Linings of Aboveground Petroleum 

Storage Tank Bottoms

API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 652

THIRD EDITION, OCTOBER 2005

Lining of Aboveground Petroleum 

Storage Tank Bottoms

Downstream Segment

API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 652

THIRD EDITION, OCTOBER 2005
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Copyright © 2005 American Petroleum Institute
FOREWORD

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iii

CONTENTS

Page

1 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

2 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

2.1 Codes, Standards, and Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

2.2 Other References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

3 DEFINITIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

4 CORROSION MECHANISMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

4.2 Chemical Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

4.3 Concentration Cell Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

4.4 Galvanic Cell Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

4.5 Corrosion Caused by Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

4.6 Erosion-Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

4.7 Fretting-Related Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

5 DETERMINATION OF THE NEED FOR TANK BOTTOM LINING . . . . . . . . . . . .5

5.2 Linings for Corrosion Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

5.3 Tank Corrosion History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

5.4 Tank Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

6 TANK BOTTOM LINING SELECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

6.2 Thin-Film Tank Bottom Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

6.3 Thick-Film, Reinforced Tank Bottom Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

6.4 Thick-Film, Un-reinforced Linings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

6.5 Circumstances Affecting Lining Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

7 SURFACE PREPARATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

7.2 Pre-cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

7.3 Bottom Repair and Weld Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

7.4 Environmental Conditions During Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

7.5 Surface Profile or Anchor Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

7.6 Air and Abrasive Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

7.7 Removal of Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

8 LINING APPLICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

8.2 Guidelines for Lining Application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

8.3 Temperature and Humidity Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

8.4 Lining Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

8.5 Lining Curing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

9 QUALITY CONTROL INSPECTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

9.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

9.2 Qualification of Inspection Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

9.3 Recommended Inspection Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

10 EVALUATION AND REPAIR OF EXISTING LININGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

10.2 Evaluation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

10.3 Evaluation Criteria for Linings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

v
CONTENTS

Page

10.4 Evaluating Serviceability of Existing Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

10.5 Determining the Cause of Lining Degradation/Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

10.6 Lining Repair and Replacement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

11 MAXIMIZING LINING SERVICE LIFE BY PROPER MATERIAL

SELECTION AND SPECIFICATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

11.1 Lining Material Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

11.2 Written Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

12 SAFETY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

12.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

12.2 Tank Entry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

12.3 Surface Preparation and Lining Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

12.4 Manufacturer’s Material Safety Data Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Tables

1 Thin-film Tank Bottom Lining Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

2 Thick-film, Tank Bottom Lining Resins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1

Linings of Aboveground Storage Tank Bottoms

1 Scope

This recommended practice provides guidance on achieving effective corrosion control in aboveground storage tanks 

by application of tank bottom linings. It contains information 

pertinent to the selection of lining materials, surface preparation, lining application, cure, and inspection of tank bottom 

linings for existing and new storage tanks. In many cases, 

tank bottom linings have proven to be an effective method of 

preventing internal corrosion of steel tank bottoms. 

The intent of this recommended practice is to provide 

information and guidance specific to aboveground steel storage tanks in hydrocarbon service. Certain practices recommended herein may also be applicable to tanks in other 

services. This recommended practice is intended to serve 

only as a guide. Detailed tank bottom lining specifications are 

not included. 

This recommended practice does not designate specific 

tank bottom linings for every situation because of the wide 

variety of service environments.

NACE No.10/SSPC-PA 6 and NACE No. 11/SSPC-PA 8 

are industry consensus standards for installation of linings on 

tank floors and vessels. They are written in compulsory language and contain specific criteria intended for use by persons who provide written specifications for tank and vessel 

linings. These documents should be given consideration 

when designing and installing a lining system for steel bottom tanks.

2 References 

2.1 CODES, STANDARDS, AND SPECIFICATIONS

Unless otherwise specified, the most recent edition or revision of the following standards, codes, or specifications shall, 

to the extent specified herein, form a part of this recommended practice.

API

RP 575 Inspection of Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks 

Std 620 Design and Construction of Large, 

Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks 

Std 650 Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage 

RP 651 Cathodic Protection of Aboveground 

Petroleum Storage Tanks

Std 653 Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and 

Reconstruction 

Std 2015 Requirements for Safe Entry and Cleaning 

of Petroleum Storage Tanks

RP 2016 Guidelines and Procedures for Entering 

and Cleaning Petroleum Storage Tanks

ASTM1

D 2583 Standard Test Method for Indentation 

Hardness of Rigid Plastics by Means of a 

Barcol Impressor

D 4414 Standard Practice for Measurement of Wet 

Film Thickness by Notch Gauges 

D 4417 Standard Test Methods for Field Measurement of Surface Profile of Blast Cleaned 

Steel 

D 4940 Standard Test Method for Conductimetric 

Analysis of Water Soluble Ionic Contaminants of Blasting Abrasives

D 5402 Standard Practice for Assessing the Solvent Resistance of Organic Coatings Using 

Solvent Rubs

E 96 Standard Test Methods for Water Vapor 

Transmission of Materials

G 9 Standard Test Method for Water Penetration into Pipeline Coating

DSTAN2

Defense Standard

80-97 Paint System, Medium Build for the Interior of Bulk Fuel Tanks and Fittings

Military Standards3

MIL-PRF

4556 Coating Kit, Epoxy for Inter or Steel Fuel 

Tanks

23236 Coating Systems for Ship Structures

NACE4

37519 Corrosion Data Survey—Metals Section 

TM0174 Laboratory Methods for the Evaluation of 

Protective Coatings and Lining Materials 

on Metallic Substrates in Immersion 

Service 

RP0188 Discontinuity (Holiday) Testing of New 

Protective Coatings on Conductive 

Substrates

1ASTM International, 100 Bar Harbor Drive, West Colshohocken, 

Pennsylvania, 19428-2959. www.astm.org.

2UK Defence Standardization, Room 1138, Kentigern House, 65 

Brown Street, Glasgow, G2 8EX. www.dstan.mod.uk.

3Department of Defense Single Stock Point, 700 Robbins Avenue, 

Building 4/Section D, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19111-5098. 

www.dodssp.daps.dla.mil.

4NACE International, 1440 South Creek Drive, P.O. Box 218340, 

Houston, Texas 77218-8340. www.nace.org.
2 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 652

RP0178 Fabrication Details, Surface Finish 

Requirements, and Proper Design Considerations for Tanks and Vessels to be Lined 

for Immersion Service

RP0287 Field Measurement of Surface Profile of 

Abrasive Blast Cleaned Steel Surfaces 

Using a Replica Tape

NACE/SSPC

NACE No. 1/ White Metal Blast Cleaning

SSPC-SP 5

NACE No. 2/ Near-White Metal Blast Cleaning

SSPC-SP 10

NACE No. 5/ Joint Surface Preparation Standard: 

SSPC-SP 12 Surface Preparation and Cleaning of 

Metals by Waterjetting Prior to Recoating

NACE No. 10/ Fiberglass-Reinforced Plastic (FRP)

SSPC-PA 6 Linings Applied to Bottoms of Carbon

Steel Aboveground Storage Tanks

NACE No. 11/ Thin-Film Organic Linings Applied in New

SSPC-PA 8 Carbon Steel Process Vessels

NACE 6A192/ Dehumidification and Temperature

SSPC-TR 3 Control During Surface Preparation,

Application, and Curing for Coatings/

Linings of Steel Tanks, Vessels, and Other 

Enclosed Spaces 

OSHA5

29 CFR

1910.94 Ventilation

1910.132 Personal Protective Equipment, General 

Requirements

1910.146 Permit-Required Confined Spaces

1926.62 Lead

Publ. 2254 Training Requirements in OSHA Standards 

and Training Guidelines

SSPC6

PA 1 Shop, Field, and Maintenance Painting 

PA 2 Measurement of Dry Paint Thickness with 

Magnetic Gages 

PA 3 A Guide to Safety in Paint Application 

SP 1 Solvent Cleaning

SP 11 Power Tool Cleaning to Bare Metal

TU 4 Field Methods for Retrieval and Analysis 

of Soluble Salts on Substrates

VIS 1 Guide and Reference Photographs for 

Steel Surfaces Prepared by Dry Abrasive 

Blast Cleaning

2.2 OTHER REFERENCES

Although not cited in the text, these publications may be of 

interest or contain related material.

API

RP 2009 Safe Welding, Cutting and Hot Work Practices in the Petroleum & Petrochemical 

Industries

Publ 2207 Preparing Tank Bottoms for Hot Work

ACGIH7

Threshold Limit Values (TLVs®) and Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs®)

NACE

Handbook 1 Forms of Corrosion Recognition and Prevention, Vol. 1 & 2 

OSHA

29 CFR

1910.134 Respiratory Protection

1910.147 The Control of Hazardous Energy 

(Lockout/Tagout)

1910.1000 Air Contaminants

1910.1200 Hazard Communication

1926.354 Welding, Cutting, and Heating in way of 

Preservative Coatings

SSPC

AB 1 Mineral and Slag Abrasives

AB 2 Specification for Cleanliness of Recycled 

Ferrous Metallic Abrasives

AB 3 Newly Manufactured or Re-manufactured 

Steel Abrasives

3 Definitions

3.1 aboveground storage tank: A stationary container, 

usually cylindrical in shape, consisting of a metallic roof, 

shell, bottom, and support structure where more than 90% of 

the tank volume is above surface grade.

3.2 adduct: A curing agent, generally an amine that has 

been combined with a portion of the resin, usually an epoxy.

3.3 amine: An organic compound having amino functional groups, which provide chemical reactivity and utility as 

a curative for epoxy and other resins.

3.4 anchor pattern: Surface profile or roughness.

3.5 anode: The electrode of an electrochemical cell at 

which oxidation (corrosion) occurs. Electrons flow away 

5The Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 200 Constitution Avenue NW, Washington D.C. 20210. www.osha.gov.

6The Society for Protective Coatings, 40 24th Street, 6th Floor, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania 15222-4656. www.sspc.org.

7The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 

1330 Kemper Meadow Drive, Cincinnati, Ohio 45240. 

www.acgih.org.
LINING OF ABOVEGROUND PETROLEUM STORAGE TANK BOTTOMS 3

from the anode in the external circuit. Corrosion usually 

occurs and metal ions enter the solution at the anode. 

3.6 aromatics: Strong hydrocarbon solvents whose 

chemical structure has one or more unsaturated ring structures. Benzene, toluene, and xylene are common examples of 

aromatic solvents.

3.7 Bisphenol–A polyester: A polyester whose chemical structure incorporates Bisphenol-A into the resin molecule in place of some or all of the glycol. The solid resin is 

generally provided as a solution in styrene, which acts as a 

solvent and as a cross-linking agent for the resin.

3.8 cathode: The electrode of an electrochemical cell at 

which a reduction is the principle reaction. Electrons flow 

toward the cathode in the metal component. 

3.9 cathodic protection: A technique to reduce corrosion of a metal surface by making that surface the cathode of 

an electrochemical cell.

3.10 coal tar: A black hydrocarbon residue remaining 

after coal is distilled.

3.11 coal tar epoxy: A coating in which the binder is a 

combination of coal tar and epoxy resin.

3.12 coating: See definition for lining.

3.13 copolymer: A large molecule whose chemical structure consists of at least two different monomers.

3.14 corrosion: The deterioration of a material, usually a 

metal, because of a reaction with its environment.

3.15 curing: The setting up or hardening, generally due to 

a polymerization reaction between two or more chemicals 

(resin and curative).

3.16 dew point: The temperature at which moisture condenses from the atmosphere.

3.17 differential aeration cell: An electrochemical cell, 

the electromotive force of which is due to a difference in air 

(oxygen) concentration at one electrode as compared with 

that at another electrode of the same material. 

3.18 electrochemical cell: A system consisting of an 

anode and a cathode immersed in an electrolyte so as to create an electrical circuit. The anode and the cathode may be 

different metals or dissimilar areas on the same metal surface.

3.19 electrolyte: A chemical substance containing ions 

that migrate in an electric field.

3.20 epoxy: Resin containing epoxide (oxirane) functional groups that allow for curing by polymerization with a 

variety of curatives. Epoxy resins are usually made from 

Bisphenol-A and/or Bisphenol-F and epichlorohydrin.

3.21 forced-curing: Acceleration of curing by increasing 

the temperature above ambient, accompanied by forced air 

circulation.

3.22 holiday: A discontinuity in a protective coating that 

exposes unprotected surface to the environment.

3.23 isophthalic polyester: A resin polymerized from 

isophthalic acid (or anhydride), ethylene or propylene glycol 

and maleic acid (or anhydride). The solid resin is generally 

provided as a solution in styrene, which acts as a solvent and 

as a cross-linking agent for the resin.

3.24 lining: A material applied to the internal surfaces of a 

tank to serve as a barrier to corrosion and/or product contamination. The term coating is also used for the purposes of this 

document.

3.25 mil: One one-thousandth of an inch (0.001 in.). One 

mil = 25.4 μm; it is common practice to use 1 mil = 25 μm. 

3.26 mill scale: An oxide layer formed on steel during 

hot-forming operations, typically “gun-metal” blue in color.

3.27 phenolic: A resin of the phenol formaldehyde type.

3.28 polyamide: A resin whose chemical structure contains adjacent carbonyl and amino functional groups that is 

often used as a curative for epoxy resins. Commercially available polyamides are reaction products of dimerized and trimerized fatty acids with ammonia or polyamines.

3.29 polyamidoamine: A resin whose chemical structure contains adjacent carbonyl and amino functional groups 

that is often used as a curative for epoxy resins. Commercially available polyamidoamines are reaction products of 

monofunctional fatty acids and amines.

3.30 resin: A natural or synthetic substance that may be 

used as a binder in coatings.

3.31 thick-film lining: A lining with a dry film thickness 

of 20 mils (0.51 μm) or more.

3.32 thick-film reinforced lining: See 6.3 for interpretation.

3.33 thin-film lining: A lining with a dry film thickness 

less than 20 mils (0.51 μm).

3.34 vinyl ester: A polyester that usually contains 

Bisphenol-A in the resin backbone and two vinyl groups for 

polymerization reactivity. The solid resin is generally provided as a solution in styrene, which acts as a solvent and as a 

cross-linking agent for the resin.

3.35 vinyl group: A functional group on a resin molecule 

that consists of a carbon-to-carbon double bond at the end of 

the molecule.
4 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 652

3.36 volatile organic compound (VOC): Compounds 

that have a high vapor pressure [greater than 0.27 kPa (2 mm 

of mercury) at 25oC] and low water solubility, excluding 

methane. VOCs typically are industrial solvents, fuel oxygenates, or components of petroleum fuels.

4 Corrosion Mechanisms

4.1 GENERAL

Corrosion rates of carbon steel in various hydrocarbons 

have been determined and are given in many reference texts 

such as “NACE Corrosion Data Survey-Metals Section.” 

These rates apply only if there are no accelerating mechanisms. For example, corrosion would not be expected in 

ambient temperature crude oil or product service with no 

water present; however, corrosion may occur when a layer of 

water settles to the bottom of a crude oil, intermediate product, or finished product storage tank. This water, which may 

enter the tank with the product, through the seals, or during 

“breathing” of the tank, often contains corrosive compounds. 

For example, crude oil may contain salt water and sediment 

that settles out on the bottoms of storage tanks. Chlorides and 

other soluble salts contained in the water may provide a 

strong electrolyte that can promote corrosion. The common 

mechanisms of internal tank bottom corrosion include:

a. Chemical corrosion.

b. Concentration cell corrosion.

c. Galvanic cell corrosion.

d. Corrosion caused by sulfate-reducing bacteria. 

e. Erosion-corrosion.

f. Fretting-related corrosion.

These mechanisms are discussed in detail in the following 

sections.

4.2 CHEMICAL CORROSION

Chemical corrosion may occur in environmental and product cleanup tanks as well as in chemical storage facilities. For 

example, a wastewater treatment tank operates by adding heat 

and/or concentrated sulfuric acid to the water to break the 

emulsion of oil and water. The acid, unless added properly, 

immediately becomes diluted and hence much more corrosive, especially in the area of the acid inlet piping. Chemical 

attack is also prevalent in corrosive services such as caustic, 

sulfuric acid, ballast water, and water neutralization services.

4.3 CONCENTRATION CELL CORROSION

Concentration cell corrosion may occur when a surface 

deposit, mill scale, or crevice creates a localized area of lower 

oxygen concentration. The area under a surface deposit may 

be penetrated by a thin layer of electrolyte, which soon 

becomes depleted of oxygen. The difference in oxygen concentration between the inaccessible area and the bulk electrolyte creates a galvanic cell, with the contact area of the 

surface deposit being anodic to the surrounding tank plate. 

Concentration cell corrosion will cause pitting and may result 

in significant localized metal loss. Pitting of a bare steel tank 

bottom may occur at a rate as high as 80 mils (2.0 mm) per 

year.

4.4 GALVANIC CELL CORROSION 

Hot-rolled carbon steel, typically used for the construction 

of petroleum storage tanks, is covered with a thin layer of 

oxide called mill scale, which is cathodic to the base steel. In 

the presence of a corrodent (such as dissolved oxygen) and an 

electrolyte, a galvanic corrosion couple forms at breaks in the 

mill scale. Accelerated pitting corrosion of the steel at breaks 

in the mill scale can result. Mill scale may be removed from 

both sides of the tank bottom plate by abrasive blast cleaning 

or by pickling, but removal of mill scale from the underside 

of the steel bottom is not commonly done.

In some cases, welding can produce large differences in the 

microstructure of a steel bottom plate resulting in a built-in 

galvanic couple. In the presence of a corrodent and an electrolyte, preferential corrosion can occur at the heat-affected 

zones (HAZ) of the base metal near the welds. This type of 

corrosion can cause significant localized metal loss.

4.5 CORROSION CAUSED BY SULFATEREDUCING BACTERIA

Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) are widespread in the 

petroleum industry. The role of SRB in corrosion is universally recognized but the mechanisms are not well understood. 

Generally, the effect of SRB on the corrosion of bare steel 

tank bottoms is negligible. In some cases, however, severe 

corrosion has been attributed to SRB. The SRB colonies form 

deposits on the steel that may provide an effective barrier to 

the diffusion of dissolved oxygen. Thus, the mere physical 

presence of bacterial deposits can promote aggressive pitting 

corrosion by the concentration cell mechanism described in 

4.3. 

The metabolism of SRB is important with regard to the 

corrosion of storage tank bottoms. SRB are strict anaerobes 

that do not proliferate in the presence of oxygen; however, the 

dense bacterial colonies create a local anaerobic condition 

even if some oxygen is available. By creating the local anaerobic condition, the bacteria can stay alive in the presence of 

oxygen even though the colonies do not expand. SRB colonies derive energy principally from the reduction of sulfates 

to sulfide, and this metabolic end product is corrosive to steel. 

Moreover, the iron sulfide corrosion product is cathodic to the 

base steel and may promote accelerated pitting corrosion by a 

galvanic mechanism as described in 4.4, if dissolved oxygen 

is available as a corrodent.
LINING OF ABOVEGROUND PETROLEUM STORAGE TANK BOTTOMS 5

4.6 EROSION-CORROSION 

Erosion-corrosion may occur in wastewater treating or 

mixing tanks where soil or small abrasive aggregate is 

present. To a lesser extent, erosion-corrosion can also occur at 

tank mixers in crude oil storage tanks. A water treatment tank 

blends chemicals into contaminated water to break any emulsions of oil and water. Agitation may increase corrosion by 

delivering more corrodent, such as dissolved oxygen, from 

the bulk of the stored product to the surface of the tank steel. 

Turbulence also moves any fine aggregate that is present, creating an abrasive environment in which adherent, semi-protective corrosion products can be dislodged, exposing the 

underlying steel to the corrosive environment. Severe erosion 

conditions may scour the base metal directly. Erosion-corrosion causes highly localized metal loss in a well-defined pattern.

4.7 FRETTING-RELATED CORROSION

Fretting-related corrosion may occur in hydrocarbon service on the bottoms of external floating roof tanks. When the 

tank is emptied, the floating roof is typically supported on 

roof-support legs constructed of open-ended pipe. Most bottom designs require “striker plates” under each roof support 

leg. When the floating roof is landed, the pipe legs rest on the 

striker plates supporting the weight of the roof. Repeated, frequent contact between the striker plate and the open end of 

the pipe leg removes any protective layer of rust scale that 

may have formed on the striker plate surface. When the roof 

is floated again, any water on the tank bottom causes corrosion at the location on the striker plate where the coating and/

or any protective rust scale has been damaged. Experience 

has shown that frequent roof landings over a long period of 

time causes corrosion severe and localized enough to corrode 

a hole through the striker plate and the floor plate like a 

cookie cutter.

5 Determination of the Need for Tank 

Bottom Lining

5.1 GENERAL 

The bottom plates of aboveground storage tanks are susceptible to internal and external corrosion. Storage tank bottoms are generally fabricated from carbon steel plate sections 

that are typically 0.25 in. (6 mm) thick. Annular floor plates 

of storage tanks frequently have thicker plate sections ranging 

from 0.25 to 1.0 in. (6 to 25 mm). The bottom plate sections 

and the attachment fillet lap welds are intended to function as 

a membrane and prevent leaks. Uniform soil support beneath 

the bottom plate minimizes stress in the bottom plate. 

The need for an internal tank bottom lining in an aboveground storage tank is generally based on several considerations:

a. Corrosion prevention. 

b. Tank design. 

c. Tank history. 

d. Environmental considerations. 

e. Reduce time and effort for future tank cleaning.

f. Federal, state, and local regulations.

g. Product quality.

5.2 LININGS FOR CORROSION PREVENTION

The proper selection, application, and maintenance of tank 

bottom linings can prevent internal corrosion of the steel tank 

bottom. Unless means of corrosion prevention are used on the 

soil side, perforation of the tank bottom may still occur. 

The minimum thickness of the steel tank bottom should be 

determined according to API Std 653. An internal tank bottom lining may be deemed necessary if inspection shows that 

the minimum thickness of the bottom steel plate is less than 

0.100 in. (2.5 mm), or if corrosion is expected to proceed so 

that the steel thickness may reach this minimum thickness 

prior to the next scheduled inspection.

When using API Std 653 to determine appropriate internal 

inspection intervals for aboveground storage tanks, the anticipated life of the lining as well as the corrosion rate anticipated 

in the event of premature lining failure should be considered. 

5.3 TANK CORROSION HISTORY

The corrosion history of a particular tank should be considered when determining the need for an internal lining. The 

corrosion history of tanks in similar service should also be 

considered. The items to be considered are dictated by individual circumstances, but some of the more important considerations are as follows:

a. Where is the corrosion occurring (product side, soil side, 

or both)? 

b. What is the internal and soil-side corrosion rate? 

c. Have there been significant changes in the corrosion rate? 

d. What type of corrosion is occurring? 

e. Has corrosion caused perforation of the steel tank bottom?

f. What was the prior service of the tank and how corrosive 

was that product?

5.4 TANK FOUNDATION

The foundation must be adequate to prevent excessive settlement of the tank. If uniform foundation support is not provided, flexing of the tank bottom can result as the tank is 

filled or emptied. Flexing occurs on all steel floors; however, 

excessive flexing of the steel bottom may cause an internal 

bottom lining to crack. 
6 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 652

The tank pad material beneath the steel bottom has a significant effect on the potential for underside corrosion. If 

there is pad contamination (e.g. rock, lumps of clay, welding 

electrodes, paper, plastic, wood, etc.) in contact with the 

underside of the steel, differential aeration or other corrosion 

cells can form where the contaminates are in contact with the 

tank bottom and severe corrosion may result (see API RP 

651). The use of wood under a tank floor is not recommended 

given that it promotes bacterial activity and will cause accelerated corrosion. 

6 Tank Bottom Lining Selection

6.1 GENERAL

Tank bottom linings can generally be divided into two 

classes: thin-films [with a dry film thickness less than 20 mils 

(0.51 μm)] and thick-films [with a dry film thickness of 20 

mils (0.51 μm) or more]. Linings may be applied to the bottoms of storage tanks when they are first constructed or they 

may be installed after some period of service. Generally, thinfilm linings may be applied to new tanks and to bottoms of 

storage tanks that have experienced minimal corrosion. The 

advantages and disadvantages of thin and thick-film tank bottom lining systems are discussed in this section.

Most tank bottom lining materials are initially selected 

based on chemical resistance or compatibility with the stored 

product. However, resistance to moisture permeation should 

also be a major consideration for long-term service since 

most storage tanks will typically have a layer of water on the 

floor. All lining materials absorb moisture over time and this 

absorption can ultimately result in its failure. The moisture 

vapor transmission of various lining materials can be comparatively tested using ASTM E 96, ASTM G 9, or other equivalent test methods. Because tank bottoms flex during 

operation, a bend test on coating candidates should be performed to ASTM D 522, or another appropriate standard.

Recent advancements in technology have produced coatings with zero VOCs. These 100% solid coatings provide 

reduced safety concerns during the application; can be 

applied in a single coat and offer a reduction in the tank turnaround schedule. With exceptions, typically these coatings 

are classified as thick-film linings.

6.2 THIN-FILM TANK BOTTOM LININGS

Thin-film tank bottom lining systems are frequently based 

on epoxy or epoxy-copolymer resins. Table 1 lists several 

generic types of thin-film linings and their suitability for various stored hydrocarbon and petrochemical products. All linings that are employed to protect tank bottoms also must be 

resistant to water, since water must be present at the tank bottom for electrochemical corrosion to occur. NACE No. 11/

SSPC-PA 8 should be given consideration when designing 

and installing a thin-film lining system for steel bottom tanks.

Table 1—Thin-film Tank Bottom Lining Systems

Lining Systema

(resin/curative) Typical Services

Maximum 

Temperature Range

°F (°C)b

Coal tar epoxy/amine Foul water services and 

crude oil 

120–170 (49–77)

Epoxy phenolic/amine Light products, distillates, aromatics, high 

purity water, sour products, crude, and gasoline 

180–220 (82–104)

Epoxy/amine Water, light products, 

distillates, aromatics, 

crude, and gasoline 

160–220 (71–104)

Epoxy/polyamide Water, distillates, crude, 

and gasoline 

160–180 (71–82)

Epoxy/polyamidoamine Water, distillates, crude, 

and gasoline 

160–180 (71–82)

Note: 

a. Generally applied over a white or near-white abrasive blast 

cleaning in two or three coats. No primer is required. Information 

related to the performance limitations of specific coatings with 

regard to chemical immersion and elevated temperatures should be 

obtained from the lining manufacturer.

b. For tanks containing a water layer on the bottom, the maximum 

temperature will be at the lower end of the specified range.

6.2.1 Advantages of Thin-film Linings

Thin-film lining systems are often used for application to 

the topside of the bottoms of new storage tanks. New steel 

plates provide a smooth surface that easily can be made ready 

for lining application. Corrosion of bare steel tank bottoms is 

rarely uniform. Generally, corrosion due to immersion exposure creates a surface that is rough and pitted, and it is often 

difficult to completely coat and protect a corroded steel bottom with a thin-film lining system. The principal advantages 

of thin-film linings are as follows:

a. Initial cost is typically less than thick-film reinforced 

linings. 

b. Most are easier to apply than thick-film reinforced linings.

c. Experience has shown that when properly selected, 

applied, and not damaged, the life of thin-film linings can be 

greater than 20 years.

d. Most thin-film epoxy linings exhibit good flexibility.

e. Generally more accurate MFL floor scans. 

f. It is often easier to remove a thin-film lining at the end of 

its useful life.

6.2.2 Limitations of Thin-film Linings

a. API Std 653, requires a minimum of 0.050 in. (1.3 mm) 

remaining bottom plate thickness at the next internal inspection, when thick, reinforced linings are used. However, for 

thin-film linings, API Std 653 requires the bottom plate thick-
LINING OF ABOVEGROUND PETROLEUM STORAGE TANK BOTTOMS 7

ness be a minimum of 0.100 in. (2.5 mm) at the end of the 

next service interval.

b. Thin-film linings are more susceptible to mechanical damage than thick-film linings.

c. Rough weld surfaces and weld spatter can protrude 

through the finished lining thickness and result in holidays, 

therefore, weld surfaces should be relatively smooth and weld 

spatter removed before a lining is applied. Alternately, caulking compatible with the lining product may be used to cover 

rough welds. Optimally, requirements for weld surface quality are part of the welding specification and not part of the 

lining contractor’s responsibility.

d. Some thin-film linings require the application of multiple 

coats.

e. Thin-film linings are most often solvent-borne coatings 

that require the evaporation of solvent from the film to 

achieve proper cure. If the solvent vapors are not effectively 

removed from the tank or vessel, because they are heavier 

than air, they will hover at the floor level and impede the 

progress of the cure.

f. Presence of moisture in the air during the cure can cause 

amine blush, which must be removed before the application 

of subsequent coats.

6.3 THICK-FILM, REINFORCED TANK BOTTOM 

LININGS

Thick-film, reinforced linings may be used as tank bottom 

linings for both new and old storage tanks. Table 2 lists 

generic types of resins typically used in such linings. These 

resins are commonly reinforced with chopped glass fibers, 

chopped glass mat, woven glass mat, or organic fibers.

The properties of composite linings are a function of the 

properties of the constituent phases (polymer matrix and reinforcing filler), their relative amounts, and the geometry of the 

dispersed, reinforcement phase (e.g., particle size, shape, distribution, orientation). Some particulate fillers strengthen and 

reinforce the matrix a little, whereas others do not. 

Reinforcement capability is very much size and shape 

dependent and elongated fibers provide the best reinforcement for plastics. The overall strength of a composite 

depends on the tensile strength of the fibers and on the degree 

to which a load can be transmitted from the matrix to the 

fibers. With small particle fillers having an acicular or needlelike shape (e.g., talc), a platy shape (e.g., mica), or flake 

shape (e.g., glass), the tensile strength is of little consequence. 

Small reinforcing particles restrain movement of the matrix 

only over a miniscule area at the particle. Tensile strength of 

fiber reinforcement is important and only fibers can distribute 

the stress over their elongated area. Only fiber-reinforced linings are well proven to have hole-bridging capability. 

As with thin-film linings, a white (NACE No. 1/SSPC-SP 

5) or near-white (NACE No. 2/SSPC-SP 10) abrasive blast 

cleaning should be provided for good adhesion. 

The NACE No. 10/SSPC-PA6 specification should be 

given consideration when designing and installing a thickfilm lining system for steel bottom tanks.

Table 2-Thick-film, Tank Bottom Lining Resins

Glass-reinforced 

Lining Resinsa Typical Services

Maximum 

Temperature Range °F 

(°C)b

Isophthalic Polyester Water, crude oil, distillates, and gasoline 140 – 160 (60 – 71)

Bisphenol-A Polyester Water, crude oil, distillates, and gasoline 160 – 180 (71 – 82)

Vinyl Ester Water, crude oil, 

aromatics, solvents, 

alcohols, gasohol, oil, 

and chemicals 

180 – 220 (82 – 104)

Epoxy Water, crude oil, 

aromatic distillates, 

and gasoline 

180 (82)

Note: 

a. Generally applied over a white or near-white abrasive blast 

cleaning in several coats. No primer is required. Information related 

to the performance limitations of specific coatings with regard to 

chemical immersion and elevated temperatures should be obtained 

from the lining manufacturer.

b. For tanks containing a water layer on the bottom, the maximum 

temperature will be at the lower end of the specified range.

Installation of a chopped glass reinforced lining via a chopper gun requires applicators with specific expertise. The 

device held and controlled by the applicator must deposit not 

only the correct ratio of components in the resin mixture, but 

also the correct amount of fibers vs. resin. Too much resin 

results in a lack of reinforcement strength. Too little resin 

results in poor barrier properties. A reinforced lining must 

possess optimum barrier and stress-carrying properties.

A typical installation sequence for a hand laid mat type 

reinforced linings is:

a. Spray application of a resin (or flood) coat, typically 20 – 

30 mils (508 – 762 (m)).

b. Lay sections of pre-cut mat into the wet resin, overlapping 

edges of mat approx. 2 in. (5 cm).

c. Roll the resin into the mat using ribbed rollers to fully saturate it and remove entrapped air.

d. Spray apply another coat of resin, approx. 25 – 30 mils 

(635 – 762 (m)) to achieve 45 – 55 mils (1143 – 1397 (m)) 

total thickness.

e. Sand to remove protruding fibers.

f. Spray apply a final coat of resin (gel coat).

Many types of polyester require wax addition to topcoats 

to ensure timely and complete surface cure. Information 

related to the performance limitations of specific coatings 

with regard to chemical immersion and elevated temperatures 

should be obtained from the lining manufacturer.
8 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 652

Special consideration must be given to the coving at the 

transition from the tank bottom to the shell, so as to prevent 

cracking of the lining when the tank is put into service. As the 

tank is loaded, the hoop stress on the shell may cause the lining to crack at the transition from the bottom to the shell if the 

lining is not properly supported. The manufacturer’s instructions for the lining system should be followed in this regard. 

6.3.1 Advantages of Thick-film, Reinforced 

Linings

Thick-film, reinforced linings are often used on aged floors 

that have incurred corrosion and are rough and pitted. 

Because they are less susceptible to mechanical damage than 

other linings, they would be the lining of choice for tanks in 

which routine personnel entry and/or mechanical work is 

anticipated during the life of the lining. Experience has 

shown that thick, glass-reinforced linings can provide sufficient strength to bridge over small perforations in the steel 

bottom that may develop due to soil-side corrosion. However, 

this benefit cannot be claimed as part of a maintenance plan 

because API Std 653 requires re-inspection and repair before 

a perforation occurs. An API Std 653 internal inspection must 

be performed before the steel bottom thickness is reduced to 

0.050 in. (1.3 mm). 

The principal advantages of thick-film, reinforced linings 

are as follows:

a. Easier to achieve coverage when applied over rough, pitted steel and other surface irregularities.

b. Ability to bridge future perforations in the floor steel.

c. Resistant to mechanical damage.

d. Choice of hand lay-up or chopper gun application.

e. Few or no discontinuities to repair following the “holiday” 

test.

f. Long term service–greater than 20 years resulting in low 

life-cycle costs.

g. Generally provides greater resistance to moisture permeation.

6.3.2 Limitations of Thick-film, Reinforced Linings

a. They can require more time and effort to apply

b. Are normally more expensive to install than thin-film, 

tank bottom linings 

c. MFL Floor Scan Inspection of the steel bottom plate 

through a thick-film, reinforced lining can be more difficult 

than a thin-film lining.

d. Thick-film linings are more prone to cracking if tank bottom plate flexure occurs due to non-uniform soil support, and 

if the strain at the corner weld caused by hoop stress on the 

shell (e.g., filling and emptying the tank) exceeds the elastic 

limits of the lining.

6.4 THICK-FILM, UN-REINFORCED LININGS 

Thick-film, un-reinforced linings may be used as tank bottom linings for both new and old storage tanks. However, it is 

important to note that only fiber-reinforced linings are well 

proven to have hole-bridging capability.

6.4.1 Advantages of Thick-film Un-reinforced 

Linings

a. Some thick-film linings can be built up to 100 mils (2540 

μm) in a single coat. 

b. Better coverage over rough surfaces.

c. No overlap or intercoat contamination and blushing issues 

with a single coat application.

d. High solids may have better edge retention with reduced 

material shrinkage.

e. Typically, fast curing and can be put back in service after 

24 hours at normal ambient temperatures.

f. Few or no discontinuities to repair following the “holiday” 

test.

g. Reduced labor costs compared to multi-coat thin-film or 

labor-intensive reinforced thick-film linings.

h. Promotes a reduced tank turn around schedule. 

i. Long term service–greater than 20 years resulting in low 

life–cycle costs.

j. Generally provides greater resistance to moisture 

permeation.

6.4.2 Limitations of Thick-film, Un-reinforced 

Linings

a. Typically requires the use of plural component spray 

equipment.

b. Difficult to install on complex geometry due to plural 

component application.

c. Contractor experience level should be a consideration.

d. MFL Floor Scan Inspection of underlying steel condition 

may be limited on linings of very high thickness.

e. Depending on resin type and thickness, cracking due to 

plate flexure may be a concern.

6.5 CIRCUMSTANCES AFFECTING LINING 

SELECTION

In addition to corrosion history and the potential for corrosion, circumstances that must be taken into account during 

the selection of a tank bottom lining are described in 6.5.1 

through 6.5.6.

6.5.1 Temperature

Temperature (e.g. temperature changes generated by steam 

coils) must be taken into account during the selection of an 

internal lining system. Storage tanks may operate above 

ambient temperature in order to maintain low viscosity of the 
LINING OF ABOVEGROUND PETROLEUM STORAGE TANK BOTTOMS 9

stored product. As temperatures increase, this consideration 

becomes more critical and the need for careful lining selection is required. Information related to performance limitations with elevated service temperatures may be obtained 

from the lining manufacturer. If this information cannot be 

obtained from the lining manufacturer, the owner may evaluate linings in accordance with NACE TM0174 before the 

selection of the lining system. Tables 1 and 2 list temperature 

limitations for some common generic lining systems. 

6.5.2 Product Quality

With many refined products, such as gasoline, jet fuel, 

lubricating oils, solvents and other petrochemical products, 

tank bottoms may be lined not only to prevent internal corrosion but also to maintain product quality. If lining selection is 

principally based on product purity, thin-film lining systems 

may be suitable. However, in some circumstances a combination of product quality and corrosion resistance must be considered. Coatings that are certified to MIL-PRF-23236 for 

fuel service must meet a range of test requirements that are 

designed to ensure that a lining does not negatively impact 

key properties of jet fuel and aviation gasoline. Coatings that 

are certified to MIL-PRF-4556 have tightly controlled chemical composition, which minimizes the threat of fuel contamination by the coating. MIL-PRF-4556 does not contain a test 

requirement to ensure fuel quality, therefore, when MILPRF-4556 is specified, a separate fuel degradation test such 

as UK Defence Standard 80–97, Annex G may also be specified.

The owner may also have to evaluate the product immersion liquid to ensure that product contamination by the prospective internal lining will not occur. Certain products, such 

as fiber-grade ethylene glycol, have quality requirements that 

can be affected by solvent residues leaching from a newly 

applied lining into the stored ethylene glycol product. These 

contaminants (even at very low levels) can interfere with the 

quality control tests for the high purity fiber-grade ethylene 

glycol (used in the manufacture of polyurethane fiber). In situations such as this, linings should be evaluated to determine 

their suitability for the intended service. Linings intended for 

product quality and corrosion protection must be resistant to 

the intended tank service and the probable presence of a contaminated water layer on the floor.

6.5.3 Presence of Tank Internals

Existing tanks may have design and fabrication features 

that make the application of a lining impractical or can seriously jeopardize the integrity of a lining. For example, internal steam coils, which are used to heat a product to maintain a 

desirable viscosity, limit accessibility to the tank bottom during surface preparation and application of the lining. As a 

result, a good quality installation may be difficult to achieve. 

In service, steam coils create local areas where the temperature can be much greater than that of the bulk product. The 

resulting thermal effects on a tank bottom lining may cause 

localized coating damage such as blistering or cracking.

6.5.4 Flexibility for Service Change

Changes in tank service may affect the performance of an 

existing tank bottom lining. Tank linings do not offer universal resistance. A properly applied tank bottom lining may 

provide more than 20 years of service life in storing a particular product. A lining that has provided many years of satisfactory protection in one product may have inadequate 

resistance to a new service environment. The need for operational flexibility at some facilities requires that some tanks be 

available for swing service. Such factors should be considered during the selection and design of a lining system. 

6.5.5 Construction Details that Can Impact the 

Lining

It is difficult to achieve lining continuity when irregular 

surfaces caused by discontinuous connections such as rivets, 

butt straps, and skip welding exist because they are difficult 

to cover and protect with a lining. In old tanks, the problem of 

poor coverage may be complicated by chemical contaminants, which may be difficult to remove. It is common to use 

caulk to seal lap joints between riveted plates and around rivets to provide a continuous surface for the lining application. 

Welded tanks generally require less preparation than riveted 

tanks. 

Support steel under cone-roof column supports or floatingroof support column landing plates may be necessary to protect the floor and the lining from impact and wear.

The type and extent of previous repairs to the tank (such as 

internal lap patches or nozzle additions with no back weld) 

should be taken into consideration.

6.5.6 Upset Conditions 

The degradation of a lining is a complex process and, 

unlike the steel that is to be protected, degradation is not 

readily quantified by a corrosion rate. A relatively short-term 

exposure to an unusually aggressive environment can cause 

irreversible damage to a lining, compromising the protection 

afforded to the steel. For this reason, a lining must resist 

potential upset conditions in addition to the usual service 

environment.

7 Surface Preparation

7.1 GENERAL 

As recommended in the scope of this document, NACE 

No. 10/SSPC-PA 6 and NACE No. 11/SSPC-PA 8 should be 

considered when determining specific criteria for surface 

preparation and lining application. Following is a general out-
10 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 652

line of surface preparation considerations covered in these 

referenced documents.

Surface preparation is a critical part of the lining application. Continuous immersion is a severe exposure. Inadequate 

surface preparation is a major cause of lining failure. Surface 

preparation is performed to provide the appropriate combination of surface cleanliness and surface profile, or the anchor 

pattern (see 7.5) required to establish good chemical and 

mechanical adhesion of the lining resin to the steel. Generally, abrasive blast cleaning to a white metal finish (NACE 

No. 1/SSPC-SP5) is desired. Abrasive blast cleaning to a 

near-white metal finish (NACE No. 2/SSPC-SP10) is often 

specified as the minimum degree of surface cleanliness. For 

small areas, SSPC SP 11 is often desirable to avoid damage to 

the surrounding lining that may be in very good condition. 

Use of power tools to meet SSPC SP 11 requirements must 

include the use of abrasive disks or flapper wheels that provide the specified anchor profile and must be followed by solvent wipe per SSPC SP 1 to remove oil contaminants from 

the power tool. 

To facilitate inspection and to ensure good adhesion of the 

lining, surface preparation by abrasive blasting should extend 

several inches beyond the area to be lined. This practice of 

framing the area where lining is to be applied helps to ensure 

that unprepared steel is not inadvertently coated.

7.2 PRE-CLEANING

Prior to abrasive blasting, all hydrocarbon residues such as 

oil, tar, and grease, must be removed from the area to be 

lined. Solvent cleaning (see SSPC-SP 1) and high-pressure 

water or steam cleaning, using the proper chemicals, are 

effective methods of accomplishing complete hydrocarbon 

removal. Cleaning is typically followed by a fresh water rinse 

to ensure complete removal of cleaning chemicals. 

It is important to note that typically abrasive blasting is not 

effective in the removal of soluble salts. The presence of soluble salts on the steel can adversely affect the performance of a 

lining resulting in blistering by osmosis. Consideration 

should be given to a field evaluation for the presence of soluble salts whenever there is the possibility of such contamination. SSPC TU 4 describes common methods for this 

evaluation. The use of high pressure and ultra-high pressure 

water jetting NACE No. 5/SSPC-SP 12 has proven to be 

effective in the reduction of soluble salt contamination. Typically, this specification is used for substrates that already possess a surface profile and do not require abrasive blasting. For 

substrates that require a surface profile, there are commercial 

products available that can be added to a water wash to 

reduce the presence of soluble salts prior to abrasive blasting. 

7.3 BOTTOM REPAIR AND WELD PREPARATION

The preferred technique for the repair of perforations of the 

steel tank bottom is welding of steel patches. API Std 653 

should be consulted for information on tank bottom repair.

Welds should be inspected before and after blast cleaning. 

All sharp edges and protrusions should be ground to provide 

a smooth surface that can be completely and uniformly covered with the lining material. Sharp edges and protrusions 

may be caused by such things as weld spatter, sharp weld 

crests, undercutting of the weld, arc burns, erection clips, 

plate joints, burrs, and gouges. Chipping, followed by grinding, can be used to remove sharp edges. NACE RP0178 can 

be used to specify the surface finish of welds. Typically, weld 

finish “C” or “D” is specified.

7.4 ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS DURING 

BLASTING

Abrasive blasting should not be performed if the temperature of the steel surface is less than 5°F (3°C) above the dew 

point or if the relative humidity is greater than 80% (see 8.3). 

The surface to be lined should be of the specified level of 

cleanliness at the time the lining is applied. If the surface is 

degraded or contaminated subsequent to surface preparation 

and before lining application, the specified level of cleanliness should be restored before lining application.

7.5 SURFACE PROFILE OR ANCHOR PATTERN

The abrasive used for blasting should be selected to produce the necessary profile depth, or anchor pattern, for the 

lining to be applied. The lining manufacturer’s recommendation for surface profile depth must be achieved in order to 

optimize the mechanical adhesion of the lining to the steel 

tank bottom. The anchor pattern required for linings is typically 1.5 – 4.0 mils (38 – 102 (m) and generally increases 

with the thickness of the lining. To achieve adhesion necessary for long-term performance, it is important that the 

anchor pattern is sharp and angular.

7.6 AIR AND ABRASIVE CLEANLINESS

The abrasive and compressed air supply used for abrasive 

cleaning of tank bottoms should be free of contaminants such 

as water soluble salts, dirt, clay, oil, and grease (per SSPC 

AB1, AB2, AB3, and ASTM D 4940, as appropriate). If 

present in the blasting abrasive, small amounts of these contaminants may be delivered to the steel surface during the 

cleaning operation. This contamination will reduce the useful 

life of the lining.
LINING OF ABOVEGROUND PETROLEUM STORAGE TANK BOTTOMS 11

7.7 REMOVAL OF DUST

Spent abrasive (dust) must be removed from surfaces. 

Standard practice has been to blow-down surfaces with clean, 

compressed air, but this can be a messy operation, especially 

in small tanks. Vacuum cleaning methods have proved to be 

more efficient.

8 Lining Application

8.1 GENERAL 

For thick-film laminates, the coating manufacturer may 

recommend that a prime coat be applied at a film thickness 

less than that of the anchor pattern achieved by the abrasive 

blast cleaning. If a primer coat is applied, it is important to 

follow such instructions to prevent disbonding or delamination of the subsequently applied lining. Experience has shown 

that it is difficult to consistently apply primer coats at the low 

thickness required. When not mandatory, it may be better to 

omit the primer.

Subsequent coats must be applied within the recoat interval 

recommended by the lining manufacturer and/or as determined by the owner’s inspector. Generally, the recommendations and procedures prescribed in SSPC-PA 1 should be 

followed. After sufficient curing of the completed lining, holiday testing (as described in 9.3.4) should be carried out. Any 

defects should be repaired in accordance with the coating 

material manufacturer’s recommendations and the written 

specification.

8.2 GUIDELINES FOR LINING APPLICATION

SSPC-PA 1 provides general guidelines for good lining 

application practice. Proper on-site storage conditions, mixing, applying, and curing of the lining are essential procedures, and the lining manufacturer’s recommendations should 

be followed. Any differences between the owner’s specification and the lining manufacturer’s recommendations should 

be resolved before beginning the job.

8.3 TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY CONTROL 

The temperature of the steel surface should conform to the 

lining manufacturer’s recommended application and curing 

ranges. As a general rule, the surface temperature must be at 

least 5°F (3°C) above the dew point temperature in the tank 

and the relative humidity should be below 80% at the steel 

surface. If the surface temperatures and/or humidity level 

expected to deviate from the recommended range, temporary 

climate control equipment should be employed to ensure the 

proper conditions are maintained. It should be noted that 

durations of surface preparation, lining application, and cure 

may be continuous over a 24-hour period. If so, the required 

environmental conditions must be maintained around the 

clock.

NACE 6A192/SSPC-TR 3 provides guidance on the use of 

dehumidification and heating equipment for environmental 

controls during tank lining work.

Temporary climate-control equipment is also used to 

advantage by protecting workers from heat stress during hot 

summer months. Improved productivity, due to better working conditions, is a secondary benefit.

8.4 LINING THICKNESS

Insufficient film thickness will not provide adequate coverage or protection. Excessive film thickness beyond the manufacturer’s recommended range can compromise lining 

adhesion and film integrity. Excess primer thickness is a common cause of failure of thick-film lining systems. The lining 

thickness shall be in accordance with the lining specification. 

Thickness should be determined in accordance with the methods outlined in 9.3.2. Changing or alternating colors between 

coats can aid in assuring uniform coverage and thickness.

8.5 LINING CURING 

Improper application and inadequate curing time are major 

causes of premature lining failure. The adhesion and integrity 

of the film are adversely affected if a lining has not been 

applied and cured properly. Prior to removing forced ventilation or closing the tank, the lining should be completely cured 

to obtain optimum service life. Refer to the coating manufacturer to determine the proper cure time and temperature. The 

proper curing conditions should be ensured for the full duration of the cure time, or forced-curing of the lining may be 

accomplished by circulating warmed, dehumidified air (see 

8.3 and NACE No. 10/SSPC-PA 6).

Solvent-borne linings require forced ventilation of the air 

space adjacent the lining. As the heavier-than-air solvents 

evolve from the wet lining, they will rest atop the lining, 

impairing the completion of this process. Dissipation of solvent vapors must occur so enough solvent can evolve from 

the film to achieve a level of cure necessary for hydrocarbon 

or chemical resistance.

9 Quality Control Inspection

9.1 GENERAL 

Inspection is strongly recommended to ensure that the lining specification has been met. The lining should be 

inspected during all phases of the work and upon completion 

of the work. Records should be made to briefly describe the 

products and procedures that were used during installation of 

the lining. Records will be important the next time the tank is 

opened to associate the lining product and installation process 

with the lining performance. Records will also be valuable if 

repairs are needed and a repair product and repair procedure 

must be developed. 
12 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 652

9.2 QUALIFICATION OF INSPECTION 

PERSONNEL 

All lining inspectors should be either NACE or SSPC certified, or persons who have demonstrated a thorough knowledge of coating and lining practices. 

9.3 RECOMMENDED INSPECTION PARAMETERS 

9.3.1 Surface Cleanliness and Profile

Verification that the specified surface cleanliness and profile have been achieved before application of any lining is of 

utmost importance. It is important that the coating be completed before any flash rusting is observed. SSPC-VIS 1 provides reference photographs that may be used to visually 

assess surface cleanliness. NACE RP0287 provides a method 

of measuring surface profile. Other types of profile comparators are available from the SSPC and coating instrument vendors.

9.3.2 Film Thickness

As the lining is being applied, wet film thickness measurements should be made in accordance with ASTM D 4414. 

After the lining has cured sufficiently to allow handling, dry 

film thickness measurements should be made in accordance 

with SSPC PA 2.

9.3.3 Hardness

If specified to aid in determination of degree of cure, hardness of the lining should be measured in accordance with 

ASTM D 2583. It should be noted that this test could be 

destructive to organic resin linings that are not sufficiently 

thick, hard, and/or cured.

9.3.4 Lining Discontinuities

Holiday testing of thick-film linings shall be carried out 

with a high-voltage detector in accordance with NACE 

RP0188. Holiday testing of thin-film linings should be performed with a low-voltage (67.5 volts) wet sponge detector.

10 Evaluation and Repair of Existing 

Linings

10.1 GENERAL 

A properly selected and applied tank bottom lining should 

be expected to provide a minimum service life of 20 years. 

Some lining systems, most notably thick-film laminates, have 

provided 25 – 30 years of service life. Lining “failure” is not 

well defined and fitness for service is not well established for 

polymeric coatings. Linings degrade with time. However, 

blistering is a common mode of lining deterioration. However, blistered linings may remain fully functional, providing 

corrosion protection to the steel for many years. Lining degradation does not necessarily translate to putting the steel at 

significant corrosion risk. 

When available, tank bottom linings should be thoroughly 

inspected to assess their condition and determine the need for 

any repairs. Timely maintenance can keep repairs to a minimum and greatly extend lining service life. Care should be 

taken not to damage the lining (especially thin-films) during 

cleaning and inspection. API Std 653 provides guidance for 

visual in-service and detailed out-of-service inspection and 

repair methods for tank components. These inspections may 

reveal conditions that necessitate lining repair, which are not 

covered in API Std 653. All repairs to the tank should be 

completed before any repair of the lining. 

10.2 EVALUATION METHODS

Lining evaluation methods include:

a. Visual inspection.

b. Adhesion measurement.

c. Audible testing (to find areas of delamination on thick 

film reinforced linings via tapping with a solid metal object). 

d. Physical examination of lining sample, including possible 

laboratory testing (to determine permeation by the tank’s previous product, film thickness, brittleness, and/or adequacy of 

cure).

e. Holiday testing (This is not typically recommended for 

linings that have been in previous service, since the presence 

of moisture in the film can cause damage when exposed to 

voltage. In some instances, this has been successfully 

achieved after tank has remained open and the lining exposed 

to normal ventilation for several months. Consultation with 

the coating manufacturer prior to attempting this type of 

inspection is necessary).

10.3 EVALUATION CRITERIA FOR LININGS 

Evaluation of existing tank linings should be based on the 

following criteria:

a. How long has the existing lining been in-service?

b. How well has the existing lining performed to date?

c. The desired service life of the lining (i.e. how long must 

the lining do its job before it will be inspected and receive 

required maintenance?)

d. The intended exposure conditions (i.e. intended service of 

the tank, operating temperature, whether water will be 

present, whether other contaminants or chemicals will be 

present and their concentrations. 

e. The specifications and characteristics of the existing lining.

10.4 EVALUATING SERVICEABILITY OF 

EXISTING LININGS

The evaluation methods listed in 10.2 should be used to 

determine if an existing lining is suitable for service. Blister-
LINING OF ABOVEGROUND PETROLEUM STORAGE TANK BOTTOMS 13

ing, cracking, crazing, discoloration, and areas of missing lining are modes of degradation that can be detected by visual 

inspection. However, these types of degradation may not be 

readily visible unless the floor is thoroughly lighted, cleaned, 

and accessible. Other modes of degradation, that may not be 

readily visible, are permeation of the lining by hydrocarbon, 

delamination, and loss of thickness due to abrasion and/or 

chemical attack. These modes of degradation may require the 

use of the other examination techniques in 10.2 to be 

detected. Following the examinations, the evaluator should 

apply the criteria in 10.3 to determine if the lining is suitable 

for service. 

10.5 DETERMINING THE CAUSE OF LINING 

DEGRADATION/FAILURE

If lining degradation is detected, the cause and extent of 

coating degradation must be established, as well as whether 

or not the existing lining is suitable for a repair. When evaluating the condition of an existing lining, one should consider 

whether deterioration is premature or whether the lining has 

achieved its anticipated performance life.

If degradation or failure of a lining is premature, it is 

important to understand and address the cause of such degradation prior to determining whether the lining should be 

allowed to be repaired or refurbished vs. be completely 

replaced. A review of the tank’s operating history and a visual 

examination of the lining should be conducted to determine 

whether the problems were a result of environmental attack, 

local mechanical damage, and/or if inadequate surface preparation or improper lining installation were contributing factors.

10.6 LINING REPAIR AND REPLACEMENT

The term “repair” of a lining is typically used when either 

portions of the lining will be replaced or when all or a portion 

of the lining will be topcoated. The term “replacement” is 

used when all of the existing lining is removed and a new lining is applied.

10.6.1 Localized vs. General Degradation

The amount of the floor area that has failed or deteriorated 

and the size of the tank are significant factors in determining 

whether only portions of, or the entire lining, should be 

replaced. If only a few, small areas require lining replacement, and the tank is fairly large, it is usually more cost effective to use power tools to achieve the required level of 

cleanliness and anchor profile depth rather than to introduce 

abrasive into the tank. For thin-film linings in good condition, 

open blasting in a tank is not advised as the removal of the 

abrasive material often damages the existing lining.

10.6.2 Spot Repairs 

Spot repairs are made when there are only localized failures, such as blisters, pinholes, delamination, or mechanical 

damage. Usually, the existing lining is removed, the surface is 

prepared, and lining materials are applied at the failed areas 

only.

10.6.3 Topcoating an Existing Lining

Thick-film reinforced linings can be topcoated to extend 

the life of an existing coating that has good adhesion and 

integrity. The topcoat is applied to ensure the fibers are not 

exposed to the product. Accepted practice involves removal 

of contaminants, then brush-blasting and application of one 

or more topcoats. To ensure good adhesion of the repair, the 

lining manufacturer should be consulted to assess the compatibility of the topcoat material with the existing lining.

10.6.4 Repair or Topcoating Specifications 

Consideration should be given to the lining manufacturer’s 

recommendations when developing the repair specifications. 

All differences between this recommended practice and any 

other should be resolved before starting any lining repairs.

10.6.5 Lining Removal Methods

Considerations that affect the method of lining removal are:

a. Size of repair.

b. Type of lining.

c. Whether steel is contaminated with oil or chemicals.

If the mode of degradation of a thick-film, reinforced lining included delamination, it should be noted that manual 

removal of the un-adhered laminate is more cost effective.

10.6.6 Sequence of Contamination Removal vs. 

Lining Removal by Blasting

Regardless of whether a lining will be completely removed 

and replaced or will receive spot repairs or topcoating, it is 

important to detect and to identify visible and/or non-visible 

contaminants. If such contaminants include hydrocarbons, 

grit blasting without first removing the oily hydrocarbon may 

adversely affect the new lining’s adhesion. If oily hydrocarbon has come into contact with the steel, it is critical that the 

contaminant be removed before abrasive blasting.

11 Maximizing Lining Service Life by 

Proper Material Selection and 

Specification

API Std 653 specifies the maximum interval between internal tank inspections to be 20 years without the application of 

alternate internal inspection intervals determined by riskbased inspection. Corrosion on the topside of the tank bottom 
14 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 652

is a factor in determining a proper interval between tank 

inspections. Corrosion protection afforded by an internal lining mitigates the corrosion rate on the topside of the tank bottom and allows the service interval between tank inspections 

to be maximized. 

However, linings do not last forever. Typically, they 

become less effective over time. The deterioration rate can be 

fast or slow. Experience has shown that some linings have 

failed in less than a year and some linings have been found to 

provide adequate corrosion protection after more than 20 

years of service.

11.1 LINING MATERIAL SELECTION

Unless the specifier has experience with a given lining 

material’s performance in a given service, he/she should 

require third-party test data and references supporting the 

considered material’s suitability for the intended service and 

operating conditions.

11.2 WRITTEN SPECIFICATION

The specification should be very job-specific and include a 

detailed scope, a specific description of the components to be 

lined, and a list of all responsibilities and tasks of the contractor. As a minimum, the specification should address the relevant aspects covered by NACE No.10/SSPC-PA 6 and 

NACE No. 11/SSPC-PA 8 as follows:

a. Steel plate preparation and weld surface quality.

b. Applicator qualifications and submissions.

c. Surface preparation, including criteria describing the abrasive, steel cleanliness, anchor profile, removal of dust and 

contaminants, and waste handling, and removal. 

d. Environmental controls.

e. Control of solvent vapors.

f. Need for wet film thickness measurements.

g. Applicable heat curing requirements.

h. Dry film thickness range required and criteria as to 

method of measurement.

i. Holiday testing requirements.

j. Method for determination of cure.

k. Final inspection requirements.

l. Labeling or stenciling requirements for lining identification.

m. Inspection requirements.

12 Safety 

12.1 GENERAL

Prior to the application of internal tank linings, proper 

training of employees regarding safe work procedures and the 

provision of the necessary supervision and/or inspection 

throughout the progress of the job is required. Guidance on 

federal training requirements is given in OSHA 2254. A documented hazard evaluation as outlined in OSHA 29 CFR

1910.132 is required to determine what personal protective 

equipment (PPE) may be needed.

This section will not attempt to detail all of the safety precautions and procedures required to safely enter a tank, prepare the necessary surfaces for lining, and apply the specified 

lining material. Some of this information is presented in regulatory and industry documents. General safety concerns are 

emphasized in 12.2 through 12.4.

12.2 TANK ENTRY 

All necessary precautions to protect personnel shall be 

taken before entry and while working in a storage tank. 

Working in a confined space such as a petroleum storage tank 

presents special respiratory, explosion, and fire hazards that 

must be addressed. Tank entry and/or hot work permits 

should be issued and enforced as local work rules and applicable regulations require. Guidelines for issuing permits and 

preparing a tank or confined space for entry are detailed in 

API Std 2015 and RP 2016, including evaluation of the atmospheric hazards and lockout-tagout of process lines and 

equipment. Federal (OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146) and state regulations pertaining to confined space entry also should be 

reviewed to ensure conformance.

12.3 SURFACE PREPARATION AND LINING 

APPLICATION 

Health hazards are a prime concern during surface preparation and lining application. Proper respiratory equipment and 

personal protective clothing should be employed where necessary. Information regarding safety precautions and procedures during surface preparation and lining application are 

found in OSHA 29 CFR 1910.94, and SSPC PA 3.

If lining materials containing or previously exposed to lead 

are to be removed, special precautions are required to protect 

both the personnel and the environment. The specific requirements for worker protection from lead can be found in OSHA 

29 CFR 1926.62. Relevant federal and state regulations 

should also be reviewed to ensure conformance.

12.4 MANUFACTURER’S MATERIAL SAFETY 

DATA SHEETS

The chemical make-up of high performance, internal tank 

lining materials can present health hazards to workers if not 

handled properly. Material safety data sheets (MSDS) concisely inform employees about the materials being used so 

that they can protect themselves and respond properly to 

emergencies. 
LINING OF ABOVEGROUND PETROLEUM STORAGE TANK BOTTOMS 15

The purpose of an MSDS is to tell the worker:

a. A material’s physical properties, which make it hazardous 

to handle. 

b. The type of personal protective equipment needed. 

c. The first aid treatment necessary if exposed to a hazard. 

d. The planning needed for safely handling normal operations, as well as emergencies such as spills and fires. 

e. The appropriate response to accidents.

The applicable MSDS should be consulted for all materials 

before conducting any work. 

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