SCANNING TECHNOLOGY CAN IMPROVE 

TIME-USE STUDIES 

Patricia Farrell Donahue, Lynn M. Musser, Thomas E. Slomba, 

Judy K. Hoovler, and Tina M. Kinney 

U.S. General Accounting Office 

Consuelo Bangs 

Work Management Institute, Ltd. 

Abstract 

Public agencies, private businesses and researchers employ time-use studies to track how individuals actually spend 

their time. A recent study by the U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) used a scanner technology to electronically 

record, transmit, and analyze time study data. This paper presents an overview of time study methodologies, and a 

discussion of GAOs time-use studys methodlogy. We found that employing the scanner technology reduced the 

burden associated with employee self-report of time use, while improving the reliability of the data. Some federal, 

state and local agencies either currently require time studies, or may require them in the future. We suggest that 

these agencies could use scanner technology to obtain faster, more reliable time study data from employees, which 

could improve program accountability and performance. 

Introduction 

In 1998, the Congress directed the U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) to study the costs 

associated with providing services under the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for 

Women, Infants and Children (WIC) program (Pub. L. 105-336, Sec. 203). As part of this study, 

we conducted case studies of six WIC agencies. These case studies included a study of how the 

employees at the agencies allocated their work time among different activities. We used two 

self-report methods to gather this information. At five of the agencies employees recorded their 

time using a hand-held scanner and a set of bar codes. At the sixth agency, employees recorded 

their time on a preprinted timesheet. This paper discusses the advantages and disadvantages of 

self-reporting time use and the implications of using the bar code scanning method for data 

reliability. 

Why Perform Time Use Studies? 

If you were asked to recount in detail how you spent your time yesterday you would probably 

have difficulty doing so. You would probably have even more difficulty reporting how long you 

spent at each activity. For instance, you might think that an onerous task took longer than it 

actually did while a pleasant task required relatively little time to complete. Time-use studies are 

conducted to determine accurately how people spend their time. Time-use data can be used to: 

• redesign processes to streamline the flow of work, 

• identify staffing skills needed to provide services to a particular clientele, 

• test and evaluate changes in service delivery procedures, 

• customize staff training to support unique operations, or 

• assess how a proposed reorganization or budget cut may affect procedures and staffing. 
 

 

 

 

 

In addition to these reasons, we found that some public agencies employ time-use studies to 

account for how public moneys are spent. For example, some state and local agencies are 

required, as federal grant recipients, to document the distribution of personnel costs charged 

among multiple activities or cost objectives (OMB 1997, Attachment B, Subsection 11 (h)(4)). 

Agencies can meet this requirement by having their employees complete personnel activity 

reports, also known as timesheets or time-and-effort reports, on a continuous basis to account for 

all of the employees time (OMB 1997, Attachment B, Subsection 11 (h)(5); Health and Human 

Services 1997, 3-13). Agencies can also use a substitute method for documenting the allocation 

of salaries and wages to federal awards (OMB 1997, Attachment B, Subsection 11 (h)(6)). Timeuse studies are one of the substitute methods that can be used by state and local agencies 

receiving WIC funding (USDA 1999, 3-12). 

How Are Time-Use Studies Performed? 

The first time-use studies relied on direct observation. Frederick Taylor, an engineer at a 

Philadelphia steel plant, developed this methodology in the 1880s. Taylor wanted to define the 

standard time required to perform a task in order to improve employee productivity (Flynn, 

1998). An adaptation of the Taylor methodology, referred to as the motion study, was developed 

by Frank and Lillain Gilbreth in the early 20th century to determine the simplest, least fatiguing 

way to perform a task (Ferguson 1997). Both of these methodologies rely on direct monitoring 

of individuals, as they perform various tasks, as well as the elapsed time for each task (Flynn 

1998). Today, the monitoring may be performed using a video camera (Ferguson 1997). A 

major advantage of direct observation is that it can provide very accurate data, as well as 

descriptions of the processes and setting. Major disadvantages include its intrusiveness and 

expense (National Research Council 2000). 

Another type of methodology relies on information reported by respondents, i.e., self-report, 

rather than direct observation. Participants may be asked to record, on customized timesheets, 

the time they spent on specific activities (Aikin, et al. 1993; Albinsson, et al, 1996; Hatfield, et 

al. 1985). Alternatively, participants can report their activities to a data collector, who then 

records the information (Stinson 1999). Self-report can be less intrusive and require less of the 

researchers time than direct observation. However, this methodology also has its limitations. 

First, the accuracy of the data depends on the diligence, understanding, and honesty of the 

participant. Second, it can be difficult to accurately record activities when participants are 

performing multiple tasks at the same time. Third, data need to be entered into a computer 

before they can be analyzed. 

GAOs Time-Use Study at WIC Agencies 

Description of the Federal WIC Program 

WIC is a USDA grant program that provides supplemental foods and nutrition services to lowerincome pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum women, infants, and children up to age 5 who 

are at nutritional risk (General Accounting Office, 2000a, 3). Approximately $1.1 billion in WIC 

funds in fiscal year 1999 was used to provide grants to state WIC agencies for nutrition services 
 

 

 

 

 

 

and administration of these services. The nutrition services are (1) participant services, i.e., 

certifying eligibility to participate in the program, issuing food benefits, and making referrals to 

other health or social service agencies; (2) nutrition education, i.e., providing individual or group 

education to improve participants dietary habits and health status; and (3) breastfeeding 

promotion and support, i.e., educating women about the benefits of breastfeeding and providing 

the support necessary to enable them to breastfeed. Administration includes the functions 

necessary to support program operations, such as accounting and record-keeping (General 

Accounting Office, 2000b, 5). 

WIC requires state and local grant recipients to account for salaries and wages allotted to WIC 

and non-WIC activities and to the type of service (participant services, nutrition education, 

breastfeeding promotion) and administration (USDA 1999, 3-1). To comply with the cost 

reporting requirements, most state and local WIC agencies use either continuous time-use 

reporting or periodic time-use studies. According to unpublished GAO data from 1416 local 

WIC agencies (General Accounting Office, 1999b), about the same percentage of respondents 

(40%) used continuous time-use reporting as used periodic time studies (44%) during federal 

fiscal year 1998. 

Task Analysis of WIC Activities and Creation of Coding System 

A critical first step in conducting a time-use study is the identification and categorization of 

different work processes and associated activities. This procedure, sometimes referred to as task 

analysis, requires the identification of major work processes and then the delineation of major 

tasks or activities involved in each process. For instance, the budgeting process might include 

such activities as the review of past budgets, the review of past expenditures, and the approval of 

the proposed budget. Once the task analysis is complete, the processes and associated activities 

must be verified with the individuals who will participate in the study. This ensures that most, if 

not all, of the possible activities are defined and that each activity has been associated with the 

correct process. 

To conduct the task analysis for this study, we reviewed USDA documentation, recent WIC 

research, and examples of WIC time studies from several states. Processes were identified for 

each of the three types of WIC services and for administration. Individual activities were 

identified for each of the processes. Once these processes and activities were identified, they 

were reviewed by WIC administrators and employees. The final coding system used for this 

study included 4 service/administration categories (participant services, nutrition education, 

breastfeeding promotion, and administration) and 30 activity categories. Each activity category 

consisted of a process and its associated activities. Table 1 provides examples from the coding 

system (General Accounting Office, 2000b, 29). The same coding system was used for all six of 

the agencies included in our study. 
 

 

 

 

Table 1: Examples of Categories and Associated Activities Used for Time-Use Studies at Six WIC Agencies 

 

Service or 

Activity Categories 

Administration 

Category Process Associated Activities 

Participant Services Determining 

participants 

eligibilitya 

Determining eligibility (income, category, residence); obtaining 

necessary documentation and copying it; completing forms or 

computer screens; obtaining physical measurements and blood work 

to determine eligibility; obtaining and recording immunization data; 

handling complaints. 

Participant Services Assessing 

participants 

nutritional riska 

Obtaining physical measurements, such as height and weight, and 

blood work to assess risk or intervention level; completing 

assessments and tests; determining appropriate risk factors; 

assessing immunization status; completing forms or computer 

screens; discussing nutrition and breastfeeding; developing care 

plans; developing food packages; reviewing charts; recording 

progress. 

Nutrition Education Providing one-onone nutrition 

education or 

counselinga 

Providing one-on-one counseling/education sessions outside of the 

certification/recertification process; explaining WIC foods and food 

preparation; following up, and documenting meetings. Includes 

phone calls and visits to, for example, the home or a hospital. 

Breastfeeding 

promotion and 

support 

Providing group 

breastfeeding 

instruction/ 

Counselinga 

Providing group breastfeeding counseling/education 

Administration Personnel tasks Completing timesheets; processing payroll, hiring and terminating 

staff; orientation of new personnel; supervising staff; providing 

non-WIC staff training. 

a

Activity involved direct contact with participant, or potential participants, either in person or by telephone. 

Hand-Held Bar Code Scanners 

Given our time and resource constraints, we decided that using direct observation to collect timeuse data was not a viable approach. We conducted a literature search of studies in the public 

health field to identify alternative time-use self-report methods. One article described a time-use 

study in which hospital employees used hand-held bar code scanners to record the time spent on 

different activities (Stevens 1994). Using this technology appeared to reduce the burden 

associated with self-report methods, while improving the reliability of the data. We decided to 

use this technology in our study of time-use at WIC agencies. 

The system we used was developed by Work Management Institute, LTD. We contracted with 

them to provide equipment and technical support. Their system enables study participants to 

record time spent on their daily activities by swiping a small bar code scanner across bar codes 

assigned to predetermined activity categories (see Figure 1). The scanner records both the 

activity and the elapsed time spent on each activity. At the end of each workday, scanners are 
 

 

returned to a recharging device. This device also has a modem connection, enabling the 

contractor to download each employees daily data. (A detailed description of the system is 

provided at the end of this paper.) 

Figure 1: Bar code scanner and sheet used in GAO time-use study 

We used the hand-held scanner system to collect time-use data at five of the six WIC agencies 

we studied. Before data collection began, WIC employees received training on the purpose of 

the study, the WIC activity categories, the use of the scanner and bar code sheets, and reporting 

procedures. The employees were then given two days to practice the scanning procedures. The 

study period for each agency lasted approximately one month (20 consecutive workdays). 

During the data collection period, WIC employees were asked to use the hand-held scanner and 

code sheets as they performed various activities at their desks, in other office spaces, or on workrelated travel. 

After the first day of practice, each participant received a printed report of the previous days 

recorded data. (A sample of a daily report is in Figure 2.) The contractor then met individually 

with each employee. Together, they reviewed the report from the previous days work, and 

discussed any difficulties the employee had in understanding procedures or using the bar code 

scanner. The contractor also explained the procedures for the employee to follow in correcting 

any errors found in a daily report. These procedures were repeated, as needed, during the second 

day of practice. The employees began their 20 workdays of recording on the first Monday that 

followed the practice days. 
 

 

 

 

Figure 2. Sample of part of a daily report from scanned WIC time-use study data 

During the study period, the contractor downloaded the employees data every evening. Each 

employees data were reviewed to ensure that the data met technical requirements, such as 

having one sign-in and one sign-out for that day. The contractor then analyzed the recorded time 

for each activity, for every employee. Beginning with the practice period, the mean and standard 

deviation for time spent on each activity were calculated. During the data collection period, each 

days data were appended to this data set and the total data set was used to re-calculate the mean 

and standard deviation for each activity. Each employees data were compared with these 

statistics. The daily report was faxed to each employee by noon the following day. If any 

employees recorded time for any work activity was more than two standard deviations above or 

below the mean the contractor made a note (e.g., Is this correct?) on the summary report. 

Employees provided the contractor with comments or corrections, and each employees data file 

was corrected if necessary. For instance, as illustrated in Figure 2, the contractor made a note 

that the employee had problems with a laptap computer, and this accounted for the large amount 

of clerical time for that day. 
 

 

 

 

GAO Time Study With Timesheets 

One WIC agency we studied was considerably larger than the other agencies, with as many staff 

members as the other five agencies combined. Because of time and resource constraints, we did 

not use the hand-held scanners for this agency. Instead, we used booklets that included coding 

categories and a timesheet for recording activity codes and the amount of time spent in that 

activity. Staff at this agency used the same activity coding system as the other agencies and 

received on-site training from GAO staff that was similar to that provided to the agencies using 

the bar code scanners. A toll-free number was provided so that staff members could call GAO if 

they had questions about recording their times. 

WIC staff recorded their times for one day each week over a 5-week period, for a total of five 

days of data collection. We assigned the days for time-use recording, so that staff recorded their 

times once on each day of the week. On any given day approximately one-fifth of the staff 

recorded their time use. If an employee could not record times on his or her assigned day, GAO 

assigned a substitute day. An example of a completed time sheet is illustrated in Figure 3. 
 

Figure 3. Example of a completed timesheet from a WIC employee 

Prior to data collection, each WIC employee was given five timesheet booklets and five mail 

courier envelopes for sending their timesheets to GAO as they completed them. GAO typically 

received the timesheets two days after the employee recorded the data. Upon receipt, the 

timesheets were logged in, then checked for completeness and to identify anomalies. GAO staff 

called the WIC employee if data were missing or if there was a question about the way times 

were recorded. The data were then coded onto data entry sheets that were reviewed by a second 

GAO staff member. Discrepancies or questions were resolved through consultation with the first 

staff member. 

Feedback From Study Participants 

To assess how study participants felt about using the bar code scanning method we surveyed 

WIC staff at the five agencies that used this methodology. Over 40 of the 50 staff members from 

the five WIC agencies who used the scanning method responded to the survey. 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The survey results indicated that almost two-thirds of these respondents felt that the bar code 

scanning method compared favorably with other ways of recording time use. For instance, 60 

percent of the respondents felt that bar code scanning was more accurate than other ways of 

recording their time. About the same percentage of respondents also felt that the scanning 

method was easier to do than other recording methods. 

Though these respondents felt the bar code scanning method was better in some respects than 

other methods, they also indicated that there was room for improvement. Respondents were not 

always comfortable with the daily results. As indicated earlier, the study participants received 

and reviewed a daily report of their previous day's activities. Only 29 percent of the respondents 

felt the daily reports they received for review were always an accurate picture of how they spent 

their time. 

The participants perceptions of the accuracy of the daily reports may be attributed to several 

aspects of GAO's procedures. First, the fact that congressional investigators were studying their 

agency in order to obtain detailed information on personnel costs may have heightened the 

sensitivities of the WIC employees. Second, GAO's system for coding WIC activities, though an 

amalgam of existing WIC coding systems, was different from the coding systems the study 

participants ordinarily used for their agencies time studies. Third, this was the first time the 

study participants had used the bar code scanners, followed these particular study procedures, 

and reviewed daily computer-generated reports of their activities. Finally, several participants 

indicated during the training period that they were uncomfortable with the limited ability to 

capture instances when they were performing two or more tasks at the same time, such as 

providing nutrition education while weighing a participant. 

The perceived accuracy of the daily reports, as well as the efficiency in using the bar code 

scanners, would likely improve with more experience and training. In addition, the coding 

system and scanning procedures could be revised to better account for those occasions when 

WIC employees are performing multiple tasks. Experts have noted that measuring the time spent 

on simultaneous activities is a common difficulty in time-use studies, requiring further research 

(National Research Council 2000). 

Advantages of Scanning Technology for Self-Report Time-Use Studies 

Despite the limitations of all self-report time-use studies, we believe using scanners has several 

advantages over other approaches. First, using hand-held scanners eliminates the need for 

employees to record each activity and note start and stop times. As a result, time is saved and 

the burden on employees is reduced. In addition, errors are reduced, thus increasing the 

reliability of the data. Second, employees receive a summary of their workday activities the next 

day. This lets them make any necessary corrections, again reducing the burden on them and 

enhancing data reliability. The speed with which the scanned data are transmitted allows for the 

analysis of the data as the study progresses and for the monitoring of data quality. During the 

study the researcher can identify employees who seem to have performed one activity for an 

inordinate amount of time or who may need additional training. This also enhances data 
 

 

 

 

 

reliability. In addition, the data from the employees are received in electronic format, 

eliminating the need for data entry, reducing the opportunity for errors and the burden on 

research staff. 

The scanning method may cost about the same as using hand-written timesheets. While we did 

not track the costs associated with our use of timesheets for one agency, we did receive a 

proposal to perform a one-month timesheet self-report time-use study for about the same cost as 

using hand-held scanners. 

Potential for Scanning Technology to Improve Government Accountability and Performance 

The use of hand-held scanners has the potential to increase the accountability and performance of 

government agencies. For instance, the Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance lists about 300 

federal programs that require state and local agencies to account for personnel costs in 

accordance with OMB guidelines, as described earlier (General Services Administration, 2000). 

Other federal agencies, besides USDA, may permit state and local agencies to employ time-use 

studies to track these costs. In such cases, state and local agencies could use hand-held scanners 

to obtain faster, more reliable tine use data for these purposes. 

In addition, some federal agencies may also require time-use studies in the near future to 

improve performance. In response to taxpayers increased demand that tax dollars be spent 

responsibly, the Congress passed several major statutes, including the Government Performance 

and Results Act of 1993 (Pub. L. 103-62), which shifts the focus of federal agencies away from 

such traditional concerns as staffing toward results (General Accounting Office 1996, 1; General 

Accounting Office 1997, 24-25). The Results Act requires most federal agencies to set goals, 

measure performance, and report accomplishments (General Accounting Office 1997, 25) The 

act generally covers executive departments, government corporations and independent 

establishments (General Accounting Office 1997, 26). To set goals and measure performance, 

one best practice is for an agency to understand how a program uses its inputs, such as its 

resources and workload, to produce outputs (General Accounting Office 1999a, 20, 33). By 

understanding the personnel time required to carry out various processes and activities, the 

agency can refine workload and processes to improve output. A time-use study conducted using 

scanning technology could quickly provide program managers with reliable information on how 

program personnel spend their time, enabling them to better match program inputs with outputs. 

For agencies to obtain useful data, time-use studies must be carried out in a deliberate, 

standardized fashion. Using scanning technology does not eliminate these requirements. Our 

experience demonstrates that scanning technology can be used for self-report time-use studies 

and has the potential to make such studies more reliable and less burdensome. 

Bar Code System Specifications 

Work Management Institute, Ltd. (WMI) of Arlington, Virginia developed the bar code scanning 

system that GAO used in its time-use studies. This system included Time Wand I® portable bar 

code scanners produced by Videx of Corvallis, Oregon; a computer with an Intel 80386® 

processor computer; an ASCII program that tracks the date, time, and barcodes scanned by an 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

individual; a recharger/modem device; and DOS-based communications software. One 

recharger/modem device is needed for every 10 scanners. WMI's Quixolve® software program, 

is used to convert Videx's ASCII data into databases that identify who recorded the data, the date 

and time, and the barcodes scanned. Quixolve® produces a series of relational databases from a 

defined protocol. An off-the-shelf report writing software program, integrated into Quixolve®, 

provided a report template for identifying the time recorded by staff member, summed by 

position, by department, and by activity. Contractor support is needed to provide initial employee 

training. Customers then operate the system under an annual site license, accessing technical 

support if needed. 

Many other portable scanning devices that use infrared technology to scan bar codes or text are 

available. However, we found that the descriptions of other bar code scanners did not indicate if 

they can capture the time and date with each bar code scanned. Capturing the time and date of 

each scan is necessary to determine the time spent on an activity. While other hand-held 

scanners may not eliminate as many steps from the timesheet method as the WMI system, they 

might be used to partially automate the timesheet approach. For instance, one modestly priced 

portable scanner, the QuickLink Pen® by WizCom® Technologies, Ltd., can scan document text 

using optical character recognition (OCR) software and download it to a personal computer via 

infrared communications or a cable. An agency could use such a scanner along with a timesheet 

that had a printed list of activities. Each employee would scan text corresponding to the name of 

the activity and the time he or she began each new activity. The employees information could 

be uploaded into a computer and brought into a spreadsheet to calculate the elapsed time for each 

activity. While this modified scanning approach is more labor intensive than WMIs system, it 

could minimize some of the transposition errors and the data entry requirements associated with 

the traditional paper-and-pencil timesheet approach. Given the rapid pace of technological 

advances, other portable hand-held devices may soon have the both the scanning and clock 

features to make them suitable for time-use studies. 

Acknowledgements 

The authors would like to acknowledge the staff members at the six WIC agencies (Gallatin 

County, Montana; Kanabec County, Minnesota; City of Long Beach, California; Pueblo of Zuni, 

New Mexico; Grady Health System, Atlanta, Georgia; and Community Progress Council, York, 

Pennsylvania) for their cooperation. 

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