7-1 

Chapter 7
 

Introduction 

This chapter presents information on IFR helicopter 

operations in the National Airspace System. Advances in 

avionics technology installed in helicopters such as Global 

Positioning System (GPS) and Wide Area Augmentation 

System (WAAS) are bringing approach procedures to 

heliports around the country. 

The ability to operate helicopters under IFR increases 

their utility and safety. Helicopter IFR operators have 

an excellent safety record due to the investment in 

IFR-equipped helicopters, development of instrument 

approach procedures (IAPs), and IFR-trained flight crews. 

The safety record of IFR operations in the Gulf of Mexico is 

equivalent to the safety record of the best-rated airlines. 

Manufacturers are working to increase IFR all-weather 

capabilities of helicopters by providing slower minimum 

instrument airspeeds (VMINI), faster cruising speeds, and 

better autopilots and flight management systems (FMS). 

As a result, in October 2005, the first civil helicopter in 

the United States was certified for flight into known icing 

conditions. [Figure 7-1] 

Helicopter Instrument

Procedures 
 

 

Figure 7-1. Icing tests. To safely provide an all-weather capability 

and flight into known icing conditions that would otherwise delay 

or cancel winter flight operations, the digital control of the S-92 

Rotor Ice Protection System (RIPS) determines the temperature and 

moisture content of the air and removes any ice buildup by heating the 

main and tail rotor blades. The system is shown here during testing. 

Helicopter Instrument Flight Rule (IFR) 

Certification 

It is very important that pilots be familiar with the IFR 

requirements for their particular helicopter. Within the 

same make, model, and series of helicopter, variations in 

the installed avionics may change the required equipment 

or the level of augmentation for a particular operation. The 

Automatic Flight Control System/Autopilot/Flight Director 

(AFCS/AP/FD) equipment installed in IFR helicopters can 

be very complex. For some helicopters, the AFCS/AP/ 

FD complexity requires formal training in order for the 

pilot(s) to obtain and maintain a high level of knowledge 

of system operation, limitations, failure indications, and 

reversionary modes. For a helicopter to be certified 

to conduct operations in instrument meteorological 

conditions (IMC), it must meet the design and installation 

requirements of Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations (14 

CFR) Part 27, Appendix B (Normal Category) and Part 29, 

Appendix B (Transport Category), which is in addition to 

the visual flight rule (VFR) requirements. 

These requirements are broken down into the 

following categories: flight and navigation equipment, 

miscellaneous requirements, stability, helicopter flight 

manual limitations, operations specifications, and 

minimum equipment list (MEL). 

Flight and Navigation Equipment 

The basic installed flight and navigation equipment for 

helicopter IFR operations is listed under 14 CFR Part 29, § 

29.1303, with amendments and additions in Appendix B of 

14 CFR Parts 27 and 29 under which they are certified. The 

list includes: 

• 	 Clock 

• 	 Airspeed indicator 

• 	 Sensitive altimeter (A “sensitive” altimeter relates to 

the instrument’s displayed change in altitude over 

its range. For “Copter” Category (CAT) II operations, 

the scale must be in 20-foot intervals.) adjustable 

for barometric pressure. 

• 	 Magnetic direction indicator 

• 	 Free-air temperature indicator 

• 	 Rate-of-climb (vertical speed) indicator 

• 	 Magnetic gyroscopic direction indicator 

• 	 Stand-by bank and pitch (attitude) indicator 

• 	 Non-tumbling gyroscopic bank and pitch (attitude) 

indicator 

•	 Speed warning device (if required by 14 CFR Part 29) 

Miscellaneous Requirements 

•	 Overvoltage disconnect 

•	 Instrument power source indicator 

•	 Adequate ice protection of IFR systems 

•	 Alternate static source (single-pilot configuration) 

•	 Thunderstorm lights (transport category helicopters) 

Stabilization and Automatic Flight Control 

System (AFCS) 

Helicopter manufacturers normally use a combination 

of a stabilization and/or AFCS in order to meet the IFR 

stability requirements of 14 CFR Parts 27 and 29. These 

systems include: 

• 	 Aerodynamic surfaces, which impart some stability 

or control capability that generally is not found in 

the basic VFR configuration. 

•	 Trim systems provide a cyclic centering effect. These 

systems typically involve a magnetic brake/spring 

device and may be controlled by a four-way switch 

on the cyclic. This system requires “hands on” flying 

of the helicopter. 

•	 Stability Augmentation Systems (SAS) provide 

short-term rate damping control inputs to increase 

helicopter stability. Like trim systems, SAS requires 

“hands-on” flying. 

7-2 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

• 	 Attitude Retention Systems (ATT ) return the 

helicopter to a selected attitude after a disturbance. 

Changes in attitude can be accomplished usually 

through a four- way “beep” switch or by actuating a 

“force trim” switch on the cyclic, which sets the desired 

attitude manually. Attitude retention may be a SAS 

function or may be the basic “hands off” autopilot 

function. 

•	 Autopilot Systems (APs) provide for “hands off” 

flight along specified lateral and vertical paths. The 

functional modes may include heading, altitude, 

vertical speed, navigation tracking, and approach. 

APs typically have a control panel for mode selection 

and indication of mode status. APs may or may not be 

installed with an associated FD. APs typically control 

the helicopter about the roll and pitch axes (cyclic 

control) but may also include yaw axis (pedal control) 

and collective control servos. 

•	 Flight Directors (FDs) provide visual guidance to 

the pilot to fly selected lateral and vertical modes of 

operation. The visual guidance is typically provided 

by a “single cue,” commonly known as a “vee bar,” 

which provides the indicated attitude to fly and 

is superimposed on the attitude indicator. Other 

FDs may use a “two cue” presentation known as a 

“cross pointer system.” These two presentations 

only provide attitude information. A third system, 

known as a “three cue” system, provides information 

to position the collective as well as attitude (roll 

and pitch) cues. The collective control cue system 

identifies and cues the pilot what collective control 

inputs to use when path errors are produced or when 

airspeed errors exceed preset values. The three-cue 

system pitch command provides the required cues 

to control airspeed when flying an approach with 

vertical guidance at speeds slower than the bestrate-of-climb (BROC) speed. The pilot manipulates 

the helicopter’s controls to satisfy these commands, 

yielding the desired flightpath or may couple the 

autopilot to the FD to fly along the desired flightpath. 

Typically, FD mode control and indication are shared 

with the autopilot. Pilots must be aware of the mode 

of operation of the augmentation systems and the 

control logic and functions in use. For example, on an 

instrument landing system (ILS) approach and using 

the three-cue mode (lateral, vertical, and collective 

cues), the FD collective cue responds to glideslope 

deviation, while the horizontal bar cue of the “crosspointer” responds to airspeed deviations. However, 

the same system when operated in the two-cue 

mode on an ILS, the FD horizontal bar cue responds 

to glideslope deviations. The need to be aware of the 

FD mode of operation is particularly significant when 

operating using two pilots. 

Pilots should have an established set of procedures and 

responsibilities for the control of FD/AP modes for the 

various phases of flight. Not only does a full understanding 

of the system modes provide for a higher degree of 

accuracy in control of the helicopter, it is the basis for crew 

identification of a faulty system. 

Helicopter Flight Manual Limitations 

Helicopters are certificated for IFR operations with either 

one or two pilots. Certain equipment is required to be 

installed and functional for two-pilot operations and 

additional equipment is required for single-pilot operation. 

In addition, the Helicopter Flight Manual (HFM) defines 

systems and functions that are required to be in operation 

or engaged for IFR flight in either the single or two-pilot 

configurations. Often, in a two-pilot operation, this level of 

augmentation is less than the full capability of the installed 

systems. Likewise, a single-pilot operation may require a 

higher level of augmentation. 

The HFM also identifies other specific limitations associated 

with IFR flight. Typically, these limitations include, but are 

not limited to: 

• Minimum equipment required for IFR flight (in some 

cases, for both single-pilot and two-pilot operations) 

• VMINI (minimum speed—IFR) [Figure 7-2] 

• VNEI (never exceed speed—IFR) 

• Maximum approach angle 

• Weight and center of gravity (CG) limits 

• Helicopter configuration limitations (such as door 

positions and external loads) 

• Helicopter system limitations (generators, inverters, 

etc.) 

• System testing requirements (many avionics and AFCS, 

AP, and FD systems incorporate a self-test feature) 

• Pilot action requirements (for example, the pilot must 

have hands and feet on the controls during certain 

operations, such as an instrument approach below 

certain altitudes) 

Final approach angles/descent gradient for public 

approach procedures can be as high as 7.5 degrees/795 

ft/NM. At 70 knots indicated airspeed (KIAS) (no wind), 

this equates to a descent rate of 925 fpm. With a 10-knot 

tailwind, the descent rate increases to 1,056 fpm. “Copter” 

Point-in-space (PinS) approach procedures are restricted 

to helicopters with a maximum VMINI of 70 KIAS and an 

IFR approach angle that enables them to meet the final 

approach angle/descent gradient. Pilots of helicopters with 

7-3 
 

 

 

Augusta 

A-109 

A-109C 

Bell 

BH 212 

BH 214ST 

BH 222 

BH 222B 

BH 412 

BH 430 

Eurocopter 

AS-355 

AS-365 

BK-117 

EC-135 

EC-155 

Sikorsky 

S-76A 

S-76A 

S-76B 

S-76C 

SK-76C++ 

9.0 

5.0 

4.0 

4.5 

4.5 

6.0 

4.6 

4.0 

3.5 

7.5 

7.5 

6.5 

NOTE: The VMINI, MAX IFR Approach Angle and G/A Mode Speed for a specific helicopter may vary with avionics/autopilot installation. 

Pilots are, therefore, cautioned to refer only to the Rotorcraft Flight Manual limitations for their specific helicopter. The maximum rate of 

descent for many autopilots is 1,000 FPM. 

LEGEND 

In some helicopters with the autopilot engaged, the VMINI may increase to a speed greater than 70 KIAS, or in the “go around”

 mode requires a speed faster than 70 KIAS. 

SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE

Manufacturer VMINI Limitations MAX IFR Approach Angle G/A Mode Speed 

75 KIAS 

75 KIAS 

75 KIAS 

60 (80 coupled) 

40 

40 

70 

50 

50 

60 

50 (65 coupled) 

55 

75 

45 (70 coupled) 

60 

70 

60 (AFCS Phase II) 

50 (AFCS Phase III) 

60 

60 

50 (60 coupled) 

Figure 7-2. VMINI limitations, maximum IFR approach angles and G/A mode speeds for selected IFR certified helicopters. 

a VMINI of 70 KIAS may have inadequate control margins 

to fly an approach that is designed with the maximum 

allowable angle/descent gradient or minimum allowable 

deceleration distance from the missed approach point 

(MAP) to the heliport. The “Copter” PinS final approach 

segment is limited to 70 KIAS since turn containment and 

the deceleration distance from the MAP to the heliport may 

not be adequate at faster speeds. For some helicopters, 

engaging the autopilot may increase the VMINI to a speed 

greater than 70 KIAS, or in the “go around” (G/A) mode, 

require a speed faster than 70 KIAS. [Figure 7-2] It may be 

possible for these helicopters to be flown manually on the 

approach or on the missed approach in a mode other than 

the G/A mode. 

Since slower IFR approach speeds enable the helicopter 

to fly steeper approaches and reduces the distance from 

the heliport that is required to decelerate the helicopter, 

you may want to operate your helicopter at speeds slower 

than its established VMINI. The provision to apply for a 

determination of equivalent safety for instrument flight 

below VMINI and the minimum helicopter requirements 

are specified in Advisory Circulars (AC) 27-1, Certification 

of Normal Category Rotorcraft and AC 29-2, Certification 

of Transport Category Rotorcraft. Application guidance is 

available from the Rotorcraft Directorate Standards Staff, 

ASW-110, 2601 Meacham Blvd., Fort Worth, Texas, 76137­

4298, (817) 222-5111. 

Performance data may not be available in the HFM for 

speeds other than the best rate of climb speed. To meet 

missed approach climb gradients, pilots may use observed 

performance for similar weight, altitude, temperature, and 

speed conditions to determine equivalent performance. 

When missed approaches utilizing a climbing turn are 

flown with an autopilot, set the heading bug on the 

missed approach heading, and then at the MAP, engage 

the indicated airspeed mode, followed immediately by 

applying climb power and selecting the heading mode. 

This is important since the autopilot roll rate and maximum 

7-4 
 

 

 

 

 

 

bank angle in the Heading Select mode are significantly 

more robust than in the NAV mode. Figure 7-3 represents 

the bank angle and roll limits of the S76 used by the FAA for 

flight testing. It has a roll rate in the Heading Select mode 

of 5 degrees per second with only 1 degree per second in 

the NAV mode. The bank angle in the Heading Select mode 

is 20 degrees, with only 17 degrees in the NAV Change 

Over mode. Furthermore, if the Airspeed Hold mode is 

not selected on some autopilots when commencing the 

missed approach, the helicopter accelerates in level flight 

until the best rate of climb is attained, and only then will 

a climb begin. 

Figure 7-3. Autopilot bank angle and roll rate limits for the S-76 

used by the William J. Hughes Technical Center for Flight Tests. 

Heading hold 

VOR/RNAV 

(Capture) 

VOR/RNAV 

(On Course) 

Heading Select 

VOR/RNAV 

(Course Change 

Over Station/Fix) 

<6 

+/–22 

+/–13 

+/–20 

+/–17 

None specified 

5 

1 

5 VOR/RNAV Approach 

5 

1 

Bank Angle Limit 

(Degrees) 

Roll Rate Limit 

(Degrees/Sec) 

Autopilot 

Mode 

SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE

WAAS localizer performance (LP) lateral-only PinS testing 

conducted in 2005 by the FAA at the William J. Hughes 

Technical Center in New Jersey for helicopter PinS also 

captured the flight tracks for turning missed approaches. 

[Figure 7-4] The large flight tracks that resulted during 

the turning missed approach were attributed in part to 

operating the autopilot in the NAV mode and exceeding 

the 70 KIAS limit. 

Operations Specifications 

A flight operated under 14 CFR Part 135 has minimums and 

procedures more restrictive than a flight operated under 

14 CFR Part 91. These Part 135 requirements are detailed 

in their operations specifications (OpSpecs). Helicopter Air 

Ambulance (HAA) operators have even more restrictive 

OpSpecs. Shown in Figure 7-5 is an excerpt from an 

OpSpecs detailing the minimums for precision approaches. 

The inlay in Figure 7-5 shows the minimums for the ILS 

Runway 3R approach at Detroit Metro Airport. With all 

lighting operative, the minimums for helicopter Part 91 

operations are a 200-foot ceiling, and 1,200-feet runway 

visual range (RVR) - one-half airplane Category A visibility 

but no less than 1⁄4 SM/1,200 RVR. However, as shown in 

Figure 7-4. Flight tests at the William J. Hughes Technical Center 

point out the importance of airspeed control and using the correct 

technique to make a turning missed approach. 

MAP 1000 ft. 2000 ft. 3000 ft. 4000 ft. 5000 ft. 6000 ft. 7000 ft. 8000 ft. 

Distance from MAP 

× × × × ×

× × × × × × ×

Bin Mean 

Bin Maximum 

Approach Tracks 

Legend 

×

the OpSpecs, the minimum visibility this Part 135 operator 

must adhere to is 1,600 RVR. Pilots operating under 14 CFR 

Part 91 are encouraged to develop their own personal 

OpSpecs based on their own equipment, training, and 

experience. 

Minimum Equipment List (MEL) 

A helicopter operating under 14 CFR Part 135 with 

certain installed equipment inoperative is prohibited 

from taking off unless the operation is authorized in the 

approved MEL. The MEL provides for some equipment to 

be inoperative if certain conditions are met. [Figure 7-6] 

In many cases, a helicopter configured for single-pilot 

IFR may depart IFR with certain equipment inoperative 

provided a crew of two pilots is used. Under 14 CFR Part 

91, a pilot may defer certain items without an MEL if 

those items are not required by the type certificate, CFRs, 

or airworthiness directives (ADs), and the flight can be 

performed safely without them. If the item is disabled, 

removed, or marked inoperative, a logbook entry is made. 

Pilot Proficiency 

Helicopters of the same make and model may have 

variations in installed avionics that change the required 

equipment or the level of augmentation for a particular 

operation. The complexity of modern AFCS, AP, and FD 

systems requires a high degree of understanding to safely 

7-5 
 

 

 

 SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE

U.S. Department 

of Transportation 

Federal Aviation Operations Specifications

 Administration 

Print Date: 4/16/2008 H117-1 

H117. Straight-in Category I Precision Instrument Approach HQ Control: 11/22/00 

Procedures - All Airports HQ Revision: 000 

a. Except as provided in this paragraph, the certificate holder shall not use any Category I IFR landing 

minimum lower than that prescribed by any applicable published instrument approach procedure. The 

IFR landing minimums prescribed in this paragraph are the lowest authorized (other than Airborne 

Radar approaches) for use at any airport. Provided that the fastest approach speed used in the final 

approach segment is less than 91 knots, the certificate holder is authorized to conduct straight-in 

precision instrument approach procedures using the following: 

(1) The published Category A minimum descent altitude (MDA) or decision height (DH), as 

appropriate. 

(2) One-half of the published Category A visibility/RVR minimum or the visibility/RVR minimums 

prescribed by this paragraph, whichever is higher. 

b. Straight-In Category I Precision Approach Procedures. The certificate holder shall not use an IFR 

landing minimum for straight-in precision approach procedures lower than that specified in the 

following table. Touchdown zone RVR reports, when available for a particular runway, are controlling 

for all approaches to and landings on that runway. (See NOTE 2.) 

Precision Approaches Full ILS (See NOTE 1), MLS, or PAR 

Approach Light 

Configuration 

HAT Helicopters Operated at 

Speeds of 90 Knots or Less 

Helicopters Operated at 

Speeds More Than 90 Knots 

Visibility In 

SM. 

TDZ RVR 

In Feet 

Visibility In 

SM. 

TDZ RVR In 

Feet 

No Lights or ODALS or 

MALS or SSALS 

200 3/4 3500 3/4 4000 

MALSR or SSALR or 

ALSF-1 or ALSF-2 

200 1/4 1600 1/2 2400 

MALSR with TDZ and 

CL or SSALR with TDZ 

and CL or ALSF-1/ALSF2 with TDZ and CL 

200 1/4 1600 1/2 1800 

NOTE 1: A full ILS requires an operative LOC, GS, and OM or FAF. A precision or surveillance radar 

fix, an NDB, VOR, DME fix, or a published minimum GSIA fix may be used in lieu of an outer marker. 

NOTE 2: The Mid RVR and Rollout RVR reports (if available) provide advisory information to pilots. 

The Mid RVR report may be substituted for the TDZ RVR report if the TDZ RVR report is not available. 

c. Special Limitations and Provisions for Instrument Approach Procedures at Foreign Airports. If the 

certificate holder is authorized operations at foreign airports, the following criteria apply. 

(1) Foreign approach lighting systems equivalent to U.S. standards are authorized for both precision 

and nonprecision approaches. Sequenced flashing lights are not required when determining the 

equivalence of a foreign lighting system to U.S. standards. 

(2) For straight-in landing minimums at foreign airports where an MDA or DH is not specified, the 

lowest authorized MDA or DH shall be obtained as follows: 

SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE

SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE

Figure 7-5. Operations Specifications. 

7-6 
 

 

 

 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION 

MASTER MINIMUM EQUIPMENT LIST

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION 

AIRCRAFT: 

BH-206/407 SERIES 

REVISION NO: 3 

DATE: 12/22/2008 

PAGE: 

28-1 

1. 2. NUMBER INSTALLED 

3. NUMBER REQUIRED FOR DISPATCH 

SYSTEM & 

SEQUENCE

NUMBERS 

ITEM 

4. REMARKS OR EXCEPTIONS 

28 FUEL 

1. Fuel Quantity Gauge DELETED. | 

2. 

*** 

Auxiliary Fuel Tank D - 0 May be inoperative provided: 

a) Flight is not predicated upon

the use of the system,

and 

b) Auxiliary tank fuel is

considered in weight and

balance computations. 

3. Fuel Low Warning Caution

Light System(206A and

206B only) 

DELETED. |

|

| 

(206L series and407

only) 

DELETED. |

| 

4. 

*** 

Solenoid Drain Valve 

System 

D - 0 (O) May be inoperative provided the

manual drain valve is verified 

closed prior to flight. 

5. Fuel Boost Pump(Twin

engine models only) 

B 4 3 One aft boost pump may be

inoperative. 

6. Fuel Flow Indicator 

(Twin engine models

only) 

B 2 0 SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE

Figure 7-6. Example of a Minimum Equipment List (MEL). 

7-7 
 

 

 

 

 

and efficiently control the helicopter in IFR operations. 

Formal training in the use of these systems is highly 

recommended for all pilots. 

During flight operations, you must be aware of the mode 

of operation of the augmentation system and the control 

logic and functions employed. [Figure 7-2] 

Helicopter VFR Minimums 

Helicopters have the same VFR minimums as airplanes 

with two exceptions. In Class G airspace or under a special 

visual flight rule (SVFR) clearance, helicopters have no 

minimum visibility requirement but must remain clear of 

clouds and operate at a speed that is slow enough to give 

the pilot an adequate opportunity to see other aircraft or an 

obstruction in time to avoid a collision. Helicopters are also 

authorized (14 CFR Part 91, appendix D, § 3) to obtain SVFR 

clearances at airports with the designation NO SVFR on the 

sectional chart or in the Chart Supplement (CS). Figure 7-7 

shows the visibility and cloud clearance requirements for 

VFR and SVFR. However, lower minimums associated with 

Class G airspace and SVFR do not take the place of the VFR 

minimum requirements of either Part 135 regulations or 

respective OpSpecs. 

Knowledge of all VFR minimums is required in order to 

determine if a PinS approach can be conducted or if a SVFR 

clearance is required to continue past the (MAP). These 

approaches and procedures are discussed in detail later. 

Helicopter IFR Takeoff Minimums 

14 CFR Part 91 imposes no takeoff minimums on the 

helicopter pilot. However, Rotorcraft Flight Manuals 

may require the helicopter to attain at least Vmini before 

entering IMC. For most helicopters, this requires a distance 

of approximately 1⁄2 mile and an altitude of 100 feet. If 

departing with a steeper climb gradient, some helicopters 

may require additional altitude to accelerate to VMINI. 

To maximize safety, always consider using the Part 135 

operator standard takeoff visibility minimum of 1⁄2 statute 

mile (SM) or the charted departure minima, whichever is 

higher. A charted departure that provides protection from 

obstacles has either a higher visibility requirement, climb 

gradient, and/or departure path. Part 135 operators are 

required to adhere to the takeoff minimums prescribed in 

the instrument approach procedures (IAPs) for the airport. 

Helicopter IFR Alternates 

The pilot must file for an alternate if weather reports and 

forecasts at the proposed destination do not meet certain 

minimums. These minimums differ for Part 91 and Part 

135 operators. 

Figure 7-7. Helicopter VFR minimums. 

Airspace 

Class A 

Class B 

Class C 

Class D 

Class E 

Less than 

10,000 feet MSL 

At or above 

10,000 feet MSL 

Class G 

1,200 feet or less 

above the surface 

(regardless of MSL altitude) 

Day, except as provided 

in §91.155(b) 

Night, except as provided 

in §91.155(b) 

More than 1,200 feet above 

the surface but less than 

10,000 feet MSL 

Day 

Night 

More than 1,200 feet 

above the surface and at 

or above 10,000 feet MSL 

B, C, D, E, Surface Area 

Airspace SVFR Minimums 

Day 

Night 

Flight 

visibility 

Not 

applicable 

3 SM 

3 SM 

3 SM 

3 SM 

5 SM 

1/2 SM 

None 

1 SM 

3 SM 

5 SM 

None 

None 

Distance from clouds 

Not applicable 

Clear of clouds 

500 feet below 

1,000 feet above 

2,000 feet horizontal 

500 feet below 

1,000 feet above 

2,000 feet horizontal 

500 feet below 

1,000 feet above 

2,000 feet horizontal 

1,000 feet below 

1,000 feet above 

1 statue mile horizontal 

Clear of clouds 

Clear of clouds 

500 feet below 

1,000 feet above 

2,000 feet horizontal 

500 feet below 

1,000 feet above 

2,000 feet horizontal 

1,000 feet below 

1,000 feet above 

1 statute mile horizontal 

Clear of clouds 

Clear of clouds 

Helicopter VFR Minimums 

Part 91 Operators 

Part 91 operators are not required to file an alternate if, at 

the estimated time of arrival (ETA) and for 1 hour after, the 

ceiling is at least 1,000 feet above the airport elevation or 

400 feet above the lowest applicable approach minima, 

whichever is higher, and the visibility is at least 2 SM. If an 

alternate is required, an airport can be used if the ceiling is 

at least 200 feet above the minimum for the approach to 

7-8 
 

be flown and visibility is at least 1 SM, but never less than 

the minimum required for the approach to be flown. If no 

instrument approach procedure has been published for the 

alternate airport, the ceiling and visibility minima are those 

allowing descent from the MEA, approach, and landing 

under basic VFR. 

Part 135 Operators 

Part 135 operators are not required to file an alternate if, 

for at least one hour before and one hour after the ETA, 

the ceiling is at least 1,500 feet above the lowest circling 

approach minimum descent altitude (MDA). If a circling 

instrument approach is not authorized for the airport, 

the ceiling must be at least 1,500 feet above the lowest 

published minimum or 2,000 feet above the airport 

elevation, whichever is higher. For the IAP to be used at 

the destination airport, the forecasted visibility for that 

airport must be at least 3 SM or 2 SM more than the lowest 

applicable visibility minimums, whichever is greater. 

Alternate landing minimums for flights conducted under 14 

CFR Part 135 are described in the OpSpecs for that 

operation. All helicopters operated under IFR must carry 

enough fuel to fly to the intended destination, fly from that 

airport to the filed alternate, if required, and continue for 

30 minutes at normal cruising speed. 

Helicopter Instrument Approaches 

Many new helicopter IAPs have been developed to take 

advantage of advances in both avionics and helicopter 

technology. 

Standard Instrument Approach Procedures to 

an Airport 

Helicopters flying standard instrument approach 

procedures (SIAP) must adhere to the MDA or decision 

altitude for Category A airplanes and may apply the 14 

b) (1) “Copter procedures” means helicopter procedures 

with applicable minimums as prescribed in §97.35 

of this part. Helicopters may also use other 

procedures prescribed in Subpart C of this part and 

may use the Category A minimum descent altitude 

(MDA) or decision height (DH). The required visibility 

minimum may be reduced to 1⁄2 the published 

visibility minimum, but in no case may it be reduced 

to less than one-quarter mile or 1,200 feet RVR. 

97.3 Symbols and Terms Used in Procedures 

Figure 7-8. Part 97 excerpt. 

CFR Part 97.3 (d-1) rule to reduce the airplane Category A 

visibility by half but in no case less than 1⁄4 SM or 1,200 RVR. 

[Figure 7-8] The approach can be initiated at any speed up 

to the highest approach category authorized; however, the 

speed on the final approach segment must be reduced to 

the Category A speed of less than 90 KIAS before the MAP in 

order to apply the visibility reduction. A constant airspeed 

is recommended on the final approach segment to comply 

with the stabilized approach concept since a decelerating 

approach may make early detection of wind shear on the 

approach path more difficult. [Figure 7-9] 

When visibility minimums must be increased for inoperative 

components or visual aids, use the Inoperative Components 

and Visual Aids Table (provided in the front cover of the U.S. 

Terminal Procedures) to derive the Category A minima before 

applying any visibility reduction. The published visibility 

may be increased above the standard visibility minima due 

to penetrations of the 20:1 and 34:1 final approach obstacle 

identification surfaces (OIS). The minimum visibility required 

for 34:1 penetrations is 3⁄4 SM and for 20:1 penetrations 1 

SM, which is discussed in chapter 5 of this handbook. When 

there are penetrations of the final approach OIS, a visibility 

credit for approach lighting systems is not allowed for 

either airplane or helicopter procedures that would result 

Figure 7-9. Helicopter use of standard instrument approach procedures. 

Procedure 

Standard 

Copter Procedure 

GPS Copter Procedure 

Helicopter Visibility Minima 

The greater of: one half the 

Category A visibility minima, 

1⁄4 statute mile visibility or 

1,200 RVR unless annotated 

(Visibility Reduction by 

Helicopters NA.) 

As published 

As published 

Helicopter MDA/DA 

As published for 

Category A 

As published 

As published 

Maximum Speed Limitations 

The helicopter may initiate the final approach 

segment at speeds up to the upper limit of the 

highest Approach Category authorized by the 

procedure, but must be slowed to no more 

than 90 KIAS at the MAP in order to apply the 

visibility reduction. 

90 KIAS when on a published route/track. 

90 KIAS when on a published route, track, or 

holding, 70 KIAS when on the final approach 

or missed approach segment. Military procedures 

are limited to 90 KIAS for all segments. 

Helicopter Use of Standard Instrument Approach Procedures 

7-9 
 

 

in values less than the appropriate 3⁄4 SM or 1 SM visibility 

requirement. The 14 CFR Part 97.3 visibility reduction rule 

does not apply, and you must take precautions to avoid 

any obstacles in the visual segment. Procedures with 

penetrations of the final approach OIS are annotated at the 

next amendment with “Visibility Reduction by Helicopters 

NA.” 

Until all the affected SIAPs have been annotated, an 

understanding of how the standard visibilities are 

established is the best aid in determining if penetrations 

of the final approach OIS exists. Some of the variables in 

determining visibilities are: decision altitude (DA)/MDA 

height above touchdown (HAT), height above airport 

(HAA), distance of the facility to the MAP (or the runway 

threshold for non- precision approaches), and approach 

lighting configurations. 

The standard visibility requirement, without any credit 

for lights, is 1 SM for non-precision approaches and 3⁄4 

SM for precision approaches. This is based on a Category 

A airplane 250–320 feet HAT/HAA; for non-precision 

approaches a distance of 10,000 feet or less from the 

facility to the MAP (or runway threshold). For precision 

approaches, credit for any approach light configuration; for 

non-precision approaches (with a 250 HAT) configured with 

a Medium Intensity Approach Lighting System (MALSR), 

Simplified Short Approach Lighting System (SSALR), or 

Approach Lighting System With Sequenced Flashing Lights 

(ALSF)-1 normally results in a published visibility of 1⁄2 SM. 

Consequently, if an ILS is configured with approach lights 

or a non-precision approach is configured with MALSR, 

SSALR, or ALSF-1 lighting configurations and the procedure 

has a published visibility of 3⁄4 SM or greater, a penetration 

of the final approach OIS may exist. Also, pilots are unable 

to determine whether there are penetrations of the final 

approach OIS if a non-precision procedure does not have 

approach lights or is configured with ODALS, MALS, or 

SSALS/SALS lighting since the minimum published visibility 

is 3⁄4 SM or greater. 

As a rule of thumb, approaches with published visibilities of 

3⁄4 SM or more should be regarded as having final approach 

OIS penetrations and care must be taken to avoid any 

obstacles in the visual segment. 

Approaches with published visibilities of 1⁄2 SM or less are 

free of OIS penetrations and the visibility reduction in Part 

97.3 is authorized. 

Copter Only Approaches to An Airport or 

Heliport 

Pilots flying Copter SIAPs, other than GPS, may use the 

published minima with no reductions in visibility allowed. 

The maximum airspeed is 90 KIAS on any segment of the 

approach or missed approach. Figure 7-10 illustrates the 

COPTER ILS or LOC RWY 13 approach at NewYork/La Guardia 

(LGA) airport. 

Copter ILS approaches to Category (CAT) I facilities with 

DAs no lower than a 200-foot HAT provide an advantage 

over a conventional ILS of shorter final segments and lower 

minimums (based on the 20:1 missed approach surface). 

There are also Copter approaches with minimums as low as 

100-foot HAT and 1⁄4 SM visibility. Approaches with a HAT 

below 200 feet are annotated with the note: “Special Aircrew 

& Aircraft Certification Required” since the FAA must approve 

the helicopter and its avionics, and the flight crew must have 

the required experience, training, and checking. 

The ground facilities (approach lighting, signal in space, hold 

lines, maintenance, etc.) and air traffic infrastructure for CAT 

II ILS approaches are required to support these procedures. 

The helicopter must be equipped with an AP, FD, or head 

up guidance system, alternate static source (or heated static 

source), and radio altimeter. The pilot must have at least a 

private pilot helicopter certificate, an instrument helicopter 

rating, and a type rating if the helicopter requires a type 

rating. Pilot experience requires the following flight times: 

250 pilot in command (PIC), 100 helicopter PIC, 50 night 

PIC, 75 hours of actual or simulated instrument flight time, 

including at least 25 hours of actual or simulated instrument 

flight time in a helicopter or a helicopter flight simulator, and 

the appropriate recent experience, training and check. For 

Copter CAT II ILS operations below 200 feet HAT, approach 

deviations are limited to 1⁄4 scale of the localizer or glide 

slope needle. Deviations beyond that require an immediate 

missed approach unless the pilot has at least one of the visual 

references in sight and otherwise meets the requirements of 

14 CFR Part 91.175(c). The reward for this effort is the ability 

to fly Copter ILS approaches with minima that are sometimes 

below the airplane CAT II minima. The procedure to apply for 

this certification is available from your local Flight Standards 

District Office (FSDO). 

Copter GPS Approaches to an Airport or 

Heliport 

Pilots flying Copter GPS or WAAS SIAPs must limit the speed 

to 90 KIAS on the initial and intermediate segment of the 

approach and to no more than 70 KIAS on the final and 

missed approach segments. If annotated, holding may also 

be limited to 90 KIAS to contain the helicopter within the 

small airspace provided for helicopter holding patterns. 

7-10 
Figure 7-10. The COPTER ILS or LOC RWY 13 approach at New York/La Guardia (LGA) airport. 

7-11 
Figure 7-11. COPTER RNAV (GPS) 291° at Indianapolis Downtown Heliport. 

7-12 
 

 

400 feet/NM (standard) 

200 feet/NM (standard)

20:1 OCS 

40:1 OCS 

During testing for helicopter holding, the optimum 

airspeed and leg length combination was determined to 

be 90 KIAS with a 3 NM outbound leg length. Consideration 

was given to the wind drift on the dead reckoning entry 

leg at slower speeds, the turn radius at faster airspeeds, 

and the ability of the helicopter in strong wind conditions 

to intercept the inbound course prior to the holding fix. 

The published minimums are to be used with no visibility 

reductions allowed. Figure 7-11 is an example of a Copter 

GPS PinS approach that allows the helicopter to fly VFR 

from the MAP to the heliport. 

The final and missed approach protected airspace providing 

obstacle and terrain avoidance is based on 70 KIAS, with 

a maximum 10-knot tailwind component. It is absolutely 

essential that pilots adhere to the 70 KIAS limitation 

in procedures that include an immediate climbing 

and turning missed approach. Exceeding the airspeed 

restriction increases the turning radius significantly and 

can cause the helicopter to leave the missed approach 

protected airspace. This may result in controlled flight into 

terrain (CFIT) or obstacles. 

If a helicopter has a VMINI greater than 70 knots, then 

it is not capable of conducting this type of approach. 

Similarly, if the autopilot in “go-around” mode climbs at a 

VYI greater than 70 knots, then that mode cannot be used. 

It is the responsibility of the pilot to determine compliance 

with missed approach climb gradient requirements 

when operating at speeds other than VY or VYI. Missed 

approaches that specify an “IMMEDIATE CLIMBING TURN” 

have no provision for a straight ahead climbing segment 

before turning. A straight segment results in exceeding the 

protected airspace limits. 

Protected obstacle clearance areas and surfaces for the 

missed approach are established on the assumption that 

the missed approach is initiated at the DA point and for 

non-precision approaches no lower than the MDA at the 

MAP (normally at the threshold of the approach end of 

the runway). The pilot must begin the missed approach at 

those points. Flying beyond either point before beginning 

the missed approach results in flying below the protected 

obstacle clearance surface (OCS) and can result in a collision 

with an obstacle. 

The missed approach segment U.S. Standard for Terminal 

Instrument Procedures (TERPS) criteria for all Copter 

approaches take advantage of the helicopter’s climb 

capabilities at slow airspeeds, resulting in high climb 

gradients. [Figure 7-12] The OCS used to evaluate the 

missed approach is a 20:1 inclined plane. This surface is 

twice as steep for the helicopter as the OCS used to evaluate 

the airplane missed approach segment. The helicopter 

climb gradient is, therefore, required to be double that of 

the airplane’s required missed approach climb gradient. 

A minimum climb gradient of at least 400 ft/NM is required 

unless a higher gradient is published on the approach 

chart (e.g., a helicopter with a ground speed of 70 knots 

is required to climb at a rate of 467 fpm (467 fpm = 70 

KIAS × 400 feet per NM/60 seconds)). The advantage of 

using the 20:1 OCS for the helicopter missed approach 

20:1 versus 40:1 Obstacle clearance surface (OCS) for nonprecision missed approach procedures 

MAP 

96 feet/NM 

48 feet/NM 

The Copter 20:1 OCS provides for a lower MDA for the helicopter than for the airplane if the controlling 

obstacle is in the missed approach area. A climb gradient of 400 feet/NM will allow a required 

obstacle clearance (ROC) of 96 feet/NM for each NM of flightpath. 

Figure 7-12. Obstacle clearance surface (OCS). 

7-13 
 

 

 

segment instead of the 40:1 OCS used for the airplane is 

that obstacles that penetrate the 40:1 missed approach 

segment may not have to be considered. The result is 

the DA/MDA may be lower for helicopters than for other 

aircraft. The minimum required climb gradient of 400 ft/ 

NM for the helicopter in a missed approach provides 96 

feet of required obstacle clearance (ROC) for each NM of 

flightpath. 

Helicopter Approaches to VFR Heliports 

Helicopter approaches to VFR heliports are normally 

developed either as public procedures to a PinS that may 

serve more than one heliport or as a special procedure to 

a specific VFR heliport that requires pilot training due to its 

unique characteristics. These approaches can be developed 

using very high frequency omni-directional range (VOR) 

or automatic direction finder (ADF), but area navigation 

(RNAV) using GPS is the most common system used today. 

RNAV using the WAAS offers the most advantages because 

it can provide lower approach minimums, narrower route 

widths to support a network of approaches, and may 

allow the heliport to be used as an alternate. A majority 

of the special procedures to a specific VFR heliport are 

developed in support of HAA operators and have a “Proceed 

Visually” segment between the MAP and the heliport. 

Public procedures are developed as a PinS approach with a 

“Proceed VFR” segment between the MAP and the landing 

area. These PinS “Proceed VFR” procedures specify a course 

and distance from the MAP to the available heliports in the 

area. 

Approach to a PinS 

The note associated with these procedures is: “PROCEED 

VFR FROM (NAMED MAP) OR CONDUCT THE SPECIFIED 

MISSED APPROACH.” They may be developed as a special 

or public procedure where the MAP is located more than 2 

SM from the landing site, the turn from the final approach 

to the visual segment is greater than 30 degrees, or the VFR 

segment from the MAP to the landing site has obstructions 

that require pilot actions to avoid them. Figure 7-13 is an 

example of a public PinS approach that allows the pilot to 

fly to one of four heliports after reaching the MAP. 

For Part 135 operations, pilots may not begin the instrument 

approach unless the latest weather report indicates that the 

weather conditions are at or above the authorized IFR or VFR 

minimums as required by the class of airspace, operating rule 

and/or OpSpecs, whichever is higher. Visual contact with the 

landing site is not required; however, prior to the MAP, for 

either Part 91 or 135 operators, the pilot must determine if 

the flight visibility meets the basic VFR minimums required 

by the class of airspace, operating rule and/or OpSpecs 

(whichever is higher). The visibility is limited to no lower 

than that published in the procedure until canceling IFR. If 

VFR minimums do not exist, then the published MAP must 

be executed. The pilot must contact air traffic control (ATC) 

upon reaching the MAP, or as soon as practical after that, and 

advise whether executing the missed approach or canceling 

IFR and proceeding VFR. 

To proceed VFR in uncontrolled airspace, Part 135 operators 

must observe minimum regulatory VFR conditions, but 

under some conditions, such as provided for in 14 CFR 

135.613 for HAA operators, specific weather minimums are 

required when near the MAP and the heliport of intended 

landing. These minimums apply regardless of whether the 

approach is located on the plains of Oklahoma or in the 

Colorado mountains. However, for heliports located farther 

than 3 NM from the heliport, Part135 HAA operators are 

held to an even higher standard and the minimums and 

lighting conditions contained in Figure 7-15 apply to the 

entire route. Mountainous terrain at night with low light 

conditions requires a ceiling of 1,000 feet and either 3 SM or 

5 SM visibility depending on whether it has been determined 

as part of the operator’s local flying area. 

In Class B, C, D, and E surface area airspace, a SVFR clearance 

may be obtained if SVFR minimums exist. On your flight plan, 

give ATC a heads up about your intentions by entering the 

following in the remarks section: “Request SVFR clearance 

after the MAP.” 

Approach to a Specific VFR Heliport 

The note associated with these procedures is: “PROCEED 

VISUALLY FROM (NAMED MAP) OR CONDUCT THE 

SPECIFIED MISSED APPROACH.” Due to their unique 

characteristics, these approaches require training. They 

are developed for hospitals, oil rigs, private heliports, etc. 

As Specials, they require Flight Standards approval by a 

Letter of Authorization (LOA) for Part 91 operators or by 

OpSpecs for Part 135 operators. For public procedures, the 

heliport associated with these procedures must be located 

within 2 SM of the MAP, the visual segment between the 

MAP and the heliport evaluated for obstacle hazards, 

and the heliport must meet the appropriate VFR heliport 

recommendations of AC 150/5390-2, Heliport Design. 

The PinS optimum location is 0.65 NM from the heliport. 

This provides an adequate distance to decelerate and land 

from an approach speed of 70 KIAS. Certain airframes may 

be certified to fly at reduced VMINI or below VMINI speeds 

as a result of flight control design or adherence to AC 

29-2, Certification of Transport Category Rotorcraft. In 

these cases, an approach procedure stating the minimum 

7-14 
Figure 7-13. COPTER RNAV (GPS) 250° at New York/La Guardia Airport. 

7-15 
 

 

 

 

Point-in-Space Approach Examples 

Under Part 91, the operator flies the published IFR PinS approach procedure that has a charted MDA of 340 mean sea level (MSL) 

and visibility of 3⁄4 SM. When approaching the MAP at an altitude of 340 feet MSL, the pilot transitions from Instrument Meteorological 

Conditions (IMC) to Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) and determines that the flight visibility is 1⁄2 SM. The pilot must determine 

prior to the MAP whether the applicable basic VFR weather minimums can be maintained from the MAP to the heliport or execute a 

missed approach. If the pilot determines that the applicable basic VFR weather minimums can be maintained to the heliport, the pilot 

may proceed VFR. If the visual segment is in Class B, C, D, or the surface area of Class E airspace, it may require the pilot to obtain 

a Special VFR clearance. 

For an operator to proceed VFR under Part 135, a minimum visibility of 1⁄2 SM during the day and 1 SM at night with a minimum 

ceiling of 300 feet. If prior to commencing the approach, the pilot determines the reported visibility is 3⁄4 SM during the day, the pilot 

descends IMC to an altitude no lower than the MDA and transitions to VMC. If the pilot determines prior to the MAP that the flight 

visibility is less than 1⁄2 SM in the visual segment, a missed approach must be executed at the MAP. 

EXAMPLE 1 

EXAMPLE 2 

Figure 7-15. Point-in-space (PinS) approach examples for Part 91 and Part 135 operations. 

certified airspeed or flight below VMINI should be annotated 

on the approach procedure. The distance also permits 

optimal blending of obstacle clearance criteria with noninstrument heliport approach areas. 

The visibility minimum is based on the distance from the 

MAP to the heliport, among other factors (e.g., height 

above the heliport elevation when at the MAP MDA). The 

pilot is required to acquire and maintain visual contact 

with the heliport final approach and takeoff (FATO) area 

at or prior to the MAP. Obstacle or terrain avoidance from 

the MAP to the heliport is the responsibility of the pilot. 

Pilots need to level off when reaching the MDA, which 

may occur before arriving at the MAP, until reaching the 

visual approach angle on the approach path to clear the 

obstacles. If the required weather minimums do not exist, 

then the published MAP must be executed at the MAP 

because IFR obstruction clearance areas are not applied to 

the visual segment of the approach and a missed approach 

segment protection is not provided between the MAP 

and the heliport. As soon as practicable after reaching 

the MAP, the pilot advises ATC whether cancelling IFR and 

proceeding visually or executing the missed approach. 

Inadvertent IMC 

Whether it is a corporate or HAA operation, helicopter pilots 

sometimes operate in challenging weather conditions. An 

encounter with weather that does not permit continued 

flight under VFR might occur when conditions do not allow 

for the visual determination of a usable horizon (e.g., fog, 

snow showers, or night operations over unlit surfaces such 

as water). Flight in conditions of limited visual contrast 

should be avoided since this can result in a loss of horizontal 

or surface reference, and obstacles such as wires become 

perceptually invisible. To prevent spatial disorientation, loss 

of control (LOC) or CFIT, pilots should slow the helicopter to a 

speed that provides a controlled deceleration in the distance 

equal to the forward visibility. The pilot should look for terrain 

that provides sufficient contrast to either continue the flight 

or to make a precautionary landing. If spatial disorientation 

occurs and a climb into IMC is not feasible due to fuel state, 

icing conditions, equipment, etc., make every effort to land 

the helicopter with a slight forward descent to prevent any 

sideward or rearward motion. 

All helicopter pilots should receive training on avoidance 

and recovery from inadvertent IMC with emphasis on 

avoidance. An unplanned transition from VMC to IMC flight 

is an emergency that involves a different set of pilot actions. 

It requires the use of different navigation and operational 

procedures, interaction with ATC, and crewmember resource 

management (CRM). Consideration should be given to the 

local flying area’s terrain, airspace, air traffic facilities, weather 

(including seasonal affects such as icing and thunderstorms), 

and available airfield/heliport approaches. 

Training should emphasize the identification of 

circumstances conducive to inadvertent IMC and a 

strategy to abandon continued VFR flight in deteriorating 

conditions. This strategy should include a minimum 

altitude/airspeed combination that provides for an off7-16 
 

airport/heliport landing, diverting to better conditions, 

or initiating an emergency transition to IFR. Pilots should 

be able to readily identify the minimum initial altitude 

and course in order to avoid CFIT. Current IFR en route 

and approach charts for the route of flight are essential. 

A GPS navigation receiver with a moving map provides 

exceptional situational awareness for terrain and obstacle 

avoidance. 

Training for an emergency transition to IFR should 

include full and partial panel instrument flight, unusual 

attitude recovery, ATC communications, and instrument 

approaches. If an ILS is available and the helicopter is 

equipped, an ILS approach should be made. Otherwise, if 

the helicopter is equipped with an IFR approach-capable 

GPS receiver with a current database, a GPS approach 

should be made. If neither, an ILS or GPS procedure is 

available use another instrument approach. 

Upon entering inadvertent IMC, priority must be given 

to control of the helicopter. Keep it simple and take one 

action at a time. 

•	 Control. First use the wings on the attitude indicator 

to level the helicopter. Maintain heading and 

increase to climb power. Establish climb airspeed 

at the best angle of climb but no slower than VMINI. 

•	 Climb. Climb straight ahead until your crosscheck is 

established. Then make a turn only to avoid terrain 

or objects. If an altitude has not been previously 

established with ATC to climb to for inadvertent IMC, 

then you should climb to an altitude that is at least 

1,000 feet above the highest known object and that 

allows for contacting ATC. 

•	 Communicate. Attempt to contact ATC as soon as 

the helicopter is stabilized in the climb and headed 

away from danger. If the appropriate frequency is 

not known, you should attempt to contact ATC on 

either very high frequency (VHF) 121.5 or ultra high 

frequency (UHF) 243.0. Initial information provided 

to ATC should be your approximate location, that 

inadvertent IMC has been encountered and an 

emergency climb has been made, your altitude, 

amount of flight time remaining (fuel state), and 

number of persons on board. You should then 

request a vector to either VFR weather conditions 

or to the nearest suitable airport/heliport that 

conditions will support a successful approach. If 

unable to contact ATC and a transponder code 

has not been previously established with ATC for 

inadvertent IMC, change the transponder code to 

7700. 

A radio altimeter is a necessity for alerting the pilot 

when inadvertently going below the minimum altitude. 

Barometric altimeters are subject to inaccuracies that 

become important in helicopter IFR operations, especially 

in cold temperatures. 

IFR Heliports 

AC 150/5390-2, Heliport Design, provides recommendations 

for heliport design to support non-precision, approach with 

vertical guidance (APV), and precision approaches to a 

heliport. When a heliport does not meet the criteria of AC 

150/5390-2, FAA Order 8260.42, United States Standard 

for Helicopter Area Navigation (RNAV), requires that an 

instrument approach be published as a Special procedure 

with annotations that special aircrew qualifications are 

required to fly the procedure. Currently, there are no 

operational civil IFR heliports in the U.S., although the U.S. 

military has some non-precision and precision approach 

procedures to IFR heliports. 

7-17 
7-18