 

in past 30

Number of 

cigarettes 

smoked per 

day

Total 

cigarettes 

smoked 

Every day 

smoker

Ever tried ecig High interest 

in quitting

Sample 1 - General Population 25.4 13.7 381.9 73.3% 61.1% 41.2%

Sample 2 - Strata

1 - At least 1 smoker in HH 25.8 15.5 438.5 76.4% 63.7% 38.2%

2 - Hispanic 18-29 25.9 15.2 426.0 78.3% 66.8% 30.3%

3 - Other 18-29 25.3 14.1 394.8 71.8% 65.7% 37.4%

4 - Complement 25.5 14.3 400.9 73.6% 61.2% 40.5%

Sample 2 Overall 25.6 14.7 413.2 74.7% 63.0% 39.0%
© 2022 Ipsos 20

Discussion
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Conclusions and Discussion 

Is someone from a targeted sample for a specific characteristic different from 

a person with that same characteristic who comes from a general population 

sample?

Yes, bigger differences were found when not weighted. However, modest 

differences in smoking behavior were still found once using common cigarette 

for smoker demographic targets.

Those smokers from targeted smoker stratum:

• Did smoke somewhat more cigarettes

• Were somewhat more likely to be an every-day smoker

• Were somewhat less interested in quitting than those from the general 

population sample.
© 2022 Ipsos 22

Conclusions and Discussion 

The use of other strata (18-29 Hispanic, 18-29 Other, Complement) to 

form a broader and diverse sample appeared to counteract some of the 

biasing effects of the targeted stratum - smokers from Sample 1 and the 

overall Sample 2 were much more similar in their smoking behaviors.

Use of targeted ABS sample can significantly increase the efficiency of 

recruitment, making the study less costly.

However, when considering the use of targeted sample, we would 

recommend carefully considering how the targeting information was 

identified/obtained and how that could correlate with the key variables 

of interest to the study. 
© 2022 Ipsos 23

Future Directions

We are currently studying how we could use location information (e.g., 

Census Block Groups that have higher concentrations of low income, or 

Hispanic residents, etc.) rather than ancillary information that has been 

appended to the addresses.

Our initial studies have indicated that, when possible, using locationbased information for sample selection may be associated with less bias 

for samples of interest than using commercial-based ancillary data to 

select sample. 
Randall K. Thomas

Randall.Thomas@ipsos.com

Thank you!