DEA/OD/ODE January 28, 2014

4-Methyl-N-ethylcathinone (4-MEC), 4-Methyl-alpha-pyrrolidinopropiophenone (4-MePPP), 

Alpha-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (α-PVP), 1-(1,3-Benzodioxol-5-yl)-2-(methylamino)butan-1-

one (Butylone), 2-(Methylamino)-1-phenylpentan-1-one (Pentedrone), 1-(1,3-Benzodioxol-5-

yl)-2-(methylamino)pentan-1-one (Pentylone), 4-Fluoro-N-methylcathinone (4-FMC), 3-

Fluoro-N-methylcathinone (3-FMC), 1-(Naphthalen-2-yl)-2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)pentan-1-one

(Naphyrone), and Alpha-pyrrolidinobutiophenone (α-PBP)

Background Information and Evaluation of ‘Three Factor Analysis’ (Factors 4, 5 and 6) for 

Temporary Scheduling

Drug and Chemical Evaluation Section, Office of Diversion Control, Drug Enforcement 

Administration, Washington, DC 20537

January 2014

I. Introduction

Synthetic cathinones (also commonly referred to as substituted cathinones or cathinone 

derivatives) are β-keto-phenethylamine derivatives. A number of synthetic cathinones produce 

pharmacological effects that are substantially similar to those of the Schedule I substances 

cathinone, methcathinone, and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and Schedule 

II stimulants amphetamine, methamphetamine, and cocaine. Products that contain synthetic 

cathinones have been falsely marketed as “research chemicals,” “jewelry cleaner,” “stain 

remover,” “plant food or fertilizer,” “insect repellants” or “bath salts.” These products are sold 

at smoke shops, head shops, convenience stores, adult book stores, and gas stations and can 

also be purchased on the Internet. The packages of these commercial products usually contain 

the warning “not for human consumption” most likely in an effort to circumvent statutory 

restrictions for these substances. 

The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) temporarily placed three synthetic 

cathinones, namely, 4-methyl-N-methylcathinone (mephedrone), 3,4-methylenedioxy-Nmethylcathinone (methylone), and 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), in Schedule I of 
DEA/OD/ODE Page 2 of 35 January 28, 2014

the Controlled Substances Act (CSA) on October 21, 2011. 76 FR 65371. On July 9, 2012, 

President Obama signed the Food and Drug Administration Safety and Innovation Act (FDASIA), 

which made the manufacturing, distribution, dispensing, and possession of mephedrone and 

MDPV illegal1. On October 18, 2012, a final order was issued by DEA placing methylone in 

Schedule I of the CSA. 77 FR 64032.

Around the time that these three synthetic cathinones were scheduled, other synthetic 

cathinone substances, as evidenced by law enforcement encounters, emerged in the U.S. illicit 

drug market. These synthetic cathinone substances contain slight alterations of the chemical 

structure of known Schedule I or II psychoactive substances (phenethylamines and β-ketophenethylamines). The other synthetic cathinone substances are (1) 4-methyl-Nethylcathinone (“4-MEC”); (2) 4-methyl-alpha-pyrrolidinopropiophenone (“4-MePPP”); (3) 

alpha-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (“α-PVP”); (4) 1-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-2-(methylamino)butan1-one (“butylone”); (5) 2-(methylamino)-1-phenylpentan-1-one (“pentedrone”); (6) 1-(1,3-

benzodioxol-5-yl)-2-(methylamino)pentan-1-one (“pentylone”); (7) 4-fluoro-N-methylcathinone 

(“4-FMC”); (8) 3-fluoro-N-methylcathinone (“3-FMC”); (9) 1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-2-(pyrrolidin-1-

yl)pentan-1-one (“naphyrone”); and (10) alpha-pyrrolidinobutiophenone (“α-PBP”).

Evidence indicates that 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-

FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP, like the Schedule I cathinones mephedrone, methylone, 

and MDPV, are being abused for their psychoactive properties. Many of these synthetic

cathinone substances share many substantial similarities with Schedule I and Schedule II 

substances including reported desired and adverse effects. In general, desired effects reported 

by abusers of synthetic cathinone substances include euphoria, sense of well-being, increased 

sociability, energy, empathy, increased alertness, and improved concentration and focus. 

Abusers also report experiencing unwanted effects such as tremor, vomiting, agitation,

sweating, fever, chest pain. Other adverse or toxic effects that have been reported with the 

abuse of synthetic cathinones include tachycardia, hypertension, hyperthermia, mydriasis, 

 

1

Subtitle D of the FDASIA titled the “Synthetic Drug Abuse Prevention Act of 2012,” (SDAPA) amended 

Schedule I of section 202 of the CSA.
DEA/OD/ODE Page 3 of 35 January 28, 2014

rhabdomyolysis, hyponatremia, seizures, altered mental status (paranoia, hallucinations, 

delusions), and even death. These 10 synthetic cathinone substances have no known medical 

use in the United States but evidence demonstrates that these substances are being used by 

individuals. There have been documented reports of emergency room admissions and deaths 

associated with the abuse of synthetic cathinone substances. Thus, the abuse of synthetic 

cathinone substances including these 10 synthetic cathinone substances continues to be a 

serious public health threat. 

Evidence from poison centers, emergency departments (EDs), and law enforcement 

indicates that synthetic cathinone substances continue to be abused in the United States. 

According to a press release from the American Association of Poison Control Centers (AAPCC),

2

there were 306 exposure calls related to synthetic cathinones in 2010, 6,137 calls in 2011, and 

2,691 calls in 2012 (AAPCC, 2013). As of October 31, 2013, poison centers received 833 calls 

relating to human exposures to bath salts. In addition, according to the Drug Abuse Warning 

Network (DAWN) report released by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services 

Administration (SAMHSA)3, in 2011, “bath salts” were involved in 22,904 ED visits.

Both the National Forensic Laboratory Information System (NFLIS), a DEA sponsored 

program that systematically collects drug identification results and associated information from 

drug cases analyzed by Federal, State, and local forensic laboratories, and the System To 

Retrieve Information from Drug Evidence (STRIDE), a federal database for the drug samples 

analyzed by DEA forensic laboratories, registered encounters of 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, 

butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP (Table 1, Factor 5, and

the Appendix). In 2009, NFLIS registered no reports in state and local law enforcement 

laboratories regarding these synthetic cathinone substances. However, in 2010, there were 13

reports from 5 states related to these substances registered in NFLIS, in 2011 there were 800

reports from 32 states, in 2012 there were 5,485 reports from 41 states, and from January to 

 

2

AAPCC is a non-profit, national organization that represents the poison control centers of the United States.

3

DAWN is a public health surveillance system that monitors drug-related ED visits in the United States.
DEA/OD/ODE Page 4 of 35 January 28, 2014

November 2013 there were 2,509 reports from 41 states.

4

From January 2010 to November

2013, 1,732 drug exhibits pertaining to the trafficking, distribution and abuse of 4-MEC, 4-

MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP were 

recorded in the STRIDE database (which reports data from DEA laboratories).5Law 

enforcement have encountered these synthetic cathinones substances mainly in powder, 

crystal, resin, tablet, and capsule forms. 

With no legitimate medical use and limited pharmacological information, these 

substances (4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, 

naphyrone, and α-PBP) have emerged on the designer drug market and are being abused for 

their psychoactive properties. To protect the public health and safety, DEA intends to 

temporarily place 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, 

naphyrone, and α-PBP in Schedule I of the CSA. With respect to finding an imminent hazard to 

the public safety, DEA has considered the factors required under the CSA for the temporary 

scheduling of 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, 

naphyrone, and α-PBP. 21 U.S.C. 811(h)(3) and 811(c)(4)-(6).

Synthetic Cathinones

4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, 

and α-PBP are synthetic cathinones (β-keto-phenethylamines) of the larger phenethylamine 

structural class (amphetamines, cathinones, 2C compounds, aminoindanes, etc.). They are 

designer drugs of the phenethylamine class which are structurally and pharmacologically similar

to amphetamine, MDMA, cathinone and other related substances. Synthetic cathinones share 

a core phenethylamine structure with substitutions at the β-position, α-position, phenyl ring, or

nitrogen atom (Figure 1). The addition of a beta-keto (β-keto) substituent [i.e., carbonyl (C=O)] 

to the phenethylamine core structure along with substitutions on the alpha (α) carbon (C) atom 

 

4

NFLIS analyzed on 12/20/ 2013 for state and local forensic drug reports. 

5

STRIDE data was queried on 12/20/2013 by date submitted to Federal forensic laboratories.
DEA/OD/ODE Page 5 of 35 January 28, 2014

or the nitrogen (N) atom produce a variety of substances called cathinones or synthetic 

cathinones. 

1

2

3

4

5

NH2

6





general phenethylamine structure

with positional designations

O

NH2

-keto phenethylamine

O

H

N

O

N

O

N

O

H

O N

O

4-MEC 4-MePPP α-PVP Butylone

O

H

N

O

H

O N

O

F

O

H

N

O

N

Pentedrone Pentylone 4-FMC Naphyrone

O

H

F N

O

N

3-FMC α-PBP

Figure 1: Chemical Structures

Although the abuse potential of 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, 

pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP has not been systematically studied in 

humans, the available data indicate that the pharmacological actions of these substances are 

substantially similar to those of stimulants and hallucinogens such as mephedrone, MDPV, 

cathinone methcathinone, and MDMA which are Schedule I substances with high potential for 

abuse. Scientific studies, which include those done by contract researchers for the National 

Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), evaluating the pharmacological activity of these synthetic

cathinone substances demonstrate that these substances have pharmacological effects on the 

central nervous system that are substantially similar to those of the Schedule I and II 

substances, MDPV, methylone, mephedrone, methamphetamine, MDMA, methcathinone, and 
DEA/OD/ODE Page 6 of 35 January 28, 2014

cocaine. Like these Schedule I and II substances, 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, 

pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP bind to monoamine transporters 

for dopamine, serotonin, or norepinephrine and promote the release of these monoamines or 

block their uptake (Han and Gu, 2006; Howell and Kimmel, 2008). Actions at these 

transporters, especially actions that alter dopaminergic neurotransmission, are believed to be 

involved in the production of the stimulant effects of the phenethylamine class of drugs

(Rothman et al., 2001; Mori et al., 2012). Data also demonstrate that these synthetic cathinone 

substances are locomotor stimulants and produce discriminative stimulus effects (as 

determined in drug discrimination studies) that are substantially similar to those of the 

Schedule I and II substances, methamphetamine and cocaine. In the drug discrimination 

paradigm, if a new drug or substance has discriminative stimulus effects in animals similar to a 

known drug of abuse, it is highly likely that this new drug will produce pharmacological effects 

(including subjective effects) in humans similar to the known drug of abuse and would be 

similarly abused by humans (Balster and Bigelow, 2003).

4-Methyl-N-ethylcathinone (4-MEC)

4-MEC, in addition to the β-keto substituent [a carbonyl (C=O) group which is common 

amongst synthetic cathinones], has a ring substitution of a methyl (-CH3) group on the 

phenethylamine core structure and the nitrogen atom is substituted with an ethyl group (-

CH2CH3) (Figure 1). Scientific studies evaluating the pharmacological activity of 4-MEC 

demonstrate that 4-MEC has pharmacological effects that are substantially similar to those of 

mephedrone, MDPV, cathinone, methcathinone, and other related substances, which are 

Schedule I substances with high potential for abuse. In laboratory studies investigating the 

effects of drugs on monoaminergic systems, 4-MEC, like several other synthetic cathinones 

(methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and methamphetamine, inhibits the 

uptake of the monoamine neurotransmitter dopamine in transfected cells (Cozzi et al., 1999; 

Eshleman et al., 2013; NIDA, 2013; Simmler et al., 2013). In locomotor activity assays, 4-MEC, 

like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone)

and methamphetamine, is a locomotor stimulant in rodents (Glennon et al., 1995; Baumann et 
DEA/OD/ODE Page 7 of 35 January 28, 2014

al., 2012; NIDA, 2012; Gatch et al., 2013). In drug discrimination studies, 4-MEC (ED50

6

= 18.6 

and 11.4 mg/kg), like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, 

and mephedrone), fully substitutes for the discriminative stimulus effects produced by 1 mg/kg 

methamphetamine and 10 mg/kg cocaine, respectively, indicating that it is highly likely that this 

new drug will produce pharmacological effects (including subjective effects) in humans similar 

to the known drugs of abuse (i.e. methamphetamine or cocaine) and, thus, would be similarly 

abused by humans (Balster and Bigelow, 2003; NIDA, 2012, 2013; Gatch et al., 2013). 

4-Methyl-α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone (4-MePPP)

4-MePPP, in addition to the β-keto substituent, has a ring substitution of a methyl (-CH3) 

group on the phenethylamine core structure and is substituted on the nitrogen atom to form a 

pyrrolidine ring (Figure 1). Scientific studies evaluating the pharmacological activity of 4-MePPP 

demonstrate that 4-MePPP has pharmacological effects that are substantially similar to those 

of mephedrone, MDPV, cathinone and methcathinone, which are Schedule I substances with 

high potential for abuse. In laboratory studies investigating the effects of drugs on 

monoaminergic systems 4-MePPP, like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, 

methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and methamphetamine, inhibits the uptake of the 

monoamine neurotransmitter dopamine in transfected cells (Eshleman et al., 2013; NIDA, 2013; 

Simmler et al., 2013). In locomotor activity assays, 4-MePPP, like several other synthetic 

cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and methamphetamine, 

increases locomotor activity in rodents (Glennon et al., 1995; NIDA, 2012; Baumann et al., 2013; 

Gatch et al., 2013). In drug discrimination studies, 4-MePPP (ED50 = 13.35 and 8.91 mg/kg), like 

several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone), fully 

substitutes for the discriminative stimulus effects produced by 1 mg/kg methamphetamine and 

10 mg/kg cocaine, respectively (NIDA, 2012; Gatch et al., 2013).

 

6

ED50 for drug discrimination studies is the dose at which the subjects would be expected to make 50% of their 

responses on the drug-appropriate lever
DEA/OD/ODE Page 8 of 35 January 28, 2014

Alpha-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (α-PVP)

In addition to the β-keto substituent, α-PVP has a substitution on the nitrogen atom of 

the phenethylamine core structure to form a pyrrolidine ring and a chain of three carbon atoms 

attached to the α-carbon position (Figure 1). α-PVP has pharmacological effects on the central 

nervous system that are substantially similar to those of mephedrone, MDPV, cathinone and 

methcathinone, which are Schedule I substances with high potential for abuse. In laboratory 

studies investigating the effects of drugs on monoaminergic systems, α-PVP, like several other 

synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and

methamphetamine, inhibits the uptake of the monoamine neurotransmitter dopamine in rat 

brain synaptosomes or in cells that have been transfected with the corresponding transporter 

(Cozzi et al., 1999; Meltzer, 2006; Baumann et al., 2013; Eshleman et al, 2013; NIDA, 2013; 

Simmler et al., 2013). In locomotor activity assays, α-PVP, like several other synthetic 

cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and methamphetamine, 

increases locomotor activity in rodents (Glennon et al., 1995; Baumann et al., 2013; Gatch et 

al., 2013; NIDA, 2013). In drug discrimination studies, α-PVP (ED50 = 0.46 and 2.77 mg/kg), like 

several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone), fully 

substitutes for the discriminative stimulus effects produced by 1 mg/kg methamphetamine and 

10 mg/kg cocaine, respectively (NIDA, 2012, 2013; Gatch et al., 2013).

1-(1,3-Benzodioxol-5-yl)-2-(methylamino)butan-1-one (butylone)

Butylone, in addition to the β-keto substituent, has an ethyl group (-CH2CH3) at the αposition, a methylenedioxy ring attached to the phenyl ring, and a methyl group (-CH3) attached 

to the nitrogen atom (Figure 1). The pharmacological effects of butylone on the central 

nervous system are substantially similar to those of mephedrone, MDPV, cathinone and 

methcathinone, which are Schedule I substances with high potential for abuse. In laboratory 

studies investigating the effects of drugs on monoaminergic systems, butylone, like several 

other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and 

methamphetamine, inhibits the uptake of the monoamine neurotransmitter dopamine in 

transfected cells (Cozzi et al., 1999; Eshleman et al., 2013; Simmler et al., 2013). In locomotor 

activity assays, butylone, like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, 
DEA/OD/ODE Page 9 of 35 January 28, 2014

MDPV, and mephedrone) and methamphetamine, has been shown to stimulate locomotor 

activity in mice (Glennon et al., 1995; NIDA, 2012; Gatch et al., 2013). In drug discrimination 

studies, butylone (ED50 = 2.52 and 4.78 mg/kg), like several other synthetic cathinones 

(methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone), fully substitutes for the discriminative 

stimulus effects produced by 1 mg/kg methamphetamine and 10 mg/kg cocaine, respectively

(NIDA, 2012; Gatch et al., 2013). 

2-(Methylamino)-1-phenylpentan-1-one (pentedrone)

Pentedrone, in addition to the β-keto substituent, has a chain of three carbon atoms, a

propyl group (-CH2CH2CH3) attached to the α-carbon position, and a methyl group (-CH3)

attached to the nitrogen atom (Figure 1). Pentedrone has pharmacological effects that are 

substantially similar to those of mephedrone, MDPV, cathinone and methcathinone, which are 

Schedule I substances with high potential for abuse. In laboratory studies investigating the 

effects of drugs on monoaminergic systems, pentedrone, like several other synthetic 

cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and methamphetamine, 

inhibits the uptake of the monoamine neurotransmitter dopamine in transfected cells (Cozzi et 

al., 1999; Eshlemen et al., 2013; NIDA, 2013; Simmler et al., 2013). In locomotor activity assays, 

pentedrone, like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and 

mephedrone) and methamphetamine, increases locomotor activity in rodents (Glennon et al., 

1995; Baumann et al., 2012; NIDA, 2012). In drug discrimination studies, pentedrone (ED50=

2.67 and 2.58 mg/kg) like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, 

MDPV, and mephedrone), fully substitutes for the discriminative stimulus effects produced by 1 

mg/kg methamphetamine and 10 mg/kg cocaine, respectively (NIDA, 2012, 2013; Gatch et al., 

2013).

1-(1,3-Benzodioxol-5-yl)-2-(methylamino)pentan-1-one (pentylone)

In addition to the β-keto substituent, the α-position alkyl group for pentylone is a propyl 

(-CH2CH2CH3) group, the nitrogen atom substitution is a methyl (-CH3) group, and the phenyl 

ring substitution is a methylenedioxy group (Figure 1). Pentylone as pharmacological effects 

that are substantially similar to those of mephedrone, MDPV, cathinone and methcathinone, 
DEA/OD/ODE Page 10 of 35 January 28, 2014

which are Schedule I substances with high potential for abuse. In laboratory studies 

investigating the effects of drugs on monoaminergic systems, pentylone, like several other 

synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and 

methamphetamine, inhibits the uptake of the monoamine neurotransmitter dopamine in 

transfected cells (Cozzi et al., 1999; Eshlemen et al., 2013; NIDA, 2013). In locomotor activity 

assays, pentylone, like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, 

and mephedrone) and methamphetamine, is a locomotor stimulant (Glennon et al., 1995; 

Baumann et al., 2012; Gatch et al., 2013; NIDA, 2012). In drug discrimination studies, pentylone 

(ED50 = 3.86 and 2.33 mg/kg), like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, 

methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone), fully substitutes for the discriminative stimulus effects 

produced by 1 mg/kg methamphetamine and 10 mg/kg cocaine, respectively (NIDA, 2012; 

Gatch et al., 2013). 

4-Fluoro-N-methylcathinone (4-FMC)

4-FMC (also known as flephedrone), in addition to the β-keto substituent, incorporates a 

methyl (-CH3) group at the α-carbon and a phenyl ring substitution of a fluorine (F) atom (Figure 

1). Additionally, the nitrogen atom is substituted with a methyl group. 4-FMC has 

pharmacological effects that are substantially similar to those of mephedrone, MDPV, 

cathinone and methcathinone, which are Schedule I substances with high potential for abuse. 

In laboratory studies investigating the effects of drugs on monoaminergic systems, 4-FMC, like 

several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and 

methamphetamine, inhibits the uptake of the monoamine neurotransmitter dopamine in 

transfected cells (Cozzi et al., 1999; Eshleman et al., 2013; Simmler et al., 2013). In locomotor 

activity assays, 4-FMC, like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, 

MDPV, and mephedrone) and methamphetamine, increases locomotor activity in rodents 

(Glennon et al., 1995; Baumann et al., 2012; Marusich et al., 2012; Gatch et al., 2013). In drug 

discrimination studies, 4-FMC (ED50 = 2.69 and 3.24 mg/kg), like several other synthetic 

cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone), fully substitutes for the 

discriminative stimulus effects produced by 1 mg/kg methamphetamine and 10 mg/kg cocaine, 

respectively (NIDA, 2012; Gatch et al., 2013).
DEA/OD/ODE Page 11 of 35 January 28, 2014

3-Fluoro-N-methylcathinone (3-FMC)

3-FMC, in addition to the β-keto substituent, incorporates a methyl (-CH3) group at the 

α-carbon and a phenyl ring substitution of a fluorine (F) atom (Figure 1). Additionally, the 

nitrogen atom is substituted with a methyl group. 3-FMC has pharmacological effects that are 

substantially similar to those of mephedrone, MDPV, cathinone and methcathinone, which are 

Schedule I substances with high potential for abuse. In laboratory studies investigating the 

effects of drugs on monoaminergic systems, 3-FMC, like several other synthetic cathinones 

(methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and methamphetamine, inhibits the 

uptake of the monoamine neurotransmitter dopamine in transfected cells (Cozzi et al., 1999; 

Eshlemen et al., 2013; NIDA, 2013). In locomotor activity assays, 3-FMC, like several other 

synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and 

methamphetamine, increases locomotor activity in rodents (Glennon et al., 1995; NIDA, 2012; 

Baumann et al., 2012; Marusich et al., 2012; Gatch et al., 2013). In drug discrimination studies,

3-FMC (ED50=0.84 and 0.82 mg/kg), like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, 

methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone), fully substitutes for the discriminative stimulus effects 

produced by 1 mg/kg methamphetamine and 10 mg/kg cocaine, respectively (Gatch et al., 

2013; NIDA, 2013).

Napthylpyrovalerone (naphyrone) 

Naphyrone, in addition to the β-keto substituent, has a propyl group (-CH2CH2CH3) at 

the α-position and the nitrogen atom is incorporated into a five membered ring known as a 

pyrrolidine ring (Figure 1). The phenyl ring of naphyrone is in the formation of bicyclic ring 

systems. Naphyrone has pharmacological effects that are substantially similar to those of 

mephedrone, MDPV, cathinone and methcathinone, which are Schedule I substances with high 

potential for abuse. In laboratory studies investigating the effects of drugs on monoaminergic 

systems, naphyrone, like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, 

MDPV, and mephedrone) and methamphetamine, inhibits the uptake of the monoamine 

neurotransmitter dopamine in rat brain synaptosomes or cells that have been transfected with 

the corresponding transporter (Gygi et al., 1997; Meltzer et al., 2006; Kehr et al., 2011; Hadlock 

et al., 2011; Martinez-Clemente et al., 2011; Bauman et al., 2012; NIDA, 2012; Simmler et al., 
DEA/OD/ODE Page 12 of 35 January 28, 2014

2013; Eshleman et al., 2013; Iversen et al., 2013). In locomotor activity assays, naphyrone, like 

several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and 

methamphetamine, increases locomotor activity in mice. In drug discrimination studies,

naphyrone (ED50 = 2.96 and 3.20 mg/kg), like several other synthetic cathinones 

(methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone), fully substitutes for the discriminative 

stimulus effects produced by 1 mg/kg methamphetamine and 10 mg/kg cocaine, respectively

(NIDA, 2011; NIDA, 2012).

Alpha-pyrrolidinobutiophenone (α-PBP)

α-PBP, in addition to the β-keto substituent, has a chain of two carbon atoms attached 

to the α-carbon position and the nitrogen atom is incorporated into a pyrrolidine ring (Figure 

1). α-PBP has pharmacological effects that are substantially similar to those of mephedrone, 

MDPV, cathinone and methcathinone, which are Schedule I substances with high potential for 

abuse. In laboratory studies investigating the effects of drugs on monoaminergic systems, αPBP, like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and 

mephedrone) and methamphetamine, inhibits the uptake of the monoamine neurotransmitter

dopamine in cells that have been transfected with the corresponding transporter (Cozzi et al., 

1999; Eshleman et al., 2013; NIDA, 2013). In locomotor activity assays, α-PBP, like several other 

synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and 

methamphetamine, increases locomotor activity in rodents (Baumann et al., 2013; Gatch et al., 

2013; NIDA, 2013). In drug discrimination studies, α-PBP (ED50 = 2.68 and 3.70 mg/kg), like 

several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone), fully 

substitutes for the discriminative stimulus effects produced by 1 mg/kg methamphetamine and 

10 mg/kg cocaine, respectively (Gatch et al., 2013; NIDA, 2013).
DEA/OD/ODE Page 13 of 35 January 28, 2014

Factor 4: Its History and Current Pattern of Abuse

The synthetic cathinones 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-

FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP have emerged on the United States’ illicit drug market and 

are being perceived as being ‘legal’ alternatives to mephedrone, methylone, MDPV, cocaine, 

methamphetamine, and MDMA. Products containing these substances are falsely marketed as 

“research chemicals,” “jewelry cleaner,” “stain remover,” “plant food or fertilizer,” “insect 

repellants” or “bath salts.” They are sold at smoke shops, head shops, convenience stores, 

adult book stores, and gas stations and can also be purchased on the Internet. These 

substances are commonly encountered in the form of powders, crystals, resins, tablets, and 

capsules. The packages of these commercial products usually contain the warning “not for 

human consumption,” most likely in an effort to circumvent statutory restrictions for these 

substances. Some products found to contain 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, 

pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP include, but are not limited to: “Doves,”

“White Ice,” “Oceanic Deeper,” “Enchanted,” “Platinum,” and others.

4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, 

and α-PBP are likely to be abused in the same manner as other synthetic cathinones such as 

mephedrone, methylone, and MDPV. Information from published scientific studies indicate 

that the most common routes of administration for synthetic cathinones like mephedrone, 

methylone, and MDPV are nasal insufflation by snorting the powder and ingestion by 

swallowing capsules or tablets (Psychonaut, 2010a; EMCDDA, 2011; Kelly, 2011; Prosser and 

Nelson, 2012; Vardakou et al., 2011; Forrester, 2012, 2013; Warrick et al., 2013; Zawilska and 

Wojcieszak, 2013). The powder can also be injected or swallowed (EMCDDA et al., 2011; 

Zawilska and Wojcieszak, 2013). Other methods of intake include rectal administration,

ingestion by “bombing” (wrapping a dose of powder in a paper wrap and swallowing) and 

intramuscular injection (ACMD, 2010; Psychonaut, 2010a, c; Miotto et al., 2013; Zawilska and 

Wojcieszak, 2013). 

As demonstrated with the Schedule I synthetic cathinones (i.e., MDPV, mephedrone, 

and methylone), the main users of 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 
DEA/OD/ODE Page 14 of 35 January 28, 2014

4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP are likely to be youths and young adults (EMCDDA, 2011; 

Coppola and Mondola, 2012; Forrester, 2012, 2013; Warrick et al., 2013; Stogner and Miller, 

2013; Zawilska and Wojcieszak, 2013). Synthetic cathinone exposures reported to the Texas 

Poison Center Network during 2010 and 2011 involved mostly adolescents (12 to 19-years-old)

and young adults (mean age was 30-years-old) with the majority of patients being males 

(Forrester, 2012, 2013). Stogner and Miller (2013) reported that the lifetime use (used at least 

once) of synthetic cathinones among college students (at a large Southeastern U.S. university)

in the United States is 25 out of 2,349 students surveyed. A survey of college students in 2012 

by the Monitoring the Future (MTF)7showed that 0.2% of full-time college students used 

synthetic cathinone substances (Johnston et al., 2013). The use of synthetic cathinone 

substances among 8

th

, 10th, and 12th grade students and young adults (non-college peers aged 

19 to 28-years-old) was 0.8%, 0.6%, 1.3%, and 0.8%, respectively. 

4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, 

and α-PBP are likely to have duration of effects like those of Schedule I synthetic cathinones

because of their structural and pharmacological similarities. Users report (AAPCC, drug surveys, 

medical literature) that the effects of synthetic cathinones occur a few minutes to 15 minutes 

after administration, depending on the synthetic cathinone and the route of administration

(oral, insufflation, intravenous, etc.), and the effects can last up to three hours (Karila et al., 

2010; Psychonaut, 2010b; EMCDDA, 2011; German et al., 2013). 

As found with the Schedule I synthetic cathinones (mephedrone, methylone, and MDPV)

and sympathomimetic agents (e.g., cocaine, methamphetamine, amphetamine), 4-MEC, 4-

MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP are 

likely to cause stimulant related psychological and somatic effects. Desired effects reported by 

abusers of synthetic cathinone substances include euphoria, sense of well-being, increased 

sociability, energy, empathy, increased alertness, and improved concentration and focus. 

Schedule I synthetic cathinones have also been reported to cause stimulant related 

 

7 MTF is a research program conducted at the University of Michigan’s Institute for Social Research under grants 

from NIDA. MTF tracks drug use trends among American adolescents in the 8th, 10th, and 12th grades and high 

school graduates into adulthood by conducting national surveys.
DEA/OD/ODE Page 15 of 35 January 28, 2014

psychological and somatic adverse effects such as headache, nausea, palpitations, seizures, 

increased sex drive, paranoia, agitation, tachycardia, hypertension, hyperthermia, mydriasis, 

rhabdomyolysis, hyponatremia, and excessive sweating (ACMD, 2010; Frohlich et al., 2011; 

Karila et al., 2011; Kelly, 2011; Jerry et al., 2012; Prosser and Nelson, 2012; Rojek et al., 2012; 

German et al., 2013; Zawilska and Wojcieszak, 2013). Other adverse effects reported by 

synthetic cathinone users include bruxism (teeth grinding), tremor, chest pain, sore nasal 

passages, hot flashes, fever, sore mouth/throat, nose bleed, suppressed appetite, blurred 

vision, insomnia, hallucinations, addiction/dependence, nausea/vomiting, and nasal burns 

(EMCDDA, 2011; Prosser and Nelson, 2012; Derung et al., 2011).

There is evidence that 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-

FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP are ingested with other substances. This is likely to either 

heighten the effects or ameliorate the come-down effects of the synthetic cathinones 

(EMCDDA, 2011; Vardakou et al., 2011; Zawilska and Wojcieszak, 2013). Co-ingestions can be 

from the ingestion of multiple products separately or a single product that is composed of 

multiple substances (e.g., one tablet containing both 4-MEC and MDPV). Substances found in 

combination with 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, or

naphyrone are: other synthetic cathinones (e.g., methylone and MDPV), common cutting

agents (e.g., lidocaine, caffeine, lignocaine, ephedrine etc.), or other recreational substances 

(e.g., 4-fluoroamphetamine, cocaine, methamphetamine, amphetamine) (EMCDDA, 2011; 

Vardakou et al., 2011; Coppola and Mondola, 2012; Zuba and Byrska, 2013; Caudevilla-Gálligo 

et al., 2013). Multiple drug use and co-ingestions are confirmed by forensic analysis of seized 

and purchased synthetic cathinone products. Forensic analysis data also showed that some 

products contained multiple substances. 

Summary

4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, 

and α-PBP are synthetic cathinones that emerged on the United States’ illicit drug market 

around the time of the scheduling of mephedrone, methylone, and MDPV. These synthetic

cathinones substances, like the Schedule I synthetic cathinones (mephedrone, methylone, and 
DEA/OD/ODE Page 16 of 35 January 28, 2014

MDPV), are promoted as being a ‘legal’ alternative to cocaine, methamphetamine, and MDMA. 

Products that contain 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-

FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP are falsely marketed as “research chemicals,” “jewelry cleaner,” 

“stain remover,” plant food or fertilizer,” “insect repellants” or “bath salts” and are sold at 

smoke shops, head shops, convenience stores, adult book stores, and gas stations and can also 

be purchased on the Internet under a variety of product names (e.g., “White Dove”, 

“Explosion”, “Tranquility”). They are commonly encountered in the form of powders, crystals, 

resins, tablets, and capsules. The packages of these commercial products usually contain the

warning “not for human consumption.” Information from published scientific studies indicate 

that the most common routes of administration for synthetic cathinone substances is ingestion 

by swallowing capsules or tablets or nasal insufflation by snorting the powder tablets 

(Psychonaut, 2010a; EMCDDA, 2011; Kelly, 2011; Prosser and Nelson, 2012; Vardakou et al., 

2011; Forrester, 2012, 2013; Warrick et al., 2013; Zawilska and Wojcieszak, 2013). Evidence 

from poison centers and published reports suggest that the main users of methylone are young 

adults (EMCDDA, 2011; Coppola and Mondola, 2012; Forrester, 2012, 2013; Warrick et al., 

2013; Stogner and Miller, 2013; Zawilska and Wojcieszak, 2013). There is evidence that these 

synthetic cathinone substances are ingested with other substances including other synthetic 

cathinones, common cutting agents, or other recreational substances.

Factor 5: The Scope, Duration, and Significance of Abuse

Around the time that the legislation made the manufacturing, distribution, dispensing, 

and possession of mephedrone, MDPV, and methylone illegal8, other synthetic cathinone 

substances, as evidenced by law enforcement encounters, emerged in the U.S. illicit drug 

market. These substances include but are not limited to 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, 

pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP.

 

8

Subtitle D of the FDASIA titled the “Synthetic Drug Abuse Prevention Act of 2012,” (SDAPA) amended Schedule I 

of section 202 of the CSA to include MDPV and mephedrone. Methylone was permanently controlled via the 

administrative process. 77 FR 64032. 
DEA/OD/ODE Page 17 of 35 January 28, 2014

The popularity of synthetic cathinones, including these 10 synthetic cathinone 

substances, as recreational drugs increased since they first appeared on the U. S. illicit drug 

market in 2009. 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, 

naphyrone, and α-PBP are prevalent and they are abused throughout the United States as 

evidenced by law enforcement seizures. These substances are readily available from the 

Internet, retail suppliers (e.g., head shops, tobacco shops, convenience stores, adult book 

stores, and gas stations) or street dealers. Data, including law enforcement data, indicate that 

products that contain synthetic cathinone substances are generally sold in 50 to 500 milligram

packets with prices ranging from $25-$70 per 50 mg packet and $60-$70 per gram (Fass et al., 

2012; Miotto et al., 2013). These substances can also be bought in bulk quantities (e.g., 100 g 

to over 5 kg). Companies located overseas are primarily responsible for the trafficking of these 

substances. 

Studies suggest that synthetic cathinones may be used as an alternative to illicit 

substances like MDMA and cocaine (ACMD, 2010; EMCDDA, 2011; Ojanperä et al., 2011; 

Coppola and Mondola, 2012). ACMD reported that “Toot” (most commonly identified as a 

mixture of butylone and methylone) and mephedrone were popular among users of heroin 

(ACMD, 2010). 

Information from poison centers and emergency departments indicates that synthetic 

cathinones continue to be abused by individuals (see Factor 5). AAPCC reported in a press 

release that there were 306 exposure calls related to synthetic cathinones in 2010, 6,137 calls 

in 2011, and 2,691 calls in 2012 (AAPCC, 2013). As of October 31, 2013, poison centers received 

833 calls relating to human exposures to bath salts. According to the Drug Abuse Warning 

Network (DAWN) report released by SAMHSA, 22,904 ED visits involved “bath salts” in 2011. 

There are convictions of drug traffickers and indictments against alleged drug traffickers 

in the United States involving most of these substances indicating that these substances are 

being distributed throughout the United States (see Appendix for a list of some of these cases). 

For example, two individuals were convicted of conspiracy to distribute, or to possess with 

intent to distribute a controlled substance analogue (one of the substances was 4-MEC) in 
DEA/OD/ODE Page 18 of 35 January 28, 2014

violation of 21 USC 846 and conspiracy to import a controlled substance analogue in violation 

of 21 USC 963 and other violations after a jury trial in the United States District Court Northern 

District of New York. In another case, the jury returned a guilty verdict in the United States 

District Court for the Western District of Virginia against an individual for the conspiracy to 

distribute, or to possess with intent to distribute a controlled substance analogue (one of the 

substances was 4-MEC) in violation of 21 USC 846. Several individuals were indicted and 

subsequently convicted in the United States District Court for the District of Arizona for 

violations of the analogue drug provision (substances included α-PVP, α-PBP, 4-MePPP, 

pentedrone, pentylone, butylone, and MDPV). 

Table 1: Synthetic Cathinones - Number of Reports (State and Local)

Synthetic Cathinone NFLIS

(2010)

NFLIS

(2011)

NFLIS

(2012)

NFLIS

(2013*)

4-MEC 5 175 1,052 644

4-MePPP 0 91 181 16

α-PVP 0 17 2,730 1,583

Butylone 3 173 258 52

Pentedrone 0 122 913 125

Pentylone 0 34 169 32

FMC** 4 168 106 13

Naphyrone 1 20 19 3

α-PBP 0 0 57 41

NFLIS database was queried for drug reports on 12/20/2013 by date submitted to state and local forensic 

laboratories.

*2013 Data are January – November (data are still being reported for November)

**FMC consists of isomers of FMC including 3-FMC and 4-FMC

Evidence from law enforcement indicates that 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, 

pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP are being abused in the United 

States (see Table 1 and Appendix). In 2010, NFLIS, a DEA sponsored forensic database,

registered 13 reports from 5 states regarding many of these synthetic cathinone substances

that were analyzed by state and local forensic laboratories.

9

 In 2011, there were 800 reports 

from 33 states related to these substances registered in NFLIS, and in 2012, there were 5,485

reports from 41 states, and from January to November 2013 there were 2,509 reports from 41

states. From January 2010 to November 2013, 1,732 drug exhibits pertaining to the trafficking, 

 

9 NFLIS state and local forensic drug reports queried on December 20, 2013. 
DEA/OD/ODE Page 19 of 35 January 28, 2014

distribution and abuse of 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-

FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP were recorded in the STRIDE database, a federal database for drug

items analyzed by DEA forensic laboratories.10 Among the synthetic cathinone substances, 4-

MEC, butylone, FMC and pentedrone were the most prevalent substances encountered by law 

enforcement as reported in NFLIS in 2011. However, in 2012 and 2013, α-PVP is the most 

prevalent substances encountered.

Table 2: Encounters of Synthetic Cathinone Substances by CBP (518 Total Shipments)

Synthetic 

Cathinone 2010 2011 2012 2013 2010 - 2013

1 4-MEC 2 29 28 19 78 42 kg, 4000 packets

2 4-MePPP 3 4 1 8 3.6 kg

3 α-PVP 1 18 21 40 70 kg

4 Butylone 2 12 5 2 21 8.4 kg

5 Pentedrone 8 9 1 18 43 kg

6 Pentylone 6 4 10 21.7 kg, 2000 packets

7, 8 FMC* 3 7 3 13 5.4 kg

9 Naphyrone 3 3 4 kg

10 α-PBP 2 8 1 11 7 kg

Data analyzed on December 18, 2013

*FMC consists of isomers of FMC including 3-FMC and 4-FMC

At selected United States ports of entry, the U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) 

has encountered several shipments of products from April 2010 to November 2013 containing 

these 10 synthetic cathinone substances (see Table 2). These encounters of 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, 

α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP indicate that 

these substances are popular drugs of abuse. Most of the shipments of these synthetic 

cathinones originated overseas and were destined for delivery throughout the United States to 

places like Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Michigan, 

Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Oregon, Texas, Virginia, 

Washington, and Wyoming. 

Concerns over the abuse of synthetic cathinones have prompted many states to control

these substances. Some states have enacted legislation to capture a broad range of synthetic 

cathinones by utilizing a broad definition to define synthetic cathinones. For example, some 

 

10 STRIDE data was queried on 12/20/2013 by date submitted to Federal forensic laboratories.
DEA/OD/ODE Page 20 of 35 January 28, 2014

states like Arkansas, Idaho, Mississippi, and North Carolina define controlled synthetic 

cathinones as substances that have certain substitutions (e.g., by substitution in the ring system 

to any extent with alkyl, alkylenedioxy, etc; by substitution at the 2-amino nitrogen atom with 

alkyl, dialkyl, benzyl, etc.) on a defined structure (i.e., 2-aminopropan-1-one, 2-amino-1-phenyl1-propanone). In contrast, other states, like Arizona, Delaware, Massachusetts, Tennessee, and 

Washington specifically control one or more of the synthetic cathinones by name. As of June 

24, 2013, more than half of the states in the United States have emergency scheduled or 

enacted legislation placing regulatory controls on some or many of the synthetic cathinones

that are listed in this document. In addition, the U.S. Armed Forces prohibited the use of 

synthetic cathinones for intoxication purposes due to its use by service members of the U.S. 

armed forces (Berry-Caban et al., 2012; Loeffler et al., 2012). Internationally, several member 

countries of the European Union have enacted laws placing controls on the possession and/or 

sale of one or more of these substances (Winstock et al., 2010; EMCDDA, 2011; Morris, 2010).

Summary

4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, 

and α-PBP, like mephedrone, methylone, and MDPV, are popular recreational drugs. Evidence 

that these synthetic cathinone substances are being abused is confirmed by law enforcement 

encounters of these substances. Forensic laboratories have analyzed drug exhibits received 

from state, local, or federal law enforcement agencies that were found to contain 4-MEC, 4-

MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, or α-PBP. NFLIS 

registered over 8,000 reports from state and local forensic laboratories identifying these 

substances in drug-related exhibits for a period from January 2010 to December 2013 from 42

states. STRIDE registered over 1,700 reports from DEA forensic laboratories from January 2010

to November 2013. Additionally, large seizures of these substances have occurred by the U.S. 

Customs and Border Protection (CBP). Concerns over the abuse of these synthetic cathinone 

substances have prompted many states to regulate them.
DEA/OD/ODE Page 21 of 35 January 28, 2014

Factor 6: What, If Any, Risk There is to the Public Health

Synthetic cathinones, in general, have been reported to cause a number of stimulantlike adverse effects (ACMD, 2010; Karila et al., 2010; Psychonaut, 2010a, c; EMCDDA, 2011; 

Prosser and Nelson, 2012; Capriola, 2013). Stimulant-like adverse effects include tachycardia,

hypertension, hyperthermia, palpitations, hyponatremia, tremor, seizures, vomiting, sweating, 

headache, rhabdomyolysis, etc. (Frohlich et al., 2011; Spiller et al., 2011; Vardakou et al., 2011; 

Derung et al., 2012; Rojek et al., 2012; Warrick et al., 2012; Zawilska and Wojcieszak, 2013). 

Hyperthermia can be a serious adverse effect and can lead to metabolic acidosis, 

rhabdomyolysis, renal failure, disseminated intravascular coagulation, coma, and death. The 

clinical presentation of intoxication from synthetic cathinones shares some features seen with 

MDMA and stimulants like cocaine. Clinical case reports indicate that synthetic cathinones also 

produce other adverse effects such as hallucinations, psychosis, paranoia, delusions, etc. 

(Frohlich et al., 2011; Spiller et al., 2011; Vardakou et al., 2011; Derung et al., 2011; Thorton et 

al., 2012). 

Law enforcement, forensic laboratories, case reports, and public health officials have 

reported toxic exposure to some of the synthetic cathinone substances that demonstrate the 

public health risks associated with these substances. Substances that have been specifically 

identified include 4-MEC, butylone, 4-FMC, α-PVP, pentylone and naphyrone. According to the 

DAWN report that was released by SAMHSA, 22,904 visits to the emergency department in 

2011 involved “bath salts.” As described below, many individuals have presented at emergency 

departments following exposure to these synthetic cathinone substances or products 

containing these substances. 

Serious adverse effects including hyperthermia have resulted in documented hospital 

emergency department (ED) admissions from the ingestion of butylone, 4-FMC, or naphyrone. 

Frohlich et al. (2011) described a case of acute liver failure after the ingestion of 

synthetic cathinones which included butylone. A 28-year-old male suffering from bipolar 

affective disorder (but otherwise healthy) ingested 12 stimulant tablets. Following ingestion he 

suffered a seizure. He was transported to the emergency department. He also had 
DEA/OD/ODE Page 22 of 35 January 28, 2014

tachycardia, hypertension, hyperpyrexia, and profuse sweating. Rhabdomyolysis, a syndrome 

caused by injury to skeletal muscle, developed two days after ingestion and likely caused renal 

failure. The liver failure eventually resolved following treatment and the patient was 

discharged into psychiatric care. The pills that the patient had ingested were analyzed and 

found to contain MDPV and butylone. 

Derungs et al. (2012) described the case of a 31-year-old male who suffered 

sympathomimetic toxicity after ingesting naphyrone. The patient purchased the powder over 

the internet. He believed that he was purchasing MDMA but instead received naphyrone. The 

patient had no knowledge about naphyrone but chose to ingest the amount that he would have 

ingested if the substance had been MDMA, so he ingested 100 mg of the powder with fruit 

juice. After administration, he developed blurred visions, increasing restlessness, and could not 

concentrate. He also experienced insomnia for two nights, hallucinations, paranoia and felt 

nervous. The patient had a history of heroin use and was on substitution therapy with 

buprenorphine. He presented to the emergency room exhibiting psychotic symptoms. Upon 

examination he had mydriasis and elevated blood pressure indicating that he was suffering 

from acute sympatomimetic toxidrome. Later in the same day of admission, the patient 

discharged himself. A toxicological screen of specimens from the patient identified naphyrone. 

A urine drug screen was positive for benzodiazepines but did not detect other cathinones, 

cocaine, or amphetamine derivatives.

Thorton et al. (2012) described the case of a 23-year-old male who insufflated 4-FMC. 

After snorting a white powder the patient was agitated, suicidal, and complained of 

hallucinations. He was taken to the hospital via ambulance. Emergency personnel reported 

that the patient was hyperthermic, diaphoretic, and tachycardic with mydriasis. The patient 

was chemically and physically restrained because he was agitated. Symptoms eventually 

resolved and the patient was discharged. The patient was diagnosed to suffer from 

schizoaffective disorder, bipolar disorder, or psychosis secondary to bath salt (4-FMC) ingestion. 

Testing of the bath salt product revealed MDPV and 4-FMC. A toxicological screen of 

specimens from the patient identified MDPV and 4-FMC. A higher concentration of 4-FMC (346 
DEA/OD/ODE Page 23 of 35 January 28, 2014

and 257 ng/mL in serum and urine, respectively) compared to MDPV (186 and 136 ng/mL in 

serum and urine, respectively) was detected. 

Some individuals under the influence of these synthetic substances have acted violently 

and unpredictably causing harm, or even death, to themselves or others.

Gil et al. (2013) described the case of a 30-year-old male who died in a road traffic 

accident after an alleged ingestion of 4-MEC. 4-MEC was identified in a zipper bag found on the 

decedent. 4-MEC at a concentration of 152 ng/ml (blood) and 122 ng/ml (urine) was also 

detected in biological specimens from the decedent. Ethanol (0.12 g/dL in blood and 0.19 g/dL 

in urine) was also present in these specimens.

Another case reported by Gil et al. (2013) described the case of a 27-year-old male who 

was arrested by the police on suspicion of possession of narcotics (white powder) (Gil et al., 

2013). 4-MEC was identified in the white powder seized from the subject. A toxicological 

screen identified 4-MEC in blood samples from this subject. 

Butylone has been directly implicated in two fatalities reported in the medical literature.

Warrick et al. (2012) described the death of a 24-year-old female who ingested two 

capsules of what was thought to be “Ecstasy” at a concert. After being found unconscious by 

emergency personnel, the decedent was taken to the emergency department. The comatose 

patient suffered from hyperthermia, tachycardia, mydriasis, tachypnea and some tremors. 

Despite efforts to save her life the decedent died. Toxicology tests identified methylone and 

butylone in specimens from this individual. Laboratory analysis also identified methylone and 

butylone in the powder obtained from a capsule that was found on the decedent. The cause of 

death determined by the medical examiner was serotonin syndrome secondary to methylone 

and butylone ingestion. 

Rojek et al. (2012) described the death of a 21-year-old male who ingested butylone for 

suicidal intentions. The decedent was admitted to the hospital after ingesting 10 tablets of a 

substance called “Amph-i-bia.” The decedent purchased the substances at a retail shop. On 

admission, the patient suffered tachycardia, hypertension, mydriasis and was disoriented. He 
DEA/OD/ODE Page 24 of 35 January 28, 2014

subsequently developed seizures and suffered a cardiac and respiratory arrest. Despite efforts 

to save his life he died. A toxicological screen of specimens from this patient identified 

butylone. The cause of death was reported as multi-organ failure resulting from malignant 

serotonin syndrome. 

Other synthetic cathinones, like α-PVP and pentylone, have also been implicated in the 

deaths of individuals. 

Marinetti and Antonides (2013) described several postmortem cases in which synthetic 

cathinones such as MPDV, α-PVP, pentylone, methylone and methedrone were detected in 

biological, postmortem specimens. A 44-year-old female with a history of bipolar disorder and 

previous suicide and drug abuse died from multiple drug intoxication. She tested positive for

pentylone, α-PVP, hydrocodone, promethazine, and other pharmaceutical drugs. A 35-year-old 

female with a history of drug abuse including intravenous drug abuse was found unresponsive 

in bed. A toxicological screen detected morphine, codeine, citalopram, α-PVP, and 6-MAM (6-

monoacetylmorphine; an active metabolite of heroin) in biological specimen from this 

individual. A 50-year-old female with a history of heroin abuse was found unresponsive on a 

sofa at her home. A toxicological screen detected α-PVP, morphine, codeine, 6-MAM, and 

pharmaceutical drugs in biological specimen from this individual. A 51-year-old male was 

fatally shot by police officers after a chase. A toxicological screen detected α-PVP in biological 

specimen from this individual. A 34-year-old male was found dead in his basement from 

hanging. A toxicological screen detected α-PVP and pentylone in biological specimen from this 

individual. A 32-year-old female who was morbidly obese was found unresponsive on the floor 

in her home. A toxicological screen detected MDPV, α-PVP, morphine, methedrone, 6-MAM, 

and pharmaceutical drugs in biological specimen from this individual. 

The products containing synthetic cathinone substances often do not bear labeling 

information regarding its ingredients or the health risks and potential hazards associated with

these products. In addition, products may not contain the expected active ingredients (Davies 

et al., 2010; Spiller et al., 2011; Ayres and Bond, 2012; Zuba and Byrska, 2013). Thus, 

individuals who purchase these products likely have insufficient knowledge of the exact product 
DEA/OD/ODE Page 25 of 35 January 28, 2014

contents. This lack of information poses significant risk to users who may not know what they 

are purchasing or the risk associated with the abuse of those products. In a study that analyzed 

products offered for sale over a 6 month period, there was significant variation in the active 

substance (i.e., the products did not contain the active ingredients listed or products marketed 

to contain a specific legal substance contained a different substance) in one quarter (5 of 20) of 

the products that were purchased (the same named products such as Head rush, Pure bliss, or 

Xtacy were purchased repeatedly during a 6 month period) and tested (Davies et al., 2010). In a 

separate study, the analysis of a specific brand name synthetic cathinone product (e.g., white 

lightening), that appeared identical in packaging but obtained at different locations, revealed 

different synthetic cathinones as the primary ingredient (Spiller et al., 2011). Accordingly, 4-

MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP

have been identified in varying combinations in packages that have been seized by law 

enforcement. A study by Brandt et al. (2010) showed that 70% of the products analyzed 

contained an illicit substance. Another study showed that there was poor quality of product 

information (Schmidt et al., 2010). Of 1,308 products evaluated, 40% (524) did not list 

ingredients, 92% (1,202) failed to list any side effects, and 86% (1,129) failed to list any 

warnings about potential interactions with other substances or medications. Since abusers 

obtain these drugs through unknown sources, the purity of these drugs is uncertain presenting 

another level of risk to users (EMCDDA, 2011). Thus, the limited knowledge about product 

content and its purity and lack of information about its effects pose significant risks to the 

users.

Summary

In summary, available evidence on the overall public health risks associated with the use 

of synthetic cathinones indicates that 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, 

pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP can cause acute health problems leading to 

ED admissions, violent behaviors causing harm to self or others, or death. In addition, products 

containing these synthetic cathinone substances often do not bear labeling information 

regarding their ingredients and if they do, it may not contain the expected active ingredients or 

identify the health risks and potential hazards associated with these products. Acute effects of 
DEA/OD/ODE Page 26 of 35 January 28, 2014

these substance are those typical of a sympathomimetic agents (e.g., cocaine, 

methamphetamine, amphetamine) and include among other effects tachycardia, headache, 

palpitations, agitation, anxiety, mydriasis, tremor, fever or sweating, and hypertension (ACMD, 

2010; Karila and Reynaud, 2010; EMCDDA, 2011; Prosser and Nelson, 2012; Derung et al., 2011; 

Rojek et al., 2012; Thorton et al., 2012; Capriola, 2013). Other effects, with possible public 

health risk implications, that have been reported from the use of synthetic cathinone 

substances include psychological effects such as psychosis, paranoia, hallucinations, and 

agitation (Derung et al., 2011; Rojek et al., 2012; Thorton et al., 2012). Finally, the possibility of 

death for individuals abusing 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-

FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP also indicates that these substances are a serious public 

health threat. 

Conclusion of 3-Factor Analysis

After a careful review of the scientific literature, Factors 4, 5, and 6, NFLIS, STRIDE, and 

other law enforcement data and other data and information, it is evident that 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, 

α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP are trafficked 

and abused and pose a significant public health risk. These drugs have become popular among 

drug abusers due to their stimulant-like effects and pharmacological similarity to mephedrone, 

MDPV, methylone, cocaine, and methamphetamine.

DEA has considered the three criteria for placing a substance into Schedule I of the CSA 

(21 U.S.C. 812). The data available and reviewed for 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, 

pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP indicated that these substances, 

including their salts, isomers, and salts of isomers, pose an imminent hazard to public safety 

and health, have no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and lack 

accepted safety for use under medical supervision.
DEA/OD/ODE Page 27 of 35 January 28, 2014

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DEA/OD/ODE Page 32 of 35 January 28, 2014

II. APPENDIX

STRIDE, NFLIS, and Examples of Enforcement Activities

System To Retrieve Information from Drug Evidence (STRIDE) Reports

Data from the forensic laboratory database STRIDE, a federal database for the drug 

samples analyzed by DEA forensic laboratories, indicate illicit activity involving 4-MEC, 4-

MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, or α-PBP. From 

January 2010 to November 2013, Federal law enforcement authorities encountered 1,732 drug 

exhibits pertaining to the trafficking, distribution and abuse of these synthetic cathinone 

substances (Table II.1). 

Table II.1: Synthetic Cathinones Reports (Federal) 

Synthetic Cathinone STRIDE 

(2010)

STRIDE 

(2011)

STRIDE 

(2012)

STRIDE 

(2013*)

STRIDE

(2010-2013*)

4-MEC 4 142 162 66 374

4-MePPP 0 10 101 11 122

α-PVP 0 7 544 108 659

Butylone 0 14 56 4 74

Pentedrone 0 11 262 15 288

Pentylone 0 5 107 7 119

FMC** 0 10 21 6 37

Naphyrone 0 5 17 0 22

α-PBP 0 1 32 4 37

TOTAL 4 205 1,302 221 1,732

STRIDE database was queried on 12/20/2013 by date submitted to federal forensic laboratories.

*2013 Data are January – November (data are still being reported for November).

**FMC consists of isomers of FMC including 3-FMC and 4-FMC

National Forensic Laboratory Information System (NFLIS) Reports

In 2010, the NFLIS registered 13 reports from 5 states containing 4-MEC, butylone, FMC, 

and naphyrone (Table II.2, II.4, and II.5) analyzed by state and local forensic laboratories. 

However, in 2011, there were 800 reports from 32 states related to these substances (exclude 

α-PBP) registered in NFLIS, in 2012 there were 5,485 reports from 41 states, and in the first 

eleven months of 2013, there were 2,509 reports from 41 states. These substances 
DEA/OD/ODE Page 33 of 35 January 28, 2014

represented approximately 29% (8,807/30,448) of all the reports to NFLIS involving synthetic 

cathinones from January 2010 to November 2013 (Table II.3).

Table II.2: Synthetic Cathinones - Number of Reports (State and Local)

Synthetic Cathinone NFLIS

(2010)

NFLIS

(2011)

NFLIS

(2012)

NFLIS

(2013*)

NFLIS

(2010-2013*)

4-MEC 5 175 1,052 644 1,876

4-MePPP 0 91 181 16 288

α-PVP 0 17 2,730 1,583 4,330

Butylone 3 173 258 52 486

Pentedrone 0 122 913 125 1,160

Pentylone 0 34 169 32 235

FMC** 4 168 106 13 291

Naphyrone 1 20 19 3 43

α-PBP 0 0 57 41 98

TOTAL 13 800 5,485 2,509 8,807

NFLIS database was queried for drug reports on 12/20/2013 by date submitted to state and local forensic 

laboratories

*2013 Data are January – November (data are still being reported for November)

**FMC consists of isomers of FMC including 3-FMC and 4-FMC

Table II.3: Number of Reports (State and Local) of All Synthetic Cathinones

Substance Category 2010 2011 2012 2013* 2010-2013*

Ten Synthetic Cathinones‡

13 800 5,485 2,509 8,807

All Synthetic Cathinones 636 6,345 12,959 10,508 30,448

% Ten Synthetic Cathinones‡

2% 13% 42% 24% 29%

NFLIS database was queried for drug reports on 12/20/2013 by date submitted to state and local forensic 

Laboratories.

*2013 Data are January – November (data are still being reported for November)

‡

Ten Synthetic Cathinones include 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, FMC, naphyrone, 

and α-PBP

Table II.4: Number of States where Synthetic Cathinones‡ was Identified (State and Local)

Synthetic Cathinone 2010 2011 2012 2013 2010-2013*

4-MEC 3 24 37 35 38

4-MePPP 0 13 21 12 26

α-PVP 0 6 38 33 40

Butylone 1 22 28 16 34

Pentedrone 0 17 28 17 33

Pentylone 0 8 23 16 29

FMC** 2 22 26 6 29

Naphyrone 1 9 10 2 16

α-PBP 0 0 16 9 19

TOTAL STATES 5 32 41 41 42

NFLIS database was queried on 12/20/2013 by date submitted to state and local forensic laboratories.

*2013 Data are January – November (data are still being reported for November)

**FMC consists of isomers of FMC including 3-FMC and 4-FMC

‡

Synthetic Cathinones are 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP
DEA/OD/ODE Page 34 of 35 January 28, 2014

Table II.5: States where Synthetic Cathinones‡ were Identified

States with Exhibits from 2010-2013*

Synthetic

Cathinones

Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut

Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa

Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland 

Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri

Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico

New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma

Oregon Pennsylvania South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee

Texas Utah Virginia Washington West Virginia

Wisconsin Wyoming

NFLIS database was queried on 12/20/2013 by date submitted to state and local forensic laboratories.

*2013 Data are January – November (data are still being reported for November)

‡

Synthetic Cathinones are 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP

Examples of Enforcement Activities

1. On May 14, 2013, two individuals were convicted after a jury trial in the United States 

District Court Northern District of New York. The individuals were convicted of 

conspiracy to distribute, or to possess with intent to distribute controlled substance 

analogues (4-MEC and mephedrone) in violation of 21 USC 846 and conspiracy to import 

a controlled substance analogue in violation of 21 USC 963 and/or 19 counts of money 

laundering in violation of 18 USC 1956. A third individual who was arrested in this 

investigation failed to show for trial and is currently a fugitive. Also indicted in this 

investigation was a foreign individual who allegedly shipped the substances to the 

convicted individuals. Eighteen other defendants pled guilty to conspiracy to distribute, 

or to possess with intent to distribute a controlled substance analogue in violation of 21 

USC 846. 

2. The jury in the United States District Court for the Western District of Virginia returned a 

guilty verdict (May 2013) on nine counts against an individual for the conspiracy to 

distribute, or to possess with intent to distribute a controlled substance analogue (4-

MEC, methylone, and MDPV) in violation of 21 USC 846.

3. Several individuals were indicted (July 2012) in the United States District Court for the 

District of Arizona for the alleged violation of the analogue drug provision (substances 
DEA/OD/ODE Page 35 of 35 January 28, 2014

included α-PVP, α-PBP, 4-MePPP, pentedrone, pentylone, butylone, and MDPV). Many 

of the indicted pled guilty and one individual was found guilty in a jury trial in July 2013.

4. An individual was indicted (October 2012) in the United States District Court for the 

Western District of Virginia for the alleged violation of the analogue drug provision 

(substance is α-PVP). Two other individuals were also indicted in this case. One 

individual pled guilty and one individual was found guilty in a jury trial in July 2013.

5. Individuals were indicted (July 2012) in the United States District Court for the Southern 

District of New York for conspiring to distribute and possess with intent to distribute a 

controlled substance analogue (the synthetic designer drugs was α-PVP) in violation of 

21 USC 846. The defendants plead guilty (April 2013).

6. Four individuals were indicted (April 2012) in the United States District Court for the 

Northern District of West Virginia for the conspiracy to distribute controlled substance

analogues (α-PVP was one of the substances) and other related charges in violation of 

21 USC 846. Three of the individuals pled guilty to some of the charges.