1-1 

 

Chapter 1
 

Departure Procedures 

Introduction 

Thousands of instrument flight rules (IFR) takeoffs and 

departures occur daily in the National Airspace System 

(NAS). In order to accommodate this volume of IFR traffic, air 

traffic control (ATC) must rely on pilots to use charted airport 

sketches and diagrams, as well as departure procedures 

(DPs) that include both standard instrument departures 

(SIDs) and obstacle departure procedures (ODPs). While 

many charted (and uncharted) departures are based on 

radar vectors, the bulk of IFR departures in the NAS require 

pilots to navigate out of the terminal environment to the 

en route phase. 
 

IFR takeoffs and departures are fast-paced phases of 

flight, and pilots often are overloaded with critical flight 

information. While preparing for takeoff, pilots are busy 

requesting and receiving clearances, preparing their aircraft 

for departure, and taxiing to the active runway. During IFR 

conditions, they are doing this with minimal visibility, and 

they may be without constant radio communication if flying 

out of a non-towered airport. Historically, takeoff minimums 

for commercial operations have been successively reduced 

through a combination of improved signage, runway 

markings and lighting aids, and concentrated pilot 

training and qualifications. Today at major terminals, some 

commercial operators with appropriate equipment, pilot 

qualifications, and approved Operations Specifications 

(OpSpecs) may takeoff with visibility as low as 300 feet 

runway visual range (RVR). One of the consequences of 

takeoffs with reduced visibility is that pilots are challenged 

in maintaining situational awareness during taxi operations. 

Surface Movement Safety 

One of the biggest safety concerns in aviation is the surface 

movement accident. As a direct result, the FAA has rapidly 

expanded the information available to pilots, including 

the addition of taxiway and runway information in FAA 

publications, particularly the IFR U.S. Terminal Procedures 

Publication (TPP) booklets and the Chart Supplement (CS) 

volumes. The FAA has also implemented new procedures 

and created educational and awareness programs for 

pilots, ATC, and ground operators. By focusing resources 

to attack this problem head on, the FAA hopes to reduce 

and eventually eliminate surface movement accidents. 

Airport Sketches and Diagrams 

Airport sketches and diagrams provide pilots of all levels 

with graphical depictions of the airport layout. Aeronautical 

Information Services, formerly known as Aeronautical 

Products (AeroNav), provide an airport sketch on the lower 

left or right portion of every instrument approach chart. 

[Figure 1-1] This sketch depicts the runways, their length, 

width and slope, the touchdown zone elevation, the lighting 

system installed on the end of the runway, and taxiways. 

Graphical depictions of NOTAMS are also available for 

selected airports as well as for temporary flight restriction 

(TFRs) areas on the defense internet NOTAM service (DINS) 

website. 

For select airports, typically those with heavy traffic or 

complex runway layouts, Aeronautical Information Services 

also prints an airport diagram. The diagram is located in 

the IFR TPP booklet following the instrument approach 

chart for a particular airport. It is a full page depiction of 

the airport that includes the same features of the airport 

sketch plus additional details, such as taxiway identifiers, 

Figure 1-1. Airport diagram included on the Oshkosh, Wisconsin 

VOR RWY 9 Approach Chart as depicted in the IFR TPP. 

NOT FOR NAVIGATION

Runway numbers 

Runway slope 

Runway length and width 

airport latitude and longitude, and building identification. 

The airport diagrams are also available in the Airport/Facility 

Directory section of the Chart Supplement (CS) and on the 

Aeronautical Information Services' website, located at 

www.aeronav.faa.gov. [Figure 1-2] 

Chart Supplements (CS) 

In recent years, the former Airport/Facility Directory (A/ 

FD) booklet was incorporated as a section in the Chart 

Supplement (CS). [Figure 2-14] The Chart Supplement 

(CS) is published by Aeronautical Information Services in 

regional booklets and online at: [https://www.faa.gov/ 

air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav/digital_products/dafd/] 

The online version is known as the digital Chart Supplement 

(d-CS). The d-CS and the CS are identical and provide 

textual and graphic information about all airports, both 

Visual Flight Rules (VFR) and IFR. The Airport/Facility 

Directory (A/FD) section of the CS includes runway length 

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EC-3, 29 JUL 2010 to 26 AUG 2010 

EC-3, 29 JUL 2010 to 26 AUG 2010 

NOT FOR NAVIGATION

Longitude and latitude 

Airport name and location On-airport buildings 

Taxiway designations 

Precise runway direction 

Runway slope 

Figure 1-2. Airport diagram of Oshkosh, Wisconsin as depicted in 

the A/FD section of the CS. 

and width, runway surface, load bearing capacity, runway 

slope, runway declared distances, airport services, and 

hazards, such as birds and reduced visibility. [Figure 1-3] 

Sketches of airports also are being added to aid VFR pilots in 

surface movement activities. In support of the FAA Runway 

Incursion Program, full page airport diagrams and “Hot 

Spot” locations are included in the A/FD section of the CS. 

These charts are the same as those published in the IFR 

TPP and are printed for airports with complex runway or 

taxiway layouts. 

Surface Movement Guidance Control System 

(SMGCS) 

The Surface Movement Guidance Control System 

(SMGCS) was developed to facilitate the safe movement 

of aircraft and vehicles at airports where scheduled 

air carriers were conducting authorized operations. 

Advisory Circular 120-57 was developed in 1992. In 2012, 

FAA Order 8000.94, Procedures for Establishing Airport 

Low-Visibility Operations and Approval of Low-Visibility 

Operations/Surface Movement Guidance and Control 

System Operations, was published to provide procedures 

for establishing Airport Low-Visibility Operations (LVO) 

and Surface Movement Guidance and Control Systems. It 

established the necessary FAA headquarters and operating 

services, roles, responsibilities, and activities for operations 

at 14 CFR Part 139 airports using RVRs of less than 1,200 

feet for each runway. The order applies to all users of 

the system at all levels who are formally listed. The FAA 

requires the commissioning of an “FAA approved LVO/ 

SMGCS Operation” for all new Category III ILS supported 

runways. Since there are no regulatory takeoff minimums 

for 14 CFR Part 91 operations, the information provided by 

FAA AC 120-57 and FAA Order 8000.94 must be understood 

so that the general aviation pilot can understand LVO and 

SMGCS during day or night. 

The SMGCS low visibility taxi plan includes the enhancement 

of taxiway and runway signs, markings, and lighting, 

as well as the creation of SMGCS visual aid diagrams. 

[Figure 1-4] The plan also clearly identifies taxi routes 

and their supporting facilities and equipment. Airport 

enhancements that are part of the SMGCS program include, 

but are not limited to: 

•	 Controllable Stop bars lights—these consist of a row 

of red, unidirectional, in-pavement lights that can be 

controlled by ATC. They provide interactions with 

and aircraft that prevent runway incursions during 

takeoff operations. These are required for operations 

at less than 500 ft RVR. 

•	 Non-Controllable Stop bars lights—these are red, 

unidirectinoal lights place at intersections where a 

restriction to movement is required. They must be 

in continuous operation at less than 500 ft RVR. 

•	 Taxiway centerline lead-on lights—guide ground 

traffic under low visibility conditions and at night. 

These lights consist of alternating green/yellow inpavement lights. 

•	 Runway guard lights—either elevated or inpavement, may be installed at all taxiways that 

provide access to an active runway. They consist 

of alternately flashing yellow lights. These lights 

are used to denote both the presence of an active 

runway and identify the location of a runway holding 

position marking. 

•	 Geographic position markings—ATC verifies the 

position of aircraft and vehicles using geographic 

position markings. The markings can be used either 

as hold points or for position reporting. These 

checkpoints or “pink spots” are outlined with a black 

and white circle and designated with a number or a 

number and a letter. 

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Figure 1-3. Excerpts from the Chart Supplement (Airport Facility Directory section) of Naples Muni, Naples, Florida. 

•	 Clearance bar lights—three yellow in-pavement 

clearance bar lights used to denote holding 

positions for aircraft and vehicles. When used for 

hold points, they are co-located with geographic 

position markings. 

Both flight and ground crews, Part 121 and 135 operators, are 

required to comply with SMGCS plans when implemented 

at their specific airport. All airport tenants are responsible 

for disseminating information to their employees and 

conducting training in low visibility operating procedures. 

Anyone operating in conjunction with the SMGCS plan 

must have a copy of the low visibility taxi route chart for 

their given airport as these charts outline the taxi routes 

and other detailed information concerning low visibility 

operations. These charts are available from private sources 

outside of the FAA. Government sources for SMGCS 

charts may be available in the future. Part 91 operators 

are expected to comply with the guidelines listed in AC 

120-57, and should expect “Follow Me” service (when 

available) when low visibility operations are in use. Any 

SMGCS outage that would adversely affect operations at 

the airport is issued as a Notice to Airmen (NOTAM). 

Advanced Surface Movement Guidance Control 

System (A-SMGCS) 

With the increasing demand for airports to accommodate 

higher levels of aircraft movements, it is becoming more 

difficult for the existing infrastructure to safely handle 

greater capacities of traffic in all weather conditions. As 

a result, the FAA is implementing runway safety systems, 

such as Airport Surface Detection Equipment-Model X 

(ASDE-X) and Advanced Surface Movement Guidance and 

Control System (A-SMGCS) at various airports. The data that 

these systems use comes from surface movement radar 

and aircraft transponders. The combination of these data 

sources allows the systems to determine the position and 

identification of aircraft on the airport movement area and 

decreases the potential of collisions on airport runways 

and taxiways. 

Additional information concerning airport lighting, 

markings, and signs can be found in the Aeronautical 

Information Manual (AIM) and the Pilot’s Handbook of 

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A A 

18 

18 

Runway holding position marking and lights for land and hold short operations (LAHSO) 

Painted taxiway direction sign 

Painted taxiway location sign 

Taxiway centerline marking 

Under ATC Not under ATC control

control 

Taxiway edge marking (do not cross) 

Centerline/lead-on lights 

Stop bar at instrument landing system hold position 

Broken taxiway edge markings may be crossed 

Painted 

holding 

position

sign 

Low 

visibility

hold 

point 

Vehicle lanes 

Reporting points 

In-pavement runway guard lights 

Figure 1-4. Key airport lighting and markings. 

Aeronautical Knowledge, appendix 1, as well as on the FAA’s 

website at http://www.faa.gov/airports/runway_safety/. 

Airport Signs, Lighting, and Markings 

Flight crews use airport lighting, markings, and signs to 

help maintain situational awareness. These visual aids 

provide information concerning the aircraft’s location on 

the airport, the taxiway in use, and the runway entrance 

being used. Overlooking this information can lead to 

ground accidents that are entirely preventable. If you 

encounter unfamiliar markings or lighting, contact ATC 

for clarification and, if necessary, request progressive taxi 

instructions. Pilots are encouraged to notify the appropriate 

authorities of erroneous, misleading, or decaying signs or 

lighting that would contribute to the failure of safe ground 

operations. 

Runway Incursions 

On any given day, the NAS may handle almost 200,000 

takeoffs and landings. Due to the complex nature of the 

airport environment and the intricacies of the network of 

people that make it operate efficiently, the FAA is constantly 

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looking to maintain the high standard of safety that exists 

at airports today. Runway safety is one of its top priorities. 

The FAA defines a runway incursion as: “Any occurrence 

at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an 

aircraft, vehicle, or person on the protected area of a surface 

designated for the landing and takeoff of aircraft.” 

The four categories of runway incursions are listed below: 

•	 Category A—a serious incident in which a collision 

was narrowly avoided. 

•	 Category B—an incident in which separation 

decreases and there is a significant potential for 

Figure 1-5. FAA recommendations for reducing runway incursions. 

The FAA recommends that you: 

• Receive and understand all NOTAMs, particularly 

those concerning airport construction and lighting. 

• Read back, in full, all clearances involving 

holding short, line up and wait, and crossing runways

 to ensure proper understanding. 

• Abide by the sterile cockpit rule. 

• Develop operational procedures that minimize 

distractions during taxiing. 

• Ask ATC for directions if you are lost or unsure of 

your position on the airport. 

• Adhere to takeoff and runway crossing clearances in 

a timely manner. 

• Position your aircraft so landing traffic can see you. 

• Monitor radio communications to maintain a 

situational awareness of other aircraft. 

• Remain on frequency until instructed to change. 

• Make sure you know the reduced runway distances 

and whether or not you can comply before accepting 

a land and hold short clearance or clearance for

 shortened runway. 

• Report confusing airport diagrams to the proper 

authorities. 

• Use exterior taxi and landing lights when practical. 

The sterile cockpit rule refers to a concept outlined in 14 CFR 

Part 121, § 121.542 and 135.100 that requires flight 

crews to refrain from engaging in activities that could distract 

them from the performance of their duties during critical phases 

of flight. 

NOTE: 

collision that may result in a time critical corrective/ 

evasive response to avoid a collision. 

•	 Category C—an incident characterized by ample 

time and/or distance to avoid a collision. 

•	 Category D—an incident that meets the definition 

of runway incursion, such as incorrect presence of a 

single vehicle/person/aircraft on the protected area 

of a surface designated for the landing and takeoff of 

aircraft but with no immediate safety consequences. 

Figure 1-5 highlights several steps that reduce the chances 

of being involved in a runway incursion. 

In addition to the SMGCS program, the FAA has implemented 

additional programs to reduce runway incursions and other 

surface movement issues. They identified runway hotspots, 

designed standardized taxi routes, and instituted the 

Runway Safety Program. 

Runway Hotspots 

ICAO defines runway hotspots as a location on an 

aerodrome movement area with a history or potential risk 

of collision or runway incursion and where heightened 

attention by pilots and drivers is necessary. Hotspots 

alert pilots to complex or potentially confusing taxiway 

geometry that could make surface navigation challenging. 

Whatever the reason, pilots need to be aware that 

these hazardous intersections exist, and they should 

be increasingly vigilant when approaching and taxiing 

through these intersections. These hotspots are depicted 

on some airport charts as circled areas. [Figure 1-6] The FAA 

Office of Runway Safety has links to the FAA regions that 

maintain a complete list of airports with runway hotspots 

at http://www.faa.gov/airports/runway_safety. 

Standardized Taxi Routes 

Standard taxi routes improve ground management at highdensity airports, namely those that have airline service. At 

these airports, typical taxiway traffic patterns used to move 

aircraft between gate and runway are laid out and coded. 

The ATC specialist (ATCS) can reduce radio communication 

time and eliminate taxi instruction misinterpretation by 

simply clearing the pilot to taxi via a specific, named route. 

An example of this would be Los Angeles International 

Airport (KLAX), where North Route is used to transition 

to Runway 24L. [Figure 1-7] These routes are issued by 

ground control, and if unable to comply, pilots must 

advise ground control on initial contact. If for any reason 

the pilot becomes uncertain as to the correct taxi route, a 

request should be made for progressive taxi instructions. 

These step-by-step routing directions are also issued if the 

controller deems it necessary due to traffic, closed taxiways, 

airport construction, etc. It is the pilot’s responsibility to 

know if a particular airport has preplanned taxi routes, to 

be familiar with them, and to have the taxi descriptions in 

their possession. Specific information about airports that 

use coded taxiway routes is included in the Notices to 

Airmen Publication (NTAP). 

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NOT FOR NAVIGATION

SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE 

At Long Beach/Daugherty Field Airport, the following areas have been 

designated as hot spots, posing a special challenge to pilots. 

HOT6 

Landing Runway 30 

Be aware that this runway crosses every other available runway 

at the airport. When exiting the runway, pilots should make sure 

they are turning with a “lead-off” taxiline onto a taxiway and not 

onto another active runway. 

HOT1 

Runway 25R and Taxiway D 

Aircraft exiting runway 30 at taxiway A turn 

left on taxiway D, anticipate reaching their 

destination, and fail to hold short of runway 

25R. 

HOT2 

Runway 12 and Taxiway B 

Aircraft northbound on taxiway B for departure 

on runway 16R at taxiway intersection D miss 

the right turn onto taxiway D and enter 

runways 12, 7L, and 25R. 

HOT3 

Runway 25L/7R at Taxiway B 

Aircraft southbound on taxiway B anticipate 

reaching their destination parking ramp and 

fail to hold short of runway 25L/7R. 

HOT4 

Runway 16R/34L at Taxiway F 

Aircraft taxiing to runway 16R from the 

southwest ramp miss the left turn onto 

taxiway B, continue eastbound onto taxiway 

F, and enter runway 16R/34L. 

HOT5 

Runway 25L at Taxiway D 

After completing a runup on inactive runway 

34R, aircraft fail to hold short of runway 25L. 

Figure 1-6. Example of runway hot spots located at Long Beach/Daugherty Field Airport (KLGB). 

SW-3, 29 JUL 2010 to 26 AUG 2010 

Standardized Taxi Routes for Los Angeles 

International Airport (KLAX)
 

The following Standardized Taxi routes 

may be issued to all taxiing aircraft.
 

North Route 

Taxi via Charlie (C) towards taxiway Sierra (S) taxi northbound on taxiway Sierra (S), 

and at Check-point-1 contact Ground Control on frequency 121.65, hold short of 

taxiway Delta (D). When advised by the north Ground Control, the North Route 

continues on taxiway Echo (E) to Runway 24L or the gate, whichever applies. 

South Route 

If the aircraft is west of taxiway Romeo (R), taxi eastbound on taxiway Echo (E) and 

turn right on taxiway Romeo (R), if the aircraft is east of taxiway Romeo (R), taxi 

westbound on taxiway Echo (E) and turn left on taxiway Romeo (R). And at 

Check-point-2, contact Ground Control on frequency 121.75, hold short of taxiway 

Charlie (C). 

West Route 

Taxi via taxiway Charlie (C) west-bound, hold short of taxiway Alfa Alfa (AA), contact 

Ground Control on frequency 121.65 when number one approaching Taxiway AA. 

Bridge Route 

Taxi via taxiway Echo (E) then south on taxiway Alfa Alfa (AA), and at Check-point-3 

contact Ground Control on frequency 121.75, hold short of taxiway Charlie (C). 

(AJV-W2 4/23/2010) 

North Route 

SW-3, 29 JUL 2010 to 26 AUG 2010 

Figure 1-7. Los Angeles International Airport diagram, North Route, and standardized taxi route. 

1-7 
 

 

 

 

Taxi and Movement Operations Change 

As of June 30, 2010, controllers are required to issue explicit 

instructions to cross or hold short of each runway that 

intersects a taxi route. Following is a summary of these 

procedural changes: 

•	 “Taxi to” is no longer used when issuing taxi 

instructions to an assigned takeoff runway. 

•	 Instructions to cross a runway are issued one at a 

time. Instructions to cross multiple runways are not 

issued. An aircraft or vehicle must have crossed the 

previous runway before another runway crossing 

is issued. This applies to any runway, including 

inactive or closed runways. 

•	 Never cross a runway hold marking without explicit 

ATC instructions. If in doubt, ask! 

Reminder: You may not enter a runway unless you have 

been: 

1.	 Instructed to cross or taxi onto that specific runway; 

2.	 Cleared to take off from that runway; or 

3.	 Instructed to line up and wait on that specific runway. 

For more information on the change, refer to FAA Order 

JO 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, which can be found at www. 

faa.gov. 

Weather and the Departure Environment 

Takeoff Minimums 

While mechanical failure is potentially hazardous during 

any phase of flight, a failure during takeoff under 

instrument conditions is extremely critical. In the event of 

an emergency, a decision must be made to either return to 

the departure airport or fly directly to a takeoff alternate. If 

the departure weather were below the landing minimums 

for the departure airport, the flight would be unable to 

return for landing, leaving few options and little time to 

reach a takeoff alternate. 

In the early years of air transportation, landing minimums 

for commercial operators were usually lower than takeoff 

minimums. Therefore, it was possible that minimums 

allowed pilots to land at an airport but not depart from that 

airport. Additionally, all takeoff minimums once included 

ceiling, as well as visibility requirements. Today, takeoff 

minimums are typically lower than published landing 

minimums, and ceiling requirements are only included if 

it is necessary to see and avoid obstacles in the departure 

area. 

The FAA establishes takeoff minimums for every airport 

that has published Standard Instrument Approaches. 

These minimums are used by commercially operated 

aircraft, namely Part 121 and Part 135 operators. At airports 

where minimums are not established, these same carriers 

are required to use FAA-designated standard minimums: 

1 statute mile (SM) visibility for single- and twin-engine 

aircraft, and 1⁄2 SM for helicopters and aircraft with more 

than two engines. 

Aircraft operating under 14 CFR Part 91 are not required to 

comply with established takeoff minimums. Legally, a zero/ 

zero departure may be made, but it is never advisable. If 

commercial pilots who fly passengers on a daily basis must 

comply with takeoff minimums, then good judgment and 

common sense would tell all instrument pilots to follow 

the established minimums as well. 

Aeronautical Information Services charts list takeoff 

minimums only for the runways at airports that have other 

than standard minimums. These takeoff minimums are 

listed by airport in alphabetical order in the front of the TPP 

booklet. If an airport has non-standard takeoff minimums, 

a (referred to by some as either the “triangle T” or “trouble T

T”) is placed in the notes sections of the instrument 

procedure chart. In the front of the TPP booklet, takeoff 

minimums are listed before the obstacle departure 

procedure. Some departure procedures allow a departure 

with standard minimums provided specific aircraft 

performance requirements are met. [Figure 1-8] 

Takeoff Minimums for Commercial Operators 

While Part 121 and Part 135 operators are the primary users 

of takeoff minimums, they may be able to use alternative 

takeoff minimums based on their individual OpSpecs. 

Through these OpSpecs, operators are authorized to depart 

with lower-than-standard minimums provided they have 

the necessary equipment and crew training. 

Operations Specifications (OpSpecs) 

Within the air transportation industry, there is a need to 

establish and administer safety standards to accommodate 

many variables. These variables include a wide range 

of aircraft, varied operator capabilities, the various 

situations requiring different types of air transportation, 

and the continual, rapid changes in aviation technology. 

It is impractical to address these variables through the 

promulgation of safety regulations for each and every 

type of air transport situation and the varying degrees of 

operator capabilities. Also, it is impractical to address the 

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Figure 1-8. Examples of non-standard takeoff minimums for Colorado Springs, Colorado. 

1-9 
SE-2, 29 JUL 2010 to 26 AUG 2010

 

 

 

 

 

 

 NOT FOR NAVIGATION

2010 to 26 AUG 2010 

rapidly changing aviation technology and environment 

through the regulatory process. Safety regulations 

would be extremely complex and unwieldy if all possible 

variations and situations were addressed by regulation. 

Instead, the safety standards established by regulation 

should usually have a broad application that allows varying 

acceptable methods of compliance. The OpSpecs provide 

an effective method for establishing safety standards that 

address a wide range of variables. In addition, OpSpecs 

can be adapted to a specific certificate holder or operator’s 

class and size of aircraft and type and kinds of operations. 

OpSpecs can be tailored to suit an individual certificate 

holder or operator’s needs. 

Part 121 and Part 135 certificate holders have the ability, 

through the use of approved OpSpecs, to use lower-thanstandard takeoff minimums. Depending on the equipment 

installed in a specific type of aircraft, the crew training, and 

the type of equipment installed at a particular airport, these 

operators can depart from appropriately equipped runways 

with as little as 300 feet RVR. Additionally, OpSpecs outline 

provisions for approach minimums, alternate airports, and 

weather services in Volume 3 of FAA Order 8900.1, Flight 

Standards Information Management System (FSIMS). 

SE-2, 29 JUL 2010 to 26 AUG 2010 

Figure 1-9. Examples of weather information of various flight 

information publications (FLIP). 

Ceiling and Visibility Requirements 

All takeoffs and departures have visibility minimums (some 

may have minimum ceiling requirements) incorporated 

into the procedure. There are a number of methods to 

report visibility and a variety of ways to distribute these 

reports, including automated weather observations. Flight 

crews should always check the weather, including ceiling 

and visibility information, prior to departure. Never launch 

an IFR flight without obtaining current visibility information 

immediately prior to departure. Further, when ceiling and 

visibility minimums are specified for IFR departure, both 

are applicable. 

Weather reporting stations for specific airports across 

the country can be located by reviewing the CS. Weather 

sources along with their respective phone numbers and 

frequencies are listed by airport. Frequencies for weather 

sources, such as Automatic Terminal Information Service 

(ATIS), Digital Automatic Terminal Information Service 

(D-ATIS), Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS), 

Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS), and FAA 

Automated Flight Service Station (AFSS) are published on 

approach charts as well. [Figure 1-9] 

Visibility 

Visibility is the ability, as determined by atmospheric 

conditions and expressed in units of distance, to see 

and identify prominent unlighted objects by day and 

prominent lighted objects by night. Visibility is reported 

as statute miles, hundreds of feet, or meters. 

Prevailing Visibility 

Prevailing visibility is the greatest horizontal visibility 

equaled or exceeded throughout at least half the horizon 

circle, which need not necessarily be continuous. Prevailing 

visibility is reported in statute miles or fractions of miles. 

Runway Visibility Value (RVV) 

Runway visibility value is the visibility determined for a 

particular runway by a transmissometer. A meter provides 

Conversion 

RVR (feet) Visibility (sm)

1,600 1/4

2,400 1/2

3,200 5/8

4,000 3/4

4,500 7/8

5,000 1

6,000 11/4 

Figure 1-10. RVR conversion table. 

1-10 
 

 

 

continuous indication of the visibility (reported in statute 

miles or fractions of miles) for the runway. RVV is used in lieu 

of prevailing visibility in determining minimums for a particular 

runway. 

Tower Visibility 

Tower visibility is the prevailing visibility determined from 

the airport traffic control tower at locations that also report 

the surface visibility. 

Runway Visual Range (RVR) 

Runway visual range is an instrumentally derived value,
 

based on standard calibrations, that represents the
 

horizontal distance a pilot sees down the runway from the
 

approach end. It is based on the sighting of either high
 

intensity runway lights or on the visual contrast of other
 

targets, whichever yields the greater visual range. RVR, in
 

contrast to prevailing or runway visibility, is based on what
 

a pilot in a moving aircraft should see looking down the
 

runway. RVR is horizontal visual range, not slant visual range.
 

RVR is reported in hundreds of feet, so the values must be
 

converted to SM if the visibility in SM is not reported. [Figure
 

1-10] It is based on the measurement of a transmissometer
 

made near the touchdown point of the instrument runway
 

and is reported in hundreds of feet. RVR is used in lieu of
 

RVV and/or prevailing visibility in determining minimums
 

for a particular runway.
 

Types of RVR
 

The following are types of RVR that may be used:
 

•	 Touchdown RVR—the RVR visibility readout values 

obtained from RVR equipment serving the runway 

touchdown zone. 

•	 Mid-RVR—the RVR readout values obtained from 

RVR equipment located near the runway midpoint . 

•	 Rollout RVR—the RVR readout values obtained from 

RVR equipment located nearest the rollout end of 

the runway. 

•	 Far End RVR—when four RVR visibility sensors (VS) 

are installed, the far end RVR VS is the touchdown 

RVR VS on the reciprocal runway. The far end sensor 

will serve as additional information. 

RVR is the primary visibility measurement used by Part 

121 and Part 135 operators with specific visibility reports 

and controlling values outlined in their respective OpSpecs. 

Under their OpSpecs agreements, the operator must have 

specific, current RVR reports, if available, to proceed with an 

instrument departure. OpSpecs also outline which visibility 

report is controlling in various departure scenarios. 

Figure 1-11. AWSS installation at Driggs-Reed, Idaho. 

Adequate Visual Reference 

Another set of lower-than-standard takeoff minimums is 

available to Part 121 and Part 135 operations as outlined in 

their respective OpSpecs document. When certain types of 

visibility reports are unavailable or specific equipment is out 

of service, the flight can still depart the airport if the pilot 

can maintain adequate visual reference. An appropriate 

visual aid must be available to ensure the takeoff surface 

can be continuously identified, and directional control can 

be maintained throughout the takeoff run. Appropriate 

visual aids include high intensity runway lights, runway 

centerline lights, runway centerline markings, or other 

runway lighting and markings. With adequate visual 

references and appropriate OpSpec approval, commercial 

operators may take off with a visibility of 1600 RVR or 1⁄4 

SM. 

Ceilings 

Ceiling is the height above the earth’s surface of the lowest 

layer of clouds or obscuring phenomena that is reported as 

broken, overcast, or obscuration and not classified as thin 

or partial. 

1-11 
 

 

 

 

 

Automated Weather Systems 

An automated weather system consists of any of the 

automated weather sensor platforms that collect weather 

data at airports and disseminate the weather information 

via radio and/or landline. The systems consist of the ASOS/ 

Automated Weather Sensor System (AWSS) and the AWOS. 

Figure 1-12. CS entry for an AWOS station. 

SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE

WEATHER DATA SOURCES: AWOS-3 119.675 (704) 735-6954. 

AWOS/ASOS/AWSS information 

These systems are installed and maintained at airports 

across the United States by both government (FAA and 

National Weather Service (NWS)) and private entities. They 

are relatively inexpensive to operate because they require 

no outside observer, and they provide invaluable weather 

information for airports without operating control towers. 

[Figure 1-11] 

AWOS and ASOS/AWSS offer a wide variety of capabilities 

and progressively broader weather reports. Automated 

systems typically transmit weather every one to two 

minutes so the most up-to-date weather information is 

constantly broadcast. Basic AWOS includes only altimeter 

setting, wind speed, wind direction, temperature, and dew 

point information. More advanced systems, such as the 

ASOS/AWSS and AWOS-3, are able to provide additional 

information, such as wind speed, wind gust, wind direction, 

variable wind direction, temperature, dew point, altimeter 

setting, and density altitude. ASOS/AWSS stations providing 

service levels A or B also report RVR. The specific type 

of equipment found at a given facility is listed in the CS. 

[Figure 1-12] 

The use of the aforementioned visibility reports and 

weather services are not limited for Part 91 operators. 

Part 121 and 135 operators are bound by their individual 

OpSpecs documents and are required to use weather 

reports that come from the NWS or other approved 

sources. While every operator’s specifications are 

individually tailored, most operators are required to use 

ATIS, RVR reports, and selected reports from automated 

weather stations. All reports coming from an AWOS-3 

station are usable for Part 121 and Part 135 operators. Each 

type of automated station has different levels of approval 

as outlined in individual OpSpecs. Ceiling and visibility 

reports given by the tower with the departure information 

are always considered official weather, and RVR reports are 

typically the controlling visibility reference. 

Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) 

ATIS is another valuable tool for gaining weather 

information. ATIS is available at most airports that have an 

operating control tower, which means the reports on the 

ATIS frequency are only available during the regular hours 

of tower operation. At some airports that operate part-time 

towers, ASOS/AWSS information is broadcast over the 

ATIS frequency when the tower is closed. This service is 

available only at those airports that have both an ASOS/ 

AWSS on the field and an ATIS-ASOS/AWSS interface switch 

installed in the tower. 

Each ATIS report includes crucial information about 

runways and instrument approaches in use, specific 

outages, and current weather conditions including 

visibility. Visibility is reported in statute miles and may 

be omitted if the visibility is greater than five miles. ATIS 

weather information comes from a variety of sources 

depending on the particular airport and the equipment 

installed there. The reported weather may come from a 

manual weather observer, weather instruments located 

in the tower, or from automated weather stations. This 

information, no matter the origin, must be from NWS 

approved weather sources for it to be used in the ATIS 

report. 

Digital Automatic Terminal Information Service 

(D-ATIS) 

The digital ATIS (D-ATIS) is an alternative method of 

receiving ATIS reports. The service provides text messages 

to aircraft, airlines, and other users outside the standard 

reception range of conventional ATIS via landline and data 

link communications to the flight deck. Aircraft equipped 

with data link services are capable of receiving ATIS 

information over their Aircraft Communications Addressing 

and Reporting System (ACARS) unit. This allows the pilots to 

read and print out the ATIS report inside the aircraft, thereby 

increasing report accuracy and decreasing pilot workload. 

Also, the service provides a computer-synthesized voice 

message that can be transmitted to all aircraft within 

range of existing transmitters. The Terminal Data Link 

System (TDLS) D-ATIS application uses weather inputs 

from local automated weather sources or manually entered 

meteorological data together with preprogrammed menus 

to provide standard information to users. Airports with 

D-ATIS capability are listed in the CS. 

1-12 
SW-1, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010

SW-1, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURE CHARTS 

IFR ALTERNATE AIRPORT MINIMUMS 

Standard alternate minimums for non precision approaches are 800-2 (NDB, VOR, LOC, TACAN, LDA, 

VORTAC, VOR/DME, ASR or WAAS LNAV); for precision approaches 600-2 (ILS or PAR). Airports within 

this geographical area that require alternate minimums other than standard or alternate minimums with 

restrictions are listed below. NA - means alternate minimums are not authorized due to unmonitored facility 

or absence of weather reporting service. Civil pilots see FAR 91. IFR Alternate Airport Minimums: Ceiling 

and Visibility Minimums not applicable to USA/USN/USAF. Pilots must review the IFR Alternate Airport 

Minimums Notes for alternate airfield suitability. 

NAME ALTERNATE MINIMUMS NAME ALTERNATE MINIMUMS 

AKRON, CO 

COLORADO 

PLAINS RGNL ................. RNAV (GPS) Rwy 11 

NA when local weather not available. 

ALAMOSA, CO 

SAN LUIS VALLEY RGNL/ 

BERGMAN FIELD .............. RNAV (GPS) Rwy 2 

RNAV (GPS) Rwy 20 

NA when local weather not available. 

ALBUQUERQUE, NM 

ALBUQUERQUE INTL 

SUNPORT ..................... VOR or TACAN Rwy 8 

Categories A,B, 900-2; Category C, 900-2 ; 

Category D, 900-2 ; Category E, 900-3. 

CLAYTON, NM 

CLAYTON MUNI AIRPARK ............ NDB Rwy 2 

NDB Rwy 20 

RNAV (GPS) Rwy 2 

RNAV (GPS) Rwy 20 

NA when local weather not available. 

Categories A, B, 900-2; Category C, 900-2 , 

Category D, 900-2 . 

Category D, 800-2 . 

COLORADO SPRINGS, CO 

CITY OF COLORADO SPRINGS 

MUNI .............................. ILS or LOC Rwy 17L 

ILS or LOC Rwy 35L 

ILS or LOC Rwy 35R 

RNAV (GPS) Y Rwy 17L 

RNAV (GPS) Y Rwy 17R 4 

RNAV (RNP) Z Rwy 17R5 

Categories A, B, 900-2; Category C, 900-2 ; 

Category D, 900-2 . 

ILS, Category D, 700-2. 

NA when local weather not available. 

4Categories A, B, 1100-2; Categories C, D, 

1100-3. 5Categories A, B, C, D, 800-2 . 

CORTEZ, CO 

CORTEZ MUNI ............ RNAV (GPS) Y Rwy 21 

RNAV (GPS) Z Rwy 21 

VOR Rwy 21 

Category D, 900-3. 

Categories A, B, 1300-2; Categories C, D, 

1300-3. 

CRAIG, CO 

CRAIG-MOFFAT .................... VOR/DME Rwy 7 

VOR Rwy 25 

23 SEP 2010 to 21 O

CT 2010

23 SEP 2010 to 21 O

CT 2010 

SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE 

NOT FOR NAVIGATION

City and state location 

Airport name and applicable approach 

Other-than-standard IFR alternate minimums 

Other-than-standard IFR alternate minimums are published. 

Figure 1-13. Examples of IFR alternate minimums. 

It is important to remember that ATIS information is 

updated hourly and anytime a significant change in the 

weather occurs. As a result, the information is not the most 

current report available. Prior to departing the airport, you 

need to get the latest weather information from the tower. 

ASOS/AWSS and AWOS also provide a source of current 

weather, but their information should not be substituted 

for weather reports from the tower. 

IFR Alternate Requirements 

On Aeronautical Information Services charts, standard 

alternate minimums are not published. If the airport has 

other than standard alternate minimums, they are listed 

in the front of the approach chart booklet. The presence 

of a triangle with an A on the approach chart indicates 

the listing of alternate minimums should be consulted. 

Airports that do not qualify for use as an alternate airport 

are designated with an A N/A. [Figure 1-13] 

The requirement for an alternate depends on the aircraft 

category, equipment installed, approach navigational aid 

(NAVAID), and forecast weather. For example, airports with 

only a global positioning system (GPS) approach procedure 

cannot be used as an alternate by TSO-C129 or C196 users 

unless certain requirements are met (see AIM) even 

though the "N/A" has been removed from the approach 

chart. For select area navigation (RNAV) GPS and GPS 

approach procedures, the "N/A" is being removed so they 

may be used as an alternate by aircraft equipped with an 

approach-approved Wide Area Augmentation System 

(WAAS) receiver complaying with (TSO-C145 or C146) 

or TSO-C129 or C196 meeitng certain requirements (see 

AIM). Because GPS is not authorized as a substitute means 

of navigation guidance when conducting a conventional 

approach at an alternate airport, if the approach procedure 

requires either distance measuring equipment (DME) or 

automatic direction finder (ADF), the aircraft must be 

equipped with the appropriate DME or ADF avionics in 

order to use the approach as an alternate. 

1-13 
 

 

 

For aircraft other than helicopters, 14 CFR Part 91 

requirements, an alternate airport must be listed on IFR 

flight plans if the forecast weather at the destination 

airport, for at least one hour before and for one hour after 

the estimated time of arrival (ETA), the ceiling is less than 

2,000 feet above the airport elevation, and the visibility 

is less than 3 SM. One way to remember the rules for 

determining the necessity of filing an alternate is the “1, 2, 

3 Rule.” For helicopters, similar alternate filing requirements 

in 14 CFR Part 91 apply. An alternate must be listed on an 

IFR flight plan if at the ETA and for one hour after the ETA, 

the ceiling is at least 1,000 feet above the airport elevation, 

or at least 400 feet above the lowest applicable approach 

minima, whichever is higher, and the visibility is at least 

2 SM. 

Not all airports can be used as alternate airports. An airport 

may not be qualified for alternate use if the airport NAVAID 

is unmonitored, or if it does not have weather reporting 

capabilities. For an airport to be used as an alternate, 

the forecast weather at that airport must meet certain 

qualifications at the ETA. For aircraft other than helicopters, 

standard alternate minimums for a precision approach are 

a 600-foot ceiling and a 2 SM visibility. For a non-precision 

approach, the minimums are an 800-foot ceiling and a 2 SM 

visibility. Standard alternate minimums apply unless higher 

alternate minimums are listed for an airport. For helicopters, 

alternate weather minimums are a ceiling of 200 feet above 

the minimum for the approach to be flown, and visibility 

at least 1 SM but never less than the minimum visibility for 

the approach to be flown. 

Alternate Minimums for Commercial Operators 

IFR alternate minimums for Part 121 and Part 135 operators 

are very specific and have more stringent requirements 

than Part 91 operators. 

Part 121 operators are required by their OpSpecs and 14 

CFR Part 121, § 121.617 and 121.625 to have a takeoff 

alternate airport for their departure airport in addition 

to their airport of intended landing if the weather at the 

departure airport is below the landing minimums in the 

certificate holder’s OpSpecs for that airport. The alternate 

must be within two hours flying time for an aircraft with 

three or more engines with an engine out in normal cruise 

in still air. For two engine aircraft, the alternate must be 

within one hour. The airport of intended landing may be 

used in lieu of an alternate provided that it meets all the 

requirements. Domestic Part 121 operators must also file 

for alternate airports when the weather at their destination 

airport, from one hour before to one hour after their ETA, is 

forecast to be below a 2,000-foot ceiling and/or less than 

three miles visibility. 

For alternate airports with at least one operational 

navigational facility that provides a straight-in nonprecision approach, a straight-in precision approach, or a 

circling maneuver from an instrument approach procedure 

determine the ceiling and visibility by: 

•	 Adding 400 feet to the authorized CAT I height above 

airport (HAA)/height above touchdown elevation 

(HAT) for ceiling. 

•	 Adding one mile to the authorized CAT I visibility 

for visibility minimums. 

This is one example of the criteria required for Part 121 

operators when calculating minimums. Part 135 operators 

are also subject to their own specific rules regarding the 

selection and use of alternate minimums as outlined in their 

OpSpecs and 14 CFR Part 135, § 135.219 through 135.225, 

which are similar to those used by Part 121 operators with 

additional considerations. 

Commercial operators typically use dispatchers to plan 

flights, including selecting and filing alternate airports. 

The dispatcher considers aircraft performance, aircraft 

equipment and its condition, and route of flight when 

choosing alternates. In the event changes need to be 

made to the flight plan en route due to deteriorating 

weather, the dispatcher maintains contact with the flight 

crew and reroutes their flight as necessary. Therefore, it is 

the pilot’s responsibility to execute the flight as planned 

by the dispatcher. To aid in the planning of alternates, 

dispatchers have a list of airports that are approved as 

alternates so they can quickly determine which airports 

should be used for a particular flight. Dispatchers also 

use flight planning software that plans routes including 

alternates for the flight. This type of software is tailored 

for individual operators and includes their normal flight 

paths and approved airports. Flight planning software and 

services are provided through private sources. 

Though the pilot is the final authority for the flight 

and ultimately has full responsibility, the dispatcher is 

responsible for creating flight plans that are accurate and 

comply with the CFRs. Alternate minimum criteria are only 

used as planning tools to ensure the pilot in command and 

dispatcher are thinking ahead to the approach phase of 

flight. In the event the flight would actually need to divert 

to an alternate, the published approach minimums or 

lower-than-standard minimums must be used as addressed 

in OpSpecs documents. 

1-14 
 '

1 NM 2 NM 

10 NM 

200 feet 

400 feet 

V186

Positive course guidance must be acquired 

within 10 NM for straight departures and 

within 5 NM for departures requiring turns. 

Required climb gradient of 200 ft/NM 

Previous TERPS Departure Procedures 

Obstacle clearance surface (OCS)

35 feet 35 feet 

152 feet 152 feet

304 feet 304 feet 96 feet

48 

Figure 1-14. Previous TERPS departure procedures. 

Beyond the diverse obstacle assessment 

area (25/46 NM) there might be significantly 

higher obstacles. 

Aircraft reaches en route obstacle 

clearance of 1,000' (nonmountainous 

areas) or 2,000' (in mountainous areas). 

TERPS Design CG of 200 ft/NM 

40:1 OIS at 152 ft/NM 

4NM 

25/46 NM 

Figure 1-15. Diverse Departure Obstacle Assessment to 25/46 NM. 

1-15 
 

 

1 NM 2 NM 

V186 

15 

200 feet 

400 feet 

First 

Significant 

Obstacle 

Clearway TORA 

TODA 

TORA 

ASDA 

Stopway 

75 Meters 

(247 Feet) 

Positive Course Guidance (PCG) 

A continuous display of navigational data 

that enables an aircraft to be flown along a 

specific course line (e.g., radar vector, 

RNAV, ground-based NAVAID). PCG must 

be acquired within 10 NM for straight 

departures and within 5 NM for departures 

requiring turns. 

Departure End of Runway (DER) 

The end of runway available for the ground run of an aircraft 

departure. The end of the runway that is opposite the landing 

threshold, sometimes referred to as the stop end of the runway. 

Takeoff Runway Available (TORA) 

The length of runway declared available and suitable 

for the ground run of an airplane takeoff. 

Takeoff Distance Available (TODA) 

The length of the takeoff runway available plus 

the length of the clearway, if provided. 

Accelerate-Stop Distance Available 

(ASDA) 

The runway plus stopway length 

declared available and suitable for 

the acceleration and deceleration 

of an airplane aborting a takeoff. 

Initial Climb Area (ICA) 

The ICA is the segment of the departure procedure that 

starts at the DER and proceeds along the runway 

centerline extended to allow the aircraft sufficient distance 

to reach an altitude of 400 feet above DER elevation and 

to allow the establishment of positive course guidance by 

all navigation systems. A typical straight departure ICA 

extends 2-5 NM from the DER along the runway centerline 

extended. It is 500 feet wide each side of the runway 

centerline at DER, then spreads out at 15°. 

Start End of Runway (SER) 

The beginning of the takeoff runway available. 

Approach End of Runway (AER) 

The first portion of the runway available for landing. 

If the runway threshold is displaced, the displaced 

threshold latitude/longitude is the AER. 

Landing Distance Available (LDA) 

The length of runway that is declared available and 

suitable for the ground run of an airplane landing. 

TERPS Departure Procedures and 

runway distance available terms. 

48 ' 

35 feet 35 feet 

152 feet

304 feet 96 feet

Required climb 

gradient of 200 ft/NM 

Obstacle clearance 

surface (OCS) 

Slope of 152 ft/NM or 40:1 

Runway 

Centerline Extended 

Minimum assumed “at or above” 

intended aircraft climb path 

Figure 1-16. New TERPS departure procedures. 

Departure Procedures 

Instrument departure procedures are preplanned IFR 

procedures that provide obstruction clearance from 

the terminal area to the appropriate en route structure. 

Primarily, these procedures are designed to provide obstacle 

protection for departing aircraft. There are two types of 

Departure Procedures (DPs): 

• Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODPs) and 

• Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs). 

When an instrument approach is initially developed for an 

airport, the need for an ODP is assessed. If an aircraft may 

turn in any direction from a runway within the limits of the 

assessment area and remain clear of obstacles that runway 

passes what is called a diverse departure assessment, and 

no ODP is published. A diverse departure assessment 

ensures that a prescribed, expanding amount of required 

obstacle clearance (ROC) is achieved during the climb-out 

until the aircraft can obtain a minimum 1,000 feet ROC in 

non-mountainous areas or a minimum 2,000 feet ROC in 

mountainous areas. Unless specified otherwise, required 

obstacle clearance for all departures, including diverse, is 

based on the pilot crossing the departure end of the runway 

(DER) at least 35 feet above the DER elevation, climbing to 

400 feet above the DER elevation before making the initial 

turn, and maintaining a minimum climb gradient of 200 ft/ 

NM, unless required to level off by a crossing restriction, 

until the minimum IFR altitude is reached. Following ODP 

assessment, a SID may still be established for the purposes 

of ATC flow management, system enhancement, or noise 

abatement. 

Design Criteria 

The design of a departure procedure is based on FAA Order 

8260.3, United States Standard for Terminal Instrument 

Procedures (TERPS), which is a living document that is 

updated frequently. Departure design criterion begins 

with the assumption of an initial climb of 200 ft/NM after 

crossing the DER at a height of at least 35 feet. [Figure 1-14] 

The aircraft climb path assumption provides a minimum of 

35 feet of additional obstacle clearance above the required 

obstacle clearance (ROC), from the DER outward, to absorb 

variations ranging from the distance of the static source to 

the landing gear, to differences in establishing the minimum 

200 ft/NM climb gradient, etc. The ROC is the planned 

1-16 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

separation between the obstacle clearance surface (OCS) 

and the required climb gradient of 200 ft/NM. The ROC 

value is zero at the DER elevation and increases along the 

departure route until the ROC value appropriate for en route 

flight is achieved. The appropriate ROC value for en route 

operations is typically achieved about 25 NM for 1,000 feet 

of ROC in non-mountainous areas, and 46 NM for 2,000 feet 

of ROC in mountainous areas. 

If taking off from a runway using a diverse departure 

(a runway without a published ODP), beyond these 

distances the pilot is responsible for obstacle clearance if 

not operating on a published route, and if below the MEA 

or MOCA of a published route, or below an ATC-assigned 

altitude. [Figure 1-15] 

Recent changes in TERPS criteria make the OCS lower and 

more restrictive. [Figure 1-16] However, there are many 

departures today that were evaluated under the old criteria 

that allowed some obstacle surfaces to be as high as 35 feet 

at the DER. [Figure 1-14] Since there is no way for the pilot 

to determine whether the departure was evaluated using 

the previous or current criteria, and until all departures 

have been evaluated using the current criteria, pilots need 

to be very familiar with the departure environment and 

associated obstacles, especially if crossing the DER at less 

than 35 feet. 

All departure procedures are initially assessed for obstacle 

clearance based on a 40:1 Obstacle Clearance Surface (OCS). 

If no obstacles penetrate this 40:1 OCS, the standard 200 

ft/NM climb gradient provides a minimum of 48 ft/NM of 

clearance above objects that do not penetrate the slope. 

The departure design must also include the acquisition 

of positive course guidance (PCG), typically within 5 to 10 

NM of the DER for straight departures. Even when aircraft 

performance greatly exceeds the minimum climb gradient, 

the published departure routing must always be flown. 

Airports publish the declared distances in the A/FD section 

of the CS. These include takeoff runway available (TORA), 

takeoff distance available (TODA), accelerate-stop distance 

available (ASDA), and landing distance available (LDA). These 

distances are calculated by adding to the full length of paved 

runway any applicable clearway or stop-way and subtracting 

from that sum the sections of the runway unsuitable for 

satisfying the required takeoff run, takeoff, accelerate/stop, 

or landing distance as shown in Figure 1-16. 

Optimally, the 40 to 1 slope would work for every departure 

design; however, due to terrain and manmade obstacles, 

it is often necessary to use alternative requirements to 

accomplish a safe, obstacle-free departure design. In 

such cases, the design of the departure may incorporate a 

climb gradient greater than 200 ft/NM, an increase in the 

standard takeoff minimums to allow the aircraft to “see and 

avoid” the obstacles, a standard climb of 200 ft/NM with a 

specified reduced takeoff length, or a combination of these 

options and a specific departure route. 

If a departure route is specified, it must be flown in 

conjunction with the other options. 

The obstacle environment may require a climb gradient 

greater than 200 ft/NM. In these cases, the ROC provided 

above obstacles is equivalent to 24 percent of the 

published climb gradient. The required climb gradient, 

for obstacle purposes on ODPs and SIDs, is obtained by 

using the formulas: 

Standard Formula DoD Option* 

CG = O – E CG = (48D + O) – E

 0.76 D D 

O = obstacle mean sea level (MSL) elevation
 

E = climb gradient starting MSL elevation 


D = distance (NM) from DER to the obstacle
 

Examples:
 

2049 – 1221 (48 × 3.1 + 2049) – 1221
 = 351.44 = 315.10 0.76 × 3.1 3.1 

Round to 352 ft/NM Round to 316 ft/NM 

*Military only 

These formulas are published in FAA Order 8260.3 for 

calculating the required climb gradient to clear obstacles. 

The following formula is used for calculating SID climb 

gradients for other than obstacles (i.e., ATC requirements): 

CG = A – E

 D 

A = “climb to” altitude 

E = climb gradient starting MSL elevation 

D = distance (NM) from the beginning of the climb 

Example: 

3000 – 1221 = 355.8 round to 356 ft/NM

5 

Note: The climb gradient must be equal to or greater than 

the gradient required for obstacles along the route of flight. 

The published climb gradient, obstacle or otherwise, is 

1-17 
 

 

 

SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE 

Ground speed is 180 knots. 

Required climb gradient of 297 ft/NM. 

Given the parameters, you would need to climb at a rate 

of 892 fpm to maintain the required climb gradient. 

Figure 1-17. Rate of climb table. 

treated as a plane which must not be penetrated from 

above until reaching the stated height or has reached 

the en route environment (e.g., above the MEA, MOCA). 

Departure design, including climb gradients, does not 

take into consideration the performance of the aircraft; it 

only considers obstacle protection for all aircraft. TERPS 

criteria assume the aircraft is operating with all available 

engines and systems fully functioning. Development of 

contingency procedures, required to cover the case of 

an engine failure, engine out procedures (EOPs) or other 

emergency in flight that may occur after liftoff, is the 

responsibility of the operator. When a climb gradient is 

required for a specific departure, it is vital that pilots fully 

understand the performance of their aircraft and determine 

if it can comply with the required climb. The standard 

climb of 200 ft/NM is not an issue for most aircraft. When 

an increased climb gradient is specified due to obstacle 

issues, it is important to calculate aircraft performance, 

particularly when flying out of airports at higher altitudes 

on warm days. To aid in the calculations, the front matter 

of every TPP booklet contains a rate of climb table that 

relates specific climb gradients and typical groundspeeds. 

[Figure 1-17]. 

Low, Close-In Obstacles 

Obstacles that are located within 1 NM of the DER and 

penetrate the 40:1 OCS are referred to as “low, close-in 

obstacles” and are also included in the TPP. These obstacles 

1-18 
YUBBAINTbeforeproceedingoncourse.

NOTE: Rwy 7, trees beginning 1117' from DER, 504'

rightofcenterline,upto40'AGL/1708'MSL.Pole1365'

from DER, 600' right of centerline, 59' AGL/1679' MSL.

Tree 3791' from DER, 700' right of centerline, 40' AGL/

1639' MSL. Rwy 25, tree 37' from DER, 479' left of

centerline,40'AGL/1528'MSL.Tree86'fromDER,461'

rightofcenterline,40'AGL/1532'MSL.Fence301'from

DER, 244' right of centerline, 8' AGL/1508' MSL. Trees

beginning 660' from DER, 249' right of centerline, up to

40'AGL/1559'MSL.

o

proceedingoncourse. Rwy12, climbingleftturnvia

VORTACbeforeproceedingoncourse. Rwy30,

R-250toECAVORTACbeforeproceedingoncourse.

NOTE: Rwy5,bush17'fromdepartureendofrunway,67'

rightof centerline,6'AGL/52'MSL. Rwy 12,multiple

treesandbushbeginning240'fromdepartureendof

runway,286'rightofcenterline,upto39'AGL/76'MSL.

Rwy30,multiplepoles,building,andterrainbeginning

66'fromdepartureendofrunway,228'leftof

up to 65' MSL.

AUBURN MUNI (AUN)

AMDT 1 10098 (FAA)

TAKE-OFFMINIMUMS:Rwy 7,300-1w/min.climbof

385' per NM to 2300, or 1100-3 for climb in visual

conditions.

DEPARTURE PROCEDURE:Rwy7, climbing left turn

MYV VOR/DME, then via MYV VOR/DME R-263 to

YUBBA INT before proceeding on course, or for climb

in visual conditions: cross Auburn Muni airport ator

MYV VOR/DME R-094 to MYV VOR/DME, then via

MYV VOR/DME R-263 to YUBBA INT before

proceeding on course. Rwy25, climbing right turnto

MYV VOR/DME, then via MYV VOR/DME R-263 to

YUBBAINTbeforeproceedingoncourse.

NOTE: Rwy 7, trees beginning 1117' from DER, 504'

rightofcenterline,upto40'AGL/1708'MSL.Pole1365'

from DER, 600' right of centerline, 59' AGL/1679' MSL.

Tree 3791' from DER, 700' right of centerline, 40' AGL/

1639' MSL. Rwy 25, tree 37' from DER, 479' left of

centerline,40'AGL/1528'MSL.Tree86'fromDER,461'

SIERRA L

TAKE-OFFMINIMUMS:Rwys7,12,16,NA.Rwys25,

30,34, 4000-2 or std.with a min. climb of 350' per NM to

9000.

DEPARTUREPROCEDURE:Rwys25,30,turnright.

Rwy34,turnleft,climbnorthwestboundto13000viaBIH

R-322toNIKOLInt.

BYRON,CA

BYRON

TAKE-OFFMINIMUMS: Rwy 23, NA-obstacles.

Rwy 30, 200-1 or std. with a min. climb of 240' per NM to

300. Alternatively,withstandardtake-offminimumsanda

normal200'/NMclimbgradient,take-offmustoccurno

laterthan2000'priortodepartureendofrunway.

DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: Rwy 5, climbing right turn

proceedingoncourse. Rwy12, climbingleftturnvia

VORTACbeforeproceedingoncourse. Rwy30,

R-250toECAVORTACbeforeproceedingoncourse.

NOTE: Rwy5,bush17'fromdepartureendofrunway,67'

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1-19 

BEALE AFB (KBAB) 

MARYSVILLE, CA. . . . . . . . . .ORIG, 09155 

DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: Rwy 15, Climb on a 

Rwy33, 

DER. 

TAKE-OFF OBSTACLES: Rwy 33, 

BECKWOURTH,CA 

NERVINO 

TAKE-OFF MINIMUMS: Rwys 7, 25, 3500-3 for climb in 

visual conditions. 

DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: Rwys 7, 25, for climb in 

visual conditions: cross Nervino Airport at or above 

8300before proceeding oncourse. 

NOTE: Rwy 7,road58' from departure end of runway, 

469' right of centerline, 15' AGL/4920' MSL. Pole 310' 

from departure end ofrunway,522'rightof centerline, 

49' AGL/4925' MSL. Pole 528' from departure end f 

centerline, 

AGL/225' Multiple poles beginning 949' 

from departure end of runway, 28' right of centerline, up 

to 42' AGL/103' MSL. 

CHICO, CA 

CHICO MUNI 

DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: Rwys 13L/R, climbing 

right turn. Rwys 31L/R,climbing left turn. All aircraft, 

climb via CIC R-205 to JINGO Int. Aircraft departing 

inbound)to depart JINGO Int at orabove 2800. 

CLOVERDALE, CA 

CLOVERDALE MUNI 

TAKE-OFF MINIMUMS: Rwy 14, 400-2 or std. with a 

min. climb of 280' per NM to 1500, then a min. climb of 

260' per NM to 3900. Rwy 32, NA. 

DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: Rwy 14, climb direct STS 

VOR/DME. Continue climb in holding pattern (NW 

23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010

23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010 

SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE 

L2 

TAKE-OFFMINIMUMS AND (OBSTACLE)DEPARTUREPROCEDURES 10266 

AUBURN,CA BISHOP, CA 

EASTERN RGN SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE 

Figure 1-18. Examples of takeoff minimums obstacle clearance. 

Figure 1-19. Part 25 turbine-powered, transport category airplane OEI actual (gross) takeoff flight path and OEI net takeoff flight path. 

Takeoff distance Takeoff flight path 

Acceleration 

One engine inoperative 

BR VEF V2 VFTO V1 VR VLOF 

Climb 

1,500 ft 

35 ft 

35 ft 

35 ft 

Regulatory 

performance 

reduction 

N 

Second 

segment 

Third 

segment 

Final 

segment 

First 

seg. 
 

 

 

are less than 200 feet above the DER elevation, within 1 NM 

of the runway end, and do not require increased takeoff 

minimums. The standard ROC to clear these obstacles 

would require a climb gradient greater than 200 ft/NM 

for a very short distance, only until the aircraft was 200 

feet above the DER. To eliminate publishing an excessive 

climb gradient, the obstacle above ground level (AGL)/ 

MSL height and location relative to the DER is noted in the 

Takeoff Minimums and (Obstacle) Departure Procedures 

section of a given TPP booklet. The purpose of this note 

is to identify the obstacle and alert the pilot to the height 

and location of the obstacle so they can be avoided. This 

can be accomplished in a variety of ways: 

•	 The pilot may be able to see the obstruction and 

maneuver around the obstacle(s) if necessary; 

•	 Early liftoff/climb performance may allow the aircraft 

to cross well above the obstacle(s); 

•	 If the obstacle(s) cannot be visually acquired during 

departure, preflight planning should take into account 

what turns or other maneuver(s) may be necessary 

immediately after takeoff to avoid the obstruction(s). 

These obstacles are especially critical to aircraft that do not 

lift off until close to the DER or which climb at the minimum 

rate. [Figure 1-18] 

One-Engine-Inoperative (OEI) Takeoff Obstacle 

Clearance Requirements 

Large and turbine-powered, multiengine transport 

category airplanes and commuter category airplanes 

operated under Part 121 or Part 135 have additional takeoff 

obstacle clearance requirements beyond the scope of the 

IFR departure procedure requirements addressed by TERPS. 

Part 25 transport category and Part 23 commuter category 

airplane certification rules define the one-engineinoperative (OEI) takeoff flight path, which is normally 

constructed from a series of segments beginning from 35 

feet above the runway surface at the end of the OEI takeoff 

distance and ending at a minimum height of 1,500 feet 

above the runway elevation. However, the OEI net takeoff 

flight path assessment may continue above 1,500 feet if 

necessary to ensure obstacle clearance. 

The actual, or gross, OEI flight path represents the vertical 

OEI climb profile that the aircraft has been demonstrated 

capable of achieving using takeoff procedures developed 

for line operations based on the aircraft’s weight, 

configuration, and environmental conditions at the time 

of takeoff. The OEI net takeoff flight path represents the 

actual OEI takeoff flight path that has been degraded by 

an amount specified by the certification rules to provide 

a safety margin for expected variations under operational 

conditions. Subpart I of Part 121 and Part 135 require that 

the OEI net takeoff flight path be at least 35 feet above 

obstacles that are located within the prescribed lateral 

distance either side of the flight path The actual obstacle 

clearance capability, under optimum conditions after 

experiencing an engine failure on takeoff, is equal to the 

difference between gross and net flight path, plus the 

additional 35 feet. [Figure 1-19] 

Advisory Circular (AC) 120-91, Airport Obstacle Analysis, 

provides guidance and acceptable criteria for use in 

determining the safe lateral clearance from obstacles, 

when developing takeoff and initial climb out airport 

obstacle analyses and engine out obstacle avoidance 

procedures to comply with the intent of these regulatory 

requirements. Pilots departing an airport under IFR and 

operating under Part 121 or 135 are required by 14 CFR 

91.175(f )(4) to use an engine-inoperative takeoff obstacle 

clearance or avoidance procedure that assures compliance 

with the obstacle clearance requirements (subpart I) 

of those rules. The assessment of OEI takeoff obstacle 

clearance is separate and independent of the IFR departure 

procedure and associated all-engines-operating climb 

gradient requirements. While the Part 91 operating rules 

governing large, commuter, and turbine-powered aircraft 

do not require the use of an OEI takeoff obstacle clearance 

or avoidance procedure, such use is encouraged for Part 

91 operators of these aircraft. 

Unlike TERPS, which assesses obstacle clearance beginning 

at the DER, the OEI net takeoff flight path obstacle 

assessment begins at the point where the aircraft reaches 

35 feet above the runway at the end of the OEI takeoff 

distance. Therefore, the OEI net takeoff flight path 

assessment may begin before the DER allowing for the 

use of a portion of the runway for the OEI climb. The OEI 

net takeoff flight path obstacle clearance assessment must 

also account for clearance of the low, close-in obstacles 

that are noted on the IFR departure procedure, but are not 

necessarily cleared when complying with the TERPS-based 

IFR climb gradient. 

The OEI net takeoff flight path is unique for each aircraft 

type and is assessed on each takeoff for the required 

obstacle clearance directly against those obstacles located 

beneath the OEI flight track and within the prescribed 

lateral distance from the flight path centerline. TERPS, on 

the other hand, provides a required climb gradient that 

represents a surface that the aircraft’s all-engines-operating 

climb profile must remain above throughout the IFR 

climb until reaching the en route environment. These two 

methods of assessing obstacle clearance are necessarily 

quite different. TERPS is used by the procedure designer 

1-20 
Sample Aircraft 

Engine Type 

Flaps 0 

KAPA/APA 

Denver - Centennial 

Runway Conditions: Dry 

Elevation = 5883 ft 

OAT 

F C 

N1 A/1 

ON 

SEC. 

SEG. 

CLIMB 

10 17L 17R 28 35L 35R 

Max Structural Takeoff Weight Limit = 28000 

Runways - lbs 

50 

52 

54 

55 

57 

59 

61 

63 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

98.91 

98.73 

98.56 

98.47 

98.29 

98.11 

97.95 

97.80 

97.11 21880 R 

21750 R 

21620 R 

21550 R 

21420 R 

21290 R 

21160 R 

21020 R 

29380 C 

29340 C 

29190 C 

29100 C 

28950 O 

28790 O 

28620 O 

28450 O 

25250 R 

25070 R 

24900 R 

24820 R 

24650 R 

24490 R 

24320 R 

24160 R 

26690 R 

26500 R 

26310 R 

26210 R 

26020 R 

25830 R 

25650 R 

25460 R 

29460 C 

29460 C 

29460 C 

29460 C 

29460 C 

29460 C 

29360 C 

29210 C 

21210 R 

21090 R 

20950 R 

20890 R 

20750 R 

20620 R 

20490 R 

20360 R 

29000 

29000 

29000 

29000 

29000 

29000 

29000 

29000 

64 

66 

68 

70 

18 

19 

20 

21 

97.72 

97.56 

97.40 

97.20 

20960 R 

20820 R 

20670 R 

20530 R 

28360 O 

28170 O 

27980 O 

27720 O 

24080 R 

23930 R 

23770 R 

23610 R 

25370 R 

25180 R 

25000 R 

24810 R 

29120 C 

28870 R 

28630 R 

28380 R 

20300 R 

20170 R 

20030 R 

19880 R 

29000 

29000 

28930 

28630 

72 

73 

75 

77 

22 

23 

24 

25 

97.00 

96.90 

96.70 

96.50 

20380 R 

20310 R 

20170 R 

20020 R 

27460 O 

27370 R 

27110 R 

26860 R 

23420 O 

23340 O 

23170 O 

22990 O 

24630 R 

24530 R 

24350 R 

24150 R 

28110 R 

27970 R 

27690 R 

27390 R 

19740 R 

19670 R 

19530 R 

19390 R 

28330 

28180 

27870 

27570 

79 

81 

82 

84 

26 

27 

28 

29 

96.24 

95.97 

95.84 

95.58 

19880 R 

19710 R 

19630 R 

19460 R 

26590 R 

26330 R 

26190 R 

25920 R 

22810 O 

22630 O 

22540 O 

22320 O 

23960 R 

23760 R 

23660 R 

23460 R 

27100 R 

26800 R 

26650 R 

26350 R 

19240 R 

19070 R 

18990 R 

18820 R 

27230 

26890 

26720 

26380 

86 

88 

90 

91 

30 

31 

32 

33 

95.31 

95.04 

94.77 

94.64 

19290 R 

19130 R 

18980 R 

18900 R 

25610 R 

25300 R 

24990 R 

24840 R 

22120 O 

21930 O 

21730 O 

21630 O 

23260 R 

23070 R 

22870 R 

22770 R 

26050 C 

25740 C 

25440 C 

25290 C 

18650 R 

18490 R 

0 R 

0 R 

26040 

25690 

25350 

25180 

93 

95 

34 

35 

94.37 

94.10 

18740 R 

18590 R 

24530 R 

24220 R 

21440 O 

21240 O 

22570 R 

22380 R 

24990 C 

24690 C 

0 R 

0 R 

24830 

24490 

RUNWAY DIM Length = ft 

Slope = % 

4800 

–0.62 

10002 

0.9 

7000 

0.93 

7000 

–0.93 

10002 

–0.9 

4800 

0.62 

---

---

LVLOFF ALT ft 7383 7383 7383 7383 7383 7383 ---

WIND CORR lbs/kt hw 

lbs/kt tw 

67 

N/A 

5 

–254 

31 

–227 

42 

–223 

4 

–131 

62 

N/A 

---

---

QNH lbs/.1"Hg > 29.92 

lbs/.1"Hg < 29.92 

75 

–87 

10 

–127 

85 

–99 

88 

–113 

5 

–114 

0 

–86 

0 

–123 

ANTI-ICE lbs –1210 –1400 –1480 –1180 –1690 –830 –70 

LIMIT CODES R = RUNWAY LIMIT O = OBSTACLE LIMIT B = BRAKE LIMIT C = CLIMB LIMIT 

DATE: 07/01/2011 FOR SAMPLE USE ONLY 

Figure 1-20. Airport/runway analysis example. 

1-21 
to determine a lateral path that is usable by a wide variety 

of aircraft types, and establishes a clearance plane that 

aircraft must be able to stay above to fly the procedure. A 

Part 25 transport category and Part 23 commuter category 

aircraft’s OEI takeoff flight path is established by or on 

behalf of the operator for a particular aircraft type and then 

limit weights are determined that assure clearance of any 

obstacles under that flight path (or within the prescribed 

lateral distance from the flight path centerline). 

It may be necessary for pilots and operators of these 

categories of aircraft to use the services of an aircraft 

performance engineer or airport/runway analysis service 

provider as means of compliance with the requirements 

of Part 121 subpart I, or Part 135 subpart I concerning 

OEI net takeoff flight obstacle clearance and takeoff field 

length requirements. [Figure 1-20] Airport/runway analysis 

involves the complex, usually computerized, computations 

of aircraft performance, using extensive airport/obstacle 

databases and terrain information. This yields maximum 

allowable takeoff and landing weights for particular 

aircraft/engine configurations for a specific airport, runway, 

and range of temperatures. The computations also consider 

flap settings, various aircraft characteristics, runway 

conditions, obstacle clearance, and weather conditions. 

Obstacle data also is available from these service providers 

for operators who desire to perform their own analysis 

using the OEI climb performance and flight path data 

furnished in the Airplane Flight Manual or when using an 

aircraft electronic performance program supplied by the 

manufacturer or other service provider. 

Airport/runway analysis is typically based on the 

assumption that the pilot will fly a straight-out departure 

following an engine failure on takeoff. However, when a 

straight-out departure is not practical or recommended, 

a special OEI turn procedure can be developed for each 

applicable runway. This OEI turn procedure may follow 

the path of a published IFR departure procedure or it 

may follow an independent path designed to avoid 

Figure 1-21. Graphic ODP/booklet front matter. 

1-22 
 

 

 

otherwise onerous obstacles and thereby maximize the 

allowable takeoff weight and payload. Graphic depiction 

of the OEI procedure is often available to give the pilot a 

pictorial representation of the special OEI procedure. An 

engine failure during takeoff is a non-normal condition; 

therefore, the actions taken by the pilot including the use 

of an OEI turn procedure takes precedence over noise 

abatement, air traffic, SIDs, DPs, and other normal operating 

considerations. 

It must be understood that the airport/runway analysis 

assesses obstacle clearance using the OEI net takeoff flight 

path data provided in the Airplane Flight Manual and the 

selected lateral obstacle assessment area. A takeoff weight 

limit provided on the analysis does not necessarily ensure 

compliance with the all-engines-operating climb gradient 

published on an IFR departure procedure even if the 

track of the OEI special procedure and the IFR departure 

procedure are identical. 

Categories of Departure Procedures 

There are two types of DPs: those developed to assist 

pilots in obstruction avoidance, known as ODPs, printed 

either textually or graphically, and those developed 

to communicate ATC clearances, SIDs, always printed 

graphically. 

Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODPs) 

The term ODP is used to define procedures that simply 

provide obstacle clearance. ODPs are only used for 

obstruction clearance and do not include ATC-related 

climb requirements. In fact, the primary emphasis of ODP 

design is to use the least restrictive route of flight to the 

en route structure or to facilitate a climb to an altitude 

that allows random (diverse) IFR flight, while attempting 

to accommodate typical departure routes. 

An ODP must be developed when obstructions penetrate 

the 40:1 departure OCS, as described in FAA Order 8260.3. 

Only one ODP will be established for a particular runway. 

This is considered the default IFR departure procedure for 

a given runway and is intended for pilot awareness and 

use in the absence of ATC radar vectors or SID assignment. 

Text is not published to allow an option to use a SID or 

alternate maneuver assigned by ATC (e.g., “Climb heading 

330 to 1200 before turning or use Manchester Departure” 

or “Turn right, climb direct ABC very high frequency (VHF) 

omnidirectional range (VOR) or as assigned by ATC.”). ODPs 

are textual in nature. However, due to the complex nature 

of some procedures, a visual presentation may be necessary 

for clarification and understanding. If the ODP is charted 

graphically, the chart itself includes the word “Obstacle” in 

parentheses in the title. Additionally, all newly-developed 

RNAV ODPs are issued in graphical form. 

All ODPs are listed in the front of the Aeronautical 

Information Services approach chart booklets under 

the heading Takeoff Minimums and Obstacle Departure 

Procedures. Each procedure is listed in alphabetical order 

by city and state. The ODP listing in the front of the booklet 

includes a reference to the graphic chart located in the main 

body of the booklet if one exists. [Figure 1-21] 

ODP Flight Planning Considerations 

ODPs are not assigned by ATC unless absolutely necessary 

to achieve aircraft separation. It is the pilot’s responsibility 

to determine if there is an ODP published for that airport. If a 

Part 91 pilot is not given a clearance containing an ODP, SID, 

or radar vectors and an ODP exists, compliance with such 

a procedure is the pilot’s choice. A graphic ODP may also 

be filed in an instrument flight plan by using the computer 

code included in the procedure title. As a technique, the 

pilot may enter “will depart (airport) (runway) via textual 

ODP” in the remarks section of the flight plan. Providing 

this information to the controller clarifies the intentions 

of the pilot and helps prevent a potential pilot/controller 

misunderstanding. If the ODP is not included in the pilot’s 

clearance, the pilot should inform ATC when an ODP is 

used for departure from a runway so that ATC can ensure 

appropriate traffic separation. 

During planning, pilots need to determine whether or 

not the departure airport has an ODP. Remember, an ODP 

can only be established at an airport that has instrument 

approach procedures (IAPs). An ODP may drastically affect 

the initial part of the flight plan. Pilots may have to depart 

at a higher than normal climb rate, or depart in a direction 

opposite the intended heading and maintain that for a 

period of time, any of which would require an alteration in 

the flight plan and initial headings. Considering the forecast 

weather, departure runways, and existing ODP, plan the 

flight route, climb performance, and fuel burn accordingly 

to compensate for the departure procedure. 

Additionally, when close-in obstacles are noted in the 

Takeoff Minimums and (Obstacle) Departure Procedures 

section, it may require the pilot to take action to avoid these 

obstacles. Consideration must be given to decreased climb 

performance from an inoperative engine or to the amount 

of runway used for takeoff. Aircraft requiring a short takeoff 

roll on a long runway may have little concern. On the other 

hand, airplanes that use most of the available runway for 

takeoff may not have the standard ROC when climbing at 

the normal 200 ft/NM. 

Another factor to consider is the possibility of an 

1-23 
NOT FOR NAVIGATION

SC-5, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010

Figure 1-22. SID chart. 

SC-5, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010

SC-5, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010 

SC-5, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010 

1-24 
Figure 1-23. Transition routes as depicted on SID. 

1-25 
 

 

 

 

 

 

engine failure during takeoff and departure. During the 

preflight planning, use the aircraft performance charts 

to determine if the aircraft can still maintain the required 

climb performance. For high performance aircraft, an 

engine failure may not impact the ability to maintain the 

prescribed climb gradients. Aircraft that are performance 

limited may have diminished capability and may be unable 

to maintain altitude, let alone complete a climb to altitude. 

Based on the performance expectations for the aircraft, 

construct an emergency plan of action that includes 

emergency checklists and the actions to take to ensure 

safety in this situation. 

Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs) 

A SID is an ATC-requested and developed departure route, 

typically used in busy terminal areas. It is designed at the 

request of ATC in order to increase capacity of terminal 

airspace, effectively control the flow of traffic with minimal 

communication, and reduce environmental impact 

through noise abatement procedures. 

While obstacle protection is always considered in SID 

routing, the primary goal is to reduce ATC/pilot workload 

while providing seamless transitions to the en route 

structure. ATC clearance must be received prior to flying 

a SID. SIDs also provide additional benefits to both the 

airspace capacity and the airspace users by reducing 

radio congestion, allowing more efficient airspace use, 

and simplifying departure clearances. All of the benefits 

combine to provide effective, efficient terminal operations, 

thereby increasing the overall capacity of the NAS. 

If you cannot comply with a SID, if you do not possess the 

charted SID procedure, or if you simply do not wish to 

use SIDs, include the statement “NO SIDs” in the remarks 

section of your flight plan. Doing so notifies ATC that they 

cannot issue you a clearance containing a SID, but instead 

will clear you via your filed route to the extent possible, 

or via a Preferential Departure Route (PDR). It should be 

noted that SID usage not only decreases clearance delivery 

time, but also greatly simplifies your departure, easing you 

into the IFR structure at a desirable location and decreases 

your flight management load. While you are not required 

to depart using a SID, it may be more difficult to receive 

an “as filed” clearance when departing busy airports that 

frequently use SID routing. 

SIDs are always charted graphically and are located in the 

TPP after the last approach chart for an airport. The SID 

may be one or two pages in length, depending on the size 

of the graphic and the amount of space required for the 

departure description. Each chart depicts the departure 

route, navigational fixes, transition routes, and required 

altitudes. The departure description outlines the particular 

procedure for each runway. [Figure 1-22] 

Transition Routes 

Charted transition routes allow pilots to transition from the 

end of the basic SID to a location in the en route structure. 

Typically, transition routes fan out in various directions 

from the end of the basic SID to allow pilots to choose 

the transition route that takes them in the direction of 

intended departure. A transition route includes a course, 

a minimum altitude, and distances between fixes on the 

route. When filing a SID for a specific transition route, 

include the transition in the flight plan, using the correct 

departure and transition code. ATC also assigns transition 

routes as a means of putting the flight on course to the 

destination. In any case, the pilot must receive an ATC 

clearance for the departure and the associated transition, 

and the clearance from ATC will include both the departure 

name and transition (e.g., Joe Pool Nine Departure, College 

Station Transition). [Figure 1-23] 

The SID is designed to allow the pilot to provide his or 

her own navigation with minimal radio communication. 

This type of procedure usually contains an initial set of 

departure instructions followed by one or more transition 

routes. A SID may include an initial segment requiring 

radar vectors to help the flight join the procedure, but the 

majority of the navigation remains the pilot’s responsibility. 

[Figure 1-24] 

A radar SID usually requires ATC to provide radar vectors 

from just after takeoff (ROC is based on a climb to 400 feet 

above the DER elevation before making the initial turn) 

until reaching the assigned route or a fix depicted on the 

SID chart. Radar SIDs do not include departure routes or 

transition routes because independent pilot navigation 

is not involved. The procedure sets forth an initial set of 

departure instructions that typically include an initial 

heading and altitude. ATC must have radar contact with 

the aircraft to be able to provide vectors. ATC expects 

you to immediately comply with radar vectors, and they 

expect you to notify them if you are unable to fulfill their 

request. ATC also expects you to make contact immediately 

if an instruction causes you to compromise safety due to 

obstructions or traffic. 

It is prudent to review radar SID charts prior to use because 

this type of procedure often includes nonstandard 

lost communication procedures. If you were to lose 

radio contact while being vectored by ATC, you would 

be expected to comply with the lost communication 

procedure as outlined on the chart, not necessarily those 

procedures outlined in the AIM. [Figure 1-25] 

1-26 
Figure 1-24. Example of a common SID at Denver, Colorado. 

1-27 
NOT FOR NAVIGATION

Initial departure instructions 

Lost communications procedure 

specific to this departure 

SW-1, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010 

SW-1, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010

En route chart reference 

Departure airport 

SW-1, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010 

SW-1, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010 

Figure 1-25. Example of a radar SID at Denver, Colorado. 

SID Flight Planning Considerations 

Take into consideration the departure paths included in 

the SIDs, and determine if you can use a standardized 

departure procedure. You have the opportunity to choose 

the SID that best suits your flight plan. During the flight 

planning phase, you can investigate each departure, 

and determine which procedure allows you to depart 

the airport in the direction of your intended flight. Also 

consider how a climb gradient to a specific altitude affects 

the climb time and fuel burn portions of the flight plan. 

Notes giving procedural requirements are listed on the 

graphic portion of a departure procedure, and they are 

mandatory in nature. [Figure 1-26] Mandatory procedural 

notes may include: 

• Aircraft equipment requirements (DME, ADF, etc.) 

• ATC equipment in operation (radar) 

• Minimum climb requirements 

• Restrictions for specific types of aircraft (turbojet only) 

• Limited use to certain destinations

Cautionary statements may also be included on the 

procedure to notify you of specific activity, but these are 

strictly advisory. [Figure 1-26] If you are unable to comply 

with a specific requirement, you must not file the procedure 

as part of your flight plan. If ATC assigns you a SID, you may 

1-28 
 

Figure 1-26. Departure procedure notes and cautionary statements. 

need to quickly recalculate your all-engines-operating 

performance numbers. If you cannot comply with the 

climb gradient in the SID, you should not accept a clearance 

for that SID and furthermore, you must not accept the 

procedure if ATC assigns it. 

A clearance for a SID which contains published altitude 

restrictions may be issued using the phraseology “climb 

via.” Climb via is an abbreviated clearance that requires 

compliance with the procedure lateral path, associated 

speed and altitude restrictions along the cleared route or 

procedure. Expanded procedures for "Climb via" can be 

found in the AIM. 

ATC can assign SIDs or radar vectors as necessary for traffic 

management and convenience. To fly a SID, you must 

receive approval to do so in a clearance. In order to accept 

a clearance that includes a SID, you must have the charted 

1-29 
 

 

 

 

 

SID procedure in your possession at the time of departure. 

It is your responsibility as pilot in command to accept or 

reject the issuance of a SID by ATC. You must accept or 

reject the clearance based on: 

•	 The ability to comply with the required performance. 

•	 The ability to navigate to the degree of accuracy 

required for the procedure. 

•	 Possession of the charted SID procedure. 

•	 Personal understanding of the SID in its entirety. 

When you accept a clearance to depart using a SID or radar 

vectors, ATC is responsible for traffic separation. When 

departing with a SID, ATC expects you to fly the procedure as 

charted because the procedure design considers obstacle 

clearance. It is also expected that you will remain vigilant 

in scanning for traffic when departing in visual conditions. 

Furthermore, it is your responsibility to notify ATC if your 

clearance would endanger your safety or the safety of others. 

DPs are also categorized by equipment requirements 

as follows: 

•	 Non-RNAV DP—established for aircraft equipped 

with conventional avionics using ground-based 

NAVAIDs.These DPs may also be designed using dead 

reckoning navigation. Some flight management 

systems (FMS) are certified to fly a non-RNAV DP 

if the FMS unit accepts inputs from conventional 

avionics sources, such as DME, VOR, and localizer 

(LOC). These inputs include radio tuning and may 

be applied to a navigation solution one at a time or 

in combination. Some FMS provide for the detection 

and isolation of faulty navigation information. 

•	 RNAV DP—established for aircraft equipped with 

RNAV avionics (e.g., GPS, VOR/DME, DME/DME). 

Automated vertical navigation is not required, 

and all RNAV procedures not requiring GPS must 

be annotated with the note: “RADAR REQUIRED.” 

Prior to using TSO-C129 GPS equipment for RNAV 

departures, approach receiver autonomous integrity 

monitoring (RAIM) availability should be checked for 

that location. 

•	 Radar DP—radar may be used for navigation 

guidance for SID design. Radar SIDs are established 

when ATC has a need to vector aircraft on departure 

to a particular ATS Route, NAVAID, or fix. A fix may 

be a ground-based NAVAID, a waypoint, or defined 

by reference to one or more radio NAVAIDs. Not all 

fixes are waypoints since a fix could be a VOR or VOR/ 

DME, but all waypoints are fixes. Radar vectors may 

also be used to join conventional or RNAV navigation 

SIDs. SIDs requiring radar vectors must be annotated 

“RADAR REQUIRED.” 

Area Navigation (RNAV) Departures 

Historically, departure procedures were built around 

existing ground-based technology and were typically 

designed to accommodate lower traffic volumes. Often, 

departure and arrival routes use the same NAVAIDs creating 

1.0 NM 1.0 NM 

2.0 NM 2.0 NM 

Path centerline 

Figure 1-27. RNP departure levels. 

1-30 
Figure 1-28. Flight plan equipment codes (continued on next page). 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E1 

E2 

E3 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J1 

J2 

J3 

J4 

J5 

J6 

J7 

K 

L 

M1 

M2 

M3 

O 

P1 - P9 

R 

T 

U 

V 

W 

X 

Y 

Z 

GBAS landing system 

LPV (APV with SBAS) 

LORAN C 

DME 

FMC WPR ACARS 

D-FIS ACARS 

PDC ACARS 

ADF 

GNSS (See Note 2) 

HF RTF 

Intertial Navigation 

CPDLC ATN VDL Mode 2 (See Note 3) 

CPDLC FANS 1/A HFDL 

CPDLC FANS 1/A VDL Mode 4 

CPDLC FANS 1/A VDL Mode 2 

CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (INMARSAT) 

CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (MTSAT) 

CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (Iridium) 

MLS 

ILS 

OmegaATC RTF SATCOM 

ATC RTF (MTSAT) 

ATC RTF (Iridium) 

VOR 

Reserved for RCP 

PBN approved (see Note 4) 

TACAN 

UHF RTF 

VHF RTF 

RVSM approved 

MNPS approved 

VHF with 8.33 kHz channel spacing capability 

Other equipment carried or other capabilities 

(see Note 5) 

ICAO Flight Plan Equipment Codes 

Suffix 

/X 

/T 

/U 

/D 

/B 

/A 

/M 

/N 

/P 

/Y 

/C 

/I 

/E 

/F 

/G 

/R 

/J 

/K 

/L 

/Q 

/W 

Equipment Capability 

NO DME 

No transponder 

Transponder with no Mode C 

Transponder with Mode C 

DME 

No transponder 

Transponder with no Mode C 

Transponder with Mode C 

TACAN ONLY 

No transponder 

Transponder with no Mode C 

Transponder with Mode C 

AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) 

LORAN, VOR/DME, or INS with no transponder 

LORAN, VOR/DME, or INS, transponder with no 

Mode C 

LORAN, VOR/DME, or INS, transponder with 

Mode C 

ADVANCED RNAV WITH TRANSPONDER AND 

MODE C (If an aircraft is unable to operate with a 

transponder and/or Mode C, it will revert to the 

appropriate code listed above under Area 

Navigation.) 

Flight Management System (FMS) with DME/DME 

and IRU position updating 

Flight Management System (FMS) with DME/DME 

position updating 

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), 

including GPS or WAAS, with en route and 

terminal capability. 

Required Navigational Performance (RNP). The 

aircraft meets the RNP type prescribed for the 

route segment(s), route(s), and/or area concerned. 

Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM). 

Prior to conducting RVSM operations within the 

U.S., the operator must obtain authorization from 

the FAA or from the responsible authority, as 

appropriate. 

/E with RVSM 

/F with RVSM 

/G with RVSM 

/R with RVSM 

RVSM 

FAA Flight Plan Aircraft Suffixes 

Radio communication, navigation and approach 

aid equipment and capabilities 

“N” if no COM/NAV/approach aid equipment for the route to be 

flown is carried, or the equipment is unserviceable, OR “S” if standard 

COM/NAV/ approach aid equipment for the route to be flown is 

carried and serviceable (see note 1), AND/OR INSERT one or more of 

the following letters to indicate the serviceable COM/NAV/approach 

aid equipment and capabilities available: 

Any alphanumeric characters not indicated above are reserved. 

Effective September 1, 2005. 

1-31 
Transponder - Mode A (4 digits - 4,096 codes) 

Transponder - Mode A (4 digits - 4,096 codes) and 

Mode C 

Transponder—Mode S, including aircraft identification, 

pressure-altitude and extended squitter (ADS-B) 

capability 

Transponder—Mode S, including aircraft identification, 

pressure-altitude and enhanced surveillance capability 

Transponder—Mode S, including aircraft identification, 

but no pressure-altitude capability 

Transponder—Mode S, including aircraft identification, 

pressure-altitude, extended squitter (ADS-B) and 

enhanced surveillance capability 

Transponder—Mode S, including pressure-altitude, but 

no aircraft identification capability 

Transponder—Mode S, including both pressure altitude 

and aircraft identification capability 

Transponder — Mode S with neither aircraft 

identification nor pressure-altitude capability 

ADS-B with dedicated 1090 MHz ADS-B “out” capability 

ADS-B with dedicated 1090 MHz ADS-B “out” and “in” 

capability 

ADS-B “out” capability using UAT 

ADS-B “out” and “in” capability using UAT 

ADS-B “out” capability using VDL Mode 4 

ADS-B “out” and “in” capability using VDL Mode 4 

ICAO Flight Plan Equipment Codes 

Surveillance equipment and capabilities 

SSR Modes A and C 

SSR Modes S 

ADS-B 

INSERT N if no surveillance equipment for the route to be flown 

is carried, or the equipment is unserviceable, OR INSERT one or 

more of the following descriptors, to a maximum of 20 characters, 

to describe the serviceable surveillance equipment carried and/or 

capabilities on board: 

Note: Enhanced surveillance capability is the ability of the aircraft 

to down-link aircraft derived data via a Mode S transponder. 

A 

C 

E 

H 

I 

L 

P 

S 

X 

B1 

B2 

U1 

U2 

V1 

V2 

Note 1 

Note 2 

Note 3 

Note 4 

Note 5 

Note 6 

Note 7 

Note 8 

Note 9 

Note 10 

Note 11 

If the letter S is used, standard equipment is considered 

to be VHF RTF, VOR and ILS, unless another combination is prescribed by the appropriate ATS authority. 

If the letter G is used, the types of external GNSS 

augmentation, if any, are specified in Item 18 following 

the indicator NAV/ and separated by a space. 

See RTCA/EUROCAE Interoperability Requirements 

Standard For ATN Baseline 1 (ATN B1 INTEROP Standard 

DO-280B/ED-110B) for data link services air traffic 

control clearance and information/air traffic control 

communications management/air traffic control 

microphone check. 

Information on navigation capability is provided to 

ATC for clearance and routing purposes. 

If the letter Z is used, specify in Item 18 the other 

equipment carried or other capabilities, preceded 

by COM/, NAV/ and/or DAT, as appropriate. 

If the letter R is used, the performance based navigation levels that can be met are specified in Item 18 

following the indicator PBN/. Guidance material on the 

application of performance based navigation to a 

specific route segment, route or area is contained in 

the Performance-Based Navigation Manual (Doc 9613). 

RNAV- equipped aircraft capable of flying RNAV SIDs, 

putting “NO SID” in the remarks section will not always 

result in a clearance via a Preferential Departure Route 

(PDR). The Pilot/Dispatcher must amend Field 18 NAV 

from D1 to D0 and remove PBRN RNAV1 Code (D1-D4). 

If a RNAV DP is filed, an ICAO flight plan must be used. 

In Field 18, Pilots/Dispatchers must file a D1 or D2 

depending on the RNAV DP. Additionally, Field 18 

should include PBN/D1-D4 depending on the navigation update source. See AIM/PANS ATM 4444 for ICAO 

filing procedures. 

RNAV Q-routes require en route RNAV 2, corresponding 

NAV/E2 code and PBN/C1-C4 based on navigation 

system update source. 

If an aircraft does not meet the requirements for RVSM, 

then the W filed in ICAO flight plan Field 10A must be 

removed and STS/NONRVSM must be annotated in 

Field 18. 

Filing requirements for RNAV STARS. Field 18 of the 

ICAO flight plan must have a NAV/A1 or A2 assigned to 

the RNAV STAR. Additionally, PBN/D1-D4 for RNAV1 or 

C1-C4 for RNAV2 should be filed. If unable to accept the 

RNAV STAR, the flight plan must be amended to change 

the NAV/A1 or A2 to A0. 

D1 ADS-C with FANS 1/A capabilities 

G1 ADS-C with ATN capabilities 

Alphanumeric characters not indicated above are reserved. 

Example: ADE3RV/HB2U2V2G1 

Note: Additional surveillance application should be listed in 

Item 18 following the indicator SUR/ . 

D1 

G1 

NOTE 

Figure 1-28. Flight plan equipment codes (continued). 

1-32 
 

 

 

 

 

 

interdependent, capacity diminishing routes. RNAV is a 

method of navigation that permits aircraft operation on 

any desired flight path within the coverage of ground- or 

spaced- based NAVAIDs or within the limits of the capability 

of self-contained aids or a combination of these. In the 

future, there will be an increased dependence on the 

use of RNAV in lieu of routes defined by ground-based 

NAVAIDs. As a part of the evolving RNAV structure, the 

FAA has developed departure procedures for pilots flying 

aircraft equipped with some type of RNAV technology. 

RNAV allows for the creation of new departure routes 

that are independent of present fixes and NAVAIDs. RNAV 

routing is part of the National Airspace Redesign (NAR) and 

is expected to reduce complexity and increase efficiency 

of terminal airspace. 

When new RNAV departure procedures are designed, 

they will require minimal vectoring and communications 

between pilots and ATC. Usually, each departure procedure 

includes position, time, and altitude, which increase 

the ability to predict what the pilot will actually do. 

RNAV departure procedures have the ability to increase 

the capacity of terminal airspace by increasing ontime departures, airspace utilization, and improved 

predictability. 

All public RNAV SIDs and graphic ODPs are RNAV 1. These 

procedures generally start with an initial RNAV or heading 

leg near the departure end runway. In addition, these 

procedures require system performance currently met 

by GPS, DME/DME/Inertial Reference Unit (IRU) RNAV 

systems that satisfy the criteria discussed in AC 90-100, U.S. 

Terminal and En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations. 

RNAV departures are identifiable by the inclusion of the 

term RNAV in the title of the departure. From a required 

navigation performance (RNP) standpoint, RNAV departure 

routes are designed with 1 or 2 NM performance standards 

as listed below. This means you as the pilot and your aircraft 

equipment must be able to maintain the aircraft within 1 

or 2 NM either side of route centerline. [Figure 1-27] 

•	 RNAV 1 procedures require that the aircraft’s total 

system error remain bounded by ±1 NM for 95 

percent of the total flight time. 

•	 RNAV 2 requires a total system error of not more 

than 2 NM for 95 percent of the total flight time. 

RNP is RNAV with on-board monitoring and alerting; RNP is 

also a statement of navigation performance necessary for 

operation within defined airspace. RNP 1 (in-lieu-of RNAV 

1) is used when a DP that contains a constant radius to a 

fix (RF) leg or when surveillance (radar) monitoring is not 

desired for when DME/DME/IRU is used. These procedures 

are annotated with a standard note: “RNP 1.” 

If unable to comply with the requirements of an RNAV 

or RNP procedure, pilots need to advise ATC as soon as 

possible. For example, “N1234, failure of GPS system, 

unable RNAV, request amended clearance.” Pilots are not 

authorized to fly a published RNAV or RNP procedure unless 

it is retrievable by the procedure name from the navigation 

database and conforms to the charted procedure. No other 

modification of database waypoints or creation of userdefined waypoints on published RNAV or RNP procedures 

is permitted, except to change altitude and/or airspeed 

waypoint constraints to comply with an ATC clearance/ 

instruction, or to insert a waypoint along the published 

route to assist in complying with an ATC instruction. For 

example, “Climb via the WILIT departure except cross 30 

north of CHUCK at/ or above FL 210.” This is limited only 

to systems that allow along track waypoint construction. 

Pilots of aircraft utilizing DME/DME for primary navigation 

updating should ensure any required DME stations are in 

service as determined by NOTAM, ATIS, or ATC advisory. 

DME/DME navigation system updating may require specific 

DME facilities to meet performance standards. Based on 

DME availability evaluations at the time of publication, 

current DME coverage is not sufficient to support DME/DME 

RNAV operations everywhere without IRU augmentation or 

use of GPS. [Figure 1-28] DP chart notes may also include 

operational information for certain types of equipment, 

systems, and performance requirements, in addition to 

the type of RNAV departure procedure. 

While operating on RNAV segments, pilots are encouraged 

to use the flight director in lateral navigation mode. RNAV 

terminal procedures may be amended by ATC issuing radar 

vectors and/or clearances direct to a waypoint. Pilots should 

avoid premature manual deletion of waypoints from their 

active “legs” page to allow for rejoining procedures. While 

operating on RNAV segments, pilots operating /R aircraft 

should adhere to any flight manual limitation or operating 

procedure required to maintain the RNP value specified for 

the procedure. In 2008, the FAA implemented the use of 

en route host automation ICAO flight plan (FP) processing 

for requesting assignment of RNAV SID, Standard Terminal 

Arrivals (STARs), or RNAV routes U.S. domestic airspace. 

This is part of a risk reduction strategy for introduction of 

the En Route Automation Modernization (ERAM) system in 

October 2008. ERAM also will use ICAO FP processing and as 

a result aircrews should be aware that as the FAA updates to 

ERAM the standard FAA flight plan equipment suffix codes 

will change to the ICAO flight plan equipment suffix codes. 

For procedures requiring GPS and/or aircraft approvals 

requiring GPS, if the navigation system does not 

automatically alert the flight crew of a loss of GPS, aircraft 

operators must develop procedures to verify correct GPS 

1-33 
 

IFR takeoffs and departures are fast-paced phases of 

flight, and pilots often are overloaded with critical flight 

information. While preparing for takeoff, pilots are busy 

requesting and receiving clearances, preparing their aircraft 

for departure, and taxiing to the active runway. During IFR 

conditions, they are doing this with minimal visibility, and 

they may be without constant radio communication if flying 

out of a non-towered airport. Historically, takeoff minimums 

for commercial operations have been successively reduced 

through a combination of improved signage, runway 

markings and lighting aids, and concentrated pilot 

training and qualifications. Today at major terminals, some 

commercial operators with appropriate equipment, pilot 

qualifications, and approved Operations Specifications 

(OpSpecs) may takeoff with visibility as low as 300 feet 

runway visual range (RVR). One of the consequences of 

takeoffs with reduced visibility is that pilots are challenged 

in maintaining situational awareness during taxi operations. 

Surface Movement Safety 

One of the biggest safety concerns in aviation is the surface 

movement accident. As a direct result, the FAA has rapidly 

expanded the information available to pilots, including 

the addition of taxiway and runway information in FAA 

publications, particularly the IFR U.S. Terminal Procedures 

Publication (TPP) booklets and the Chart Supplement (CS) 

volumes. The FAA has also implemented new procedures 

and created educational and awareness programs for 

pilots, ATC, and ground operators. By focusing resources 

to attack this problem head on, the FAA hopes to reduce 

and eventually eliminate surface movement accidents. 

Airport Sketches and Diagrams 

Airport sketches and diagrams provide pilots of all levels 

with graphical depictions of the airport layout. Aeronautical 

Information Services, formerly known as Aeronautical 

Products (AeroNav), provide an airport sketch on the lower 

left or right portion of every instrument approach chart. 

[Figure 1-1] This sketch depicts the runways, their length, 

width and slope, the touchdown zone elevation, the lighting 

system installed on the end of the runway, and taxiways. 

Graphical depictions of NOTAMS are also available for 

selected airports as well as for temporary flight restriction 

(TFRs) areas on the defense internet NOTAM service (DINS) 

website. 

For select airports, typically those with heavy traffic or 

complex runway layouts, Aeronautical Information Services 

also prints an airport diagram. The diagram is located in 

the IFR TPP booklet following the instrument approach 

chart for a particular airport. It is a full page depiction of 

the airport that includes the same features of the airport 

sketch plus additional details, such as taxiway identifiers, 

Figure 1-1. Airport diagram included on the Oshkosh, Wisconsin 

VOR RWY 9 Approach Chart as depicted in the IFR TPP. 

NOT FOR NAVIGATION

Runway numbers 

Runway slope 

Runway length and width 

airport latitude and longitude, and building identification. 

The airport diagrams are also available in the Airport/Facility 

Directory section of the Chart Supplement (CS) and on the 

Aeronautical Information Services' website, located at 

www.aeronav.faa.gov. [Figure 1-2] 

Chart Supplements (CS) 

In recent years, the former Airport/Facility Directory (A/ 

FD) booklet was incorporated as a section in the Chart 

Supplement (CS). [Figure 2-14] The Chart Supplement 

(CS) is published by Aeronautical Information Services in 

regional booklets and online at: [https://www.faa.gov/ 

air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav/digital_products/dafd/] 

The online version is known as the digital Chart Supplement 

(d-CS). The d-CS and the CS are identical and provide 

textual and graphic information about all airports, both 

Visual Flight Rules (VFR) and IFR. The Airport/Facility 

Directory (A/FD) section of the CS includes runway length 

1-2 
 

 

EC-3, 29 JUL 2010 to 26 AUG 2010 

EC-3, 29 JUL 2010 to 26 AUG 2010 

NOT FOR NAVIGATION

Longitude and latitude 

Airport name and location On-airport buildings 

Taxiway designations 

Precise runway direction 

Runway slope 

Figure 1-2. Airport diagram of Oshkosh, Wisconsin as depicted in 

the A/FD section of the CS. 

and width, runway surface, load bearing capacity, runway 

slope, runway declared distances, airport services, and 

hazards, such as birds and reduced visibility. [Figure 1-3] 

Sketches of airports also are being added to aid VFR pilots in 

surface movement activities. In support of the FAA Runway 

Incursion Program, full page airport diagrams and “Hot 

Spot” locations are included in the A/FD section of the CS. 

These charts are the same as those published in the IFR 

TPP and are printed for airports with complex runway or 

taxiway layouts. 

Surface Movement Guidance Control System 

(SMGCS) 

The Surface Movement Guidance Control System 

(SMGCS) was developed to facilitate the safe movement 

of aircraft and vehicles at airports where scheduled 

air carriers were conducting authorized operations. 

Advisory Circular 120-57 was developed in 1992. In 2012, 

FAA Order 8000.94, Procedures for Establishing Airport 

Low-Visibility Operations and Approval of Low-Visibility 

Operations/Surface Movement Guidance and Control 

System Operations, was published to provide procedures 

for establishing Airport Low-Visibility Operations (LVO) 

and Surface Movement Guidance and Control Systems. It 

established the necessary FAA headquarters and operating 

services, roles, responsibilities, and activities for operations 

at 14 CFR Part 139 airports using RVRs of less than 1,200 

feet for each runway. The order applies to all users of 

the system at all levels who are formally listed. The FAA 

requires the commissioning of an “FAA approved LVO/ 

SMGCS Operation” for all new Category III ILS supported 

runways. Since there are no regulatory takeoff minimums 

for 14 CFR Part 91 operations, the information provided by 

FAA AC 120-57 and FAA Order 8000.94 must be understood 

so that the general aviation pilot can understand LVO and 

SMGCS during day or night. 

The SMGCS low visibility taxi plan includes the enhancement 

of taxiway and runway signs, markings, and lighting, 

as well as the creation of SMGCS visual aid diagrams. 

[Figure 1-4] The plan also clearly identifies taxi routes 

and their supporting facilities and equipment. Airport 

enhancements that are part of the SMGCS program include, 

but are not limited to: 

•	 Controllable Stop bars lights—these consist of a row 

of red, unidirectional, in-pavement lights that can be 

controlled by ATC. They provide interactions with 

and aircraft that prevent runway incursions during 

takeoff operations. These are required for operations 

at less than 500 ft RVR. 

•	 Non-Controllable Stop bars lights—these are red, 

unidirectinoal lights place at intersections where a 

restriction to movement is required. They must be 

in continuous operation at less than 500 ft RVR. 

•	 Taxiway centerline lead-on lights—guide ground 

traffic under low visibility conditions and at night. 

These lights consist of alternating green/yellow inpavement lights. 

•	 Runway guard lights—either elevated or inpavement, may be installed at all taxiways that 

provide access to an active runway. They consist 

of alternately flashing yellow lights. These lights 

are used to denote both the presence of an active 

runway and identify the location of a runway holding 

position marking. 

•	 Geographic position markings—ATC verifies the 

position of aircraft and vehicles using geographic 

position markings. The markings can be used either 

as hold points or for position reporting. These 

checkpoints or “pink spots” are outlined with a black 

and white circle and designated with a number or a 

number and a letter. 

1-3 
 

 

Figure 1-3. Excerpts from the Chart Supplement (Airport Facility Directory section) of Naples Muni, Naples, Florida. 

•	 Clearance bar lights—three yellow in-pavement 

clearance bar lights used to denote holding 

positions for aircraft and vehicles. When used for 

hold points, they are co-located with geographic 

position markings. 

Both flight and ground crews, Part 121 and 135 operators, are 

required to comply with SMGCS plans when implemented 

at their specific airport. All airport tenants are responsible 

for disseminating information to their employees and 

conducting training in low visibility operating procedures. 

Anyone operating in conjunction with the SMGCS plan 

must have a copy of the low visibility taxi route chart for 

their given airport as these charts outline the taxi routes 

and other detailed information concerning low visibility 

operations. These charts are available from private sources 

outside of the FAA. Government sources for SMGCS 

charts may be available in the future. Part 91 operators 

are expected to comply with the guidelines listed in AC 

120-57, and should expect “Follow Me” service (when 

available) when low visibility operations are in use. Any 

SMGCS outage that would adversely affect operations at 

the airport is issued as a Notice to Airmen (NOTAM). 

Advanced Surface Movement Guidance Control 

System (A-SMGCS) 

With the increasing demand for airports to accommodate 

higher levels of aircraft movements, it is becoming more 

difficult for the existing infrastructure to safely handle 

greater capacities of traffic in all weather conditions. As 

a result, the FAA is implementing runway safety systems, 

such as Airport Surface Detection Equipment-Model X 

(ASDE-X) and Advanced Surface Movement Guidance and 

Control System (A-SMGCS) at various airports. The data that 

these systems use comes from surface movement radar 

and aircraft transponders. The combination of these data 

sources allows the systems to determine the position and 

identification of aircraft on the airport movement area and 

decreases the potential of collisions on airport runways 

and taxiways. 

Additional information concerning airport lighting, 

markings, and signs can be found in the Aeronautical 

Information Manual (AIM) and the Pilot’s Handbook of 

1-4 
 

A A 

18 

18 

Runway holding position marking and lights for land and hold short operations (LAHSO) 

Painted taxiway direction sign 

Painted taxiway location sign 

Taxiway centerline marking 

Under ATC Not under ATC control

control 

Taxiway edge marking (do not cross) 

Centerline/lead-on lights 

Stop bar at instrument landing system hold position 

Broken taxiway edge markings may be crossed 

Painted 

holding 

position

sign 

Low 

visibility

hold 

point 

Vehicle lanes 

Reporting points 

In-pavement runway guard lights 

Figure 1-4. Key airport lighting and markings. 

Aeronautical Knowledge, appendix 1, as well as on the FAA’s 

website at http://www.faa.gov/airports/runway_safety/. 

Airport Signs, Lighting, and Markings 

Flight crews use airport lighting, markings, and signs to 

help maintain situational awareness. These visual aids 

provide information concerning the aircraft’s location on 

the airport, the taxiway in use, and the runway entrance 

being used. Overlooking this information can lead to 

ground accidents that are entirely preventable. If you 

encounter unfamiliar markings or lighting, contact ATC 

for clarification and, if necessary, request progressive taxi 

instructions. Pilots are encouraged to notify the appropriate 

authorities of erroneous, misleading, or decaying signs or 

lighting that would contribute to the failure of safe ground 

operations. 

Runway Incursions 

On any given day, the NAS may handle almost 200,000 

takeoffs and landings. Due to the complex nature of the 

airport environment and the intricacies of the network of 

people that make it operate efficiently, the FAA is constantly 

1-5 
 

 

 

 

 

 

looking to maintain the high standard of safety that exists 

at airports today. Runway safety is one of its top priorities. 

The FAA defines a runway incursion as: “Any occurrence 

at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an 

aircraft, vehicle, or person on the protected area of a surface 

designated for the landing and takeoff of aircraft.” 

The four categories of runway incursions are listed below: 

•	 Category A—a serious incident in which a collision 

was narrowly avoided. 

•	 Category B—an incident in which separation 

decreases and there is a significant potential for 

Figure 1-5. FAA recommendations for reducing runway incursions. 

The FAA recommends that you: 

• Receive and understand all NOTAMs, particularly 

those concerning airport construction and lighting. 

• Read back, in full, all clearances involving 

holding short, line up and wait, and crossing runways

 to ensure proper understanding. 

• Abide by the sterile cockpit rule. 

• Develop operational procedures that minimize 

distractions during taxiing. 

• Ask ATC for directions if you are lost or unsure of 

your position on the airport. 

• Adhere to takeoff and runway crossing clearances in 

a timely manner. 

• Position your aircraft so landing traffic can see you. 

• Monitor radio communications to maintain a 

situational awareness of other aircraft. 

• Remain on frequency until instructed to change. 

• Make sure you know the reduced runway distances 

and whether or not you can comply before accepting 

a land and hold short clearance or clearance for

 shortened runway. 

• Report confusing airport diagrams to the proper 

authorities. 

• Use exterior taxi and landing lights when practical. 

The sterile cockpit rule refers to a concept outlined in 14 CFR 

Part 121, § 121.542 and 135.100 that requires flight 

crews to refrain from engaging in activities that could distract 

them from the performance of their duties during critical phases 

of flight. 

NOTE: 

collision that may result in a time critical corrective/ 

evasive response to avoid a collision. 

•	 Category C—an incident characterized by ample 

time and/or distance to avoid a collision. 

•	 Category D—an incident that meets the definition 

of runway incursion, such as incorrect presence of a 

single vehicle/person/aircraft on the protected area 

of a surface designated for the landing and takeoff of 

aircraft but with no immediate safety consequences. 

Figure 1-5 highlights several steps that reduce the chances 

of being involved in a runway incursion. 

In addition to the SMGCS program, the FAA has implemented 

additional programs to reduce runway incursions and other 

surface movement issues. They identified runway hotspots, 

designed standardized taxi routes, and instituted the 

Runway Safety Program. 

Runway Hotspots 

ICAO defines runway hotspots as a location on an 

aerodrome movement area with a history or potential risk 

of collision or runway incursion and where heightened 

attention by pilots and drivers is necessary. Hotspots 

alert pilots to complex or potentially confusing taxiway 

geometry that could make surface navigation challenging. 

Whatever the reason, pilots need to be aware that 

these hazardous intersections exist, and they should 

be increasingly vigilant when approaching and taxiing 

through these intersections. These hotspots are depicted 

on some airport charts as circled areas. [Figure 1-6] The FAA 

Office of Runway Safety has links to the FAA regions that 

maintain a complete list of airports with runway hotspots 

at http://www.faa.gov/airports/runway_safety. 

Standardized Taxi Routes 

Standard taxi routes improve ground management at highdensity airports, namely those that have airline service. At 

these airports, typical taxiway traffic patterns used to move 

aircraft between gate and runway are laid out and coded. 

The ATC specialist (ATCS) can reduce radio communication 

time and eliminate taxi instruction misinterpretation by 

simply clearing the pilot to taxi via a specific, named route. 

An example of this would be Los Angeles International 

Airport (KLAX), where North Route is used to transition 

to Runway 24L. [Figure 1-7] These routes are issued by 

ground control, and if unable to comply, pilots must 

advise ground control on initial contact. If for any reason 

the pilot becomes uncertain as to the correct taxi route, a 

request should be made for progressive taxi instructions. 

These step-by-step routing directions are also issued if the 

controller deems it necessary due to traffic, closed taxiways, 

airport construction, etc. It is the pilot’s responsibility to 

know if a particular airport has preplanned taxi routes, to 

be familiar with them, and to have the taxi descriptions in 

their possession. Specific information about airports that 

use coded taxiway routes is included in the Notices to 

Airmen Publication (NTAP). 

1-6 
 

 

NOT FOR NAVIGATION

SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE 

At Long Beach/Daugherty Field Airport, the following areas have been 

designated as hot spots, posing a special challenge to pilots. 

HOT6 

Landing Runway 30 

Be aware that this runway crosses every other available runway 

at the airport. When exiting the runway, pilots should make sure 

they are turning with a “lead-off” taxiline onto a taxiway and not 

onto another active runway. 

HOT1 

Runway 25R and Taxiway D 

Aircraft exiting runway 30 at taxiway A turn 

left on taxiway D, anticipate reaching their 

destination, and fail to hold short of runway 

25R. 

HOT2 

Runway 12 and Taxiway B 

Aircraft northbound on taxiway B for departure 

on runway 16R at taxiway intersection D miss 

the right turn onto taxiway D and enter 

runways 12, 7L, and 25R. 

HOT3 

Runway 25L/7R at Taxiway B 

Aircraft southbound on taxiway B anticipate 

reaching their destination parking ramp and 

fail to hold short of runway 25L/7R. 

HOT4 

Runway 16R/34L at Taxiway F 

Aircraft taxiing to runway 16R from the 

southwest ramp miss the left turn onto 

taxiway B, continue eastbound onto taxiway 

F, and enter runway 16R/34L. 

HOT5 

Runway 25L at Taxiway D 

After completing a runup on inactive runway 

34R, aircraft fail to hold short of runway 25L. 

Figure 1-6. Example of runway hot spots located at Long Beach/Daugherty Field Airport (KLGB). 

SW-3, 29 JUL 2010 to 26 AUG 2010 

Standardized Taxi Routes for Los Angeles 

International Airport (KLAX)
 

The following Standardized Taxi routes 

may be issued to all taxiing aircraft.
 

North Route 

Taxi via Charlie (C) towards taxiway Sierra (S) taxi northbound on taxiway Sierra (S), 

and at Check-point-1 contact Ground Control on frequency 121.65, hold short of 

taxiway Delta (D). When advised by the north Ground Control, the North Route 

continues on taxiway Echo (E) to Runway 24L or the gate, whichever applies. 

South Route 

If the aircraft is west of taxiway Romeo (R), taxi eastbound on taxiway Echo (E) and 

turn right on taxiway Romeo (R), if the aircraft is east of taxiway Romeo (R), taxi 

westbound on taxiway Echo (E) and turn left on taxiway Romeo (R). And at 

Check-point-2, contact Ground Control on frequency 121.75, hold short of taxiway 

Charlie (C). 

West Route 

Taxi via taxiway Charlie (C) west-bound, hold short of taxiway Alfa Alfa (AA), contact 

Ground Control on frequency 121.65 when number one approaching Taxiway AA. 

Bridge Route 

Taxi via taxiway Echo (E) then south on taxiway Alfa Alfa (AA), and at Check-point-3 

contact Ground Control on frequency 121.75, hold short of taxiway Charlie (C). 

(AJV-W2 4/23/2010) 

North Route 

SW-3, 29 JUL 2010 to 26 AUG 2010 

Figure 1-7. Los Angeles International Airport diagram, North Route, and standardized taxi route. 

1-7 
 

 

 

 

Taxi and Movement Operations Change 

As of June 30, 2010, controllers are required to issue explicit 

instructions to cross or hold short of each runway that 

intersects a taxi route. Following is a summary of these 

procedural changes: 

•	 “Taxi to” is no longer used when issuing taxi 

instructions to an assigned takeoff runway. 

•	 Instructions to cross a runway are issued one at a 

time. Instructions to cross multiple runways are not 

issued. An aircraft or vehicle must have crossed the 

previous runway before another runway crossing 

is issued. This applies to any runway, including 

inactive or closed runways. 

•	 Never cross a runway hold marking without explicit 

ATC instructions. If in doubt, ask! 

Reminder: You may not enter a runway unless you have 

been: 

1.	 Instructed to cross or taxi onto that specific runway; 

2.	 Cleared to take off from that runway; or 

3.	 Instructed to line up and wait on that specific runway. 

For more information on the change, refer to FAA Order 

JO 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, which can be found at www. 

faa.gov. 

Weather and the Departure Environment 

Takeoff Minimums 

While mechanical failure is potentially hazardous during 

any phase of flight, a failure during takeoff under 

instrument conditions is extremely critical. In the event of 

an emergency, a decision must be made to either return to 

the departure airport or fly directly to a takeoff alternate. If 

the departure weather were below the landing minimums 

for the departure airport, the flight would be unable to 

return for landing, leaving few options and little time to 

reach a takeoff alternate. 

In the early years of air transportation, landing minimums 

for commercial operators were usually lower than takeoff 

minimums. Therefore, it was possible that minimums 

allowed pilots to land at an airport but not depart from that 

airport. Additionally, all takeoff minimums once included 

ceiling, as well as visibility requirements. Today, takeoff 

minimums are typically lower than published landing 

minimums, and ceiling requirements are only included if 

it is necessary to see and avoid obstacles in the departure 

area. 

The FAA establishes takeoff minimums for every airport 

that has published Standard Instrument Approaches. 

These minimums are used by commercially operated 

aircraft, namely Part 121 and Part 135 operators. At airports 

where minimums are not established, these same carriers 

are required to use FAA-designated standard minimums: 

1 statute mile (SM) visibility for single- and twin-engine 

aircraft, and 1⁄2 SM for helicopters and aircraft with more 

than two engines. 

Aircraft operating under 14 CFR Part 91 are not required to 

comply with established takeoff minimums. Legally, a zero/ 

zero departure may be made, but it is never advisable. If 

commercial pilots who fly passengers on a daily basis must 

comply with takeoff minimums, then good judgment and 

common sense would tell all instrument pilots to follow 

the established minimums as well. 

Aeronautical Information Services charts list takeoff 

minimums only for the runways at airports that have other 

than standard minimums. These takeoff minimums are 

listed by airport in alphabetical order in the front of the TPP 

booklet. If an airport has non-standard takeoff minimums, 

a (referred to by some as either the “triangle T” or “trouble T

T”) is placed in the notes sections of the instrument 

procedure chart. In the front of the TPP booklet, takeoff 

minimums are listed before the obstacle departure 

procedure. Some departure procedures allow a departure 

with standard minimums provided specific aircraft 

performance requirements are met. [Figure 1-8] 

Takeoff Minimums for Commercial Operators 

While Part 121 and Part 135 operators are the primary users 

of takeoff minimums, they may be able to use alternative 

takeoff minimums based on their individual OpSpecs. 

Through these OpSpecs, operators are authorized to depart 

with lower-than-standard minimums provided they have 

the necessary equipment and crew training. 

Operations Specifications (OpSpecs) 

Within the air transportation industry, there is a need to 

establish and administer safety standards to accommodate 

many variables. These variables include a wide range 

of aircraft, varied operator capabilities, the various 

situations requiring different types of air transportation, 

and the continual, rapid changes in aviation technology. 

It is impractical to address these variables through the 

promulgation of safety regulations for each and every 

type of air transport situation and the varying degrees of 

operator capabilities. Also, it is impractical to address the 

1-8 
Figure 1-8. Examples of non-standard takeoff minimums for Colorado Springs, Colorado. 

1-9 
SE-2, 29 JUL 2010 to 26 AUG 2010

 

 

 

 

 

 

 NOT FOR NAVIGATION

2010 to 26 AUG 2010 

rapidly changing aviation technology and environment 

through the regulatory process. Safety regulations 

would be extremely complex and unwieldy if all possible 

variations and situations were addressed by regulation. 

Instead, the safety standards established by regulation 

should usually have a broad application that allows varying 

acceptable methods of compliance. The OpSpecs provide 

an effective method for establishing safety standards that 

address a wide range of variables. In addition, OpSpecs 

can be adapted to a specific certificate holder or operator’s 

class and size of aircraft and type and kinds of operations. 

OpSpecs can be tailored to suit an individual certificate 

holder or operator’s needs. 

Part 121 and Part 135 certificate holders have the ability, 

through the use of approved OpSpecs, to use lower-thanstandard takeoff minimums. Depending on the equipment 

installed in a specific type of aircraft, the crew training, and 

the type of equipment installed at a particular airport, these 

operators can depart from appropriately equipped runways 

with as little as 300 feet RVR. Additionally, OpSpecs outline 

provisions for approach minimums, alternate airports, and 

weather services in Volume 3 of FAA Order 8900.1, Flight 

Standards Information Management System (FSIMS). 

SE-2, 29 JUL 2010 to 26 AUG 2010 

Figure 1-9. Examples of weather information of various flight 

information publications (FLIP). 

Ceiling and Visibility Requirements 

All takeoffs and departures have visibility minimums (some 

may have minimum ceiling requirements) incorporated 

into the procedure. There are a number of methods to 

report visibility and a variety of ways to distribute these 

reports, including automated weather observations. Flight 

crews should always check the weather, including ceiling 

and visibility information, prior to departure. Never launch 

an IFR flight without obtaining current visibility information 

immediately prior to departure. Further, when ceiling and 

visibility minimums are specified for IFR departure, both 

are applicable. 

Weather reporting stations for specific airports across 

the country can be located by reviewing the CS. Weather 

sources along with their respective phone numbers and 

frequencies are listed by airport. Frequencies for weather 

sources, such as Automatic Terminal Information Service 

(ATIS), Digital Automatic Terminal Information Service 

(D-ATIS), Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS), 

Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS), and FAA 

Automated Flight Service Station (AFSS) are published on 

approach charts as well. [Figure 1-9] 

Visibility 

Visibility is the ability, as determined by atmospheric 

conditions and expressed in units of distance, to see 

and identify prominent unlighted objects by day and 

prominent lighted objects by night. Visibility is reported 

as statute miles, hundreds of feet, or meters. 

Prevailing Visibility 

Prevailing visibility is the greatest horizontal visibility 

equaled or exceeded throughout at least half the horizon 

circle, which need not necessarily be continuous. Prevailing 

visibility is reported in statute miles or fractions of miles. 

Runway Visibility Value (RVV) 

Runway visibility value is the visibility determined for a 

particular runway by a transmissometer. A meter provides 

Conversion 

RVR (feet) Visibility (sm)

1,600 1/4

2,400 1/2

3,200 5/8

4,000 3/4

4,500 7/8

5,000 1

6,000 11/4 

Figure 1-10. RVR conversion table. 

1-10 
 

 

 

continuous indication of the visibility (reported in statute 

miles or fractions of miles) for the runway. RVV is used in lieu 

of prevailing visibility in determining minimums for a particular 

runway. 

Tower Visibility 

Tower visibility is the prevailing visibility determined from 

the airport traffic control tower at locations that also report 

the surface visibility. 

Runway Visual Range (RVR) 

Runway visual range is an instrumentally derived value,
 

based on standard calibrations, that represents the
 

horizontal distance a pilot sees down the runway from the
 

approach end. It is based on the sighting of either high
 

intensity runway lights or on the visual contrast of other
 

targets, whichever yields the greater visual range. RVR, in
 

contrast to prevailing or runway visibility, is based on what
 

a pilot in a moving aircraft should see looking down the
 

runway. RVR is horizontal visual range, not slant visual range.
 

RVR is reported in hundreds of feet, so the values must be
 

converted to SM if the visibility in SM is not reported. [Figure
 

1-10] It is based on the measurement of a transmissometer
 

made near the touchdown point of the instrument runway
 

and is reported in hundreds of feet. RVR is used in lieu of
 

RVV and/or prevailing visibility in determining minimums
 

for a particular runway.
 

Types of RVR
 

The following are types of RVR that may be used:
 

•	 Touchdown RVR—the RVR visibility readout values 

obtained from RVR equipment serving the runway 

touchdown zone. 

•	 Mid-RVR—the RVR readout values obtained from 

RVR equipment located near the runway midpoint . 

•	 Rollout RVR—the RVR readout values obtained from 

RVR equipment located nearest the rollout end of 

the runway. 

•	 Far End RVR—when four RVR visibility sensors (VS) 

are installed, the far end RVR VS is the touchdown 

RVR VS on the reciprocal runway. The far end sensor 

will serve as additional information. 

RVR is the primary visibility measurement used by Part 

121 and Part 135 operators with specific visibility reports 

and controlling values outlined in their respective OpSpecs. 

Under their OpSpecs agreements, the operator must have 

specific, current RVR reports, if available, to proceed with an 

instrument departure. OpSpecs also outline which visibility 

report is controlling in various departure scenarios. 

Figure 1-11. AWSS installation at Driggs-Reed, Idaho. 

Adequate Visual Reference 

Another set of lower-than-standard takeoff minimums is 

available to Part 121 and Part 135 operations as outlined in 

their respective OpSpecs document. When certain types of 

visibility reports are unavailable or specific equipment is out 

of service, the flight can still depart the airport if the pilot 

can maintain adequate visual reference. An appropriate 

visual aid must be available to ensure the takeoff surface 

can be continuously identified, and directional control can 

be maintained throughout the takeoff run. Appropriate 

visual aids include high intensity runway lights, runway 

centerline lights, runway centerline markings, or other 

runway lighting and markings. With adequate visual 

references and appropriate OpSpec approval, commercial 

operators may take off with a visibility of 1600 RVR or 1⁄4 

SM. 

Ceilings 

Ceiling is the height above the earth’s surface of the lowest 

layer of clouds or obscuring phenomena that is reported as 

broken, overcast, or obscuration and not classified as thin 

or partial. 

1-11 
 

 

 

 

 

Automated Weather Systems 

An automated weather system consists of any of the 

automated weather sensor platforms that collect weather 

data at airports and disseminate the weather information 

via radio and/or landline. The systems consist of the ASOS/ 

Automated Weather Sensor System (AWSS) and the AWOS. 

Figure 1-12. CS entry for an AWOS station. 

SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE

WEATHER DATA SOURCES: AWOS-3 119.675 (704) 735-6954. 

AWOS/ASOS/AWSS information 

These systems are installed and maintained at airports 

across the United States by both government (FAA and 

National Weather Service (NWS)) and private entities. They 

are relatively inexpensive to operate because they require 

no outside observer, and they provide invaluable weather 

information for airports without operating control towers. 

[Figure 1-11] 

AWOS and ASOS/AWSS offer a wide variety of capabilities 

and progressively broader weather reports. Automated 

systems typically transmit weather every one to two 

minutes so the most up-to-date weather information is 

constantly broadcast. Basic AWOS includes only altimeter 

setting, wind speed, wind direction, temperature, and dew 

point information. More advanced systems, such as the 

ASOS/AWSS and AWOS-3, are able to provide additional 

information, such as wind speed, wind gust, wind direction, 

variable wind direction, temperature, dew point, altimeter 

setting, and density altitude. ASOS/AWSS stations providing 

service levels A or B also report RVR. The specific type 

of equipment found at a given facility is listed in the CS. 

[Figure 1-12] 

The use of the aforementioned visibility reports and 

weather services are not limited for Part 91 operators. 

Part 121 and 135 operators are bound by their individual 

OpSpecs documents and are required to use weather 

reports that come from the NWS or other approved 

sources. While every operator’s specifications are 

individually tailored, most operators are required to use 

ATIS, RVR reports, and selected reports from automated 

weather stations. All reports coming from an AWOS-3 

station are usable for Part 121 and Part 135 operators. Each 

type of automated station has different levels of approval 

as outlined in individual OpSpecs. Ceiling and visibility 

reports given by the tower with the departure information 

are always considered official weather, and RVR reports are 

typically the controlling visibility reference. 

Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) 

ATIS is another valuable tool for gaining weather 

information. ATIS is available at most airports that have an 

operating control tower, which means the reports on the 

ATIS frequency are only available during the regular hours 

of tower operation. At some airports that operate part-time 

towers, ASOS/AWSS information is broadcast over the 

ATIS frequency when the tower is closed. This service is 

available only at those airports that have both an ASOS/ 

AWSS on the field and an ATIS-ASOS/AWSS interface switch 

installed in the tower. 

Each ATIS report includes crucial information about 

runways and instrument approaches in use, specific 

outages, and current weather conditions including 

visibility. Visibility is reported in statute miles and may 

be omitted if the visibility is greater than five miles. ATIS 

weather information comes from a variety of sources 

depending on the particular airport and the equipment 

installed there. The reported weather may come from a 

manual weather observer, weather instruments located 

in the tower, or from automated weather stations. This 

information, no matter the origin, must be from NWS 

approved weather sources for it to be used in the ATIS 

report. 

Digital Automatic Terminal Information Service 

(D-ATIS) 

The digital ATIS (D-ATIS) is an alternative method of 

receiving ATIS reports. The service provides text messages 

to aircraft, airlines, and other users outside the standard 

reception range of conventional ATIS via landline and data 

link communications to the flight deck. Aircraft equipped 

with data link services are capable of receiving ATIS 

information over their Aircraft Communications Addressing 

and Reporting System (ACARS) unit. This allows the pilots to 

read and print out the ATIS report inside the aircraft, thereby 

increasing report accuracy and decreasing pilot workload. 

Also, the service provides a computer-synthesized voice 

message that can be transmitted to all aircraft within 

range of existing transmitters. The Terminal Data Link 

System (TDLS) D-ATIS application uses weather inputs 

from local automated weather sources or manually entered 

meteorological data together with preprogrammed menus 

to provide standard information to users. Airports with 

D-ATIS capability are listed in the CS. 

1-12 
SW-1, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010

SW-1, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURE CHARTS 

IFR ALTERNATE AIRPORT MINIMUMS 

Standard alternate minimums for non precision approaches are 800-2 (NDB, VOR, LOC, TACAN, LDA, 

VORTAC, VOR/DME, ASR or WAAS LNAV); for precision approaches 600-2 (ILS or PAR). Airports within 

this geographical area that require alternate minimums other than standard or alternate minimums with 

restrictions are listed below. NA - means alternate minimums are not authorized due to unmonitored facility 

or absence of weather reporting service. Civil pilots see FAR 91. IFR Alternate Airport Minimums: Ceiling 

and Visibility Minimums not applicable to USA/USN/USAF. Pilots must review the IFR Alternate Airport 

Minimums Notes for alternate airfield suitability. 

NAME ALTERNATE MINIMUMS NAME ALTERNATE MINIMUMS 

AKRON, CO 

COLORADO 

PLAINS RGNL ................. RNAV (GPS) Rwy 11 

NA when local weather not available. 

ALAMOSA, CO 

SAN LUIS VALLEY RGNL/ 

BERGMAN FIELD .............. RNAV (GPS) Rwy 2 

RNAV (GPS) Rwy 20 

NA when local weather not available. 

ALBUQUERQUE, NM 

ALBUQUERQUE INTL 

SUNPORT ..................... VOR or TACAN Rwy 8 

Categories A,B, 900-2; Category C, 900-2 ; 

Category D, 900-2 ; Category E, 900-3. 

CLAYTON, NM 

CLAYTON MUNI AIRPARK ............ NDB Rwy 2 

NDB Rwy 20 

RNAV (GPS) Rwy 2 

RNAV (GPS) Rwy 20 

NA when local weather not available. 

Categories A, B, 900-2; Category C, 900-2 , 

Category D, 900-2 . 

Category D, 800-2 . 

COLORADO SPRINGS, CO 

CITY OF COLORADO SPRINGS 

MUNI .............................. ILS or LOC Rwy 17L 

ILS or LOC Rwy 35L 

ILS or LOC Rwy 35R 

RNAV (GPS) Y Rwy 17L 

RNAV (GPS) Y Rwy 17R 4 

RNAV (RNP) Z Rwy 17R5 

Categories A, B, 900-2; Category C, 900-2 ; 

Category D, 900-2 . 

ILS, Category D, 700-2. 

NA when local weather not available. 

4Categories A, B, 1100-2; Categories C, D, 

1100-3. 5Categories A, B, C, D, 800-2 . 

CORTEZ, CO 

CORTEZ MUNI ............ RNAV (GPS) Y Rwy 21 

RNAV (GPS) Z Rwy 21 

VOR Rwy 21 

Category D, 900-3. 

Categories A, B, 1300-2; Categories C, D, 

1300-3. 

CRAIG, CO 

CRAIG-MOFFAT .................... VOR/DME Rwy 7 

VOR Rwy 25 

23 SEP 2010 to 21 O

CT 2010

23 SEP 2010 to 21 O

CT 2010 

SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE 

NOT FOR NAVIGATION

City and state location 

Airport name and applicable approach 

Other-than-standard IFR alternate minimums 

Other-than-standard IFR alternate minimums are published. 

Figure 1-13. Examples of IFR alternate minimums. 

It is important to remember that ATIS information is 

updated hourly and anytime a significant change in the 

weather occurs. As a result, the information is not the most 

current report available. Prior to departing the airport, you 

need to get the latest weather information from the tower. 

ASOS/AWSS and AWOS also provide a source of current 

weather, but their information should not be substituted 

for weather reports from the tower. 

IFR Alternate Requirements 

On Aeronautical Information Services charts, standard 

alternate minimums are not published. If the airport has 

other than standard alternate minimums, they are listed 

in the front of the approach chart booklet. The presence 

of a triangle with an A on the approach chart indicates 

the listing of alternate minimums should be consulted. 

Airports that do not qualify for use as an alternate airport 

are designated with an A N/A. [Figure 1-13] 

The requirement for an alternate depends on the aircraft 

category, equipment installed, approach navigational aid 

(NAVAID), and forecast weather. For example, airports with 

only a global positioning system (GPS) approach procedure 

cannot be used as an alternate by TSO-C129 or C196 users 

unless certain requirements are met (see AIM) even 

though the "N/A" has been removed from the approach 

chart. For select area navigation (RNAV) GPS and GPS 

approach procedures, the "N/A" is being removed so they 

may be used as an alternate by aircraft equipped with an 

approach-approved Wide Area Augmentation System 

(WAAS) receiver complaying with (TSO-C145 or C146) 

or TSO-C129 or C196 meeitng certain requirements (see 

AIM). Because GPS is not authorized as a substitute means 

of navigation guidance when conducting a conventional 

approach at an alternate airport, if the approach procedure 

requires either distance measuring equipment (DME) or 

automatic direction finder (ADF), the aircraft must be 

equipped with the appropriate DME or ADF avionics in 

order to use the approach as an alternate. 

1-13 
 

 

 

For aircraft other than helicopters, 14 CFR Part 91 

requirements, an alternate airport must be listed on IFR 

flight plans if the forecast weather at the destination 

airport, for at least one hour before and for one hour after 

the estimated time of arrival (ETA), the ceiling is less than 

2,000 feet above the airport elevation, and the visibility 

is less than 3 SM. One way to remember the rules for 

determining the necessity of filing an alternate is the “1, 2, 

3 Rule.” For helicopters, similar alternate filing requirements 

in 14 CFR Part 91 apply. An alternate must be listed on an 

IFR flight plan if at the ETA and for one hour after the ETA, 

the ceiling is at least 1,000 feet above the airport elevation, 

or at least 400 feet above the lowest applicable approach 

minima, whichever is higher, and the visibility is at least 

2 SM. 

Not all airports can be used as alternate airports. An airport 

may not be qualified for alternate use if the airport NAVAID 

is unmonitored, or if it does not have weather reporting 

capabilities. For an airport to be used as an alternate, 

the forecast weather at that airport must meet certain 

qualifications at the ETA. For aircraft other than helicopters, 

standard alternate minimums for a precision approach are 

a 600-foot ceiling and a 2 SM visibility. For a non-precision 

approach, the minimums are an 800-foot ceiling and a 2 SM 

visibility. Standard alternate minimums apply unless higher 

alternate minimums are listed for an airport. For helicopters, 

alternate weather minimums are a ceiling of 200 feet above 

the minimum for the approach to be flown, and visibility 

at least 1 SM but never less than the minimum visibility for 

the approach to be flown. 

Alternate Minimums for Commercial Operators 

IFR alternate minimums for Part 121 and Part 135 operators 

are very specific and have more stringent requirements 

than Part 91 operators. 

Part 121 operators are required by their OpSpecs and 14 

CFR Part 121, § 121.617 and 121.625 to have a takeoff 

alternate airport for their departure airport in addition 

to their airport of intended landing if the weather at the 

departure airport is below the landing minimums in the 

certificate holder’s OpSpecs for that airport. The alternate 

must be within two hours flying time for an aircraft with 

three or more engines with an engine out in normal cruise 

in still air. For two engine aircraft, the alternate must be 

within one hour. The airport of intended landing may be 

used in lieu of an alternate provided that it meets all the 

requirements. Domestic Part 121 operators must also file 

for alternate airports when the weather at their destination 

airport, from one hour before to one hour after their ETA, is 

forecast to be below a 2,000-foot ceiling and/or less than 

three miles visibility. 

For alternate airports with at least one operational 

navigational facility that provides a straight-in nonprecision approach, a straight-in precision approach, or a 

circling maneuver from an instrument approach procedure 

determine the ceiling and visibility by: 

•	 Adding 400 feet to the authorized CAT I height above 

airport (HAA)/height above touchdown elevation 

(HAT) for ceiling. 

•	 Adding one mile to the authorized CAT I visibility 

for visibility minimums. 

This is one example of the criteria required for Part 121 

operators when calculating minimums. Part 135 operators 

are also subject to their own specific rules regarding the 

selection and use of alternate minimums as outlined in their 

OpSpecs and 14 CFR Part 135, § 135.219 through 135.225, 

which are similar to those used by Part 121 operators with 

additional considerations. 

Commercial operators typically use dispatchers to plan 

flights, including selecting and filing alternate airports. 

The dispatcher considers aircraft performance, aircraft 

equipment and its condition, and route of flight when 

choosing alternates. In the event changes need to be 

made to the flight plan en route due to deteriorating 

weather, the dispatcher maintains contact with the flight 

crew and reroutes their flight as necessary. Therefore, it is 

the pilot’s responsibility to execute the flight as planned 

by the dispatcher. To aid in the planning of alternates, 

dispatchers have a list of airports that are approved as 

alternates so they can quickly determine which airports 

should be used for a particular flight. Dispatchers also 

use flight planning software that plans routes including 

alternates for the flight. This type of software is tailored 

for individual operators and includes their normal flight 

paths and approved airports. Flight planning software and 

services are provided through private sources. 

Though the pilot is the final authority for the flight 

and ultimately has full responsibility, the dispatcher is 

responsible for creating flight plans that are accurate and 

comply with the CFRs. Alternate minimum criteria are only 

used as planning tools to ensure the pilot in command and 

dispatcher are thinking ahead to the approach phase of 

flight. In the event the flight would actually need to divert 

to an alternate, the published approach minimums or 

lower-than-standard minimums must be used as addressed 

in OpSpecs documents. 

1-14 
 '

1 NM 2 NM 

10 NM 

200 feet 

400 feet 

V186

Positive course guidance must be acquired 

within 10 NM for straight departures and 

within 5 NM for departures requiring turns. 

Required climb gradient of 200 ft/NM 

Previous TERPS Departure Procedures 

Obstacle clearance surface (OCS)

35 feet 35 feet 

152 feet 152 feet

304 feet 304 feet 96 feet

48 

Figure 1-14. Previous TERPS departure procedures. 

Beyond the diverse obstacle assessment 

area (25/46 NM) there might be significantly 

higher obstacles. 

Aircraft reaches en route obstacle 

clearance of 1,000' (nonmountainous 

areas) or 2,000' (in mountainous areas). 

TERPS Design CG of 200 ft/NM 

40:1 OIS at 152 ft/NM 

4NM 

25/46 NM 

Figure 1-15. Diverse Departure Obstacle Assessment to 25/46 NM. 

1-15 
 

 

1 NM 2 NM 

V186 

15 

200 feet 

400 feet 

First 

Significant 

Obstacle 

Clearway TORA 

TODA 

TORA 

ASDA 

Stopway 

75 Meters 

(247 Feet) 

Positive Course Guidance (PCG) 

A continuous display of navigational data 

that enables an aircraft to be flown along a 

specific course line (e.g., radar vector, 

RNAV, ground-based NAVAID). PCG must 

be acquired within 10 NM for straight 

departures and within 5 NM for departures 

requiring turns. 

Departure End of Runway (DER) 

The end of runway available for the ground run of an aircraft 

departure. The end of the runway that is opposite the landing 

threshold, sometimes referred to as the stop end of the runway. 

Takeoff Runway Available (TORA) 

The length of runway declared available and suitable 

for the ground run of an airplane takeoff. 

Takeoff Distance Available (TODA) 

The length of the takeoff runway available plus 

the length of the clearway, if provided. 

Accelerate-Stop Distance Available 

(ASDA) 

The runway plus stopway length 

declared available and suitable for 

the acceleration and deceleration 

of an airplane aborting a takeoff. 

Initial Climb Area (ICA) 

The ICA is the segment of the departure procedure that 

starts at the DER and proceeds along the runway 

centerline extended to allow the aircraft sufficient distance 

to reach an altitude of 400 feet above DER elevation and 

to allow the establishment of positive course guidance by 

all navigation systems. A typical straight departure ICA 

extends 2-5 NM from the DER along the runway centerline 

extended. It is 500 feet wide each side of the runway 

centerline at DER, then spreads out at 15°. 

Start End of Runway (SER) 

The beginning of the takeoff runway available. 

Approach End of Runway (AER) 

The first portion of the runway available for landing. 

If the runway threshold is displaced, the displaced 

threshold latitude/longitude is the AER. 

Landing Distance Available (LDA) 

The length of runway that is declared available and 

suitable for the ground run of an airplane landing. 

TERPS Departure Procedures and 

runway distance available terms. 

48 ' 

35 feet 35 feet 

152 feet

304 feet 96 feet

Required climb 

gradient of 200 ft/NM 

Obstacle clearance 

surface (OCS) 

Slope of 152 ft/NM or 40:1 

Runway 

Centerline Extended 

Minimum assumed “at or above” 

intended aircraft climb path 

Figure 1-16. New TERPS departure procedures. 

Departure Procedures 

Instrument departure procedures are preplanned IFR 

procedures that provide obstruction clearance from 

the terminal area to the appropriate en route structure. 

Primarily, these procedures are designed to provide obstacle 

protection for departing aircraft. There are two types of 

Departure Procedures (DPs): 

• Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODPs) and 

• Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs). 

When an instrument approach is initially developed for an 

airport, the need for an ODP is assessed. If an aircraft may 

turn in any direction from a runway within the limits of the 

assessment area and remain clear of obstacles that runway 

passes what is called a diverse departure assessment, and 

no ODP is published. A diverse departure assessment 

ensures that a prescribed, expanding amount of required 

obstacle clearance (ROC) is achieved during the climb-out 

until the aircraft can obtain a minimum 1,000 feet ROC in 

non-mountainous areas or a minimum 2,000 feet ROC in 

mountainous areas. Unless specified otherwise, required 

obstacle clearance for all departures, including diverse, is 

based on the pilot crossing the departure end of the runway 

(DER) at least 35 feet above the DER elevation, climbing to 

400 feet above the DER elevation before making the initial 

turn, and maintaining a minimum climb gradient of 200 ft/ 

NM, unless required to level off by a crossing restriction, 

until the minimum IFR altitude is reached. Following ODP 

assessment, a SID may still be established for the purposes 

of ATC flow management, system enhancement, or noise 

abatement. 

Design Criteria 

The design of a departure procedure is based on FAA Order 

8260.3, United States Standard for Terminal Instrument 

Procedures (TERPS), which is a living document that is 

updated frequently. Departure design criterion begins 

with the assumption of an initial climb of 200 ft/NM after 

crossing the DER at a height of at least 35 feet. [Figure 1-14] 

The aircraft climb path assumption provides a minimum of 

35 feet of additional obstacle clearance above the required 

obstacle clearance (ROC), from the DER outward, to absorb 

variations ranging from the distance of the static source to 

the landing gear, to differences in establishing the minimum 

200 ft/NM climb gradient, etc. The ROC is the planned 

1-16 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

separation between the obstacle clearance surface (OCS) 

and the required climb gradient of 200 ft/NM. The ROC 

value is zero at the DER elevation and increases along the 

departure route until the ROC value appropriate for en route 

flight is achieved. The appropriate ROC value for en route 

operations is typically achieved about 25 NM for 1,000 feet 

of ROC in non-mountainous areas, and 46 NM for 2,000 feet 

of ROC in mountainous areas. 

If taking off from a runway using a diverse departure 

(a runway without a published ODP), beyond these 

distances the pilot is responsible for obstacle clearance if 

not operating on a published route, and if below the MEA 

or MOCA of a published route, or below an ATC-assigned 

altitude. [Figure 1-15] 

Recent changes in TERPS criteria make the OCS lower and 

more restrictive. [Figure 1-16] However, there are many 

departures today that were evaluated under the old criteria 

that allowed some obstacle surfaces to be as high as 35 feet 

at the DER. [Figure 1-14] Since there is no way for the pilot 

to determine whether the departure was evaluated using 

the previous or current criteria, and until all departures 

have been evaluated using the current criteria, pilots need 

to be very familiar with the departure environment and 

associated obstacles, especially if crossing the DER at less 

than 35 feet. 

All departure procedures are initially assessed for obstacle 

clearance based on a 40:1 Obstacle Clearance Surface (OCS). 

If no obstacles penetrate this 40:1 OCS, the standard 200 

ft/NM climb gradient provides a minimum of 48 ft/NM of 

clearance above objects that do not penetrate the slope. 

The departure design must also include the acquisition 

of positive course guidance (PCG), typically within 5 to 10 

NM of the DER for straight departures. Even when aircraft 

performance greatly exceeds the minimum climb gradient, 

the published departure routing must always be flown. 

Airports publish the declared distances in the A/FD section 

of the CS. These include takeoff runway available (TORA), 

takeoff distance available (TODA), accelerate-stop distance 

available (ASDA), and landing distance available (LDA). These 

distances are calculated by adding to the full length of paved 

runway any applicable clearway or stop-way and subtracting 

from that sum the sections of the runway unsuitable for 

satisfying the required takeoff run, takeoff, accelerate/stop, 

or landing distance as shown in Figure 1-16. 

Optimally, the 40 to 1 slope would work for every departure 

design; however, due to terrain and manmade obstacles, 

it is often necessary to use alternative requirements to 

accomplish a safe, obstacle-free departure design. In 

such cases, the design of the departure may incorporate a 

climb gradient greater than 200 ft/NM, an increase in the 

standard takeoff minimums to allow the aircraft to “see and 

avoid” the obstacles, a standard climb of 200 ft/NM with a 

specified reduced takeoff length, or a combination of these 

options and a specific departure route. 

If a departure route is specified, it must be flown in 

conjunction with the other options. 

The obstacle environment may require a climb gradient 

greater than 200 ft/NM. In these cases, the ROC provided 

above obstacles is equivalent to 24 percent of the 

published climb gradient. The required climb gradient, 

for obstacle purposes on ODPs and SIDs, is obtained by 

using the formulas: 

Standard Formula DoD Option* 

CG = O – E CG = (48D + O) – E

 0.76 D D 

O = obstacle mean sea level (MSL) elevation
 

E = climb gradient starting MSL elevation 


D = distance (NM) from DER to the obstacle
 

Examples:
 

2049 – 1221 (48 × 3.1 + 2049) – 1221
 = 351.44 = 315.10 0.76 × 3.1 3.1 

Round to 352 ft/NM Round to 316 ft/NM 

*Military only 

These formulas are published in FAA Order 8260.3 for 

calculating the required climb gradient to clear obstacles. 

The following formula is used for calculating SID climb 

gradients for other than obstacles (i.e., ATC requirements): 

CG = A – E

 D 

A = “climb to” altitude 

E = climb gradient starting MSL elevation 

D = distance (NM) from the beginning of the climb 

Example: 

3000 – 1221 = 355.8 round to 356 ft/NM

5 

Note: The climb gradient must be equal to or greater than 

the gradient required for obstacles along the route of flight. 

The published climb gradient, obstacle or otherwise, is 

1-17 
 

 

 

SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE 

Ground speed is 180 knots. 

Required climb gradient of 297 ft/NM. 

Given the parameters, you would need to climb at a rate 

of 892 fpm to maintain the required climb gradient. 

Figure 1-17. Rate of climb table. 

treated as a plane which must not be penetrated from 

above until reaching the stated height or has reached 

the en route environment (e.g., above the MEA, MOCA). 

Departure design, including climb gradients, does not 

take into consideration the performance of the aircraft; it 

only considers obstacle protection for all aircraft. TERPS 

criteria assume the aircraft is operating with all available 

engines and systems fully functioning. Development of 

contingency procedures, required to cover the case of 

an engine failure, engine out procedures (EOPs) or other 

emergency in flight that may occur after liftoff, is the 

responsibility of the operator. When a climb gradient is 

required for a specific departure, it is vital that pilots fully 

understand the performance of their aircraft and determine 

if it can comply with the required climb. The standard 

climb of 200 ft/NM is not an issue for most aircraft. When 

an increased climb gradient is specified due to obstacle 

issues, it is important to calculate aircraft performance, 

particularly when flying out of airports at higher altitudes 

on warm days. To aid in the calculations, the front matter 

of every TPP booklet contains a rate of climb table that 

relates specific climb gradients and typical groundspeeds. 

[Figure 1-17]. 

Low, Close-In Obstacles 

Obstacles that are located within 1 NM of the DER and 

penetrate the 40:1 OCS are referred to as “low, close-in 

obstacles” and are also included in the TPP. These obstacles 

1-18 
YUBBAINTbeforeproceedingoncourse.

NOTE: Rwy 7, trees beginning 1117' from DER, 504'

rightofcenterline,upto40'AGL/1708'MSL.Pole1365'

from DER, 600' right of centerline, 59' AGL/1679' MSL.

Tree 3791' from DER, 700' right of centerline, 40' AGL/

1639' MSL. Rwy 25, tree 37' from DER, 479' left of

centerline,40'AGL/1528'MSL.Tree86'fromDER,461'

rightofcenterline,40'AGL/1532'MSL.Fence301'from

DER, 244' right of centerline, 8' AGL/1508' MSL. Trees

beginning 660' from DER, 249' right of centerline, up to

40'AGL/1559'MSL.

o

proceedingoncourse. Rwy12, climbingleftturnvia

VORTACbeforeproceedingoncourse. Rwy30,

R-250toECAVORTACbeforeproceedingoncourse.

NOTE: Rwy5,bush17'fromdepartureendofrunway,67'

rightof centerline,6'AGL/52'MSL. Rwy 12,multiple

treesandbushbeginning240'fromdepartureendof

runway,286'rightofcenterline,upto39'AGL/76'MSL.

Rwy30,multiplepoles,building,andterrainbeginning

66'fromdepartureendofrunway,228'leftof

up to 65' MSL.

AUBURN MUNI (AUN)

AMDT 1 10098 (FAA)

TAKE-OFFMINIMUMS:Rwy 7,300-1w/min.climbof

385' per NM to 2300, or 1100-3 for climb in visual

conditions.

DEPARTURE PROCEDURE:Rwy7, climbing left turn

MYV VOR/DME, then via MYV VOR/DME R-263 to

YUBBA INT before proceeding on course, or for climb

in visual conditions: cross Auburn Muni airport ator

MYV VOR/DME R-094 to MYV VOR/DME, then via

MYV VOR/DME R-263 to YUBBA INT before

proceeding on course. Rwy25, climbing right turnto

MYV VOR/DME, then via MYV VOR/DME R-263 to

YUBBAINTbeforeproceedingoncourse.

NOTE: Rwy 7, trees beginning 1117' from DER, 504'

rightofcenterline,upto40'AGL/1708'MSL.Pole1365'

from DER, 600' right of centerline, 59' AGL/1679' MSL.

Tree 3791' from DER, 700' right of centerline, 40' AGL/

1639' MSL. Rwy 25, tree 37' from DER, 479' left of

centerline,40'AGL/1528'MSL.Tree86'fromDER,461'

SIERRA L

TAKE-OFFMINIMUMS:Rwys7,12,16,NA.Rwys25,

30,34, 4000-2 or std.with a min. climb of 350' per NM to

9000.

DEPARTUREPROCEDURE:Rwys25,30,turnright.

Rwy34,turnleft,climbnorthwestboundto13000viaBIH

R-322toNIKOLInt.

BYRON,CA

BYRON

TAKE-OFFMINIMUMS: Rwy 23, NA-obstacles.

Rwy 30, 200-1 or std. with a min. climb of 240' per NM to

300. Alternatively,withstandardtake-offminimumsanda

normal200'/NMclimbgradient,take-offmustoccurno

laterthan2000'priortodepartureendofrunway.

DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: Rwy 5, climbing right turn

proceedingoncourse. Rwy12, climbingleftturnvia

VORTACbeforeproceedingoncourse. Rwy30,

R-250toECAVORTACbeforeproceedingoncourse.

NOTE: Rwy5,bush17'fromdepartureendofrunway,67'

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1-19 

BEALE AFB (KBAB) 

MARYSVILLE, CA. . . . . . . . . .ORIG, 09155 

DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: Rwy 15, Climb on a 

Rwy33, 

DER. 

TAKE-OFF OBSTACLES: Rwy 33, 

BECKWOURTH,CA 

NERVINO 

TAKE-OFF MINIMUMS: Rwys 7, 25, 3500-3 for climb in 

visual conditions. 

DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: Rwys 7, 25, for climb in 

visual conditions: cross Nervino Airport at or above 

8300before proceeding oncourse. 

NOTE: Rwy 7,road58' from departure end of runway, 

469' right of centerline, 15' AGL/4920' MSL. Pole 310' 

from departure end ofrunway,522'rightof centerline, 

49' AGL/4925' MSL. Pole 528' from departure end f 

centerline, 

AGL/225' Multiple poles beginning 949' 

from departure end of runway, 28' right of centerline, up 

to 42' AGL/103' MSL. 

CHICO, CA 

CHICO MUNI 

DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: Rwys 13L/R, climbing 

right turn. Rwys 31L/R,climbing left turn. All aircraft, 

climb via CIC R-205 to JINGO Int. Aircraft departing 

inbound)to depart JINGO Int at orabove 2800. 

CLOVERDALE, CA 

CLOVERDALE MUNI 

TAKE-OFF MINIMUMS: Rwy 14, 400-2 or std. with a 

min. climb of 280' per NM to 1500, then a min. climb of 

260' per NM to 3900. Rwy 32, NA. 

DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: Rwy 14, climb direct STS 

VOR/DME. Continue climb in holding pattern (NW 

23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010

23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010 

SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE 

L2 

TAKE-OFFMINIMUMS AND (OBSTACLE)DEPARTUREPROCEDURES 10266 

AUBURN,CA BISHOP, CA 

EASTERN RGN SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE 

Figure 1-18. Examples of takeoff minimums obstacle clearance. 

Figure 1-19. Part 25 turbine-powered, transport category airplane OEI actual (gross) takeoff flight path and OEI net takeoff flight path. 

Takeoff distance Takeoff flight path 

Acceleration 

One engine inoperative 

BR VEF V2 VFTO V1 VR VLOF 

Climb 

1,500 ft 

35 ft 

35 ft 

35 ft 

Regulatory 

performance 

reduction 

N 

Second 

segment 

Third 

segment 

Final 

segment 

First 

seg. 
 

 

 

are less than 200 feet above the DER elevation, within 1 NM 

of the runway end, and do not require increased takeoff 

minimums. The standard ROC to clear these obstacles 

would require a climb gradient greater than 200 ft/NM 

for a very short distance, only until the aircraft was 200 

feet above the DER. To eliminate publishing an excessive 

climb gradient, the obstacle above ground level (AGL)/ 

MSL height and location relative to the DER is noted in the 

Takeoff Minimums and (Obstacle) Departure Procedures 

section of a given TPP booklet. The purpose of this note 

is to identify the obstacle and alert the pilot to the height 

and location of the obstacle so they can be avoided. This 

can be accomplished in a variety of ways: 

•	 The pilot may be able to see the obstruction and 

maneuver around the obstacle(s) if necessary; 

•	 Early liftoff/climb performance may allow the aircraft 

to cross well above the obstacle(s); 

•	 If the obstacle(s) cannot be visually acquired during 

departure, preflight planning should take into account 

what turns or other maneuver(s) may be necessary 

immediately after takeoff to avoid the obstruction(s). 

These obstacles are especially critical to aircraft that do not 

lift off until close to the DER or which climb at the minimum 

rate. [Figure 1-18] 

One-Engine-Inoperative (OEI) Takeoff Obstacle 

Clearance Requirements 

Large and turbine-powered, multiengine transport 

category airplanes and commuter category airplanes 

operated under Part 121 or Part 135 have additional takeoff 

obstacle clearance requirements beyond the scope of the 

IFR departure procedure requirements addressed by TERPS. 

Part 25 transport category and Part 23 commuter category 

airplane certification rules define the one-engineinoperative (OEI) takeoff flight path, which is normally 

constructed from a series of segments beginning from 35 

feet above the runway surface at the end of the OEI takeoff 

distance and ending at a minimum height of 1,500 feet 

above the runway elevation. However, the OEI net takeoff 

flight path assessment may continue above 1,500 feet if 

necessary to ensure obstacle clearance. 

The actual, or gross, OEI flight path represents the vertical 

OEI climb profile that the aircraft has been demonstrated 

capable of achieving using takeoff procedures developed 

for line operations based on the aircraft’s weight, 

configuration, and environmental conditions at the time 

of takeoff. The OEI net takeoff flight path represents the 

actual OEI takeoff flight path that has been degraded by 

an amount specified by the certification rules to provide 

a safety margin for expected variations under operational 

conditions. Subpart I of Part 121 and Part 135 require that 

the OEI net takeoff flight path be at least 35 feet above 

obstacles that are located within the prescribed lateral 

distance either side of the flight path The actual obstacle 

clearance capability, under optimum conditions after 

experiencing an engine failure on takeoff, is equal to the 

difference between gross and net flight path, plus the 

additional 35 feet. [Figure 1-19] 

Advisory Circular (AC) 120-91, Airport Obstacle Analysis, 

provides guidance and acceptable criteria for use in 

determining the safe lateral clearance from obstacles, 

when developing takeoff and initial climb out airport 

obstacle analyses and engine out obstacle avoidance 

procedures to comply with the intent of these regulatory 

requirements. Pilots departing an airport under IFR and 

operating under Part 121 or 135 are required by 14 CFR 

91.175(f )(4) to use an engine-inoperative takeoff obstacle 

clearance or avoidance procedure that assures compliance 

with the obstacle clearance requirements (subpart I) 

of those rules. The assessment of OEI takeoff obstacle 

clearance is separate and independent of the IFR departure 

procedure and associated all-engines-operating climb 

gradient requirements. While the Part 91 operating rules 

governing large, commuter, and turbine-powered aircraft 

do not require the use of an OEI takeoff obstacle clearance 

or avoidance procedure, such use is encouraged for Part 

91 operators of these aircraft. 

Unlike TERPS, which assesses obstacle clearance beginning 

at the DER, the OEI net takeoff flight path obstacle 

assessment begins at the point where the aircraft reaches 

35 feet above the runway at the end of the OEI takeoff 

distance. Therefore, the OEI net takeoff flight path 

assessment may begin before the DER allowing for the 

use of a portion of the runway for the OEI climb. The OEI 

net takeoff flight path obstacle clearance assessment must 

also account for clearance of the low, close-in obstacles 

that are noted on the IFR departure procedure, but are not 

necessarily cleared when complying with the TERPS-based 

IFR climb gradient. 

The OEI net takeoff flight path is unique for each aircraft 

type and is assessed on each takeoff for the required 

obstacle clearance directly against those obstacles located 

beneath the OEI flight track and within the prescribed 

lateral distance from the flight path centerline. TERPS, on 

the other hand, provides a required climb gradient that 

represents a surface that the aircraft’s all-engines-operating 

climb profile must remain above throughout the IFR 

climb until reaching the en route environment. These two 

methods of assessing obstacle clearance are necessarily 

quite different. TERPS is used by the procedure designer 

1-20 
Sample Aircraft 

Engine Type 

Flaps 0 

KAPA/APA 

Denver - Centennial 

Runway Conditions: Dry 

Elevation = 5883 ft 

OAT 

F C 

N1 A/1 

ON 

SEC. 

SEG. 

CLIMB 

10 17L 17R 28 35L 35R 

Max Structural Takeoff Weight Limit = 28000 

Runways - lbs 

50 

52 

54 

55 

57 

59 

61 

63 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

98.91 

98.73 

98.56 

98.47 

98.29 

98.11 

97.95 

97.80 

97.11 21880 R 

21750 R 

21620 R 

21550 R 

21420 R 

21290 R 

21160 R 

21020 R 

29380 C 

29340 C 

29190 C 

29100 C 

28950 O 

28790 O 

28620 O 

28450 O 

25250 R 

25070 R 

24900 R 

24820 R 

24650 R 

24490 R 

24320 R 

24160 R 

26690 R 

26500 R 

26310 R 

26210 R 

26020 R 

25830 R 

25650 R 

25460 R 

29460 C 

29460 C 

29460 C 

29460 C 

29460 C 

29460 C 

29360 C 

29210 C 

21210 R 

21090 R 

20950 R 

20890 R 

20750 R 

20620 R 

20490 R 

20360 R 

29000 

29000 

29000 

29000 

29000 

29000 

29000 

29000 

64 

66 

68 

70 

18 

19 

20 

21 

97.72 

97.56 

97.40 

97.20 

20960 R 

20820 R 

20670 R 

20530 R 

28360 O 

28170 O 

27980 O 

27720 O 

24080 R 

23930 R 

23770 R 

23610 R 

25370 R 

25180 R 

25000 R 

24810 R 

29120 C 

28870 R 

28630 R 

28380 R 

20300 R 

20170 R 

20030 R 

19880 R 

29000 

29000 

28930 

28630 

72 

73 

75 

77 

22 

23 

24 

25 

97.00 

96.90 

96.70 

96.50 

20380 R 

20310 R 

20170 R 

20020 R 

27460 O 

27370 R 

27110 R 

26860 R 

23420 O 

23340 O 

23170 O 

22990 O 

24630 R 

24530 R 

24350 R 

24150 R 

28110 R 

27970 R 

27690 R 

27390 R 

19740 R 

19670 R 

19530 R 

19390 R 

28330 

28180 

27870 

27570 

79 

81 

82 

84 

26 

27 

28 

29 

96.24 

95.97 

95.84 

95.58 

19880 R 

19710 R 

19630 R 

19460 R 

26590 R 

26330 R 

26190 R 

25920 R 

22810 O 

22630 O 

22540 O 

22320 O 

23960 R 

23760 R 

23660 R 

23460 R 

27100 R 

26800 R 

26650 R 

26350 R 

19240 R 

19070 R 

18990 R 

18820 R 

27230 

26890 

26720 

26380 

86 

88 

90 

91 

30 

31 

32 

33 

95.31 

95.04 

94.77 

94.64 

19290 R 

19130 R 

18980 R 

18900 R 

25610 R 

25300 R 

24990 R 

24840 R 

22120 O 

21930 O 

21730 O 

21630 O 

23260 R 

23070 R 

22870 R 

22770 R 

26050 C 

25740 C 

25440 C 

25290 C 

18650 R 

18490 R 

0 R 

0 R 

26040 

25690 

25350 

25180 

93 

95 

34 

35 

94.37 

94.10 

18740 R 

18590 R 

24530 R 

24220 R 

21440 O 

21240 O 

22570 R 

22380 R 

24990 C 

24690 C 

0 R 

0 R 

24830 

24490 

RUNWAY DIM Length = ft 

Slope = % 

4800 

–0.62 

10002 

0.9 

7000 

0.93 

7000 

–0.93 

10002 

–0.9 

4800 

0.62 

---

---

LVLOFF ALT ft 7383 7383 7383 7383 7383 7383 ---

WIND CORR lbs/kt hw 

lbs/kt tw 

67 

N/A 

5 

–254 

31 

–227 

42 

–223 

4 

–131 

62 

N/A 

---

---

QNH lbs/.1"Hg > 29.92 

lbs/.1"Hg < 29.92 

75 

–87 

10 

–127 

85 

–99 

88 

–113 

5 

–114 

0 

–86 

0 

–123 

ANTI-ICE lbs –1210 –1400 –1480 –1180 –1690 –830 –70 

LIMIT CODES R = RUNWAY LIMIT O = OBSTACLE LIMIT B = BRAKE LIMIT C = CLIMB LIMIT 

DATE: 07/01/2011 FOR SAMPLE USE ONLY 

Figure 1-20. Airport/runway analysis example. 

1-21 
to determine a lateral path that is usable by a wide variety 

of aircraft types, and establishes a clearance plane that 

aircraft must be able to stay above to fly the procedure. A 

Part 25 transport category and Part 23 commuter category 

aircraft’s OEI takeoff flight path is established by or on 

behalf of the operator for a particular aircraft type and then 

limit weights are determined that assure clearance of any 

obstacles under that flight path (or within the prescribed 

lateral distance from the flight path centerline). 

It may be necessary for pilots and operators of these 

categories of aircraft to use the services of an aircraft 

performance engineer or airport/runway analysis service 

provider as means of compliance with the requirements 

of Part 121 subpart I, or Part 135 subpart I concerning 

OEI net takeoff flight obstacle clearance and takeoff field 

length requirements. [Figure 1-20] Airport/runway analysis 

involves the complex, usually computerized, computations 

of aircraft performance, using extensive airport/obstacle 

databases and terrain information. This yields maximum 

allowable takeoff and landing weights for particular 

aircraft/engine configurations for a specific airport, runway, 

and range of temperatures. The computations also consider 

flap settings, various aircraft characteristics, runway 

conditions, obstacle clearance, and weather conditions. 

Obstacle data also is available from these service providers 

for operators who desire to perform their own analysis 

using the OEI climb performance and flight path data 

furnished in the Airplane Flight Manual or when using an 

aircraft electronic performance program supplied by the 

manufacturer or other service provider. 

Airport/runway analysis is typically based on the 

assumption that the pilot will fly a straight-out departure 

following an engine failure on takeoff. However, when a 

straight-out departure is not practical or recommended, 

a special OEI turn procedure can be developed for each 

applicable runway. This OEI turn procedure may follow 

the path of a published IFR departure procedure or it 

may follow an independent path designed to avoid 

Figure 1-21. Graphic ODP/booklet front matter. 

1-22 
 

 

 

otherwise onerous obstacles and thereby maximize the 

allowable takeoff weight and payload. Graphic depiction 

of the OEI procedure is often available to give the pilot a 

pictorial representation of the special OEI procedure. An 

engine failure during takeoff is a non-normal condition; 

therefore, the actions taken by the pilot including the use 

of an OEI turn procedure takes precedence over noise 

abatement, air traffic, SIDs, DPs, and other normal operating 

considerations. 

It must be understood that the airport/runway analysis 

assesses obstacle clearance using the OEI net takeoff flight 

path data provided in the Airplane Flight Manual and the 

selected lateral obstacle assessment area. A takeoff weight 

limit provided on the analysis does not necessarily ensure 

compliance with the all-engines-operating climb gradient 

published on an IFR departure procedure even if the 

track of the OEI special procedure and the IFR departure 

procedure are identical. 

Categories of Departure Procedures 

There are two types of DPs: those developed to assist 

pilots in obstruction avoidance, known as ODPs, printed 

either textually or graphically, and those developed 

to communicate ATC clearances, SIDs, always printed 

graphically. 

Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODPs) 

The term ODP is used to define procedures that simply 

provide obstacle clearance. ODPs are only used for 

obstruction clearance and do not include ATC-related 

climb requirements. In fact, the primary emphasis of ODP 

design is to use the least restrictive route of flight to the 

en route structure or to facilitate a climb to an altitude 

that allows random (diverse) IFR flight, while attempting 

to accommodate typical departure routes. 

An ODP must be developed when obstructions penetrate 

the 40:1 departure OCS, as described in FAA Order 8260.3. 

Only one ODP will be established for a particular runway. 

This is considered the default IFR departure procedure for 

a given runway and is intended for pilot awareness and 

use in the absence of ATC radar vectors or SID assignment. 

Text is not published to allow an option to use a SID or 

alternate maneuver assigned by ATC (e.g., “Climb heading 

330 to 1200 before turning or use Manchester Departure” 

or “Turn right, climb direct ABC very high frequency (VHF) 

omnidirectional range (VOR) or as assigned by ATC.”). ODPs 

are textual in nature. However, due to the complex nature 

of some procedures, a visual presentation may be necessary 

for clarification and understanding. If the ODP is charted 

graphically, the chart itself includes the word “Obstacle” in 

parentheses in the title. Additionally, all newly-developed 

RNAV ODPs are issued in graphical form. 

All ODPs are listed in the front of the Aeronautical 

Information Services approach chart booklets under 

the heading Takeoff Minimums and Obstacle Departure 

Procedures. Each procedure is listed in alphabetical order 

by city and state. The ODP listing in the front of the booklet 

includes a reference to the graphic chart located in the main 

body of the booklet if one exists. [Figure 1-21] 

ODP Flight Planning Considerations 

ODPs are not assigned by ATC unless absolutely necessary 

to achieve aircraft separation. It is the pilot’s responsibility 

to determine if there is an ODP published for that airport. If a 

Part 91 pilot is not given a clearance containing an ODP, SID, 

or radar vectors and an ODP exists, compliance with such 

a procedure is the pilot’s choice. A graphic ODP may also 

be filed in an instrument flight plan by using the computer 

code included in the procedure title. As a technique, the 

pilot may enter “will depart (airport) (runway) via textual 

ODP” in the remarks section of the flight plan. Providing 

this information to the controller clarifies the intentions 

of the pilot and helps prevent a potential pilot/controller 

misunderstanding. If the ODP is not included in the pilot’s 

clearance, the pilot should inform ATC when an ODP is 

used for departure from a runway so that ATC can ensure 

appropriate traffic separation. 

During planning, pilots need to determine whether or 

not the departure airport has an ODP. Remember, an ODP 

can only be established at an airport that has instrument 

approach procedures (IAPs). An ODP may drastically affect 

the initial part of the flight plan. Pilots may have to depart 

at a higher than normal climb rate, or depart in a direction 

opposite the intended heading and maintain that for a 

period of time, any of which would require an alteration in 

the flight plan and initial headings. Considering the forecast 

weather, departure runways, and existing ODP, plan the 

flight route, climb performance, and fuel burn accordingly 

to compensate for the departure procedure. 

Additionally, when close-in obstacles are noted in the 

Takeoff Minimums and (Obstacle) Departure Procedures 

section, it may require the pilot to take action to avoid these 

obstacles. Consideration must be given to decreased climb 

performance from an inoperative engine or to the amount 

of runway used for takeoff. Aircraft requiring a short takeoff 

roll on a long runway may have little concern. On the other 

hand, airplanes that use most of the available runway for 

takeoff may not have the standard ROC when climbing at 

the normal 200 ft/NM. 

Another factor to consider is the possibility of an 

1-23 
NOT FOR NAVIGATION

SC-5, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010

Figure 1-22. SID chart. 

SC-5, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010

SC-5, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010 

SC-5, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010 

1-24 
Figure 1-23. Transition routes as depicted on SID. 

1-25 
 

 

 

 

 

 

engine failure during takeoff and departure. During the 

preflight planning, use the aircraft performance charts 

to determine if the aircraft can still maintain the required 

climb performance. For high performance aircraft, an 

engine failure may not impact the ability to maintain the 

prescribed climb gradients. Aircraft that are performance 

limited may have diminished capability and may be unable 

to maintain altitude, let alone complete a climb to altitude. 

Based on the performance expectations for the aircraft, 

construct an emergency plan of action that includes 

emergency checklists and the actions to take to ensure 

safety in this situation. 

Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs) 

A SID is an ATC-requested and developed departure route, 

typically used in busy terminal areas. It is designed at the 

request of ATC in order to increase capacity of terminal 

airspace, effectively control the flow of traffic with minimal 

communication, and reduce environmental impact 

through noise abatement procedures. 

While obstacle protection is always considered in SID 

routing, the primary goal is to reduce ATC/pilot workload 

while providing seamless transitions to the en route 

structure. ATC clearance must be received prior to flying 

a SID. SIDs also provide additional benefits to both the 

airspace capacity and the airspace users by reducing 

radio congestion, allowing more efficient airspace use, 

and simplifying departure clearances. All of the benefits 

combine to provide effective, efficient terminal operations, 

thereby increasing the overall capacity of the NAS. 

If you cannot comply with a SID, if you do not possess the 

charted SID procedure, or if you simply do not wish to 

use SIDs, include the statement “NO SIDs” in the remarks 

section of your flight plan. Doing so notifies ATC that they 

cannot issue you a clearance containing a SID, but instead 

will clear you via your filed route to the extent possible, 

or via a Preferential Departure Route (PDR). It should be 

noted that SID usage not only decreases clearance delivery 

time, but also greatly simplifies your departure, easing you 

into the IFR structure at a desirable location and decreases 

your flight management load. While you are not required 

to depart using a SID, it may be more difficult to receive 

an “as filed” clearance when departing busy airports that 

frequently use SID routing. 

SIDs are always charted graphically and are located in the 

TPP after the last approach chart for an airport. The SID 

may be one or two pages in length, depending on the size 

of the graphic and the amount of space required for the 

departure description. Each chart depicts the departure 

route, navigational fixes, transition routes, and required 

altitudes. The departure description outlines the particular 

procedure for each runway. [Figure 1-22] 

Transition Routes 

Charted transition routes allow pilots to transition from the 

end of the basic SID to a location in the en route structure. 

Typically, transition routes fan out in various directions 

from the end of the basic SID to allow pilots to choose 

the transition route that takes them in the direction of 

intended departure. A transition route includes a course, 

a minimum altitude, and distances between fixes on the 

route. When filing a SID for a specific transition route, 

include the transition in the flight plan, using the correct 

departure and transition code. ATC also assigns transition 

routes as a means of putting the flight on course to the 

destination. In any case, the pilot must receive an ATC 

clearance for the departure and the associated transition, 

and the clearance from ATC will include both the departure 

name and transition (e.g., Joe Pool Nine Departure, College 

Station Transition). [Figure 1-23] 

The SID is designed to allow the pilot to provide his or 

her own navigation with minimal radio communication. 

This type of procedure usually contains an initial set of 

departure instructions followed by one or more transition 

routes. A SID may include an initial segment requiring 

radar vectors to help the flight join the procedure, but the 

majority of the navigation remains the pilot’s responsibility. 

[Figure 1-24] 

A radar SID usually requires ATC to provide radar vectors 

from just after takeoff (ROC is based on a climb to 400 feet 

above the DER elevation before making the initial turn) 

until reaching the assigned route or a fix depicted on the 

SID chart. Radar SIDs do not include departure routes or 

transition routes because independent pilot navigation 

is not involved. The procedure sets forth an initial set of 

departure instructions that typically include an initial 

heading and altitude. ATC must have radar contact with 

the aircraft to be able to provide vectors. ATC expects 

you to immediately comply with radar vectors, and they 

expect you to notify them if you are unable to fulfill their 

request. ATC also expects you to make contact immediately 

if an instruction causes you to compromise safety due to 

obstructions or traffic. 

It is prudent to review radar SID charts prior to use because 

this type of procedure often includes nonstandard 

lost communication procedures. If you were to lose 

radio contact while being vectored by ATC, you would 

be expected to comply with the lost communication 

procedure as outlined on the chart, not necessarily those 

procedures outlined in the AIM. [Figure 1-25] 

1-26 
Figure 1-24. Example of a common SID at Denver, Colorado. 

1-27 
NOT FOR NAVIGATION

Initial departure instructions 

Lost communications procedure 

specific to this departure 

SW-1, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010 

SW-1, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010

En route chart reference 

Departure airport 

SW-1, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010 

SW-1, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010 

Figure 1-25. Example of a radar SID at Denver, Colorado. 

SID Flight Planning Considerations 

Take into consideration the departure paths included in 

the SIDs, and determine if you can use a standardized 

departure procedure. You have the opportunity to choose 

the SID that best suits your flight plan. During the flight 

planning phase, you can investigate each departure, 

and determine which procedure allows you to depart 

the airport in the direction of your intended flight. Also 

consider how a climb gradient to a specific altitude affects 

the climb time and fuel burn portions of the flight plan. 

Notes giving procedural requirements are listed on the 

graphic portion of a departure procedure, and they are 

mandatory in nature. [Figure 1-26] Mandatory procedural 

notes may include: 

• Aircraft equipment requirements (DME, ADF, etc.) 

• ATC equipment in operation (radar) 

• Minimum climb requirements 

• Restrictions for specific types of aircraft (turbojet only) 

• Limited use to certain destinations

Cautionary statements may also be included on the 

procedure to notify you of specific activity, but these are 

strictly advisory. [Figure 1-26] If you are unable to comply 

with a specific requirement, you must not file the procedure 

as part of your flight plan. If ATC assigns you a SID, you may 

1-28 
 

Figure 1-26. Departure procedure notes and cautionary statements. 

need to quickly recalculate your all-engines-operating 

performance numbers. If you cannot comply with the 

climb gradient in the SID, you should not accept a clearance 

for that SID and furthermore, you must not accept the 

procedure if ATC assigns it. 

A clearance for a SID which contains published altitude 

restrictions may be issued using the phraseology “climb 

via.” Climb via is an abbreviated clearance that requires 

compliance with the procedure lateral path, associated 

speed and altitude restrictions along the cleared route or 

procedure. Expanded procedures for "Climb via" can be 

found in the AIM. 

ATC can assign SIDs or radar vectors as necessary for traffic 

management and convenience. To fly a SID, you must 

receive approval to do so in a clearance. In order to accept 

a clearance that includes a SID, you must have the charted 

1-29 
 

 

 

 

 

SID procedure in your possession at the time of departure. 

It is your responsibility as pilot in command to accept or 

reject the issuance of a SID by ATC. You must accept or 

reject the clearance based on: 

•	 The ability to comply with the required performance. 

•	 The ability to navigate to the degree of accuracy 

required for the procedure. 

•	 Possession of the charted SID procedure. 

•	 Personal understanding of the SID in its entirety. 

When you accept a clearance to depart using a SID or radar 

vectors, ATC is responsible for traffic separation. When 

departing with a SID, ATC expects you to fly the procedure as 

charted because the procedure design considers obstacle 

clearance. It is also expected that you will remain vigilant 

in scanning for traffic when departing in visual conditions. 

Furthermore, it is your responsibility to notify ATC if your 

clearance would endanger your safety or the safety of others. 

DPs are also categorized by equipment requirements 

as follows: 

•	 Non-RNAV DP—established for aircraft equipped 

with conventional avionics using ground-based 

NAVAIDs.These DPs may also be designed using dead 

reckoning navigation. Some flight management 

systems (FMS) are certified to fly a non-RNAV DP 

if the FMS unit accepts inputs from conventional 

avionics sources, such as DME, VOR, and localizer 

(LOC). These inputs include radio tuning and may 

be applied to a navigation solution one at a time or 

in combination. Some FMS provide for the detection 

and isolation of faulty navigation information. 

•	 RNAV DP—established for aircraft equipped with 

RNAV avionics (e.g., GPS, VOR/DME, DME/DME). 

Automated vertical navigation is not required, 

and all RNAV procedures not requiring GPS must 

be annotated with the note: “RADAR REQUIRED.” 

Prior to using TSO-C129 GPS equipment for RNAV 

departures, approach receiver autonomous integrity 

monitoring (RAIM) availability should be checked for 

that location. 

•	 Radar DP—radar may be used for navigation 

guidance for SID design. Radar SIDs are established 

when ATC has a need to vector aircraft on departure 

to a particular ATS Route, NAVAID, or fix. A fix may 

be a ground-based NAVAID, a waypoint, or defined 

by reference to one or more radio NAVAIDs. Not all 

fixes are waypoints since a fix could be a VOR or VOR/ 

DME, but all waypoints are fixes. Radar vectors may 

also be used to join conventional or RNAV navigation 

SIDs. SIDs requiring radar vectors must be annotated 

“RADAR REQUIRED.” 

Area Navigation (RNAV) Departures 

Historically, departure procedures were built around 

existing ground-based technology and were typically 

designed to accommodate lower traffic volumes. Often, 

departure and arrival routes use the same NAVAIDs creating 

1.0 NM 1.0 NM 

2.0 NM 2.0 NM 

Path centerline 

Figure 1-27. RNP departure levels. 

1-30 
Figure 1-28. Flight plan equipment codes (continued on next page). 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E1 

E2 

E3 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J1 

J2 

J3 

J4 

J5 

J6 

J7 

K 

L 

M1 

M2 

M3 

O 

P1 - P9 

R 

T 

U 

V 

W 

X 

Y 

Z 

GBAS landing system 

LPV (APV with SBAS) 

LORAN C 

DME 

FMC WPR ACARS 

D-FIS ACARS 

PDC ACARS 

ADF 

GNSS (See Note 2) 

HF RTF 

Intertial Navigation 

CPDLC ATN VDL Mode 2 (See Note 3) 

CPDLC FANS 1/A HFDL 

CPDLC FANS 1/A VDL Mode 4 

CPDLC FANS 1/A VDL Mode 2 

CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (INMARSAT) 

CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (MTSAT) 

CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM (Iridium) 

MLS 

ILS 

OmegaATC RTF SATCOM 

ATC RTF (MTSAT) 

ATC RTF (Iridium) 

VOR 

Reserved for RCP 

PBN approved (see Note 4) 

TACAN 

UHF RTF 

VHF RTF 

RVSM approved 

MNPS approved 

VHF with 8.33 kHz channel spacing capability 

Other equipment carried or other capabilities 

(see Note 5) 

ICAO Flight Plan Equipment Codes 

Suffix 

/X 

/T 

/U 

/D 

/B 

/A 

/M 

/N 

/P 

/Y 

/C 

/I 

/E 

/F 

/G 

/R 

/J 

/K 

/L 

/Q 

/W 

Equipment Capability 

NO DME 

No transponder 

Transponder with no Mode C 

Transponder with Mode C 

DME 

No transponder 

Transponder with no Mode C 

Transponder with Mode C 

TACAN ONLY 

No transponder 

Transponder with no Mode C 

Transponder with Mode C 

AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) 

LORAN, VOR/DME, or INS with no transponder 

LORAN, VOR/DME, or INS, transponder with no 

Mode C 

LORAN, VOR/DME, or INS, transponder with 

Mode C 

ADVANCED RNAV WITH TRANSPONDER AND 

MODE C (If an aircraft is unable to operate with a 

transponder and/or Mode C, it will revert to the 

appropriate code listed above under Area 

Navigation.) 

Flight Management System (FMS) with DME/DME 

and IRU position updating 

Flight Management System (FMS) with DME/DME 

position updating 

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), 

including GPS or WAAS, with en route and 

terminal capability. 

Required Navigational Performance (RNP). The 

aircraft meets the RNP type prescribed for the 

route segment(s), route(s), and/or area concerned. 

Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM). 

Prior to conducting RVSM operations within the 

U.S., the operator must obtain authorization from 

the FAA or from the responsible authority, as 

appropriate. 

/E with RVSM 

/F with RVSM 

/G with RVSM 

/R with RVSM 

RVSM 

FAA Flight Plan Aircraft Suffixes 

Radio communication, navigation and approach 

aid equipment and capabilities 

“N” if no COM/NAV/approach aid equipment for the route to be 

flown is carried, or the equipment is unserviceable, OR “S” if standard 

COM/NAV/ approach aid equipment for the route to be flown is 

carried and serviceable (see note 1), AND/OR INSERT one or more of 

the following letters to indicate the serviceable COM/NAV/approach 

aid equipment and capabilities available: 

Any alphanumeric characters not indicated above are reserved. 

Effective September 1, 2005. 

1-31 
Transponder - Mode A (4 digits - 4,096 codes) 

Transponder - Mode A (4 digits - 4,096 codes) and 

Mode C 

Transponder—Mode S, including aircraft identification, 

pressure-altitude and extended squitter (ADS-B) 

capability 

Transponder—Mode S, including aircraft identification, 

pressure-altitude and enhanced surveillance capability 

Transponder—Mode S, including aircraft identification, 

but no pressure-altitude capability 

Transponder—Mode S, including aircraft identification, 

pressure-altitude, extended squitter (ADS-B) and 

enhanced surveillance capability 

Transponder—Mode S, including pressure-altitude, but 

no aircraft identification capability 

Transponder—Mode S, including both pressure altitude 

and aircraft identification capability 

Transponder — Mode S with neither aircraft 

identification nor pressure-altitude capability 

ADS-B with dedicated 1090 MHz ADS-B “out” capability 

ADS-B with dedicated 1090 MHz ADS-B “out” and “in” 

capability 

ADS-B “out” capability using UAT 

ADS-B “out” and “in” capability using UAT 

ADS-B “out” capability using VDL Mode 4 

ADS-B “out” and “in” capability using VDL Mode 4 

ICAO Flight Plan Equipment Codes 

Surveillance equipment and capabilities 

SSR Modes A and C 

SSR Modes S 

ADS-B 

INSERT N if no surveillance equipment for the route to be flown 

is carried, or the equipment is unserviceable, OR INSERT one or 

more of the following descriptors, to a maximum of 20 characters, 

to describe the serviceable surveillance equipment carried and/or 

capabilities on board: 

Note: Enhanced surveillance capability is the ability of the aircraft 

to down-link aircraft derived data via a Mode S transponder. 

A 

C 

E 

H 

I 

L 

P 

S 

X 

B1 

B2 

U1 

U2 

V1 

V2 

Note 1 

Note 2 

Note 3 

Note 4 

Note 5 

Note 6 

Note 7 

Note 8 

Note 9 

Note 10 

Note 11 

If the letter S is used, standard equipment is considered 

to be VHF RTF, VOR and ILS, unless another combination is prescribed by the appropriate ATS authority. 

If the letter G is used, the types of external GNSS 

augmentation, if any, are specified in Item 18 following 

the indicator NAV/ and separated by a space. 

See RTCA/EUROCAE Interoperability Requirements 

Standard For ATN Baseline 1 (ATN B1 INTEROP Standard 

DO-280B/ED-110B) for data link services air traffic 

control clearance and information/air traffic control 

communications management/air traffic control 

microphone check. 

Information on navigation capability is provided to 

ATC for clearance and routing purposes. 

If the letter Z is used, specify in Item 18 the other 

equipment carried or other capabilities, preceded 

by COM/, NAV/ and/or DAT, as appropriate. 

If the letter R is used, the performance based navigation levels that can be met are specified in Item 18 

following the indicator PBN/. Guidance material on the 

application of performance based navigation to a 

specific route segment, route or area is contained in 

the Performance-Based Navigation Manual (Doc 9613). 

RNAV- equipped aircraft capable of flying RNAV SIDs, 

putting “NO SID” in the remarks section will not always 

result in a clearance via a Preferential Departure Route 

(PDR). The Pilot/Dispatcher must amend Field 18 NAV 

from D1 to D0 and remove PBRN RNAV1 Code (D1-D4). 

If a RNAV DP is filed, an ICAO flight plan must be used. 

In Field 18, Pilots/Dispatchers must file a D1 or D2 

depending on the RNAV DP. Additionally, Field 18 

should include PBN/D1-D4 depending on the navigation update source. See AIM/PANS ATM 4444 for ICAO 

filing procedures. 

RNAV Q-routes require en route RNAV 2, corresponding 

NAV/E2 code and PBN/C1-C4 based on navigation 

system update source. 

If an aircraft does not meet the requirements for RVSM, 

then the W filed in ICAO flight plan Field 10A must be 

removed and STS/NONRVSM must be annotated in 

Field 18. 

Filing requirements for RNAV STARS. Field 18 of the 

ICAO flight plan must have a NAV/A1 or A2 assigned to 

the RNAV STAR. Additionally, PBN/D1-D4 for RNAV1 or 

C1-C4 for RNAV2 should be filed. If unable to accept the 

RNAV STAR, the flight plan must be amended to change 

the NAV/A1 or A2 to A0. 

D1 ADS-C with FANS 1/A capabilities 

G1 ADS-C with ATN capabilities 

Alphanumeric characters not indicated above are reserved. 

Example: ADE3RV/HB2U2V2G1 

Note: Additional surveillance application should be listed in 

Item 18 following the indicator SUR/ . 

D1 

G1 

NOTE 

Figure 1-28. Flight plan equipment codes (continued). 

1-32 
 

 

 

 

 

 

interdependent, capacity diminishing routes. RNAV is a 

method of navigation that permits aircraft operation on 

any desired flight path within the coverage of ground- or 

spaced- based NAVAIDs or within the limits of the capability 

of self-contained aids or a combination of these. In the 

future, there will be an increased dependence on the 

use of RNAV in lieu of routes defined by ground-based 

NAVAIDs. As a part of the evolving RNAV structure, the 

FAA has developed departure procedures for pilots flying 

aircraft equipped with some type of RNAV technology. 

RNAV allows for the creation of new departure routes 

that are independent of present fixes and NAVAIDs. RNAV 

routing is part of the National Airspace Redesign (NAR) and 

is expected to reduce complexity and increase efficiency 

of terminal airspace. 

When new RNAV departure procedures are designed, 

they will require minimal vectoring and communications 

between pilots and ATC. Usually, each departure procedure 

includes position, time, and altitude, which increase 

the ability to predict what the pilot will actually do. 

RNAV departure procedures have the ability to increase 

the capacity of terminal airspace by increasing ontime departures, airspace utilization, and improved 

predictability. 

All public RNAV SIDs and graphic ODPs are RNAV 1. These 

procedures generally start with an initial RNAV or heading 

leg near the departure end runway. In addition, these 

procedures require system performance currently met 

by GPS, DME/DME/Inertial Reference Unit (IRU) RNAV 

systems that satisfy the criteria discussed in AC 90-100, U.S. 

Terminal and En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations. 

RNAV departures are identifiable by the inclusion of the 

term RNAV in the title of the departure. From a required 

navigation performance (RNP) standpoint, RNAV departure 

routes are designed with 1 or 2 NM performance standards 

as listed below. This means you as the pilot and your aircraft 

equipment must be able to maintain the aircraft within 1 

or 2 NM either side of route centerline. [Figure 1-27] 

•	 RNAV 1 procedures require that the aircraft’s total 

system error remain bounded by ±1 NM for 95 

percent of the total flight time. 

•	 RNAV 2 requires a total system error of not more 

than 2 NM for 95 percent of the total flight time. 

RNP is RNAV with on-board monitoring and alerting; RNP is 

also a statement of navigation performance necessary for 

operation within defined airspace. RNP 1 (in-lieu-of RNAV 

1) is used when a DP that contains a constant radius to a 

fix (RF) leg or when surveillance (radar) monitoring is not 

desired for when DME/DME/IRU is used. These procedures 

are annotated with a standard note: “RNP 1.” 

If unable to comply with the requirements of an RNAV 

or RNP procedure, pilots need to advise ATC as soon as 

possible. For example, “N1234, failure of GPS system, 

unable RNAV, request amended clearance.” Pilots are not 

authorized to fly a published RNAV or RNP procedure unless 

it is retrievable by the procedure name from the navigation 

database and conforms to the charted procedure. No other 

modification of database waypoints or creation of userdefined waypoints on published RNAV or RNP procedures 

is permitted, except to change altitude and/or airspeed 

waypoint constraints to comply with an ATC clearance/ 

instruction, or to insert a waypoint along the published 

route to assist in complying with an ATC instruction. For 

example, “Climb via the WILIT departure except cross 30 

north of CHUCK at/ or above FL 210.” This is limited only 

to systems that allow along track waypoint construction. 

Pilots of aircraft utilizing DME/DME for primary navigation 

updating should ensure any required DME stations are in 

service as determined by NOTAM, ATIS, or ATC advisory. 

DME/DME navigation system updating may require specific 

DME facilities to meet performance standards. Based on 

DME availability evaluations at the time of publication, 

current DME coverage is not sufficient to support DME/DME 

RNAV operations everywhere without IRU augmentation or 

use of GPS. [Figure 1-28] DP chart notes may also include 

operational information for certain types of equipment, 

systems, and performance requirements, in addition to 

the type of RNAV departure procedure. 

While operating on RNAV segments, pilots are encouraged 

to use the flight director in lateral navigation mode. RNAV 

terminal procedures may be amended by ATC issuing radar 

vectors and/or clearances direct to a waypoint. Pilots should 

avoid premature manual deletion of waypoints from their 

active “legs” page to allow for rejoining procedures. While 

operating on RNAV segments, pilots operating /R aircraft 

should adhere to any flight manual limitation or operating 

procedure required to maintain the RNP value specified for 

the procedure. In 2008, the FAA implemented the use of 

en route host automation ICAO flight plan (FP) processing 

for requesting assignment of RNAV SID, Standard Terminal 

Arrivals (STARs), or RNAV routes U.S. domestic airspace. 

This is part of a risk reduction strategy for introduction of 

the En Route Automation Modernization (ERAM) system in 

October 2008. ERAM also will use ICAO FP processing and as 

a result aircrews should be aware that as the FAA updates to 

ERAM the standard FAA flight plan equipment suffix codes 

will change to the ICAO flight plan equipment suffix codes. 

For procedures requiring GPS and/or aircraft approvals 

requiring GPS, if the navigation system does not 

automatically alert the flight crew of a loss of GPS, aircraft 

operators must develop procedures to verify correct GPS 

1-33 
Figure 1-29. Examples of RNAV SID. 

1-34 
Figure 1-30. Examples of RNAV ODP. 

1-35 
 

 

NOT FOR NAVIGATION

A fly-over (FO) waypoint precludes any turn until the waypoint is overflown. 

A fly-by (FB) waypoint requires the use of turn

anticipation to avoid overshooting the next segment. 

Figure 1-31. Fly-over and fly-by waypoints. 

operation. If not equipped with GPS, or for multi-sensor 

systems with GPS that do not alert upon loss of GPS, aircraft 

must be capable of navigation system updating using DME/ 

DME or DME/DME/ IRU for type 1 and 2 procedures. AC 90­

100 may be used as operational guidance for RNAV ODPs. 

Pilots of FMS-equipped aircraft who are assigned an RNAV 

DP procedure and subsequently receive a change of runway, 

transition, or procedure, must verify that the appropriate 

changes are loaded and available for navigation. [Figures 

1-29 and 1-30] 

Additionally, new waypoint symbols are used in conjunction 

with RNAV charts. There are two types of waypoints 

currently in use: fly-by (FB) and fly-over (FO). A FB waypoint 

typically is used in a position at which a change in the course 

of procedure occurs. Charts represent them with fourpointed stars. This type of waypoint is designed to allow 

you to anticipate and begin your turn prior to reaching the 

waypoint, thus providing smoother transitions. Conversely, 

RNAV charts show a FO waypoint as a four-pointed star 

enclosed in a circle. This type of waypoint is used to denote 

a missed approach point, a missed approach holding 

point, or other specific points in space that must be flown 

over. [Figure 1-31] Pilots should not change any database 

waypoint type from a FB to FO, or vice versa. 

There are specific requirements; however, that must be met 

before using RNAV procedures. Every RNAV departure chart 

lists general notes and may include specific equipment and 

performance requirements, as well as the type of RNAV 

departure procedure in the chart plan view. New aircraft 

equipment suffix codes are used to denote capabilities for 

advanced RNAV navigation for flight plan filing purposes. 

[Figure 1-32] 

SID Altitudes 

SID altitudes can be charted in four different ways. The 

first are mandatory altitudes, the second, minimum 

altitudes, the third, maximum altitudes and the fourth is a 

combination of minimum and maximum altitudes or also 

referred to as block altitudes. Below are examples of how 

each will be shown on a SID chart. 

• Mandatory altitudes – 5500 

• Minimum altitudes – 2300 

• Maximum altitudes – 3300 

1-36 
 

 

 

 

 

NOT FOR NAVIGATION

Aircraft system operation requirements 

Figure 1-32. Operation requirements for RNAV. 

• Combination of minimum and maximum – 7000 

4600 

Some SIDs may still have “(ATC)” adjacent to a crossing 

altitude as shown in Figure 1-33 which implies that the 

crossing altitude is there to support an ATC requirement. 

A new charting standard has begun a process to remove, 

over a period of time, the ATC annotation. The Cowboy 

Four Departure (RNAV) shown in Figure 1-34 depicts the 

new charting standard without ATC annotations. When 

necessary, ATC may amend or delete SID crossing altitude 

restrictions; when doing so, ATC assumes responsibility 

for obstacle clearance until the aircraft is re-established 

laterally and vertically on the published SID route. 

Pilot Responsibility for Use of RNAV Departures 

RNAV usage brings with it multitudes of complications 

as it is being implemented. It takes time to transition, 

to disseminate information, and to educate current 

and potential users. As a current pilot using the NAS, 

you need to have a clear understanding of the aircraft 

equipment requirements for operating in a given RNP 

environment. You must understand the type of navigation 

system installed in your aircraft, and furthermore, you 

must know how your system operates to ensure that 

you can comply with all RNAV requirements. Operational 

information should be included in your AFM or its 

supplements. Additional information concerning how 

to use your equipment to its fullest capacity, including 

“how to” training, may be gathered from your avionics 

manufacturer. If you are in doubt about the operation of 

your avionics system and its ability to comply with RNAV 

requirements, contact the FAA directly through your local 

Flight Standards District Office (FSDO). RNAV departure 

procedures are being developed at a rapid pace to provide 

RNAV capabilities at all airports. With every chart revision 

cycle, new RNAV departures are being added for small 

and large airports. These departures are flown in the same 

manner as traditional navigation-based departures; pilots 

are provided headings, altitudes, navigation waypoint, 

and departure descriptions. RNAV SIDs are found in the 

TPP with traditional departure procedures. 

1-37 
NOT FOR NAVIGATION

SW-4, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010 

SW-4, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010 

Figure 1-33. Crossing altitude is there to support an ATC requirement. 

Radar Departures 

A radar departure is another option for departing an airport 

on an IFR flight. You might receive a radar departure if the 

airport does not have an established departure procedure, 

if you are unable to comply with a departure procedure, or 

if you request “No SIDs” as a part of your flight plan. Expect 

ATC to issue an initial departure heading if you are being 

radar vectored after takeoff; however, do not expect to 

be given a purpose for the specific vector heading. Rest 

assured that the controller knows your flight route and will 

vector you into position. By nature of the departure type, 

once you are issued your clearance, the responsibility for 

coordination of your flight rests with ATC, including the 

tower controller and, after handoff, the departure controller 

who will remain with you until you are released on course 

and allowed to “resume own navigation.”

For all practical purposes, a radar departure is the easiest 

type of departure to use. It is also a good alternative to a 

published departure procedure, particularly when none of 

the available departure procedures are conducive to your 

flight route. However, it is advisable to always maintain a 

detailed awareness of your location while you are being 

radar vectored by ATC. If for some reason radar contact is 

lost, you will be asked to provide position reports in order 

for ATC to monitor your flight progress. Also, ATC may 

release you to “resume own navigation” after vectoring you 

off course momentarily for a variety of reasons, including 

weather or traffic. 

Upon initial contact, state your aircraft or flight number, 

the altitude you are climbing through, and the altitude 

to which you are climbing. The controller will verify that 

your reported altitude matches that emitted by your 

transponder. If your altitude does not match, or if you 

do not have Mode C capabilities, you will be continually 

required to report your position and altitude for ATC. 

The controller is not required to provide terrain and 

obstacle clearance just because ATC has radar contact 

with your aircraft. It remains your responsibility until the 

controller begins to provide navigational guidance in 

the form of radar vectors. Once radar vectors are given, 

you are expected to promptly comply with headings and 

altitudes as assigned. Question any assigned heading if you 

believe it to be incorrect or if it would cause a violation of 

a regulation, then advise ATC immediately and obtain a 

revised clearance. 

1-38 
NOT FOR NAVIGATION

NOT FOR NAVIGATION

SW-4, XX XXX 2011 to XX XXX 2011 

SW-4, XX XXX 2011 to XX XXX 2011
 

SW-4, XX XXX 2011 to XX XXX 2011 

SW-4, XX XXX 2011 to XX XXX 2011
 

Figure 1-34. New charting standard without ATC annotations. 

1-39 
SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE 

MYVVOR/DME, then via MYVVOR/DME R-263 to

YUBBA INT beforeproceedingon course.

NOTE: Rwy 7, trees beginning 1117' from DER, 504'

rightof centerline,upto40'AGL/1708'MSL.Pole1365'

fromDER,600'rightof centerline,59'AGL/1679'MSL.

Tree 3791' from DER, 700' right of centerline, 40' AGL/

1639' MSL. Rwy 25, tree 37' from DER, 479' left of

centerline,40'AGL/1528'MSL.Tree86'fromDER,461'

rightof centerline,40'AGL/1532'MSL.Fence301'from

DER, 244' right of centerline, 8' AGL/1508' MSL. Trees

beginning 660' from DER, 249' right of centerline, up to

40'AGL/1559'MSL.

 o

normal200'/NMclimbgradient,take-offmustoccur no

laterthan2000'priortodepartureendofrunway.

DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: Rwy 5, climbing right turn

proceedingoncourse. Rwy12, climbingleftturnvia

VORTACbeforeproceedingoncourse. Rwy30,

R-250toECAVORTACbeforeproceedingoncourse.

NOTE: Rwy 5,bush 17' fromdepartureend of runway,67'

right of centerline, 6' AGL/52'MSL. Rwy 12,multiple

treesandbushbeginning240'fromdepartureend of

runway,286'rightof centerline,upto39'AGL/76'MSL.

Rwy30,multiplepoles,building,andterrainbeginning

66'fromdepartureendofrunway,228' leftof

up to 65' MSL. 

AUBURN MUNI (AUN)

AMDT 1 10098 (FAA)

TAKE-OFFMINIMUMS:Rwy7,300-1w/min. climb of

385' per NM to 2300, or 1100-3 for climb in visual

conditions.

DEPARTUREPROCEDURE:Rwy 7, climbing left turn

MYVVOR/DME, then via MYVVOR/DME R-263 to

YUBBAINTbeforeproceedingoncourse,orfor climb

invisual conditions: crossAuburnMuniairportat or

MYVVOR/DME R-094 to MYVVOR/DME, then via

MYVVOR/DME R-263 toYUBBAINT before

proceeding oncourse. Rwy 25, climbingrightturn to

MYVVOR/DME, then via MYVVOR/DME R-263 to

YUBBA INT beforeproceedingon course.

NOTE: Rwy 7, trees beginning 1117' from DER, 504'

rightof centerline,upto40'AGL/1708'MSL.Pole1365'

fromDER,600'rightof centerline, 59'AGL/1679'MSL.

Tree 3791' from DER, 700' right of centerline, 40' AGL/

1639' MSL. Rwy 25, tree 37' from DER, 479' left of

centerline,40'AGL/1528'MSL.Tree86'fromDER,461'

SIERRA L

TAKE-OFFMINIMUMS:Rwys7,12,16,NA.Rwys25,

30,34, 4000-2 or std. with a min. climb of 350' perNM to

9000.

DEPARTUREPROCEDURE:Rwys25,30,turnright.

Rwy34,turnleft,climbnorthwestbound to 13000 viaBIH

R-322toNIKOLInt.

BYRON, CA

BYRON

TAKE-OFF MINIMUMS: Rwy 23, NA-obstacles.

 Rwy 30, 200-1 or std. with a min. climb of 240' per NM to

300. Alternatively,with standard take-off minimumsand a

normal200'/NMclimbgradient,take-offmustoccur no

laterthan2000'priortodepartureendofrunway.

DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: Rwy 5, climbing right turn

proceedingoncourse. Rwy12, climbingleftturnvia

VORTACbeforeproceedingoncourse. Rwy30,

R-250toECAVORTACbeforeproceedingoncourse.

NOTE: Rwy 5,bush 17' fromdepartureend of runway,67'

Diverse vector areas allow for the maneuvering 

of aircraft below the established minimum 

vectoring altitude for a particular airport. 

MVA 

Diverse Departure Criteria is used to 

identify obstacles in the departure path. 

3 NM 

Figure 1-35. Diverse vector area establishment criteria. 

L2 

TAKE-OFFMINIMUMSAND(OBSTACLE) DEPARTURE PROCEDURES 10266 

AUBURN,CA BISHOP, CA 

EASTERN RGN centerline, 

BEALEAFB(KBAB) AGL/225' Multiple poles beginning 949' 

MARYSVILLE, CA. . . . . . . . . .ORIG, 09155 fromdepartureendofrunway,28'rightof centerline, up 

DEPARTUREPROCEDURE:Rwy15,Climbon a to 42' AGL/103'MSL. 

Rwy33, 

CHICO, CA DER. CHICO MUNI 

TAKE-OFFOBSTACLES:Rwy33, DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: Rwys13L/R,climbing 

right turn.Rwys31L/R,climbing left turn. All aircraft, 

climb via CIC R-205 to JINGO Int. Aircraft departing 

BECKWOURTH, CA 

NERVINO inbound)todepartJINGOIntatorabove2800. 

TAKE-OFF MINIMUMS: Rwys 7, 25, 3500-3 for climb in 

visualconditions. CLOVERDALE, CA 

DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: Rwys 7, 25, for climb in CLOVERDALE MUNI visual conditions: crossNervino Airport at or above TAKE-OFF MINIMUMS: Rwy 14, 400-2 or std. with a 8300beforeproceedingoncourse. min. climb of 280' per NM to 1500, then a min. climb of NOTE: Rwy 7,road58'fromdepartureendofrunway, 260'perNMto3900. Rwy 32, NA. 469'rightof centerline, 15'AGL/4920' MSL. Pole310' DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: Rwy 14, climb direct STS fromdepartureend of runway, 522' right of centerline, VOR/DME. Continue climb in holding pattern (NW 49'AGL/4925'MSL. Pole 528'fromdepartureend f 

Figure 1-36. Examples of takeoff minimums obstacle clearance. 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010

 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010 

1-40 
NOT FOR NAVIGATION

NE-1, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010

NE-1, 23 SEP 2010 to 21 OCT 2010 

Procedure designed for noise abatement purposes 

Figure 1-37. Noise abatement SID. 

1-41 
 

 

 

 

Diverse Vector Area 

ATC may establish a minimum vectoring altitude (MVA) 

around certain airports. This altitude, based on terrain and 

obstruction clearance, provides controllers with minimum 

altitudes to vector aircraft in and around a particular 

location. However, at times, it may be necessary to vector 

aircraft below this altitude to assist in the efficient flow of 

departing traffic. For this reason, an airport may have an 

established Diverse Vector Area (DVA). This DVA may be 

established below the MVA or Minimum IFR Altitude (MIA) 

in a radar environment at the request of Air Traffic. This 

type of DP meets the TERPs criteria for diverse departures, 

obstacles and terrain avoidance in which random radar 

vectors below the MVA/MIA may be issued to departing 

traffic. 

The existence of a DVA will be noted in the Takeoff 

Minimums and Obstacle Departure Procedures section of 

the U.S. Terminal Procedure Publication (TPP). The Takeoff 

Departure procedure will be listed first, followed by any 

applicable DVA. Pilots should be aware that Air Traffic 

facilities may utilize a climb gradient greater than the 

standard 200 ft/NM within a DVA. This information will be 

identified in the DVA text for pilot evaluation against the 

aircraft's performance. Pilots should note that the DVA 

has been assessed for departures which do not follow a 

specified ground track, but will remain within the specified 

area. ATC may also vector an aircraft off a previously 

assigned DP. In all cases, the minimum 200 ft/NM climb 

gradient is assumed unless a higher is specified on the 

departure, and obstacle clearance is not provided by ATC 

until the controller begins to provide navigational guidance 

(vectors). Lastly, pilots should understand ATC instructions 

take precedence over an ODP [Figure 1-35]. 

Visual Climb Over Airport (VCOA) 

A visual climb over airport (VCOA) is a departure option for 

an IFR aircraft, operating in VMC equal to or greater than the 

specified visibility and ceiling, to visually conduct climbing 

turns over the airport to the published "climb-to" altitude 

from which to proceed with the instrument portion of the 

departure. A VCOA is a departure option developed when 

obstacles farther than 3 SM from the airport require a CG 

of more than 200 ft/NM. 

These procedures are published in the Take-Off 

Minimums and (Obstacle) Departure Procedures section 

of the TPP. [Figure 1-36] Prior to departure, pilots are 

required to notify ATC when executing the VCOA. 

Noise Abatement Procedures 

As the aviation industry continues to grow and air traffic 

increases, so does the population of people and businesses 

around airports. As a result, noise abatement procedures 

have become commonplace at most of the nation’s airports. 

14 CFR Part 150 specifies the responsibilities of the FAA to 

investigate the recommendations of the airport operator in 

a noise compatibility program and approve or disapprove 

the noise abatement suggestions. This is a crucial step in 

ensuring that the airport is not unduly inhibited by noise 

requirements and that air traffic workload and efficiency 

are not significantly impacted, all while considering the 

noise problems addressed by the surrounding community. 

While most DPs are designed for obstacle clearance and 

workload reduction, there are some SIDs that are developed 

solely to comply with noise abatement requirements. 

Portland International Jetport is an example of an airport 

where a SID was created strictly for noise abatement 

purposes as noted in the DP. [Figure 1-36] Typically, noise 

restrictions are incorporated into the main body of the 

SID. These types of restrictions require higher departure 

altitudes, larger climb gradients, reduced airspeeds, and 

turns to avoid specific areas. Noise restrictions may also 

be evident during a radar departure. ATC may require you 

to turn away from your intended course or vector you 

around a particular area. While these restrictions may seem 

burdensome, it is important to remember that it is your 

duty to comply with written and spoken requests from ATC. 

Additionally, when required, departure instructions specify 

the actual heading to be flown after takeoff, as is the case in 

Figure 1-37 under the departure route description, “Climb 

via heading 112 degrees...” Some existing procedures specify, 

“Climb runway heading.”Over time, both of these departure 

instructions will be updated to read, “Climb heading 112 

degrees....” Runway heading is the magnetic direction that 

corresponds with the runway centerline extended (charted 

on the airport diagram), not the numbers painted on the 

runway. Pilots cleared to “fly or maintain runway heading” 

are expected to fly or maintain the published heading that 

corresponds with the extended centerline of the departure 

runway (until otherwise instructed by ATC), and are not to 

apply drift correction (e.g., RWY 11, actual magnetic heading 

of the runway centerline 112.2 degrees, “fly heading 112 

degrees”). In the event of parallel departures, this prevents 

a loss of separation caused by only one aircraft applying a 

wind drift. 

1-42 
 

 

 

 

 

Procedural Notes 

An important consideration to make during your flight 

planning is whether or not you are able to fly your chosen 

departure procedure as charted. 

DP Responsibilities 

Responsibility for the safe execution of DPs rests on the 

shoulders of both ATC and the pilot. Without the interest 

and attention of both parties, the IFR system cannot work 

in harmony, and achievement of safety is impossible. 

ATC, in all forms, is responsible for issuing clearances 

appropriate to the operations being conducted, assigning 

altitudes for IFR flight above the minimum IFR altitudes for 

a specific area of controlled airspace, ensuring the pilot has 

acknowledged the clearance or instructions, and ensuring 

the correct read back of instructions. Specifically related to 

departures, ATC is responsible for specifying the direction 

of takeoff or initial heading when necessary, obtaining pilot 

concurrence that the procedure complies with local traffic 

patterns, terrain, and obstruction clearance, and including 

DP as part of the ATC clearance when pilot compliance for 

separation is necessary. 

The pilot has a number of responsibilities when simply 

operating in conjunction with ATC or when using DPs under 

an IFR clearance: 

•	 Acknowledge receipt and understanding of an ATC i clearance. 

•	 Read back any part of a clearance that contains “hold f

short” instructions. 

i •	 Request clarification of clearances. 

c •	 Request an amendment to a clearance if it is c

unacceptable from a safety perspective. 

•	 Promptly comply with ATC requests. Advise ATC 

immediately if unable to comply with a clearance. 

•	 You are required to contact ATC if you are unable to 

comply with all-engines-operating climb gradients 

and climb rates. It is also expected that you are t

capable of maintaining the climb gradient outlined 

in either a standard or non-standard DP. If you 

cannot maintain a standard climb gradient or the f

climb gradient specified in an ODP, you must wait l

until you can depart under VMC. i

When planning for a departure, pilots should: 

•	 Consider the type of terrain and other obstructions in 

the vicinity of the airport. 

•	 Determine if obstacle clearance can be maintained 

visually, or if they need to make use of a DP. 

•	 Determine if an ODP or SID is available for the 

departure airport. 

•	 Determine what actions allow for a safe departure 

out of an airport that does not have any type of 

affiliated DPs. 

By simply complying with DPs in their entirety as published, 

obstacle clearance is guaranteed. Depending on the type 

of departure used, responsibility for terrain clearance 

and traffic separation may be shared between pilots and 

controllers. 

Departures From Tower-Controlled Airports 

Departing from a tower-controlled airport is relatively 

simple in comparison to departing from non-towered 

airport. Normally you request your IFR clearance through 

ground control or clearance delivery. Communication 

frequencies for the various controllers are listed on 

departure, approach, and airport charts, as well as the 

Chart Supplement (CS). At some airports, you may have 

the option of receiving a pre-taxi clearance. This program 

allows you to call ground control or clearance delivery no 

more than 10 minutes prior to beginning taxi operations 

and receive your IFR clearance. A pre-departure clearance 

(PDC) program that allows pilots to receive a clearance via 

data link from a dispatcher or a data link communications 

service provider, e.g. ARINC, is available for Part 121 and 

135 operators. A clearance is given to the dispatcher, who 

n turn, relays it to the crew, enabling the crew to bypass 

communication with clearance delivery, thus reducing 

requency congestion. Once you have received your 

clearance, it is your responsibility to comply with the 

nstructions as given, and notify ATC if you are unable to 

omply with the clearance. If you do not understand the 

learance, or if you think that you have missed a portion 

of the clearance, contact ATC immediately for clarification. 

Departures From Airports Without an 

Operating Control Tower 

There are hundreds of airports across the United States 

hat operate successfully every day without the benefit of 

a control tower. While a tower is certainly beneficial when 

departing IFR, most other departures can be made with 

ew challenges. As usual, you must file your flight plan at 

east 30 minutes in advance. During your planning phase, 

nvestigate the departure airport’s method for receiving an 

instrument clearance. You can contact the Flight Service 

Station (FSS) on the ground by telephone, and they will 

request your clearance from ATC. Typically, when a clearance 

is given in this manner, the clearance includes a void time. 

You must depart the airport before the clearance void time; 

if you fail to depart, you must contact ATC by a specified 

1-43 
 

 

 

notification time, which is within 30 minutes of the original 

void time. After the clearance void time, your reserved space 

within the IFR system is released for other traffic. 

There are several other ways to receive a clearance at a nontowered airport. If you can contact the FSS or ATC on the 

radio, you can request your departure clearance. However, 

these frequencies are typically congested, and they may 

not be able to provide you with a clearance via the radio. 

You also can use a Remote Communications Outlet (RCO) 

to contact a FSS if one is located nearby. Some airports 

have licensed UNICOM operators that can also contact ATC 

on your behalf and, in turn, relay your clearance from ATC. 

You are also allowed to depart the airport VFR, if conditions 

permit, and contact the controlling authority to request 

your clearance in the air. If there is a direct line to the 

controlling ATC Facility, the phone number is published 

in the Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility 

Directory (A/FD). As technology improves, new methods 

for delivery of clearances at non-towered airports are being 

created. 

Ground Communication Outlet 

Ground Communication Outlets (GCO), have been 

developed in conjunction with the FAA to provide pilots 

flying in and out of non-towered airports with the capability 

to contact ATC and AFSS via very high frequency (VHF) 

radio to a telephone connection. This lets pilots obtain an 

instrument clearance or close a VFR/IFR flight plan. You can 

use four key clicks on your VHF radio to contact the nearest 

ATC facility and six key clicks to contact the local AFSS, but it 

is intended to be used only as a ground operational tool. A 

GCO is an unstaffed, remote controlled ground-to-ground 

communication facility that is relatively inexpensive to 

install and operate. Installations of these types of outlets 

are scheduled at instrument airports around the country. 

GCOs are manufactured by different companies including 

ARINC and AVTECH, each with different operating 

characteristics but with the ability to accomplish the same 

goal. This latest technology has proven to be an incredibly 

useful tool for communicating with the appropriate 

authorities when departing IFR from a non-towered airport. 

The GCO should help relieve the need to use the telephone 

to call ATC and the need to depart into marginal conditions 

just to achieve radio contact. GCO information is listed on 

airport charts and instrument approach charts with other 

communications frequencies. Signs may also be located on 

an airport to notify you of the frequency and proper usage. 

See and Avoid Techniques 

Meteorological conditions permitting, you are required 

to use “see and avoid” techniques to avoid traffic, terrain, 

and other obstacles. To avoid obstacles during a departure, 

the takeoff minimums may include a non-standard ceiling 

and visibility minimum. These are given to pilots so they 

can depart an airport without being able to meet the 

established climb gradient. Instead, they must see and 

avoid obstacles in the departure path. In these situations, 

ATC provides radar traffic information for radar-identified 

aircraft outside controlled airspace, workload permitting, 

and safety alerts to pilots believed to be within an unsafe 

proximity to obstacles or aircraft. 

VFR Departures 

There may be times when you need to fly an IFR flight 

plan due to the weather you will encounter at a later time 

(or if you simply wish to fly IFR to remain proficient), but 

the weather outside is clearly VFR. It may be that you can 

depart VFR, but you need to get an IFR clearance shortly 

after departing the airport. A VFR departure can be used as 

a tool that allows you to get off the ground without having 

to wait for a time slot in the IFR system, however, departing 

VFR with the intent of receiving an IFR clearance in the air 

can also present serious hazards worth considering. 

A VFR departure dramatically changes the takeoff 

responsibilities for you and for ATC. Upon receiving 

clearance for a VFR departure, you are cleared to depart; 

however, you must maintain separation between yourself 

and other traffic. You are also responsible for maintaining 

terrain and obstruction clearance, as well as remaining in 

VFR weather conditions. You cannot fly in IMC without first 

receiving your IFR clearance. Likewise, a VFR departure 

relieves ATC of these duties and basically requires them 

only to provide you with safety alerts as workload permits. 

Maintain VFR until you have obtained your IFR clearance 

and have ATC approval to proceed on course in accordance 

with your clearance. If you accept this clearance and are 

below the minimum IFR altitude for operations in the area, 

you accept responsibility for terrain/obstruction clearance 

until you reach that altitude. 

1-44