Jannick H Schmidt

Department of Development and Planning

Aalborg University

Life cycle assessment of rapeseed oil and

Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil

palm oil
Title: Life assessment of rapeseed oil and palm oil. Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil 

and palm oil

Author: Jannick Hoejrup Schmidt 

Published by: Department of Development and Planning, Aalborg University 

Distribution: http://vbn.aau.dk 

Date: 15-jun-2007 (version for the assessment committe) 

Cover: Fotos by: 

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1) Jannick H Schmidt, Rapeseed field near Aalborg, May 2007 

2) Calle Schmidt, Rapeseed field in Northern Jutland, May 2007 

3) Picture obtained from: http://jyndevad.okologgen.dk (Accessed May 2007) 

4) Jannick H Schmidt, Rapeseed oil, June 2007 

5) Jannick H Schmidt, Palm oil, May 2007 

6) Jannick H Schmidt, United Plantations Berhad, Malaysia, November 2006 

7) Jannick H Schmidt, United Plantations Berhad, Malaysia, November 2006 

8) Jannick H Schmidt, United Plantations Berhad, Malaysia, August 2005
Preface 

This report is published as part of the Ph.D. thesis: Life cycle assessment of rapeseed oil and palm oil. The 

thesis consists of three parts: 

1. Part 1: Summary report 

The summary report describes the overall problem of the Ph.D. project, the research outline, summaries of the research and perspectives and recommendations. 

2. Part 2: Article collection (6 scientific articles) 

The article collection presents the core of the scientific output of the Ph.D. project.

3. Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

This life cycle inventory report provides and documents the background material for the scientific article: Comparative life cycle assessment of rapeseed oil and palm oil (published in part two of the thesis). This includes definition of system boundaries, the collected data, the modelling of the investigated 

system, sensitivity analyses and an evaluation of sensitivity, completeness and consistency. The inventory report has character of an appendix report to the life cycle assessment 

The Ph.D. thesis was carried out at the Department of Development and Planning at Aalborg University. The 

project was initiated under the framework of the DUCED - I&UA project which is a Danish university consortium for environment and development. The thesis was supervised by professor Per Christensen and associate 

professor Eskild Holm Nielsen, Department of Development and Planning, Aalborg University. 

Many people, companies and institutions have provided essential data, insights and great hospitality during 

meetings and longer stays which have made this study possible. Therefore, a special thanks goes to: 

Carl Bek-Nielsen (Executive director of United Plantation), Dr. Gurmit Singh (Research director), Dr. Xaviar Arulandoo (Research controller), Dr. Mukesh Sharma (Research manager) and the rest of the Research Department at United Plantations Berhad, 

Teluk Intan, Malaysia 

Jesper Korning (Quality manager), Lars Kronborg (Quality engineer), Anders Kromand Hansen (Engineer) and Anders Dahl 

(Trading Manager), AarhusKarlshamn, Aarhus, Denmark 

Vijaya Subramaniam (Research officer), Engineering & Processing Division, Energy and Environment Unit, Malaysian Palm Oil 

Board (MPOB), Kajang, Malaysia 

Prof. Dr. P Agamuthu (Professor) and the students at the Solid Waste Lab, Institute of Biological Science, University of Malaya, 

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 

Randolph Jeremiah (Project officer), MUCED, Malaysian University Consortium for Environment and Development, University 

of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 

Sumiani Yusoff (Researcher), Department of Civil Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 

Peter Shonfield, LCA Team Leader, Chemistry & Environmental Protection Department, Safety and Environmental Assurance 

Centre, Unilever 

Jannick Hoejrup Schmidt, June 2007 

Contents 

1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................................9

1.1 Purpose of the life cycle inventory.............................................................................................................................9

1.2 Functional unit............................................................................................................................................................9

1.3 Method for system delimitation..................................................................................................................................9

1.4 Method applied for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA).....................................................................................12

1.5 Data collection..........................................................................................................................................................16

1.6 Structure of the report...............................................................................................................................................16

2 System boundaries of inventoried systems.............................................................................................................19

2.1 Marginal suppliers of affected crops ........................................................................................................................19

2.2 System expansion – oil mill stage ............................................................................................................................20

2.3 System expansion – agricultural stage......................................................................................................................23

2.4 Scenarois related to system expansion .....................................................................................................................28

2.5 Inventoried system – summary.................................................................................................................................30

3 Energy.......................................................................................................................................................................33

3.1 Electricity from the grid in Denmark .......................................................................................................................33

3.2 Electricity from the grid in Malaysia and Indonesia ................................................................................................37

3.3 Electricity from the grid in Brazil ............................................................................................................................38

3.4 Electricity from the grid in Canada ..........................................................................................................................39

3.5 Electricity in different countries, summary ..............................................................................................................39

3.6 District heating in Denmark .....................................................................................................................................40

4 Transport..................................................................................................................................................................43

4.1 Transport with lorry .................................................................................................................................................43

4.2 Transport with ocean tanker .....................................................................................................................................44

4.3 Traction ....................................................................................................................................................................45

4.4 Transport with passenger car....................................................................................................................................46

5 Agricultural stage: Rapeseed ..................................................................................................................................47

5.1 Product flow in agricultural stage.............................................................................................................................48

5.2 Omitted inventory data in agricultural stage ............................................................................................................51

5.3 Energy use................................................................................................................................................................52

5.4 Materials...................................................................................................................................................................58

5.5 Co-products ..............................................................................................................................................................65

5.6 Emissions .................................................................................................................................................................66

5.7 Overhead in agricultural stage..................................................................................................................................77

5.8 Capital goods in agricultural stage ...........................................................................................................................77

5.9 Transport of materials in agricultural stage..............................................................................................................80

5.10 LCI of rapeseed agricultural stage, summary.........................................................................................................81

6 Agricultural stage: Oil palm, fresh fruit bunches (FFB) ......................................................................................83

6.1 Product flow in agricultural stage.............................................................................................................................87

6.2 Omitted inventory data in agricultural stage ............................................................................................................88

6.3 Energy use................................................................................................................................................................88

6.4 Other processes ........................................................................................................................................................90

6.5 Materials...................................................................................................................................................................90

6.6 Co-products ..............................................................................................................................................................93

6.7 Emissions .................................................................................................................................................................93

6.8 Overhead in agricultural stage................................................................................................................................111

6.9 Capital goods in agricultural stage .........................................................................................................................111

6.10 Transport of materials in agricultural stage..........................................................................................................112

6.11 LCI of oil palm agricultural stage, summary........................................................................................................114

7 Agricultural stage: Soybean..................................................................................................................................115

7.1 Product flow in agricultural stage...........................................................................................................................115

7.2 Omitted inventory data in agricultural stage ..........................................................................................................116

7.3 Energy use..............................................................................................................................................................117

7.4 Materials.................................................................................................................................................................117

7.5 Emissions ...............................................................................................................................................................118

7.6 Overhead in agricultural stage................................................................................................................................122

7.7 Capital goods in agricultural stage .........................................................................................................................122

7.8 Transport of materials in agricultural stage............................................................................................................123

7.9 LCI of soybean agricultural stage, summary..........................................................................................................123

8 Agricultural stage: Barley.....................................................................................................................................127

8.1 Product flow in agricultural stage...........................................................................................................................127
8.2 Omitted inventory data in agricultural stage...........................................................................................................129

8.3 Energy use ..............................................................................................................................................................130

8.4 Materials .................................................................................................................................................................130

8.5 Co-products ............................................................................................................................................................131

8.6 Emissions................................................................................................................................................................132

8.7 Overhead in agricultural stage ................................................................................................................................139

8.8 Capital goods in agricultural stage..........................................................................................................................139

8.9 Transport of materials in agricultural stage ............................................................................................................139

8.10 LCI of barley agricultural stage, summary ...........................................................................................................141

9 Oil mill stage: Rapeseed oil....................................................................................................................................143

9.1 Rapeseed oil mill product flow...............................................................................................................................143

9.2 Omitted inventory data in rapeseed oil mill stage...................................................................................................146

9.3 Power central ..........................................................................................................................................................146

9.4 Rapeseed oil mill processing: Pressing and extraction ...........................................................................................147

9.5 Waste to treatment ..................................................................................................................................................149

9.6 Overhead.................................................................................................................................................................150

9.7 Capital goods ..........................................................................................................................................................151

9.8 Transport of raw materials and ancillaries to rapeseed oil mill ..............................................................................153

9.9 LCI of rapeseed oil mill, summary .........................................................................................................................153

10 Oil mill stage: Palm oil...........................................................................................................................................155

10.1 Palm oil mill product flow....................................................................................................................................155

10.2 Omitted inventory data in palm oil mill stage.......................................................................................................157

10.3 Power central ........................................................................................................................................................157

10.4 Palm oil mill processing: Pressing, drying etc......................................................................................................161

10.5 POME treatment ...................................................................................................................................................162

10.6 Co-products/waste to treatment ............................................................................................................................164

10.7 Overhead...............................................................................................................................................................165

10.8 Capital goods ........................................................................................................................................................165

10.9 Transport of raw materials and ancillaries to palm oil mill ..................................................................................166

10.10 LCI of palm oil mill, summary ...........................................................................................................................167

11 Oil mill stage: Palm kernel oil ...............................................................................................................................169

11.1 Oil mill product flow ............................................................................................................................................169

11.2 Omitted inventory data in palm kernel oil mill stage............................................................................................169

11.3 Energy use ............................................................................................................................................................170

11.4 Material use ..........................................................................................................................................................170

11.5 Emissions..............................................................................................................................................................170

11.6 Waste to treatment ................................................................................................................................................170

11.7 Overhead...............................................................................................................................................................171

11.8 Capital goods ........................................................................................................................................................171

11.9 Transport of raw materials and ancillaries to palm kernel oil mill .......................................................................171

11.10 LCI of palm kernel oil mill, summary ................................................................................................................171

12 Oil mill stage: Soybean meal .................................................................................................................................173

12.1 Oil mill product flow ............................................................................................................................................173

12.2 Omitted inventory data in soybean oil mill stage .................................................................................................173

12.3 Energy use ............................................................................................................................................................173

12.4 Material use ..........................................................................................................................................................174

12.5 Emissions..............................................................................................................................................................174

12.6 Waste to treatment ................................................................................................................................................174

12.7 Overhead...............................................................................................................................................................174

12.8 Capital goods ........................................................................................................................................................174

12.9 Transport of raw materials and ancillaries to soybean oil mill .............................................................................175

12.10 LCI of soybean oil mill, summary ......................................................................................................................176

13 Refinery stage: Rapeseed oil..................................................................................................................................177

13.1 Material use ..........................................................................................................................................................178

13.2 Energy use ............................................................................................................................................................182

13.3 Emissions..............................................................................................................................................................182

13.4 Waste to treatment/co-products ............................................................................................................................182

13.5 Overhead...............................................................................................................................................................184

13.6 Capital goods ........................................................................................................................................................185

13.7 Transport of raw material and ancillaries to refinery............................................................................................185

13.8 LCI of rapeseed oil refinery, summary .................................................................................................................187

14 Refinery stage: Palm oil.........................................................................................................................................189

14.1 Material use ..........................................................................................................................................................189
14.2 Energy use............................................................................................................................................................190

14.3 Emissions .............................................................................................................................................................190

14.4 Waste to treatment/co-products............................................................................................................................190

14.5 Overhead ..............................................................................................................................................................191

14.6 Capital goods........................................................................................................................................................191

14.7 Transport of raw material and ancillaries to refinery ...........................................................................................191

14.8 LCI of palm oil refinery, summary.......................................................................................................................192

15 Refinery stage: Palm kernel oil.............................................................................................................................195

15.1 LCI of palm kernel oil refinery, summary............................................................................................................195

16 Refinery stage: Soybean oil ...................................................................................................................................197

17 Transport stage ......................................................................................................................................................199

18 Emissions from intensified cultivation .................................................................................................................201

18.1 Identification of methods of increasing yields......................................................................................................201

18.2 Determination of changed parameters..................................................................................................................201

18.3 LCI of intensified cultivation, summaries ............................................................................................................203

19 Emissions from transformation of land and from non-cultivated land.............................................................211

19.1 Emissions from transformation processes ............................................................................................................212

19.2 Avoided emissions from occupation of non-cultivated land ................................................................................216

20 Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) ...................................................................................................................219

21 Sensitivity analyses.................................................................................................................................................221

21.1 No. 1: LCIA-methods...........................................................................................................................................223

21.2 No. 2: System delimitation, marginal supplier of crops .......................................................................................225

21.3 No. 3: System delimitation, type of land transformed into agricultural land........................................................228

21.4 No. 4: Energy, marginal source of electricity.......................................................................................................229

21.5 No. 5: Energy, representativiness of data on district heating in Denmark............................................................230

21.6 No. 6: Agricultural cultivation, energy for traction..............................................................................................231

21.7 No. 7: Rapeseed cultivation, soil type ..................................................................................................................232

21.8 No. 8: Rapeseed cultivativation, N-fertiliser produced using best available techniques (BAT) ..........................232

21.9 No. 9: Agricultural cultivation, N changes in soil matter.....................................................................................233

21.10 No. 10: Agricultural cultivation, heavy metal contents in fertilisers..................................................................234

21.11 No. 11: Agricultural cultivation, initial compartment of pesticide emissions ....................................................234

21.12 No. 12: Oil palm cultivation, yields ...................................................................................................................235

21.13 No. 13: Oil palm cultivation, soil type ...............................................................................................................235

21.14 No. 14: Oil palm cultivation, uncertainties of CO2-emissions from peat soil.....................................................236

21.15 No. 15: Barley cultivation, omission of use and emissions of pesticides ...........................................................236

21.16 No. 16: Rapeseed oil mill, solvent extraction versus full press..........................................................................237

21.17 No. 17: Oil mills, capital goods..........................................................................................................................238

21.18 No. 18: Palm oil mill, POME treatment .............................................................................................................239

21.19 No. 19: Palm oil mill, steam requirement...........................................................................................................240

21.20 No. 20: Palm oil mill, alternative management options for EFB........................................................................242

21.21 No. 21: Insensified cultivation, yield-responses to additional fertiliser .............................................................243

21.22 Summary of sensitivity analyses ........................................................................................................................245

22 Identification of improvement options.................................................................................................................249

23 Sensitivity, completeness and consitency checks .................................................................................................251

23.1 Sensitivity check ..................................................................................................................................................251

23.2 Completeness check .............................................................................................................................................252

23.3 Consistency check ................................................................................................................................................252

24 References...............................................................................................................................................................255

Appendix 1: Data on fuels..............................................................................................................................................267

Appendix 2: Rapeseed production in Europe in 2004 .................................................................................................269

Appendix 3: Soil types and adjustments to different sources .....................................................................................271

Appendix 4: Characterisation factors for land use in Brazil and Canada.................................................................273

Abbreviations..................................................................................................................................................................275

1 Introduction 9 

 

1 Introduction 

This document is a complete life cycle inventory (LCI) for a comparative life cycle assessment of refined rapeseed oil from Denmark and palm oil from Malaysia and Indonesia. The inventory has been carried out following the reuirements in ISO 14040 (2006) and ISO 14044 (2006). The purpose of this report is to provide the 

basis for a comparative LCA of rapeseed oil and palm oil. Therefore, all four phases1

 of a life cycle assessment 

(LCA) is not fully included in this report. Figure 1.4 (page 17) shows how the different sections in the document relate to the four phases. 

1.1 Purpose of the life cycle inventory 

The inventory provides the basis for a comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) of refined rapeseed oil and 

palm oil. This includes definition of system boundaries, data collection, the modelling of the investigated system, sensitivity analyses, identification of improvement options and an evaluation of sensitivity, completeness 

and consistency. The comparative LCA of rapeseed oil and palm oil is presented in Schmidt (2007a)2

. According to Schmidt (2007a) the main purpose of the LCA is to assess the environmental impacts related to increasing supply of vegetable oils to the EU. The two main oils used in the EU are rapeseed oil and palm oil. The 

LCA analyses rapeseed oil from Denmarks as representative for the supply of rapeseed oil and palm oil from 

Malaysia and Indonesia as representative for the supply of palm oil. For futher details, see Schmidt (2007a). 

1.2 Functional unit 

The functional unit is defined as one tonne refined vegetable oil suitable for the most important food purposes 

delivered in central Europe (Amsterdam). The most important uses of vegetable oils and fats are in margarine, 

shortening and frying and salad oils (Bockisch, 1998). But since different oils and fats have different properties 

in terms of crystallization, stability to heat, health etc. care should be taken when determining the reference 

flow. In order to compare one tonne rapeseed oil with one tonne palm oil the oils have to be substitutable. 

1.3 Method for system delimitation 

Consequential system delimitation 

The consequential approach to system delimitation has been applied, i.e. the system inventoried reflects the 

actually affected processes (Weidema, 2003). The core differences between consequential LCAs and so called 

attributional or traditional LCAs are summarised in Table 1.1. 

1

 Phase 1: Goal and scope definition, Phase 2: Life cycle inventory, Phase 3: Life cycle impact assessment and Phase 4: 

Life cycle interpretation (ISO 14040 2006) 

2

 Schmidt (2007a) is part of the Ph.D. thesis: ‘Life assessment of rapeseed oil and palm oil’ and it is published in the report ‘Life assessment of rapeseed oil and palm oil. Ph.D. thesis, Part 2: Article collection’. 
10 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Feature Consequential modelling Attributional modelling 

Nature Attempts to predict to responses to a change in 

demand 

Describes how existing production is taking place 

Included processes/suppliers Marginal Average 

Co-product allocation Co-product allocation is avoided by system 

expansion 

Co-product allocation is treated by using allocation factors 

Table 1.1: Main characteristics of and differences between consequential and attributional modelling in life cycle inventory (based on Weidema 2003; Schmidt and Weidema 20073

).

A marginal technology or supplier is defined as the one actually affected by a change in demand, and it is identified as the one most sensitive to changes in demand. A supplier or technology must be within the relevant 

market segment and among those which are flexible, i.e. not constrained by legal, physical or market conditions. When the relevant suppliers or technologies are identified, the marginal one can be identified as the most 

competitive in situations with an increasing or constant market trend and reversely the least competitive in 

situations with a decreasing market trend. The most or least competitive supplier or technology can be determined on the basis of the price relations between the technologies. Alternatively it can be assumed that the 

most competitive suppliers are those which are increasing with the highest rate. 

The main argument for applying the consequential approach is that only the actual affected processes are included (Weidema, 2003). Technologies that are not likely to respond to a change in demand should not be 

included in an LCA since this will not reflect the actual change in environmental impact. 

In order to keep the opportunity to compare results with other LCAs on vegetbale oils, results achived using 

attributional modelling are presented parallel to the other scenarios investigated. 

System delimitation in the agricultural stage 

According to Schmidt (2007b)4 no agricultural LCAs which include the following three important aspects have 

been identified (i) the identification of the actually affected crops and regions, (ii) the identification of how 

increased demand for an agricultural product is met and (iii) when land under natural vegetation is transformed 

into agricultural land there are obvious some induced emissions from fertiliser inputs etc. But the emissions 

from the land under natural vegetation are also avoided. Relating to (i), increased demand for e.g. rapeseed in 

Denmark may lead to either increased import or increased cultivation or a combination. If cultivation is increased, it is important to clarify if this affects the area cultivated with other crops in the region. E.g. in Denmark where the total agricultural area has been declining the last decades it is likely that increased cultivation 

of rapeseed will cause less area available for other crops. Thus, the marginal crop will be displaced as a consequence of increased rapeseed cultivation. If it is assumed that increased production of rapeseed does not affect 

the overall food security in the world, the displaced crop will be compensated for in the region representing the 

marginal supplier of that crop. Relating to (ii) it is relevant to clarify if increased agricultural production is met 

by increased yield or by increased area, i.e. transformation of non-productive land into agricultural land. According to Schmidt (2007b) the differences between these two strategies is significant; increased cultivated 

area is associated with land use effects while increased yields may lead to significant effects relating to global 

warming and eutrophication. Relating to (iii), it is well known that even pristine nature causes undesirable 

emissions, though the level is commonly significant lower than the emission level from agricultural land. Thus, 

 

3

 Schmidt and Weidema (2007) is part of the Ph.D. thesis: ‘Life assessment of rapeseed oil and palm oil’ and it is published in the report ‘Life assessment of rapeseed oil and palm oil. Ph.D. thesis, Part 2: Article collection’. 4

 Schmidt (2007b) is part of the Ph.D. thesis: ‘Life assessment of rapeseed oil and palm oil’ and it is published in the report ‘Life assessment of rapeseed oil and palm oil. Ph.D. thesis, Part 2: Article collection’. 
1 Introduction 11 

the interventions from cultivation of crops should be represented by the difference between the actual interventions from the agricultural land and the interventions from the form the alternative land use, i.e. commonly 

land under natural vegetation. 

Changes in agricultural production of a certain crop can principally be achieved by affecting one of or a combination of three different systems; 1) changes in agricultural productivity per unit of area (e.g. fertiliser, pesticides, organic/conventional), 2) transformation of land between agricultural land and non-cultivated land or 3) 

the change in cultivated area of the desired crop affect the area cultivated with other crops. 

System 1) Changes by yield: When agricultural production is increased by a change in yield, there are no 

effects on land-use. Only the interventions per unit of area are affected. The interventions are calculated as the 

intervations from 1 hectare of intensified cultivation minus the interventions from 1 hectare of ‘business as 

usual’ cultivation. The principle is illustrated in Figure 1.1. 

1 ha y: Intesified cultivation

Change by yield

1 ha y: 'business as usual' cultivation

minus

Figure 1.1: Principle in modelling of changes in agricultural production by a change in yield. The crop output from this 

system is equal to the difference in yields of the two processes. The abbreviation ha y refers to 1 hectare in one year. 

System 2) Changes by area: When agricultural production is increased by a change in the cultivated area 

there are two different sources of interventions: Firstly, there are interventions related to cultivation of the 

transformed land. This includes occupation processes of the land and and emissions corresponding to ‘business 

as usual’ cultivation. Secondly, there are interventions related to the transformation process itself, i.e. transformation processes of land and the associated changes in the standing stocks of carbon and nitrogen. The 

principle is illustrated in Figure 1.2. 

1 ha y: 'business as usual' cultivation

Change by area

1 ha y: avoided emissions from noncultivated land

minus

1 ha: interventions from transformation of

non-cultivated land to agricultural land

plus

Figure 1.2: Principle in modelling of changes in agricultural production by a change in area. The crop output from this 

system is equal to the annual yield of the relevant crop. The abbreviation ha y refers to 1 hectare in one year. 

In Figure 1.2 it is easy to relate the interventions from cultivation and the avoided interventions from noncultivated land to the functional unit, because the interventions are proportional with the annual yield. However, the interventions from transformation of 1 ha non-cultivated land into 1 ha agricultural land is difficult to 

relate to the functional unit, because it is difficult to predict how many functional units the land-transformation 

will support. Therefore, the interventions related to the transformation process itself are treated separately in 

the LCI and LCIA. 
12 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

System 3) Displacement of other crops: When agricultural production of a crop x is changed at the expense 

of cultivation of another crop y, the displaced crop y must be produced somewhere else, i.e. in the region that 

represents the marginal supplier of crop y. The amount of displaced crop y per ha cultivation of crop x is determined as: (yieldcrop y / yieldcrop x). The changes in production of crop y then have to be distributed on changes 

by area and changes by yield. The principle is illustrated in Figure 1.3. 

1 ha y: crop x

Change displacement of other crops

1 ha y: crop y

minus

Cultivation of 1 t * (yieldcrop y, region a / yieldcrop x, region a)

region a region b

plus

Change by area Change by yield

Figure 1.3: Principle in modelling of changes in agricultural production of crop a by displacement of crop b. 

System delimitation in the oil mill stage and the refinery stage 

There are two main product outputs from the oil mill stage; vegetable oil and the meal which is used for animal 

fodder. The meal has two functions as animal fodder; protein source and energy source. Thus, when inventorying the interventions relating to the oil, it must be taken into account that the meal substitutes the marginal 

sources of fodder protein and fodder energy. A method for avoiding co-product allocation by system expansion 

take these factors into account is presented in Schmidt and Weidema (2007). 

In addition to the co-products from the oil mill there are also co-products from the refinery, i.e. vegetable oil 

and free fatty acids which are used as fodder energy. The system expansion related to that is also dealt with 

using the method presented in Schmidt and Weidema (2007). 

1.4 Method applied for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) 

Though, this report is only a life cycle inventory, LCIA methods are used for some purposes. Firstly, when 

comparying different database LCI data for energy, transport, material or process inputs to the system, an 

LCIA method is used for selection of relevant comparable indicators (e.g. global warming), and for comparison. In the selection of relevant comparable indicators the weighted results using a LCIA method are used. In 

most cases global warming, eutrophication and toxicity turn out to be the three most relevant indicators to 

compare, i.e. these are the most significant potential environmental impacts related to the products/services 

compared. When the indicators have been selected the characterised results are compared. Hereby the most 

significant differences between the considered database LCI data are monitored. Secondly, LCIA methods are 

used when performing sensititity analyses of the significance of different assumptions and data uncertainties 

on the overall result. Hereby, the assumption’s or selected data’s contribution to the total potential environmental impact within some selected impact categories is analysed. 

It is chosen to use the Danish EDIP97-method (Wenzel et al. 1997 and Hauschild and Wenzel 1998) as the 

default LCIA method in this study. The LCIA-methods Impact 2002+ and EcoIndicator are used as a sensitivity analysis on the level of LCIA methods (see section 21.1). 
1 Introduction 13 

The EDIP97-method as available in SimaPro 7.0 is not applied directly in this study. The following modifications have been implemented in the EDIP97-method in SimaPro: 

Modification 1) Updates: The original EDIP97-method has been updated continouosly since the release in 

1996. The newest version of the updated EDIP97-method which includes addition of new substances and updates of characterisation factors as well as normalisation and weighting factors is available in (LCA-center 

2007). The updates are implemented in the EDIP97-method in SimaPro. However, the updated version is not 

available in a format compatible with SimaPro and the work load for entering all updated factors is too big. 

Therefore, the EDIP97-method in SimaPro has only been partly updated focussing only on the most significant 

interventions. The partly update has been conducted in the following way: 

1. Substances of pesticides and their characterisation factors have been included, see Table 1.3

2. The final LCI entered in SimaPro is analysed using the original version of EDIP97. The characterisation factors of the top-10 most significant substances are checked for updates (analysing rapeseed oil 

and palm oil in scenario 1). At the same time, in order to check for addition of new substances in the 

updated version of EDIP97, the top-10 list of substances obtained when using EcoIndicator and Impact 

2002+ are also chcked for updates. See Table 1.2

3. The normalisation and weighting factors are updated 

The characterisation factors for the added active ingredients of pesticides are given in Table 1.3. Besides, the 

pesticides given in Table 1.3, characterisation factors for the following substances have also been updated in 

accordance to LCA-center (2007): 
14 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

EDIP97 (version in SimaPro) 

(ecotoxicity, water chronical/ 

ecotoxicity, water acute/ 

ecotoxicity, soil chronical) 

Impact2002+ 

(aquatic ecotoxicity/ 

terrestrial ecotoxicity) 

EcoIndicator 99 (H) 

(ecotoxicity) 

Total list of emissions 

checked for updates 

Acetone (air) Aluminium (air) Cadmium (soil) Acetone (air) 

Arsenic (water) Aluminium (soil) Chromium (air) Aluminium (air) 

Benzene (air) Aluminium (water) Chromium (soil) Aluminium (soil) 

Cadmium (air) Arsenic (soil) Copper (air) Aluminium (water) 

Cadmium, ion (water) Cadmium (soil) Copper (soil) Arsenic (soil) 

Chromium VI (water) Chromium (soil) Lead (air) Arsenic (water) 

Cobalt (water) Copper (air) Nickel (air) Benzene (air) 

Copper (air) Copper (soil) Nickel (soil) Cadmium (air) 

Copper, ion (water) Copper, ion (water) Zinc (air) Cadmium (soil) 

Cyanid (air) Cypermethrin (air) Zinc (soil) Cadmium, ion (water) 

Cyanid (water) Cypermethrin (water) - Chromium (air) 

Formaldehyd (air) Glyphosate (soil) - Chromium (soil) 

Hexane (air) Mercury (water) - Chromium VI (water) 

Hydrogen sulphide (water) Nickel (air) - Cobalt (water) 

Iron (soil) Nickel (soil) - Copper (air) 

Iron (water) Selenium (soil) - Copper (soil) 

Lead (water) Zinc (air) - Copper, ion (water) 

Magenese (soil) Zinc (soil) - Cyanid (air) 

Manganese (water) Zinc, ion (water) - Cyanid (water) 

Molybdenum (soil) - - Cypermethrin (air) 

Nickel (water) - - Cypermethrin (water) 

Selenium (soil) - - Formaldehyd (air) 

Strontium (water) - - Glyphosate (soil) 

Titanium, ion (water - - Hexane (air) 

Zinc, ion (water) - - Hydrogen sulphide (water) 

- - - Iron (soil) 

- - - Iron (water) 

- - - Lead (air) 

- - - Lead (water) 

- - - Magenese (soil) 

- - - Manganese (water) 

- - - Mercury (water) 

- - - Molybdenum (soil) 

- - - Nickel (air) 

- - - Nickel (soil) 

- - - Nickel (water) 

- - - Selenium (soil) 

- - - Strontium (water) 

- - - Titanium, ion (water 

- - - Zinc (air) 

- - - Zinc (soil) 

- - - Zinc, ion (water) 

Table 1.2: Lists of the 10 most significant emissions contributing to (eco)toxicity using different LCIA-methods when 

analysing the inventories of scenario 1 described in section 2.5. The right column shows the total list of emissions that are 

checked for updates in the EDIP-method.
1 Introduction 15 

Active ingredient (a.i.) Compartment ETWC (m3/g) ETWA (m3/g) ETSC (m3/g) 

air 0 0 0 

water 14.5 17.1 0 

Herbicide, Clomazone 

soil 0 0 1.51 

air 0 0 0 

water 255 13.2 0 

Herbicide, Propyzamid 

soil 0 0 40 

air 7.25 0 18.1 

water 14.5 1.45 0 

Herbicide, Clopyralid 

soil 0 0 36.2 

air 0 0 0 

water 62.6 7.69 0 

Herbicide, Glyphosate 

soil 0 0 155 

air 625 0 3.00E3 

water 1.25E3 125 3.00E3 

Herbicide, Tribenuron-methyl 

soil 0 0 0 

air 154 0 188 

water 769 76.9 0 

Herbicide, 2,4-D 

soil 0 0 235 

air 

water 

Herbicide, imazethapyr 

soil 

No data, omitted from LCIA 

air 0 0 0 

water 5.81E7 2.13E6 0 

Insecticide, Cypermethrin 

soil 0 0 2.63E4 

air 0 0 0 

water 3.33E5 1.00E5 0 

Insecticide, Alpha-cypermethrin 

soil 0 0 244 

air 0 0 0 

water 1.00E5 1.00E4 0 

Insecticide, Tau-fluvalinat 

soil 0 0 4.94 

air 0 0 0 

water 1.79E+08 5.00E+06 0 

Insecticide, Chlorpyrifos 

soil 0 0 8.75E+05 

air 

water 

Insecticide, Deltamethrin 

soil 

No data, omitted from LCIA 

air 

water 

Rodenticide, Warfarin 

soil 

No data, omitted from LCIA 

Table 1.3: Characterisation factors for pesticides applied to the EDIP97-method in SimaPro. The characterisation factors 

are obtained from LCA-center (2007).

Modification 2) Inclusion of land-use (biodiversity) as an impact category: The EDIP97-method does not 

include land-use. Therefore, this has been included. Since no sufficient methods for land-use impacts exist, a 

method has been developed for this reason: Schmidt (2007c)5

. The existing methods are either too coarse (i.e. 

no distiguishing between crops, extensive/intensive etc.) or they are only covering a smaller part of the world, 

e.g. Europe. 

Modification 3) Exclusion of characterisation factors for biogenic CO2 emission and CO2-uptake in biomass: In the EDIP97-method in SimaPro 7.0 the following two emissions are included as contributers to 

global warming: ‘Carbon dioxide, biogenic’ (emission to air, characterisation factor 1 g CO2-eq./g CO2) and 

‘Carbon dioxide, in air’ (raw material, characterisation factor 1 g CO2-eq./g CO2). These emissions correspond 

to the emissions included in ecoinvent-processes in the case of oxydation (burning) of biomass and in the case 

of agricultural cultivation and forestry. However, since it is almost impossible to ensure that the uptake of car-

 

5

 Schmidt (2007c) is part of the Ph.D. thesis: ‘Life assessment of rapeseed oil and palm oil’ and it is published in the report ‘Life assessment of rapeseed oil and palm oil. Ph.D. thesis, Part 2: Article collection’. 
16 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

bon in agriculture and forestry is balanced with carbon emitted as biogenic CO2, the characterisation factors 

are set to zero. 

1.5 Data collection 

The data collection for rapeseed cultivation in Denmark is among others based on cultivation guidelines for 

rapeseed oil (Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning 2005), the LCAfood database and background material (Nielsen et 

al. 2005; Dalgaard 2007). The life cycle inventory for the oil mill and refinery stages for rapeseed oil takes its 

point of departure in a detailed data collection at AarhusKarlshamns in Aarhus (Korning 2006; Kronborg L; 

Hansen 2006; Aarhus United 2005a; Aarhus United 2005b). 

The data collection for oil palm cultivation as well as the oil mill and refinery stages takes its point of departure in a detailed data collection for palm oil at United Plantations in Malaysia (Bek-Nielsen 2006; Singh 2006; 

UPRD 2004). Other important data sources regarding palm oil are the Malaysian Palm Oil Board, MPOB 

(Subramaniam 2006a; Subramaniam 2006b; Subramaniam et al. 2005; Subramaniam et al. 2004) and various 

oil palm research (Corley and Tinker 2003). 

The co-product from the oil mill process, the oil meal affects soybean meal and barley (see section 2). The data 

collection related to these commodities is based on Dalgaard et al. (2007) for soybean meal and Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning (2005), Nielsen et al. (2005) and Dalgaard (2007) for barley. 

Inventory data for background processes, i.e. for energy production, fertiliser production, transportation, construction, maintenance and disposal of buildings etc. are largely based on the ecoinvent database (ecoinvent 

2004). The latest available version of ecoinvent, available in the LCA software SimaPro, is used, i.e. ecoinvent 

v1.3 (Frischknecht et al. 2006). When data from databases are used, they modified in order to comply with the 

consequential approach to system delimitation in LCA. 

1.6 Structure of the report 

The structure of the report is summarised in Figure 1.4. 

It appears from section 1.3 that changes in agricultural production can be achieved either by increasing the 

cultivated area or by increasing the yield. Changes in the production from oil milling and oil refineries are 

more simple, since changes in production here is achieved simply be scaling the whole product system of these 

life cycle stages. Figure 1.4 shows how agricultural production, oil milling and refining can be changed and in 

which sections in the report the single affected elements are described. 
1 Introduction 17 

Definition of inventoried systems

Change by area

Change by yield

Cultivation of crop

Transformation of land

Emissions from transformed land

Intensified cultivation of crop

Cultivation of crop

Cultivation of rapeseed

Cultivation of oil palm

Cultivation of soybean

Cultivation of barley

Intensified cultivation of rapeseed

Intensified cultivation of oil palm

Intensified cultivation of soybean

Intensified cultivation of barley

Section 5

Section 6

Section 7

Section 8

Emissions from transformation

and from transformed land

Section 19

Section 18

Cultivation of rapeseed

Cultivation of oil palm

Cultivation of soybean

Cultivation of barley

Section 5

Section 6

Section 7

Section 8

plus

minus

minus

Oil mill stage

Change in prod. Oil milling Rapeseed oil mill

Palm oil mill

Palm kernel oil mill

Soybean oil mill

Section 9

Section 10

Section 11

Section 12

Refinery stage

Change in prod. Refining Rapeseed oil refinery

Palm oil refinery

Palm kernel oil refinery

Soybean oil refinery

Section 13

Section 14

Section 15

Section 16

Transport stage

Transport Transport of oil to Central Europe Transport of rapeseed oil and

palm oil

Section 17

General inventory data

Energy Different sources of energy Electricity and district heat Section 3

Transport Different means of transportation Lorry, ocean tanker and traction Section 4

System delimitation

Scoping System delimitation Section 2

Agricultural stage

Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA)

Results

Assessment of significanse of various assumptions, methods and data

Section 20

Structure of the report

Sensitivity analyses and improvement options

Sensitivity Section 21

Sensitivity, completeness and consitency checks

Confidence Evaluation of the confidence in LCA results Section 23

Very brief presentation of characterised results of scenarios

Definition of goal

and scope

Phase 1

Phase 2

Life Cycle

Inventory

analysis (LCI)

Phase 3

Phase 4

Life Cycle Impact

Assessment

(LCIA)

Interpretation of

results

ISO 14040/44

Improvements Identification of improvement options in the product chains Section 22

Figure 1.4: Structure of the report. The right column shows how the different sections relate to the four phases of an LCA 

in accordance to the ISO 14040 and 14044 standards. 
18 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 
2 System boundaries of inventoried systems 19 

2 System boundaries of inventoried systems 

The production of rapeseed oil and palm oil are divided into four stages; agricultural stage, oil mill stage, refinery stage and transport stage. The transport stage only includes transport of oil from the refinery to final use 

which is assumed to be in Mid-europe represented by Amsterdam. Other transport processes are included in 

the other life cycle stages. The LCA includes direct affected processes, overhead (operation of buildings, administration, marketing etc.) and capital goods (building, machinery and means of transportation). The determination of the system boundaries relating the oil mill stage and refinery stage is based on the methodology 

presented in Schmidt and Weidema (2007) and the determination of the system boundaries relating the agricultural stage is based on the methodology presented in Schmidt (2007b)

2.1 Marginal suppliers of affected crops 

The system expansions required as described in section 2.2 implies that more crops than rapeseed and fresh 

fruit bunches (FFB) from oil palms are affected. In section 2.2 these secondary affected crops are identified to 

be barley and soybean. When the demand for any crop changes, the consequential approach to system delimitation prescribes that the included supplier should be the marginal one. Therefore, the marginal suppliers of the 

affected crops are identified. According to FAOSTAT (2006) the market trend for all these crops has been 

increasing (rapeseed, FFB and soybean) or relatively constant (barley) from 1995 to 2005 and FAPRI (2006) 

predict that the market trend will increase for all crops from 2005 to 2015. Thus, according to Weidema (2003) 

the marginal suppliers should be identified as the most competitive among those who are flexible. It is difficult 

to identify the most competitive supplier using price relations since the market prices for the crops mainly are 

determined by the world supply and demand and therefore are equal for all suppliers. For this reason, the marginal suppliers are identified as the ones who are predicted to face the largest annual increase in production in 

the near future (2005 to 2015) (see Table 2.1). For comparison, the average annual increase the last ten years 

(1995-2000 and 2000-2005) are also shown in Table 2.1. 

Annual change 

1995-2000 

(FAOSTAT 2006) 

Annual change 

2000-2005 

(FAOSTAT 2006) 

Annual change 

2005/06-2015/16 

(FAPRI 2006) 

Crop Supplier 

1000 t 1000 t 1000 t 

EU25* 636 916 417 

Rapeseed China 273 422 151 

Canada 466 477 145 

Indonesia* 449 1,251 965 

Palm oil Malaysia* 598 840 552 

Nigeria 17 57 No data 

Brazil* 1,819 4,037 3,535 

Soybean Argentina 2,021 3,115 1,514 

US 2,947 1,586 149 

Canada* -198 182 229 

Barley EU25 430 -443 181 

Russia -1,015 19 162 

Table 2.1: Identification of marginal suppliers of crops: Historical and predicted annual average increases among the 

leading suppliers, i.e. those who are predicted to face the largest annual increase in the future in FAPRI (2006). The suppliers that are assumed to represent the marginal suppliers are marked with *. No outlook data have been available for oil 

palm fruit (FFB). For this reason palm oil production is shown instead. However, palm oil production is to a large extent 

proportional to FFB and there is no international trade with FFB, thus production of palm oil always takes place in the 

same country as production of FFB.

The reason for choosing the marked (*) marginal suppliers of rapeseed, FFB and soybean appear to be quite 

obvious because these regions/countries are predicted to increase their production significantly more than the 
20 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

 

other suppliers. For barley the picture is not so clear. Nevertheless, looking at the development from 1995 to 

2005 Canada seems to increase its production while the EU25 decreases its production. Therefore, it is regarded as more likely that Canada will represent the marginal supplier than the EU25. The uncertainties related 

to the identification of marginal suppliers of barley and palm oil are assessed in a sensitivity analysis in section 

21.2. 

2.2 System expansion – oil mill stage 

As described in section 1.3 the consequential approach to LCA implies that system expansion has to be considered in the agricultural as well as the oil milling stage. Firstly, here in section 2.2, system expansion in the 

oil mill stage is considered and secondly, in section 2.3, system expansion in the agricultural stage is described. 

From the processing of rapeseed as well as palm kernels6

 in the oil mills there are outputs of rapeseed oil meal 

and palm kernel cake (PKC) respectively which are used for fodder purposes. Thus, a change in demand for 

rapeseed oil or palm oil will affect the production of oil meals/cakes. According to section 1.1 the purpose of 

the inventory is to model the interventions related to increased supply of vegetable oils to the EU, i.e. to model 

a change in demand. It is assumed that changed production of oil meals, as a consequence of a change in demand for vegetable oils, does not affect the production of meat. Hence, the demand for animal fodder is not 

assumed to be affected as a consequence of a change in demand for vegetable oils. Therefore, increased production of oil meals will substitute the marginal animal fodder in the market. According to Schmidt and Weidema (2007) fodder mainly consists of two components, i.e. fodder energy and fodder protein. Dalgaard et al. 

(2007) and Nielsen et al. (2005) identify the marginal sources of protein and fodder energy as soybean meal 

and barley respectively. The marginal suppliers of the affected crops are identified in section 2.1. 

Since soybean meal is co-produced with soybean oil and since soybean meal as well as barley contain proteins 

as well as fodder energy, the determination of the amounts of affected crops related to 1 tonne rapeseed oil or 

palm oil is more complex than just simple product substitutions. In addition, displacement of soybean meal 

causes a change in the supply of vegetable oil to the market. This change will then affect the marginal supplier 

of vegetable oil. According to Schmidt and Weidema (2007) the marginal vegetable oil is palm oil. Hence, 

three parameters must be balanced, i.e. oil, fodder protein and fodder energy. Balancing the affected commodities relating to a change in demand for 1 tonne vegetable oil the corresponding change in supply of fodder protein and fodder energy should be zero. In this respect, the relevant properties for of vegetable oils, oil meals 

and barley are given in Table 2.2. 

In addition to the co-products from the oil mill stage (vegetable oil, fodder protein and fodder energy), there 

are also co-products from the refinery stage that affect the same systems. From the neutralisation process in the 

refining, there is an output of free fatty acids (FFA). According to Weidema and Wesnæs (2006) the FFA is 

e.g. used for animal feed, in rubber processing, in the flavour industry, for production of candles and cosmetics. Further, Weidema and Wesnæs (2006) regard it as likely that the use for animal feed is the marginal use 

where the FFA acts as energy source. Therefore, it is assumed that the FFA is used as fodder fat and that it 

displaces the marginal source of fodder energy, i.e. barley. Corresponding to the vegetable oils, oil meals and 

barley, the relevant properties of fodder fat are also given in Table 2.2. 

6

 Palm kernels is a co-product from the processing of oil palm fruit (fresh fruit bunches, FFB) in the palm oil mill, see 

section 10. 
2 System boundaries of inventoried systems 21 

Paramter Vegetable oil, 

per kg oil 

Rapeseed meal, 

per kg meal 

Soybean meal, 

per kg meal 

Palm kernel cake, 

per kg meal 

Barley, 

per kg barley 

Fodder fat, 

per kg fodder fat 

Oil 1 kg oil 0 kg oil 0 kg oil 0 kg oil 0 kg oil 0 kg oil 

Protein 0 g protein 340 g protein 436 g protein 149 g protein 91.8 g protein 0 g protein 

Fodder energy* 0 SFU** 0.954 SFU 1.20 SFU 0.791 SFU 0.952 SFU 2.31 SFU 

Table 2.2: Relevant properties of affected commodities related to the product system of rapeseed oil and palm oil. 

*Fodder energy is measured in SFU (Scandinavian Fodder Units). **The reason why there is no fodder energy in vegetable oil is that the aim of this LCA is to assess the environmental impacts from vegetable oils used for food purposes (some 

times vegetable oils are used as animal fodder). 

In order to balance the product system it is necessary to know the ratio between the co-products from the involved processed. The product outputs from the rapeseed, palm oil, palm kernel oil and soybean oil mills are 

given in Figure 9.2, Figure 10.1, Figure 11.1 and Figure 12.1 respectively. In addition, the losses in refining 

of vegetable oils and the output of the co-product, fodder fat, must be taken into account. 1 tonne crude palm 

oil is not directly substitutable with 1 tonne crude rapeseed or soybean oil because of different losses in the 

refining process. The losses and outputs of fodder fat from refining of rapeseed oil, palm oil, palm kernel oil 

and soybean oil are given in Figure 13.1, Figure 14.1, Figure 15.1 and section 16 respectively. The land-use 

requrements are calculated from the yields given in Figure 5.4, Figur 6.13, Figure 7.1 and Figure 8.2. Based 

on these informations, it is possible to draw the overall product systems for the affected commodities, see 

Figure 2.1 and Figure 2.2. In the bottom of the figures the product outputs from the systems are transformed 

into contents of oil, fodder protein and fodder energy. This is done by applying the figures provided in Table 

2.2 to the vegetable oil, meals/cakes, barley and fodder fat. The bottom line of the figures corresponds to the 

relevant outputs of co-products when considering system expansion and product displacement, see next section. 

Rapeseed oil (RSO)

Palm kernel oil mill

Palm oil mill

0.111 t crude PKO

0.129 t PKC

1.000 t NBD PO+PKO

4.656 t FFB

Oil palm plantation

0.247 ha y

Malaysia and Indonesia

Rapeseed oil mill

1.000 t NBD RSO

1.369 t meal

2.428 t rapeseed

Rapeseed field

0.751 ha y

Denmark

465 kg protein

1,334 SFU energy

19.2 kg protein

102 SFU energy

Refinery

Refinery

Refinery

1.017 t crude RSO 0.930 t CPO 0.248 t kernels

0.890 t NBD PO

0.110 t NBD PKO

12 kg fodder fat

0 kg protein

28 SFU energy

38 kg fodder fat

0 kg protein

89 SFU energy

37 kg ffa

1 kg ffa

Palm oil (PO)

Figure 2.1: Product systems and their co-products for the directly affected systems (rapeseed oil and palm oil). 
22 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Soybean mill

1.000 t SM

0.244 t NBD SO

1.294 t soybean

Soybean field

0.403 ha y

1.000 t BL

Barley field

0.357 ha y

Brazil Canada

436 kg protein

1,200 SFU energy

91.8 kg protein

952 SFU energy

Refinery

0.249 t crude SO

3 kg fodder fat

0 kg protein

7 SFU energy

Soybean meal (SM) Barley (BL)

Figure 2.2: Product systems and their co-products for the indirectly affected systems in system expansion (soybean meal 

and barley). 

Rapeseed oil 

When performing system expansion in the product system of rapeseed oil and other related (affected) systems, 

the equation system described in Schmidt and Weidema (2007) is applied. By solving Equation (1) the 

amounts of rapeseed oil, palm oil, soybean meal and barley are balanced in order to provide a net output of 1 

tonne oil, 0 kg protein and 0 SFU (right side of the equation). The left side of the equation represents the 

amount of the affected crops multiplied by vectors of co-products. Here the amount of rapeseed oil is 1 tonne 

and the other three commodities (palm oil, soybean meal and barley) are independent variables, each representing the marginal sources of vegetable oil, fodder potein and fodder energy respectively. 

BLt 0.157

SMt 1.045

0.255POt

1.000 RSOt 

SFU0

prot.kg0

oilt1

BLSFU/t952

BLprot./tkg91.8

BLoil/tt0

BLt

SMSFU/t1,207

SMprot./tkg436

SMoil/tt0.244

SMt

POSFU/t191

POprot./tkg19.2

POoil/tt1

POt

1,362 RSOSFU/t 

RSOprot./t kg465

RSOoil/tt 1

RSO t 1

−=

−=

=

=

⇓

⎥

⎥

⎥

⎦

⎤

⎢

⎢

⎢

⎣

⎡

=

⎥

⎥

⎥

⎦

⎤

⎢

⎢

⎢

⎣

⎡

⋅+

⎥

⎥

⎥

⎦

⎤

⎢

⎢

⎢

⎣

⎡

⋅+

⎥

⎥

⎥

⎦

⎤

⎢

⎢

⎢

⎣

⎡

⋅+

⎥

⎥

⎥

⎦

⎤

⎢

⎢

⎢

⎣

⎡

⋅

(1)

It appears that a change in demand for rapeseed from Denmark at 1 tonne causes increased production of rapeseed oil in Denmark at 1 t, increased production of palm oil (PO+PKO) in Malaysia and Indonesia at 0.255 t, 

displacement of 1.045 tonne soybean meal in Brazil and displacement of 0.157 tonne barley in Canada. The 

reason, that a change in demand for rapeseed oil causes changed production of palm oil is that the displacement of soybean meal also causes displacement of soybean oil. This ‘missing’ vegetable oil then has to be 

compensated for by a change in production of the marginal oil which is palm oil. 

Palm oil 

Corresponding to the calculation of affected commodities related to a change in demand for rapeseed oil from 

Denmark, the calculation is done for a change in demand for palm oil, see Equation (2). 

BLt 0.198

SMt 0.00245

1.001POt

SFU0

prot.kg0

oilt1

BLSFU/t952

BLprot./tkg91.8

BLoil/tt0

BLt

SMSFU/t1,207

SMprot./tkg436

SMoil/tt0.244

SMt

POSFU/t191

POprot./tkg19.2

POoil/tt1

POt

−=

−=

=

⇓

⎥

⎥

⎥

⎦

⎤

⎢

⎢

⎢

⎣

⎡

=

⎥

⎥

⎥

⎦

⎤

⎢

⎢

⎢

⎣

⎡

⋅+

⎥

⎥

⎥

⎦

⎤

⎢

⎢

⎢

⎣

⎡

⋅+

⎥

⎥

⎥

⎦

⎤

⎢

⎢

⎢

⎣

⎡

⋅

(2) 
2 System boundaries of inventoried systems 23 

It appears from Equation (2) that a change in demand for palm oil at 1 tonne causes increased production of 

palm oil in Malaysia and Indonesia at 1.001 t, displacement of 0.00245 tonne soybean meal in Brazil and displacement of 0.198 tonne barley in Canada. The reason that production of more palm oil than demanded is 

required is that the displacement of soybean meal also causes displacement of soybean oil. Then, as explained 

in the case of rapeseed oil above, this missing oil has to be compensated for by a change in production of the 

marginal vegetable oil, i.e. palm oil. 

System expansion in the oil mill stage - summary 

Table 2.3 summarises the amount of agricultural crop inputs to the system and the corresponding land occupations. These inputs are determined from the product flows given in Figure 2.1 and the results of Equation (1)

and (2). The data in Table 2.3 only represent the immediate affected amounts of crops and land occupations. 

First when system expansion in the agricultural stage has been carried out, the actual amounts of crops and 

land occupations can be identified. The land occupations given in Table 2.3 correspond to the traditional way 

of determining land use in the life cycle inventory phase, i.e. the land under the crop of interest determined 

from present crop yields (Schmidt 2007b). 

1 t rapeseed oil in Denmark 1 t palm oil in Malaysia and Indonesia 

Affected crops Amount Land occupation Amount Land occupation 

Rapeseed in Denmark 2,428 t 0,751 ha y 0 t 0 ha y 

Oil palm fruit (FFB) in Malaysia and Indonesia 1,187 t 0,063 ha y 4,661 t 0,247 ha y 

Soybean in Brazil -1,352 t -0,421 ha y -0,0032 t -0,0010 ha y 

Barley in Canada -0,157 t -0,056 ha y -0,198 t -0,071 ha y 

Total immediate land occupation - 0.337 ha y - 0.175 ha y 

Table 2.3: Affected commodities and suppliers related to a change in demand of 1 t rapeseed oil and 1 t palm oil. 

2.3 System expansion – agricultural stage 

The amounts of crops given in Table 2.3 represent the immediate change in demand for crops related to demand for 1 tonne rapeseed oil from Denmark and 1 tonne palm oil from Malaysia/Indonesia. In the following 

the changes in demand for each of the crops in Table 2.3 will be described regarding system expansion in the 

agricultural stage, i.e. the identification of how increased production is achieved (yield or area) and the identification of land constraints and its consequences for the actual affected crops. The description is based on the 

methodology presented in Schmidt (2007b). 

Rapeseed in Denmark 

The change in demand for rapeseed from Denmark can be met either by increasing the yield or by increasing 

the area cultivated or a combination. If the area cultivated is increased, there are arguments against as well as 

for that this will be likely to affect to total cultivated area in Denmark. An argument that supports that the total 

cultivated area will increase is related to the EU strategy on biofuel (The European Commission 2006a). The 

European Commission (2006a) specifies that set-aside areas can be grown with energy crops in order to help 

further facilitating energy crops. According to the European Commission (2006b) 8,500 km2

 set-aside area in 

the European Union has already been used for growing oilseeds for energy purposes. For comparison the total 

cultivated area with rapeseed in 2005 in EU25 is 47,600 km2

 (FAOSTAT 2006). On the other hand, an argument against that increased demand for rapeseed will affect the total cultivated area is, that the total agricultural area in Denmark has been slightly decreasing the last decades (Danmarks Statistik 2006) and in addition, 

a main goal in the Danish forestry action plan, is to double the forested area within the next 80 year (The Danish Government 2002). This will increase the total forested area in Denmark from 12% (FAO 2006) to 20-25% 

(The Danish Government 2002). For comparison the set-aside area in 2005 covered only 4% of the total area in 

Denmark (Danmarks Statistik 2006). Thus, even when including set-aside areas in agricultural production, the 
24 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

agricultural area in Denmark is likely to continue its decrease. Increased area cultivated with rapeseed in Denmark will therefore be likely to displace the marginal crop in Denmark. Schmidt (2007b) has identified the 

marginal crop in Denmark to be spring barley. The marginal supplier of barley is previously identified as Canada. Thus, the displaced barley in Denmark will most likely be compensated for by increased production in 

Canada. From 2005/06 to 2015/16 the average annual increase in rapeseed yield in Europe is predicted to be 

1.01% (FAPRI 2006). The average annual increase in the rapeseed area in Europe is predicted to be 1.52% 

(FAPRI 2006). Hence, 40% of the future increase in production is predicted to be met by yield. It is assumed 

that the data for Europe in FAPRI are representative for Denmark. Thus, 40% of the increase in Danish rapeseed production is met by locally increasing the yields while the remaining 60% is met by increasing the area 

which displaces spring barley. The yield of Danish spring barley in 2005 (calculated by regression from 1990 

to 2005 and substracted seed) is 5.120 t/ha (see Figure 8.3). Since the yield of rapeseed in Denmark is 3.231 

t/ha and since 1.457 tonne rapeseed (60% of the desired 2.428 tonne in Table 2.3) is met by increased area, it 

can be calculated that 2.308 tonne spring barley is displaced in Denmark. Since Canada is regarded as the marginal supplier of barley, it is assumed that Canada will increase its barley production with 2.308 tonne. 

If the purpose of the LCA was to compare rapeseed oil from the EU instead of Danish rapeseed oil with palm 

oil, it could be argued that the increased demand for rapeseed oil produced in the EU would be met by yield 

and area increases within the EU, i.e. no displacement of other crops in the EU. The reason for this is, that the 

total cultivated area in the EU is predicted to increase slightly (based on FAPRI 2006) and that set-aside areas 

may be included in cultivation of rapeseed. In addition EU is the region in the world that is predicted to face 

the largest annual increase in rapeseed production from 2005/06 to 2015/16 (FAPRI 2006). Therefore, a scenario where increased demand for rapeseed is met by 40% increased yield and 60% increased area in the EU is 

included. Since the aim of this scenario is to assess the differences between local expansion and abroad expansion of the agricultural area, it is in practise defined as the increases in yield and area took place in Denmark, 

i.e. data for Danish yield and Danish technology is applied. 

It appears from the previous that when rapeseed cultivation is increased by area in Denmark, the corresponding 

changes in land use will not take place in Denmark since increased cultivation takes place at the expense of 

spring barley. Therefore, the changes in land use will most likely take place in Canada. In the case of the scenario describing increased rapeseed cultivation by area in the EU, the corresponding land use changes will be 

from set-aside area to rapeseed fields. 

FFB in Malaysia and Indonesia 

The change in demand for FFB in Malaysia and Indonesia is assumed to take place by 4% increased yield and 

96% increased area. It has not been possible to identify any data on predicted yields and cultivated area for the 

future. Therefore, the distribution between yield and area is based on historical data from FAOSTAT (2006) 

from 1995 to 2005. 

When oil palm cultivation is increased by area it is assumed that no displacements of other crops take place. It 

is often stated that a considerable share of the oil palm expansion has and is taking place on land released from 

other crops (Henson 2004, Corley and Tinker 2003 p 480 and Teoh 2000). According to Henson (2004) oil 

palm in Malaysia has largely been planted on land released from rubber, coconut and cocoa. This is in good 

accordince with data obtained from FAOSTAT (2006) for Malaysia where the planted area of rubber, cocoa 

and coconuts have been decreasing from around the year 1990 to the year 2005 while the planted area of oil 

palm has been increasing during the same period of time. However, looking at Malaysia and Indonesia as one 

marginal supplier of palm oil, there is a general increase in the cultivated area of rubber, coconut and cocoa, 

see Figure 2.3. Only an insignificant decrease in the cultivated area of cocoa is identified from 1994 to 1999. 
2 System boundaries of inventoried systems 25 

Thus, no displacements between crops are considered when identifying how oil palm cultivation is increased 

by area. 

0

10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

60,000

70,000

80,000

19611963196519671969197119731975197719791981198319851987198919911993199519971999200120032005

km2

Oil palm

Rubber

Cocoa

Coconuts

Malaysia and Indonesia

 

Figure 2.3: Planted area of oil palm, natural rubber, coconuts and cocoa in Malaysia and Indonesia 1961-2005. Based on 

FAOSTAT (2006). 

Since no crop displacement is taking place when considering Malaysia and Indonesia together, it is presumed 

that a change in demand for oil palm affects the cultivation with 4% change in yield and 96% transformation of 

non-agricultural land into oil palm cultivation. 

For changes achived by land transformation the question is then what kind of land that is transformed. Some 

NGO’s refer to land transformation related to oil palm as clearing of primary forest, e.g. see Frese et al. (2006), 

Casson (2003) and Wakker (2004). However, oil palm is almost always established on already disturbed land 

(Glastra et al. 2002, ProForest 2003, Bek-Nielsen 2006). 

Disturbed land may be either abandoned agricultural land, cleared forest (grassland/alang-alang land) or secondary forest. If oil palm is planted directly on transformed primary forest, the transformation from primary to 

degraded forest should be ascibed to logging since changes in demand for timber is the main driving force of 

logging. Thus, land use changes related to oil palm in this study is represented by either transformation of secondary/degraded forest to oil palm or transformation of grassland/alang-alang land to oil palm. 

From 1993 to 2003 the agricultural area in Malaysia and Indonesia has been increasing in average 5,600 km2

annually (FAOSTAT 2006). In the same period the area planted with oil palm has been increasing in average 

3,400 km2

 annually. These data represents the newst data available for a ten years period. 

For comparison the annual change in forest cover in Malaysia and Indonesia from 1990 to 2000 has been 

19,500 km2

 (FAO 2006), 96% in Indonesia and 4% in Malaysia. This has only changed slightly looking at 

2000 to 2005 where the annual deforestation rate in Malaysia and Indonesia together was 20,110 km2

. For 

comparison Pagiola (2000) specifies an annual deforestation rate in Indonesia at 16,420 km2

 from 1987 to 

1997. In Malaysia the change in the extent of primary forest has not changed from 1990 to 2005 while the annual degradation of primary forest at 14,478 km2

 in Indonesia has been the same in 1990 to 2000 and 2000 to 

2005. It appears that the annual deforestation in Malaysia and Indonesia is significant larger than the increase 
26 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

in agricultural area, also when looking at degradation of primary forest only. This underpins that it is not likely 

that oil palm is not the driving force of the logging of primary forest. 

According to Garrity et al. (1997) and Corley (2006) large areas of grassland (also called alang-alang or imperata) is available for expanding the agricultural area in Indonesia. Garrity et al. (1997, p 20) estimate the area 

of alang-alang grass land in Indonesia as 75,000–130,300 km2

, i.e. 4-7% of the total area, while the area of 

grassland available for agricultural expansion in Malaysia is only 1,000–5,000 km2

, i.e. 0.3–1.5% of the total 

area. A suggested specific target in the WWF initiated Round Table on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) is that at 

least 75% of the new oil palm plantings should be on degraded or abandoned, deforested land, rather than new 

clearings (Corley 2006; RSPO 2006) 

From the figures presented above it is not possible to estimate the composition of land use types transformed 

into oil palm. It is assumed that 50% of oil palm expansions take place by transformation of grassland and the 

other 50% take place by transformation of degraded/secondary forest. However, this assumption associated 

with large uncertainties. Therefore, the uncertainties related to the determination of the affected land use types 

(grassland, degraded/secondary forest and primary forest) are assessed in a sensitivity analysis in section 21.3. 

Soybean in Brazil 

The change in demand for soybean in Brazil is presumed to take place by 19% increased yield and 81% increased area. This presumption is based on predictions from 2005/06 to 2015/16 in FAPRI (2006). According 

to Dros (2004) expansion of soybean cultivation in Brazil mainly takes place in the Cerrados and the Amazon 

forests. Dros (2004) specifies the annual expansion rates from 1995/96 to 2003/04 in the Cerrado as approximately 7,500 km2

/year, while the rate in the Amazon states in the same period is around 369 km2/year. This is 

in good accordance with FAOSTAT (2006) from which an average increase in the soybean cultivated area 

from 1993 to 2003 can be determined as 7,812 km2

/year. Based on the figures provided by Dros (2004), it is 

assumed that changed soybean production by expanding the agricultural area in Brazil is achived by 95% 

transformation of the Cerrado savannah and 5% transformation of the Amazon rain forest. As in the case of oil 

palm in Malaysia and Indonesia, degradation of primary forest into degraded/secondary forest is ascribed to 

timer logging while transformation of degraded forest/secondary forest into soybean fields is ascribed to soybean cultivation. The transformation of the Cerrado savannah into soybean fields is fully ascribed to soybean 

cultivation. 

From 1993 to 2003 the arable land in Brazil has been increasing in average 6,740 km2

 annually (FAOSTAT 

2006). Thus, the increase in the area cultivated with soybean is larger than the total increase in arable land. An 

immidiate explanation of that could be that the increase in soybean has been taking place at the expense of 

displacement of other crops. However, that is not the case because the sum of change in the cultivated area of 

all crops in FAOSTAT (2006) shows a total increase at 10,951 km2

/year. The reason why this figure is larger 

than the total increase of arable land is because of increased cultivation of cropping systems with more than 

one crop anually. FAOSTAT (2006) distinguishes between ‘cultivated area’ and ‘arable land’. The ‘cultivated 

area’ is equal to the harvested area. And since some fields are harvested more than once a year, the ‘cultivated 

area’ is larger than the area of the ‘arable land’. According to Schnepf et al. (2001) three crops per year are in 

principple possible in some areas of Brazil. Double-croppping in Argentina and Brazil is often put forward as 

an important mean of increasing the cultivated area (the “virtually” area) (Jales et al. 2006 and USDA 2006). 

Double-croppping in Argentina is refereed to as 37% of the soybean cultivated area in USDA (1997) and 25% 

in Dalgaard et al. (2007). No information on double-cropping in Brazil has been identified. Therefore, it is 

assumed that 25% of the soybean in Bazil is cultivated in a double-cropping system. The consequence of this 
2 System boundaries of inventoried systems 27 

is, that the yield of soybean obtained from FAOSTAT statistics should be multiplied by a factor of 1.25 

(=0.25⋅2 + 0.75) in order to reflect the annual yield of one hectare of arable land. 

Barley in Canada 

From predictions in FAPRI (2006) it can be found that 31% of the future increase in production of barley in 

Canada is met by yield while the remaining 69% is met by increased area. However, since the total agricultural 

area in Canada has been decreasing in the period from 1993 to 2003 (FAOSTAT 2006) it is not assumed to be 

likely that 69% of future changes in demand for barley will be met by transformation of nature to agriculture. 

According to FAOSTAT (2006) there have been major increases in the cultivation of peas, rapeseed, soybeans, 

barley, oats, linseed, maize and lentils while there has been a corresponding decrease in the area cultivated 

with wheat. It could then be argued that the increased production of barley in Canada is achived by displacement of wheat. However, identifying the marginal supplier of wheat and then perform system expansion again 

would not add much acuracy to prediction of affected crops. The reason for that is that there is a considerable 

substitutability between different cereals (wheat, barley, oat, rye and to some extent maize and rice). It could 

then be asked if the marginal supplier of barley should be the same as the marginal supplier of cereals. In order 

to assess the uncertainties related to the identification of the marginal supplier of barley, a sensitivity analysis 

in section 21.2 assesses the effect on the results if other suppliers of barley are are marginal. 

According to FAOSTAT (2006) the average annual increases in cereals production from 1990 to 2005 have 

taken place as 1.48% increase in yield and 0.36% decrease in cultivated area. Similar figures showing that 

yield increases are the dominant way of increasing cereal production can be found in FAPRI (2006). In FAPRI, 

the predicted increased production of cereals is achived by 1.02% increase in yield and only 0.12% increase in 

cultivated area. Based on that, an increase in the production of cereals is assumed to be achived by increase in 

yields only. However, in some of the included scenarios increases in production of barley are assumed to be 

achieved by increase in the cultivated area. In these cases it is assumed that the transformed land is prairie 

grassland. 

System expansion in the agricultural stage - summary 

Figure 2.4 and Figure 2.5 summarises the product flows, and the affected crops and suppliers when performing system expansion in the agricultural stage. The yields of rapeseed and spring barley in Denmark, FFB in 

Malaysia and Indonesia, soybean in Brazil and barley in Canada are obtained from sections 5.1, 6.1, 7.1 and 

8.1. 
28 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

1.000 t rapeseed

DK: rapeseed (3.23 t/ha)

increased area

0.600 t rapeseed

0.186 ha y

DK: barley (5.12 t/ha)

reduced area

0.951 t barley

DK: rapeseed (3.23+ΔY t/ha)

increased yield

0.400 t rapeseed

CAN: barley (2.80+ΔY t/ha)

increased yield

1.000 t rapeseed

DK: rapeseed (3.23 t/ha)

increased area

0.600 t rapeseed

0.186 ha y

DK: rapeseed (3.23+ΔY t/ha)

increased yield

0.400 t rapeseed

0 ha y

Rapeseed in DK (constrained agr. area) Rapeseed in DK (local expansion of agr. area) Oil palm fruit (FFB) in Malaysia and Indonesia

1.000 t FFB

MY&IN: FFB (18.87 t/ha)

increased area

0.960 t FFB

0.051 ha y

MY&IN: FFB (18.87+ΔY t/ha)

increased yield

0.040 t FFB

0 ha y 0 ha y 0 ha y

Figure 2.4: Expanded agricultural product systems related to 1 t rapeseed and 1 t FFB. Abbreviations: Canada (CAN), 

Denmark (DK) and Malaysia and Indonesia (MY&IN). ΔY represents the desired increase in yields when increased production is achieved that way.

1.000 t soybean

BR: Soybean (3.21 t/ha)

increased area

0.810 t soybean

0.252 ha y

BR: Soybean (3.21+ΔY t/ha)

increased yield

0.190 t soybean

Soybean in Brazil

1.000 t barley

0 ha y

Barley in Canada

CAN: barley (2.80+ΔY t/ha)

increased yield

0 ha y

Figure 2.5: Expanded agricultural product systems related to 1 t soybean and 1 t barley. Abbreviations: Canada (CAN) 

and Brazil (BR). ΔY represents the desired increase in yields when increased production is achieved that way. 

2.4 Scenarois related to system expansion 

The system delimitation in the main scenario is described in the previous sections. However, most LCAs on 

products from oil crops are performed using attributional modelling in system delimitation and LCI, i.e. allocation is typically done by economic value (or by energy content/mass/100 percent/0 percent) and system expansion is not taken into account (Defra 2005; Beer et al. 2002; Mehlin et al. 2003; Wightman et al. 1999; 

McManus et al. 2004; Yusoff and Hansen 2005; Koch 2003; Althaus et al. 2003; Zah and Hischier 2003). 

Some LCAs on oil crop products have adopted consequential modelling in the oil mill stage (Dalgaard et al. 

2007; Nielsen et al. 2005). However, no existing LCAs which include system expansion in the agricultural 

stage have been identified. Though, progress in that field is ongoing. A model including a case study on wheat 

is presented in Schmidt (2007b) and work is ongoing by Kløverpris (2007). See Kløverpris (2006) for a description of the work. 

In order to make the results obtained from the present LCI transparent and comparable with other LCIs, the 

results are shown on all three levels of LCI-modelling: 1) Attributional modelling, i.e. traditional LCA with no 

system expansion, 2) semi-consequential modelling, i.e. only taking system expansion in the oil mill stage into 

account and 3) consequential modelling in the oil mill stage as well as in the agricultural stage. 
2 System boundaries of inventoried systems 29 

Attributional modelling: The economic allocation factors applied in the attributional modelling are based on 

the product flows shown in Figure 2.1 and the average prices on oils and meals from 1996/97 to 2003/04 provided in Oil World (2005). The allocation factors ascribing shares of the input of rapeseed to the two coproducts from rapeseed milling are 73% for the oil and 37% for the meal. Two co-products are also considered 

from the palm oil mill together with the palm kernel oil mill (see Figure 2.1), i.e. palm oil (PO+PKO) and 

palm kernel meal. The allocation factors ascribing shares of the input of FFB to the co-products are 98% for 

the oil and 2% for the meal. From 1996/97 to 2003/04 the relative world market prices between oils and meals 

have been changing so that the allocation factor for palm oil would vary from 97.5% to 98.7% and the allocation factor for rapeseed oil would vary from 66% to 78%. Thus, relative variations between prices on oil and 

meals are not considered as a significant source of uncertainty. 

Attributional modelling in the agricultural stage means that only the area under the immediate affected crops is 

affected. Attributional modelling describes how existing production takes place. Contrary to that, consequential modelling attempts to predict responses to changes in demand. Therefore, attributional modelling in this 

this study does not consider changes in yield as well as constraints on area available for agricultural cultivation 

are not considered. 

Semi-consequential modelling (system expansion in oil mill stage only): The system defined by system 

expansion in the oil mill stage is presented in Table 2.3. Attributional modelling is applied in the agricultural 

stage, see above. 

Consequential modelling (system expansion in oil mill stage as well as agricultural stage): The system 

inventoried is described as the system in Table 2.3 (system expansion in oil mill stage) combined with the 

system in Figure 2.4 and Figure 2.5 (system expansion in agricultural stage). Since the determination of the 

share of changes in agricultural production achieved by area and yield is related to some uncertainty, three 

scenarios are assessed within the consequential modelling, i.e. i) changes in production achieved by a combination of area and yield (as described in section 2.3), ii) changes in production achieved by changes in area 

only, and iii) changes in production achieved by changes in yield only. 

Hence, in total five scenarios are included: three consequential, one semi-consequential and one attributional. 

Additional to that, for the two consequential scenarios which include changes in the cultivated area, two alternative ways of increasing rapeseed production in Denmark are included, i.e. a) increased area cultivated with 

rapeseed causes displacement of the marginal crop in Denmark, spring barley, and b) increased area cultivated 

with rapeseed causes local transformation of set-aside area. These two alternative ways of increasing rapeseed 

production in Denmark are described in ‘Rapeseed in Denmark’ in section 2.3. Table 2.4 provides an overview 

of the included five different scenarios relating to the system delimitation. 
30 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Description of product system Scenarios: compositions of product 

systems 1 t rapeseed oil in Denmark 1 t palm oil in Malaysia and Indonesia 

Sc 1) Consequential modelling in oil mill 

and agr. stages. Marginal increases are 

assumed to be achived by a combination of 

increase in agr. area and yields 

a) RSO (constrained area) 

and 

b) RSO (flexible area) 

PO+PKO 

Sc 2) Consequential modelling (area 

only) in oil mill and agr. stages. Marginal 

increases are assumed to be achived by 

increase in agr. area only

a) RSO (constrained area) 

and 

b) RSO (flexible area) 

PO+PKO 

Sc 3) Consequential modelling (yield 

only) in oil mill and agr. stages. Marginal 

increases are assumed to be achived by 

increase in agr. yields only

RSO PO+PKO 

Sc 4) Semi-consequential modelling, 

system expansion in oil mill stage and 

attributional modelling in agr. stage 

RSO PO+PKO 

Sc 5) Attributional modelling, i.e. economic allocation and no system expansion

RSO 

(73% allocated to oil) 

PO+PKO 

(98% allocated to oil) 

Table 2.4: Overview of the included scenarios relating to system delimitation. 

2.5 Inventoried system – summary 

Agricultural stage 

Table 2.5 summarises the product flow in the agricultural stage in the included scenarios. The values are calculated on the basis of the descriptions in section 2.4 and the data presented in Table 2.3 (system expansion in 

oil mill stage) and Figure 2.4 and Figure 2.5 (system expansion in agricultural stage). 
2 System boundaries of inventoried systems 31 

Affected crops, t 

Scenario 1 Ref. flow Increase 

Rapeseed 

(DK) 

FFB 

(MY&IN) 

Soybean 

(BR) 

Barley 

(CAN) 

Barley 

(DK) 

1 t RSO (con- Area 1.457 t 1.140 t -1.096 t 0 t -2.308 t 

strained area) Yield 0.971 t 0.0475 t -0.257 t 2.151 t 0 t 

1 t RSO (local Area 1.457 t 1.140 t -1.096 t 0 t 0 t 

expansion) Yield 0.971 t 0.0475 t -0.257 t -0.157 t 0 t 

Area 0 t 4.475 t -0.00257 t 0 t 0 t 

Sc 1) Consequential modelling in oil mill and agr. stages. 

Marginal increases are assumed to be combined increase in agr. Area and yields 

1 t PO+PKO 

Yield 0 t 0.186 t -0.000602 t -0.198 t 0 t 

Scenario 2 Ref. flow Increase 

Rapeseed 

(DK) 

FFB 

(MY&IN) 

Soybean 

(BR) 

Barley 

(CAN) 

Barley 

(DK) 

1 t RSO (constrained area) Area 2.428 t 1.187 t -1.352 t 3.690 t -3.847 t 

1 t RSO (local 

expansion) Area 2.428 t 1.187 t -1.352 t -0.157 t 0 t 

Sc 2) Consequential modelling (area) in oil mill and agr. 

stages. Marginal increases are 

assumed to be increase in agr. 

area only 1 t PO+PKO Area 0 t 4.661 t -0.00317 t -0.198 t 0 t 

Scenario 3 Ref. flow Increase 

Rapeseed 

(DK) 

FFB 

(MY&IN) 

Soybean 

(BR) 

Barley 

(CAN) 

Barley 

(DK) 

1 t RSO Yield 2.428 t 1.187 t -1.352 t -0.157 t 0 t 

Sc 3) Consequential modelling (yield) in oil mill and agr. 

stages. Marginal increases are 

assumed to be increase in agr. 

yields only

1 t PO+PKO Yield 0 t 4.661 t -0.00317 t -0.198 t 0 t 

Scenario 4 Ref. flow Increase 

Rapeseed 

(DK) 

FFB 

(MY&IN) 

Soybean 

(BR) 

Barley 

(CAN) 

Barley 

(DK) 

1 t RSO Area 2.428 t 1.187 t -1.352 t -0.157 t 0 t 

Sc 4) Semi-consequential 

modelling, system expansion 

in oil mill stage and attributional modelling in agr. stage 1 t PO+PKO Area 0 t 4.661 t -0.00317 t -0.198 t 0 t 

Scenario 5 Ref. flow Increase 

Rapeseed 

(DK) 

FFB 

(MY&IN) 

Soybean 

(BR) 

Barley 

(CAN) 

Barley 

(DK) 

1 t RSO Area 1.772 t 0 t 0 t 0 t 0 t 

Sc 5) Attributional modelling, i.e. economic allocation 

and no system expansion 

1 t PO+PKO Area 0 t 4.568 t 0 t 0 t 0 t 

Table 2.5: Overview of the affected crops in the different scenarios relating to the functional unit of 1 t vegetable oil. 

Each line represents the affected crops relating to the functional unit.

In addition to the affected crops in Table 2.5 the changes achived by increased cultivated area will have correspondingly effects on transformation of non-cultivated area into agricultural land. Based on Figure 2.4, Figure 

2.5 and Table 2.5 the transformation processes related to 1 tonne rapeseed oil and 1 tonne palm oil are calculated, see Table 2.6. It must be stressed that the transformations given in Table 2.6 are for the first year of 

harvesting. E.g. a crop yielding 1 t/ha per year will have a correspondingly transformation process at 1 ha/t 

crop. However, the transformed area will continue yielding crops after the first year. Therefore, the figures 

given in Table 2.6 are not directly related to the functional unit as in Table 2.5. Table 2.5 represents processes 

proportional to the functional unit while Table 2.6 represents processes that only occur one time, and the cultivation on the same area after that will not be associated with any transformation processes. 
32 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

DK MY&IN BR CAN 

Transformation from... Set-aside Forest Grassland Savannah Forest Grassland 

Transformation to... Rapeseed field Oil palm plantation Soybean field Barley field 

Sc 1) Consequential modelling in oil mill and agr. stages. Marginal increases are assumed to be combined increase in agr. area and yields 

1 t RSO (constrained area) 0 ha 0.0302 ha 0.0302 ha -0.324 ha -0.0171 ha 0 ha 

1 t RSO (local expansion) 0.451 ha 0.0302 ha 0.0302 ha -0.324 ha -0.0171 ha 0 ha 

1 t PO+PKO 0 ha 0.119 ha 0.119 ha -0.000760 ha -0.0000400 ha 0 ha 

Sc 2) Consequential modelling (area) in oil mill and agr. stages. Marginal increases are assumed to be increase in agr. area only 

1 t RSO (constrained area) 0 ha 0.0315 ha 0.0315 ha -0.400 ha -0.0211 ha 1.318 ha 

1 t RSO (local expansion) 0.751 ha 0.0315 ha 0.0315 ha -0.400 ha -0.0211 ha -0.0561 ha 

1 t PO+PKO 0 ha 0.124 ha 0.124 ha -0.000938 ha -0.0000494 ha -0.0707 ha 

Sc 3) Consequential modelling (yield) in oil mill and agr. stages. Marginal increases are assumed to be increase in agr. yields only 

1 t RSO 0 ha 0 ha 0 ha 0 ha 0 ha 0 ha 

1 t PO+PKO 0 ha 0 ha 0 ha 0 ha 0 ha 0 ha 

Sc 4) Semi-consequential modelling, system expansion in oil mill stage and attributional modelling in agr. Stage 

1 t RSO 0.751 ha 0.0315 ha 0.0315 ha -0.400 ha -0.0211 ha -0.0561 ha 

1 t PO+PKO 0 ha 0.124 ha 0.124 ha -0.000938 ha -0.0000494 ha -0.0707 ha 

Sc 5) Attributional modelling, i.e. economic allocation and no system expansion 

1 t RSO 0.549 ha 0 ha 0 ha 0 ha 0 ha 0 ha 

1 t PO+PKO 0 ha 0.121 ha 0.121 ha 0 ha 0 ha 0 ha 

Table 2.6: Overview of the transformed area (ha) in the different scenarios relating to the functional unit of 1 t vegetable 

oil. Each line represents the affected crops relating to the functional unit. 

Since the figures in Table 2.5 and Table 2.6 are not related to the functional unit the same way, the LCIA 

results from transformation processes are treated seperately. 

Oil mill and refinery stages 

Based on Figure 2.1 and the results of Equation (1) and Equation (2), the affected processes in the oil mill 

and refinery stages are calculated, see Table 2.7. 

Rapeseed oil Palm oil Palm kernel oil Soybean oil 

Scenario Oil mill 

(oil) 

Refinery 

(oil) 

Oil mill 

(oil) 

Refinery 

(oil) 

Oil mill 

(oil) 

Refinery 

(oil) 

Oil mill 

(meal) 

Refinery 

(oil) 

Sc 1), 2), 3) and 4) Consequential modelling in oil mill and refinery stage

1 t RSO 1.017 t 1.000 t 0.237 t 0.227 t 0.0283 t 0.0280 t -1.045 t -0.255 t 

1 t PO+PKO 0 t 0 t 0.931 t 0.891 t 0.111 t 0.110 t -0.00245 t -0.000599 t 

Sc 5) Attributional in oil mill and refinery stage

1 t RSO 0.742 t 1.000 t 0 t 0 t 0 t 0 t 0 t 0 t 

1 t PO+PKO 0 t 0 t 0.913 t 0.891 t 0.109 t 0.110 t 0 t 0 t 

Table 2.7: Overview of the affected oil mill and refinery processes in the different scenarios relating to the functional unit 

of 1 t vegetable oil. Each line represents the affected processes relating to the functional unit. 
3 Energy 33 

3 Energy 

Energy is used in many of the included processes in the life cycle of rapeseed oil and palm oil. Electricity supply is delivered from the grid which is supplied from a range of different power plants connected to the European grid. Heat is supplied either through the district heating system or through own production in a furnace. 

This section describes the used life cycle inventory data for the different types of energy used in the life cycle 

of rapeseed oil and palm oil. The amount of energy used in the different unit processes is described in the distinct sections which inventory the single stages in the life cycle of rapeseed oil and palm oil; sections 5 to 17. 

3.1 Electricity from the grid in Denmark 

Electricity supply to the grid in Denmark comes from a variety of different technologies. These mainly comprise centralized coal and natural gas power plants, wind mills, waste incineration plants, decentralized combined heat and power plants based on natural gas, coal or biomass. When the demand for electricity is changed 

only the marginal suppliers are affected. Hence, there is a range of suppliers that are not affected when the 

demand for electricity is changed. These technologies include; wind mills which are constrained by the wind 

available and capacity determined by energy policy, decentralized combined heat and power plants whose 

production is determined by the local demand for heat, electricity production in waste incineration plants is 

determined by the amount of waste available. Thus, the marginal source of electricity is either coal, gas or 

both. 

Marginal energy source of electricity: Coal or natural gas? 

According to Weidema (2003) the most competitive technology is coal followed by natural gas, heavy fuel oil 

and biomass in the mentioned order. Since the consumption of electricity is increasing, it is the most competitive suppliers that are affected. Thus, coal based technology seem to be the marginal technology. LCA-Center 

(2006) also suggests that coal based power production is most likely to be affected; even when hour by hour 

fluctuations are taken into account. 

However, all new power plants projected in the Nordic countries are natural gas fired (Weidema 2003). Coal 

based technology is likely to cover the demand within existing capacity the next 10 years (Weidema 2003). 

Concerning central Europe, Weidema identifies a range of properties of gas based technology that indicate that 

this technology could be the marginal in the longer term; installation of natural gas requires lower costs than 

coal, political goals on reduction of SO2-, NOx- and CO2-emissions are easier reached using natural gas, and 

finally it is possible to regulate the power output of natural gas fired plants on a minute basis. Hence, the marginal technology tend to be coal based in the short term and natural gas based in the longer term. 

Nevertheless, it may be questioned if gas can be marginal in the longer term since the reserves in Denmark as 

well as Europe are getting scarce. According to Energistyrelsen (2005) the outlook prediction on possible Danish gas production the next 20 years shows a decline in annual production at 83% from approximately 23 mio 

m3

 in 2004 to approximately 4 mio m3 in 2024. According to Bentley (2002) Europe has little way to go before 

its peak in production is reached. On the other hand, EIA (2005) expects gas to be the fastest growing fuel in 

European until 2025. The increased demand is expected to be met by import; thus the reliance on import is 

predicted to increase from ~33% in 2002 to ~50% in 2025 (EIA 2005). 

If natural gas should be considered as the marginal source of electricity in the longer term it must be flexible 

(i.e. not constrained). There are some indications on that it may be constrained by available gas resources in 
34 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

the future. EIA (2005, p 39) estimates the global reserves-to-production ratio to be 67 years while the ratio in 

the former Soviet Union from where EU imports its natural gas is 77 years. However, the Kyoto mechanisms 

may speed up the consumption and prices of natural gas which may lead to constraints in the future. 

Different studies suggest different marginal technologies for electricity and choosing either coal or gas as the 

marginal will be related to some uncertainty. It is chosen to apply coal based electricity as the marginal since 

this is regarded as the marginal in the short term. As indicated it can be questioned if the gas resources are 

adequate (not constrained) to be the marginal technology in the longer term. Therefore, coal is regarded more 

likely to be the marginal in the short term as well as in the longer term. However, since the identification of 

marginal electricity suppliers is related to some uncertainties, gas based technology is applied in a sensitivity 

analysis in section 21.4. 

Marginal technology for electricity: Co-production of heat or not? 

Many centralized power plants in Denmark are producing both heat and electricity and they are able to regulate 

the ratio by operating between condensation mode and back pressure mode. According to Weidema (2003) cogenerating technology is constrained by local demand for heat. Thus, marginal electricity is produced without 

co-generation of heat. 

Inventory data for electricity 

Loss in the grid also has to be considered. When the power plant delivers its electricity, it is sent into the high 

voltage grid (150-400 kV). This grid connects the power plants with the distribution grid, also denoted as the 

low voltage grid (<60 kV). According to Energi E2 et al. (2000) the loss in the high voltage grid is 1% of the 

supply to the grid. In the transformation to <60 kV and distribution in the low voltage grid to the end-users the 

loss is 3.8% of the supply to the high voltage grid. Figure 3.1 shows a flowchart of electricity per 1 MJ delivered. 
3 Energy 35 Power plant

Electricity, at plant 1.048 MJ 1.038 MJ Low voltage 1 MJ

Electricity 150-400 kV

High voltage

Electricity 150-400 kV

Electricity 150-400 kV

Electricity <60 kV

System

boundary

Loss: 0.038 MJ

Loss: 0.01 MJ

Figure 3.1: Flowchart of electricity from power plant to end-user. 

Several life cycle inventories for coal and natural gas based electricity production have been identified. However, many of these are based on data for co-generation of heat and power and in these studies this is dealt with 

by co-product allocation based on either energy content or energy quality. These inventories, which among 

other include a detailed LCA of Danish electricity; (Energi E2 et al. 2000), are not considered in the following 

because they are not consistent with the used system delimitation described above. 

Analysing existing inventories of electricity based on coal and gas available in SimaPro and using the EDIP97-

method for LCIA, it appears that global warming, acidification and toxicity are the most significant impact 

categories. In Table 3.1, four relevant data sets are compared within these categories. 
36 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Coal: LCI-data for electricity CO2-eq. SO2-eq. ETWC, 

m3 water 

Electricity efficiency Description of data 

‘Electricity coal power plant in 

NL’, ETH-ESU database 

(Frischknecht et al., 1996) 

274 g 0.79 g 105 m3 No data 

‘Electricity coal power plant in 

UCPTE’, ETH-ESU database 

(Frischknecht et al., 1996) 

302 g 1.45 g 119 m3 No data 

Time: Data from 1990-94 

Geography: The Netherlands/UCPTE7

Technology: Average gas fired plants 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: Machinery, buildings 

‘Electricity, hard coal at power 

plant/UCTE’, ecoinvent database 

(Emmenegger et al. 2003) 

298 g 1.38 g 37.3 m3 36% 

‘Electricity, hard coal at power 

plant/NORDEL’, ecoinvent database 

(Emmenegger et al. 2003) 

267 g 0.57 g 17.7 m3 42% 

Time: Data from 2000 

Geography: UCTE7/ NORDEL8

Technology: Average gas fired plants 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: Machinery, buildings

Natural gas: LCI-data for electricity CO2-eq. SO2-eq. ETWC, 

m3 water 

Electricity efficiency Description of data 

‘Electricity gas power plant in 

NL’, ETH-ESU database 

(Frischknecht et al., 1996) 

182 g 0.18 g 2.8 m3 No data 

‘Electricity gas power plant in 

UCPTE’, ETH-ESU database 

(Frischknecht et al., 1996) 

256 g 0.35 g 11.5 m3 No data 

Time: Data from 1990-94 

Geography: The Netherlands/ UCPTE7

Technology: Average gas fired plants 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: Machinery, buildings 

‘Electricity, natural gas, at power 

plant/UCTE’, ecoinvent database 

(Emmenegger et al. 2003) 

166 g 0.20 g 6.1 m3 38% 

‘Electricity, natural gas, at power 

plant/NORDEL’, ecoinvent database 

(Emmenegger et al. 2003) 

152 g 0.19 g 5.1 m3 41% 

Time: Data from 2000 

Geography: UCTE7/ NORDEL8

Technology: Average gas fired plants 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: Machinery, buildings

Table 3.1: Comparison of LCIs of 1 MJ electricity based on coal and natural gas technology. The comparison is shown as 

characterised results using the EDIP97-method for LCIA. The applied data are marked with a black dotted frame. The 

marked natural gas inventory is applied in a sensitivity analysis in section 21.4 while the coal inventory is applied in the 

baseline scenario. 

Table 3.1 compares different inventories for coal as well as gas based electricity. In Table 3.1 a data set is 

shown for Dutch plants because this is used in the LCAfood database (Nielsen et al. 2005) where it is assumed 

to represent Danish plants. Comparing of the data sets in Table 3.1, it appears that the environmental impacts 

from plants from the Netherlands and NORDEL seem to be smaller than from plants attached to the 

UCPTE/UCTE grid. Furthermore, it appears that the contributions to global warming from the power plants in 

ecoinvent are smaller than the ones from ETH-ESU. The reason for the smaller contributions to global warming in the ecoinvent data is probably that these data represent 6-10 years newer power plants. 

It is chosen to use the data for NORDEL from ecoinvent because these data best represent the technology in 

Denmark and because these data are the most updated. In case of electricity consumption outside Denmark 

ecoinvent data for UCPTE are used. The data in ecoinvent includes particle removal, DeNOx, DeSOx, waste 

water treatment, disposal/recycling of ash, transport of fuels and ancillaries and capital goods such as production maintenance and disposal of the power plant9

 (Röder 2003). 

 

7

 UCPTE/UCTE includes: Austria, Belgium, Germany, Spain, Luxembourg, Italy, the Netherlands, Greece and Portugal. 

8

 NORDEL: Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden. 

9

 Interventions related to production, maintenance and disposal of the power plant has due to an error in ecoinvent not 

been included in the original database entry (Bauer 2006). Therefore, this module has been manually applied to the data 

set in SimaPro. 
3 Energy 37 

The data described above only comprises environmental interventions related to electricity ex plant. Therefore, 

loss in the grid and production, maintenance and disposal of the grid also have to be taken into account. Data 

on loss in the grid is described above. Only one life cycle inventory on production, maintenance and disposal 

of the grid have been identified. The data are related to transmission and distribution of 1 kWh and are available in SimaPro in the ecoinvent database and they are described in Emmenegger et al. (2003). The data from 

ecoinvent distinguishes between high voltage grid (>150 kV), medium voltage grid (50-60 kV) and low voltage grid (<1 kV). As described in the above this study only distinguishes between high and low voltage grids. 

Therefore the medium voltage grid in ecoinvent is included in the low voltage grid in this study. The ecoinvent 

data are based on transmission and distribution of electricity in Switzerland and loss in the grid is 13%. Since 

loss in the Danish grid is 4.8% this value is used instead. The used data are shown in Table 3.2. 

Grid Database Loss 

High voltage grid (150-400 kV) ‘Electricity, high voltage, at grid/DK’ (ecoinvent 2004) 1,0% of electricity at 

plant 

Low voltage grid (<60 kV) ‘Electricity, medium voltage, at grid/DK’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

 plus 

‘Electricity, low voltage, at grid/DK’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

3,8% of electricity at 

plant 

Table 3.2: Used LCI data on production, maintenance and disposal of transmission and distribution grid in Denmark. The 

losses in the grid in the ecoinvent data are deleted and the given values in the table are used instead. 

The applied inventory data for marginal electricity in all relevant countries are summarised in Table 3.3. 

3.2 Electricity from the grid in Malaysia and Indonesia 

Malaysia 

The electricity mix in Malaysia is constituted by 28% coal, 3% oil, 62% natural gas and 7% hydro (IEA 2007). 

The marginal source of electricity in Malaysia is regarded as coal. The reason for that is that the share of coal 

based electricity in Malaysia has increased rapidly the last few years and will continue to increase in the future 

(see below) and that coal based elctricity is the cheapest and thereby the most competitive (Mohammed and 

Lee 2006). The share of coal based electricity has increased from ~7% in 2000 to 28% in 2004 (IEA 2007). 

According to Mohammed and Lee (2006) the share is expected to increase futher to around 40-45%. At the 

same time the share of natural gas is expected to decrease to less than 50% (Mohammed and Lee). 

According to IEA (2007) the Malaysian coal based electricity production in 2004 was 83.3 PJ while the use of 

coal in the coal power plants was 197.9 PJ. This corresponds to an average efficience of coal power plants in 

Malaysia at 42%. The use of coal in Malaysia’s coal power plants in 2004 was 8,819 kt (IEA 2007). Comparing use of coal in terms of mass with the use of coal in terms of calorific units given above, this corresponds to 

energy content of coal at 22.4 MJ/kg. 

The efficiency at 42% is relatively high. According to Table 3.1 the efficiency of coal power plants (condensing mode) in Central Europe and Scandinavia are 36% and 42% respectively which is lower than Malaysian 

average. The reason for this is that the coal fired plants in Malaysia are newer than the ones in Europe and 

Scandinavia. Since the share of coal fired plant in Malaysia has faced a drastic increase the last few years, the 

plants in use are relatively new. According to Weidema (2003) no new planned power plants in Scandinavia 

have been based on coal since the mid 1990ies. Also in Central Europe, not many new coal fired plants have 

been buildt10. Therefore, the coal power plants in Central Euroepe and Scandinavia are older than the ones in 

 

10 This statement is based on the fact that the coal based share of electricity production in Central and Eastern Europe has 

been almost constant from around mid 1990ies to 2004 (IEA 2007). 
38 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Malaysia, and consequential it is not unlikely that the Malaysian coal power plants have a higher efficiency 

than European plants. 

Since the efficiency of Malaysian and Scandinavian plants is the same, it is chosen to apply the same inventory 

data for electricity from the grid in Malaysia as in Denmark. Inventory data for electricity in Denmark are described in section 3.1, Table 3.1. 

In addition to the inventory data for production of electricity loss in the grid and the production, maintenance 

and disposal of the transmission grid also are to be included. According to IEA (2007) the loss in the grid in 

Malaysia in 2004 was 4.9% of the produced electricity. 

 

The same inventory data on production, maintence and disposal of the grid as for Danish electricity is applied, 

see Table 3.2. 

The applied inventory data for marginal electricity in all relevant countries are summarised in Table 3.3. 

Indonesia 

The electricity mix in Indonesia is constituted by 40% coal, 30% oil, 16% natural gas, 6% geothermal and 8% 

hydro (IEA 2007). According to APERC (2006, p 36) 54% of the new capacity requirements for electricity 

generation is predicted to be coal while natural gas accounts for 40%. This combined with the fact that coal 

based electricity is the cheapest source of electricity lead to the assumption that coal is the marginal source of 

electricity in Indonesia. 

According to IEA (2007) the Indonesian electricity production based on coal in 2004 was 173.6 PJ while the 

use of coal in the coal power plants was 589.2 PJ. This corresponds to an average efficience of coal power 

plants in Indonesia at 29%. The use of coal in Indonesia’s coal power plants in 2004 was 22,882 kt (IEA 

2007). Comparing use of coal in terms of mass with the use of coal in terms of calorific units given above, this 

corresponds to energy content of coal at 25.7 MJ/kg. 

Losses in the grid are 13% (IEA 2007) 

The inventory data for coal based electricity in Denmark are adjusted in order to reflext electricity in Indonesia, i.e. adjusting the input of coal burned to fit an efficiency at 29%. The same inventory data on production, 

maintence and disposal of the grid as for Danish electricity is applied, see Table 3.2. 

The applied inventory data for marginal electricity in all relevant countries are summarised in Table 3.3. 

Malaysia and Indonesia 

When electricity is used in Malaysia and Indonesia regarded as one region, the marginal source of electricity is 

assumed to be represented as the average of the margnal sources of electricity in the two countries. 

3.3 Electricity from the grid in Brazil 

The electricity mix in Brazil in 2004 is constituted by 3% coal, 3% oil, 5% natural gas, 3% biomass, 83% hydro (IEA 2007). The marginal source of electricity in Brazil is regarded as natural gas. The reason for that is 

that the share of the most important source of electricity, hydro, is predicted to decrease from 2002 to 2030 to 

the benefit of natural gas (EIA 2004, p 224). 
3 Energy 39 

According to IEA (2007) the Brazilian electricity production based on natural gas in 2004 was 59.4 PJ while 

the use of natural gas in the gas fired power plants was 180.9 PJ. This corresponds to an average efficience of 

gas fired power plants in Brazil at 33%. 

Distribution losses in the grid in Brazil in 2004 were 17% (IEA 2007). 

The inventory data for gas based electricity in Denmark are adjusted in order to reflext electricity in Brazil, i.e. 

adjuting the input of coal burned to fit an efficiency at 33%. The same inventory data on production, maintence 

and disposal of the grid as for Danish electricity is applied, see Table 3.2. 

The applied inventory data for marginal electricity in all relevant countries are summarised in Table 3.3. 

3.4 Electricity from the grid in Canada 

The electricity mix in Canada in 2004 is constituted by 17% coal, 4% oil, 5% natural gas, 1% biomass, 15% 

nuclear, 57% hydro (IEA 2007). According to APERC (2006, p 12) the share of coal, nuclear and hydro will 

decrease from 2002 to 2030 while the share of natural gas will increase. Therefore, natural gas is regarded as 

the marginal source of electricity in Canada. 

Since a considerable share of the gas fired power plants in Canada are combined heat and power plants, it is 

not possible calculating the efficiency from statistics in IEA (2007). 

The distribution losses in the grid in Canada were 6.6% in 2004 (IEA 2007). 

Due to lack on data on the efficiency of gas fired power plants in Canada, it is chosen to apply inventory data 

for Canadian gas based electricity as the same as Danish gas fired power plants, see section 3.1, i.e. applying 

an efficiency at 41%. The same inventory data on production, maintence and disposal of the grid as for Danish 

electricity is applied, see Table 3.2. 

The applied inventory data for marginal electricity in all relevant countries are summarised in Table 3.3. 

3.5 Electricity in different countries, summary 

Based on the efficiencies and losses in the grid described in section the previos sections, Table 3.3 summarises 

the applied inventory data for marginal electricity in Denmark (DK), Malaysia (MY), Indonesia (IN), Brazil 

(BR) and Canada (CAN). 
40 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

1 MJ electricity, coal/gas, at plant DK MY IN BR CAN Applied LCI data 

Coal burned in power plant 2.38 MJ 2.38 MJ 3.45 MJ - - Hard coal, burned in power 

plant/NORDEL 

Gas burned in power plant - - - 3.03 MJ 2.44 Natural gas, burned in power 

plant/NORDEL 

1 MJ electricity, coal/gas, at user DK MY IN BR CAN Applied LCI data 

Electricity, coal, at plant 1.048 MJ 1.049 MJ 1.130 MJ - - see ‘Electricity, coal, at plant’ above 

Electricity, gas, at plant - - - 1.170 MJ 1.066 MJ see ‘Electricity, gas, at plant’ above 

High voltage grid (capital goods) 1 MJ 1 MJ 1 MJ 1 MJ 1 MJ Modified version of ‘Electricity, high 

voltage, at grid/DK’ , (ecoinvent 

2004), see Table 3.2

1 MJ 1 MJ 1 MJ 1 MJ 1 MJ Modified version of ‘Electricity, 

medium voltage, at grid/DK’ (ecoinvent 2004), see Table 3.2

Low voltage grid (capital goods) 

1 MJ 1 MJ 1 MJ 1 MJ 1 MJ Modified version of ‘Electricity, low 

voltage, at grid/DK’ (ecoinvent 2004), 

see Table 3.2

Table 3.3: Summary of the applied inventory data related to 1 MJ marginal electricity at user in different countries. 

3.6 District heating in Denmark 

In both the agricultural, oil mill and refinery stages heat is used and produced. The main part of this heat is 

produced on-site on the farm when drying crops, in the biomass plant that burnes straw, and in the power centrals of the oil mill and refinery. The emissions from on-site production of heat are dealt with in the respective 

processes. In addition to on-site heat production sometimes district heating is used or displaced. This is mainly 

for heating of administration buildings and laboratories in the rapeseed oil mill and refinery, and processes that 

displace district heat; energy production from straw in agriculture substitutes district heating. Interventions 

from marginal district heating in Denmark vary from region to region or even from town to town since different heat plants are used and a variety of local circumstances determine which supplier that is the marginal. 

Therefore point of departure is taken in district heating in Aarhus where the oil mill AarhusKarlshamn is situated. However, this may not be representative for substituted district heating from straw in agriculture. Therefore, a sensitivity analysis of this assumption is presented in section 21.5. 

The supply of heat (hot water) to the district heating system in Aarhus is distributed on supply from the central 

power plant, Studstrupværket (~86%), waste incineration (~10%), excess heat from industry (~2%), peak load 

oil boilers (<1%) and other minor suppliers (Århus Kommunale Værker 2005). According to Århus Kommunale Værker (2005) changes in demand for heat is regulated through the heat production at Studstrupværket. Heat from waste incineration is constrained by waste generation, the minor supply from industry is 

constrained by its production and the boiler plants are only used in a fraction of the time in situations with peak 

load or in cases of failure of supply from other sources. Thus, Studstrupværket is considered as the marginal 

supplier of heat to the district heating system in Aarhus. Studstrupværket regulates the ratio in which it produces electricity and heat by continuously switching between condensation pressure and back pressure. In pure 

condensation pressure mode the energy efficiency is ~40% (only electricity) and in pure back pressure mode 

its ~80% (Andersen 2005), see Figure 3.2. In back pressure mode the 80% efficiency is distributed on ~52% 

points heat and ~28% points electricity, see Figure 3.2. 
3 Energy 41 

40%

80%

52% points

28% points

Condensating

pressure

Backpressure

Heat

Electricity

Overall

efficiency

Figure 3.2: Relation between heat and electricity efficiencies and pressure mode for a combined heat and power plant that 

can continuously switch between condensation pressure and back pressure. 

If demand for heat increases 1 MJ, this can be met in two ways: 1) the position on the scale between condensation pressure and back pressure is mowed towards back pressure, or 2) by increasing the power input of coal. 

Meeting the demand by 1), the total energy input at Studstrupværket is unchanged, the electricity output decreases and the heat output increases – but the heat production increases more than the electricity production 

decreases. The other way around, meeting the demand by 2), both the total energy input at Studstrupværket 

and the output of heat and electricity increase. The marginal energy input in order to produce 1 MJ heat is calculated assuming a situation combining 1) and 2) keeping the production of electricity constant. Since the two 

product outputs (heat and electricity) at Studstrupværket can be varied independently, the interventions from 

the product of interest should be found by including the consequences of changing the output of this coproduct while keeping the other output constant (Weidema, 2003, p 87, 90). The calculation takes its point of 

departure in two different positions on the scale between condensation pressure and back pressure. According 

to Andersen (2005) the output of electricity decreases approximately linear by increased heat production, see 

Figure 3.2. Since the heat and electricity efficiencies are linear with the position on the scale, it does not matter where on the scale the change takes place. Therefore, the calculation takes its point of departure in heat 

production at 100% back pressure. Electricity production in back pressure mode is 0.54 MJ per 1 MJ heat. 

Keeping the total output of electricity constant, the interventions from marginal production of 0.54 MJ electricity must be subtracted from the intervention related to co-production of 1 MJ heat and 0.54 MJ electricity. In 

section 3.1, marginal electricity is identified as coal based electricity produced in condensation pressure with 

approximately 40% efficiency, which is the same as at Studstrupværket. If the marginal technology for electricity production is the same as the technology at Studstrupværket (coal), it makes no difference if this electricity is produced at Studstrupværket or another marginal electricity supplier. Thus, the energy input related to 

production of 1 MJ marginal heat at Studstrupværket can be determined by the difference between (1) the energy input for producing 1 MJ heat and 0.54 MJ electricity in back pressure mode at Studstrupværket and (2) 

the energy input for producing 0.54 MJ electricity in condensation pressure mode at a marginal power plant. 

Using the energy efficiencies shown in Figure 3.2, (1) can be determined as 1.93 MJ and (2) as 1.35 MJ. Thus, 

the marginal energy input related to production of 1 MJ heat is 0.58 MJ. However, in order to keep the inventory open for sensitivity analysis with other technologies as marginal, the inventory shown in Table 3.4 is 

based on 1.93 MJ burned coal at Studstrupværket and displacement of 0.54 MJ marginal electricity. 
42 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

According to Andersen (2005) there is not excess heat from waste incineration and industry at any time at the 

year. Thus, the calculated energy input related to production of 1 MJ marginal heat is valid as well in summer 

as winter seasons. 

Studstrupværket is fired with ~92% coal, ~7% straw and 1% fuel oil (Elsam 2005). According to Elsam (2005) 

the amount of straw used is constrained by capacity at the plant. Thus coal is the marginal source of fuel to 

Studstrupværket. In section 3.1 inventory data on marginal electricity based on coal is described; ‘Hard coal, 

burned in power plant/NORDEL’ (ecoinvent 2004). However, the ecoinvent database also contains inventories 

on coal burned in power plants in other countries, but this is of minor interest since power plants connected to 

the NORDEL grid is most representative for Studstrupværket. 

Furthermore 5.8 kJ electricity per MJ delivered heat is used. The inventory data for 1 MJ district heating in 

Aarhus is summarised in Table 3.4. Water consumption for compensation of loss of water in the grid and production, maintenance and disposal of the district heating grid is not included. 

LCI-data for district heating in Aarhus Amount LCI data used in this study 

Coal burned at Studstrupværket 1.93 MJ ‘Hard coal, burned in power plant/NORDEL’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Displaced electricity (electricity at plant) -0.54 MJ Electricity, see Table 3.3

Electricity (electricity at user) 0.0058 MJ Electricity, see Table 3.3

Table 3.4: LCI of 1 MJ district heating in Aarhus. 
4 Transport 43 

4 Transport 

Transport processes are used in several processes in the agricultural, oil mill, refinery and transport stages. 

This chapter describes inventory data for transport, either per tkm (transportation of 1 tonne at a distance of 1 

kilometre) or per MJ diesel burned. Transport distances are described together with the processes that use 

transport, i.e. transport of the materials used in the relevant process. Transport types included are transport by 

truck, by oceanic freighter and burning of diesel in agricultural machinery (traction). 

4.1 Transport with lorry 

Several inventories are available for transport with lorry. There are also inventories for different sizes of lorry 

available. In this study three different lorries are applied; 10-16t, 25-28t and 40-48t trucks. 

Different data sources operate with different assumptions on load factor, i.e. the effective transported load over 

one kilometre. Two factors determine the load factor; share of a round-trip where the truck is empty and the 

actual working load compared to load capacity. In a literature review in Spielmann et al. (2004) load factors in 

the interval 0.25 – 0.62 have been identified. Load factors exceeding 0.5 means that cargo is transported on 

both the outward journey and on the return trip. 

The load factors applied in the ecoinvent database (Spielmann et al. 2004) and the EDIP database (EDIP 2000) 

are shown in Table 4.1. 

Lorry Load factor 

Ecoinvent (Spielmann et al. 2004) EDIP (2000) 

Lorry 10-16 t (load capacity 5-8 t) 0.42 0.48 

Lorry 17-28 t (load capacity 10-17 t) 0.47 0.48 

Lorry 29-48 t (load capacity 18-32 t) 0.46 0.70 

Table 4.1: Load factors in the ecoinvent and EDIP databases. (Spielmann et al., 2004 and EDIP 2000) 

Regarding transport of oil seeds, vegetable oils and ancillary materials it is assumed that load factors above 0.5 

are unrealistic. This is because this study concerns products (oil crops to oil mill, oil to market) and ancillary 

material to agriculture and oil mills where it is assumed that no cargo is sent back from the place of delivery. 

Thus, it is assumed that the lorries make the return trip empty. Therefore, the load factors from ecoinvent are 

applied in this study. 

Analysing existing inventories for transport with lorry from the EDIP and ecoinvent databases in SimaPro and 

using the EDIP97-method for LCIA it appears that global warming, acidification and ecotoxicity are the most 

significant impact categories. However, the contributions to ecotoxicity, which mainly originates from strontium emissions from discharged water from crude oil production, are considered as either very uncertain or as 

related to an error in the LCIA-method; EDIP97 (Wenzel et al., 1997 and Hauschild and Wenzel 1998). Therefore, contributions to ecotoxicity when analysing the different inventories are not included in a comparison of 

the inventories. Since the contribution to global warming and acidification is mainly related to the amount of 

diesel burned, this is used for comparison of the inventories. Also in order to assess the comprehensiveness of 

the inventories, the number of included emissions from operation of the vehicles is included in the comparison. 

In Table 4.2 inventories for 29-48 tonne lorries are compared from three different sources. The figures for 

different inventories of 10-16 tonne and 17-28 tonne lorries vary somehow in the same ratio as for 29-48 tonne 

lorries. Therefore, these data are not shown. 
44 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

LCI-data for transport Number of included 

emissions to air 

Diesel consumption Description of data 

Truck 40-48t EU2 

70%, kgkm, mixedDK 

(EDIP 2000) 

14 336 g/km Time: Data from late 1990ies 

Geography: Denmark 

Technology: Average; 80% motorway, 15% highway and 5% city, 

EURO class 2 engine 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: Not included 

Truck 40-48t EU2 

70%, kgkm, motorway 

(EDIP 2000) 

14 319 g/km Time: Data from late 1990ies 

Geography: Denmark 

Technology: Average; 100% motorway, EURO class 2 engine 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: Not included 

Truck 40t (ETH-ESU, 

1996) 

13 - Time: Data from early 1990ies 

Geography: USA, Switzerland and Germany 

Technology: Average, not specified 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: Construction, maintenance and disposal of trucks and 

roads are included

Transport, lorry 40t 

(ecoinvent 2004) 

21 348 g/km Time: Data from early 2000s 

Geography: Switzerland 

Technology: Average, fleet composition according to EURO classes 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: Construction, maintenance and disposal of trucks and 

roads are included

Table 4.2: Comparison of LCIs of transport with truck 29-48 tonne. The inventories are compared within the number of 

included emissions from operation and diesel consumption per kilometre. The applied data are marked with a black dotted 

frame.

It appears from Table 4.2 that the difference in fuel consumption is not significant; it varies from 319 g/km to 

348 g/km. The compared data sets represent different geographical regions. EDIP represent Denmark, ecoinvent represent Switzerland and ETH-ESU represent USA, Switzerland and Germany. The most comprehensive 

data are the ones from ecoinvent; they include 21 emissions to air from operation of vehicle and include inventories on production, maintenance and disposal of vehicles as well as roads. It is chosen to apply transport inventories from ecoinvent. The applied inventories for transport with lorries from ecoinvent comprises three 

different lorry sizes: 16t, 28t and 40t. The applied data are shown in Table 4.3 for different transport distances 

and for different amounts of annual goods to the considered production unit. The distribution of lorry sizes as a 

function of distance and annual transported goods is based on rough estimates. 

Distance/transported goods 0 – 9 tonne/year 10 – 99 tonne/year ≥100 tonne/year 

0 - 99 km Transport, lorry 16t Transport, lorry 28t Transport, lorry 28t 

100 – 999 km Transport, lorry 16t Transport, lorry 28t Transport, lorry 40t 

≥1000 km Transport, lorry 28t Transport, lorry 28t Transport, lorry 40t 

Table 4.3: Applied inventories for transport with lorry from ecoinvent (2004). The lorry sizes applied vary dependent on 

the distance and annual transported goods.

4.2 Transport with ocean tanker 

The only processes in this study that include transport with ship are transportation of palm oil from Malaysia to 

Europe and transportation of agricultural chemicals (fertilisers and pesticides). It is presumed that this is done 

in large tankers. Two inventories for oceanic ship transport with tanker have been identified. These are compared in Table 4.4 within diesel consumption and number of included emissions for operation. 
4 Transport 45 

LCI-data for transport Number of included 

emissions to air 

Diesel consumption Description of data 

Tanker oceanic ETH 

U (ETH-ESU) 

24 1.8 g/tkm Time: Data from early 1990ies 

Geography: Not relevant 

Technology: Average, ship size not specified. Bilge oil waste 

and anti fouling agents are included. 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: Construction, maintenance and disposal of ship 

are included. Harbour not included.

Transport, transoceanic tanker/OCE 

(ecoinvent 2004) 

25 1.3 g/tkm Time: Data from early 2000s 

Geography: Not relevant 

Technology: Average, 150,000 t capacity. Bilge oil waste and 

anti fouling agents are included. 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: Construction, maintenance and disposal of ship 

and harbour are included. Harbour operations are also included.

Table 4.4: Comparison of LCIs of transport with tanker ship. The inventories are compared within the number of included emissions from operation and fuel consumption per tkm. The applied data are marked with a black dotted frame. 

It appears from the table that the difference between the two inventories is not significant within the compared 

factors. It is chosen to apply the inventory from ecoinvent since this data set is the newest, most well documented and most comprehensive; it includes harbour operations and harbour related capital goods. 

4.3 Traction 

The term traction covers burning of diesel in agricultural machinery and it is measured in MJ. Traction includes production, transport and burning of diesel and use of lubricants. Life cycle inventories for traction are 

identified in the ecoinvent database (Nemecek et al. 2003) and the LCAfood database (Nielsen et al. 2005). 

Table 4.5 compares the two inventories. 

Since, no of the two inventories include lubricants, this has been added. According to Dalgaard et al. (2001) 

the use of lubricants is proportional with the use of diesel. Dalgaard et al. (2001) specifies the use of lubricants 

as 3.6 MJ/litre diesel burned in tractor. Assuming same density and calorific value for lubricant as for diesel 

(see Appendix 1: Data on fuels), the use of lubricants can be calculated as 0.099 kg lubricant/kg diesel, or 

0.0024 kg lubricant/MJ diesel. The inventory on production of lubricants ‘Lubricating oil, at plant/RER’ 

(ecoinvent 2004) has been applied. The ecoinvent data on lubricants do not include emissions related to the 

fate of the lubricant after it is used. It is assumed that lubricants end as emissions to air (when burned or heated 

up in the motor) and soil (when dripping). In both cases the oil will degrade into mainly CO2 and water. Traces 

of heavy metals, SO2, NOx, NMVOC and other additives in the oil will also be emitted. However due to lack of 

data and uncertainties in determining the fate, it is chosen only to account for CO2-emissions. According to 

Meyer et al. (1994) the CO2 emission from burning of diesel is 74 g/MJ (This is also in accordance with the 

ecoinvent data in Table 4.5). 74 g CO2/MJ lubricant corresponds to 3.1 kg CO2/kg. Hence, this is added to the 

ecoinvent data on lubricants. 
46 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Interventions for traction Amount (g/MJ diesel) 

Ecoinvent 

(Nemecek et al. 2003, p 56-59) 

LCAfood 

(Nielsen et al. 2005) 

LCAfood compared to 

Ecoinvent, factor 

Fuel consumption 

Diesel 23.1 28.0 Diesel 

Emission 

Carbon dioxide (CO2) 74.5 87 1.2 

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) 2.41E-02 2.50E-02 1.0 

Methane (CH4) 3.08E-03 4.10E-03 1.3 

Benzene 1.74E-04 - - 

Cadmium (Cd) 2.39E-07 - - 

Chromium (Cr) 1.19E-06 - - 

Copper (Cu) 4.06E-05 - - 

Dinitrogen monoxide (N2O) 2.86E-03 9.10E-03 3.2 

Nickel (Ni) 1.67E-06 - - 

Zink (Zn) 2.39E-05 - - 

Benzo(a)pyrene 7.16E-07 - - 

Ammonia (NH3) 4.77E-04 - - 

Selenium (Se) 2.39E-07 - - 

PAH (poly cyclic hydrocarbons) 7.85E-05 - - 

Hydro carbons (HC, as NMVOC) 6.80E-02(11) 1.17E-01 1.7 

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) 1.06(11) 1.10 1.0 

Carbon monoxide (CO) 1.50E-01(11) 2.80E-01 1.9 

Particulates (<2.5 μm) 1.07E-01(11) 7.10E-02 0.7 

Table 4.5: Comparison of life cycle inventory data for 1 MJ traction in ecoinvent and LCAfood. 

It appears from Table 4.5 that ecoinvent includes more emissions than LCAfood and for most interventions the 

amount in LCAfood is higher than in ecoinvent. Most of this difference can be ascribed to difference in the 

applied calorific values in the two data sources. Comparing with other data sources, the calorific value at 43.3 

MJ/kg diesel in ecoinvent seems more correct than the 35.7 MJ/kg which is used in LCAfood (see also 

Appendix 1: Data on fuels', where a calorific value at 41.9 MJ/kg is given). 

Since the data in ecoinvent, shown in Table 4.5 are the most comprehensive regarding the number of emissions included and uses the most normally applied calorific value for diesel, it is chosen to apply these data in 

this study. The use of lubricant at 0.0024 kg lubricant/MJ diesel and an emission of 3.1 kg CO2/kg lubricant 

are added to the ecoinvent data. The applied inventory data for production of diesel is: ‘Diesel, at regional 

storage/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004). 

4.4 Transport with passenger car 

The use of transport with passenger car in this study is insignificant compared to the other means of transportation. The applied inventory data is ‘Transport, passenger car/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004). Beside burning and production of petrol, the following processes are also included in the data set: construction, maintenance and disposal of cars and roads. Since this data set is in the unit of personkm, it is transformed into the unit of km. According to ecoinvent (Spielmann et al. 2004), 1 personkm corresponds to 0.629 km. Thus, the ecoinvent data 

are transformed into the unit of km by multiplying with 0.629 km/personkm. 

 

11 Emission of HC, NOx, CO and particles in ecoinvent are not related to kg or MJ diesel burned. Instead it is related to 

engine speed, engine power and operation time. Anyhow, in order to estimate the emissions, they are calculated as the 

average per amount of diesel from the five most significant field work processes which are: Combine harvesting, ploughing, fertilising (by broadcaster), harrowing (tine harrow) and rolling (see Table 5.10). The emissions for different field 

work processes are given in Nemecek et al. (2003). 
5 Agricultural stage: Rapeseed 47 

5 Agricultural stage: Rapeseed 

The rapeseed plant (Brassica napus) is an annual crop, it grows to a height of approximately 140 cm and the 

rapeseeds contain around 44% oil and 23% protein (Møller et al. 2000; Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning 2007). 

The agricultural stage includes activities related to cultivation of rapeseed. The inventory takes its point of 

departure in cultivation of 1 hectare of rapeseed in Denmark. Most data are from 2002 - 2005. Two types of 

rapeseed exist; spring and winter rapeseed. The inventory is based on average production of conventional rapeseed in Denmark in 2004 where spring rapeseed constitutes approximately 1% of the rapeseed cultivated area. 

In 2004 an area of 1,218 km2

 was planted with rapeseed in Denmark (FAOSTAT 2006). That corresponds to 

3% and 5% of the total land area and the arable land in Denmark respectively. 

The following description of rapeseed cultivation is mainly based on Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning (2005a and 

2005b). 

The production target for rapeseed is a high yield of seed with a high content of oil and protein and a low content of glucosinolate and euricic fatty acids. Rapeseed can be grown on sandy as well as clay soils. In order to 

avoid fungus attack there should be at least four years between two rapeseed crops (and other crops with hollow stem). Normally 50 – 100 plants per m2

 are appropriate. Before sowing the soil should be sprayed with 

herbicides to control weeds, ploughed and compacted. The seeds are normally treated in order to avoid pest 

attack during seed germination. Winter rapeseed is sown between the 10th and 25th of August and spring rapeseed is sown in the beginning of April or later if there is a risk of night frost. The need for nitrogen fertilisers 

depends on the crop (winter/spring rapeseed), soil type and previously crop and application of manure. Other 

fertilisers include phosphorus (P), potassium (K), manganese (Mg), sulphur (S), and possibly boron (B) on 

sandy soils. Weeding of the rows between the rapeseed plants (inter-row tillage) are typically done twice during autumn for winter rapeseed and twice for spring rapeseed during spring. In addition weed and pest control 

can be done applying several different herbicides and insecticides. Harvesting typically takes place between 2nd

of July and 5th of August for winter rapeseed and between 5th and 20th of August for spring rapeseed. Harvesting can be done either by laying in swaths or by a conventional harvester. Both methods are used. When harvesting by laying in swaths the harvested crop is drying and possible ripening in the field and is picked up 

later. This method is appropriate if ripeness is not the same all over the field (Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning, 

2005a). By conventional harvesting the rapeseed and possible straw are picked up from the field immediately. 

This method is appropriate if ripeness is equal all over the field. 

Figure 5.1 , Figure 5.2 and Figure 5.3 show a flowering rapeseed field, harvesting of rapeseed and harvested 

rapeseed respectively. 
48 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Figure 5.1: Flowering rapeseed field. Picture taken by 

Jannick H Schmidt near Aalborg in 2007.

Figure 5.2: Harvesting of rapeseed. Picture obtained 

from: http://jyndevad.okologgen.dk (May 2007)

Figure 5.3: Harvested rapeseed. Picture taken by Jannick 

H Schmidt in 2007. Samples provided by Nordic Folkecenter for Renewable Energy. 

According to Dansk Landbrug (2004) rapeseed from Danish agriculture must maintain the specifications given 

in Table 5.1. 

Specifications for rapeseed Content 

Oil 40% 

Water 8-9% 

Pure commodity 100% 

Pure seed 98% 

Glucosinolate 25 micro mol/mol 

Euricic fatty acids <2% 

Free fatty acids <2% 

Table 5.1: Specifications for rapeseed from Danish agriculture. If the seed do not maintain the specifications the transfer 

price is adjusted. (Dansk Landbrug 2004). The water content in Dansk Landbrug (2004) (9%) vary slightly from the water 

content given in Møller et al. (2000) which is 8%. 

5.1 Product flow in agricultural stage 

The inventory of the agricultural stage is divided into the unit processes shown as shaded boxes in Figure 5.4. 

The product flow is determined per hectare from statistical data on Denmark’s production of rapeseed from 

Statistics Denmark (Danmarks Statistik 2006), see descriptions below the figure. 
5 Agricultural stage: Rapeseed 49 Capital goods

Farm - buildings

Tractor

Harvester

1 hectare rapeseed field

Rapeseed: 5 kg

Sowing

Fertilizer applying

Ploughing/compacting

Pesticide spraying

Possibly row clearing

Harvesting

Straw: 2930 kg

Rapeseed: 3240 kg

Drying

Rapeseed: 3231 kg

Seed processing

Pesticide spraying

Rapeseed: 3340 kg

Water: 100 kg

Other agr. machinery

Straw to biomass plant: 381 kg

Straw left in field:

2549 kg

Figure 5.4: Product flow related to cultivation of 1 ha rapeseed field in 1 year. The grey shaded boxes represent the unit 

processes in the agricultural stage.

Seed input: According to Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning (2005a) 4-6 kg seed/ha is needed in order to achieve 

the desired plant density. 5 kg seed/ha is applied in this study. 

Rapeseed output for seed production: According to section 5.4 the land use related to production of 5 kg 

seed corresponds to the lands use related to production of 9 kg conventional rapeseed. 

Water loos in drying: According to section 5.3, 100 kg of water is lost in the drying process per ha. 

Yield: The rapeseed yield is applied as the yield in 2005 calculated from linear regression of yields from 1990 

to 2005, see Table 5.2. Yields are obtained from FAOSTAT (2006). The expected yield in 2005 can be calculated as 3.24 t/ha using the equation in Figure 5.5. For comparison with yields determined using other methods 

see Table 5.2. 

yield = 0.0403*(year - 1989) + 2.59

R2

 = 0.23

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

1990199119921993199419951996199719981999200020012002200320042005

Yield (t/ha)

Rapeseed in Denmark

Figure 5.5: Rapeseed yields in Denmark 1990 to 2005. The linear regression line and its corresponding equation and R2

are also shown. The yields are obtained from Danmarks Statistik (2006). 
50 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Region Yield 2005 (based 

on regression 

1990-2005) 

Average yield 1990-

2005 

Average yield 2000-

2005 

Yield 2003 Yield 2004 Yield 2005 

Denmark 3.24 t/ha 2.93 t/ha 3.16 t/ha 3.38 t/ha 3.86 t/ha 3.10 t/ha 

Table 5.2: Rapeseed yield in Denmark determined using different methods. The applied yield is marked with a dotted 

line. 

In order to clarify calculations and to perform sensitivity analysis for cultivation of different soils the yield is 

also determined for sand and clay soils. This is based on averages of yields for four soil types in Plantedirektoratet (2005a) which specify the expected yield. The calculation of averages is clarified and explained in 

Table 5.14 and Table 5.16. Table 5.3 shows the applied yields in this study. 

The distribution of agricultural soil types in Denmark is determined to be 41% sand and 59% clay, see Table 

5.13. Applying these numbers to the yields given in Plantedirektoratet (2005a) it appears that the calculated 

yields for average soil is in surprisingly good accordance with the yield in Table 5.2. Sine only 1% of the 

rapeseed grown in Denmark is spring rapeseed, Table 5.3 only shows data for winter rapeseed. As it appears in 

in Figure 5.5 there are great yield variations from year to year. Thus, the good accordance may be a coincidence. Therefore, the yields from Plantedirektoratet for sand and clay soils are adjusted to meet the level estimated in Danmarks Statistik (2006), see the lower part of Table 5.3. 

Average soil 

(41% sand / 59% clay) 

Calculated yields based on Plante- Sand Clay 

direktoratet (2005a) (tonne/ha) 

(Plantedirektoratet, 2005a) 

Winter rape 3.30 2.85 3.62 

Average soil 

(41% sand / 59% clay) 

Applied yield in this study Sand Clay 

(tonne/ha) 

(Danmarks Statistik 2006) 

Winter rape 3.24 2.79 3.55 

Table 5.3: Yields based on Plantedirektoratet (2005a) and Danmarks Statistik (2006). 

Comparing to yields in the major rapeseed producing countries shown in Table 5.4, it appears that the yield in 

Denmark is similar to the yield in other major rapeseed producing countries; Germany, France and the UK. 

However, the yields in Poland and Czech Republic seem to be lower. 

Country 

Yield: 2002-2004 

(tonne/ha) 

Average applied artificial N-fertiliser 

(kg N/ha) 

Germany 3.3 153 

France 3.3 156 

Poland 2.4 100 

United Kingdom 3.2 112 

Czech Republic 2.5 91 

Denmark 3.2 119 

Table 5.4: Average yields of rapeseed during 2002 to 2004 in the six major rapeseed producing countries in Europe. Data 

on yield based on Eurostat (2006), see Table A2.2 in Appendix 2: Rapeseed production in Europe in 2004. Data on fertiliser is based on Eurostat (2006) (for consumption of artificial N-fertiliser) and FAOSTAT (2006) (for agricultural land). 

There may be several reasons for varying yield in the different countries. Climate, fertiliser application and 

weed control are considered as important factors. It appears from Table 5.3 that the input of artificial fertiliser 

in Poland and Czech Republic is lower than in the other countries. The yields in Germany, France, UK and 

Denmark are almost equal even though the input of artificial fertilizer in UK and Denmark is lower than in 

Germany and France. The reason for that may be due to difference in input of manure. Figure 5.6 illustrates 

the effect of manue application. It appears from the figure, that application of manue one year has effect on the 
5 Agricultural stage: Rapeseed 51 

yield the following year. Above explanation can only be used for illustration because several factors influence 

the yield. 

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

4.00

4.50

5.00

0 50 100 150 200 250

kg N/ha

ton rapeseed/ha

No manure Manure applied the year before

Figure 5.6: Correlation between fertiliser input (kg N/ha) and yield. The numbers are shown for fields with and without 

application of manure the previous season. The difference between the two graphs shows that application of manure provides nutrients available for crops the following season. Based on Pedersen (2005, p 162). 

Straw: Rapeseed straw is co-produced with rapeseed. Different values for straw production have been identified. Jensen et al. (2005) specify a straw to crop ratio at 0.83 for high yield winter rapeseed cultivation on clay 

(3,600 kg rapeseed/ha) soils and 1.04 for low yield cultivation on sandy soils (2,300 kg rapeseed/ha). Brandt 

(2003) specifies a straw to crop ratio at 2.2 which represent production in Canada. A lower yield in Canada 

may explain some of the high ratio for production in Canada compared to Denmark (see data from Jensen et al 

2005 above). According to FAOSTAT (2006) the average yield for rapeseed cultivation in Canada during 2003 

to 2005 is only 1,550 kg /ha. Danmarks Statistik (2006) also uses a straw to crop ration in the annual statistic 

on straw production in Denmark. During 1997 to 2004 the applied straw to crop ratio for rapeseed has been 

within the interval between 0.85 and 0.94. The average during this period is 0.89.

It is chosen to apply the data from Jensen et al. (2005). The reason for not using data from Danmarks Statistik 

is that this source applies an average straw to crop ratio and thus, it does not take into account that the straw to 

crop ratio decreases as the yield increase. Table 5.16 in section 5.4 specifies the soils cultivated with rapeseed 

in Denmark as 41% sand and 59% clay. Table 5.3 specifies a yield at 2.79 tonne/ha on sandy soils and 3.55 

tonne/ha on clay soils. Thus the straw production on average soils can be determined as 2.80 tonne straw per 

ha. The produced straw is shown in Table 5.5. 

Soil type Share of Denmark’s Straw to crop ratio Winter rapeseed 

agricultural soil Yield norm, t/ha Straw production, t/ha

Sand 41% 1.04 2.79 2.90 

Clay 59% 0.83 3.55 2.95 

Total 100% 2.93 

Table 5.5: Straw production for different yields (soil types) and winter/spring rapeseed. The applied data are marked with 

a dotted black frame. 

According to section 5.5, 13% of the straw is utilised for energy purposes and 87% is left in the field. 

5.2 Omitted inventory data in agricultural stage 

Magnesium (Mg), Sulphur (S) and Boron fertilisers and dust emissions and soil erosion have not been taken 

into account. These interventions are regarded as insignificant. 
52 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

5.3 Energy use 

It appears from Figure 5.4 that several different field work processes are included in rapeseed production. In 

this section the energy use for each of these field work processes is determined. In addition to the field work 

processes there are two other energy comsuming processes, i.e. drying of harvested rapeseed and miscellaneus 

transport (typically in person car), e.g. inspection of field. 

Drying of seed 

According to Jensen et al. (2005) the water content in rapeseed is dried 3 percent points. Nemecek et al. (2003, 

p 121) and Dalgaard et al. (2001) assume 2 percent points for unspecified grains. This study applies 3 percent 

point since the data from Jensen et al. (2005) concerns rapeseed and the other two data sets relate to drying of 

unspecified grains. Table 5.6 below shows the energy consumption related to drying from two different identified data sets. The functional unit for drying is selected as 10 g water dried equalling 1 percent point water of 1 

kg crop. 

Drying of 1 % point of 1 kg crop/ 

Drying of 10 g water 

Nemecek et al. (2003) Dalgaard et al. (2001) 

Electricity 36 KJ - 

Heat (fuel oil) (50-70 KJ in source; assuming 6 KJ) 60 KJ - 

Unspecified - 50 KJ 

Table 5.6: Comparison energy consumption related to drying of 1% point of 1 kg crop equalling drying of 10 g water 

from two data sources.

The inventory from ecoinvent described in Nemecek et al. (2003) is applied in this study; ‘Grain drying, low 

temperature/CH‘. However, the electricity in the inventory is displaced by marginal electricity as described in 

Table 3.3. This inventory also includes construction, maintenance and disposal of machinery and buildings for 

the drying process. 

The yield from one hectare is 3,240 kg dried rapeseed. Since the rapeseed is dried 3 percent points, the undried 

yield is 3,340 kg. Thus, 100 kg water is dried per hectare. This correspons to an energy use at 3.6 MJ electricity/ha and 6.0 MJ heat (fuel oil)/ha. 

Miscellaneaus transport (person car) 

Energy for miscellaneaus transport, e.g. inspection of field, is 6.1 litre diesel/ha (Dalgaard 2007). This is the 

applied energy use for miscellaneaus transport in LCAfood. Applying the data on fuels in Appendix 1: Data on 

fuels, 6.1 litre diesel corresponds to 222 MJ diesel/ha. The applied inventory data for inspection of field is: 

‘Transport, passenger car/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004). This data set includes burning of petrol, production maintenance and disposal of car and construction of road. In the data from ecoinvent there is an energy input of 

0.00465 kg diesel and 0.0615 kg petrol per km. Applying the data in Appendix 1: Data on fuels, this corresponds to 2.82 MJ/km. Thus, miscellaneaus transport is 79 km/ha. The LCAfood assumes that all miscellaneus 

transport is in diesel cars. In this study the distribution given in ecoinvent (2004) is applied instead. 

Specific diesel consumption for different field work processes 

Two data sources on diesel consumption for different field work processes have been identified; applied data 

in ecoinvent (Nemecek et al. 2003) and applied data in LCAfood (Dalgaard et al., 2006 and Dalgaard et al. 

2001). 

Table 5.7 shows fuel consumption for different field work processes obtained from ecoinvent and LCAfood. 

Data from Nemecek et al. (2003) represents Swiss agriculture and are based on measurements as well as litera-
5 Agricultural stage: Rapeseed 53 

ture studies. Data from the LCAfood project represent Danish agriculture and are also based on measurements 

as well as literature studies. The specific diesel consumptions for different field work processes applied in the 

LCAfood project are given in Dalgaard et al. (2001). However an aggregation of these data to the overall agricultural sector in Denmark, described in Dalgaard et al. (2006), showed that the calculated diesel consumption 

was 18% lower than the total diesel consumption in the Danish agricultural sector. Therefore, Dalgaard et al. 

(2006) suggests to add 22% extra diesel to the data given in Dalgaard et al (2001). The data shown in Table 

5.7 from the LCAfood project include 22% extra diesel compared to Dalgaard et al. (2001). These data are 

referred to as LCAfood. 

There are two methods for harvesting; combine harvesting or laying by swathes. It has not been possible to 

identify appropriate data on fuel consumption for laying in swathes. Firstly, it requires a swath operation with 

rotary windrower. This requires approximately 68 MJ/ha (Dalgaard et al., 2001 and Dalgaard et al. 2006). Next 

it requires combine harvesting with rough estimated energy consumption 90% of conventional combine harvesting; 560 MJ/ha (90% of the energy consumption obtained from Dalgaard et al., 2001 and Dalgaard et al. 

2006). The total very rough estimated energy use for laying by swathes is 628 MJ/ha. The energy use for combine harvesting obtained from Dalgaard et al. (2001) and Dalgaard et al. (2006) is 622 MJ/ha which is much 

similar to the estimated energy consumption for laying in swathes. Therefore, it is presumed suitable to apply 

the energy use related to combine harvesting for all rapeseed harvesting. 

Specific diesel consumption for different field work proc- LCAfood 

ess 

Unit Ecoinvent 

Sandy soil Clay soil 

Ploughing MJ/ha 1,086 919 1,124

Harrowing, by tine harrow/disc harrow MJ/ha 185 279 342

Packing MJ/ha 81 98

Rolling MJ/ha 132 81 98

Seed bed harrowing MJ/ha 160 195

Seed bed harrowing, heavy MJ/ha 240 293

Inter-row tillage/weeding MJ/ha 67 133 133

Tillage 

Straw chopping12 MJ/ha 0 0 0

Sowing Sowing MJ/ha 159 120 146

Fertilising, by broadcaster MJ/ha 220 89 89

Fertilising, lime application MJ/ha 67 67

Slurry spreading MJ/tonne 9 13 13

Fertilising 

Solid manure loading and spreading MJ/tonne 22 24 24

Pesticide Application of plant protection products, by 

field sprayer 

MJ/ha 73 67 67

Harvesting Combine harvesting MJ/ha 1,386 622 622

Transport, tractor and trailer (including empty 

return trip) 

Transport MJ/tkm 1.7 8.9 8.9

Machine transport MJ/km 1.8 1.8

Table 5.7: Specific fuel consumption for different field work processes in the ecoinvent (Nemecek et al., 2003, p 181-

182) and LCAfood (Dalgaard et al., 2001 and Dalgaard et al. 2006). Ecoinvent data are based on a yield at 3.15 tonne/ha 

(Nemecek et al., 2003, p 247). Conversion from litre and kg diesel is based on energy content given in Appendix 1: Data 

on fuels.

It appears from Table 5.7 that the differences between data from ecoinvent and LCAfood are relatively small. 

However, significant differences > factor 2 are identified for three processes: 1) transport with tractor and 

trailer (difference = factor 5.2), 2) fertiliser application (difference = factor 2.5), and 3) harvesting (difference 

= factor 2.2). 

 

12 It is assumed that straw chopping is done with combine harvesting (Jensen et al 2005) 
54 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Field work operations: which and how many times? 

In the following fuel consumption for rapeseed cultivation for different data sets are described. Firstly, the 

number of different field work processes are estimated, see Table 5.8. Next, the number of field work processes for rapeseed cultivation for different existing data sets are described, see Table 5.9. Table 5.10 summarises the diesel use for all investigated data sets. The data set from LCAfood represents normal practice for 

rapeseed cultivation in Denmark. 

Inventorying the fuel consumption it is important to be aware of differences between LCIs conducted applying 

the attributional versus the consequential approach for system delimitation. In Denmark most plant production 

takes place at farms which also produces animals. Therefore, a significant share of the fertilizer applied is manure. The data on plant production in ecoinvent, which is conducted applying the attributional approach, is 

based on average shares of artificial fertiliser and manure. On the other hand, data in LCAfood, which is conducted applying the consequential approach, only account for artificial fertiliser. This is because manure is 

presumed constrained by the production of animals and not production of plants. Therefore, all interventions 

related to slurry spreading (including traction for spreading and emissions of N from manure), have been disregarded. The need for nutrients is purely met by artificial fertilisers, because a change in crop production will 

affect the marginal supply of fertiliser which is artificial fertiliser and consequential traction for spreading and 

emissions. 

In this study the consequential approach is applied. Therefore, the need for fertiliser is met by artificial fertilisers, traction and spreading is for artificial fertilisers and also the nutrient loss from the field is calculated based 

on a nutrient balance using artificial fertiliser. Thus, in Table 5.8, there are no operations related to spreading 

of slurry. 
5 Agricultural stage: Rapeseed 55 

Estimated number 

of operations 

Field work process 

High Low 

References 

Ploughing 1 1 Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning (2005a), Jensen et al. (2005) 

Harrowing, by tine harrow/disc 

harrow 

2 1 Several harrowing is recommended in order to reduce the number 

of snails in the soil (Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning, 2005a). Jensen et 

al. (2005) specify one treatment 

Packing 1 0 Packing after ploughing is recommended in Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning (2005a) 

No packing in Jensen et al. (2005) 

Rolling 1 1 Rolling after ploughing is recommended in Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning (2005a). Jensen et al. (2005) also specify one treatment. 

Seed bed harrowing 2 0 

Seed bed harrowing, heavy 1 0 

Packing and seed bed harrowing is recommended in (Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning, 2005a). Two light seed bed harrowing followed by 

one heavy seed bed harrowing is used in LCAfood. Jensen et al. 

(2005) do not include this process. 

Inter-row tillage/weeding 2 2 2 treatments recommended in Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning (2005a). 

Jensen et al. (2005) do not include this process. 

Tillage 

Straw chopping 1 0 If the straw is not removed from the field it should be chopped in 

order to improve germination of lost seeds (Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning, 2005a). Jensen et al. (2005) include this process with 

combine harvesting. 

Sowing Sowing 1 1 Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning (2005a), Jensen et al. (2005) 

Fertilising, by broadcaster 2 2 This is specified in LCAfood, ecoinvent and Jensen et al. (2005) 

Fertilising, lime application 1 0 This is used in LCAfood. . Jensen et al. (2005) do not include this 

process. 

Slurry spreading 0 0 

Fertilising 

Solid manure loading and 

spreading 

0 0 

Since manure and slurry is constrained to animal production, only 

artificial fertiliser is ascribed to plant production 

Pesticide Pesticide, by field sprayer 4 3 In LCAfood the number of pesticide spraying operations is 5. According to Kristensen (2006) two inter-row tillage/weeding operations substitute one spraying in the autumn, thus 4. Jensen et al. 

(2005) specify 3 treatments. 

Harvesting Combine harvesting 1 1 The energy consumption in combine harvesting and laying by 

swathes is estimated to be similar. Therefore, combine harvesting is 

applied for all rapeseed. ). Jensen et al. (2005) include straw chopping with combine harvesting. 

Transport, tractor and trailer 

(including empty return trip) 

3.2 tkm 3.2 tkm Transport of the harvested rapeseed (yield at 3.1 tonne/ha and dried 

3 percent points). Dalgaard et al. (2001) estimates an average 

distance at 1 km between the field and the farm. 

Transport 

Machine transport 40 km 24 km This is calculated as the sum of field work processes multiplied with 

the distance to the field (round-trip). The distance is 1 km each way; 

see transport, tractor and trailer. 

Table 5.8: Description and documentation of estimated number of field work operations applied in this study. 

Table 5.9 summarises the number of field work operations in different studies. The diesel consumption related 

to the estimate shown in Table 5.8 is calculated using specific diesel consumption from ecoinvent as well as 

LCAfood. However, in the case of ecoinvent there are no data for seed bed harrowing. Therefore, two operations of tillage, rolling are applied instead of the one given in Table 5.8. Also there is no data for ‘tillage, packing’. Therefore, there is applied an extra operation of ‘tillage, rolling’ instead. ‘Tillage, straw chopping’ has 

been left out since there is no data for that in ecoinvent. Furthermore, there is no field work process for lime 

application in ecoinvent. Therefore, this is applied as an extra ‘fertiliser, by broadcasting’ operation instead. 
56 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Adjusted to available processes in; ecoinvent LCAfood 

Estimate; ecoinvent Own high Own low LCAfood Own high Own low 

Ploughing 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Harrowing, by tine harrow/disc harrow 2 2 1 2 2 1 

Packing 1 1 

Rolling 3 2 1 1 1 

Seed bed harrowing 2 2 

Seed bed harrowing, heavy 1 1 

Inter-row tillage/weeding 2 2 2 

Tillage 

Straw chopping 1 1 

Sowing Sowing 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Fertilising, by broadcaster 3 3 2 2 2 2 

Fertilising, lime application 1 1 

Slurry spreading 8.55 t 

Fertilising 

Solid manure loading and spreading 5.55 t 

Pesticide Pesticide, by field sprayer 3.5 4 3 5 4 3 

Harvesting Combine harvesting 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Transport, tractor and trailer (including 

empty return trip) 

Transport 3.2 tkm 3.2 tkm 3.2 tkm 3.2 tkm 

Machine transport - 34 km 22 km 48 km 40 km 24 km 

Table 5.9: Number of field work processes in different calculations of the diesel consumption in rapeseed cultivation. The 

number of field work operations for different processes in the LCAfood project is obtained from Dalgaard (2007).

Diesel consumption related to cultivation of rapeseed 

The diesel consumption related to cultivation of rapeseed is shown in Table 5.10. The numbers are calculated 

from data in Table 5.7 and Table 5.9. 

Specific diesel consumption based on; Ecoinvent LCAfood 

Number of field work processes based on; Ecoinvent Own, 

high 

Own, 

low 

LCAfood Own, 

high 

Own, 

low 

Own, 

high 

Own, 

low 

Soil type; avg. avg. avg. sand clay sand sand clay clay 

Ploughing 1,086 1,086 1,086 919 1,124 919 919 1,124 1,124

Harrowing, by tine harrow/disc 

harrow 

370 370 185 559 683 559 559 683 683

Packing 0 0 0 81 98 81 0 98 0

Rolling 0 396 264 81 98 81 81 98 98

Seed bed harrowing 0 0 0 320 390 320 0 390 0

Seed bed harrowing, heavy 0 0 0 240 293 240 0 293 0

Inter-row tillage/weeding 0 134 0 0 0 266 266 266 266

Tillage 

Straw chopping 0 0 0 178 178 178 0 178 0

Sowing Sowing 159 159 159 120 146 120 120 146 146

Fertilising, by broadcaster 660 660 440 178 178 178 178 178 178

Fertilising, lime application 0 0 0 67 67 67 0 67 0

Slurry spreading 77 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Fertilising 

Solid manure loading and 

spreading 

122 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Pesticide Pesticide, by field sprayer 256 292 219 336 336 268 201 268 201

Harvesting Combine harvesting 1,386 1,386 1,386 622 622 622 622 622 622

Transport, tractor and trailer 

(including empty return trip) 

Transport 0 5 5 0 0 28 28 28 28

Machine transport 0 0 0 88 88 73 48 73 48

Total 4,116 4,488 3,744 3,787 4,301 4,000 2,738 4,513 3,049

Table 5.10: Diesel consumption (MJ) in agricultural field work processes for 1 ha rapeseed cultivation based on different 

data.

It appears from Table 5.10 that the diesel consumption varies between 2,738 MJ/ha and 4,513 MJ/ha depending on the assumptions applied and the data used. In order to provide a better overview of the influence of the 

different assumptions and data, Table 5.11 shows different averages based on Table 5.10. 
5 Agricultural stage: Rapeseed 57 

Specific diesel consumption Average 

Number of field work processes Average 

Soil type Average 

1 

Total diesel consumption 3,860 

Specific diesel consumption Ecoinvent LCAfood 

Number of field work processes Average 

Soil type Average 

2 

Total diesel consumption 4,116 3,731 

Specific diesel consumption Ecoinvent LCAfood 

Number of field work processes Ecoinvent 

Own, 

high 

Own, 

low 

LCAfood Own, high Own, low 

Soil type Average 

3 

Total diesel consumption 4,116 4,488 3,744 4.044 4,256 2,894 

Specific diesel consumption Ecoinvent LCAfood 

Number of field work processes Ecoinvent 

Own, avg. LCAfood Own, avg. 

Soil type Average sand clay sand clay 

4 

Total diesel consumption 4,116 4,116 3,787 4,301 3,369 3,781 

Specific diesel consumption Ecoinvent LCAfood 

Number of field work processes Ecoinvent 

Own, 

high 

Own, 

low 

LCAfood Own, 

High 

Own, 

low 

Own, 

high 

Own, 

low 

Soil type Average sand clay sand sand clay clay 

5 

Total diesel consumption 4,116 4,488 3,744 3,787 4,301 4,000 2,738 4,513 3,049

Table 5.11: Five different averages of fuel consumption (MJ) in agricultural field work processes for 1 ha rapeseed cultivation based on different data. For each of the five averages, the parameters that are kept constant (average) are italic and 

underlined. The applied data are marked with a black dotted frame; the other data are used in a sensitivity analysis in 

section 21.6.

According to Table 5.13 Danish agricultural land is distributed on 41% sand and 59% clay. Thus the average 

diesel consumption for traction can be calculated as 3,612 MJ. 

The uncertainty related to the difference in energy use determined from data in ecoinvent and from data in 

LCAfood (average 4 in the table) is assessed in a sensitivity analysis, see section 21.6. 

Difference in diesel consumption related to number of field work operations: It appears from Table 5.11

(average 3 in the table) that the difference between the total diesel consumption based on standard number of 

field work processes in ecoinvent and LCAfood compared to the fuel consumption based on own estimate are 

between high and low of own estimates. However, the average of own estimates (average 4 in the table) differ 

from the ecoinvent data with 0% and for the LCAfood data the difference is 9-11%. 

Difference in diesel consumption related to use of specific diesel consumption based on either ecoinvent 

or LCAfood: It appears from Table 5.11 (average 2) that diesel consumption based on specific fuel consumption data from ecoinvent is 10% higher than if based on LCAfood. The main reason for this difference is 

higher specific diesel consumption for harvesting and fertiliser application. 

Overall there is good coherence between the different data sources on diesel consumption related to cultivation 

of rapeseed. It is chosen to base the fuel consumption on specific fuel consumption data from LCAfood. The 

reason for this is that these data are based on Danish agriculture. Furthermore it is chosen to base the number 

of field work operation on an average of own high and low estimates, see dotted frame in Table 5.11. 
58 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Inventory data for burning of diesel in tractor and production, maintenance and disposal of tractor and is described in section 4.3. 

5.4 Materials 

The materials used for rapeseed growing include seed, artificial fertiliser and pesticides. 

Seed 

According to Figure 5.4 there is an input of 5 kg seed per ha. The interventions related to the agricultural stage 

in production of seed are accounted for by subtracting an amount of seed from the yield. According to Nemecek et al. (2003, p 103) the yield of seed production is 43% less than for conventional cultivation of rapeseed. 

Thus, it requires 75% more land to produce seed than conventional rapeseed. Therefore, the use of 5 kg seed 

requires the interventions as cultivation of 8.75 kg ~ 9 kg conventional rapeseed. 

Only one life cycle inventory of seed has been identified; ‘Rape seed IP, at regional storehouse/CH’ (ecoinvent 2004). This inventory is shown in Table 5.12 below. The inventory has been modified applying interventions for electricity as described in section 3.1 instead of average Swiss electricity as in ecoinvent. 

LCI-data for production of 1 kg seed Amount LCI data used in this study 

Rapeseed from agriculture 1.75 kg This is accounted for by subtracting 1.75 kg from the yield at 3.24 

tonne/ha per kg seed used, see Figure 5.4. 

Electricity 0.21 MJ Electricity, see Table 3.3

Building for storage 2.0 ⋅ 10-5 m3 Building, multi-storey/RER (ecoinvent 2004) 

Transport from farm to warehouse 0.13 tkm Transport, lorry 28t/CH (ecoinvent 2004) 

Table 5.12: Inventory data for production of 1 kg seed for rapeseed cultivation (ecoinvent 2004). 

Fertilisers 

Fertilisers used for rapeseed cultivation encompass nitrogen fertilisers, phosphorus, potassium, manganese, 

sulphur and possibly boron on sandy soils. The need for nitrogen fertilisers is described in Plantedirektoratet 

(2005a) and depends on the crop (winter/spring rapeseed), soil type, irrigation, previously crop and application 

of manure. 

Life cycle inventories have been identified for straight fertilisers (N, P and K respectively) as well as for 

mixes. All the applied inventories are for straight fertilisers since these are considered as the marginal affected. 

The mixes often consist of mixes of the straight fertilisers. 

Nitrogen (N): When determining the soil types on which rapeseed are grown, it is assumed that rapeseed is 

equally distributed on the soil types in Denmark. The argument for this assumption is that rapeseed does not 

require any special physical conditions on soil quality (Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning, 2005a). 

The distribution of soil types in Denmark is shown in Table 5.13, also see Appendix 3: Soil types and adjustments to different sources. However, the soil types in Plantedirektoratet (2005a) which is used for determination of the fertiliser input do not fit with the soil types in Table 5.13. In addition Plantedirektoratet distinguishes whether the sandy soils are irrigated or not. No information on share of irrigated rapeseed on sandy 

soils has been identified. It is assumed that 50% is irrigated. In order to overcome differences in soil type terminology in different sources used, a conversion of the soil types has been carried out, see Appendix 3: Soil 

types and adjustments to different sources. 
5 Agricultural stage: Rapeseed 59 

Soil type Area, km2 Share of agricultural soils Sand/clay 

Coarse sandy soil 10,548 26% Sand 

Grinding sand 4,233 10% Sand 

Sandy soil with clay 11,523 28% Clay 

Clay soil with sand 9,817 24% Clay 

Clay soil 2,390 6% Clay 

Heavy clay soil 303 1% Clay 

Humus soil 2,090 5% Sand 

Calcareous soil 87 0% Sand 

City 1,704 - - 

Total 42,694 100% Sand (41%)/clay (59%) 

Table 5.13: Distribution of soil types in agricultural soils in Denmark. See Appendix 3: Soil types and adjustments to 

different sources. 

Table 5.14 shows the N-norm for winter rapeseed on different soils. Furthermore, the share of Denmark’s 

agricultural land is given for the different soil types. This is based on Table 5.13. 

Soil type Share of Denmark’s Winter rapeseed 

agricultural soil Yield norm, tonne/ha N-norm, kg N/ha

Average of: 

Non-irrigated coarse sandy soil (JB 1+3) and

Irrigated sandy soil 

(JB 1-4) 

26% 2.7 159 

Average of : 

Non-irrigated grinding sand (JB 2+4 and 10-12) 

and 

Irrigated sandy soil 

(JB 1-4)

16% 3.1 164 

Mixed sand and clay soil 

(JB 5-6) 

52% 3.6 171 

Clay soil 

(JB 7-9) 

7% 3.8 174 

Total 100% 3.3 169 

Table 5.14: Norms for yield and application of N-fertiliser for different soil types (Plantedirektoratet, 2005a, p 47). 

When determining the application of N ascribed to rapeseed, its effect on N application on the next crop the 

following year should be credited for (Hvid et al., 2004, p 25). Also the available N from the previous crop 

should be accounted for. Rapeseed cultivation always enters into a crop rotation scheme including other crops. 

Since these crops have different ‘previous crop’ values it is necessary to estimate a typical crop rotation 

scheme from where the typical ‘previous crop’ value for crops before rapeseed can be determined. In Jacobsen 

et al., (2002) the most common crop rotation scheme for plant cultivation/pig production farms have been determined. The crop rotation scheme and ‘previous crop’ values are shown in Table 5.15. It is stressed that the 

‘previous crop’ values given in Table 5.15 do not necessarily reflect the actual effect on the nitrogen cycle. 

The ‘previous crop’ values given are those used in regulation of Danish agriculture which is not purely based 

on natural science, i.e. the values are politically agreed. 
60 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Field no Crop rotation ‘Previous crop’ value, kg N/ha 

1 Spring barley, with second crop 17-25 

2 Spring barley, with second crop 17-25 

3 Set-aside 0 

4 Winter wheat 0 

5 Peas 23 

6 Winter wheat 0 

7 Winter rye 0 

8 Winter barley 0 

9 Winter rapeseed 27 

10 Winter wheat 0 

Table 5.15: ‘Most common’ crop rotation scheme for plant cultivation/pig production farms (Jacobsen et al., 2002, p 95). 

The ‘previous crop’ values are from (Plantedirektoratet, 2005a)

It appears from Table 5.15 that the ‘previous crop’ value for crops before rapeseed typically is 0 and the ‘previous crop’ value for rapeseed is 27 kg N/ha. Thus, no N from crops before rapeseed has to be considered, and 

the application of N fertiliser on the crop after rapeseed should be 27 kg/ha less than prescribed by the norm 

(Plantedirektoratet, 2005a, p 13). Therefore, the 27 kg N/ha is subtracted from the N-norm when determining 

the application of N on rapeseed. 

In order to simplify the distinction between sandy soil and clay soil, Table 5.14 is divided into two soil types; 

sandy soils (weighted average of the three first rows) and clay soils (weighted average of the two last rows). 

The applied N-fertiliser on sandy, clay and average soils is shown in Table 5.16, which also take into account 

credit from the ‘previous crop’-value for rapeseed. 

Soil type Share of Denmark’s agricultural Winter rapeseed 

soil Yield norm, 

tonne/ha

N-application, kg 

N/ha

Sand 41% 2.85 134 

Clay 59% 3.62 144 

Total 100% 3.30 140 

Table 5.16: Applied N-fertiliser in the study. The numbers are based on Table 5.14 and N-application is subtracted a 

‘previous crop’-value at 27 kg N/ha. The applied data are marked with a dotted black frame.

It appears from Table 5.16 that 140 kg N/ha is applied to rapeseed. In reality 140 + 27 (‘previous-crop’-value) 

= 167 Kg N/ha is applied, but 27 kg N/ha can be saved for the crop after rapeseed. Therefore, the 27 kg N/ha is 

credited to rapeseed. 

According to Nielsen et al. (2005) and Weidema (2003), the consumption of N-fertiliser in Europe is decreasing. This is also supported in IFA (2007a), where the consumption of N-fertiliser in Western Europe, Central 

Europe, Eastern Europe and Central Asia has been decreasing from around 27 million tonne in 1986/87 to 14 

million tonne in 2002/03. According to IFA (2007a) the same decreasing tendency can be identified for P- and 

K-fertilisers. The affected supplier in a deceasing market is, according to Weidema (2003) the least competitive supplier. Nielsen et al. (2005) have identified the affected supplier to be less efficient ammonium plants in 

Eastern Europe. Thus, Nielsen et al. (2005) assume that the market is geographical limited to Europe and that 

the market trend is decreasing. 

But is the geographical market limited to Europa? According to IFA (2007a) the import share of the supply to 

EU25 in 2005 was 20% for ammonia, 25% for ammonia nitrate and 39% for calcium ammonia nitrate. The 

import share of triple super phosphate was almost 100% and the import share of potash was 44% in 2005 (IFA 
5 Agricultural stage: Rapeseed 61 

2007a). Based on these figures, it is assumed that the geographical markets for nitrogen, phosphate and potash 

fertilisers are global. 

The World market for nitrogen fertilisers have been constant or slightly increasing from 1993/04 to 2005/06 

(IFA 2007a). The increasing world market for nitrogen fertilisers is expected to continue in a 30 year outlook 

(IFA 2007b). According to IFA (2007a) the same increasing tendency can be identified for P- and K-fertilisers 

on the world market. Thus, the market trend on the global market is increasing. 

Since the market trend then is increasing, the marginal suppliers are then, according to Weidema (2003), the 

most competitive. All identified LCI-data on production on fertilisers represents average suppliers to the European market. It is assumed that these data represents the marginal suppliers. 

According to EFMA (2004) the most frequently used straight N-fertilisers in Europe are; Calcium ammonium 

nitrate (23% of all inorganic N applied in Europe), Ammonium nitrate (21%), Urea (16%) and Urea ammonium nitrate (12%). N-fertilisers in mixed fertilisers (also containing P and K) constitute 22% of the inorganic 

nitrogen applied in Europe. It is assumed that the affected type of N-fertiliser is the most commonly used 

straight N-fertiliser; calcium ammonium nitrate. 

Several life cycle inventories for nitrogen fertilisers have been identified. Analysing the data sets in SimaPro 

and using the EDIP97 for LCIA, it appears that global warming, acidification and toxicity are the most significant impact categories. In Table 5.17 inventories for the most widely applied N-fertilisers are compared within 

these categories. 

LCI-data for N-fertiliser CO2-eq. SO2-eq. ETWC, m3

water 

Description of data 

‘Fertiliser (N)’, LCAfood database 

(Nielsen et al. 2005) 

9.62 kg 32 g 0.9 m3 Time: Data from early 1990ies 

Geography: Former West Germany 

Technology: Average, SNG marginal electricity 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: No 

‘Calcium ammonium nitrate, as 

N, at regional storehouse/RER’, 

(ecoinvent 2004) 

9.05 kg 33 g 2,480 m3

‘Ammonium nitrate, as N, at 

regional storehouse/RER’, 

(ecoinvent 2004) 

8.95 kg 28 g 2,300 m3

‘Ammonium sulphate, as N, at 

regional storehouse/RER’ 

(ecoinvent 2004) 

2.68 kg 8.3 g 1,340 m3

‘Urea, as N, at regional storehouse/RER’, 

(ecoinvent 2004) 

3.29 kg 13 g 1,670 m3

Time: Data from mid to late 1990ies 

Geography: Western Europe 

Technology: Average, European average electricity 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: Machinery, buildings 

Table 5.17: Comparison of LCIs of N-fertiliser. The comparison is shown as characterised results using the EDIP97-

method for LCIA. All the life cycle inventories are for 1 kg fertiliser, as N. The applied data are marked with a black 

dotted frame.

It appears from Table 5.17 that the difference in contributions to global warming and acidification is not significant among ammonium nitrate fertilisers. The difference in contribution to ecotoxicity is mainly due to 

emissions of strontium related to diesel for transport in ecoinvent and copper related to disposal of metals in 

chemical plant. These emissions are not included in the inventory in LCAfood. The contribution to global 

warming, acidification and ecotoxicity is smaller for ammonia sulphate and urea. Electricity from the grid for 

N-fertiliser production is relative small (Nemecek et al. 2003). Therefore, it has almost no effect on the results 

that the data in ecoinvent uses data for average electricity from grid in Europe and not marginal electricity. 
62 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Since the data from ecoinvent include capital goods and thus are more complete, it is chosen to apply these 

data in the study. It is chosen to apply data for calcium ammonium nitrate since this fertiliser type is the most 

frequently applied N-fertiliser. 

The European Commission (2006d) presents a range of different technologies to be considered in order to reduce N2O emissions from production of nitric acid which is used in the production of ammonium nitrate fertilisers. Examples of technologies are alternative oxidation catalysts, extension of reactor chamber, catalytic N2O 

decomposition in the oxidation reactor, combined NOx and N2O abatement in tail gases and non-selective catalytic reduction of NOx and N2O in tail gases. The presented technologies reduce the N2O emission from 30-

50% up to 98-99%. Section 21.8 presents a sensitivity analysis where BAT has been applied in the production 

of nitric acid. 

Phosphorus (P): The application of P-fertiliser is determined from the soil’s P-value (Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning, 2005a). However, the application of P-fertiliser in this study is based on average numbers given in 

Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning (2005a and 2005b). This is shown in Table 5.18. In Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning 

(2005a and 2005b) the use of P-fertiliser is given for two types of sandy soil; ‘non irrigated sand, JB 1+3’ and 

‘Grinding sand, JB 2+4’. The use of P-fertiliser on sandy soil is regarded as the average of these two. 

Soil type Share of Denmark’s agricultural 

soil

Winter rapeseed 

kg P/ha 

Sand 41% 21 

Clay 59% 28 

Total 100% 25 

Table 5.18: Applied P-fertiliser in the study. The applied data are marked with a black dotted frame. 25 kg P corresponds 

to 57 kg P2O5.

In the section where N-fertiliser is described it appears that the market for P- and K-fertilisers is global and 

increasing. Thus, the affected suppliers are those who are most competitive. All identified LCI-data on production on fertilisers represents average suppliers to the European market. It is assumed that these data represents 

the marginal suppliers. 

According to EFMA (2006) the most frequently applied straight P-fertilisers are; triple super phosphate (8% of 

all applied inorganic P in the EU) and double/single super phosphate (3%). P-fertilisers in mixed fertilisers 

(also containing N and K) constitute 86% of the inorganic phosphate applied in the EU. It is assumed that the 

affected type of P-fertiliser is the most commonly used straight P-fertiliser; triple super phosphate. 

Three life cycle inventories for straight phosphorus fertilisers have been identified. Analysing the inventories 

on P-fertiliser available in Simapro and using the EDIP97 for LCIA, it appears that global warming, acidification and toxicity are the most significant impact categories. In Table 5.19 the inventories are compared within 

these categories. The electricity consumption for production of triple super phosphate is relative higher than 

for production of N-fertiliser (Nemecek et al. 2003). Therefore, it has some effect on the emission levels that 

the data in ecoinvent uses data for average electricity in Europe and not marginal electricity. Thus, a modified 

version of triple super phosphate where electricity produced from coal instead of average electricity in Europe 

has been applied to the LCI in ecoinvent is analysed. This is shown in Table 5.19. 
5 Agricultural stage: Rapeseed 63 

LCI-data for P-fertiliser CO2-eq. SO2-eq. ETWC, m3

water 

Description of data 

‘Fertiliser (P2O5)’, (triple super 

phosphate), LCAfood database 

(Nielsen et al. 2005) 

1.19 kg 18 g 0.9 m3 Time: Data from early 1990ies 

Geography: Former West Germany 

Technology: Average, European average electricity 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: No 

‘Single superphosphate, as 

P2O5, at regional storehouse/RER’, ecoinvent database 

(Nemecek et al. 2003) 

2.64 kg 42 g 4,170 m3

‘Triple superphosphate, as P2O5, 

at regional storehouse/RER’, 

ecoinvent database (2004) 

(Nemecek et al. 2003) 

2.02 kg 34 g 5,110 m3

Time: Data from mid to late 1990ies 

Geography: Western Europe 

Technology: Average, European average electricity 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: Machinery, buildings 

Modified version of: 

‘Triple superphosphate, as P2O5, 

at regional storehouse/RER’, 

ecoinvent database (2004) 

(Nemecek et al. 2003)

2.46 kg 35 g 5,040 m3 Time: Data from mid to late 1990ies 

Geography: Western Europe 

Technology: Average. Electricity; marginal (coal) 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: Machinery, buildings 

Table 5.19: Comparison of LCIs of P-fertiliser. The comparison is shown as characterised results using the EDIP97-

method for LCIA. All the life cycle inventories are for 1 kg fertiliser, as P2O5. For conversion to kg P; 1 kg P corresponds 

to 2.29 kg P2O5. The applied data are marked with a black dotted frame.

It appears from Table 5.19 that contribution to global warming and acidification differs with a factor 2.2 to 

2.3. The difference between the two data sets for triple super phosphate is not as significant as the difference 

between single super phosphate and triple super phosphate – they only vary with a factor 1.6 to 1.8. As in the 

case of N-fertilisers in the ecoinvent database the difference in contribution to ecotoxicity is mainly due to 

emissions of cadmium from phosphoric acid production, strontium related to diesel for transport in ecoinvent 

and copper related to disposal of metals in chemical plant. These emissions are not included in the inventory in 

LCAfood. Since the data from ecoinvent include capital goods and thus are more complete, it is chosen to apply these data in the study. It is chosen to apply data for triple super phosphate since this fertiliser type the 

most widely used P-fertiliser type in EU. Furthermore it is chosen to apply the modified version of the ecoinvent data on triple super phosphate where average electricity has been replaced by marginal electricity produced from coal. 

Potassium (K): The application of K-fertiliser is determined from the soil’s K-value (Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning, 2005a). However, the application of K-fertiliser in this study is based on average numbers given in 

Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning (2005a and 2005b). This is shown in Table 5.20. In Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning 

(2005a and 2005b) the use of K-fertiliser is given for two types of sandy soil; ‘non irrigated sand, JB 1+3’ and 

‘Grinding sand, JB 2+4’. The use of K-fertiliser on sandy soil is regarded as the average of these two. 

Soil type Share of Denmark’s agricultural 

soil

Winter rapeseed 

kg K/ha 

Sand 41% 68 

Clay 59% 91 

Total 100% 82 

Table 5.20: Applied K-fertiliser in the study. The applied data are marked with a black dotted frame. 82 kg K corresponds 

to 99 kg K2O.

In the section where N-fertiliser is described it appears that the market for P- and K-fertilisers is global and 

increasing. Thus, the affected suppliers are those who are most competitive. All identified LCI-data on production on fertilisers represents average suppliers to the European market. It is assumed that these data represents 

the marginal suppliers. 
64 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

According to EFMA (2006) the most frequently applied straight K-fertilisers are; potassium magnesium sulphate (51% of all applied inorganic K in the EU), potassium chloride (27%) and potassium sulphate (6%). Kfertilisers in mixed fertilisers (also containing N and P) constitute 16% of the inorganic potassium applied in 

the EU. It is assumed that the affected type of K-fertiliser is the most commonly used straight K-fertiliser; potassium magnesium sulphate. However, no inventory data have been identified for that type of K-fertiliser. 

Therefore, the type of K-fertiliser applied in this study is potassium chloride. 

Three life cycle inventories on straight potassium fertiliser have been identified. One unspecified type in the 

LCAfood database (Nielsen et al. 2005) and two in the ecoinvent database (Nemecek et al. 2003); potassium 

chloride and potassium sulphate. The data sets are compared in Table 5.21. 

LCI-data for K-fertiliser CO2-eq. SO2-eq. ETWC, m3

water 

Description of data 

‘Fertiliser (K2O)’, LCAfood database 

(Nielsen et al. 2005) 

0.67 kg 1.1 g 0.3 m3 Time: Data from early 1990ies 

Geography: Former West Germany 

Technology: Average, European average electricity 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: No 

‘Potassium chloride, as K2O, at 

regional storehouse/RER’, 

ecoinvent database 

(Nemecek et al. 2003) 

0.50 kg 1.9 g 402 m3

‘Potassium sulphate, as K2O, at 

regional storehouse/RER’, 

ecoinvent database 

(Nemecek et al. 2003) 

1.42 kg 22.1 g 1,630 m3

Time: Data from mid to late 1990ies 

Geography: Western Europe 

Technology: Average, European average electricity 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: Machinery, buildings 

Table 5.21: Comparison of LCIs of K-fertiliser. The comparison is shown as characterised results using the EDIP97-

method for LCIA. All the life cycle inventories are for 1 kg fertiliser, as K2O. For conversion to kg K; 1 kg K corresponds 

to 1.21 kg K2O. The applied data are marked with a black dotted frame.

The comparison in Table 5.21 shows that there is only little difference between data from the LCAfood database and ‘Potassium chloride’ in the ecoinvent database regarding global warming and acidification. The contribution to ecotoxicity is significant higher in the inventories from ecoinvent. The difference in contribution to 

ecotoxicity is mainly due to emissions of strontium related to diesel for transport in ecoinvent and copper related to disposal of metals in chemical plant. These emissions are not included in the inventory in LCAfood. 

The electricity use for K-fertiliser production is produced by co-production of heat and electricity on the factory’s own cogeneration units (Nemecek et al. 2003). Therefore, it has almost no effect on the results that the 

data in ecoinvent uses data for average electricity from the grid in Europe and not marginal electricity. Since 

the data from ecoinvent include capital goods and thus are more complete, it is chosen to apply these data in 

the study. It is chosen to apply data for potassium chloride since this fertiliser is the most frequently applied in 

the EU of the fertiliser types for which LCI data are available. 

Magnesium (Mg), Sulphur (S) and Boron fertilisers: The average consumption of Mg, S and B fertilisers is 

shown in Table 5.22. No life cycle inventories have been identified for these fertilisers. Therefore, they are not 

included in the study. The total amount of N, P and K fertiliser equals 235 kg while the total amount of Mg, S 

and B fertilisers equals around 36 kg. Thus, the not included Mg, S and B fertilisers constitutes approximately 

13% of the total application of fertilisers. 
5 Agricultural stage: Rapeseed 65 

Fertiliser Fertiliser application, kg/ha 

Magnesium 8-9 

Sulphur 20-30 

Boron (sandy soils) 0-5 

Table 5.22: Applied other fertilisers in rapeseed cultivation. These fertilisers are not included in the study because of lack 

of inventory data.

Pesticides 

Data on pesticide use in rapeseed cultivation is based on data provided in Dalgaard et al. (2007) and Dalgaard 

(2007). The data in Dalgaard et al. (2007) are based on the total national sales and the distribution of crops. 

The use of pesticides per hectare is given in Table 5.23 and reflects averages of cultivation in Denmark. 

Pesticide kg/ha kg a.i./ha 

Herbicide (clomazone) 0.14 0.050 

Herbicide (propyzamid) 0.36 0.18 

Herbicide (clopyralid) 0.20 0.020 

Insecticide (Pyrethroid, cypermethrin) 0.070 0.0070 

Insecticide (Pyrethroid, alpha-cypermethrin) 0.040 0.0020 

Insecticide (Pyrethroid, tau-fluvalinat) 0.030 0.0072 

Total 0.84 0.27 

Table 5.23: Use of pesticides per hectare per year in rapeseed cultivation in Denmark. The amount and type of pesticides 

used are based on data provided in Dalgaard et al. (2007) and Dalgaard (2007). 

Inventory data for production of the pesticides in Table 5.23 have only been identified for pyrethroid: ‘Pyretroid-compounds, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004). The data set includes energy use, transport 

to regional storehouse and capital goods, i.e. machinery and buildings. Analysing the data in Simapro and using the EDIP97 method use of electricity appears to be significant within several impact categories. Therefore, 

European average electricity is replaced by marginal electricity based on coal technology. Production of the 

other pesticides has been applied as ‘Pesticide unspecified, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004). Also 

in this case, European average electricity is replaced by marginal electricity based on coal technology. 

5.5 Co-products 

Rapeseed is co-produced with straw from field. The utilisation of straw from winter rapeseed in Denmark is 

given in Table 5.24 below. 

Straw uses 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 

Straw for energy 10% 7% 9% 9% 9% 15% 13% 10% 

Straw for fodder 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 

Straw for bedding etc. 3% 5% 2% 3% 4% 4% 3% 3% 

Straw left in the field 87% 88% 89% 88% 87% 81% 84% 87% 

Straw, total 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 

Table 5.24: Production and uses of winther rapeseed straw in Denmark. (Danmarks Statistik 2006)

In average 87% of the straw is left in the field, 10% is used for energy purposes and 3% is used for bedding. In 

order to avoid co-product allocation the marginal application of straw is identified. The demand for bedding is 

determined by animal production. Hence, this cannot be the marginal use. It is assumed that the marginal use 

of straw is distributed on 87% left in the field and 13% for energy purposes. According to Energistyrelsen 

(2006) 29% of the potential for straw for energy purposes was utilised in 2002. This may increase in the future, 

but no clear tendency can be identified in Table 5.24. In this study 87% left in the field and 13% used for energy purposes is applied. The interventions related to the 87% straw left in the field are dealt with in section 

5.6. 
66 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

According to Danish Energy Authority et al. (2004), a typical small 5-15 MW modern straw fired combined 

heat and electricity power plant in Denmark has an overall efficiency at 88-90% and electricity efficiency at 

29-30%. Thus it is assumed that straw used for energy purposes are fired in a co-generating heat and power 

plant with overall energy efficiency at 89% and electricity efficiency at 29%. Straw has a calorific value at 

13.5 MJ/kg. It is assumed that the produced energy displace marginal electricity and heat. Inventory data for 

marginal electricity and heat are described in section 3.1 and 3.6. 

No inventory data on burning of straw has been identified. Instead burning of softwood is assumed to represent 

the emissions that occur from burning of straw. The inventory: ‘Wood chips, from forest, softwood, burned in 

furnace 1000kW/CH’ (ecoinvent 2004) has been applied for this purpose. This inventory includes the emissions, production of wood, transport of wood, disposal of slag and ashes and production, maintenance and 

disposal of the plant. Since the interventions related to production of the straw are included in the rapeseed 

cultivation, the corresponding production of wood is left out from the data. In addition the use of electricity in 

the ecoinvent process has been displaced by marginal Danish electricity (see Table 3.3). The inventory for 1 

kg straw used for energy purposes is shown in Table 5.25. 

LCI-data for 1 kg straw used for energy purposes Amount LCI data used in this study 

Wood chips burned in furnace 13.5 MJ ‘Wood chips, from forest, softwood, burned in furnace 1000kW/CH’ 

(ecoinvent 2004). Modified: Production of wood is left out and marginal electricity has been applied instead of average electricity. 

Displaced electricity -3.92 MJ Electricity, see Table 3.3

Displaced heat -8.10 MJ Heat, see section 3.6

Table 5.25: LCI of 1 kg straw used for energy purposes.

5.6 Emissions 

Emissions from cultivating rapeseed include emissions to air, water and soil from the field. Emissions related 

to the energy use are described section 4.3 and 5.3. Emissions to water from agricultural soils are determined 

as substances that leave the root zone of the plants. Thereby, the topsoil is regarded as a part of the technosphere. E.g. nutrients are added to the soil and most of it is assimilated and harvested by the crops. Emissions 

are only related to the surplus, i.e. the difference between inputs to and removals from the field. 

All emissions are inventoried for average, sand and clay soil. According to Table 5.13 average soil consist of 

41% sand and 59% clay. Data for average soil are applied in the baseline scenario while inventories for sand 

and clay are applied as sensitivity analyses described in section 21.7. 

Emissions related to N-balance 

Calculating N related emissions, the point of departure is a N-balance on the field scale. Known inputs and 

outputs related to seed, fertiliser, changes in N in soil matter and harvested crop and straw are balanced in order to determine the N surplus. This surplus is then distributed on different emissions. The balance is mainly 

based on the data given in Table 5.26. The data in Table 5.26 are described under the table. The N-balance is 

shown in Table 5.27. 
5 Agricultural stage: Rapeseed 67 

Parameter Average soil Sand Clay 

Yield 3,240 kg/ha 2,790 kg/ha 3,550 kg/ha 

Crop residue 6,480 kg/ha 5,580 kg/ha 7,100 kg/ha 

Straw removed (13%) 381 kg/ha 377 kg/ha 383 kg/ha 

Crop residue left in field 6,099 kg/ha 5,203 kg/ha 6,717 kg/ha 

N-content in rapeseed 0.0293 kg/kg 

N-content in crop residue 0.0053 kg/kg 

Table 5.26: Parameters for rapeseed and rapeseed cultivation used when establishing N-balance on the field level. Ncontent in rapeseed and crop residue is given as kg N per kg plant material fresh weight matter: Rapeseed (92% DS) and 

crop residue (85% DS).

Yields for rapeseed cultivation are given in Table 5.3. The amount of crop residue is assumed to be 2 which is 

the default value suggested in IPCC (2000, p 4.58). However this is related to some uncertainty. Other identified data used for rapeseed vary between 1.2 and 3. The factor 1.2 is applied in the LCAfood database where it 

is assumed to be of same value as winter barley, data delivered by Dalgaard (2007). The factor 3 is used in the 

Finnish national greenhouse gas emission account to the EU (Statistics Finland 2006). Straw removed from the 

field is calculated as 13% of the produced straw. Straw production is given in Table 5.5 and the share of straw 

production that is removed from the field (13%) is given in section 5.5. N-content in rapeseed is based on 

Møller et al. (2000) and N-content in crop residue is from Clausen (2002). 

N-deposition on land areas in Denmark were 10-20 kg N/ha in 2004 (Ellermann et al. 2005). According to 

Ellermann et al. (2005) there are not observed any remarkable changes in the level of deposition from 2003 to 

2004. The value for deposition used in this study is assumed to be represented by the average deposition which 

is 15 kg/ha. The seed input in Table 5.27 is determined in section 5.4. The fertiliser input is given in Table 

5.16. 

N changes in soil matter: The organic nitrogen pool in the soil matter is considered as consisting of two types 

of nitrogen; 1) easy available nitrogen which is dealt with as the ‘previous crop’ value determining the amount 

of N applied with fertiliser; and 2) more difficulty accessible nitrogen bound in organic matter (Petersen and 

Berntsen 2002). There is also a third type of organic nitrogen which is bound in humus with turnover times at 

thousands of years (Petersen and Berntsen 2002). This is considered as constant and thus is not accessible. As 

mentioned, the fluxes of the easily available nitrogen are accounted for when adjusting the fertiliser input for 

the ‘previous crop’ value, see description of fertilisers in section 5.4. The more difficult accessible organic 

bound nitrogen may be building up or decomposed in the soil matter depending on the cultivation practice 

(Wiggers et al. 2005). The nitrogen pool in the soil matter is a product of several years of cultivation practice. 

Application of large amounts of organic material (straw, ‘second crop’ and animal manure) contributes to accumulation of organic bound nitrogen (Wiggers et al. 2005). According to Wiggers et al. (2005) a change in 

cultivation practice will have significant importance on the leaching of nitrogen the first years, but after a period of years (20-100 years) the changes in nitrogen content will be of minor importance. Petersen and Berntsen (2002) have modelled the changes in N in the soil pool for three different simplified farms; a cattle farm, a 

pig farm and a plant farm having normal crop rotations. Figure 5.7 shows the changes in N in the soil when 

establishing an average pig farm and an average plant farm on a hypothetic old cattle farm. The model calculation in Petersen and Berntsen (2002) is based on soil type JB4 (8% clay). 
68 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Cattle

Pig

Plant

Year

Equilibrium cattle

Equilibrium pig

Equilibrium plant

Figure 5.7: Model calculation of changes in organic N in the soil for three farm types all established on hypothetic old 

cattle farm soil (Petersen and Berntsen, 2002, p 16).

It appears from Figure 5.7 that cattle farms have the highest level of organic N in soil. Plant farms have the 

lowest level. The equilibrium for cattle farms and plant farms is 12,700 kg N/ha and 7,900 kg N/ha respectively. After a 100 year period, the organic N in soil under a plant farm established on a hypothetic old cattle 

farm will have only reached a level at 9,000 kg N/ha. If the cattle and the plant farm are assumed to represent 

the extremes the difference is 4,800 kg N/ha. If equilibrium is achieved in 200 years (this can not be seen in the 

figure), the difference at 4,800 kg N/ha corresponds to 24 kg N/ha per year. 

Changes in rapeseed cultivation in the EU will take place as a shift between crops or as changes in the setaside area or nature. 

It is assumed that the change of N in the soil pool is zero. The reason for that is: 1) No data on N in the soil 

under nature and set-aside areas have been identified. 2) shifting from one crop to another crop is assumed to 

have neglicible effect on the N content in the soil pool, 3) any change will have a maximum effect at 24 kg 

N/ha per year (assuming that plant farms and cattle farms represent the extremes and that equilibrium is 

achieved in 200 years) and 4) According to Petersen and Berntsen (2002) the main reason for changes in the 

soil N in agricultural soil is due to manure from animal production – rapeseed cultivation does not affect the 

production of animal and consequential manure spreading. 

In the case of transformation of other land use types into agricultural cultivation the effect on the soil N may be 

positive or negative. Some land use types such as nitrogen poor ecosystems (heath land and commons) possibly have less N in the soil pool than agricultural soils and some meadows and forests may have more N in the 

soil pool. Set-aside areas may be somewhere in between. No data have been identified on that. Therefore, 

changes in the soil pool as a consequence of land use transformation are assumed to be zero. 

In order to evaluate the effect of N changes in soil matter, a sensitivity analyses is carried out where it is assumed that N decomposition in soil matter is 24 kg/ha per year, see section 21.8. 

N-balance: The N-balance is summarised in Table 5.27. 
5 Agricultural stage: Rapeseed 69 

Input, kg N/ha Average soil Sand Clay 

Deposition 15 15 15 

N in seed 0.2 0.2 0.2 

N-fertiliser 140 134 144 

N from changes in N in soil matter 0 0 0 

Total 155.2 149.0 159.5 

Output, kg N/ha 

N in harvested rapeseed 94.8 81.6 103.8 

N in removed straw 2.0 2.0 2.0 

Total 96.8 83.6 105.9 

Balance 

N surplus (input – output) 58.4 65.4 53.6 

Table 5.27: N-balance for 1 hectare rapeseed field; sandy soil clay soil and average soil (41% sand and 59% clay).

The N surplus is distributed on different emissions. The determination of each emission is described in the 

following. 

Ammonia from crop: There are two sources to ammonia emission; crops and fertiliser application. According 

to Andersen et al. (2001, p 34) the generalised ammonia emission from crops is 3 kg N/ha for grass and 5 kg 

N/ha for other crops. Thus, the ammonia emission from rapeseed is 5 kg NH3-N/ha. 

Ammonia from fertiliser application: The ammonia emission from fertiliser depends on the fertiliser applied. According to Andersen et al. (2001, p 35) the ammonia emission from fertilisers based on ammonia is 

2% of the N content in the fertiliser. Thus the ammonia emission as NH3-N can be calculated as 2% of the 

applied fertiliser in Table 5.16. 

Denitrification (total): The total denitrification (gaseous N oxides and molecular N2) is calculated using the 

model; SimDen (Vinther and Hansen 2004). The reason why the total denitrification is calculated is that this is 

the only way of estimating N-loss as N2. N2 is determined as the total denitrification minus N2O and NO. The 

model also calculates the N2O-emission. 

The model is developed for Danish soils. The model calculates denitrification as the sum of background denitrification, denitrification from application of artificial fertiliser, denitrification related to application of manure 

and denitrification from fixed nitrogen. Since marginal plant production does not affect manure and since rapeseed does not fix nitrogen these two sources to denitrification is not considered. The background denitrification 

depends on the past history of organic matter content in the soil and the soil type (Vinther and Hansen, 2004, p 

30). The model includes calculations for eight different soil types and three levels of organic content. Average 

organic content in soil is assumed. The actual soil types are accounted for. Denitrification from application of 

artificial fertiliser depends on the amount of N applied with fertiliser, a factor describing the ratio between 

applied N and N2O-emission and the N2/N2O-ratio (Vinther and Hansen, 2004, p 31). The fertiliser application 

for different soil types is described in Table 5.14. The soil type terminology in SimDen does not fit into the 

soil types for which data for Danish agriculture are available (see Table 5.13). Therefore the soil types in 

SimDen are adjusted in order to fit with the available data. This is described in Appendix 3: Soil types and 

adjustments to different sources. 

The total denitrification is calculated as 14.1 kg N/ha for average soil, 6.0 kg N/ha for sand and 19.8 kg N/ha 

for clay. 

Direct N2O: The direct N2O emission is calculated using a model described in IPCC (2000). The calculated 

emissions are then compared with the results using two other models described in FAO and IFA (2001) and 
70 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Vinther and Hansen (2004). The results obtained using these models are due to consistency not applied in this 

study. The model described in Vinther and Hansen (2004) is developed for Danish conditions and may therefore not be applicable under conditions in Malaysia, Indonesia, Brazil and Canada which are affected regions 

in this life cycle inventory. The model in FAO and IFA (2001) does not include peat soils which is relevant in 

Malaysia and Indonesia. 

IPCC (2000): According to IPCC (2000, p 4.54) the direct N2O emission is calculated as: 

N2ODirect-N = [(FSN + FAM + FBN + FCR ) ⋅ EF1] + (FOS ⋅ EF2) (3) 

The parameter values used in Equation (3) are described in Table 5.28. 

Parameter Description Parameter value 

FSN Annual amount of synthetic fertiliser nitrogen applied to soils 

adjusted to account for the amount that volatilises as NH3 and 

NOx 

Fertiliser application, see Table 5.16. 2% volatises 

FAM Annual amount of animal manure nitrogen intentionally applied 

to soils adjusted to account for the amount that volatilises as 

NH3 and NOx 

No manure 

FBN Amount of nitrogen fixed by N-fixing crops cultivated annually No N-fixing 

FCR Amount of nitrogen in crop residues returned to soils annually 32 kg N/ha (aver. Soil), 27 kg N/ha (sandy soil), 35 kg N/ha 

(clay soil), calculated using the informations in in Table 5.26

FOS Area of organic soils cultivated annually (ha) 0%, according to Table 5.13 this should be 5%. But since 

most organic soils in Denmark are bogs and meadows it is 

assumed that rapeseed is not cultivated here 

EF1 Emission factor for emissions from N inputs (kg N2O-N/kg N 

input) 

1.25% (IPCC 2000, p 4.60) 

EF2 Emission factor for emissions from organic soil cultivation (kg 

N2O-N/ha-yr) 

8 (IPCC 2000, p 4.60) 

Table 5.28: Parameters in the equation calculating direct N2O-emissions in IPCC (2000, p 4.54) 

FAO and IFA (2001): According to FAO and IFA (2001, p 34) the direct N2O emission is calculated as: 

ln (kg N2O-N/ha) = -0.414 + (F ⋅ N-app.) + Cr + S + C + D + pH + Cl + LM + FM (4) 

The parameter values used in Equation (4) are described in Table 5.29. 

Parameter Description Parameter value 

F Type of fertiliser 0.0037, Fertiliser type is calcium ammonia nitrate 

N-app. Applied N, kg/ha See Table 5.16

Cr Crop type 0.000, Crop type is ‘other’ 

S Soil texture -0.008 (coarse for sandy soil) and 0.000 (fine for clay soil), 

average soil is the average of -0.008 (coarse), -0.472 (medium) and 0.000 (fine) 

C Soil organic C content 0.140, 1-3% C in normal soil types, based on Berntsen and 

Petersen (2007) 

D Soil drainage -0.420, good drainage. Good drainage is needed in order to 

have suitable conditions for agriculture in Denmark 

pH Soil pH 0.109, Soil pH 5.5 - 7.3 

Cl Climate 0.000, Temp. climate 

LM Length of measurement period (the model is constructed to fit 

with literature measurements. Thus, to model emissions obtained from literature the method of measurement in literature 

should also be considered since this affects the measured 

emission) 

0.825 Length of measurement period is >300 days, i.e. the 

longest period available in the model (chosen as the most 

precise) 

FM Frequency of measurement (see comment above) 0.000 Frequency of measurement is >1measure/day, i.e. the 

highest frequency available in the model (chosen as the most 

precise) 

Table 5.29: Parameters in the equation calculating direct N2O-emissions in FAO and IFA (2001, p 34-35)
5 Agricultural stage: Rapeseed 71 

Vinther and Hansen (2004): The model calculates the direct N2O emission for eight different soil types. The 

variable parameters are fertiliser application, applied manure, N input to pastures (N-deposit during grazing 

and N2 fixing by clover) and N2 fixing by legumes crops. All parameters except from fertiliser input is zero. 

The fertiliser input is given in Table 5.16. 

The calculated N2O emissions using the three models are summarised in Table 5.30. 

Soil type 

IPCC (2000), 

kg N2O-N/ha 

FAO and IFA (2001), kg 

N2O-N/ha 

Vinther and Hansen (2004), 

kg N2O-N/ha 

Aver. soil 2.1 2.1 2.3 

Sand soil 2.0 2.3 1. 7 

Clay soil 2.2 2.5 2.8 

Table 5.30: Calculated N2O emissions (kg N2O-N/ha) for sand, clay and average soils. The applied values are marked 

with a dotted line.

It appears from Table 5.30 that the deviations between the three models are relatively small. Thus, the determination of the applied N2O emissions is regarded as relativy certain. 

Direct NO: The emission of NO is calculated using a model described in FAO and IFA (2001). According to 

FAO and IFA (2001, p 35) the direct NO emission is calculated as: 

ln (kg NO-N/ha) = -1.527 + (F ⋅ N-app.) + C + D (5) 

The parameter values used in Equation (5) are described in Table 5.31. 

Parameter Description Parameter value 

F Type of fertiliser 0.0062, Fertiliser type is calcium ammonium nitrate 

N-app. Applied N, kg/ha See Table 5.16

C Soil organic C content 0.000, <3.0% C in normal soil types, based on Berntsen and Petersen (2007) 

D Soil drainage 0.946, good drainage. Good drainage is needed in order to have suitable 

conditions for agriculture in Denmark 

Table 5.31: Parameters in the equation calculating direct NO-emissions in FAO and IFA (2001, p 35)

The only parameters that are changed are the application of N-fertiliser. 

The calculated NO emission is summarised in Table 5.32. 

Soil type kg NO-N/ha 

Aver. soil 1.3 

Sand soil 1.3 

Clay soil 1.4 

Table 5.32: Calculated NO emissions (kg NO-N/ha) using the model described in FAO and IFA (2001). The applied 

values are marked with a dotted line.

Nitrate: The nitrate emission is calculated as the residual or rest; i.e. the surplus-N from the N-balance minus 

the other calculated emissions described above. 

Since the nitrate emission is calculated as residual of the N-surplus it may be related to some uncertainty. 

Therefore, the nitrate emission has also been calculated using a model described in Østergaard (2000). The 

variable parameters are crop, fertiliser application, manure application, soil type and net precipitation. The 

calculation is performed for winter rapeseed fertilised in accordance with the norms and net precipitation at 
72 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

300 mm/year. An average net precipitation at 300 mm/year in Denmark is estimated from Miljøstyrelsen 

(2002, appendix 3, map 20). The calculation for average soil is obtained as the average of sand soil, clay mixed 

sand soil and sand mixed clay soil. The calculated nitrate emission using the two approaches is shown in Table 

5.33. 

Soil type Nitrate calculated as 

residual 

Østergaard (2000) 

Aver. Soil 36.5 97 

Sand soil 51.8 132 

Clay soil 26.0 72 

Table 5.33: Calculated nitrate emissions (kg NO3

-

-N/ha) using the the two approaches described. The applied values are 

marked with a dotted line.

It appears from Table 5.33 that the nitrate emissions are very sensitive to the model used for determination of 

that. Despite the fact that Østergaard (2000) in principle should be more precise that the residual approach, it is 

chosen to apply the residual approach. Firstly, this is chosen because the high figures calculated with the model 

described in Østergaard (2000) may be due to inclusion of changes in the soil pool (e.g. effect of high input of 

organic material/manue previous years) in the model. According to Figure 5.7 the annual changes in the N soil 

pool may be as high as 100 kg N/ha the first years after a shift of farm type from cattle to plant. Secondly, the 

residual approach is chosen because the inputs and outputs of N must be in balance. And when determining the 

components in the N-balance models for determining nitrate emissions is regarded as the most uncertain compared to determination of the other N-related emissions. Therefore, it is chosen to determine nitrate emissions 

be the residual approach instead of model calculations. 

N2O, indirect from NH3 and nitrate: Besides the direct N2O emissions from the field which is calculated in 

the previous, there are indirect emissions from the emitted ammonia and nitrate. The emission of ammonia and 

its subsequent deposition as NOx and NH4 and nitrate leached from the field increase the amount of N available 

for denitrification and nitrification (IPCC, 2000, p 4.67). The N2O-N emission produced from deposited NH4-

N and NOx-N (originating from NH3-emission) is 0.01 kg N2O-N/kg N. In this respect it is assumed that all 

emitted ammonia will end as deposited NOx or NH4. The N2O-N emission produced from leached nitrate is 

0.025 kg N2O-N/kg NO3-N. The indirect N2O emissions are not assumed to affect the calculated emissions of 

ammonia and nitrate since the denitrification may take place long time after the emissions took place. Therefore, the ammonia and nitrate emissions may already have had an effect on the environment. 

NO, indirect: This is not included. 

Summary of emissions related to N-balance: Distribution of the N-surplus is summarised in Table 5.34. 

Emission and source Average soil Sand Clay 

Ammonia from crop (kg NH3-N/ha) 2.8 2.7 2.9 

Ammonia from fertiliser application (kg NH3-N/ha) 5.0 5.0 5.0 

Denitrification (kg N/ha) 14.1 6.0 19.8 

 - N2O part of denitrification (kg N2O-N/ha) 2.1 2.0 2.2 

 - NO part of denitrification (kg NO-N/ha) 1.3 1.3 1.4 

 - N2 part of denitrification (kg N/ha) 10.6 2.7 16.2 

Nitrate (kg NO3-N/ha) 36.5 51.8 26.0 

N-surplus (kg N/ha) 58.4 65.4 53.6 

N2O, indirect from NH3 (kg N2O-N/ha) 0.1 0.1 0.1 

N2O, indirect from nitrate (kg N2O-N/ha) 0.9 1.3 0.6 

Table 5.34: Distribution of the N-surplus from the field N-balance on different emissions and sources. All numbers are 

given in kg N/ha.
5 Agricultural stage: Rapeseed 73 

Table 5.35 summarises the emissions in Table 5.34 and converts them into kg emission per ha instead of kg 

N/ha. 

Emission as kg N/ha Average soil 

(41% sand and 59% clay) 

Sand soil Clay soil 

Ammonia to air (kg NH3-N/ha) 7.8 7.7 7.9 

N2O to air (kg N2O-N/ha) 3.1 3.4 2.9 

NO to air (kg NO-N/ha) 1.3 1.3 1.4 

Nitrate to water (kg NO3-N/ha) 37 52 26 

Emission as kg emission/ha Average soil 

(41% sand and 59% clay) 

Sand soil Clay soil 

Ammonia to air (kg NH3/ha) 9.5 9.3 9.6 

N2O to air (kg N2O/ha) 4.9 5.3 4.6 

NO to air (kg NO/ha) 2.9 2.7 2.9 

Nitrate to water (kg NO3/ha) 162 229 115 

Table 5.35: Emissions related to N-balance. 

Emissions related to P-balance 

The phosphorus cycle is somehow simpler than the N-cycle. It includes no emissions to air. The emission of P 

as phosphate is calculated from a simple field balance. The inputs include seed and P-fertiliser and the outputs 

are harvested rapeseed, straw and accumulation in the soil matter. Accumulation in the soil matter is more 

constant than for nitrogen since the phosphorous is fixed by strong bindings to the soil particles. Therefore, the 

leaching of phosphate can be calculated as a fraction of the P surplus in the field. Dalgaard et al. (2007) specifies phosphate leaching as 2.9% of the surplus of P. The remaining is accumulated in the soil matter. 

The content of P in harvested crop is 6.2 g per kg rapeseed and 0.77 g per kg straw (fresh weight basis) (Møller 

et al. 2000). No data on P content in rapeseed straw have been identified. Therefore, the 0.77 g per kg straw is 

based on straw from barley and wheat. 

Applying the yields and straw production for different soil types specified in Table 5.26, assuming 13% removal of straw, seed input of 5 kg/ha and application of P fertilisers for winter rapeseed as specified in Table 

5.18, the P-surplus can be calculated. This is shown in Table 5.36 for different soil types. 

Input (kg P/ha) Average soil Sand Clay 

Seed 0.03 0.03 0.03 

P-fertiliser 25.0 21.0 28.0 

Total P input 25.0 21.0 28.0 

Output (kg P/ha) 

Harvested rapeseed 20.0 17.2 21.9 

Removed straw 0.3 0.3 0.3 

Total P output 20.3 17.5 22.2 

Balance (kg P/ha)

P surplus 4.8 3.6 5.9 

P leaching (2.9%) 0.14 0.10 0.17 

Table 5.36: P balance for different soil types.

Emissions related to C-balance 

Mass balances for carbon are not as detailed as for nitrogen. This is because emission of carbon dioxide from 

biotic origin is not included. Only CO2 from net changes of carbon in the soil and from land transformation are 

included. 

It is assumed that the C/N-ratio in soils is relatively constant. Since the change in N in the soil pool is assumed 

to be zero there will be no change in the soil C pool neither. 
74 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Emissions of heavy metal 

Fertilisers contain contaminants of heavy metals. The emissions from this input of heavy metals are calculated 

on basis of a simple field balance. The inputs are heavy metals in seed and N, P and K fertilisers and the outputs are heavy metals in harvested rapeseed and in removed straw. Deposition of heavy metals from air is not 

taken into account in the field balance. In addition to the field balance, the final compartments (water and soil) 

of the outputs of heavy metals have been estimated. 

It is assumed that the heavy metal is distributed on emissions to soil and emissions to water. The emission of 

heavy metals to soil is calculated as the total input with fertiliser and seeds minus the share that ends in water. 

This means that heavy metals in leaching and runoff have been assumed to be zero, i.e. inputs of heavy metals 

to the field minus harvested heavy metals ends as emissions to soil. It is assumed that one eighth, i.e. 12.5%, of 

the heavy metals harvested with crop ends as emission to water and the other 87.5% ends as emission to soil. 

The underlying assumptions behind these shares are associated with some uncertainty and are described in the 

following. The rapeseed send to oil mill is processed into oil and meal. There are no data available on how 

heavy metals are distributed in the oil fraction and in the meal fraction. Therefore, it is assumed that 25% of 

the heavy metals go with the oil and the other 75% with the meal. The oil is refined where heavy metals are 

almost completely separated out and end in waste water from the oil mill. It is assumed that half of the heavy 

metals that go with waste water to waste water treatment end in an aquatic recipient while the rest ends in 

sludge which is spread out on agricultural soil. The heavy metals contained in the meal will primarily end as 

manure from pig and cattle which is spread out on agricultural soil, and subsequently as emissions to soil. The 

heavy metals contained in removed straw primary end as emissions to air and as heavy metals in deposited 

ashes (spread out on agricultural soil) from biofuel power plants. However, it is assumed that all straw is left in 

the field. This assumption has little effect because a considerable share of the heavy metals from burned straw 

anyway would end as emissions to soil. 

Heavy metal content in fertiliser: Table 5.37, Table 5.38 and Table 5.39 show the content of heavy metals 

in calcium ammonium nitrate, triple super phosphate and potassium fertiliser from different data sources. 

Calcium ammonium 

nitrate 

Heavy metals in N CAN 21+ CAN-17 17-0-0 

fertiliser; 

mg/kg N (Nemecek, et al. 2003) (WSDA 2006) (WSDA 2006) 

Calcium ammonium 

nitrete, applied in this 

study 

Arsenic (As) - 2.4 <0.6 1.5 

Cadmium (Cd) 0.2 0.5 <0.6 0.4 

Chromium (Cr) 3.0 - - 3.0 

Cobalt (Co) - 0.5 <1.2 0.8 

Copper (Cu) 8.5 - - 8.5 

Mercury (Hg) - 0.2 <0.1 0.1 

Molybdenum (Mo) - 6.7 <0.6 3.6 

Nickel (Ni) 12.6 0.5 <29.4 14.2 

Lead (Pb) 5.9 5.7 <0.6 4.1 

Selenium (Se) - 26.2 <0.6 13.4 

Zink (Zn) 100 1.9 <58.8 53.6 

Table 5.37: Heavy metal content (mg/kg N) in calcium ammonia nitrate (CAN) fertilisers from different sources. The 

applied data are the average of the identified data; they are marked with a black dotted frame.

The European Parliament and the Council (2003, annex III) specify a limit at 10 mg copper per kg N for ammonium nitrate fertilisers. There are no limits specified for other heavy metals. It appears that the applied copper content in N fertiliser in Table 5.37 is not exceeding the limit specified in European Parliament and the 

Council (2003, annex III). 
5 Agricultural stage: Rapeseed 75 

Heavy metals in P Triple superphosphate SSP 0-45-0 PHOS 0-30-0 

fertiliser; 

mg/kg P2O5

(Nemecek et al. 2003) (WSDA 2006) (WSDA 2006) 

Triple super phosphate, 

applied in this study 

Arsenic (As) - 15.5 <1.7 8.6 

Cadmium (Cd) 113 253 0.5 5.7* 

Chromium (Cr) 567 567 

Cobalt (Co) - 2.7 0.2 1.5 

Copper (Cu) 97.8 97.8 

Mercury (Hg) - 0.03 <0.01 0.02 

Molybdenum (Mo) - 22.1 0.3 11.2 

Nickel (Ni) 95.7 331 0.2 142 

Lead (Pb) 7.6 <5.6 <0.3 4.5 

Selenium (Se) - <11.1 <0.7 5.9 

Zink (Zn) 650 2333 1.0 995 

Table 5.38: Heavy metal content (mg/kg P2O5) in triple super phosphate (TSP) fertilisers from different sources. The two 

P-fertilisers from WSDA (2006) are not TSP fertilisers, see text below table. The applied data are the average of the identified data; they are marked with a black dotted frame. * See explanation in text below table.

The data from WSDA (2006) are not for TSP fertilisers but for single super phosphate and for unspefified 

phosphate respectively. It has not been possible to obtain other data on heavy metal content in TSP. 

The European Commission is planning to introduce limits for cadmium contaminants in phosphate fertilisers. 

According to a draft proposal (The European Commission 2006c) the following limits are suggested: 

• 60 mg Cd/kg P2O5 (five years after entry into force) 

• 40 mg Cd/kg P2O5 (10 years after entry into force) 

• 20 mg Cd/kg P2O5 (15 years after entry into force) 

In 1989 Denmark introduced a limit value at 110 mg Cd per kg P for phosphate fertilisers corresponding to 48 

mg Cd per kg P2O5. (Ministeriet for Fødevarer, Landbrug og Fiskeri 2004). According to Plantedirektoratet 

(2004), the average cadmium content in P fertiliser applied in Denmark has been decreasing from approximately 40 mg/kg P2O5 in the late 80ies to 5.7 mg/kg P2O5 in 2004. Therefore, the cadmium content is set to 5.7 

mg/kg P2O5 instead of the average value from the three data sets. 

Heavy metals in K Potassium chloride POTASH SOLUTION 0-0-13 POTASH SOLUTION 0-0-15 

fertiliser; 

mg/kg K2O (Nemecek, et al. 2003) (WSDA 2006) (WSDA 2006) 

Applied in this study 

Arsenic (As) - 5.5 4.0 4.7 

Cadmium (Cd) 0.1 <0.02 <0.01 0.04 

Chromium (Cr) 3.3 - - 3.3 

Cobalt (Co) - 1.1 0.3 0.7 

Copper (Cu) 8.3 - - 8.3 

Mercury (Hg) - <0.2 <0.1 0.1 

Molybdenum (Mo) - <0.2 <0.1 0.1 

Nickel (Ni) 3.5 20.2 5.3 9.7 

Lead (Pb) 9.2 <2.3 <2.0 4.5 

Selenium (Se) - 2.1 <0.7 1.4 

Zink (Zn) 76.7 296 90.7 155 

Table 5.39: Heavy metal content (mg/kg K2O) in potassium chloride fertilisers from different sources. The applied data 

are the average of the identified data; they are marked with a black dotted frame.

Heavy metal content in harvested rapeseed and straw: Table 5.40 show the content of heavy metals in the 

harvested crop; seed and straw. The applied data are based on two different sources. It has not been possible to 

identify data on the heavy metal content in rapeseed straw. Instead it is assumed that the heavy metal content 

in straw can be estimated as the average of barley and wheat straw. 
76 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Heavy metals in Rapeseed Straw (barley) Applied in this study 

harvested crop; 

mg/kg crop (Nemecek, et al. 

2003, p 154) 

(Møller et al. 

2000) 

(Nemecek, et al. 

2003, p 154) 

(Møller et al. 

2000) 

Rapeseed Straw 

Arsenic (As) - - - - - - 

Cadmium (Cd) 1.47 - 0.16 - 1.5 0.16 

Chromium (Cr) 0.46 - 0.36 - 0.46 0.36 

Cobalt (Co) - 0.11 - 0.12 0.11 0.12 

Copper (Cu) 3.04 2 4.23 3 2.4 3.5 

Mercury (Hg) 0.09 - 0.07 - 0.09 0.07 

Molybdenum (Mo) - - - - - - 

Nickel (Ni) 2.39 - 0.35 - 2.4 0.35 

Lead (Pb) 4.83 - 2.67 - 4.8 2.7 

Selenium (Se) - 0.04 - 0.05 0.04 0.05 

Zink (Zn) 44.16 31 11.50 89 38 50 

Table 5.40: Heavy metal content (mg/kg crop) in harvested rapeseed and straw. The applied data are marked with a black 

dotted frame.

Heavy metal emissions: Applying the yields for different soil types specified in Table 5.26, assuming a seed 

input of 5 kg/ha and application of N, P and K fertilisers for winter rapeseed as specified in section 5.4, the 

heavy metal emissions to soil and water can be calculated. This is shown in Table 5.41. Since there are no data 

on arsenic and molybdenum content in harvested crop and straw it is assumed that the total input to the field of 

these heavy metals ends as emissions to soil.

Heavy metal emis- Average soil Sand Clay 

sions Soil (g/ha) Water (g/ha) Soil (g/ha) Water (g/ha) Soil (g/ha) Water (g/ha) 

Arsenic (As) 1.2 - 1.0 - 1.3 - 

Cadmium (Cd) -0.21 0.61 -0.18 0.52 -0.23 0.67 

Chromium (Cr) 33 0.19 28 0.16 37 0.20 

Cobalt (Co) 0.22 0.045 0.20 0.038 0.24 0.049 

Copper (Cu) 6.7 1.0 5.7 0.84 7.4 1.1 

Mercury (Hg) -0.011 0.036 -0.0084 0.031 -0.013 0.040 

Molybdenum (Mo) 1.2 - 1.0 - 1.2 - 

Nickel (Ni) 10 1.0 8.7 0.8 11 1.1 

Lead (Pb) -0.64 1.9 -0.52 1.7 -0.73 2.1 

Selenium (Se) 2.3 0.016 2.2 0.014 2.4 0.018 

Zink (Zn) 65 15 55 13 72 17 

Table 5.41: Heavy metal emissions (g/ha) to soil and water. Emissions to soil are calculated as the input of heavy metals 

minus 12.5% of the content in harvested rapeseed. Emissions to water are calculated as 12.5% of the heavy metal content 

in harvested rapeseed. The applied data in this study are marked with a dotted black frame.

A negative emission means that some substance is removed from the soil (with harvested rapeseed). However, 

the net emission of heavy metals is positive for all substances. The negative numbers only reflect a redistribution of the fate of the net input of heavy metals; i.e. some of the heavy metals in the harvested rapeseed are 

sorted out in the refinery process and are subsequently discharged to water. 

It must be stressed that the numbers on heavy metal content in fertilisers and in harvested crop are taken from 

different sources of different ages and different regions. Therefore, the amount as well as the comparetment of 

heavy metal emissions given in this section is related to significant uncertainties. Therefore, the environmental 

significans of emissions of heavy metals is analysed in a sensitivity analysis in section 21.10. 

Emissions of pesticides 

The compartments that receive the applied active ingredients in the pesticides are assumed to be 33% soil, 33% 

water and 33% air. This is a very rough estimate which is tested in a sensitivity analysis in section 21.11. 
5 Agricultural stage: Rapeseed 77 

5.7 Overhead in agricultural stage 

Overhead includes electricity and heat for administration. Administration related to rapeseed cultivation is not 

included since it is assumed that this takes place in the farmer’s home. 

5.8 Capital goods in agricultural stage 

Capital goods include means of production, i.e. buildings and machinery. Only one inventory of agricultural 

buildings and machinery has been identified; ecoinvent (2004). Since it is not possible to obtain detailed data 

on building materials, foundations, machinery etc. from farms in Denmark, the inventory of capital goods will 

be rather roughly and based on ecoinvent (2004). The data in ecoinvent are described in detail in Nemecek et 

al. (2003) where capital goods are divided into two categories: 1) Agricultural buildings and 2) Agricultural 

machinery. These are described in the following two sections. 

Agricultural buildings 

The relevant buildings for rapeseed cultivation are: 

• Shed, for machinery (barn building for shelter) 

• Buildings for drying 

The inventory of shed is described in Nemecek et al. (2003) and includes construction, maintenance and disposal of the materials used. The use of shed for machinery in ecoinvent is inventoried per hectare of field work 

processes and it is calculated as surface occupied by the tractor and machinery multiplied with the field work 

time for one hectare divided with the lifetime of the shed and with the annual employment of the machine 

(Nemecek et al., 2003, p 55). The included different field work processes and number of operations per hectare 

for rapeseed cultivation are described in Table 5.8. However, not all included processes are included in the 

ecoinvent database. This involves; soil packing, seed bed harrowing and straw chopping. Therefore, the use of 

shed for these field work processes are assumed to be equal to harrowing, by tine harrow. Table 5.42 shows 

the required shed per hectare operation and the number of different field work operations per hectare given in 

Table 5.8. 
78 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Use of shed for machinery Shed, m2 per ha per 

operation 

Number of field work 

operation per ha 

Shed, m2 per ha total 

Estimate; - High Low High Low 

Ploughing 0.00801 1 1 0.00801 0.00801 

Harrowing, by tine harrow/disc harrow 0.00584 2 1 0.01168 0.00584 

Packing* 0.00584 1 0.00584 0 

Rolling 0.00534 1 1 0.00584 0.00584 

Seed bed harrowing* 0.00584 2 0.01168 0 

Seed bed harrowing, heavy* 0.00584 1 0.00584 0 

Inter-row tillage/weeding 0.00349 2 2 0.00698 0.00698 

Tillage 

Straw chopping* 0.00584 1 0.00584 0 

Sowing Sowing 0.00546 1 1 0.00546 0.00546 

Fertilising Fertilising, by broadcaster 0.00171 2 2 0.00342 0.00342 

Fertilising, lime application 0.00171 1 0.00171 0 

Pesticide Pesticide, by field sprayer 0.00198 4 3 0.00792 0.00594 

Harvesting Combine harvesting 0.00858 1 1 0.00858 0.00858 

Transport, tractor and trailer (including 

empty return trip) 

8.13E-05 m2 Transport /tkm 3.2 tkm 3.2 tkm 0.00026 0.00026 

Machine transport 0 40 km 24 km 0 0 

Total 0.0891 0.0503 

Total, average 0.070 

Table 5.42: Calculation of use of shed per hectare rapeseed cultivation. The calculations are based on field work operations given in Table 5.9 and shed use per ha per operation in Nemecek et al. (2003).*Assumed to have same utilisation of 

shed as harrowing by spring tine harrow. The applied data are marked with a black dotted frame.

In Table 5.42 the average use of 0.0697 m2

 shed corresponds to 3.5 m2 shed during the assumed 50 years lifetime of a shed. 

The applied inventory data for shed is; ‘Shed/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004). 

Building hall for drying is included in the inventory data applied for drying described in section 5.3: ‘Drying of 

seed’. Administration buildings related to rapeseed cultivation is not included since it is assumed that this work 

is done in the farmer’s home. 

Agricultural machinery 

The relevant machinery for rapeseed cultivation is shown below. The machinery are categorised as in ecoinvent. Ecoinvent contains an inventory for each category. 

• Tractor 

• Combine harvester 

• Agricultural machinery, tillage: Plough, spring tine harrow, weeder, roller 

• Agricultural machinery, general: Seeder, broadcaster for fertilising, trailer and field sprayer for pesticides 

The inventory of agricultural machinery is described in Nemecek et al. (2003) and includes production, maintenance and disposal of the materials used. The use of machinery in ecoinvent is inventoried per hectare of 

field work processes and it is calculated as the weight of the machine multiplied with the operation time per 

hectare divided with the life time of the machine (Nemecek et al., 2003, p 49). The included different field 

work processes and number of operations per hectare for rapeseed cultivation are described in Table 5.8. 

However, not all included processes are included in the ecoinvent database. This involves; soil packing, seed 

bed harrowing and straw chopping. Therefore, these machines are assumed to be equal to a spring tine harrow. 

Table 5.43 shows the required machinery per ha per operation. 
5 Agricultural stage: Rapeseed 79 

Use of machinery, per ha per operation Machinery, 

kg per ha per operation 

Category of machinery Tractor Combine harvester Tillage General 

Ploughing 1.55 - 2.16 - 

Harrowing, by tine harrow/disc harrow 0.41 - 1.00 - 

Packing* 0.41 - 1.00 - 

Rolling 0.41 - 1.82 

Seed bed harrowing* 0.41 - 1.00 - 

Seed bed harrowing, heavy* 0.41 - 1.00 - 

Inter-row tillage/weeding 0.23 - 0.63 

Tillage 

Straw chopping* 0.41 - 1.00 - 

Sowing Sowing 0.60 - - 0.97 

Fertilising Fertilising, by broadcaster 0.69 - - 0.24 

Fertilising, lime application 0.69 - - 0.24 

Pesticide Pesticide, by field sprayer 0.32 - - 0.53 

Harvesting Combine harvesting - 6.30 - - 

Transport, tractor and trailer (including 

empty return trip) 

Transport 0.0037 kg/tkm - - 0.024 kg/tkm 

Machine transport Included in other field work processes 

Table 5.43: Required machinery per ha per operation distributed on the four categories of agricultural machinery in 

ecoinvent (2004). *Assumed to have same amount of required machinery as harrowing by spring tine harrow.

Table 5.44 shows the total required amount of machinery. This is calculated using the number of operations 

given in Table 5.8. 

Use of machinery, per ha total Machinery, 

kg per ha total 

Category of machinery Tractor Combine harvester Tillage General 

Estimate; High Low High Low High Low High Low 

Ploughing 1.55 1.55 0 0 2.16 2.16 0 0 

Harrowing, by tine harrow/disc harrow 0.82 0.41 0 0 2.00 1.00 0 0 

Packing 0.41 0 0 0 1.00 0 0 0 

Rolling 0.41 0.41 0 0 1.82 1.82 0 0 

Seed bed harrowing 0.82 0 0 0 2.00 0 0 0 

Seed bed harrowing, heavy 0.41 0 0 0 1.00 0 0 0 

Inter-row tillage/weeding 0.46 0.46 0 0 1.26 1.26 0 0 

Tillage 

Straw chopping 0.41 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 

Sowing Sowing 0.60 0.60 0 0 0 0 0.97 0.97 

Fertilising Fertilising, by broadcaster 1.38 1.38 0 0 0 0 0.48 0.48 

Fertilising, lime application 0.69 0 0 0 0 0 0.24 0 

Pesticide Pesticide, by field sprayer 1.28 0.96 0 0 0 0 2.12 1.59 

Harvesting Combine harvesting 0 0 6.3 6.3 0 0 0 0 

Transport, tractor and trailer (including 

empty return trip) 

Transport 0.01 0.01 0 0 0 0 0.08 0.08 

Machine transport Included in other field work processes 

Total 9.25 5.78 6.30 6.30 12.24 6.24 3.89 3.12 

Total, average 7.5 6.3 9.2 3.5 

Table 5.44: Required machinery in kg per ha distributed on the four categories of agricultural machinery in ecoinvent 

(2004). Calculations are based on Table 5.43 and number of operations given in Table 5.8. The applied data are marked 

with a black dotted frame.

The applied inventories for the four categories of agricultural machinery in Table 5.44 are: 

• Tractor: ‘Tractor, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

• Combine harvester: ‘Harvester, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

• Agricultural machinery, tillage: ‘Agricultural machinery, tillage, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

• Agricultural machinery, general: ‘Agricultural machinery, general, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 
80 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

5.9 Transport of materials in agricultural stage 

Raw materials are transported with lorry to the rapeseed cultivating farms. Inventory data per tkm transport by 

lorry are described in section 4.1. The transport distances are estimated in this section. Since there are several 

suppliers and since there is a general lack of data on the specific marginal affected supplier, all transport distances are based on rough estimates. Determination of size of lorries is based on Table 4.3 and very rough 

estimates on the total amount of goods transported. 

Determination of the amount of transported fertiliser product is shown in Table 5.45. The contents of nutrients 

in fertiliser products are estimated from a review of various fertilisers in WSDA (2006). 

Fertiliser Content of nutrient in fertiliser Applied nutrient Applied fertiliser product 

Calcium ammonium nitrate 19% N 140 kg N/ha 737 kg/ha

Triple superphosphate 38% P2O5 (16% P) 25 kg P/ha 156 kg/ha

Potassium chloride 14% K2O (12% K) 82 kg K/ha 683 kg/ha

Magnesium 10% Mg 8.5 kg Mg/ha 85 kg/ha

Sulphur 15% S 25 kg S/ha 167 kg/ha

Boron 10% B 2.5 kg B/ha 25 kg/ha

Total 1,853 kg/ha

Table 5.45: Determination of amount of transported fertiliser product. The applied nutrients are obtained from Table 

5.16, Table 5.18, Table 5.20 and Table 5.22.

Table 5.46 shows the transported amounts, the route and the distances. 

Material Amount per ha From To Distance Lorry size 

Seed 5 kg Seed traders, Denmark Farms in DK 100 km 16t

Rapeseed 3,240 kg Farms in DK Seed traders 100 km 28t

Rapeseed straw to utilisation 381 kg Farms in DK Biomass plant 100 km 28t

N, P, K, Mg, S and B fertilisers 1,853 kg Abroad chemical plant Farms in DK 1000 km 40t

Pesticides 0.84 kg Abroad chemical plant Farms in DK 1000 km 28t

Table 5.46: Transport of goods related to the agricultural stage. The return trip is included in the inventory data. 

The estimated transport in Table 5.46 is summarized per type of lorry in Table 5.47. 

Type of lorry Transport 

16t 0.5 tkm

28t 363 tkm

40t 1,853 tkm

Table 5.47: Summary of transport in the agricultural stage. 
5 Agricultural stage: Rapeseed 81 

5.10 LCI of rapeseed agricultural stage, summary 

Table 5.48 summarises the inventory data relating to 1 ha cultivated in 1 year with rapeseed. 

Denmark: 1 ha y rapeseed field 

Interventions Amount Applied LCI data 

Product output

Rapeseed (8-9% DS) 3.131 t Product of interest 

Straw removed from field 381 kg Co-product allocation between rapeseed and straw is avoided by system expansion, see below 

System expansion 

Burning of straw in biomass plant 381 kg See Table 5.25

Energy use 

Traction, burned diesel 3,612 MJ See Table 4.5

Drying of rapeseed (evaporated water) 100 kg Modified version of: ‘Grain drying, low temperature/CH‘ (ecoinvent 2004), see 

section 5.3

Miscellaneaus transport (passenger car) 79 km see section 4.4

Material use

Seed 5 kg See Table 5.12

N-fertiliser (as N) 140 kg ‘Calcium ammonium nitrate, as N, at regional storehouse/RER’, (ecoinvent 

2004) 

P-fertiliser (as P2O5) 57 kg Modified version of: ‘Triple superphosphate, as P2O5, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004), see section 5.4

K-fertiliser (as K2O) 99 kg ‘Potassium chloride, as K2O, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Herbicide (clomazone) 0.050 kg Modified version of: ‘Pesticide unspecified, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004), see section 5.4

Herbicide (propyzamid) 0.18 kg Modified version of: ‘Pesticide unspecified, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004), see section 5.4

Herbicide (clopyralid) 0.020 kg Modified version of: ‘Pesticide unspecified, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004), see section 5.4

Insecticide (Pyrethroid, cypermethrin) 0.0070 kg Modified version of: ‘Pyretroid-compounds, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004), see section 5.4

Insecticide (Pyrethroid, alpha-cypermethrin) 0.0020 kg Modified version of: ‘Pyretroid-compounds, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004), see section 5.4

Insecticide (Pyrethroid, tau-fluvalinat) 0.0072 kg Modified version of: ‘Pyretroid-compounds, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004), see section 5.4

Capital goods

Agricultural buildings 0.070 m2 ‘Shed/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, tractor 7.5 kg ‘Tractor, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, combine harvester 6.3 kg ‘Harvester, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, tillage 9.2 kg ‘Agricultural machinery, tillage, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, general/miscellaneous 3.5 kg ‘Agricultural machinery, general, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Transport

16t lorry 0.5 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 16t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

28t lorry 363 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

40t lorry 1,853 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 40t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

... table continued on the next page...

Table 5.48: Interventions per ha y soil cultivated with rapeseed. Table continued on the next page...
82 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

... continued from previous page...

Emissions Air Water Soil 

... continued from previous page...

Ammonia (NH3) 9.5 kg - - 

Dinitrogen oxide (N2O) 4.9 kg - - 

Nitric oxide (NO) 2.9 kg 

Nitrate (NO3) - 162 kg - 

Phosphorus (P) - 0.14 kg - 

Clomazone 0.017 kg 0.017 kg 0.017 kg 

Propyzamid 0.060 kg 0.060 kg 0.060 kg 

Clopyralid 0.0067 kg 0.0067 kg 0.0067 kg 

Cypermethrin 0.0023 kg 0.0023 kg 0.0023 kg 

Alpha-cypermethrin 0.0067 kg 0.0067 kg 0.0067 kg 

Tau-fluvalinat 0.0024 kg 0.0024 kg 0.0024 kg 

Arsenic (As) - - 1.2 g 

Cadmium (Cd) - 0.61 g -0.21 g 

Chromium (Cr) - 0.19 g 33 g 

Cobalt (Co) - 0.045 g 0.22 g 

Copper (Cu) - 1.0 g 6.7 g 

Mercury (Hg) - 0.036 g -0.011 g 

Molybdenum (Mo) - - 1.2 g 

Nickel (Ni) - 1.0 g 10 g 

Lead (Pb) - 1.9 g -0.64 g 

Selenium (Se) - 0.016 g 2.3 g 

Zink (Zn) - 15 g 65 g 

Table 5.48: Interventions per ha y soil cultivated with rapeseed. 
6 Agricultural stage: Oil palm, fresh fruit bunches (FFB) 83 

6 Agricultural stage: Oil palm, fresh fruit bunches (FFB) 

The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is a perennial crop and it grows to a height of approximately 10 m before 

replantet after around 25 years. The oil palm fruits are attached to bunches (FFB – fresh fruit bunches) weighting around 25 kg and each carrying 1500-2000 single fruits (for oil palms 10-15 years old). The harvested FFB 

contain around 20% oil, 25% nuts (5% kernels, 13% fibre and 7% shell) and 23% empty fruit bunches. The 

kernels contain around 55% oil and 8% protein (Corley and Tinker 2003; Møller et al. 2000). 

The agricultural stage for oil palm includes activities related to cultivation of oil palm. The reference for the 

inventory is 1 hectare oil palm plantation in Malaysia and Indonesia. The planted area includes mature and 

immature palms. Most data are based on collected data on cultivation practices in Malaysia. The yield of fresh 

fruit bunches (FFB) is applied as the average yield in Malaysia and Indonesia. Most data are from 2004 to 

2006. 

Since oil palm is a perennial three different stages are considered: Nursery, immature plantation and mature 

plantation. The interventions from oil palm cultivation are applied as a weighted average of the three stages. 

In 2003 an area of 32,600 km2

 and 30,400 km2 was planted with oil palm in Malaysia and Indonesia respectively (FAOSTAT 2006). That corresponds to 10% and 41% of the total land area and the agricultural land in 

Malaysia respectively and 2% and 7% of the total land area and the agricultural land in Indonesia respectively 

There are different influential factors on the interventions and thereby the environmental impact related to 

production of oil palm fruit (FFB). Relevant factors to take into account are: 1) type of agricultural practice 

(estate or small holder) as well as region – both factors affect the yield, 2) type of cultivated soil (mineral soil 

versus peat soil). These factors will be taken into account in sensitivity analyses in section 21. 

Before the oil palms are planted in the plantation they are grown in poly bags in the nursery. The nursery consists of two main stages. In the pre-nursery that last from the sowing of the seed in a small poly bags until the 

seedling is approximately three to four months. The seedlings in the small poly bag are kept under a cover 

protecting them for direct sunlight. After that in the main-nursery, the seedling is planted in a larger poly bag 

in which it is cultivated without a protecting cover until it is 12 to 13 months old and ready for planting in the 

plantation (Singh 2006 and Corley and Tinker 2003, p 271). The pre-nursery is illustrated in Figure 6.1 and 

Figure 6.2 while the main-nursery is shown in Figure 6.3 and Figure 6.4. 
84 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Figure 6.1: Pre-nursery, the seeds are sown in small poly 

bags where the seedlings are cultivated until they are three 

to four month. Picture taken by Jannick H Schmidt in 

United Plantation Berhad 2006.

Figure 6.2: Pre-nursery, different stages. Picture taken by 

Jannick H Schmidt in United Plantation Berhad 2006.

Figure 6.4: Main-nursery, palms ready for planting in 

plantation. Picture taken Jannick H Schmidt in United 

Plantation Berhad 2006.

Figure 6.3: Main-nursery, early stage, the seedlings are 

cultivated in large poly bags when they are 3-5 months 

until they are 12-13 months and ready for planting in the 

plantation. Picture taken by Jannick H Schmidt in United 

Plantation Berhad 2006.

Oil palms from the nursery are planted when they are approximately 12-13 month old. The palms are planted 

with a density of 136 - 148 palms per ha on mineral soils (assumed average at 142 palms per ha) and approximately 160 palms on peat soils (Xavier 2006). Before the palms are planted, the soil is sprayed with pesticides, 

ploughed, compacted and legume cover is sown, typically pueraria. The cover crop prevents erosion and fixes 

nitrogen from the atmosphere especially when the palms are young (Corley and Tinker 2003, p 265). Around 

each palm a circle with no vegetation is established, i.e. the palm circle. The purpose of having the palm circle 

for young palms is to prevent competitors to the palm (Corley and Tinker 2003, p 295). Later for the mature 

palm, the purpose is to allow access for harvesting and to be able to see how many fruits from the ripening 

fresh fruit bunch which drop down. The number of loose fruits is used as a guideline for when to harvest (Arulandoo 2006). The palm circle is kept free from weeds by application of herbicides. 
6 Agricultural stage: Oil palm, fresh fruit bunches (FFB) 85 

The oil palms are harvested first time when they are three years old, i.e. two years after planting in the plantation (Singh 2006 and Corley and Tinker 2003, p 271). The palms are mature from two years after planting to 

20-30 years after planting. An average age of palms when replanting at 26, i.e. 25 years after planting, is estimated from Corley and Tinker (2003, p 318). Yusoff and Hansen (2005) estimate the age of palms when replanting at 25-30 years. Figure 6.5 and Figure 6.6 shows immature palms and Figure 6.7 shows mature 

palms. 

Figure 6.5: Immature oil palms, newly planted palms 

from the nursery. Shredded biomass from the old stands 

can be seen between the rows of new palms. The planted 

palms from the nursery are immature until two years after 

planting, i.e. they are three years old. Picture taken by 

Jannick H Schmidt in United Plantation Berhad 2006.

Figure 6.6: Immature oil palms, ground cover established. 

Picture taken by Jannick H Schmidt in United Plantation 

Berhad 2006.

Figure 6.7: Mature oil palms, the palms are harvested 

from two years to approximately 25 after planting. Picture 

taken by Jannick H Schmidt in United Plantation Berhad 

2006.

Figure 6.8: Harvesting of fresh fruit bunches (FFB). Picture taken by Jannick H Schmidt in United Plantation 

Berhad 2005.

The palms are harvested approximately every second week year round, each time one FFB is harvested. Harvesting is done manually with a knife attached on a shaft, see Figure 6.8. Firstly, the frond beneath the fruit 
86 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

bunch is pruned. Hereby the FFB is accessible for being cut of. The pruned fronds are placed in the field between the palms for mulching, see Figure 6.9. The harvested FFB consist of two main components; the fruits 

and the stalks they are attached to, also referred to empty fruit bunch (EFB). The mean weight of one FFB 

from young palms (3 years) is less 5 kg and more than 25 kg for older palms (10-15 years) (Corley and Tinker 

2003, p 47). Figure 6.10 and Figure 6.11 show a harvested FFB and two single fruits from the FFB respectively. The palm’s requirements for nutrients are met by artificial fertilisers as well as mulching of pruned 

fronds, EFB from the palm oil mill and land application of anaerobically treated POME and solid sludge. 

Weeds are treated with application of herbicides in the palm circle and in addition insecticides, fungicides and 

rodenticide are applied in order to control insect, fungus and rats. Often, the use of insecticides and rodenticide 

is reduced by an integrated pest management programme. Usually that includes planting of beneficial flowering plants which attract parasites and predators of the common pests of the oil palm (Arulandoo 2006; Fee and 

Sharma 1999). Another serious pest is rats which damage the seedlings in the nursery, immature palms and eat 

the fruits (Fee and Sharma 1999). In a integrated pest management programme, the number of rats are reduced 

by barn owls. Barn owls are attracted by setting up nesting boxes. Another part of integrated pest management 

is setting up of rhinoceros beetle traps (Sharma 2005). 

Figure 6.9: Pruned fronds left between the oil palm rows 

for mulching. Picture taken by Jannick H Schmidt in 

United Plantation Berhad 2006.

Figure 6.10: Harvested fresh fruit bunch (FFB). Picture 

taken by Jannick H Schmidt in United Plantation Berhad 

2005.

Figure 6.11: Two oil single oil palm fruits. Picture taken 

by Jannick H Schmidt 2007. Samples provided by United 

Plantation Berhad. 
6 Agricultural stage: Oil palm, fresh fruit bunches (FFB) 87 

When the palms are getting too unproductive, the palms are poisoned and felled and the land is totally cleared 

with bulldozers. The specific reason for replanting may be decreasing productivity due to difficulties of harvesting (too high), too many dead palms or the FFB yield is simply decreasing with age. Years ago the biomass 

after felling was burned. However, due to undesirable emissions and uncontrollable forest fires open burning 

was prohibited in Malaysia in 1989 (Henson 2004, p 13). Henson (2004) assumes 90% compliance in 1998. 

Open burning is also prohibited in Indonesia. Therefore, the common practice today is shredding of the trunks 

from the clearing of the field. Hereafter the trunks are placed in the field as mulch, see Figure 6.5. 

6.1 Product flow in agricultural stage 

The reference for the inventory is one hecatare in one year, i.e. the average of the life cycle of one generation 

of oil palms, see Figur 6.13. The agricultural stage of oil palm is divided into three stages. The first two stages 

are the immature palms and the mature palms. The immature stage is regarded as the first two years after planting the palms from the nursery. After that it is assumed that the palms are yielding FFB in 23 years. It is assumed that the age of the oil palms in Malaysia’s and Indonesia’s oil palm plantations are evenly distributed. 

Thus, one average hectare consists of 8% immature palms and 92% mature palms. The third stage is clearing 

and replanting. It is assumed that this stage occur instantaneously. The FFB yield is applied as the yield in 

2005 calculated from linear regression of yields from 1990 to 2005, see Figure 6.12. The same method as for 

determining the yield for rapeseed has been used, see section 5.1. Yields are obtained from FAOSTAT (2006). 

The expected yield in 2005 can be calculated as 18.87 t/ha when using the equation in Figure 6.12. For comparison with yields determined when using other methods see Table 6.1. 

yield = 0.0919*(year - 1989) + 17.40

R2

 = 0.22

15.0

15.5

16.0

16.5

17.0

17.5

18.0

18.5

19.0

19.5

20.0

1990199119921993199419951996199719981999200020012002200320042005

Yield (t/ha)

FFB in Malaysia and Indonesia

Figure 6.12: FFB yields in Malaysia and Indonesia 1990 to 2005. The linear regression line and its corresponding equation and R2

 are also shown. The yields are obtained from FAOSTAT (2006). 

Region Yield 2005 (based 

on regression 

1990-2005) 

Average yield 1990-

2005 

Average yield 2000-

2005 

Yield 2003 Yield 2004 Yield 2005 

Malaysia 19.84 t/ha 18.74 t/ha 19.29 t/ha 20.48 t/ha 20.49 t/ha 20.90 t/ha 

Indonesia 17.95 t/ha 17.40 t/ha 17.73 t/ha 17.30 t/ha 18.20 t/ha 17.85 t/ha 

Malaysia and Indonesia 18.87 t/ha 18.19 t/ha 18.53 t/ha 18.95 t/ha 19.36 t/ha 19.38 t/ha 

Table 6.1: FFB yields in Malaysia and Indonesia determined using different methods. The applied yield is marked with a 

dotted line. 
88 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil Capital goods

Builings (adm., R&D, nursery,

shed for machinery)

Tractors

Agr. machinery

1 ha immature palms

(2 years)

Establishment of cover crop

Maintenance (fertiliser, pesticide etc.)

Planting of seedlings

Land preparation

FFB: 18,870 kg per year

1 ha mature palms

(23 years)

Harvesting

Maintenance (fertiliser, pesticide etc.)

1 ha clearing after

25 years

Land preparation for next generation

Clearing of palms

Transport to the oil mill

Figur 6.13: Product flow related to cultivation of 1 ha oil palm in 25 year. The grey shaded boxes represent the unit processes in the agricultural stage. 

6.2 Omitted inventory data in agricultural stage 

The production of seeds has been omitted. This is not consistent with the inventory of the agricultural stage of 

rapeseed production. However, the life time of oil palms are 26 years compared to one year for rapeseed. 

Therefore, the interventions from seed production have been regarded as insignificant for oil palm cultivation. 

Several pesticides are used in oil palm cultivation. However, only inventory data production of glyphosate has 

been identified. Therefore, production of cypermethrin, warfarin and several different fungicides has been 

omitted. On a mass basis glyphosate comprises 88% of the active ingredients in the used pesticides in mature 

oil palm plantations, see Table 6.7. On the emission side the EDIP97-method does not include characterisation 

factors for the active substances in pesticides. However, in the LCAfood database characterisation factors for 

glyphosate and cypermethrin have been determined within the framework of the EDIP97-method. No characterisation factors have been found for warfarin and fungicides. The active ingredients in warfarin and fungicides only comprise 0.02% of the total applied active ingredients in mature oil palm plantations, see Table 6.7. 

This share is assumed to be insignificant and therefore no characterisation factors have been calculated for 

warfarin and fungicides. 

It has not been possible to identify any data on methane emissions from the oil palm plantation nor the nature 

that is converted into oil palm plantation. Therefore, this aspect is not included. 

6.3 Energy use 

As in the case of rapeseed cultivation in Denmark described in section 5.3 oil palm cultivation implies several 

field work processes using fossil fuel such as planting of new palms, sowing of crop cover, fertiliser application, pesticide application, harvesting and finally after 25 years clearing and preparing the field for replanting. 
6 Agricultural stage: Oil palm, fresh fruit bunches (FFB) 89 

Field work operations: which and how many times? 

It has not been possible to determine the specific diesel consumption per single field work process per hectare. 

Data has only been available as the total diesel consumption per year on the estate level. However, though not 

used, the number of the included field work operations has been estimated, see Table 6.2. 

Field work process Number of 

processes per 

year 

References and comments 

Clearing of old stands 1/28 (Xavier 2006) 

Chopping of trunks 1/28 (Xavier 2006) 

Placement of chopped trunks 1/28 (Xavier 2006) 

Planting of palms 1/28 (Xavier 2006) 

Placement of chopped trunks 1/28 (Xavier 2006) 

Replanting 

Sowing of crop cover (Pueraria) 1/28 (Xavier 2006) 

N-fertiliser (urea or ammonia 

nitrate) 

3 

Rock phosphate 1 

Potash 3 

Magnesium 1 

Fertilising 

Boron 1 

Numbers apply to palm > 3-5 years. After 5 years fertiliser 

application is done by mechanical spreader attached to 

tractor (Xavier 2006) 

Pesticide ? 

Harvesting 26 (Xavier 2006) 

Transport Transport of FFB to mill ~18.9 t x 5 km Estimated per hectare from average yield in Malaysia and 

Indonesia and estimated distance in 50 km2 estate 

Table 6.2: Description and documentation of estimated number of field work processes. These data are only for information purposes, the data is not used as inventory data.

Diesel use 

As mentioned in the previous section it has not been possible to establish a relation between field work processes and the energy consumption with the given data material. Therefore, diesel consumption in machinery in 

the plantation is determined as a total value including all field work processes per ha per year. Different data 

sources have been identified, see Table 6.3. The data in Table 6.3 represent average of oil palm plantation 

including an area covered by immature palms. 

Fuel United Plantations 

(Singh 2006) 

Yusoff and Hansen 

(2005) 

Unilever (1990) Zah and Hischier 

(2003) 

Applied 

Diesel 1,611 MJ 2,366 MJ 2,038 MJ 9,857 MJ 2,118 MJ 

Petrol 340 MJ - - - - 

Total 1,951 MJ 2,366 MJ 2,038 MJ 9,857 MJ 2,118 MJ 

Table 6.3: Consumption of diesel and petrol per ha of oil palm plantation. The applied data are marked with a dotted line. 

In Table 6.3 the energy consumption in United Plantations, Yusoff and Hansen (2005) and Unilever (1990) are 

given in litre. This has been converted into mega joules by using calorific values for diesel at 36.4 MJ/litre 

given in Appendix 1: Data on fuels. 

It appears from Table 6.3 that the diesel consumption given in Zah and Hischier (2003) is 4 to 5 times higher 

than the figures given in the other three sources. The data in Zah and Hischier (2003) are based on Hirsinger et 

al. (1995). As described in section 11.3 the energy figures in Hirsinger et al. (1995) are not regarded as consistent. Therefore, the energy consumption in Zah and Hischier (2003) is not regarded as representative for Malaysian oil palm plantations. The energy use in United Plantations may be slightly lower than in average plantations because they use rail based transport of the harvested FFB to the oil mill which requires less energy 

than truck transportation. Not many plantations have that technology because it is only applicable in flat terrain 

and investments costs are high. The applied energy use is the average of United Plantations, Yusoff and Han-
90 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

sen (2005) and Unilever (1990). For simplification reasons all fuel used in oil palm plantations is regarded as 

diesel. 

The uncertainty related to the difference between energy uses determined from the data sources in Table 6.3 is 

assessed in a sensitivity analysis, see section 21.6

6.4 Other processes

Other processes include those processes which are not related to the field. This includes the nursery where the 

seeds are sown and grown for one year before the seedlings are planted in the plantation. According to section 

6.2 the nursery is omitted from the inventory.

6.5 Materials

Seeds 

According to section 6.2 production of oil palm seeds have been omitted from the inventory. 

Fertilisers 

Several data on the use of fertilisers in oil palm plantations have been identified see Table 6.4. Data for mature 

and immature oil palms have been identified. Thus, distinction between these two stages is done. 
6 Agricultural stage: Oil palm, fresh fruit bunches (FFB) 91 

Fertiliser N 

(kg N/ha) 

P 

(kg P2O5/ha) 

K 

(kg K2O/ha) 

Mg 

(kg MgO/ha) 

S B Source 

Applied fertiliser in oil palm plantations 

1) United Plantations 2005 136 77 297 42 - - (United Plantations Berhad 

2006, p 110, 123, 129) 

2) Malaysia, average 96 28 172 48 - - (Yusoff and Hansen 2005) 

3) Malaysia, costal soils* 124* 128* 256* 19* 16* - (Subranamiam 2006a) 

4) Malaysia, average 2001 100 45 205 - - - (IFA et al. 2002, p 13) 

5) Malaysia, average 2002 76 86 119 - - - (FAO 2004) 

6) Malaysia, immature 90 35 140 29 (Henson 2004, p 33) 

Applied value (mature) 106 73 210 36 16 - Average of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 

Applied value (immature) 90 35 140 29 - - The value given in 6 

Theoretical figures 

Recommended application 

(by MPOB) 

128 144 200 - - - (FAO 2004) 

Nutrient demand, 10 year 

old palms 

114 32 180 53 - - (Corley and Tinker 2003, p 332) 

Nutrient demand, 15 year 

old palms 

182 56 315 95 - - (Corley and Tinker 2003, p 332) 

Table 6.4: Input of nutrients to the plantation. The applied fertiliser uses in this study are marked with a dotted line. * The 

data in Subranamiam (2006a) are provided as total fertiliser product per palm. This is converted to fertiliser component 

per ha be assuming 142 palms/ha (see description of oil palm cultivation in the beginning of section 6) and 35% N in 

ammonia nitrate, 30% P2O5 in china rock phosphate, 60% K2O in muriate of potash and 27% MgO and 23% S in kieserite 

(Corley and Tinker 2003, p 385). 

The fertiliser uses applied in this study are shown in Table 6.4. The adopted figures are the average of five 

different sources on the fertiliser use in mature oil palm plantations in Malaysia and one data source for immature oil palms in Malaysia. The nutrient demand for oil palm given in Table 6.4 is the total demand that may 

be met by inputs of artificial fertilisers, biomass residuals (pruned fronds, EFB and POME), decomposition 

from the atmosphere and possible decrease in the soil nitrogen pool. In addition losses as leaching, run-off and 

evaporation appear. Therefore, the nutrient demand cannot be used as a stand alone guideline for application of 

artificial fertiliser. 

The total amounts of applied nutrients in fertiliser in oil palm plantations are calculated as the average of 2 

years immature and 23 mature palms. Thus, the average uses are 105 kg N/ha, 31 kg P/ha (70 kg P2O5), 170 kg 

K/ha (204 kg K2O/ha), 21 kg Mg/ha (35 kg MgO/ha) and 16 kg S/ha. 

According to Corley and Tinker (2003, p 385) more than half of the fertiliser use in Malaysia is used in the 

palm oil industry. Therefore, national statistics on types of N, P and K fertilisers used are assumed to be representative for oil palm. However, only statistical data on import and export have been identified (FAO 2004). 

However, according to FAO (2004) most of the artificial fertiliser used in Malaysia is imported. Therefore, the 

import of artificial fertilisers is assumed to represent the use of fertiliser in oil palm plantations. The distribution between different types of imported N, P and K fertilisers in Malaysia is shown in Table 6.5. 

Nitrogen Share Phosphate Share Potash Share 

Ammonium sulphate 70% Phosphate rock 64% KCl 83% 

Urea 26% Ammonium phosphate 6% K2SO4 4% 

Other 4% Other 30% Other 13% 

Table 6.5: Distribution between different types of N, P and K fertilisers imported in Malaysia in 2001 (FAO 2004). 

Nitrogen: According to Subranamiam (2006a) urea is typically applied on costal soils while ammonium sulphate is applied on inland soils. The reason for that may be that costal soils are moister. Hereby, the urea hydrolyses faster and volatilisation of ammonia is reduced (based on discussions on United Plantations Berhad 
92 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

with Singh 2006). According to Corley and Tinker (2003, p 367) 27-48% of the applied N with urea volatises. 

However, if the urea is applied on moister costal soils volatilisation is estimated to only 10-15% (based on 

discussions on United Plantations Berhad with Singh 2006). It is assumed that the marginal source of Nfertiliser is 73% ammonium sulphate and 27% urea. More sophisticated assumptions could have been done, 

e.g. that increased production by expanding the cultivated area takes place on inland soils while increases in 

yields are more likely to take place in the well established plantations in the costal areas. Thus, the marginal 

fertiliser for increases by area should be ammonium sulphate (inland) while the marginal fertiliser for increases 

by yield should be urea (coastal areas). However, it has not been possible to find any data that document that. 

Therefore, the same fertiliser mix of 73% ammonia sulphate and 27% urea is regarded as the marginal fertiliser 

for increased production by area as well as yield. 

Inventory data for ammonia sulphate and urea are described in section 5.4 and Table 5.17. 

Phosphate: The marginal source of phosphate fertiliser is assumed to be phosphate rock. In Europe, the marginal phosphate fertiliser is assumed to be triple super phosphate, see section 5.4. The reason why plain phosphate rock can beneficially be applied in South East Asia is that the soils are acidic (Corley and Tinker 2003, p 

387). That helps dissolving the phosphate. In addition, there is more time for the crops to absorb the phosphate 

because oil palms are perennials (Corley and Tinker 2003, p 387). 

Two inventories of phosphate rock have been identified, one for phosphate rock from Morocco and one for 

phosphate rock from U.S. Analysing the data sets in Simapro and using the EDIP97 for LCIA, it appears that 

global warming, acidification and toxicity are the most significant impact categories. In Table 5.17 the two 

inventories are compared within these categories. 

LCI-data for N-fertiliser CO2-eq. SO2-eq. ETWC, m3

water 

Description of data 

‘Phosphate rock, as P2O5, 

beneficiated, dry, at plant/MA’

(ecoinvent 2004) 

217 g 1.0 g 151 m3 Time: Data from around 2000 

Geography: Morocco 

Technology: US technology for dry rock or dried wet rock processing 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: Machinery, buildings 

‘Phosphate rock, as P2O5, 

beneficiated, wet, at plant/US’

(ecoinvent 2004) 

194 g 1.2 g 187 m3 Time: Data from around 2000 

Geography: US 

Technology: US technology for wet rock processing 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: Machinery, buildings 

Table 6.6: Comparison of LCIs of phosphate rock. The comparison is shown as characterised results using the EDIP97-

method for LCIA. All the life cycle inventories are for 1 kg fertiliser, as P2O5. 

It appears from Table 5.17 that the differences between the two data sets for phosphate rock are not significant. It is chosen to apply the average of the two. Analysing the data sets in SimaPro it appears that the use of 

electricity is significant regarding the impact categories shown in Table 5.17. Therefore, is chosen to apply a 

modified version of the ecoinvent data on phosphate rock where average electricity has been replaced by marginal electricity assumed to be produced from coal. 

Potassium (K): The marginal source of potash is assumed to be KCl, see Table 6.5. Inventory data for potassium chloride are described in section section 5.4 and Table 5.21. 
6 Agricultural stage: Oil palm, fresh fruit bunches (FFB) 93 

Pesticides 

The use of pesticides is determined from data provided by United Plantations Research Department (Singh 

2006). The use of pesticides per hectare is given in Table 6.7. 

Pesticide Mature Immature Nursery 

kg/ha kg a.i./ha kg/ha kg a.i./ha kg/ha kg a.i./ha 

Herbicide (typically glyphosate) 4.3 2.3 11 3.6 49 8.2 

Insecticide (typically cypermethrin) 0.82 0.30 5.3 0.45 5.6 0.28 

Fungicide (several different fungicides) 0.00059 0.00018 0.21 0.16 12 6.8 

Rodenticide (typically warfarin) 0.60 0.00022 0.19 0.000092 - - 

Total 5.7 2.6 16.7 4.2 66.6 15.3 

Table 6.7: Use of pesticides per hectare per year. The amount and type of pesticides used are based on figures from 

United Plantations in 2005 (Singh 2006). 

Inventory data for production of the pesticides in Table 6.7 have only been identified for glyphosate: ‘Glyphosate, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004). The data set includes energy use, transport to regional 

storehouse and capital goods, i.e. machinery and buildings. Analysing the data in Simapro and using the 

EDIP97 method use of electricity appears to be significant within several impact categories. Therefore, European average electricity is replaced by marginal electricity based on coal technology. Production of the other 

pesticides has been applied as ‘Pesticide unspecified, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004). Also in 

this case, European average electricity is replaced by marginal electricity based on coal technology. The applied a.i. of pesticides are the average of 2 years immature and 23 years mature oil palm, i.e. annual application 

of 2.4 kg a.i. glyphosate/ha, 0.31 kg a.i. cypermethrin/ha, 0.013 kg a.i. fungicides/ha and 0.00021 kg a.i. warfarin/ha. 

6.6 Co-products 

There are no co-products in the agricultural stage of palm oil production. The pruned fronds and felled trunks 

at replanting, however, could be regarded as a co-products displacing artificial fertiliser. But since mulching of 

is a common practice and since the amounts of pruned fronds and trunks at replanting are proportional with the 

cultivated area, changes in oil palm cultivation do not affect the nutrient balances and the consequential emissions and fertiliser use per unit of area. Only if changes in the use of pruned fronds are affected, the effects 

should be included. The co-products EFB and POME are co-products from the oil mill stage, but they appear 

as inputs to the agricultural stage. Normally, application of EFB and POME is constant with the plantation area 

as in the case of pruned fronds. Thus, a change in demand for palm oil will not affect the application of EFB 

and POME per unit of area and the consequential emissions and fertiliser use per unit of area. 

6.7 Emissions 

Emissions from the plantation are determined from mass balances of the relevant substances, i.e. N, P and C, 

during the oil palms life cycle. However, since most of the net fluxes of C during the life cycle of one oil palm 

generation are zero (CO2 uptake equals CO2 release), a detailed balance has not been conducted. Mass balances 

are established per ha on an annual basis. Firstly all known inputs and outputs are summarised. The residuals 

are then distributed on various emissions calculated from different models. Oil palm is not an annual crop like 

rapeseed. Oil palm is a perennial. During the life cycle of one generation oil palm plantation the input and uptake of nutrients, harvesting of FFB and decomposition of biomass residues varies. Therefore, it is not desirable to establish a simple annual nutrient balance as for rapeseed described in section 5.6. The 25 years from 

planting to replanting is divided into several stages representing different inputs and outputs of nutrients. The 

following four components of the balance are considered: 1) net inputs, 2) release from decomposition of biomass, 3) uptake of nutrients from the soil in the standing biomass and 4) harvested biomass. The residual is 
94 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

then the field surplus of N and P from which emissions are calculated. During the life cycle of one oil palm 

generation 2) and 3) are equal, but within the singe stages they may differ. Comparing the nutrient balance for 

oil palm with rapeseed, 2) and 3) are not necessary for rapeseed because the balance is ‘reset’ each year. The 

principle for establishing a field balance of nutrients in each stage during the life cycle of one generation of oil 

palm is illustrated in Figure 6.14. The four components are described in the following. 

1) Net input

Plantation

2) Release from decomposition of biomass

3) Uptake: Changes in stored nutrients 4) Harvested nutrients 5) Surplus

Inputs:

Outputs:

Figure 6.14: Principle for establishing a field nutrient balance. The surplus of from which different emissions are calculated is grey shaded. 

All emissions are inventoried for average, peat and mineral (i.e. non-peat) soils. According to Henson (2004), 

an area of 1,360 km2

 was planted with oil palm on peat in Malaysia in 2003/2004. The total planted area with 

oil palm in Malaysia was 32,600 km2

 in 2003 and 34,100 km2 in 2004. Thus, 4.0 - 4.2% of the area planted 

with oil palm in Malaysia is on peat. The same figures are assumed to be valid for oil palm in Indonesia. Data 

for average soil (4.1% peat) is applied in the baseline scenario while inventories for peat and mineral soils are 

applied as sensitivity analyses described in section 21.13. According to Corley and Tinker (2003, p 81) much 

of the open land remaing land for expanding the oil palm cultivation in SE-Asia is peat soils. According to 

Wetland International (2007), more than 50% of the planned new plantations in Malaysia and Indonesia are on 

peat soils. 

Inputs: Net inputs of nutrients 

Inputs of nutrients include artificial N- and P-fertiliser, N-deposition from the atmosphere, N-fixation from 

legume cover crops (typical pueraria), planting of palms and application of EFB and POME as organic fertiliser. 

Artificial fertiliser: The inputs of artificial fertilisers are described in Table 6.4. The amount of applied P2O5

is converted into P by use of molar masses. 

N-deposition: Three figures on atmospheric N-deposition in Malaysia have been identified; 17 kg N/ha 

(Corley and Tinker 2003, p 358), 21 kg N/ha (Corley and Tinker 2003, p 292) and 14.6 kg N/ha (Chew 1999, p 

64). It is chosen to apply the average of these three values as representative for N-deposition in Malaysia, i.e. 

17.5 kg N/ha. 

N-fixation: According to Chew et al. (1999, p 64) legumes cover crop has a negligible effect on addition of 

nitrogen in a nitrogen balance for oil palm. However, it may be questioned if the legumes cover crop has only 

a negligible effect on the nitrogen balance, at least for nitrogen balances the first five years after planting. 

Hauser (2006) provides experimental results for pueraria and mucuna legumes grown in maize fields in Cameroon. These results show that the average annual nitrogen fixation over a period of four years are 35.3 kg 

N/ha for mucuna and 76.0 kg N/ha for pueraria. Swart and Diest (1987, p 145) found a higher value for pueraria at 292 kg N/ha during a growing season at 51⁄2 month. Haque and Jutzi (1984) provides average nitrogen 

fixation rates for 16 forage legumes (not including pueraria and mucuna) in Sub-Sahara Africa. The means 

ranges from 62 to 290 kg/ha on an annual basis. Arulandoo (2006) estimates the total contribution of the leguminous cover crop in young oil palm plantations around 200 kg N/ha. It appears that very different figures 
6 Agricultural stage: Oil palm, fresh fruit bunches (FFB) 95 

exist. It is certain that fixation takes place. It is assumed that fixation the first year is 200 kg N/ha and after that 

it gradually decreases to zero the sixth year. 

Planting of palms: No data on the weight of palm seedlings have been identified. Therefore, it assumed that 

each palm has a dry weight at 10 kg corresponding to 1.42 t/ha with a palm density at 142 palms/ha. Four different data sources for N and P contents in oil palms have been identified, see Table 6.8. Three of the data 

sources are cited in Henson (2004). 

Nutrients content in oil palm kg N/t biomass kg P/t biomass 

1) Henson (2004, p 33) 6.3 0.62 

2) Henson (2004, p 33) 5.8 0.54 

3) Henson (2004, p 33) 6.4 0.57 

4) Corley and Tinker (2003, p 328) 5.4 0.78 

Applied value 6.0 0.63 

Table 6.8: Contents of N and P in oil palm total standing biomass (dry weight basis). The applied values are marked with 

a dotted line. 

EFB: The production of EFB amounts 22.5% of the FFB (see Table 10.2). It is assumed that the EFB from the 

palm oil mill are distributed evenly through the plantation on immature as well as mature palms. Thus, the 

production of EFB is 22.5% of the FFB yield of 18.87 t/ha, i.e. 4.25 t/ha. Henson (2004, p 24) estimates the 

decay/decomposition time for EFB as one year. The content of N and P in EFB is given in Table 6.9. 

Nutrients content in EFB kg N/t EFB kg P/t EFB 

Dry weight 8.0 0.96 

Fresh weight (60% water) 3.2 0.38 

Table 6.9: Contents of N and P in empty fruit bunches (EFB). (Singh et al. 1999, p 172) 

POME: The production of POME is 672.5 kg/t crude palm oil (see Figure 10.1). Applying the oil extraction 

rate at 19.98% (see Figure 10.1) and the yield at 18.87 t FFB/ha, the amount of POME can be calculated as 

2.54 t POME/ha. As for EFB it is assumed that POME is applied evenly distributed in the plantation on immature as well as mature palms. This does not represent what actually happens, since only a minor part of the 

plantation receives POME. However, it is assumed that unequally distribution of nutrients because of POME 

application is equalised through differentiated application of artificial fertiliser. Henson (2004, p 24) estimates 

the decay/decomposition time for POME as one year. The content of N and P in POME is given in Table 6.10. 

Nutrients content in POME kg N/t POME kg P/t POME 

Dry weight 19 3.0 

Fresh weight (95% water) 0.95 0.15 

Table 6.10: Contents of N and P in palm oil mill effluent (POME). Nutrients content (Department of environment 1999) 

and moisture content (Singh 1999). 

The net inputs of N and P are summarised in Table 6.11. 
96 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Input of nitrogen, kg N/ha per year year 1 year 2 year 3 year 4 year 5 year 6-25 

N-fertiliser 90 90 106 106 106 106 

N-deposition from the atmosphere 17.5 17.5 17.5 17.5 17.5 17.5 

N-fixation by legumes 200 160 120 80 40 0 

Planted palm seedlings 8.5 0 0 0 0 0 

EFB 13 13 13 13 13 13 

POME 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 

Total net input of N 332 283 259 219 179 139 

Input of phosphorus, kg P/ha per year year 1 year 2 year 3 year 4 year 5 year 6-25 

P-fertiliser 15 15 32 32 32 32 

Planted palm seedlings 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 

EFB 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 

POME 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 

Total net input of P 18 17 34 34 34 34 

Table 6.11: Summary of annual net inputs of N and P to the plantation. 

Inputs: Release of nutrients from decomposition of biomass 

Decomposition of biomass residues includes decomposition of fronds, trunks, cover crop, EFB and POME 

Table 6.12 summarises the biomass residues from the agricultural stage left in the field during the life cycle of 

one generation of an oil palm plantation. The pruned fronds are left in the field as a biomass resource.

Biomass residues per ha Field source At replanting 

Immature: 

year 1 and 2 

Mature: 

year 3-25 

Pruned fronds 0 t/ha 10.70 t/ha 0 t/ha 

Biomass at felling 0 t/ha 0 t/ha 94.9 t/ha 

Table 6.12: Biomass residues as annual output and from replanting as a single output in the end of the palm’s economical 

life. Data on annual pruned fronds and biomass at felling are obtained as the average of data from two different references 

cited in Weng (1999, p 43) 

The data for pruned fronds in Table 6.12 are slightly higher than values identified in Henson (2004, p 10): 8-9 

t/ha and in Corley and Tinker (2003, p 293): 9 t/ha. When comparing the data for biomass at felling values 

found in Henson (2004, p 100 t/ha) are in good accordance with the used values. However, Corley and Tinker 

(2003, p 92) specify biomass at felling as around 62 and 68 t/ha for 17.5 and 27.5 years old palms respectively, 

which seem to be underestimated compared to Weng (1999) and Henson (2004). The data in Weng (1999) 

seem to be more consistent and comparable than the data provided in Corley and Tinker (2003) and Henson 

(2004). Therefore, it is chosen to apply these data in this study. 

As it appears from Table 6.12 the output of biomass from the field varies significant in the three stages. Therefore the three different stages have to be considered when establishing nutrient balances and in addition the 

decomposition time of biomass residues left in the field must also be taken into account. The decomposition 

time is assumed to be 2 years for fronds and shredded trunks. 2 years are the same decomposition time as for 

unburned shells (Henson 2004, p 24). Figure 6.15 shows production and decomposition of biomass residues 

during the life cycle of one ha oil palm plantation. 
6 Agricultural stage: Oil palm, fresh fruit bunches (FFB) 97 

time

10.70 t/ha

0 1 2 3 4 5

Replanting

decomposition, previous

generation

production

decomposition, this

generation

From field:

Pruned fronds

10.70 t/ha

2.68 t/ha 8.03 t/ha

8.03 t/ha 2.68 t/ha

10.70 t/ha

10.70 t/ha

0 t/ha 0 t/ha 0 t/ha

25

Replanting

Immature Mature

Production

Deconposition

time

0 1 2 3 4 5

Replanting

25

Replanting

decomposition

production

47.45 t/ha 47.45 t/ha

94.90 t/ha

From replanting:

Fronds and trunks

Figure 6.15: Production and decomposition of fronds and trunk during the life cycle of one ha of oil palm. The figure is 

divided into two parts where the one in the top refers to clearing and replanting and the one in the bottom refers to annual 

production and decomposition of biotic residues. 

In addition to the biotic residues from the agricultural stage given in Table 6.12 legume cover crop also constitute inputs of nutrients to the plantation. According to Chew et al. (1999, p 64) legumes play an important role 

in immobilising nitrogen from decomposing trunks and fronds during the immature period. The immobilised 

nitrogen is released as the cover crop dies back when it is shaded out at about 3-5 years after planting (Chew et 

al., p 72). Thus, after 12 month the N accumulated in cover crop is around 289 kg/ha, whiles this is reduced to 

227 kg after 20 month (Chew et al., p 73). Based on above figures, the net N-uptake in cover crops the first 

five years after planting is estimated, see Table 6.13. It is assumed that there is no decomposition of legume 

cover the first year. The decomposition in year 2 to 5 is assumed to be 72.3 kg each years adding up to the 289 

kg. The 289 kg N/ha is regarded as uptake and is included in that component of the nitrogen balance. Uptake in 

and decomposition of legume cover crops only include the part of nitrogen that is taken up from the soil. In 

addition the cover crop fixes nitrogen from the atmosphere. This is regarded as an input which is released the 

same year as it is fixed in the plant. The effect of legume cover crop is included for the nitrogen balance only. 

According to Corley and Tinker (2003, p 387) there are so far no data on the effect of cover crop on the phosphate balance. 
98 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Net N-decomposition in cover crop year 1 year 2 year 3 year 4 year 5 

N-decomposition (kg N/ha) 0 72.3 kg 72.3 kg 72.3 kg 72.3 kg 

Table 6.13: Net uptake by cover crops under oil palm the first five years after planting. Due to shading, the presence of 

cover crops is assumed to insignificant after five years. 

Table 6.14 summarises the amount of biomass residues that decompose in each stage. 

Decomposition of biotic residues, t/ha 

(dry weight) 

year 1 year 2 year 3 year 4 year 5 year 6-25 

Pruned fronds, present generation - - 2.68 t/ha 8.03 t/ha 10.70 t/ha 10.70 t/ha 

Fronds, previous generation 8.03 t/ha 2.68 t/ha - - - - 

Biomass from replanting 47.45 t/ha 47.45 t/ha - - - - 

Legume cover crop 0 kg N/ha 72.3 kg N/ha 72.3 kg N/ha 72.3 kg N/ha 72.3 kg N/ha - 

Table 6.14: Decomposition of biotic residues during different stages of the life cycle of one generation of oil palm.

In order to establish a nutrient balance it is also necessary to knowing the contents of N and P in the fronds and 

felled biomass at replanting, i.e. whole palms. This is given in Table 6.15. 

Component kg N/t 

dry weight 

kg P/t 

dry weight 

Reference 

Fronds 12.2 0.9 Fronds consists of 65% rachis and 35% leaflet (Tinker and Smilde 1963, p 354). Nutrient 

contents of rachis and leaflets are obtained from Khalid et al. (2000, p 50) 

Whole palm 6.0 0.63 Aver. of values in Henson (2004, p 33) and Corley and Tinker (2003, p 328) 

FFB 5.5 0.8 Corley and Tinker (2003, p 331) 

Table 6.15: Nutrient contents in oil palm components. 

Based on Table 6.14 and Table 6.15 the inputs of nutrients to the soil from release of decomposing biomass are 

determined, see Table 6.16. 

Release of nitrogen from decomposition, kg N/ha year 1 year 2 year 3 year 4 year 5 year 6-25 

Release from pruned fronds, present 

generation 

0 0 33 98 131 131 

Release from pruned fronds, previous 

generation 

98 33 0 0 0 0 

Release from felled biomass from replanting 285 285 0 0 0 0 

Release from dying back of legume cover 

crop 

0 72 72 72 72 0 

Total input of nitrogen from decomposition of biomass 383 390 105 170 203 131 

Release of phosphorus from decomposition, kg P/ha year 1 year 2 year 3 year 4 year 5 year 6-25 

Release from pruned fronds, present 

generation 

0,0 0,0 2,3 6,8 9,1 9,1 

Release from pruned fronds, previous 

generation 

6,8 2,3 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 

Release from felled biomass from replanting 29,9 29,9 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 

Total input of nitrogen from decomposition of biomass 36,7 32,2 2,3 6,8 9,1 9,1 

Table 6.16: Summary of release of N and P from decomposition of biomass residues. 

Outputs: Uptake, stored and harvested nutrients 

Uptake includes harvested nutrients and increases in nutrients in stored biomass, i.e. annual accumulated nutrients in standing biomass. Stored nutrients in the biomass are considered as an output because it immobilises 

nutrients until they are released when the biomass dies back. A considerable share of the nutrient inputs are 
6 Agricultural stage: Oil palm, fresh fruit bunches (FFB) 99 

accumulated in the living biomass until it dies back. The release of nutrients from decomposition of biomass is 

described in the previous section. 

Increase in standing biomass, oil palms: It is assumed that the stored biomass in the oil palms increases linearly from estimated 1.42 t/ha (see nutrients in planted palms described previously) to 94.9 t/ha at felling (see 

Figure 6.15). Thus, during the 25 years of one oil palm generation the annual accumulation in standing biomass is 3.74 t/ha (dry weight). The content of N and P in oil palms is given in Table 6.15. 

Increase in standing biomass, cover crops: According to section 6.7: “Inputs: Release of nutrients from decomposition of biomass” there is only a net uptake of N in cover crops the first year. The uptake is 289 kg 

N/ha. 

Harvested FFB: The annual yield of FFB from mature and immature oil palm plantations is 18.87. Two of the 

25 years of the life cycle of one generation of oil palm are immature. Thus the average yield from mature oil 

palms can be determined as 20.51 t/ha. The yield varies during the mature period from around 10-20 t/ha the 

first years after planting to 25-34 t/ha when the yield reaches its maximum (Corley and Tinker 2003, p 239, 

321). Based on the yield profiles provided in Corley and Tinker (2003, p 239, 321) an average profile is estimated, see Table 6.17. 

Year 1-2 3 4 5 6 7 8-10 11-16 17 18-19 20 21 22 23 24 25 

Yield, as given 0 15 18 21 24 26 27 27 27 26 26 25 24 23 22 21 

Yield, adjusted 0 13 15 17 20 22 22 23 22 22 21 21 20 19 18 18 

Table 6.17: Yield profile (t FFB/year, fresh weight) as a function of palm age. The values in the top line are obtained as 

the average of six yield profiles given in Corley and Tinker (2003, p 293, 321). The figures in the bottom line are adjusted 

values of the top line so that they fit the total average yield in the mature period at 20.51 t FFB/ha. 

The harvested N and P in FFB can then be determined from the adjusted yield profile in Table 6.17 and the 

content of N and P in FFB given in Table 6.15. 

Pruned fronds: According to Weng (1999, p 43) 10.70 t/ha13 (dry weight) pruned fronds are harvested each 

year. However, this is only from mature oil palms. No fronds are harvested the two first, immature, years. As a 

comparison United Plantations has 9.56 t pruned fronds/ha (dry weight) in 2005 (United Plantations Berhad 

2006, p 123 and 129). The reason for deviation from the 10.70 t/ha obtained from Weng (1999) may be due to 

different distribution between immature and mature areas. Since the data from Weng (1999) represents averages of a larger area, the 10.70 t/ha is applied. It is assumed that the amount of pruned fronds is constant 

through the entire mature period that last from 2 to 25 years after planting. This may be a simplification of the 

actual situation, but no data on changes with palm age have been identified. The content of N and P in fronds is 

given in Table 6.15. 

The increase in stored N and P in the field are summarised in Table 6.18. 

 

13 This is adopted as the average of two different values given in Weng (1999). 
100 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Uptake, stored and har- Year 

vested nitrogen, kg N/ha 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 

Uptake in oil palms 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 

Uptake in cover crop 289 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Harvested FFB 0 0 36 43 50 57 63 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 

Pruned fronds 0 0 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 

Total nitrogen 312 23 190 197 204 211 216 218 218 218 219 219 219 219 

Uptake, stored and har- Year 

vested phosphorus, kg P/ha 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 

Uptake in oil palms 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 

Uptake in cover crop 0 0 5 6 7 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 

Harvested FFB 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 

Total phosphorus 2 2 17 18 19 20 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 

Uptake, stored and har- Year 

vested nitrogen, kg N/ha 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 

Uptake in oil palms 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 

Uptake in cover crop 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Harvested FFB 65 65 64 64 62 61 59 57 55 53 52 

Pruned fronds 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 

Total nitrogen 219 219 218 217 216 215 213 211 209 207 205 

Uptake, stored and har- Year 

vested phosphorus, kg P/ha 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 

Uptake in oil palms 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 

Uptake in cover crop 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 

Harvested FFB 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 

Total phosphorus 21 21 21 21 21 21 20 20 20 19 19 

Table 6.18: Summary of release of N and P per ha per year from decomposition of biomass residues.
6 Agricultural stage: Oil palm, fresh fruit bunches (FFB) 101 

Emissions related to N-balance 

Point of departure when calculating N-emissions is a N-balance on the field scale. The N-balance is shown in 

Table 6.19 below. 

Year 

Inputs: Net inputs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 

N-fertiliser 90 90 106 106 106 106 106 106 106 106 106 106 106 106 

N-deposition from the atmosphere 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 

N-fixation by legumes 200 160 120 80 40 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Planted palm seedlings 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

EFB 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 

POME 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 

Total 332 283 259 219 179 139 139 139 139 139 139 139 139 139 

Inputs: Release from decomposition of biomass 

Pruned fronds, present generation 0 0 33 98 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 

Pruned fronds, previous generation 98 33 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Felled biomass from replanting 285 285 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Dying back of legume cover crop 0 72 72 72 72 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Total 383 390 105 170 203 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 

Output: Increase in standing biomass (uptake that stays in the field) 

Uptake in oil palms 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 

Uptake in cover crop 289 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Pruned fronds 0 0 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 

Total 312 23 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 

Output: Harvested FFB (uptake that is brought out of the field) 

Harvested FFB 0 0 36 43 50 57 63 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 

Total 0 0 36 43 50 57 63 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 

Balance 

N surplus (input – output) 403 650 175 193 179 59 54 52 52 52 52 52 52 51 

Year 

Inputs: Net inputs 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 

N-fertiliser 106 106 106 106 106 106 106 106 106 106 106 

N-deposition from the atmosphere 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 

N-fixation by legumes 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Planted palm seedlings 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

EFB 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 

POME 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 

Total 139 139 139 139 139 139 139 139 139 139 139 

Inputs: Release from decomposition of biomass 

Pruned fronds, present generation 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 

Pruned fronds, previous generation 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Felled biomass from replanting 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Dying back of legume cover crop 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Total 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 

Output: Increase in standing biomass (uptake that stays in the field) 

Uptake in oil palms 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 

Uptake in cover crop 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Pruned fronds 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 131 

Total 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 154 

Output: Harvested FFB (uptake that is brought out of the field) 

Harvested FFB 65 65 64 64 62 61 59 57 55 53 52 

Total 65 65 64 64 62 61 59 57 55 53 52 

Balance 

N surplus (input – output) 52 52 52 53 54 55 57 59 61 63 65 

Table 6.19: N-balance for 1 hectare oil palm plantation. 

The N surplus is distributed on different emissions. Determination of each emission is described in the following. The same approach as determination of emissions from rapeseed fields has been used, see section 5.6. 
102 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Ammonia from crop: No data on ammonia emission from oil palm have been identified. Therefore the same 

value as for rapeseed has been applied, i.e. 5 kg NH3-N/ha. 

Ammonia from fertiliser application: The ammonia emission from fertiliser depends on the type of fertiliser 

applied. According to Andersen et al. (2001, p 35) the ammonia emission from fertilisers based on ammonia is 

2% of the N content in the fertiliser. As described in section 6.5 the ammonia volatilisation from urea is as 

high as 27-48% of the applied N (Corley and Tinker 2003, p 367). However, if the urea is applied on moister 

costal soils volatilisation is estimated to only 10-15% (based on discussions on United Plantations Berhad with 

Singh 2006). It is assumed that ammonia volatilisation from urea averages at 30%. According to section 6.5

the applied N-fertiliser consists of 73% ammonium sulphate and 27% urea. Thus, 9.6% of the applied Nfertiliser volatises as ammonia. 

Denitrification (total): The total denitrification (gaseous N oxides and molecular N2) is calculated using the 

model; SimDen (Vinther and Hansen 2004). The reason why the total denitrification is calculated is that this is 

the only way of estimating N-loss as N2. N2 is determined as the total denitrification minus N2O and NO. 

The model is developed for Danish soils. Thus, the calculated total denitrification may be related to some uncertainty. The model calculates denitrification as the sum of background denitrification, denitrification from 

application of artificial fertiliser, denitrification related to application of manure and denitrification from fixed 

nitrogen. No manure is applied in oil palm plantations. The background denitrification depends on the past 

history of organic matter content in the soil and the soil type (Vinther and Hansen, 2004, p 30). The model 

includes calculations for eight different soil types and three levels of organic content. Average organic content 

for mineral soil and high organic content for peat soil are assumed. Denitrification from application of artificial 

fertiliser depends on the amount of N applied with fertiliser, a factor describing the ratio between applied N 

and N2O-emission and the N2/N2O-ratio (Vinther and Hansen, 2004, p 31). Because of lack of information of 

soil types in Malaysia, it is chosen to apply a value representing the average of all eight soil types included in 

the model as representative for mineral soil. The model does not include peat soil. Since denitrification increases with higher C content in the soil (IPCC 2000 and FAO and IFA 2001) and since denitrification increases with higher clay content (Vinther and Hansen 2004) it is assumed that clay soils containing >25% clay 

is representative for peat soil. One of the eight soil types included in the model contains >25% clay. 

The two parameters; N-fertiliser and N-fixation vary during the first six years of cultivation. There are no 

variations in the period 6-25 years after planting. Thus, the total denitrification is calculated for the first six 

years after planting, see Table 6.20. 
6 Agricultural stage: Oil palm, fresh fruit bunches (FFB) 103 

Parameter year 1 year 2 year 3 year 4 year 5 year 6-25 

N-fertiliser, kg N/ha 90 90 106 106 106 106 

N-fixation, kg N/ha 200 160 120 80 40 0 

Total calculated denitrification, kg N/ha year 1 year 2 year 3 year 4 year 5 year 6-25 

Mineral soil 21 19 18 15 13 11 

Peat soil 52 49 46 42 38 35 

Average soil (95.1% mineral soil and 4.1% peat soil) 22 20 19 16 14 12 

Table 6.20: Total denitrification from oil palm cultivation. Calculated using the model SimDen (Vinter and Hansen 2004) 

Direct N2O: The direct N2O emission is calculated using a model described in IPCC (2000). The calculated 

emissions are then compared with the results using another model described in FAO and IFA (2001). The results obtained from FAO and IFA (2001) are not applied in this study because the model does not include peat 

soils. 

IPCC (2000): According to IPCC (2000, p 4.54) the direct N2O emission is calculated as shown in Equation 

(3) in section 5.6. The parameter values used in Equation (3) are described in Table 6.21. 

Parameter Description Parameter value 

FSN Annual amount of synthetic fertiliser nitrogen applied to soils 

adjusted to account for the amount that volatilises as NH3 and 

NOx 

Fertiliser application, see Table 6.19. 9.6% volatises 

FAM Annual amount of animal manure nitrogen intentionally applied 

to soils adjusted to account for the amount that volatilises as 

NH3 and NOx 

No manure 

FBN Amount of nitrogen fixed by N-fixing crops cultivated annually See Table 6.19

FCR Amount of nitrogen in crop residues returned to soils annually EFB, POME and decomposition of biomass in Table 6.19

FOS Area of organic soils cultivated annually (ha) 0% for mineral soil,100% for peat soil and 4.1% of the area 

for average soil 

EF1 Emission factor for emissions from N inputs (kg N2O-N/kg N 

input) 

1.25% (IPCC 2000, p 4.60) 

EF2 Emission factor for emissions from organic soil cultivation (kg 

N2O-N/ha-yr) 

16 (IPCC 2000, p 4.60) 

Table 6.21: Parameters in the equation calculating direct N2O-emissions in IPCC (2000, p 4.54) 

FAO and IFA (2001): According to FAO and IFA (2001, p 34) the direct N2O emission is calculated as shown 

in Equation (4) in section 5.6. The parameter values used in Equation (4) are described in Table 6.22. 
104 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Parameter Description Parameter value 

F Type of fertiliser 0.0042, Fertiliser type is a combination of organic and mineral 

N-app. Applied N, kg/ha See Table 6.19

Cr Crop type 0.000, Crop type is ‘other’ 

S Soil texture -0.008, -0.472 and 0.000,The N2O emission is calculated as 

the average of coarse, medium and fine soil 

C Soil organic C content 0.140, 1-3% C in mineral soil, based on Corley and Tinker 

2003, p 84) 

D Soil drainage -0.420, good drainage. Good drainage is needed in order to 

have suitable conditions for cultivating oil palms (Corley and 

Tinker 2003, p 75-77) 

pH Soil pH 0.000, Soil pH <5.5 (based on Corley and Tinker 2003, p 84) 

Cl Climate 0.824, Tropical climate 

LM Length of measurement period (the model is constructed to fit 

with literature measurements. Thus, to model emissions obtained from literature the method of measurement in literature 

should also be considered since this affects the measured 

emission) 

0.825 Length of measurement period is >300 days, i.e. the 

longest period available in the model (chosen as the most 

precise) 

FM Frequency of measurement (see comment above) 0.000 Frequency of measurement is >1measure/day, i.e. the 

highest frequency available in the model (chosen as the most 

precise) 

Table 6.22: Parameters in the equation calculating direct N2O-emissions in FAO and IFA (2001, p 34-35)

The calculated N2O emissions using the two models are summarised in Table 6.23. 

N2O Mineral soil Peat soil Average soil 

Year 

IPCC (2000), 

kg N2O-N/ha 

FAO and IFA (2001), 

kg N2O-N/ha 

IPCC (2000), 

kg N2O-N/ha 

IPCC (2000), 

kg N2O-N/ha 

1 8.5 3.7 24.5 9.2 

2 8.1 3.7 24.1 8.7 

3 4.2 4.0 20.2 4.9 

4 4.5 4.0 20.5 5.2 

5 4.4 4.0 20.4 5.1 

6-25 3.0 4.0 19.0 3.7 

Table 6.23: Calculated N2O emissions (kg N2O-N/ha) for mineral soil, peat soil and average soil. For mineral soil the 

calculated emission is compared with emissions calculated with the model: FAO and IFA (2001). The annual emission 

from the years 6-25 are equal.

It appears from Table 6.23 that the deviation between the two models is relatively small from 6-25 years after 

planting. The larger deviations during the first six years are mainly due to high decomposition of biomass 

which is included as an influential factor in the IPCC model and not in the FAO and IFA model. Decomposition of biomass causes release of fixed nitrogen. Some of this nitrogen ends as N2O emissions from denitrification in the soil. The IPCC model also take into account that different amounts of N are fixed in the cover crop 

the first six years. The reason why the emission level of N2O from peat is significant higher than from mineral 

soil is that there is a frequent presence of anaerobic pockets in which denitrification takes place. 

Direct NO: The emission of NO is calculated using a model described in FAO and IFA (2001). According to 

FAO and IFA (2001, p 35) the direct NO emission is calculated shown in Equation (5) in section 5.6. The 

parameter values used in Equation (5) are described in Table 6.24. 
6 Agricultural stage: Oil palm, fresh fruit bunches (FFB) 105 

Parameter Description Parameter value 

F Type of fertiliser 0.0055, Fertiliser type is a combination of organic and mineral 

N-app. Applied N, kg/ha See Table 6.19

C Soil organic C content 0.000, <3% C in mineral soil, based on Corley and Tinker 2003, p 84) and 

2.571, >3% C in peat soil 

D Soil drainage 0.946, good drainage. Good drainage is needed in order to have suitable 

conditions for cultivating oil palms (Corley and Tinker 2003, p 75-77) 

Table 6.24: Parameters in the equation calculating direct NO-emissions in FAO and IFA (2001, p 35)

The FAO and IFA model is relatively coarse. Therefore, the emission of NO is only calculated in four different 

situations: Immature (year 1 and 2) and Mature (year 3-25) palms and for mineral soils (95.9% of the area) and 

peat soils (4.1% of the area). The only parameters that are changed are the application of N-fertiliser which 

varies from immature to mature and the content of soil C which varies from mineral soils to peat soils. However, the calculation for peat is done with only soil C at >3% because the model does not include organic soils. 

The calculated NO emission is summarised in Table 6.25. 

Mature/immature Mineral soils Peat soils Average (95.9 mineral and 4.1% peat) 

Immature (year 1 and 2) 0.9 12.0 1.4 

Mature (year 3-25) 1.0 13.1 1.5 

Table 6.25: Calculated NO emissions (kg NO-N/ha) using the model described in FAO and IFA (2001). The applied 

values are marked with a dotted line.

Nitrate: The nitrate emission is calculated as the residual or rest; i.e. the surplus-N from the N-balance minus 

the other calculated emissions described above. The average nitrate emission for the 25 years is 80.7 kg NO3-

N/ha. However, there are great variations with the highest values the first five years at 141-618 kg N/ha and 

more moderate figures the rest of the period at 25-39 kg N/ha. 

Since the nitrate emission is calculated as residual of the N-surplus it may be related to some uncertainty. 

Corley and Tinker (2003, p 358) specify annual N losses (leaching, runoff and erosion) from mature oil palms 

at 21 kg N/ha. This is in relatively good accordance with the calculated nitrate emission at 25-39 kg/ha from 

the 6th to the 25th years after planting. 

N2O, indirect from NH3 and nitrate: Besides the direct N2O emissions from the field which is calculated in 

the previous, there are indirect emissions from the emitted ammonia and nitrate. The emission of ammonia and 

its subsequent deposition as NOx and NH4 and nitrate leached from the field increase the amount of N available 

for denitrification and nitrification (IPCC, 2000, p 4.67). The N2O-N emission produced from deposited NH4-

N and NOx-N (originating from NH3-emission) is 0.01 kg N2O-N/kg N (IPCC 2000, p 4.73). In this respect it 

is assumed that all emitted ammonia will end as deposited NOx or NH4. The N2O-N emission produced from 

leached nitrate is 0.025 kg N2O-N/kg NO3-N (IPCC 2000, p 4.73). The indirect N2O emissions are not assumed to affect the calculated emissions of ammonia and nitrate since the denitrification may take place long 

time after the emissions took place. Therefore, the ammonia and nitrate emissions may already have had an 

effect on the environment. 

NO, indirect: This is not included. 

N changes in soil matter: In the sub-section “Emissions related to C-balance” later here in section 6.7 it is 

determined that there are no changes in soil carbon - neither in relation to transformation of forest/other three 

crops into oil palm nor in relation to continuous cultivation of oil palm. Assuming a relatively constant C/N-
106 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

ration in the soil, there are also no changes of N content in the soil matter. This corresponds to the assumtions 

done in the case of dtermination of emissions related to N-balance for rapeseed, see section 5.6. 

Summary of emissions related to N-balance: The distribution of the N-surplus is summarised in Table 6.26. 

Year 

Emission and source 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 

Ammonia from crop (kg NH3-N/ha) 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 

Ammonia from fertiliser application (kg 

NH3-N/ha) 

8.6 8.6 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 

Denitrification (kg N/ha) 22 20 19 16 14 12 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 

 - N2O part of denitrification 

 (kg N2O-N/ha) 

9.2 8.7 4.9 5.2 5.1 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 

 - NO part of denitrification (kg NO-N/ha) 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 

 - N2 part of denitrification (kg N/ha) 11.7 10.1 12.8 9.4 7.4 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 

Nitrate (kg NO3-N/ha) 367 616 140 162 149 32.3 26.9 25.1 25.0 24.9 24.5 24.5 24.4 

N-surplus (kg N/ha) 403 650 175 193 179 59.4 54.0 52.2 52.1 52.0 51.6 51.6 51.5 

N2O, indirect from NH3 (kg N2O-N/ha) 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 

N2O, indirect from nitrate (kg N2O-N/ha) 9.2 15.4 3.5 4.0 3.7 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 

Year 

Emission and source 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 

Ammonia from crop (kg NH3-N/ha) 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 

Ammonia from fertiliser application (kg 

NH3-N/ha) 

10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 

Denitrification (kg N/ha) 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 

 - N2O part of denitrification 

 (kg N2O-N/ha) 

3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 

 - NO part of denitrification (kg NO-N/ha) 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 

 - N2 part of denitrification (kg N/ha) 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 

Nitrate (kg NO3-N/ha) 24.3 24.4 24.5 25.3 26.1 27.2 28.3 30.2 32.1 34.2 36.3 38.0 

N-surplus (kg N/ha) 51.4 51.5 51.6 52.4 53.2 54.3 55.4 57.3 59.2 61.3 63.4 65.1 

N2O, indirect from NH3 (kg N2O-N/ha) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 

N2O, indirect from nitrate (kg N2O-N/ha) 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 

Table 6.26: N-related emissions from 1 hectare oil palm plantation, average soil (96.9% mineral soil and 4.1% peat soil). 

All values are given in kg N/ha. 

The summary of N-related emissions from mineral soil and peat soil are not specified each of the 25 years, 

only the total annual average is shown, see Table 6.27. 
6 Agricultural stage: Oil palm, fresh fruit bunches (FFB) 107 

Emission as kg N/ha Average soil 

(95.9% mineral soil and 4.1% peat soil) 

Mineral soil Peat soil 

Ammonia to air (kg NH3-N/ha) 15.1 15.1 15.1 

N2O to air (kg N2O-N/ha) 6.4 5.8 21.2 

NO to air (kg NO-N/ha) 1.5 1.0 13.0 

Nitrate to water (kg NO3-N/ha) 79.7 80.7 55.9 

Emission as kg emission/ha Average soil 

(95.9% mineral soil and 4.1% peat soils) 

Mineral soil Peat soil 

Ammonia to air (kg NH3/ha) 18.3 18.3 18.3 

N2O to air (kg N2O/ha) 10.1 9.1 33.3 

NO to air (kg NO/ha) 3.2 2.1 27.9 

Nitrate to water (kg NO3/ha) 353 358 248 

Table 6.27: Emissions related to N-balance. 

Emissions related to P-balance 

Emissions of P are simpler to determine than emissions related to N. Only one substance is emitted, i.e. P as 

phosphate to water/soil. As described in the case of emissions from rapeseed cultivation (see section 5.6) accumulation of phosphorus in the soil is relatively constant due to strong binding to the soil. Therefore, the 

emission of P is calculated as a fraction of the field surplus. According to section 5.6: ‘Emissions related to Pbalance’, 2.9% of the P surplus is emitted to water as leaching of phosphate. The remaining is accumulated in 

the soil matter. 

The P-balance for one generation of oil palm is presented in Table 6.28. P-balance is based on the description 

of inputs to and outputs from the field previous in this section. 
108 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Year 

Inputs: Net inputs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 

P-fertiliser 15.3 15.3 31.9 31.9 31.9 31.9 31.9 31.9 31.9 31.9 31.9 31.9 31.9 

Planted palm seedlings 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

EFB 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 

POME 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 

Total 18.2 17.3 33.9 33.9 33.9 33.9 33.9 33.9 33.9 33.9 33.9 33.9 33.9 

Inputs: Release from decomposition of biomass 

Pruned fronds, present generation 0.0 0.0 2.3 6.8 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 

Pruned fronds, previous generation 6.8 2.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Felled biomass from replanting 29.9 29.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Total 36.7 32.2 2.3 6.8 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 

Output: Increase in standing biomass (uptake that stays in the field) 

Uptake in oil palms 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 

Pruned fronds 0.0 0.0 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 

Total 2.4 2.4 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 

Output: Harvested FFB (uptake that is brought out of the field) 

Harvested FFB 0.0 0.0 5.4 6.4 7.5 8.5 9.3 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.7 9.7 9.7 

Total 0.0 0.0 5.4 6.4 7.5 8.5 9.3 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.7 9.7 9.7 

Balance 

P surplus (input – output) 52.5 47.1 19.3 22.8 24.0 23.0 22.2 21.9 21.9 21.9 21.8 21.8 21.8 

P leaching (2.9%) 1.52 1.37 0.56 0.66 0.70 0.67 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.63 

Year 

Inputs: Net inputs 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 

P-fertiliser 31.9 31.9 31.9 31.9 31.9 31.9 31.9 31.9 31.9 31.9 31.9 31.9 

Planted palm seedlings 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

EFB 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 

POME 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 

Total 33.9 33.9 33.9 33.9 33.9 33.9 33.9 33.9 33.9 33.9 33.9 33.9 

Inputs: Release from decomposition of biomass 

Pruned fronds, present generation 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 

Pruned fronds, previous generation 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Felled biomass from replanting 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Total 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 

Output: Increase in standing biomass (uptake that stays in the field) 

Uptake in oil palms 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 

Pruned fronds 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 

Total 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 

Output: Harvested FFB (uptake that is brought out of the field)

Harvested FFB 9.7 9.7 9.7 9.6 9.4 9.3 9.1 8.8 8.6 8.2 7.9 7.7 

Total 9.7 9.7 9.7 9.6 9.4 9.3 9.1 8.8 8.6 8.2 7.9 7.7 

Balance

P surplus (input – output) 21.8 21.8 21.8 21.9 22.0 22.2 22.4 22.7 22.9 23.3 23.6 23.8 

P leaching (2.9%) 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.67 0.67 0.68 0.69 

Table 6.28: P-balance for 1 hectare oil palm plantation. 

The average annual emission of phosphate during the 25 years oil palm life is 0.71 kg PO4-P/ha. This is in 

good accordance with P losses in runoff reported in Corley and Tinker (2003, p 380) at 0.7-1.1 kg P/ha per 

year. 

Since large amounts of P are accumulated in the soil, the emission may be larger in the case of erosion. Erosion depends on the slope of the field, terracing, rainfall, vegetation cover, residue management (mulching of 

pruned fronds and EFB) and oil palm age (Corley and Tinker 2003, p 236, 380). Thus, it is relatively difficult 

to determine soil loss from erosion. However, Corley and Tinker (2003, p 381) report P lost in eroded sediments as 0.5-1.3 kg P/ha per year (measures from a plantation within normal rates of erosion). The average 

value at 0.9 kg P/ha per year is applied in this study. Hence, the total annual emission of P is 1.61 kg P/ha. 
6 Agricultural stage: Oil palm, fresh fruit bunches (FFB) 109 

 

No data on differences between soil types have been identified. Thus, there is no distinguishing between Prelated emissions from mineral and peat soils. 

Emissions related to C-balance 

Mass balances for carbon are not as detailed as for nitrogen. This is because emission of carbon dioxide from 

biotic origin is not included. Only CO2 from net changes of carbon in the soil and from land transformation are 

included. Carbon emissions that arise from transformation of alang-alang and tropical rain forest into oil palm 

plantations are described in section 19.1. 

Henson (2004, p 15-17) summarises different surveys on changes in soil carbon under oil palm. In general 

there is lack of good data on soil carbon changes under oil palm in the long term (Henson 2004). Henson 

(2004) identifies studies that show increasing, no change and decreasing carbon in soil under oil palm. Thus, 

Henson (2004) concludes that the best assumption is to presume that there are no changes in soil carbon from 

continuous cultivation of oil palm. Hence, it is chosen to apply the assumption suggested by Henson (2004): 

soil carbon in mineral soils, i.e. not peat soils, does not change over time under oil palm. 

Peat soils which contain almost 100% organic material are a special case. When peat soils are drained aeration 

is increased. The subsequent oxidation causes release of carbon dioxide (Henson 2004, p 28). Henson (2004) 

has calculated a mean annual emission from peat soils at 7.5 t C/ha. This mean value take into account that 

carbon emissions gradually decreases over time as subsidence is taking place. According to Henson (2004) 

carbon emissions as high as 12 to 18 t C/ha have been measured. Reijnders and Huijbregts (2006) report 10-15 

t C/ha from oil palm cultivated on peat and IPCC (2003, p 3.79) specify 20 t C/ha per year for cultivation on 

tropical peat soils (average tillage and drainage). It is chosen to apply 10 t C/ha from oil palm on peat. 10 t 

C/ha corresponds to ~37 t CO2/ha. The value at 10 t C/ha is significantly smaller than the value specified by 

IPCC. However, oil palm plantations have a very low level of tillage (once every 25 years). Therefore, a lower 

value than specified by IPCC is assumed. Applying a FFB yield at 18.87 t/ha and an oil extraction rate in the 

oil mill at 0.2 t oil/t FFB the 37 t CO2/ha corresponds to ~10 t CO2/t crude palm oil. This is a significant contribution to global warming compared to contributions from other stages and processes, e.g. methane from 

POME treatment in the palm oil mill contributes with only ~0.2 t CO2-eq14/t crude palm oil (see Table 10.10) 

and CO2 from burning of diesel in machinery in the oil palm plantation contributes with only ~40 kg CO2/t 

crude palm oil15. Therefore, a sensitivity analysis applying other levels of carbon emission from peat soils is 

presented in section 21.14. Section 21.13 presents a sensitivity analysis that compares cultivation on peat with 

cultivation on mineral soils. 

The area planted on peat soil in Malaysia in 2003/2004 accounted for 4.1% of the total planted area. The same 

figures are assumed to be valid for oil palm in Indonesia. Thus, the CO2-emission from degradation under average oil palm in Indonesia and Malaysia can be calculated as 4.1% of 37 t CO2, i.e. 1.5 t CO2/ha. 

Emissions of heavy metal 

Fertilisers contain contaminants of heavy metals. The emission from the input of heavy metals is regarded as 

emissions to soil. The crude palm oil and kernels are brought out of the field, but no data on the contents of 

heavy metals have been identified. Therefore, the entire input is regarded as emissions to soil. The heavy metal 

content in the crude palm oil is sorted out in the refining process. Since a considerable share of the heavy met14 GWP at 25 g CO2-eq/g CH4 has been applied. 15 The diesel consumption and inventory data for burning diesel in machinery as described in section 6.3 and an oil extraction rate in the oil mill at 0.2 t oil/t FFB have been applied. 
110 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

als will be in the sludge from waste water treatment, some of the heavy metals in the CPO will end as emissions to soil from landfilling of the sludge. The same is the case for palm kernel oil. The palm kernel cake 

which is used as animal fodder also ends as emissions to soil with the droppings from the animals. Therefore, 

the assumption that the entire input of heavy metals with fertiliser ends as emissions to soil is regarded as relatively certain. 

The content of heavy metals in ammonia sulphate, urea and phosphate rock are shown in Table 6.29 to Table 

6.31. The heavy metal content in potassium chloride is shown in Table 5.39. 

Ammonium sulphate AMMONIUM SULFATE 

21-0-0 

AMMONIUM SULFATE 

21-0-0 

Heavy metals in N fertiliser, Ammonia Sulphate; 

mg/kg N (Nemecek, et al. 2003) (WSDA 2006) (WSDA 2006) 

Ammonia sulphate, 

applied in this study 

Arsenic (As) - <0.3 <0.1 0.2 

Cadmium (Cd) 0.2 <0.03 <0.2 0.1 

Chromium (Cr) 10.0 - - 10.0 

Cobalt (Co) - <0.04 <1.1 0.6 

Copper (Cu) 19.0 - - 19.0 

Mercury (Hg) - <0.01 <0.004 0.01 

Molybdenum (Mo) - <0.1 <0.1 0.1 

Nickel (Ni) 8.6 <0.1 <0.5 3.1 

Lead (Pb) 5.2 <0.3 <1.1 2.2 

Selenium (Se) - <0.3 <0.1 0.2 

Zink (Zn) 143 <0.1 <1.1 48.1 

Table 6.29: Heavy metal content (mg/kg N) in ammonia sulphate fertilisers from different sources. The applied data are 

the average of the three data sets; they are marked with a black dotted frame.

Heavy metals in N fertil- Urea UREA 46% UREA 46-0-0 

iser, UREA; 

mg/kg N (Nemecek, et al. 2003) (WSDA 2006) (WSDA 2006) 

Urea, applied in this 

study 

Arsenic (As) - <0.2 <0.5 0.4 

Cadmium (Cd) 0.1 <0.5 <0.5 0.4 

Chromium (Cr) 4.4 - - 4.4 

Cobalt (Co) - <2.3 <0.5 1.4 

Copper (Cu) 13.0 - - 13.0 

Mercury (Hg) - <0.01 <0.3 0.16 

Molybdenum (Mo) - <2.3 <0.5 1.4 

Nickel (Ni) 4.4 <1.4 <0.5 2.1 

Lead (Pb) 2.4 <0.05 <0.5 1.0 

Selenium (Se) - <0.2 <0.5 0.4 

Zink (Zn) 95.7 <46.0 <0.5 47.4 

Table 6.30: Heavy metal content (mg/kg N) in Urea fertilisers from different sources. The applied data are the average of 

the three data sets; they are marked with a black dotted frame.
6 Agricultural stage: Oil palm, fresh fruit bunches (FFB) 111 

Rock Phosphate Pelletized rock phosphate 0-3-0 Heavy metals in P fertiliser, Phosphate Rock; 

mg/kg P2O5 (Nemecek, et al. 2003) (WSDA 2006) 

Phosphate rock, applied 

in this study 

Arsenic (As) - <0.6 0.6 

Cadmium (Cd) 50 2.6 26.3 

Chromium (Cr) 612 - 612 

Cobalt (Co) - 0.09 0.09 

Copper (Cu) 115 - 115 

Mercury (Hg) - 0.01 0.01 

Molybdenum (Mo) - 0.6 0.6 

Nickel (Ni) 76.9 5.1 41.0 

Lead (Pb) 23.8 0.3 12.1 

Selenium (Se) - <1.5 1.5 

Zink (Zn) 915 0.04 458 

Table 6.31: Heavy metal content (mg/kg P2O5) in Urea fertilisers from different sources. The applied data are the average 

of the three data sets; they are marked with a black dotted frame. 

Based on the fertiliser input shown in Table 6.4 and the contents of heavy metals in fertilisers in Table 6.29 to 

Table 6.31 and Table Table 5.39, the emissions of heavy metals from fertiliser can be calculated. The distribution between ammonia sulphate and urea as N fertiliser is 73% to 27%. The results are shown in Table 6.32. 

Heavy metal emissions Emission, g/ha 

Arsenic (As) 1.0 

Cadmium (Cd) 1.9 

Chromium (Cr) 44.4 

Cobalt (Co) 0.2 

Copper (Cu) 11.6 

Mercury (Hg) 0.03 

Molybdenum (Mo) 0.1 

Nickel (Ni) 5.1 

Lead (Pb) 2.0 

Selenium (Se) 0.4 

Zink (Zn) 68.7 

Table 6.32: Heavy metal emissions from oil palm cultivation, g/ha. 

Emissions of pesticides 

The compartments that receive the applied active ingredients in the pesticides are assumed to be 33% soil, 33% 

water and 33% air. This is a very rough estimate which is tested in a sensitivity analysis in section 21.11. 

6.8 Overhead in agricultural stage 

No data on electricity use in administration, research, laboratory and nursery buildings related to oil palm cultivation have been identified. Therefore it is very roughly assumed that overhead for the agricultural stage is 

equal to the palm oil mill at 1 MJ/t FFB, see section 10.7. Applying a yield at 18.87 t FFB/ha, this corresponds 

to 0.053 MJ/ha per year. Buildings are not heated in Malaysia. 

6.9 Capital goods in agricultural stage 

Capital goods in the agricultural stage for rapeseed are described in section 5.8. It includes means of production, i.e. buildings and machinery. Only one inventory of agricultural buildings and machinery has been identified; ecoinvent (2004). This has been used for describing capital goods in rapeseed cultivation, see section 5.8. 

The data in ecoinvent (2004) covers capital goods in European agriculture. Since no other data have been identified, it is chosen to use these data for production, maintenance and disposal of the relevant capital goods for 

oil palm cultivation in Malaysia and Indonesia. 
112 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

No data on the amounts of used buildings (shed and buildings for administration, research and laboratories/nursery) and machinery (tractors, agr. machinery-tillage and agr.machinery-general) have been identified. 

Thus, this is determined from modified figures of the capital goods used in rapeseed cultivation. It is assumed 

that the amount of tractors, agricultural machinery-general and shed are equivalent with the diesel consumption 

per hectare. The diesel consumption in rapeseed cultivation is 3,612 MJ/ha (see section 5.3) and the diesel 

consumption in oil palm cultivation is 2,118 MJ/ha (see Table 6.3). Thus, use of tractors, shed and agricultural 

machinery per ha oil palm plantation is 59% of the use per ha rapeseed field. Since the oil palm field is only 

cleared once every 25 years, the use of agricultural machinery-tillage is determined as 1/25 of the use in rapeseed cultivation. The use of buildings for administration, research and laboratories/nursery is assumed to be 

equal to the use of buildings for administration in the palm oil mill at 0.0262 m3

 ‘Building, multi-storey’ per t 

FFB, see section 10.8. Applying a yield at 18.87 t FFB/ha, this corresponds to 0.0014 m3

/ha per year. 

Use of capital goods, kg/ha per year 

Capital goods Rapeseed (Table 5.44) Oil palm 

Tractor 7.5 kg 4.4 kg

Agricultural machinery, general 3.5 kg 2.1 kg

Agricultural machinery, tillage 9.2 kg 0.4 kg

Shed 0.070 m2 0.041 m2

Administration, research and laboratories/nursery buildings 0 m3 0.0014 m3

Table 6.33: Use of capital goods in oil palm cultivation.

6.10 Transport of materials in agricultural stage 

Raw materials are transported with lorry to the oil palm plantations. Inventory data per tkm transport by lorry 

are described in section 4.1. Since there are several suppliers and since there is a general lack of data on the 

specific marginal affected supplier, all transport distances are based on rough estimates. Determination of size 

of lorries is based on Table 4.3 and very rough estimates on the total amount of goods transported. 

Determination of the amount of transported fertiliser is shown in Table 6.34. The contents of nutrients in fertilisers are estimated from a commonly used fertilisers in oil palm cultivation in Corley and Tinker (2003, p 385) 

and a review of various fertilisers in WSDA (2006). 
6 Agricultural stage: Oil palm, fresh fruit bunches (FFB) 113 

Fertiliser Content of nutrient in fertiliser Applied nutrients (see section 6.5) Applied fertiliser product 

Ammonium sulphate 21% N 76 kg N/ha 362 kg/ha

Urea 35% N 28 kg N/ha 80 kg/ha

Phosphate rock 30% P2O5 (13% P) 31 kg P/ha 238 kg/ha

Potassium chloride 14% K2O (12% K) 170 kg K/ha 1,417 kg/ha

Magnesium 27% MgO 35 kg MgO/ha 130 kg/ha

Sulphur 23% S 16 kg S/ha 70 kg/ha

Boron 10% B - kg B/ha - kg/ha

Total 2,297 kg/ha

Table 6.34: Determination of amount of transported fertiliser product. The applied nutrients are obtained from Table 6.4.

The amount of pesticide products used is adopted as the average of 2 years immature and 23 years mature 

given in Table 6.7, i.e. 6.6 kg pesticide product/ha per year. 

Table 6.35 shows the transported amounts, the route and the distances. 

Material Amount per ha From To Distance Means of transportation 

Seed insignificant - - - - 

FFB 18,870 kg Plantation Palm oil mill 

EFB 4,150 kg Palm oil mill Plantation 

Transport is included in energy use in the 

plantation 

Fertilisers 2,297 kg Abroad chemical plant Port in Malaysia/Indonesia 5000 km Transoceanic tanker 

Fertilisers 2,297 kg Port in Malaysia/Indonesia Oil palm plantation 500 km 40t lorry 

Pesticides 6.6 kg Abroad chemical plant Port in Malaysia/Indonesia 5000 km Transoceanic tanker 

Pesticides 6.6 kg Port in Malaysia/Indonesia Oil palm plantation 500 km 40t lorry 

Table 6.35: Transport of goods related to the agricultural stage. The return trip is included in the inventory data. 

The estimated transport in Table 6.35 is summarized per type of lorry in Table 6.36. 

Means of transportation Transport 

40t lorry 1,152 tkm

Oceanic tanker 11,520 tkm

Table 6.36: Summary of transport in the agricultural stage. 
114 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

6.11 LCI of oil palm agricultural stage, summary 

Table 6.37 summarises the inventory data relating to 1 ha soil cultivated in 1 year with oil palm. 

Malaysia and Indonesia: 1 ha y oil palm plantation 

Interventions Amount Applied LCI data 

Product output

FFB 18.87 t Product of interest 

Energy use 

Traction, burned diesel 2,118 MJ See section 4.3

Electricity for overhead 0.053 MJ See Table 3.3

Material use

N-fertiliser, ammonium sulphate (as N) 76 kg ‘Ammonium sulphate, as N, at regional storehouse/RER’ 

(ecoinvent 2004) 

N-fertiliser, urea (as N) 28 kg ‘Urea, as N, at regional storehouse/RER’, 

(ecoinvent 2004) 

P-fertiliser (as P2O5) 70 kg Phosphate rock, see section 6.5: Fertilisers

K-fertiliser (as K2O) 204 kg Potassium chloride, as K2O, at regional storehouse/RER’, ecoinvent (2004) 

Herbicide, typically glyphosate 2.4 kg ‘Glyphosate, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Insecticide, typically cypermethrin 0.31 kg ‘Pesticide unspecified, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Fungicides, various different 0.013 kg ‘Pesticide unspecified, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Rodenticide, typically warfarin 0.00021 kg ‘Pesticide unspecified, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Capital goods

Agricultural buildings, shed 0.041 m2 ‘Shed/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Agricultural buildings, administration etc. 0.00139 m3 ‘Building, multi-storey’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, tractor 4.4 kg ‘Tractor, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, tillage 0.4 kg ‘Agricultural machinery, tillage, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, general/miscellaneous 2.1 kg ‘Agricultural machinery, general, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Transport

40t lorry 1,152 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 40t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Oceanic tanker 11,520 tkm ‘Transport, transoceanic tanker/OCE’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Emissions Air Water Soil 

Carbon dioxide (CO2) 1,500 kg 

Ammonia (NH3) 18.3 kg - - 

Dinitrogen oxide (N2O) 10.1 kg - - 

Nitric oxide (NO) 3.2 kg - - 

Nitrate (NO3) - 353 kg - 

Phosphorus (P) - 1.6 kg - 

Glyphosate 0.80 kg 0.80 kg 0.80 kg 

Cypermethrin 0.10 kg 0.10 kg 0.10 kg 

Fungicides, various different Not included, no characterisation data exist in LCIA methods 

Warfarin Not included, no characterisation data exist in LCIA methods 

Arsenic (As) - - 1.0 g 

Cadmium (Cd) - - 1.9 g 

Chromium (Cr) - - 44 g 

Cobalt (Co) - - 0.23 g 

Copper (Cu) - - 12 g 

Mercury (Hg) - - 0.026 g 

Molybdenum (Mo) - - 0.11 g 

Nickel (Ni) - - 5.1 g 

Lead (Pb) - - 2.0 g 

Selenium (Se) - - 0.42 g 

Zink (Zn) - - 69 g 

Table 6.37: Interventions per ha y oil palm plantation. 
7 Agricultural stage: Soybean 115 

7 Agricultural stage: Soybean 

The soybean plant (Glycine max.) is an annual leguminous plant which grows to a height of 120-180 cm, and 

the soybeans contain around 35% protein and 18% oil (Dalgaard et al. 2007). 

This section provides data for a change in production of soybean in Brazil. Some of the inventory data for soybean are directly applied from Dalgaard et al. (2007) and other are modified in order to maintain consistency 

with the methodologies for inventorying rapeseed and oil palm cultivation. The modified data are the emissions related to the N-, P- and C-balances and the inventory data for traction and fertilisers. In addition to the 

modifications, the inventory presented here includes more processes than included in Dalgaard et al. (2007). 

These are; Production and emissions of pesticides, drying of soybeans, the use of and processing of soybean 

seed, capital goods and transport of materials in agricultural stage. 

Reference for the data in Dalgaard et al. (2007) is one crop rotation on one hectare. Since 25% of the area is 

double-cropped, this is not the same as one hectare in one year. This study applies a reference for the inventory 

in the agricultural stage of one hectare in one year. Thus, the uses of energy and materials in Dalgaard et al. 

(2007) have to be multiplied with (0.25⋅2 + 0.75) = 1.25 in order to represent cultivation of one hectare in one 

year. 

7.1 Product flow in agricultural stage 

The inventory of the agricultural stage is divided into the unit processes shown as shaded boxes in Figure 7.1. 

The product flow is determined per hectare per year, see descriptions below the figure. Capital goods

Farm - buildings

Tractor

Harvester

1 hectare soybean field

Soybean seed: 138 kg

Field operations: Pesticide,

sowing, fertiliser, possible

tillage, harvesting

Soybeans: 3,350 kg

Drying

Soybeans: 3,212 kg

Seed processing

Water: 68 kg

Other agr. machinery

Field operations: Pesticide,

sowing, fertiliser, possible

tillage, harvesting

25% double cropping 75% single-cropping

Seed: 27.5 kg Seed: 82.5 kg

Field operations: Pesticide,

sowing, fertiliser, possible

tillage, harvesting

Seed: 27.5 kg

Soybeans: 684 kg Soybeans: 684 kg Soybeans: 2,051 kg

Soybeans: 3,418 kg

Figure 7.1: Product flow related to cultivation of 1 ha soybean field in 1 year. The grey shaded boxes represent the unit 

processes in the agricultural stage.
116 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Yield: The soybean yield is applied as the yield in 2005 calculated from linear regression of yields from 1990 

to 2005, see Figure 7.2. The same method as for determining the yield for rapeseed has been used, see section 

5.1. Yields are obtained from FAOSTAT (2006). The expected yield in 2005 can be calculated as 2.68 t/ha t/ha 

using the equation in Figure 7.2. For comparison with yields determined using other methods see Table 7.1. 

However, the yield calculated from the formula in Figure 7.2 has to be adjusted in order to take into account 

that 25% of the soybean cultivated area in Brazil is by double-cropping (see section 2.3). Thus, since 25% of 

the area has the double output, the adjusted yield is calculated by multiplying with (0.25⋅2 + 0.75) = 1.25. 

Table 7.1 shows the adjusted as well as the non-adjusted yields. 

yield = 0.0548*(year - 1989) + 1.80

R2

 = 0.63

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

1990199119921993199419951996199719981999200020012002200320042005

Yield (t/ha)

Soybean in Brazil

Figure 7.2: Soybean yields in Brazil 1990 to 2005. The linear regression line and its corresponding equation and R2 are 

also shown. The yields are obtained from FAOSTAT (2006). 

Region Yield 2005 (based 

on regression 

1990-2005) 

Average yield 1990-

2005 

Average yield 2000-

2005 

Yield 2003 Yield 2004 Yield 2005 

Brazil (not adjusted for 

double-cropping) 

2.68 t/ha 2.27 t/ha 2.54 t/ha 2.82 t/ha 2.31 t/ha 2.30 t/ha 

Brazil (adjusted for 

double-cropping) 

3.35 t/ha 2.84 t/ha 3.18 t/ha 3.52 t/ha 2.89 t/ha 2.88 t/ha 

Table 7.1: Soybean yield in Brazil determined using different methods. The applied yield is marked with a dotted line. 

Seed input: According to Nemecek et al. (2003, p 125) the use of seed is 110 kg/ha. These data are for cultivation without double cropping. Thus, the use of seed when 25% of the area is double-cropped is 138 kg. 

Water loos in drying: According to Nemecek et al. (2003, p 121) and Dalgaard et al. (2001) grains (unspecified grains) are typically dried 2 percent points. No specific data on drying of soybeans have been identified. 

Therefore, the two percent points are applied. Since the dried yield is 3,350 kg soybeans per ha, the water dried 

is 68 kg. 

7.2 Omitted inventory data in agricultural stage 

Magnesium (Mg), Sulphur (S) and Boron fertilisers and dust emissions and soil erosion have not been taken 

into account. These interventions are regarded as insignificant. 
7 Agricultural stage: Soybean 117 

7.3 Energy use 

Traction 

According to Dalgaard et al. (2007) the energy use as burning of diesel in agricultural machinery is 42 litre/ha. 

Adjusting for double cropping this corresponds to 52.5 litre/ha. Applying calorific values as given in Appendix 

1: Data on fuels, the energy use is 1,911 MJ/ha. 

The inventory data for traction are described in section 4.3. 

Drying of seed 

According to Figure 7.1, 68 kg of water is dried out of the harvested soybeans per ha. The inventory data for 

drying of seed are described in section 5.3: ‘Drying of seed’. However, the use of electricity in the inventory is 

adjusted to Brazilian marginal electricity, see Table 3.3. 

7.4 Materials 

Seed 

The interventions related to the agricultural stage in production of seed are accounted for by subtracting an 

amount of seed from the yield. According to Nemecek et al. (2003, p 103) the yield of seed production is the 

same as for conventional cultivation of soybean. 

No inventory data for production of soybean seed have been identified. However, in ecoinvent the data in an 

inventory of pea seed are used as representative for production of soybean seed. It is chosen to apply a modyfied version of these data in this study. The modifications corresponds to the modifications done for rapeseed 

production, see section 5.4: ‘Seed’. The inventory of soybean seed production is shown in Table 7.2. 

LCI-data for production of 1 kg 

seed 

Amount LCI data used in this study 

Soybean from agriculture 1 kg This is accounted for by subtracting 1 kg from the yield at 3.35 tonne/ha per kg 

seed used, see figure Figure 7.1. 

Pesticide 0.0016 kg ‘Pesticide unspecified, at regional storehouse/CH’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Electricity 0.21 MJ Electricity, see Table 3.3

Building for storage 2.0 ⋅ 10-5 m3 Building, multi-storey/RER (ecoinvent 2004) 

Transport from farm to warehouse 0.76 tkm Transport, lorry 28t/CH (ecoinvent 2004) 

Table 7.2: Inventory data for production of 1 kg soybean seed (ecoinvent 2004). 

Fertiliser 

No N and K fertiliser are applied in soybean cultivation (Dalgaard et al. 2007). The amount of applied P fertiliser in Dalgaard et al. (2007) is 16 kg P per hectare. Adjusting for double-cropping and transforming to P as 

P2O5 this corresponds to 46 kg P2O5/ha. 

According to IFA (2007), the most widely used P-fertiliser in Latin America is phosphate rock. Therefore, it is 

assumed that this represents the marginal source of P-fertiliser in Brazil. Inventory data for phosphate rock are 

described in section 6.5: Fertilisers. 

Pesticides 

The use of pesticides in soybean cultivation is given in Dalgaard et al. (2007). However, Dalgaard et al. (2007) 

do not include pesticides as interventions in the LCIA and consequentially no inventory data are applied for the 
118 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

production of pesticides. According to Dalgaard et al. (2007) the following pesticides are used: glyphosate 

(herbicide), 2-4 D (herbicide), imazethapyr (herbicide), cypermethrin (insecticide), chlorpyrifos (insecticide). 

However, for 2-4 D and imazethapyr the application of active ingredients (a.i.) is not specified. Therefore, 

because of lack of data, the use and consequential emission of these pesticides has been omitted from the 

study. Inventory data have only been identified for glyphosate and cypermethrin (as pyretroid-compounds). 

These data are from the ecoinvent database (ecoinvent 2004). Inventory data for the remaining pesticides are 

applied as ‘Pesticide unspecified’, also obtained from the ecoinvent database. The use of pesticides per hectare 

is given in Table 7.3. In Table 7.3 the data obtained from Dalgaard et al. (2007) are adjusted for doublecropping 

Dalgaard et al (2007) Applied in this study 

Pesticide kg/ha kg a.i./ha kg/ha kg a.i./ha 

Herbicide, glyphosate 5 1.8 6.3 2.3 

Herbicide, 2-4 D 0.35 no data 0.44 no data 

Herbicide, imazethapyr 1 no data 1.3 no data 

Insecticide, pyrethroid, cypermethrin 0.1 0.01 0.13 0.013 

Insecticide, Chlorpyrifos 0.8 0.16 1.0 0.20 

Total 7.3 2.0 9.1 2.5 

Table 7.3: Use of pesticides per hectare per year. The amount and type of pesticides used are based on figures from Dalgaard et al. (2007) and Dalgaard (2007). 

7.5 Emissions 

N- and P balances are established for soybean cultivation. The relevant data in this respect are given in Table 

7.4. 

Parameter Amount Reference 

Annual soybean yield 3,350 kg/ha See Table 7.1

Seed input 138 kg/ha Nemecek et al (2003, p 125) 

Soybean dry matter 87% Møller et al. (2000, p 17) 

Soybean straw solid matter 87% Møller et al. (2000, p 43). Assumed to be the same as pea straw 

Straw removed from field 0% Nemecek et al (2003, p 125) 

Residue to crop ratio 2.1 IPCC (2000, p 4.58) 

Soybean N-content 0.065 kg N/kg DS Møller et al. (2000, p 17), N content is protein content divided by 6.25 

Residue N-content 0.012 kg N/kg DS Møller et al. (2000, p 43). Assumed to be the same as pea straw, N content is 

protein content divided by 6.25 

Soybean P-content 0.063 kg P/kg DS Møller et al. (2000, p 17) 

Residue P-content 0.002 kg P/kg DS Møller et al. (2000, p 43). Assumed to be the same as pea straw 

Atmospheric N-deposition 8.0 kg/ha y Trebs et al. (2004) 

N-fixing 165 kg N/ha y Dalgaard et al. (2007) specifies 132 kg N/ha per crop rotation. Adjusting for 25% 

double-croppping, N-fixing is 165 kg N/ha per year. 

Table 7.4: Relevant data in order to establish field balances of N and P for soybean cultivation. 

The N- and P-balances are shown in Table 7.5. 
7 Agricultural stage: Soybean 119 

Inputs N P 

Deposition 8.0 kg N/ha 0 kg P/ha 

Seed 9.0 kg N/ha 0.76 kg P/ha 

Fertiliser 0 kg N/ha 20.0 kg P/ha 

N-fixing 165 kg N/ha - 

Changes in soil matter 0 kg N/ha - 

Total 182.0 kg N/ha 20.8 kg P/ha 

Outputs 

Harvested soybeans 189.4 kg N/ha 18.4 kg P/ha 

Removed straw 0 kg N/ha 0 kg P/ha 

Total 189.4 kg N/ha 18.4 kg P/ha 

Balance 

surplus (input – output) -7.5 kg N/ha 2.4 kg P/ha 

Table 7.5: Annual N- and P-balances for 1 hectare soybean field. 

It appears that there is a negative N-surplus from soybean cultivation. This means that more N is removed with 

the harvested soybeans than the input of N from deposition, N-fixing and soybean seed. A negative N-surplus 

is consistent with Dalgaard et al. (2007) and Austin et al. (2006). 

Emissions related to the N-balance 

Since there is a negative N-surplus in the N-balance, it is assumed that there are no emissions of NH3 from 

crop and no nitrate leaching. This is in accordance with Dalgaard et al. (2007). Since there is no surplus of N, it 

is not necessary to calculate the total denitrification. Neither indirect emissions of N2O from NH3 and nitrate 

are relevant since there are no emissions of NH3 and nitrate. In the following the direct emissions of N2O and 

NO are determined. 

Direct N2O: The direct N2O emission is calculated using a model described in IPCC (2000). The calculated 

emissions are then compared with the results using another model described in FAO and IFA (2001). The results obtained from FAO and IFA (2001) are not applied in this study because the model does not include peat 

soils which is relevant for palm oil – thus, it would not be consistent to apply calculated emissions from different emissions for the desired crops. 

IPCC (2000): According to IPCC (2000, p 4.54) the direct N2O emission is calculated as shown in Equation 

(3) in section 5.6. The parameter values used in Equation (3) are described in Table 7.6. 
120 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Parameter Description Parameter value 

FSN Annual amount of synthetic fertiliser nitrogen applied to soils 

adjusted to account for the amount that volatilises as NH3 and 

NOx 

No N-fertiliser application 

FAM Annual amount of animal manure nitrogen intentionally applied 

to soils adjusted to account for the amount that volatilises as 

NH3 and NOx 

No manure 

FBN Amount of nitrogen fixed by N-fixing crops cultivated annually 151 kg N/ha, see Table 7.5

FCR Amount of nitrogen in crop residues returned to soils annually 67.1 kg N/ha, calculated using the informations in in Table 

7.5

FOS Area of organic soils cultivated annually (ha) 0% The total area of peat soil in Brazil is 15,000 km2 (Andriesse 1988). Comparing with the total area of Brazil at 8.46 

mio km2, this corresponds to 0.2% of Brazil which is regarded 

as insignificant. 

EF1 Emission factor for emissions from N inputs (kg N2O-N/kg N 

input) 

1.25% (IPCC 2000, p 4.60) 

EF2 Emission factor for emissions from organic soil cultivation (kg 

N2O-N/ha-yr) 

16 (IPCC 2000, p 4.60) 

Table 7.6: Parameters in the equation calculating direct N2O-emissions in IPCC (2000, p 4.54) 

FAO and IFA (2001): According to FAO and IFA (2001, p 34) the direct N2O emission is calculated as shown 

in Equation (4) in section 5.6. The parameter values used in Equation (4) are described in Table 7.7. 

Parameter Description Parameter value 

F Type of fertiliser Not relevant, no N-fertiliser application 

N-app. Applied N, kg/ha No N-fertiliser application 

Cr Crop type -0.023, Crop type is ‘legume’ 

S Soil texture -0.008, -0.472 and 0.000,The N2O emission is calculated as 

the average of coarse, medium and fine soil 

C Soil organic C content 0.140, 1-3% C in mineral soil. Assumed to be the same as in 

Malaysia, see Table 6.22

D Soil drainage -0.420, good drainage. It is assumed that good drainage is 

needed in order to have suitable conditions for cultivating 

soybeans 

pH Soil pH 0.000, Soil pH <5.5, Assumed to be the same as in Malaysia, 

see Table 6.22

Cl Climate 0.824, Tropical climate 

LM Length of measurement period (the model is constructed to fit 

with literature measurements. Thus, to model emissions obtained from literature the method of measurement in literature 

should also be considered since this affects the measured 

emission) 

0.825 Length of measurement period is >300 days, i.e. the 

longest period available in the model (chosen as the most 

precise) 

FM Frequency of measurement (see comment above) 0.000 Frequency of measurement is >1measure/day, i.e. the 

highest frequency available in the model (chosen as the most 

precise) 

Table 7.7: Parameters in the equation calculating direct N2O-emissions in FAO and IFA (2001, p 34-35)

The calculated N2O emissions using the two models are summarised in Table 7.8. 

IPCC (2000) FAO and IFA (2001) 

3.0 kg N2O-N 2.5 kg N2O-N 

Table 7.8: Calculated N2O emissions (kg N2O-N/ha) for soybean cultivation in Brazil using the two models. The applied 

N2O-emission is marked with a dotted line.

It appears from Table 7.8 that the deviation between the two models is relatively small, only ~17%. 

Direct NO: The emission of NO is calculated using a model described in FAO and IFA (2001). According to 

FAO and IFA (2001, p 35) the direct NO emission is calculated shown in Equation (5) in section 5.6. The 

parameter values used in Equation (5) are described in Table 7.9. 
7 Agricultural stage: Soybean 121 

Parameter Description Parameter value 

F Type of fertiliser Not relevant, no N-fertiliser application 

N-app. Applied N, kg/ha No N-fertiliser application 

C Soil organic C content 0.000, <3% C, see Table 7.7

D Soil drainage 0.946, good drainage, see Table 7.7

Table 7.9: Parameters in the equation calculating direct NO-emissions in FAO and IFA (2001, p 35)

The calculated NO emission is 0.6 kg NO-N/ha. 

In summary, the annual N-related emissions from soybean cultivation are 4.7 kg N2O/ha and 1.2 kg NO/ha. 

Emissions related to the P-balance 

As described in the case of emissions from rapeseed cultivation (see section 5.6) accumulation of phosphorus 

in the soil is relatively constant due to strong binding to the soil. Therefore, the emission of P is calculated as a 

fraction of the field surplus. According to section 5.6: ‘Emissions related to P-balance’, 2.9% of the P surplus 

is emitted to water as leaching of phosphate. The remaining is accumulated in the soil matter. Thus the emission of P is 2.9% of the surplus at 2.4 kg P/ha given in Table 7.5, i.e. 0.07 kg P/ha. 

Emissions related to the C-balance 

As in the case for rapeseed cultivation (section 5.6) and oil palm cultivation (section 6.7) it is assumed that 

continuous cultivation of soybean does not affect the soil content of carbon. 

Carbon emissions that arise from transformation of the Cerrado and Amazon forest into soybean fields are 

described in section 19. 

Emissions of heavy metal 

The emissions of heavy metals from input of fertiliser are calculated using the same method as for rapeseed 

cultivation, see section 5.6: ‘Emissions of heavy metal’. Hence, it is assumed that the heavy metal input from 

P-fertiliser is distributed on emissions to soil and emissions to water. The emission of heavy metals to soil is 

calculated as the total input with fertiliser and seeds minus the share that ends in water. This means that heavy 

metals in leaching and runoff have been assumed to be zero, i.e. inputs of heavy metals to the field minus harvested heavy metals ends as emissions to soil. It is assumed that one eighth, i.e. 12.5%, of the heavy metals 

harvested with crop ends as emission to water and the other 87.5% ends as emission to soil. 

The content of heavy metals in phosphate rock is shown in Table 6.31 and the content in soybeans is shown in 

Table 7.10. 
122 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Heavy metals in Soybeans 

harvested crop; 

mg/kg crop (Nemecek, et al. 2003, p 154) (Møller et al. 2000, p 17) 

Applied in this study 

Arsenic (As) - - - 

Cadmium (Cd) 0.052 - 0.052 

Chromium (Cr) 0.45 - 0.45 

Cobalt (Co) - 0.070 0.070 

Copper (Cu) 13.1 13.9 13.5 

Mercury (Hg) 0 - 0 

Molybdenum (Mo) - - - 

Nickel (Ni) 4.63 - 4.63 

Lead (Pb) 0.070 - 0.070 

Selenium (Se) - 0.087 0.087 

Zink (Zn) 41.5 39.2 40.4 

Table 7.10: Heavy metal content (mg/kg crop) in harvested soybeans. The applied data are marked with a dotted frame.

Based on the fertiliser input at 46 kg P2O5, the content of heavy metals in P-fertiliser in Table 6.31, and the 

content of heavy metals in harvested crop in Table 7.10, the emissions of heavy metals from fertiliser can be 

calculated. The results are shown in Table 7.11. 

Heavy metal emissions Soil (g/ha Water (g/ha) 

Arsenic (As) - - 

Cadmium (Cd) 1.2 0.0 

Chromium (Cr) 27.9 0.2 

Cobalt (Co) 0.0 0.0 

Copper (Cu) 1.5 5.7 

Mercury (Hg) 0.0 0.0 

Molybdenum (Mo) - - 

Nickel (Ni) 0.6 1.9 

Lead (Pb) 0.5 0.0 

Selenium (Se) 0.0 0.0 

Zink (Zn) 9.6 16.9 

Table 7.11: Heavy metal emissions to soil and water from soybean cultivation, g/ha.

Emissions of pesticides 

The compartments that receive the applied active ingredients in the pesticides are assumed to be 33% soil, 33% 

water and 33% air. This is a very rough estimate which is tested in a sensitivity analysis in section 21.11. 

7.6 Overhead in agricultural stage 

The amount of electricity used in administration buildings etc. is assumed to be insignificant. 

7.7 Capital goods in agricultural stage 

Corresponding to capital goods in oil palm cultivation, see section 6.9, the use of capital goods is determined 

from modified figures of the capital goods used in rapeseed cultivation. It is assumed that the amount of harvesters, tractors, agricultural machinery-tillage, agricultural machinery-general and shed are equivalent with 

the diesel consumption per hectare. The diesel consumption in rapeseed cultivation is 3,612 MJ/ha (see section 

5.3) and the diesel consumption in soybean cultivation is 1,911 MJ/ha (see section 7.2). Thus, use of capital 

goods per ha soybean field is 53% of the use per ha rapeseed field. The use of buildings for administration, 

research and laboratories is assumed to be zero corresponding to rapeseed cultivation. 
7 Agricultural stage: Soybean 123 

Use of capital goods per ha per year 

Capital goods Rapeseed (Table 5.44) Soybean 

Tractor 7.5 kg 4.0 kg

Harvester 6.3 kg 3.3 kg

Agricultural machinery, tillage 9.2 kg 4.8 kg

Agricultural machinery, general 3.5 kg 1.9 kg

Shed 0.070 m2 0.037 m2

Administration, research and laboratories 

buildings 

0 m3 0 m3

Table 7.12: Use of capital goods in soybean cultivation.

7.8 Transport of materials in agricultural stage 

Raw materials are transported with lorry to the soybean farms. Inventory data per tkm transport by lorry are 

described in section 4.1. Since there are several suppliers and since there is a general lack of data on the specific marginal affected supplier, all transport distances are based on rough estimates. Determination of size of 

lorries is based on Table 4.3 and very rough estimates on the total amount of goods transported. 

The amounts of used seed, fertiliser and pesticides are described in section 7.1 and 7.4. The contents of P2O5 in 

rock phosphate is 30% (see Table 6.34) and the use of P2O5 is 46 kg/ha. Thus the use of P-fertiliser solution is 

153 kg/ha. 

Table 7.13 shows the transported amounts, the route and the distances. 

Material Amount per ha From To Distance Means of transportation 

Seed 138 kg Seed trader Soybean farm 100 km 40t lorry 

Soybean 3,212 kg Soybean farm Soybean trader 500 km 40t lorry 

Fertilisers 153 kg Abroad chemical plant Port in Brazil 5000 km Transoceanic tanker 

Fertilisers 153 kg Port in Brazil Soybean farm 500 km 40t lorry 

Pesticides 9.1 kg Abroad chemical plant Port in Brazil 5000 km Transoceanic tanker 

Pesticides 9.1 kg Port in Brazil Soybean farm 500 km 40t lorry 

Table 7.13: Transport of goods related to the agricultural stage. The return trip is included in the inventory data. 

The estimated transport in Table 7.13 is summarized per type of lorry in Table 7.14. 

Means of transportation Transport 

40t lorry 1,701 tkm

Oceanic tanker 811 tkm

Table 7.14: Summary of transport in the agricultural stage. 

7.9 LCI of soybean agricultural stage, summary 

Table 7.16 summarises the inventory data relating to 1 ha soybean field in 1 year. Since the LCI in this study 

are highly based on the LCI of soybean described in Dalgaard et al. (2007), the applied data are compared with 

these data in Table 7.15. 
124 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Dalgaard et al (2007) This study 

Interventions 

Per crop rotation Ajusted to annual values 

(multiplied with 1.25) 

Per year 

Product output 

Yield 2.63 t/ha 3.29 t/ha 3.212 kg/ha 

Energy use 

Traction, burned diesel 42 litre ~ 1,529 MJ 52.5 litre ~ 1,911 MJ 1,911 MJ 

Drying of soybenas (evaporated water) Not included Not included 68 kg 

Materials 

Seed Not included Not included 138 kg 

N-fertiliser (as N) 0 kg 0 kg 0 kg 

P-fertiliser (as P2O5) 37 kg 46 kg 46 kg 

K-fertiliser (as K2O) 0 kg 0 kg 0 kg 

Pesticides Not included Not included Included 

Capital goods 

Agr. machines, buildings Not included Not included Included 

Transport 

Lorry and ship Not included Not included Included 

Emissions 

Ammonia (NH3), to air 0 kg/ha 0 kg/ha 0 kg/ha 

Dinitrogen oxide (N2O), to air 4.7 kg/ha 5.9 kg/ha 4.7 kg/ha 

Nitric oxide (NO), to air Not included Not included 1.2 kg/ha 

Nitrate (NO3), to water 0 kg/ha 0 kg/ha 0 kg/ha 

Phosphorus (P), to water 0 kg/ha 0 kg/ha 0069 kg/ha 

Pesticides, to air, water and soil Not included Not included Included 

Heavy metals, to air, water and soil Not included Not included Included 

Table 7.15: Comparison of LCI data in Dalgaard et al. (2007) and this study 
7 Agricultural stage: Soybean 125 

Brazil: 1 ha y soybean field 

Interventions Amount Applied LCI data 

Product output

Soybean 3.212 t Product of interest 

Energy use 

Traction, burned diesel 1,911 MJ See Table 4.5

Drying of soybeans (evaporated water) 68 kg Modified version of: ‘Grain drying, low temperature/CH‘ (ecoinvent 2004), see 

section 5.3

Material use

Seed 138 kg See Table 7.2

P-fertiliser (as P2O5) 46 kg Phosphate rock, see section 6.5: Fertilisers

Herbicide, glyphosate 2.3 kg ‘Glyphosate, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Herbicide, 2-4 D - - 

Herbicide, imazethapyr - - 

Insecticide, pyrethroid, cypermethrin 0.013 kg ‘Pyretroid-compounds, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Insecticide, Chlorpyrifos 0.20 kg ‘Pesticide unspecified, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Capital goods

Agricultural buildings 0.037 m2 ‘Shed/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, tractor 4.0 kg ‘Tractor, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, combine harvester 3.3 kg ‘Harvester, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, tillage 4.8 kg ‘Agricultural machinery, tillage, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, general/miscellaneous 1.9 kg ‘Agricultural machinery, general, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Transport

40t lorry 1,701 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 40t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Oceanic tanker 811 tkm ‘Transport, transoceanic tanker/OCE’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Emissions Air Water Soil 

Ammonia (NH3) 0 kg - - 

Dinitrogen oxide (N2O) 4.7 kg - - 

Nitric oxide (NO) 1.2 kg - - 

Nitrate (NO3) - 0 kg - 

Phosphorus (P) - 0.069 kg - 

Glyphosate 0.77 kg 0.77 kg 0.77 kg 

2-4 D No LCI data on a.i. 

Imazethapyr No LCI data on a.i., and no characterisation data exist in LCIA methods 

Cypermethrin 0.0043 kg 0.0043 kg 0.0043 kg 

Chlorpyrifos 0.067 kg 0.067 kg 0.067 kg 

Arsenic (As) - - - 

Cadmium (Cd) - 0.022 g 1.2 g 

Chromium (Cr) - 0.19 g 28 g 

Cobalt (Co) - 0.029 g -0.016 g 

Copper (Cu) - 5.7 g 1.5 g 

Mercury (Hg) - 0 g 0.00046 g 

Molybdenum (Mo) - - - 

Nickel (Ni) - 1.9 g 0.58 g 

Lead (Pb) - 0.029 g 0.53 g 

Selenium (Se) - 0.036 g 0.044 g 

Zink (Zn) - 17 g 9.6 g 

Table 7.16: Interventions per ha y soybean field. 
126 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 
8 Agricultural stage: Barley 127 

8 Agricultural stage: Barley 

The barley plant (Hordeum vulgare) is an annual crop which grows to a height of 70-100 cm (Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning 2007). 

This section provides data for a change in production of Barley in Denmark and Canada. Some of the inventory data for barley are directly applied from Nielsen et al. (2005) and other are modified in order to maintain 

consistency with the methodologies for inventorying rapeseed, oil palm and soybean cultivation. The modified 

data are the same as for soybean cultivation, i.e. the emissions related to the N-, P- and C-balances and the 

inventory data for traction and fertilisers. In addition to the modifications, the inventory in this study includes 

more processes. These are; Production and emissions of pesticides, drying of barley, the use of and processing 

of barley seed, capital goods and transport of materials in agricultural stage. 

8.1 Product flow in agricultural stage 

The inventory of the agricultural stage is divided into the unit processes shown as shaded boxes in Figure 8.1

and Figure 8.2. The product flows are determined per hectare per year, see descriptions below the figure. Capital goods

Farm - buildings

Tractor

Harvester

1 hectare barley field

Barley seed: 110 kg

Barley: 5,230 kg

Drying

Barley: 5,120 kg

Seed processing

Water: 105 kg

Other agr. machinery

Field operations: Pesticide,

sowing, fertiliser, tillage,

harvesting

Barley: 5,335 kg

Barley in Denmark

Straw: 2,981 kg

Straw to biomass plant: 2,176 kg

Straw left in the

field: 805 kg

Figure 8.1: Product flow related to cultivation of 1 ha spring barley field in 1 year in Denmark. The grey shaded boxes 

represent the unit processes in the agricultural stage.
128 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil Capital goods

Farm - buildings

Tractor

Harvester

1 hectare barley field

Barley seed: 110 kg

Barley: 2,910 kg

Drying

Barley: 2,800 kg

Seed processing

Water: 58 kg

Other agr. machinery

Field operations: Pesticide,

sowing, fertiliser, tillage,

harvesting

Barley: 2,968 kg

Barley in Canada

Straw: 1,620 kg

Straw to biomass plant: 810 kg

Straw left in the

field: 810 kg

Figure 8.2: Product flow related to cultivation of 1 ha barley field in 1 year in Canada. The grey shaded boxes represent 

the unit processes in the agricultural stage.

Yields: The barley yields are applied as the yields in 2005 calculated from linear regression of yields from 

1990 to 2005, see Figure 8.3 and Figure 8.4. The same method as for determining the yield for rapeseed has 

been used, see section 5.1. Yields are obtained from Danmarks statistik for Denmark FAOSTAT (2006) for 

Canada. The expected yields in 2005 can be calculated as 5.23 t/ha and 2.91 t/ha for DEnmark and Canada 

respectively using the equations in Figure 8.3 and Figure 8.4. For comparison with yields determined using 

other methods see Table 8.1. 

yield = 0.0374*(year - 1989) + 4.63

R2

 = 0.094

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

1990199119921993199419951996199719981999200020012002200320042005

Yield (t/ha)

Barley in Denmark

Figure 8.3: Spring barley yields in Denmark 1990 to 2005. The linear regression line and its corresponding equation and 

R2

 are also shown. The yields are obtained from Danmarks Statistik (2006). 

Since changed production of rapeseed in Denmark in some scenarios will affect the area cultivated with spring 

barley, it is also necessary to know the emissions from spring barley cultivation on different soil types. Based 

on specified expected yields of spring barley on sand and clay soils given in Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning 

(2006) and the average yield at 5.23 t/ha, the yields on sand and clay have been determined as 4.23 t/ha on 

sand and 5.94 t/ha on clay. Due to lack of data and models to fit Canadian environments, it has not been possible to distinguish between soil types in Canada. 
8 Agricultural stage: Barley 129 

yield = -0.003*(year - 1989) + 2.95

R2

 = 0.0031

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

1990199119921993199419951996199719981999200020012002200320042005

Yield (t/ha)

Barley in Canada

Figure 8.4: Barley yields in Canada 1990 to 2005. The linear regression line and its corresponding equation and R2 are 

also shown. The yields are obtained from FAOSTAT (2006). 

Region Yield 2005 (based 

on regression 

1990-2005) 

Average yield 1990-

2005 

Average yield 2000-

2005 

Yield 2003 Yield 2004 Yield 2005 

Denmark 5.23 4.95 5.14 5.19 4.97 5.23 

Canada 2.91 2.93 2.83 2.77 3.26 3.13 

Table 8.1: Barley yields in Denmark and Canada determined using different methods. The applied yields are marked with 

dotted lines.

Based on predicted yields on different soils given in Plantedirektoratet (2005a) and adjustments in accordance 

to the method used for rapeseed yields on sandy and clay soils in Table 5.3, the yeilds of spring barley on 

sandy and clay soils can be calculated as 4.29 t/ha and 6.02 t/ha respectively. 

Seed input: According to Nemecek et al. (2003, p 125) the use of barley seed is 110 kg/ha. 

Water loos in drying: According to Nemecek et al. (2003, p 121) and Dalgaard et al. (2001) grains (unspecified grains) are typically dried 2 percent points. No specific data on drying of barley have been identified. 

Therefore, the two percent points are applied. Since the dried yields in Denmark and Canada are 5,230 kg/ha 

and 2,910 kg/ha respectively, the water dried is 105 kg/ha in Denmark and 58 kg/ha for barley in Canada. 

Straw: According to Table 8.6 the straw to crop ratio is 0.57, and the removed straw from the field is 73% in 

Denmark and 50% in Canada. 

8.2 Omitted inventory data in agricultural stage 

The use of and emissions of pesticides have been omitted because of lack of data. 

Magnesium (Mg), Sulphur (S) and Boron fertilisers and dust emissions and soil erosion have not been taken 

into account. These interventions are regarded as insignificant. 
130 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

8.3 Energy use 

Traction 

It is assumed that there is no difference btween the energy use for traction in Denmark and Canada. According 

to Nielsen et al. (2005) the energy use as burning of diesel in agricultural machinery is 4,029 MJ/ha. 

Based on the percentual differences for traction in rapeseed cultivation on sand, clay and average soils in section 5.3: ‘Diesel consumption related to cultivation of rapeseed’, the energy for traction on sand and clay for 

spring barley cultivation can be calculated as 3,758 MJ/ha for sand and 4,217 MJ/ha for clay. 

The inventory data for traction are described in section 4.3. 

Drying of seed 

According to Figure 8.1 and Figure 8.2, 105 kg and 58 kg of water is dried out of the harvested barley per ha 

in Denmark and Canada respectively. The inventory data for drying of seed are described in section 5.3: 

‘Drying of seed’. However, the use of electricity in the inventory is adjusted to Danish and Canadian marginal 

electricity, see Table 3.3. 

8.4 Materials 

Seed 

The interventions related to the agricultural stage in production of seed are accounted for by subtracting an 

amount of seed from the yield. According to Nemecek et al. (2003, p 102) the yield of seed production is the 

same as for conventional cultivation of cereals. 

Only one life cycle inventory of seed has been identified; ‘Barley seed IP, at regional storehouse/CH’ (ecoinvent 2004). This inventory is shown in Table 8.2 below. The inventory has been modified applying interventions for electricity as shown in Table 3.3 instead of average Swiss electricity as in ecoinvent. 

LCI-data for production of 1 kg seed Amount LCI data used in this study 

Barley from agriculture 1 kg This is accounted for by subtracting 1 kg from the product outputs 

per kg seed used, see Figure 8.1 and Figure 8.2

Electricity 0.086 MJ Electricity, see Table 3.3

Pesticide 0.088 g ‘Cyclic N-compounds, at regional storehouse/CH’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Building for storage 2.0 ⋅ 10-5 m3 Building, multi-storey/RER (ecoinvent 2004) 

Transport from farm to warehouse 0.13 tkm Transport, lorry 28t/CH (ecoinvent 2004) 

Table 8.2: Inventory data for production of 1 kg seed for barley cultivation (ecoinvent 2004). 

Fertiliser 

Fertiliser applications of N, P and K in Danish cultivation of spring barley are obtained from Plantedirektoratet 

(2005a) and Dansk Landbrugsrådgivning (2006), and fertiliser application in Canada is obtained from IFA et 

al. (2002). This is shown in Table 8.3. 

Fertiliser Spring barley in Denmark Barley in Canada 

N 121 kg N/ha 67 kg N/ha 

P2O5 46 kg P2O5/ha 26 kg P2O5/ha 

K2O 66 kg K2O/ha 10 kg K2O/ha 

Table 8.3: RFertiliser application on average soils in Denmark and Canada for barley cultivation. 
8 Agricultural stage: Barley 131 

Since changed production of rapeseed in Denmark in some scenarios will affect the area cultivated with spring 

barley, it is also necessary to know the emissions from spring barley cultivation on different soil types. The 

soil types in Denmark are described in section 5.4: ‘Fertilisers’. The fertiliser application on different soils in 

Danish spring barley cultivation is shown in Table 8.4. 

Fertiliser Spring barley in Denmark: 

Average soil (59% clay and 41% sand) 

Spring barley in Denmark: 

Sand 

Spring barley in Denmark: 

Clay 

N 121 kg N/ha 117 kg N/ha 123 kg N/ha 

P2O5 46 kg P2O5/ha 39 kg P2O5/ha 50 kg P2O5/ha 

K2O 66 kg K2O/ha 55 kg K2O/ha 74 kg K2O/ha 

Table 8.4: Fertiliser application on different soils in Danish spring barley cultivation.

The types of N, P and K fertilisers used in Denmark and corresponding LCI data are described in section 5.4: 

‘Fertilisers’. 

According to IFA (2007), the most widely used N-fertiliser in Northern America is ammonia. However, since 

no inventory data on straight ammonia have been identidied, it is assumed that the marginal source of N is 

ammonia nitrate which is the second most widely used N-fertiliser in Northern America. Inventory data for 

ammonia nitrate are specified in Table 5.17. The most widely used P-fertiliser in Northern America is phosphate rock (IFA 2007). Therefore, it is assumed that phosphate rock represents the marginal source of Pfertiliser in Canada. Inventory data for phosphate rock are described in section 6.5: Fertilisers. No data on the 

use of different types of K-fertilisers in Canada have been identified. Thus, it is assumed that potassuim chloride is the marginal source of K-fertiliser, i.e. the same marginal source of K-fertiliser as in Denmark and Malaysia/Indonesia. Inventory data for KCl are described in Table 5.21. 

Pesticides 

No good and representative data on the use of pesticides in barley cultivation in Denmark and Canada have 

been identified. Therefore, this is omitted from the study. In section 21.15 the significanse of this omission is 

analysed.

8.5 Co-products 

Denmark: Barley is co-produced with straw from field. The utilisation of straw from spring barley in Denmark is given in Table 8.5 below. 
132 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Straw uses 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 

Straw for energy 8% 6% 8% 9% 10% 15% 17% 15% 

Straw for fodder 56% 59% 52% 50% 43% 33% 33% 42% 

Straw for bedding etc. 13% 14% 17% 17% 18% 29% 28% 16% 

Straw left in the field 22% 21% 23% 24% 29% 24% 23% 27% 

Straw, total 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 

Table 8.5: Production and uses of spring barley straw in Denmark. (Danmarks Statistik 2006)

In average 24% of the straw is left in the field, 11% is used for energy purposes, 46% is used for fodder and 

19% is used for bedding. In order to avoid co-product allocation the marginal application of straw is identified. 

The demand for bedding is determined by animal production. It is also assumed that the demand for straw for 

fodder purposes is determined by animal production, and that the use of straw for fodder does not substitude 

grains. Hence, bedding and fodder is not considered as the marginal use. It is assumed that the marginal use of 

straw is distributed on 24% left in the field and the remaining 76% is used for energy purposes. According to 

Energistyrelsen (2006) 29% of the potential for straw for energy purposes was utilised in 2002. This may increase in the future. In this study 24% left in the field and 76% used for energy purposes is applied. The interventions related to the straw left in the field are dealt with in section 8.6. 

Inventory data for utilisation of straw for energy purposes in biomass plants are described in section 5.5. 

Canada: The amount of straw left in the field in Canada is assumed to be 100%. According to Islam et al. 

(2004), straw is not used for energy purposes in Canada and only an insignificant fraction is used for bioethanol purposes and according to Wood and Layzell (2003) residues may be removed when yields exceeds 4.0 

t/ha which is significant higher than the present 2.91 t/ha. Wood and Layzell (2003) also specify that between 

750 and 1,500 kg crop residue per ha on prairie is essential to prevent wind erosion. Based on these considerations it is regarded as a good assumption that no residues are removed from barley production in Canada. 

8.6 Emissions 

N- and P balances are established for barley cultivation in Denmark and Canada. The relevant data in this respect are given in Table 8.6. 
8 Agricultural stage: Barley 133 

Parameter Denmark: 

Spring barley 

Canada: 

Barley 

Reference 

Annual barley yields 5,230 kg/ha 2,910 kg/ha See Table 8.1

Seed input 110 kg/ha Nemecek et al (2003, p 125) 

Barley dry matter 85% Møller et al. (2000, p 16) 

Straw solid matter 85% Møller et al. (2000, p 43). Assumed to be the same as pea 

straw 

Straw removed from field 73% 0% Straw removal in Denmark is obtained for Denmark in 2004 

from Danmarks Statistik (2006). 

Residue to crop ratio 1.2 IPCC (2000, p 4.58) 

Straw to crop ratio 0.57 Jensen et al. (2005) 

Barley N-content 0.0173 kg N/kg DS Møller et al. (2000, p 16), N content is protein content divided 

by 6.25 

Residue N-content 0.0064 kg N/kg DS Møller et al. (2000, p 43) 

Barley P-content 0.0035 kg P/kg DS Møller et al. (2000, p 16) 

Residue P-content 0.0009 kg P/kg DS Møller et al. (2000, p 43) 

Atmospheric N-deposition 15.0 kg/ha y 3.3 kg/ha y Denmark: Ellermann et al. (2005) and Canada: Bergström 

and Jansson (2006) 

N-fixing 0 kg N/ha y - 

Table 8.6: Relevant data in order to establish field balances of N and P for barley cultivation. 

The N- and P-balances are shown in Table 8.7. 

Denmark Canada 

Inputs N P N P 

Deposition 15 kg N/ha - 3.3 kg N/ha - 

Seed 1.9 kg N/ha 0.01 kg P/ha 1.9 kg N/ha 0.01 kg P/ha

Fertiliser 121 kg N/ha 20.0 kg P/ha 67 kg N/ha 11.4 kg P/ha

N-fixing 0 kg N/ha - 0 kg N/ha - 

Changes in soil matter 0 kg N/ha - 0 kg N/ha - 

Total 137.6 kg N/ha 20.0 kg P/ha 72.2 kg N/ha 11.4 kg P/ha

Outputs 

Harvested barley 76.9 kg/ha 15.6 kg P/ha 42.8 kg N/ha 8.7 kg P/ha

Removed straw 11.8 kg/ha 1.7 kg P/ha 0 kg N/ha 0 kg P/ha

Total 88.7 kg/ha 17.3 kg P/ha 42.8 kg N/ha 8.7 kg P/ha

Balance 

surplus (input – output) 48.9 kg N/ha 2.7 kg P/ha 29.4 kg N/ha 2.7 kg P/ha

Table 8.7: Annual N- and P-balances for 1 hectare barley field in Denmark and Canada. 

Emissions related to the N-balance 

The N-surplus in Table 8.7 is distributed on different emissions following the same methods as for rapeseed, 

see section 5.6: ‘Emissions related to N-balance’. 

Ammonia from crop: The ammonia emission from crops 5 kg N/ha, see section 5.6: ‘Emissions related to Nbalance’. 

Ammonia from fertiliser application: The ammonia emission from fertiliser depends on the fertiliser applied. According to Andersen et al. (2001, p 35) the ammonia emission from fertilisers based on ammonia is 

2% of the N content in the fertiliser. Thus the ammonia emission as NH3-N can be calculated as 2% of the 

applied fertiliser in Table 8.3. 

Denitrification (total): The total denitrification (gaseous N oxides and molecular N2) is calculated using the 

model; SimDen (Vinther and Hansen 2004). The reason why the total denitrification is calculated is that this is 

the only way of estimating N-loss as N2. N2 is determined as the total denitrification minus N2O and NO. The 

model also calculates the N2O-emission. 
134 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

The model is described in section 5.6: ‘Emissions related to N-balance’. In Denmark the actual soil types are 

accounted for, while average of all soil types has been applied in Canada. The fertiliser application in Canada 

is given in Table 8.3 and the fertiliser application on different soils in Denmark is given in Table 8.4

The total denitrification in Denmark is calculated as 13.2 kg N/ha for average soil, 5.5 kg N/ha for sand and 

18.6 kg N/ha for clay. The total denitrification in Canada is calculated as 11.8 kg N/ha 

Direct N2O: The direct N2O emission is calculated using a model described in IPCC (2000). The calculated 

emissions are then compared with the results using two other models described in FAO and IFA (2001) and 

Vinther and Hansen (2004). The results obtained using these models are due to consistency not applied in this 

study. The model described in Vinther and Hansen (2004) is developed for Danish conditions and may therefore not be applicable under conditions in Malaysia, Indonesia, Brazil and Canada which are affected regions 

in this life cycle inventory. The model in FAO and IFA (2001) does not include peat soils which is relevant in 

Malaysia and Indonesia. 

IPCC (2000): According to IPCC (2000, p 4.54) the direct N2O emission is calculated as shown in Equation 

(3) in section 5.6. The parameter values used in Equation (3) are described in Table 8.8. 

Parameter Description Parameter value 

FSN Annual amount of synthetic fertiliser nitrogen applied to soils 

adjusted to account for the amount that volatilises as NH3 and 

NOx 

Fertiliser application, see Table 8.3 and Table 8.4. 2% volatises 

FAM Annual amount of animal manure nitrogen intentionally applied 

to soils adjusted to account for the amount that volatilises as 

NH3 and NOx 

No manure 

FBN Amount of nitrogen fixed by N-fixing crops cultivated annually No N-fixing 

FCR Amount of nitrogen in crop residues returned to soils annually Denmark: 22 kg N/ha (aver. Soil), 16 kg N/ha (sandy soil), 26 

kg N/ha (clay soil) 

Canada: 19 kg N/ha 

(the figures are calculated using the informations in in Table 

8.6) 

FOS Area of organic soils cultivated annually (ha) Denmark: 0% (see in Table 5.28) 

Canada: 0% (The total area of peat soil in Canada is 

1,500,000 km2 (Andriesse 1988). Comparing with the total 

area of Canada at 9.09 mio km2, this corresponds to 16% of 

Canada. However, it is assumed that most of the peat soils 

are non-cultivated soils in the North) 

EF1 Emission factor for emissions from N inputs (kg N2O-N/kg N 

input) 

1.25% (IPCC 2000, p 4.60) 

EF2 Emission factor for emissions from organic soil cultivation (kg 

N2O-N/ha-yr) 

8 (IPCC 2000, p 4.60) 

Table 8.8: Parameters in the equation calculating direct N2O-emissions in IPCC (2000, p 4.54) 

FAO and IFA (2001): According to FAO and IFA (2001, p 34) the direct N2O emission is calculated as shown 

in Equation (4) in section 5.6. The parameter values used in Equation (4) are described in Table 8.9. 
8 Agricultural stage: Barley 135 

Parameter Description Parameter value 

F Type of fertiliser Denmark: 0.0037, Fertiliser type is calcium ammonia nitrate 

Canada: 0.0061, Fertiliser type is ammonia nitrate 

N-app. Applied N, kg/ha See Table 8.3 and Table 8.4

Cr Crop type 0.000, Crop type is ‘other’ 

S Soil texture -0.008 (coarse for sandy soil) and 0.000 (fine for clay soil), 

average soil is the average of -0.008 (coarse), -0.472 (medium) and 0.000 (fine) 

C Soil organic C content 0.140, 1-3% C in mineral soil types, based on Berntsen and 

Petersen (2007) 

D Soil drainage -0.420, good drainage. Good drainage is needed in order to 

have suitable conditions for agriculture 

pH Soil pH 0.109, Soil pH 5.5 - 7.3 

Cl Climate 0.000, Temp. climate 

LM Length of measurement period (the model is constructed to fit 

with literature measurements. Thus, to model emissions obtained from literature the method of measurement in literature 

should also be considered since this affects the measured 

emission) 

0.825 Length of measurement period is >300 days, i.e. the 

longest period available in the model (chosen as the most 

precise) 

FM Frequency of measurement (see comment above) 0.000 Frequency of measurement is >1measure/day, i.e. the 

highest frequency available in the model (chosen as the most 

precise) 

Table 8.9: Parameters in the equation calculating direct N2O-emissions in FAO and IFA (2001, p 34-35)

Vinther and Hansen (2004): The model calculates the direct N2O emission for eight different soil types. The 

variable parameters are fertiliser application, applied manure, N input to pastures (N-deposit during grazing 

and N2 fixing by clover) and N2 fixing by legumes crops. All parameters except from fertiliser input is zero. 

The fertiliser input is given in Table 8.3 and Table 8.4. 

The calculated N2O emissions using the three models are summarised in Table 8.10. 

Soil type 

IPCC (2000), 

kg N2O-N/ha 

FAO and IFA (2001), kg 

N2O-N/ha 

Vinther and Hansen (2004), 

kg N2O-N/ha 

Denmark 

Aver. soil 2.54 1.96 2.16 

Sand soil 2.95 2.21 1.53 

Clay soil 2.27 2.27 2.60 

Canada 

Aver. soil 1.40 1.41 1.85 

Table 8.10: Calculated N2O emissions (kg N2O-N/ha) for sand, clay and average soils. The applied values are marked 

with dotted lines.

The results of the FAO and IFA model and the Vinter and Hansen model deviate from the results of the IPCC 

model in Table 8.10 from around <1% to 48%. 

Direct NO: The emission of NO is calculated using a model described in FAO and IFA (2001). According to 

FAO and IFA (2001, p 35) the direct NO emission is calculated shown in Equation (5) in section 5.6. The 

parameter values used in Equation (5) are described in Table 8.11. 
136 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Parameter Description Parameter value 

F Type of fertiliser Denmark: 0.0062, Fertiliser type is calcium ammonium nitrate 

Canada: 0.0040, Fertiliser type is ammonium nitrate 

N-app. Applied N, kg/ha See Table 8.3 and Table 8.4

C Soil organic C content 0.000, <3.0% C in mineral soil types, based on Berntsen and Petersen 

(2007) 

D Soil drainage 0.946, good drainage. Good drainage is needed in order to have suitable 

conditions for agriculture 

Table 8.11: Parameters in the equation calculating direct NO-emissions in FAO and IFA (2001, p 35)

The only parameters that are changed are the application of N-fertiliser. 

The calculated NO emission is summarised in Table 8.12. 

Soil type kg NO-N/ha 

Denmark 

Aver. soil 1.2 

Sand soil 1.2 

Clay soil 1.2 

Canada 

Aver. soil 0.7 

Table 8.12: Calculated NO emissions (kg NO-N/ha) using the model described in FAO and IFA (2001). The applied 

values are marked with dotted lines.

Nitrate: The nitrate emission is calculated as the residual or rest; i.e. the surplus-N from the N-balance minus 

the other calculated emissions described above. The calculated nitrate emission is shown in Table 8.13. 

Soil type kg NO3-N/ha 

Denmark 

Aver. soil 28.3 

Sand soil 49.1 

Clay soil 14.7 

Canada 

Aver. soil 11.3 

Table 8.13: Calculated nitrate emissions (kg NO3

-

-N/ha). The applied values are marked with dotted lines.

N2O, indirect from NH3 and nitrate: These calculations are described in section 5.6: ‘Emissions related to Nbalance’. 

NO, indirect: This is not included. 

Summary of emissions related to N-balance: Distribution of the N-surplus is summarised in Table 8.14. 
8 Agricultural stage: Barley 137 

Denmark Canada 

Emission and source Average soil Sand Clay Average soil 

Ammonia from crop (kg NH3-N/ha) 2.4 2.3 2.5 1.3 

Ammonia from fertiliser application (kg NH3-N/ha) 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 

Denitrification (kg N/ha) 13.2 5.5 18.6 11.8 

 - N2O part of denitrification (kg N2O-N/ha) 1.8 1.6 1.8 1.1 

 - NO part of denitrification (kg NO-N/ha) 1.2 1.2 1.2 0.7 

 - N2 part of denitrification (kg N/ha) 10.2 2.7 15.5 10.0 

Nitrate (kg NO3-N/ha) 28.3 49.1 14.7 11.3 

N-surplus (kg N/ha) 48.9 61.9 40.7 29.4 

N2O, indirect from NH3 (kg N2O-N/ha) 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 

N2O, indirect from nitrate (kg N2O-N/ha) 0.7 1.2 0.4 0.3 

Table 8.14: Distribution of the N-surplus from the field N-balance on different emissions and sources. All numbers are 

given in kg N/ha.

Table 8.15 summarises the emissions in Table 8.14 and converts them into kg emission per ha instead of kg 

N/ha. 

Denmark Canada 

Emission as kg N/ha 

Average soil 

(41% sand and 59% clay) 

Sand Clay Average soil 

Ammonia to air (kg NH3-N/ha) 7.4 7.3 7.5 6.3 

N2O to air (kg N2O-N/ha) 2.5 2.9 2.3 1.4 

NO to air (kg NO-N/ha) 1.2 1.2 1.2 0.7 

Nitrate to water (kg NO3-N/ha) 28.3 49.1 14.7 11.3 

Emission as kg emission/ha Average soil 

(41% sand and 59% clay) 

Sand Clay Average soil 

Ammonia to air (kg NH3/ha) 9.0 8.9 9.1 7.7 

N2O to air (kg N2O/ha) 4.0 4.6 3.6 2.2 

NO to air (kg NO/ha) 2.5 2.5 2.6 1.6 

Nitrate to water (kg NO3/ha) 125 217 65 50 

Table 8.15: Emissions related to N-balance.

Emissions related to the P-balance 

As described in the case of emissions from rapeseed cultivation (see section 5.6) accumulation of phosphorus 

in the soil is relatively constant due to strong binding to the soil. Therefore, the emission of P is calculated as a 

fraction of the field surplus. According to section 5.6: ‘Emissions related to P-balance’, 2.9% of the P surplus 

is emitted to water as leaching of phosphate. The remaining is accumulated in the soil matter. Thus the emission of P is 2.9% of the surplus in the P-balances given in Table 8.7. P emissions for sand and clay soils in 

Denmark are also calculated. This is done by first establishing P-balances as in Table 8.7 using the data in 

Table 8.4 and Table 8.6. The P emissions are given in Table 8.16. 

Soil type kg P/ha 

Denmark 

Aver. soil 0.078 

Sand soil 0.084 

Clay soil 0.075 

Canada 

Aver. soil 0.078 

Table 8.16: Calculated P emissions (kg P/ha). The applied values are marked with dotted lines.

Emissions related to the C-balance 

As in the case for rapeseed, oil palm and soybean cultivation it is assumed that continuous cultivation of barley 

does not affect the soil content of carbon. 
138 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Carbon emissions that arise from transformation of land (prairie) in Canada into barley fields are described in 

section 19.1. 

Emissions of heavy metal 

The emissions of heavy metals from input of fertiliser are calculated using the same method as for rapeseed 

cultivation, see section 5.6: ‘Emissions of heavy metal’. Hence, it is assumed that the heavy metal input from 

fertilisers is distributed on emissions to soil and emissions to water. The emission of heavy metals to soil is 

calculated as the total input with fertiliser and seeds minus the share that ends in water. One eighth, i.e. 12.5%, 

of the heavy metals harvested with crop ends as emission to water and the other 87.5% ends as emission to 

soil. 

The contents of heavy metals in fertilisers used in Denmark16 are described in section 5.6: ‘Emissions of heavy 

metal’ and the contents of fertilisers used in Canada17 are described in section 5.6: (N and K) and section 

6.7:‘Emissions of heavy metal’ (P) and the contents in barley and straw are shown in Table 8.17. 

Heavy metals in Barley 

harvested crop; 

mg/kg crop (Nemecek, et al. 2003, p 154) (Møller et al. 2000, p 17) 

Applied in this study 

Arsenic (As) - - - 

Cadmium (Cd) 0.068 - 0.068 

Chromium (Cr) 0.31 - 0.31 

Cobalt (Co) - 0.0085 0.0085 

Copper (Cu) 5.10 2.55 3.83 

Mercury (Hg) 0.051 - 0.051 

Molybdenum (Mo) - - - 

Nickel (Ni) 0.33 - 0.33 

Lead (Pb) 0.35 - 0.35 

Selenium (Se) - 0.034 0.034 

Zink (Zn) 37.8 26.4 32.1 

Heavy metals in Barley straw 

harvested straw; 

mg/kg crop (Nemecek, et al. 2003, p 154) (Møller et al. 2000, p 43) 

Applied in this study 

Arsenic (As) - - - 

Cadmium (Cd) 0.11 - 0.11 

Chromium (Cr) 0.36 - 0.36 

Cobalt (Co) - 0.16 0.16 

Copper (Cu) 4.34 2.55 3.45 

Mercury (Hg) 0.085 - 0.085 

Molybdenum (Mo) - - - 

Nickel (Ni) 0.35 - 0.35 

Lead (Pb) 1.70 - 1.70 

Selenium (Se) - 0043 0043 

Zink (Zn) 11.1 125.0 68.1 

Table 8.17: Heavy metal content (mg/kg crop) in harvested barley and barley straw. The applied data are marked with 

dotted frames.

Based on the fertiliser inputs given in Table 8.3 and Table 8.4, the contents of heavy metals in fertilisers, and 

the contents of heavy metals in harvested barley and straw in Table 8.17, the emissions of heavy metals from 

fertiliser can be calculated. The results are shown in Table 8.18. 

 

16 Fertilisers in Denmark; N: Calcium ammonia nitrate, P: Triple super phosphate, K: Pottasium chloride. 17 Fertilisers in Canada; N: Ammonia nitrate, P: Rock phosphate, K: Pottasium chloride. 
8 Agricultural stage: Barley 139 

Denmark Canada 

Aver. soil Sand Clay Aver. soil 

Emission Soil (g/ha) Water (g/ha) Soil (g/ha) Water (g/ha) Soil (g/ha) Water (g/ha) Soil (g/ha) Water (g/ha) 

Arsenic (As) 0.9 - 0.8 - 1.0 - 0.2 - 

Cadmium (Cd) 0.3 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.7 0.03 

Chromium (Cr) 26 0.2 22 0.2 29 0.2 16 0.1 

Cobalt (Co) 0.2 0.01 0.2 0.00 0.2 0.01 0.06 0.003 

Copper (Cu) 4.0 2.5 3.7 2.0 4.2 2.8 2.7 1.4 

Mercury (Hg) -0.01 0.03 0.00 0.03 -0.01 0.04 -0.005 0.02 

Molybdenum (Mo) 1.0 - 0.9 - 1.0 - 0.3 - 

Nickel (Ni) 9 0.2 7.6 0.2 9 0.2 2.0 0.1 

Lead (Pb) 0.8 0.2 0.8 0.2 0.8 0.3 0.6 0.1 

Selenium (Se) 2.0 0.02 1.9 0.02 2.0 0.03 1.0 0.01 

Zink (Zn) 45 21 40 17 48 24 8.9 12 

Table 8.18: Heavy metal emissions to soil and water from barley cultivation in Denmark and Canada. 

Emissions of pesticides 

As described in section 8.4 the use of pesticides in barley cultivation has been omitted from the study. 

8.7 Overhead in agricultural stage 

As in the case of rapeseed cultivation, the amount of electricity used in administration buildings etc. is assumed to be insignificant. 

8.8 Capital goods in agricultural stage 

Corresponding to capital goods in oil palm and soybean cultivation, (e.g. see section 7.7), the use of capital 

goods is determined from modified figures of the capital goods used in rapeseed cultivation. It is assumed that 

the amount of harvesters, tractors, agricultural machinery-tillage, agricultural machinery-general and shed are 

equivalent with the diesel consumption per hectare. The diesel consumption in rapeseed cultivation is 3,612 

MJ/ha (see section 5.3) and the diesel consumption in barley cultivation is 4,029 MJ/ha (see section 8.2). Thus, 

use of capital goods per ha barley field is 112% of the use per ha rapeseed field. The use of buildings for administration, research and laboratories is assumed to be zero corresponding to rapeseed cultivation. 

Use of capital goods per ha per year 

Capital goods 

Rapeseed (Table 5.44) Barley in Denmark and 

Canada 

Tractor 7.5 kg 8.4 kg

Harvester 6.3 kg 7.0 kg

Agricultural machinery, tillage 9.2 kg 10.3 kg

Agricultural machinery, general 3.5 kg 3.9 kg

Shed 0.070 m2 0.078 m2

Administration, research and laboratories 0 m3 0 m3

Table 8.19: Use of capital goods in barley cultivation.

8.9 Transport of materials in agricultural stage 

Raw materials are transported with lorry to the cereal farms. Inventory data per tkm transport by lorry are described in section 4.1. Since there are several suppliers and since there is a general lack of data on the specific 

marginal affected supplier, all transport distances are based on rough estimates. Determination of size of lorries 

is based on Table 4.3 and very rough estimates on the total amount of goods transported. 
140 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

The amounts of used seed, fertiliser and pesticides are described in section 8.1 and 8.4. The contents of N, 

P2O5 and K2O in the used fertilisers are described in Table 5.45 and Table 6.34 (however, the content of N in 

ammonia nitrate is found in WSDA (2006)) and the use of fertilisers is descibed in Table 8.3. 

Fertiliser Content of nutrient in fertiliser Applied nutrients (see Table 

8.3) 

Applied fertiliser product 

Denmark 

Calcium ammonium nitrate 19% N 121 kg N/ha 637 kg/ha

Triple superphosphate 38% P2O5 (16% P) 46 kg P2O5/ha 121 kg/ha

Potassium chloride 14% K2O (12% K) 66 kg K2O/ha 471 kg/ha

Total 1,229 kg/ha

Canada 

Ammonia nitrate 20% N 67 kg N/ha 335 kg/ha

Phosphate rock 30% P2O5 (13% P) 26 kg P2O5/ha 87 kg/ha

Potassium chloride 14% K2O (12% K) 10 kg K2O /ha 71 kg/ha

Total 493 kg/ha

Table 8.20: Determination of amount of transported fertiliser product. 

Table 8.21 shows the transported amounts, the route and the distances. 

Denmark 

Material Amount per ha From To Distance Means of transportation 

Seed 110 kg Seed trader, DK Barley farm, DK 100 km 40t lorry 

Barley 5,230 kg Barley farm, DK Cereal trader, DK 100 km 40t lorry 

Straw to utilisation 2,176 kg Barley farm, DK Biomass plant, DK 100 km 40t lorry 

Fertilisers, N, P and K 1,229 kg Abroad chemical plant Barley farm, DK 1000 km 40t lorry 

Pesticides Not included Abroad chemical plant Barley farm, DK 1000 km 40t lorry 

Canada 

Material Amount per ha From To Distance Means of transportation 

Seed 110 kg Seed trader, CAN Barley farm, CAN 250 km 40t lorry 

Barley 2,910 kg Barley farm, CAN Cereal trader, CAN 250 km 40t lorry 

Straw to utilisation 810 kg Barley farm, CAN Biomass plant, CAN 250 km 40t lorry 

Fertilisers, N, P and K 493 kg Abroad chemical plant Barley farm, CAN 1000 km 40t lorry 

Pesticides Not included Abroad chemical plant Barley farm, CAN 1000 km 40t lorry 

Table 8.21: Transport of goods related to the agricultural stage. The return trip is included in the inventory data. 

The estimated transport in Table 8.21 is summarized in Table 8.22. 

Means of transportation Transport, 40t lorry 

Barley in Denmark 1,981 tkm

Barley in Canada 1,451 tkm

Table 8.22: Summary of transport in the agricultural stage. 
8 Agricultural stage: Barley 141 

8.10 LCI of barley agricultural stage, summary 

Table 8.23 summarises the inventory data relating to 1 ha spring barley cultivated in 1 year in Denmark and 

Table 8.24 summrises the inventory for barley in Canada. 

Denmark: 1 ha y spring barley field 

Interventions Amount Applied LCI data 

Product output

Spring barley (Denmark) 5.120 t Product of interest 

Straw removed from field 2,176 kg Co-product allocation between barley and straw is avoided by system expansion, 

see below 

System expansion 

Burning of straw in biomass plant 2,176 kg See Table 5.25

Energy use 

Traction, burned diesel 4,029 MJ See Table 4.5

Drying of barley (evaporated water) 105 kg Modified version of: ‘Grain drying, low temperature/CH‘ (ecoinvent 2004), see 

section 5.3

Material use

Seed 110 kg See Table 8.2

N-fertiliser (as N) 121 kg ‘Calcium ammonium nitrate, as N, at regional storehouse/RER’, (ecoinvent 2004) 

P-fertiliser (as P2O5) 46 kg Modified version of: ‘Triple superphosphate, as P2O5, at regional storehouse/RER’

(ecoinvent 2004), see section 5.4

K-fertiliser (as K2O) 66 kg ‘Potassium chloride, as K2O, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Capital goods

Agricultural buildings 0.078 m2 ‘Shed/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, tractor 8.4 kg ‘Tractor, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, combine harvester 7.0 kg ‘Harvester, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, tillage 10.3 kg ‘Agricultural machinery, tillage, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, general/miscellaneous 3.9 kg ‘Agricultural machinery, general, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Transport

40t lorry 1,981 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 40t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Emissions Air Water Soil 

Ammonia (NH3) 9.0 kg - - 

Dinitrogen oxide (N2O) 4.4 kg - - 

Nitric oxide (NO) 2.5 kg - - 

Nitrate (NO3) - 125 kg - 

Phosphorus (P) - 0.078 kg - 

Arsenic (As) - - 0.88 g 

Cadmium (Cd) - 0.044 g 0.27 g 

Chromium (Cr) - 0.20 g 26 g 

Cobalt (Co) - 0.0056 g 0.21 g 

Copper (Cu) - 2.5 g 4.0 g 

Mercury (Hg) - 0.033 g -0.0081 g 

Molybdenum (Mo) - - 1.0 g 

Nickel (Ni) - 0.22 g 8.7 g 

Lead (Pb) - 0.23 g 0.81 g 

Selenium (Se) - 0.022 g 2.0 g 

Zink (Zn) - 21 g 45 g 

Table 8.23: Interventions per ha y spring barley field in Denmark. 
142 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Canada: 1 ha y barley field 

Interventions Amount Applied LCI data 

Product output

Barley (Canada) 2.800 t Product of interest 

Straw removed from field 0 kg - 

System expansion 

Burning of straw in biomass plant 0 kg - 

Energy use 

Traction, burned diesel 4,029 MJ See Table 4.5

Drying of barley (evaporated water) 58 kg Modified version of: ‘Grain drying, low temperature/CH‘ (ecoinvent 2004), see 

section 5.3

Material use

Seed 110 kg See Table 8.2

N-fertiliser (as N) 67 kg ‘Ammonium nitrate, as N, at regional storehouse/RER’, (ecoinvent 2004) 

P-fertiliser (as P2O5) 26 kg Phosphate rock, see section 6.5: Fertilisers

K-fertiliser (as K2O) 10 kg ‘Potassium chloride, as K2O, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Capital goods

Agricultural buildings 0.078 m2 ‘Shed/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, tractor 8.4 kg ‘Tractor, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, combine harvester 7.0 kg ‘Harvester, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, tillage 10.3 kg ‘Agricultural machinery, tillage, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, general/miscellaneous 3.9 kg ‘Agricultural machinery, general, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Transport

40t lorry 1,451 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 40t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Emissions Air Water Soil 

Ammonia (NH3) 7.7 kg - - 

Dinitrogen oxide (N2O) 2.2 kg - - 

Nitric oxide (NO) 1.6 kg - - 

Nitrate (NO3) - 50 kg - 

Phosphorus (P) - 0.078 kg - 

Arsenic (As) - - 0.16 g 

Cadmium (Cd) - 0.025 g 0.69 g 

Chromium (Cr) - 0.11 g 16 g 

Cobalt (Co) - 0.0031 g 0.061 g 

Copper (Cu) - 1.4 g 2.7 g 

Mercury (Hg) - 0.019 g -0.0050 g 

Molybdenum (Mo) - - 0.26 g 

Nickel (Ni) - 0.12 g 2.0 g 

Lead (Pb) - 0.13 g 0.55 g 

Selenium (Se) - 0.012 g 0.94 g 

Zink (Zn) - 12 g 8.9 g 

Table 8.24: Interventions per ha y barley field in Canada. 
9 Oil mill stage: Rapeseed oil 143 

9 Oil mill stage: Rapeseed oil 

The LCI for the oil mill stage takes its point of departure in production of rapeseed oil at AarhusKarlshamn in 

Aarhus, Denmark. In order to have a representative set of data, data from both 2003 and 2004 are used where 

possible. 

Two different types of oil mill technologies exist; solvent extraction and full press. The difference between the 

two technolies is that the solvent extraction technology uses hexane as a solvent in order to achieve a higher oil 

extraction rate. The solvent extraction which is used at AarhusKarlshamn is the most dominant technology in 

the rapeseed oil industry (Kronborg 2006). As sensitivity analysis, data are also collected for a full press mill; 

Scanola in Aarhus, Denmark, see section 21.16. 

The inventory of the oil mill stage is mainly based AarhusKarlshamn’s energy report (2005b) and environmental report (Aarhus United, 2005a). Since AarhusKarlshamn produces other products than rapeseed oil and 

since their activities include milling and refining as well as modification of oils such as interestification, fractionation and hardening, overall environmental data from environmental accounts and energy accounts are not 

directly applicable. Therefore use of energy, use of ancillary materials, emissions and waste have to be based 

on more detailed investigations – mainly based on personal communication with Korning (2006), Kronborg 

(2006) and Hansen (2006). However, there are interventions which are not directly connected to any of the 

production lines. In these cases allocation has been carried out. This has been necessary in the case of heat and 

power supply for buildings (administration and research and development). Allocation is carried out between 

products and between process stages for rapeseed oil (milling, refining and modifying). 

Figure 9.1 shows the output of rapeseed meal from the oil mill. 

Figure 9.1: Rapeseed meal. Picture taken by Jannick H 

Schmidt 2007. Samples provided by Nordic Folkecenter 

for Renewable Energy.. 

9.1 Rapeseed oil mill product flow 

The inventory of the oil mill stage is divided into the unit processes shown in Figure 9.2. Figure 9.2 also 

shows the product flows through the oil mill. The product flow is determined from data on production of crude 

rapeseed oil at AarhusKarlshamn in 2004 (Aarhus United 2005b; Kronborg 2006 and Hansen 2006). 
144 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil Pressing Extraction

Rapeseed: 2.387 t

Pre-heating

Rolling

Solvent extraction

Pressing

Cooling

Oil: 0.422 t

Clarification

Extraction cake Miscella

Desolventization Heating

Solvent

removal

Drying

Rolling Drying

Clarification

Centrifugation

Drying

Lecithin

Oil: 0.578 t

Raw material reception and

storage

Screening

Overhead

Heat

Electricity

Meal:

1.346 t

Conditioning (heat treatment)

Waste to biogas:

0.010 t

Crude rapeseed oil:

1.000 t

Power central

Boiler

Turbine

Steam

Electricity Steam

Accumulator

Steam

Oil mill processing

Figure 9.2: Product flow related to production of 1 t crude rapeseed oil in the rapeseed oil mill. The numbers are obtained 

from Aarhus United in 2004. The grey shaded boxes represent the unit processes in the rapeseed oil mill stage.

 

2003 2004 

Milling and extraction Rape Shea Rape Shea 

Inputs

Seed and nuts 75,481 50,006 61,841 86,533 

Outputs

Oil from pressing 13,587 11,001 11,131 19.037 

Oil from extraction 17,314 13,437 15,231 23,401 

Meal 44,581 25,568 35,479 44,094 

Total 75,482 50,006 61,841 86,532 

Table 9.1: Mass balance for milling and extraction at AarhusKarlshamn 2003 and 2004. All numbers are given in tonne. 

(Aarhus United, 2004b and 2005b)

The numbers shown in Table 9.1 from AarhusKarlshamn only cover production of crude oils at AarhusKarlshamn and they do not take into account that there is a minor loss of water and residuals from screening of the 

incoming rapeseed. It is the numbers on amount of produced crude oils that are the correct ones. The loss of 

residual and water per kg crude oil is given in Figure 9.3. 
9 Oil mill stage: Rapeseed oil 145 Pressing Extraction

Rapeseed: 2.387 kg

DS: 2.187 kg

Water: 0.200 kg

Pre-heating

Rolling

Solvent extraction

Pressing

Cooling

Oil: 0.422 kg

Clarification

Extraction cake Miscella

Desolventization Heating

Solvent

removal

Drying

Rolling Drying

Clarification

Centrifugation

Drying

Lecithin

Oil: 0.578 kg

Raw material reception and

storage

Screening

Conditioning (heat treatment)

Residual: 0.010 kg

DS: 0.009 kg

Water: 0.001 kg

Water: 0.010 kg

Water: 0.010 kg

Water: 0.010 kg

Crude oil: 1.000 kg

DS: 1.000 kg

Water: 0.000 kg

Meal: 1.346 kg

DS: 1.178

Water: 0.168 kg

Figure 9.3: Losses of water and residual in the screening process related to pressing and extraction of 1 kg crude rapeseed 

oil. The calculation of losses is described in the following.

Loss; residual from screening: According to Kronborg (2006) the amount of residual from screening of the 

incoming rapeseed is approximately 0.4%. The water content in residual is assumed to be the same as in rapeseed which is 8-9%, see Table 5.1. 

Loss; water: It has not been possible to obtain data on loss of water in the rapeseed through the processes at 

AarhusKarlshamn. Therefore, point of departure is taken in the overall loss in rapeseed oil mills in the EU 

which was 1.7% in 2003 and 2004 (Based on Oil World 2005). Applying the overall loss of incoming rapeseed 

at 1.7% in the EU and the ratio between oil and meal as in Figure 9.2, the total input of rapeseed per tonne 

crude oil is 2.387 tonne. 

The water content of the meal is estimated as 12.5%. This based on rapeseed meal containing 4% fat in Møller 

et al. (2000). Møller et al. (2000) provide data on different types of rapeseed meals; meals containing 4%, 10% 

and 13% fat. Meals containing 10% and 13% fat are meals from oil mills without solvent extraction. Based on 

the numbers given in Figure 9.2 and a content of 199 g protein and 442 g fat per kilo rapeseed (Møller et al. 

2000) and an overall loss of inputs to oil to rapeseed oil mills in the EU at 1.7%, it can be calculated that the 
146 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

meal produced at AarhusKarlshamn contains approximately 4.1% fat and 35.3% protein. A standard rapeseed 

meal containing 4% fat in Møller et al. (2000) contains 34% protein, which relatively close to the numbers 

calculated. 

The overall loss at 1.7% of the input of rapeseed is distributed on 0.4% residual from screening of rapeseed; 

~0.0095 t, and the remaining 1.3% is water; 0.031 tonne. Since the content of water in the meal is 12.5%, the 

amount of water in the meal is 0.168 tonne. The water content of the residual is assumed to be the same as in 

rapeseed ~8-9%; ~0.001 tonne. The water content in the incoming rapeseed is calculated from the dry matter 

content in the outputs; the meal (1.178 t), the crude oil (1.000 t) and the residual (~0.009 t) totalling 2.187 

tonne dry solid matter. The total input of rapeseed was determined to be 2.387 tonne. Comparing the dry solid 

matter and the total input, the water content can be calculated as 8.4% (0.200 t). This is consistent with Table 

5.1 which specify water content at 8-9%. Thus, the loss of water in the different drying processes can be calculated as the residual water in excess; water input (0.200 t) minus water output (0.168 t + 0.001 t) = 0.031 t. It is 

assumed that this water loss is equally distributed on the three drying processes given in Figure 9.2. Thus, the 

water loss is 0.010 t in each drying process. 

9.2 Omitted inventory data in rapeseed oil mill stage 

There are some interventions related to the oil mill stage that are not included. The reason for omitting these 

interventions is: i) the interventions account for an insignificant share of the interventions related to the oil mill 

stage, ii) inclusion would involve great uncertainties, iii) data collection would be quite time consuming. Relating to ii) one reason for uncertainties is that there is no known direct relationship between production of refined rapeseed oil at AarhusKarlshamn and the interventions. Therefore, the added value to the inventory is 

estimated to be very low compared to the work load needed. All omitted interventions accounts for less than 

0.6 g per kg produced oil at AarhusKarlshamn. The omitted interventions are shown in Table 9.2. 

Material flows Total at AarhusKarlshamn in 2004 Amount per kg product at AarhusKarlshamn 

Products 312,000 tonne 1 kg

Omitted material use 

Lubricating oil 3 tonne 0.01 g

Cleaning agents 13.4 tonne 0.04 g

Omitted waste 

Paper and card board to recycling 42 tonne 0.1 g

Plastic to recycling 8 tonne 0.03 g

Lubricating oil to recycling 3 tonne 0.01 g

Metals to recycling 180 tonne 0.6 g

Waste to landfill 80 tonne 0.3 g

Table 9.2: Omitted inventory data. Data from Aarhus United (2005a). 

In addition to the omitted material uses and waste streams in Table 9.2 also consumption of varies minor 

products such as tools, paper, computers, pencils, miscellaneous equipment etc. for process management and 

administration are omitted. 

9.3 Power central 

The energy supply to the oil mill includes electricity and steam. At AarhusKarlshamn steam is co-produced 

with electricity on the company’s own combined heat and power plant (CHP) and deficiency of electricity is 

purchased from the grid. The determining product is steam and the dependent product is electricity. 

The energy efficiency in term of steam and electricity production for AarhusKarlshamn’s CHP is shown in 

Table 9.3. The numbers are based on the total input of fuel oil and the net output of steam and electricity. 
9 Oil mill stage: Rapeseed oil 147 

Energy distribution 2003 2004 Average 

Heat 90.1% 84.6% 87.3% 

Electricity 4.9% 5.2% 5.0% 

Loss 5.1% 10.1% 7.6% 

Total 100.1% 99.9% 99.9 

Table 9.3: Energy efficiency at AarhusKarlshamn’s CHP. The small differences in total are due to rounding. (Aarhus 

United, 2004b and 2005b)

It can be seen from Table 9.3 that the CHP has an overall average efficiency of 92.3 percent. This is consistent 

with Energistyrelsen (1995) where efficiency of oil boilers in Denmark is assessed to be 90-92%. According to 

Aarhus United (2005a) the use of fuel in 2004 was distributed on 98.3% fuel oil and 1.7% oil waste from AarhusKarlshamn. 20% of the oil waste comes from degumming of shea nut oil and 80% comes from different oil 

waste of vegetable oils. In 2004 29% of the crude oil production was rapeseed oil and 71% was shea nut oil 

(Aarhus United, 2005b). Thus, 29% of 80% of the 1.7% oil waste, i.e. 0.4% ~ 0% of the oil waste can be ascribed to the production of rapeseed oil. Hence, the amount of oil waste from rapeseed oil can be neglected. 

Comparing the water use for energy production in Aarhus United (2005a) the production of steam in Aarhus 

United (2005b) the use of water can be found as 0.12 litres per MJ heat produced. 

Interventions related to production, transportation and burning of fuel oil are found using data from ecoinvent 

(2004): Light fuel oil, burned in boiler 100kW, non-modulating. The data set includes infrastructure and machinery for production and transportation of the oil. 

The produced electricity is sold to the grid, where marginal supply of electricity is displaced. Table 9.4 gives 

an overview of the interventions related to production of 1 MJ at the power central at AarhusKarlshamn. 

1 MJ heat (steam) Amount Applied LCI data 

Fuel oil burned in boiler 1.145 MJ ‘Light fuel oil, burned in boiler 100kW, non-modulating’, ecoinvent (2004) 

Electricity (sold to the grid) -0.057 MJ See Table 3.3

Water, tap 0.12 litre See Table 13.5

Table 9.4: Inventory data for 1 MJ heat produced at AarhusKarlshamn’s power central.

9.4 Rapeseed oil mill processing: Pressing and extraction 

This process includes raw material reception, storage, screening, pre-heating, rolling and conditioning. After 

rolling the flakes from the press process are sent to solvent extraction. There are two outputs from the solvent 

extraction; extraction cake and miscella. The solvent is removed from the cake and after drying the meal is 

finished. Miscella is a mix of oil approximately 10-30% oil and 70-90% solvent. The solvent is removed and 

reused and the oil is clarified and centrifuged. The residual from the centrifugation is lecithin which at AarhusKarlshamn is fed into the meal fraction. Some mills sell the lecithin which can be used as emulsifier. The 

segregated lecithin comprises around 2% of the desolventized miscella (Korning 2006). It is presumed that the 

lecithin in general at modern European oil mills is fed into the meal. Thus, it is not treated as a co-product. 

Interventions in the pressing and extraction stage are calculated per kg extracted rapeseed oil. The product flow 

per kilo pressed and extracted oil is shown in Figure 9.2. 

Material use 

There is no material use besides the input of rapeseed to the pressing process. The interventions related to 

rapeseed production are described in section 0. In the extraction process solvent is used. The solvent used at 

AarhusKarlshamn is hexane. According to Bockisch (1998) hexane is the most dominant solvent used. Other 

minor solvents are benzenes, carbon disulphide and trichloroethylene. 
148 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

According to Kronborg (2006) consumption of hexane per tonne pressed and extracted rapeseed oil is 1.188 

kg.

It has not been possible to identify any inventory data on production of hexane. However, two inventories of 

solvents representing hexane have been identified. The first one is an inventory used to describe hexane for 

extraction of rapeseed oil in an LCA of rapeseed oil (Nielsen et al. 2005). The data used is an inventory of 

‘Chemicals inorganic’ from the ETH-database (Frischknecht et al., 1996). The second data set is data used to 

describe hexane for soybean oil extraction in an LCA of soybean oil (Althaus et al. 2003). The data set is an 

inventory of production of pentane in the ecoinvent database (Hischier 2003). In Althaus et al. (2003, p 695) it 

is argued that the use of data for pentane should not affect the result of the LCA of soybean oil because the 

manufacturing processes of hexane and pentane are similar. Analysing the two data sets in Simapro and using 

the EDIP97 for LCIA, it appears that global warming, acidification and toxicity are the most significant impact 

categories. In Table 9.5 the two data sets are compared within these categories. 

Representative LCI-data for 

hexane 

CO2-eq. SO2-eq. ETWC, m3

water 

Description of data 

‘Chemicals, inorganic’, ETHESU database (Frischknecht et 

al., 1996) 

0.65 kg 8.8 g 530 m3 Time: Data from 1990-94 

Geography: Western Europe 

Technology: Average 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: Included for sub processes but not for the production 

of chemicals. 

‘Pentane, at plant’, ecoinvent 

database 

(Hischier 2003) 

1,2 kg 9.7 g 32 m3 Time: Data from 1990 and 1996 

Geography: France, Germany and UK 

Technology: Average 

Co-product allocation: Mass-allocation between co-products in the 

steps before pentane production (refining of oil etc) 

Capital goods: Machinery, buildings. 

Table 9.5: Comparison of two LCIs representing production of 1 kg hexane. The comparison is shown as characterised 

results using the EDIP97-method for LCIA. The applied data are marked with a black dotted frame.

It appears from Table 9.5 that the two data sets are significantly different within the compared impact categories. The difference in terms of global warming varies with a factor 2 and ecotoxicity with a factor 17. The 

main reason for the differences is probably that the two LCIs have different scopes; ‘chemicals, inorganic’ and 

‘pentane, at plant’. The validity of this argument is underpinned in the following. Besides pentane, there are 

inventories of 15 other different solvents in Hischier (2003). In comparison to Table 9.5 these data varies from 

0.62 kg CO2-eq to 3.3 kg CO2-eq and 36 m3

 to 1,000 m3 water ecotoxicity. It can be seen that the span of contributions from different solvents in Hischier (2003) embrace the data from Frischknecht et al. (1996). Since 

the data from Hischier (2003) are the newest, the most precise concerning scope and the most documented of 

the two data sets, it is chosen to apply these in the LCA of rapeseed oil. 

Energy use 

According to Kronborg (2006) energy consumption related to both pressing and extraction is 1,586 MJ heat 

and 419 MJ electricity per tonne of rapeseed oil. Based on Kronborg (2006) and Aarhus United (2005b) it is 

determined that pressing comprises 22% of the heat consumption and 64% of the electricity use. These energy 

uses are per tonne of produced oil, see Table 9.6. 

Energy use per kg pressed rapeseed oil Pressing Solvent extraction Total 

Electricity 268 MJ 151 MJ 419 MJ 

Heat (steam) 349 MJ 1,237 MJ 1,586 MJ 

Table 9.6: Energy consumption per t rapeseed oil produced in 2004 at AarhusKarlshamn. (Kronborg, 2006 and Aarhus 

United 2005b) 
9 Oil mill stage: Rapeseed oil 149 

The interventions from production of electricity and heat are described in section 3.1 and 9.3. 

Emissions 

There are no emissions from the press except from dust. This originates from the handling of rapeseed and 

meal. However, according to Kronborg (2006) the dust emission related to rapeseed is insignificant. 

From the solvent extraction process there is emission of hexane. There are three sources of hexane emission 

related to production of crude rapeseed oil; extraction, processing of rapeseed meal and from storage tanks. 

Hexane emission from extraction: At AarhusKarlshamn the exhaust gas from the extraction is sent to the 

power central where it is used as input air to the burning of fuel oil. Hereby, the hexane is converted into water 

and carbon dioxide. Since the amount of hexane sent to the power central is insignificant compared to the 

amount of fuel oil used per kg extracted rapeseed oil, it is presumed that there are no emissions related to hexane sent through the power central. According to Aarhus United (2005a) the emission of hexane from extraction was 10.9 tonne. And according to Kronborg (2006) the emission of hexane can be estimated to be constant 

with operating hours. Since rapeseed oil was extracted 25% of the time in the extractor, the emission related to 

the production of 26,362 tonne crude rapeseed oil in 2004 (see Table 9.1) can be calculated as 0.10 kg per 

tonne rapeseed oil. However, the emission in Aarhus United (2005a) is given as the output from the extractor. 

Thus, it is not taken into account that approximately 95% of the time the exhaust gas from the extractor is sent 

to the power central. Hence, the emission of hexane is 0.0052 kg per tonne crude rapeseed oil. 

Hexane emission from processing of rapeseed meal: A considerable share of the input of hexane goes with 

the meal to final processing. The total emission of hexane from meal processing is 37.1 tonne. This has to be 

allocated between 35,479 tonne rapeseed meal and 44,094 tonne shea meal (see Table 9.1). Thus, the emission 

of hexane from meal processing is 16.5 tonne in 2004. 

The hexane emission related to the production of 26,362 tonne crude rapeseed oil in 2004 (see Table 9.1) can 

then be calculated as 0.63 kg per tonne rapeseed oil. 

Hexane emission from storage tanks: This emission comes from the storage of hexane. The emission related 

to rapeseed oil can be calculated as the use of hexane used for extracting rapeseed oil multiplied with the emission of hexane from storage tanks per kg total used hexane. From Aarhus United (2005a) it can be derived that 

there is a hexane emission from storage tanks at 46 g per kg hexane used. The consumption of hexane per 

tonne rapeseed oil is 1.188 kg (see Material use, p 147). Thus, the emission from storage tanks can be found as 

0.055 kg per tonne rapeseed oil. 

The total emission of hexane from extraction is 0.69 kg per tonne crude rapeseed oil. 

9.5 Waste to treatment 

There are two waste streams that are sent to treatment. According to Kronborg (2006) the amount of residual 

from screening of the incoming rapeseed is approximately 0.4% equalling ~10 kg residual per tonne rapeseed 

oil, also see Figure 9.2. The residual is sent to biogas. For inventory data for residual sent to biogas, see section 13.4, where inventory data for bleaching earth sent to biogas are described as well. 

According to Kronborg (2006) there were 1,500 m3

 waste water from the extraction process in 2004. Relating 

to the 26,362 tonne crude rapeseed oil in 2004 (see Table 9.1) this corresponds to 57 litres per tonne rapeseed 
150 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

oil. According to Aarhus United (2005a) the content of COD in the waste water is 3,578 mg/l. Hence, 57 litres 

corresponds to 0.204 kg COD per tonne rapeseed oil. 

When waste water is sent to a waste water treatment plant it is treated in order to meet a certain emission limit 

value defined by environmental legislation. Different properties of the waste water, i.e. quantity and contaminants, affect the interventions at the plant in different ways. Kromann (1996, p 112) has investigated how different properties of the waste water affects the energy use, material use and waste generation (sludge). The 

findings of that are described in Table 9.7 and Table 9.8. 

Waste water Amount 

Waste water 6,850 m3/day

COD 7,800 kg/day

N 650 kg/day

P 190 kg/day

Table 9.7: Overview of composition of waste water to a Danish waste water treatment plant. (Kromann, 1996, p 112)

Waste/co-product Amount Determining property 

Electricity for pumping 1,094 kWh/day Determined by the amount of waste water 

Electricity for stirring 1,328 kWh/day Independent 

Electricity for air mixing 6,561 kWh/day Determined by amount of organic compounds, i.e. COD (and N) 

Electricity for sludge dewatering 234 kWh/day Determined by amount of organic compounds, i.e. COD (and P) 

Other 156 kWh/day Independent 

Iron sulphate for removal of P 3.6 – 5.4 g/g P Determined by the amount of P 

(It is presumed that removal of phosphorus is done by combined biological 

removal and precipitation with iron sulphate) 

Polymers for sludge dewatering 1.5 g/kg COD Determined by amount of organic compounds, i.e. COD (and P) 

Table 9.8: Overview of energy use, material use and waste generation from different properties of waste water. (Kromann, 1996, p 112).

Based on Table 9.7 and Table 9.8 and the assumption that air mixing and amount of sludge is dependant on 

the amount of COD, the interventions per m3

 waste water, per kg P and per kg COD can be found, see Table 

9.9. It is assumed that N in waste water is equivalent with COD. Thus, the interventions related to removal of 

N in waste water are included in removal of COD. Since the discharge of P is dependant on emission limit 

values and not the input of P to the sewage purifying plant, a change in P to the plant will not affect the emission of P. Thus, the marginal emission is 0. The same is the case for COD. Furthermore, the independent interventions at the plant are not affected by the quantity or contaminants of the waste water. 

Interventions per m3 waste water Amount Applied LCI-data 

Electricity, pumping 0.57 MJ See Table 3.3

Interventions per kg P content Amount Applied LCI-data 

Iron sulphate 4.5 kg ‘Iron sulphate, at plant/RER’, ecoinvent (2004) 

Interventions per kg COD Amount Applied LCI-data 

Electricity for air mixing 3.0 MJ See section 3.1

Electricity for sludge dewatering 0.1 MJ See section 3.1

Polymers for sludge dewatering 1.5 g No inventory data have been identified 

Table 9.9: Life cycle inventories for the quantity and contaminants of waste water. 

9.6 Overhead 

Overhead includes electricity and heat for administration and research and development. It is not possible to 

establish a direct relationship between interventions from overhead and the production of refined rapeseed oil 

and rapeseed meal. This is because there are no direct linkages between production processes and overhead 

activities and because intermediate products are both purchased at and delivered from different stages in the oil 

mill, see Figure 9.4 below. 
9 Oil mill stage: Rapeseed oil 151 

Rapeseed and Milling

shea nuts

Crude oils

Semirefined oils

Neutralisation

and bleaching

Deodorisation

Interestification Hardening

Fractionation

Crude oils and oil meals

Semi refined oils

Semirefined oils

Chemical/technical oil

products

Purchased raw

materials/products

Delivered products

Figure 9.4: Simplified overview of processes and flow of products at AarhusKarlshamn. 

Production of refined rapeseed oil includes milling, neutralisation, bleaching and deodorisation in Figure 9.4. 

Since it is not possible to establish a direct relationship between interventions from overhead and the production of refined rapeseed oil a presumed proportion of the interventions from overhead activities is used. This 

proportion could be estimated based on turnover, mass or other properties. It has not been possible to obtain 

data on turnover distributed on all AarhusKarlshamn’s products. Thus, allocation could be based on mass of 

delivered products. For milling, rapeseed oil and meal constitute approximately 40% of the product flow. For 

the other processing stages it is difficult to find these numbers because the input of crude oils and semi refined 

oils in some cases are mixtures of different oils. However, mass allocation do reflect a causal in a wrong way; 

most work in laboratories, administration, marketing etc. is related to highly modified speciality oils. Therefore 

instead it is chosen to derive allocation factors based on the number of processing stages and products produced at AarhusKarlshamn. It is very roughly estimated that 10% of the interventions from administration, 

marketing, laboratories etc. can be ascribed to milling, 10% to refining and 80% to modification of oils. Three 

oils constitute the main oils used at AarhusKarlshamn; rapeseed oil, shea oil and palm oil. However, only two 

oil seeds are milled, i.e. rapeseed and shea. The outputs are then two different oils and two different meals. 

Thus, crude rapeseed oil’s proportion of the overhead activities is determined as 25% of the 10%. Hence, the 

proportion related to rapeseed activities can be estimated as 2.5%. 

According to Aarhus United (2005b) electricity consumption for administration and laboratories was approximately 1220 MWh in 2004. Using above determined allocation factor, the electricity consumption for overhead related to rapeseed oil can be estimated as 60 MWh in 2004. Relating abovementioned electricity use to 

the annual production of rapeseed oil in 2004 at 26,362 tonne shown in Table 9.1, the specific electricity use 

can be found as 4 MJ/t oil. This amounts approximately 1% of the total electricity consumption for production 

of crude rapeseed oil at AarhusKarlshamn, see Table 9.13. 

Heat consumption for administration and laboratories was approximately 550 MWh in 2004 (Aarhus United, 

2005b). Using abovementioned allocation factor and values in Table 9.1 the heat consumption can be found as 

2 MJ/kg rapeseed oil. Administration buildings and laboratories are heated with municipal district heat. Interventions from district heating in Aarhus are described in section 3.6. 

9.7 Capital goods 

Capital goods include means of production, i.e. buildings and machinery. According to Althaus et al. (2003) 

the environmental burden from capital goods for production of chemicals are of minor importance compared to 

other processes. Analysing capital goods’ share of the total burden from different oil mills inventoried in 

ecoinvent (2004), the contributions from capital goods do not seem to be insignificant, see Table 9.10. 
152 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Chemical plant’s share of environmental 

burden from oil mill 

Soybean oil mill Palm oil mill Palm kernel oil mill Coconut oil mill 

Global warming 7% 5% 3% 8%

Acidification 13% 13% 6% 20%

ETWC, m3 water 19% 31% 13% 49%

Table 9.10: The environmental burden from capital goods compared to the total environmental burden from activities at 

different oil mills. Production of oil seeds, fruits and nuts is not included. The results are found analysing the inventory in

Simapro and using the EDIP97 method for LCIA. LCI databases from ecoinvent (2004) are used.

However, the great contributions to toxicity are infected with significant uncertainties and errors. A major part 

of the contributions originates from long term emissions of especially copper from disposal of electronics used 

in control units in the plant. These emissions are calculated in a time frame of several thousands years. There 

is no consensus in the LCA community on the time frame to be used for long term emissions. Hansen et al 

(2004) suggest that effects from long term emissions should be dealt with as separate impact categories. 

Another important contribution to toxicity is emission of iron to air. This originates from production of hard 

coal coke used as fuel for production of machinery and buildings. However, the emission of iron is approximately 10 kg per 1 kg coal. According to personal communication with Bauer (2005) this is due to an error in 

ecoinvent by six orders of magnitude. 

Not many life cycle inventories of buildings and machinery exist, only one has been identified; ecoinvent 

(2004). Since it is not possible to obtain detailed data on building materials, foundations, machinery etc. from 

oil mills in Denmark, the inventory of capital goods will be rather roughly and based on ecoinvent (2004). The 

data in ecoinvent are described in detail in Althaus et al. (2003) where capital goods are divided into three 

categories: 1) Building, hall, 2) Building, multi story and 3) Facilities, chemical production. The inventories of 

buildings are described in Kellenberger et al. (2003) and facilities in Althaus et al. (2003). The amount of 

building, hall used is measured in m2

. Building, multi story is measured in m3 and facilities are measured as 

average composition of chemical production facilities per kg of the facility. In Althaus et al (2003) facilities 

mainly consist of distillation units and minor amounts of pipes and control units (electronic equipment). Disposal of buildings and facilities is included in the used inventories. 

Using the life cycle inventories for capital goods from ecoinvent (2004) it is only necessary to collect data on 

the area and volume for building halls and multi story buildings respectively and weight of the facilities used 

for pressing, extraction and refining. The used data sets in ecoinvent are: ‘Building, hall, steel construction’, 

‘Building, multi-storey’ and ‘Facilities, chemical production’. 

Oil mill buildings 

The area covered by buildings is estimated from the municipal district plan for the current district (Århus 

Kommune 2004). 

Pressing and extraction: The buildings for pressing and extraction cover approximately 2000 m2

 and silos for 

storage of nuts and seeds cover approximately 300 m2

. Thus, the buildings for storage of raw material and 

pressing and extraction are estimated as 2,300 m2

 building hall. An average life time of building halls is estimated to 50 years. The annual amount of extracted oil at AarhusKarlshamn is approximately 50,000 tonne. 

Hence the building hall required per kg of pressed and extracted oil can be determined as approximately 

9.2⋅10-4 m2

 building hall/t oil. 

Overhead: Administration buildings cover an area of approximately 2,500 m2

. In average these buildings are 

four storey buildings with an estimated height of 15 m. Thus, administration buildings are estimated to be at 

37,500 m3

 multi story building. Applying the allocation factor at 0.22 for overhead described in section 9.6 the 
9 Oil mill stage: Rapeseed oil 153 

buildings for overhead related to rapeseed oil can be estimated as 8,300 m3

 multi story building. As the other 

buildings the life time is estimated to be 50 years. Relating the 8,300 m3

 multi story building to the annual 

production of rapeseed oil at approximately 50,000 tonne, the specific requirement of buildings for overhead 

can be found as 3.3⋅10-3 m3

 multi story building/t oil. However, since all rapeseed oil produced is also refined 

the 3.3⋅10-3 m3

 multi story building/t oil is related to the oil mill as well as the refinery. Therefore, half of this 

is ascribed to the oil mill and the other half to the refinery. Thus, the area of administration buildings related to 

the oil mill process for rapeseed oil at AarhusKarlshamn has been estimated as 3.3⋅10-3 m3

 multi story building/t oil divided by 2, i.e. 1.7⋅10-3 m3

 multi story building/t oil. 

Oil mill machinery (facilities) 

The weight of machinery is very roughly estimated from personal communication with Kronborg (2006). The 

relevant numbers are given in Table 9.11. 

Process Weight of machinery incl. pipes Estimated life time Annual production Machinery (kg) per 

kg oil 

Press and extraction 100 tonne 10 years 50,000 tonne 0.20 kg/t oil

Table 9.11: Required machinery (kg) per t oil produced at AarhusKarlshamn. Numbers are based on very rough estimates. 

Determination of capital goods is regarded as very uncertain. Therefore a sensitivity analysis is carried out in 

section 21.17. 

9.8 Transport of raw materials and ancillaries to rapeseed oil mill 

Rapeseed and ancillary materials are transported with lorry to AarhusKarlshamn. Inventory data per tkm transport by lorry is described in section 4.1. The transport distances are estimated in this section. Since there are 

several suppliers and since there is a general lack of data on the specific marginal affected supplier, all transport distances are based on rough estimates. Determination of size of lorries is based on Table 4.3. 

Material Amount to AarhusKarlshamn Amount per t 

crude rapeseed 

oil 

From To Distance Lorry size 

Rapeseed ~60,000 t/year 2.387 t Seed traders, Denmark Aarhus 100 km 40t

Light fuel oil ~36,000 t/year 44.7 kg Fuel oil supplier, Denmark Aarhus 10 km 28t

Hexane ~158 t/year 1.19 kg Abroad chemical plant Aarhus 1000 km 40t

Rapeseed residual ~260 t/year 10 kg Aarhus Biogas plant 30 km 28t

Rapeseed meal ~34,000 t/year 1.346 t Aarhus Meal trader 10 km 28t

Table 9.12: Transport distances of the used raw materials and ancillaries in the oil mill stage. The return trip is included 

in the inventory data. 

Transport of the rapeseed oil to the refinery is included in the refinery stage in section 13. 

The amount of rapeseed in the column ‘Amount to AarhusKarlshamn’ in Table 9.12 is based on Table 9.1. 

The amount of light fuel oil is estimated from a fuel use at 409,748 MWh at AarhusKarlshamn in 2004 (Aauhus United 2005b). With a calorific value at 40.6 MJ/kg (Appendix 1: Data on fuels) this corresponds to 

36,000 tonne fuel oil. The amount of hexane is given in Aarhus United (2005a) and the amount of rapeseed 

residual is calculated from Table 9.1 and Table 9.13. The amounts given in the column ‘Amount per t crude 

rapeseed oil’ are calculated from Table 9.13. 

9.9 LCI of rapeseed oil mill, summary 

Table 9.13 summarises the inventory data relating to 1 kg crude rapeseed oil produced at AarhusKarlshamn. 
154 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Denmark: 1.000 t crude rapeseed oil from oil mill 

Interventions Power central Pressing and 

extraction 

Overhead Total Applied LCI data 

Product output 

Crude rapeseed oil - 1.000 t - 1.000 t Product of interest 

Rapeseed meal - 1.346 t - 1.346 t Co-product allocation is avoided by 

system expansion, see Table 2.3

Material use 

Rapeseed - 2.387 t - 2.387 t See Table 5.48

Hexane - 1.188 kg - 1.188 kg ‘Pentane, at plant’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Energy use 

Electricity - 419 MJ 4 MJ 423 MJ See Table 3.3

Heat (steam) - 1,586 MJ - 1,586 MJ See Table 9.4

Heat (district heat) - - 2 MJ 2 MJ See section 3.6

Emissions to air 

Hexane - 0.69 kg - 0.69 kg Emission to air 

Waste to treatment 

Waste water, quantity - 57 ltr. - 57 ltr. See Table 9.9

Waste water, COD - 0.204 kg - 0.204 kg See Table 9.9

Rapeseed residual to 

biogas 

10 kg - - 10 kg See Table 13.8

Capital goods 

Building halls - 9.2⋅10-4 m2 - 9.2⋅10-4 m2 ‘Building, hall, steel construction’ 

(ecoinvent 2004) 

Building, multi story - - 1.7⋅10-3 m3 1.7⋅10-3 m3 ’Building, multi-storey’ (ecoinvent 

2004) 

Machinery - 0.20 kg - 0.20 kg ‘Facilities, chemical production’, 

(ecoinvent 2004) 

Transport of raw materials and ancillaries to oil mill 

Rapeseed, 40t lorry - 238.7 tkm - 238.7 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 40t’ (ecoinvent 

2004) 

Fuel oil 0.45 tkm - - 0.45 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 

2004) 

Hexane - 1.19 tkm - 1.19 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 40t’ (ecoinvent 

2004)

Rapeseed residual - 0.3 tkm - 0.3 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 

2004) 

Rapeseed meal - 13.5 tkm - 13.5 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 

2004) 

Table 9.13: Interventions per t crude rapeseed oil. 
10 Oil mill stage: Palm oil 155 

10 Oil mill stage: Palm oil 

The LCI for the palm oil mill stage represents palm oil milling in Malaysia 2003 to 2005. For some processes 

alternative technologies and practices exist. 

There are different influential factors on the interventions and thereby the environmental impact related to the 

production of palm oil in the palm oil mill. Some of these factors are related to uncertainties in data and some 

are related to improvement options. The considered factors are: 1) technology for treating palm oil mill effluent (POME), 2) required steam consumption in the palm oil mill and 3) the utilisation/waste treatment of 

empty fruit bunches (EFB). Regarding 1) the most common technology for treating POME is open anearobic 

and aerobic ponds. Therefore this is applied as the technology in the baseline scenario. The alternative technology which is installing of digester tanks for biogas capturing and subsequent utilisation of biogas is considered as an improvement option (see section 21.18). Relating to 2) different studies show different amounts of 

required steam in the palm oil mill process. Steam consumption at 0.65 tonne is applied in the baseline scenario in this study while 0.5 tonne is applied in a sensitivity analysis in order to analyse the effect of uncertainty in data (see section 21.19). Concerning 3) the three main treatments of EFB are: application as mulch in 

the plantation, landfilling near the palm oil mill and utilisation as biofuel for electricity production (UNFCCC 

2007). In the past open burning was applied as treatment of EFB, but this management option is now banned 

(UNFCCC 2007). Appilcation as mulch is the most likely management option and is therefore used in the 

baseline scenario (Corley and Tinker 2003, p 376). The effects of the two other options are analysed in a sensitivity analysis (see section 21.20). The alternative treatments of EFB are regarded as potential improvement 

options. 

The inventory of the oil mill stage is mainly based on data collected with United Plantation Berhad’s Research 

Department (Singh 2006), data provided by MPOB (Subranamiam 2006a) and general literature on oil palm 

processing; Singh et al. (1999) and Department of Environment (1999). 

10.1 Palm oil mill product flow 

Figure 10.1 shows the product flows through the oil mill. The oil mill stage is divided into the four unit processes shown as grey shaded boxes in Figure 10.1. 
156 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil Oil mill processing

FFB: 1,000 kg

Pressing

Clarification

Sterilisation

Overhead

Stripping

Electricity

Nut and fibre separation

Nut cracking

Decanter

press cake

Nuts

CPO:

199.8 kg

Fibre:

130.0 kg

N:P:K eq.:

0:0:0 kg

POME:

672.5 kg

POME treatment

Anarobic pond

Anaerobically

digested POME

Land application of POME

Shell:

70.0 kg

Kernel:

53.2 kg

70.0 kg 130.0 kg

Power central

Boiler

Turbine

Steam

Electricity:

104 MJ

Steam:

1,691 MJ

Steam release:

16 MJ

waste water

Drying

Shell (fuel):

0 kg

Fibre (fuel):

0 kg

EFB to mulching:

225.0 kg

Digester

Accumulator

Steam

Electricity:

32 MJ

Figure 10.1: Product flow related to processing of 1 tonne FFB in the palm oil mill. The grey shaded boxes represent the 

unit processes in the palm oil mill stage. 

It appears from Figure 10.1 that the palm oil mill has several product outputs. The production of crude palm 

oil (CPO) and kernel per tonne of FFB is determined as the Malaysian average in 2003 to 2005 given in 

MPOB (2005) and MPOB (2006), see Table 10.1. Malaysian national figures on the product flows of mesocarp fibre, shell, EFB and POME per tonne of processed FFB in 1996 and 2002 are shown in Table 10.2, 

where the applied numbers are the average of 1996 and 2002 figures. 

Oil mill products 2003 2004 2005 Applied 

CPO 197.5 kg/t FFB 200.3 kg/t FFB 201.5 kg/t FFB 199.8 kg/t FFB 

Kernel 53.6 kg/t FFB 52.5 kg/t FFB 53.4 kg/t FFB 53.2 kg/t FFB 

Table 10.1: Crude palm oil (CPO) and kernel production per tonne of processed FFB in 2003 and 2004 (MPOB 2005) 

and 2005 (MPOB 2006). The numbers represent Malaysian national figures.

Oil mill co-product 1996 2002 Applied 

Fibre 120.0 kg/t FFB 140.0 kg/t FFB 130.0 kg/t FFB 

Shell 70.0 kg/t FFB 70.0 kg/t FFB 70.0 kg/t FFB 

EFB 220.0 kg/t FFB 230.0 kg/t FFB 225.0 kg/t FFB 

POME 670.0 kg/t FFB 675.0 kg/t FFB 672.5 kg/t FFB 

Table 10.2: Mesocarp fibre, shell, EFB and POME per t FFB in 1996 (Singh 1999) and in 2002 (Ma et al. 2004). The 

numbers represent Malaysian national figures.

The oil mill has its own power and steam supply. The power central is fuelled with some of the fibre and shell 

from the processing. Subranamiam et al. (2005) present the amount of fibre and shell used as fuel in the mill’s 

power central for six palm oil mills per tonne of FFB. According to Subranamiam et al. (2005) an average 82% 
10 Oil mill stage: Palm oil 157 

 

of the fibre and 55% of the shells are fed into the boiler, while Weng (1999) suggests that 90% of the fibre and 

80% of the shells are used as boiler fuel. According to Subranamiam et al. (2005) excess of fibre and shell are 

sold out as fuel. The energy production and related emissions from burning of fibre and shell in the power 

central is described in section 10.3. 

According to Singh and Thorairaj (2006) and Subranamiam et al. (2005) the steam requirement for processing 

of 1 tonne FFB is 0.65 tonne at 3 bar equalling 1,691 MJ. 

The figures provided in Subranamiam et al. (2005) seem to be too low since the burning of 82% of the fibre 

and 55% of the shell only amount to an energy input of 1,919 MJ/t FFB18. This would require steam to fuel 

input ratio (efficiency) at 88%, which exceeds likely levels: Husain et al. (2003) specifies steam to fuel input 

ratio for co-generating heat and power plants in palm oil mills ranging from 50.7% to 72.7%, averaging 61.8%. 

Also, the boiler fuel input provided by Weng (1999) seems to be too low. Applying the boiler fuel input given 

by Weng (1999) the energy input is 2,359 MJ. This would require steam to fuel input ratio at 72% which is 

also slightly higher than a likely level. The reason why the fuel inputs suggested by Subranamiam et al. (2005) 

and Weng (1999) are too low is probably that the steam requirement at 0.65 t per t FFB is high compared to 

average palm oil mills. Hence, Chavalparit et al. (2006) report steam consumption at 0.4 t/t FFB and according 

to Singh and Thorairaj (2006) the steam consumption in some mills may be as low as 0.45 – 0.50 t steam/t 

FFB. The 0.65 tonne provided by Singh and Thorairaj (2006) includes steam for drying of nuts/kernels and less 

steam demanding drying decanted effluent (processed into organic fertiliser), which are not done in most mills. 

Still, the steam requirement of 0.65 t per t FFB is applied in this study. This is because nut/kernel drying has to 

be done elsewhere if not done in the oil mill. The overall result is then the same no matter if drying is done in 

the oil mill using more fibre and shell for fuel, or elsewhere using other fuel for drying while the excess fibre 

and shell also displace other fuels. In order to assess uncertainties relating the the steam reqiremet, a sensitivity 

analysis with steam requirement at 0.5 t steam (1,301 MJ) has been carried out, see section 21.19. 

With available fuel energy of fibre and shell at 2,763 MJ and a steam to fuel input ratio at 61.8%, the produced 

steam amounts to 1,708 MJ (0.66 t steam at 3 bar). This is very close to the required 0.65 t steam. Therefore it 

is assumed that all of the fibre and shell is used as boiler fuel. 

10.2 Omitted inventory data in palm oil mill stage 

Minor amounts of chemicals are used in POME treatment. No information has been identified on these chemicals. Therefore they are not included. Since lubricating oil is not included in the inventory of the rapeseed oil 

mill, it has also been excluded from the inventory of the palm oil mill. Also consumption of varies minor products such as tools, paper, computers, pencils, miscellaneous equipment etc. for process management and administration are omitted. 

10.3 Power central 

The energy supply to the oil mill includes electricity and steam. Most, if not all, palm oil mills are self sufficient of electricity and heat (Henson 2004, p 30). Normally, fibre and shells are burned for energy purposes 

(Henson 2004; Department of Environment 1999; Subranamiam 2005). According to section 10.1 the utilisation of fibre and shell for boiler fuel are assumed to be 100%. Thus, 130.0 kg fibre and 70.0 kg shell are 

burned per tonne of FFB processed. Fibre and shell have calorific values 19.1 MJ/kg DS and 20.1 MJ/kg (dry 

matter basis) respectively (Subranamiam et al. 2004). The moisture content of fibre and shell are 40% and 10% 

respectively (average of values given in Singh 1999, Yosoff 2006, Ma et al. 2004 and Yosof and Weng 2004). 

18 The applied calorific values (dry matter basis) and moisture contents are given in section 10.3. 
158 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

 

The calorific value of the fuel composition of 65% fibre and 35% shell can be determined as 13.8 MJ/kg. 

Hence, the total energy input per tonne of FFB processed is 2,763 MJ. 

Husain et al. (2003) have surveyed seven palm oil mills where utilisation factors19 range between 55.0% and 

76.6%, averaging at 65.6%. The average heat to power ratio of the seven palm oil mills is 17.9. Thus, the total 

heat and power production per t FFB is 1,811 MJ or 0.70 t steam at 3 bars20 (65.6% of 2.763 MJ) distributed 

on 1,708 MJ steam and 104 MJ electricity. Above calculated production of 0.70 t steam per t FFB and 104 MJ 

electricity per t FFB are in good accordance with figures on steam and electricity production per t FFB at 

United Plantation Berhad. These figures show 0.72 t steam/t FFB and 97 MJ electricity (Singh and Thorairaj 

2006). At United Plantations Berhad all fibre and shell are burned corresponding to the assumptions in this 

study. 

It is common that excess steam is released to the atmosphere (Subranamiam 2006a; Kandiah et al. 1992). 

Therefore, the difference between the required steam (1,691 MJ) and the produced steam (1,708 MJ) is assumed to be released to the atmosphere, i.e. 16 MJ per t FFB. 

The electricity recovered from the turbine, i.e. 104 MJ/t FFB or 28.9 kWh/t FFB, exceeds the requirement for 

processing the FFB. The required electricity for processing 1 tonne of FFB varies between 14.5 kWh (Chavalparit et al. 2006) through 17.7 KWh (Yusoff and Hansen 2005) to 18-22 kWh (Singh and Thorairaj 2006) and 

20 kWh (Ma et al. 2004). The average requirement is assumed to be 20 kWh per t FFB. Thus, there is approximately 30% electricity in excess, i.e. 32 MJ/t FFB. In addition to that additionally 1 MJ/t FFB is assumed 

to be used in administration, research, laboratories etc. buildings, see section 10.7. Since palm oil mills are not 

connected to the national grid, the excess electricity is normally used locally on the estate in administration 

buildings, residence buildings for the workers and sometimes in a refinery if the estate has its own refinery 

plant. But since these buildings are connected to the national grid or to local generators, the excess electricity 

is assumed to displace electricity delivered from the grid. Interventions related to electricity production in Malaysia are described in section 3.2. 

In addition to the input of 130 kg fibre and 70 kg shell per t FFB the power central uses fossil fuel for start-ups 

of the boiler. According to Subranamiam et al. (2005) oil mills uses 0.37 litre of diesel per t FFB (average of 

six palm oil mills). It is assumed that this is used in the power central. According to ‘Appendix 1: Data on fuels’, 0.37 litres of diesel per t FFB corresponds to 14 MJ/t FFB. The emissions from burning of 14 MJ diesel 

per t FFB are obtained from ecoinvent: ‘Diesel, burned in building machine’, documented in Kellenberger et 

al. (2003). Since production, maintenance and disposal of the power central is included in section 10.8, the 

data set ‘Diesel, burned in building machine’ is modified so that it only includes the production of diesel and 

related emissions from burning it and thereby not the building machine itself and its maintenance. It is assumed that the steam produced during start-up is insignificant because of low boiler efficiency at low temperatures and because the energy input of diesel is negligible compared to energy from fibre and shell. Therefore, 

the produced steam from burning of diesel for start-up is not accounted for. 

The water consumption for steam production is assumed to be equivalent to the steam produced, i.e. 0.65 t/t 

FFB. For water, it is assumed that the interventions related to water in Malaysia are the same as in Denmark. 

19 Utilisation factor of co-generating system is the total output of power en delivered heat divided by the total fuel energy 

input. 

20 Ma et al. (2004) specify energy content at 2.604 MJ/kg steam at 3 bars. 
10 Oil mill stage: Palm oil 159 

The energy and material use pr. m3

 water are very low; 1.3 MJ electricity/m3 and 4.5 g chemicals/m3 (see 

Table 13.5). Thus, this assumption may only cause insignificant impacts on the result. 

Emissions related to the burning of fibre and shell 

There exist only few inventory data on the burning of fibre and shell. Subranamiam et al. (2005) is the only 

existing inventory on boiler emissions from palm oil mills identified. Yusoff and Hansen (2005) regard emissions from the burning of wood in small boilers as representative for the burning of fibre and shell. In addition 

to the two existing data sets on stack emissions from palm oil mills emissions are calculated from figures given 

in an environmental audit report from United Plantations Berhad (2005). 

The emissions in United Plantations Berhad (2005) are all given as concentrations in the flue gas, see Table 

10.3. The desired data format is emissions per kg fuel (fibre and shell). This conversion is done based on the 

carbon content in the boiler fuel and the carbon in CO2 concentration in the stack flue gas. The carbon content 

of the boiler fuel on dry matter basis is 41% and 52% of fibre and shell respectively (Henson 2004, p 22). The 

moisture content of fibre and shell are given previously in this section; 40% for fibre and 10% for shell. The 

distribution between fibre and shell used as boiler fuel is given in Figure 10.1 as 65% fibre and 35% shell. 

From these figures it can be calculated that 1 kg boiler fuel (fibre and shell) contains 0.325 kg C. Relating to 

the CO2 concentration of the flue gas given in Table 10.3, assuming that all the carbon in the fuel is converted 

to CO2 and applying the ratio 3.67 kg CO2 per kg C burned (based on molar masses and chemical reaction of 

carbon with oxygen), it can be calculated that 1 kg boiler fuel gives 33.1 kg flue gas. Then it is easy to convert 

the concentration of substances in the stack flue gas into absolute numbers per kg boiler fuel. The values are 

given for the relevant substances in the right column in Table 10.3. 

Emissions Concentration (w/w%) Emission (g/kg boiler fuel) 

CO2 3.6% 1,190.000 g 

SO2 0.00005% 0.017 g 

NO2 0.00005% 0.017 g 

NO 0.0101% 3.339 g 

CO 0.0154% 5.092 g 

N2 80.2% - 

O2 16.2% - 

Total 100% - 

Table 10.3: Stack flue gas emissions from Ulu Bernam Palm Oil Mill. The measures of concentration of substances are 

converted into emissions per kg boiler fuel (fibre and shell). Concentrations of substances in stack flue gas are obtained 

from United Plantations Berhad (2005, p 10). 

The calculated emissions based on measured stack flue gas emissions in Ulu Bernam Palm Oil Mill, United 

Plantations Berhad are compared with stack emissions obtained from Subranamiam et al. (2005) and Yusoff 

and Hansen (2005) in Table 10.4. Since the identified inventories of palm oil mill stack emissions only include 

NOx, SO2 and CO, the remaining emissions are estimated from an inventory of burning of wood chips burned 

in 50 kW furnaces in Europe. Data for burning of wood chips are obtained from the ecoinvent database (Bauer 

2003) and the data are treated in SimaPro 7.0. 
160 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Emissions from burning of 1 kg boiler fuel (g/kg fuel) 

Based burning of fibre and shell Based on burning of wood 

Emissions 

Calculated (Table 

10.3) 

Subranamiam et 

al. (2005) 

Yusoff and Hansen (2005) Burning of wood 

chips (Bauer 

2003) 

Applied 

NOx 3.356 0.175 0.552 1.050 1.361 

SO2 0.017 0.002 0.017 0.024 0.012 

CO 5.092 0.104 4.862 1.120 3.353 

Particulates < 2.5 um - - 1.190 0.324 0.757 

Acetaldehyde - - - 5.810E-04 5.810E-04 

Ammonia - - - 0.017 0.017 

Arsenic - - - 9.520E-06 9.520E-06 

Benzene - - - 8.670E-03 8.670E-03 

Benzene, ethyl- - - - 2.860E-04 2.860E-04 

Benzene, hexachloro- - - - 6.860E-11 6.860E-11 

Benzo(a)pyrene - - - 4.760E-06 4.760E-06 

Cadmium - - - 6.670E-06 6.670E-06 

Chlorine - - - 1.710E-03 1.710E-03 

Chromium - - - 3.770E-05 3.770E-05 

Chromium VI - - - 3.810E-07 3.810E-07 

Copper - - - 2.100E-04 2.100E-04 

Dinitrogen monoxide - - - 0.029 0.029 

Dioxins, measured as 2,3,7,8-

tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin 

- - - 2.950E-10 2.950E-10 

Formaldehyde - - - 1.240E-03 1.240E-03 

Hydrocarbons, aliphatic, 

alkanes 

- - - 8.670E-03 8.670E-03 

Hydrocarbons, aliphatic - - - 0.030 0.030 

Lead - - - 2.380E-04 2.380E-04 

m-Xylene - - - 1.140E-03 1.140E-03 

Manganese - - - 1.620E-03 1.620E-03 

Mercury - - - 2.860E-06 2.860E-06 

Methane - - - 6.670E-03 6.670E-03 

Nickel - - - 5.710E-05 5.710E-05 

NMVOC - - - 8.570E-03 8.570E-03 

PAH - - - 1.060E-04 1.060E-04 

Phenol, pentachloro- - - - 7.710E-08 7.710E-08 

Phosphorus - - - 2.860E-03 2.860E-03 

Toluene - - - 2.860E-03 2.860E-03 

Zinc - - - 2.860E-03 2.860E-03 

Table 10.4: Comparison of stack flue gas emissions from palm oil mills from different sources. The first two columns are 

based on measurements in palm oil mills, while the figures obtained from Yusoff and Hansen (2005) and Bauer (2003) 

are based on burning of wood chips. The applied data are marked with a black dotted frame. 

The applied data in Table 10.4 are the average of the three inventories on palm oil mill stack emissions while 

the remaining emissions are obtained from the inventory of burning of wood chips. 
10 Oil mill stage: Palm oil 161 

 

Waste to treatment/co-products from power central 

Ash from burning of fibre and shell in the boiler is normally used as road material in the plantation. The ash 

contents of fibre and shell are 6.1% and 3.0% dry matter basis respectively (Ma et al. 2004). Applying the 

moisture contents at 40% for fibre and 10% for shell, the ash contents on fresh weight basis are 3.7% for fibre 

and 2.7% for shell. Thus, based on the product flows given in Figure 10.1, each kg fibre and shell burned generates 0.34 kg ash. It is assumed that the ash used for road material displaces a corresponding alternative road 

material, i.e. sand. The interventions from sand and gravel production are obtained from ecoinvent: ‘Sand, at 

mine’, documented in Kellenberger et al. (2003). 

10.4 Palm oil mill processing: Pressing, drying etc. 

The main processes in the oil mill process (see Figure 10.1) include sterilisation, stripping, digestion, pressing, 

clarification of the oil and water mix, decantering of the waste water, nut treatment and drying processes. The 

inputs to and outputs from the system from the oil mill process include steam and electricity from the power 

central, diesel for vehicles, lubricating oil and electricity from the grid. The interventions related to treatment 

of POME are described in section 10.5. In addition to the desired product from the palm oil process, crude 

palm oil, there are various co-products, see Figure 10.1. The product substitutions from these co-products are 

described in section 10.6. 

Material use 

According to Chavalparit (2006) and UPRD (2004) the total water consumption per t FFB is 1.26 t and 1.47 t21

respectively. The average at 1.37 t/t FFB is assumed to be representative. The water consumption in the oil 

mill processing stage is then 1.37 t/t FFB minus the water consumption in the power central at 0.65 t, i.e. 0.72 

t/t FFB. As described in section 10.3 it is assumed that the interventions related to water in Malaysia are the 

same as in Denmark, see Table 13.5. 

According to section 10.2 lubricating oil is excluded from the inventory of the palm oil mill. According to 

Singh, the use of lubricating oil at United Plantations six palm oil mills in 2005 were 0.053 litre/t FFB. Assuming a density at 0.9 kg/litre this corresponds to 0.048 kg/t FFB. Applying an oil extraction rate of 19.98% the 

use of lubricant oil amounts 10 g/t CPO which is regarded as insignificant. 

Energy use 

The energy uses in the palm oil mill are shown in Table 10.5. 

21 Applying OER at 21% for 2004 in accordance with United Plantation Berhad (2006). 
162 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Energy Amount/t FFB Source Applied inventory data 

Steam from power central 1,691 MJ (Singh and Thorairaj; 

Subranamiam et al. 

2005) 

Emissions are included in the unit process: ‘Power central’, 

see section 10.3

Electricity from power central 72 MJ See section 10.3 Emissions are included in the unit process: ‘Power central’, 

see section 10.3

Diesel for vehicles 7.6 MJ Average of six palm oil 

mills (Subranamiam et 

al. 2005) 

 ‘Diesel, burned in building machine (ecoinvent 2004)’ 

Electricity from the grid 0.8 MJ Average of six palm oil 

mills (Subranamiam et 

al. 2005) 

See section 3.2

Table 10.5: Energy use per t FFB in the unit process: Oil mill processing.

10.5 POME treatment 

There are great differences of how palm oil mill effluent (POME) is treated in different palm oil mills. Before 

1978 palm oil mills in Malaysia discharged their effluent untreated directly into nearby water courses. After 

introduction of the Environmental Quality Act (EQA 2005) in 1975 and the related specific regulations on 

palm oil mill effluent (EQ crude palm-oil regulations 2005) the emission limit value of BOD has gradually 

been reduced from 25,000 mg/litre in the 70ies to 100 mg/litre after 1984 (Chun and Jaafar 2005; EQ crude 

palm-oil regulations 2005, p 59). Because of the high content of nutrients in POME, focus on utilisation as 

land application has been increasing (Lim et al. 1999). But also high emission levels of the green house gas 

methane from the anaerobic treatment have been in focus. Several CDM projects within the Kyoto framework 

have been carried out implementing a digester tank with subsequent utilisation of the captured biogas instead 

of anaerobic lagoons. The effect of this technology is assessed in a sensitivity analysis presented in section 

21.18. 

There are three main sources of POME in the palm oil mill: steriliser condensate (36% of total POME), clarification waste water (60% of total POME) and hydro cyclone waste water from nut and fibre separation (4% of 

total POME) (Department of Environment 1999). Some oil mills extract a considerable share of the solids of 

POME with a decanter prior to POME treatment, see Figure 10.1. This decanter cake can be mixed with inorganic fertilisers and sold or it can be used as animal feed (Singh and San 2002). However, it is not common 

practice to derive sludge solids with a decanter. 

The composition of POME is given in Table 10.6. 

Component Steriliser condensate Clarification waste water Hydro cyclone waste water Mixed POME 

Dissolved solids (g/kg) 34 22 100 40.5 

N (g/kg) 0.500 1.200 0.100 0.950 

P (g/kg) - - - 0.150 

K (g/kg) - - - 1.960 

BOD (3 day, 30°C), (g/kg) 23.000 29.000 5.000 25.000 

Cu (g/kg) - - - 0.0009 

Zn (g/kg) - - - 0.0023 

Table 10.6: Composition of POME from the three most important sources in the oil mill (Department of Environment 

1999, p 26-28). The given numbers in Department of Environment (1999) are in units of mg/litre. Since the moisture 

content of POME is 95% (Singh 1999) it is assumed that the density of POME is 1 kg/litre. 

After recovering residual oil in the waste water using oil traps etc., the POME is treated in an anaerobic pond, 

see Figure 10.2. After that, the treated POME meets the regulatory requirements of a maximum BOD at 5,000 
10 Oil mill stage: Palm oil 163 

22 mg/litre for land application (EQ crude palm-oil regulations 2005, p 55). Figure 10.3 shows a land application system. 

Figure 10.2: Pond for anaerobic treatment of POME (Picture taken in United Plantation Berhad 2006). 

Figure 10.3: Land application of treated POME (Picture 

taken in United Plantation Berhad 2006).

Table 10.7 shows POME characteristics before and after anaerobic digestion and the table is used for estimating the removal of nitrogen during treatment. However, a minor part of the removed nitrogen is fixed in the 

sludge solids from digested POME. Sludge solids are removed in the desludging operation to avoid sludge to 

build-up in the ponds and are used locally as fertiliser. No figures on the amount of sludge solids per kg of 

POME have been identified. However, the amount of N in the sludge is regarded as insignificant because a 

great share will removed by denitrification due to long storage time on the bottom of the pond under anaerobic 

conditions. Therefore, it is assumed that the amount of nitrogen fixed in the accumulative build-up of slurry in 

the bottom of the pond is negligible. Since content of phosphorus and potassium is not changed chemically 

during the process, the remaining P and K is assumed to be in the bottom slurry, see Table 10.7. 

Component Raw POME Anaerobically di- Assumed figures for 

gested POME bottom slurry 

BOD (3 day, 30°C), (kg/t POME) 25.000 1.300 - 

N (kg/t POME) 0.950 0.900 0 

P (kg/t POME) 0.150 0.120 0.030 

K (kg/t POME) 1.960 1.800 0.160 

Table 10.7: POME characteristics before and after anaerobic digestion (Department of Environment 1999, p 28). 

It appears from Table 10.7 that 0.05 kg N per t POME is removed. The removed N should be distributed on 

NH3 and denitrified N: N2O and N2. No inventories on N-related emissions from POME treatment have been 

identified. Thus, the removed N is estimated from figures on storage of manure. 

According to IPCC (2000, p 4.43) 0.1% of the N in manure stored in anaerobic lagoons denitrifies as N2O. 

This corresponds to 0.1% of 0.950 kg N/t POME = 0.00095 kg N2O-N/t POME. 0.00095 kg N2O-N/t POME 

corresponds to 0.0015 kg N2O/t POME. It appears that 0.00095 kg N2O-N/t POME is insignificant (1.9%) 

compared to the total removed N at 0.05 kg N/t POME. Based on that, the amount of denitrified N2 is also 

assumed to be insignificant and therefore, the total amount of N removed by denitrification is assumed to be 

3.8% with equal shares of N2O-N and N2-N. 

 

22 BOD (3 day, 30°C) 
164 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

According to Mikkelsen et al. (2005, p 36) 9% of stored N from pigs and 6% of stored N from cattle volatizes 

as NH3 during storage in open uncovered manure tanks. Applying these figures to the N content of POME at 

0.95 kg N/t POME gives volatilization of 0.057 – 0.086 kg N/t POME. This is more than the removed N at 

0.05 kh N per t POME (according to Table 10.7). Therefore, N removed as NH3 volatilization is assumed to be 

the total removed of N at 0.05 kg N/t POME minus the 3.8% that is moved by denitrification, i.e. 0.048 kg 

NH3-N/t POME. 0.048 kg NH3-N/t POME corresponds to 0.058 kg NH3/t POME. 

The emissions of N-related substances are given in Table 10.8. 

The decomposition of organic matter in the POME causes biogas. The generation of biogas in the ponds is 28 

m3

 per t POME (Ma et al. 2004). With methane content of biogas at 60-70% averaging 65% of the biogas (Ma 

et al. 2004) the methane emission is 18.2 m3

 per t POME. With a density of methane at 0.717 g/litre (Andersen 

et al. 1981, p 119), the CH4 emission is 13.0 kg per t POME. Yacob et al. (2006) have measured the methane 

emission from a pond system over a period of 12 months. The average methane emission reported from that 

study is 13.1 kg CH4/t POME, which is in good accordance with the figures provided in Ma et al. (2004). 

Ma (1999a, p 120) reports a hydrogen sulphide content of biogas at less than 2%. Assuming a content of H2S 

at 0.2% and applying the density of H2S at 1.539 g/litre (Andersen et al. 1981, p 119), the H2S emission is 86.2 

g/t POME. 

Emissions from anaerobic POME treatment Compartment Amount 

CH4 (kg/t POME) Air 13.0 

H2S (kg/t POME) Air 0.0862 

NH3 (kg/t POME) Air 0.058 

N2O (kg/t POME) Air 0.0015 

Nitrate Water 

Table 10.8: Emissions from anaerobic digestion of 1 t POME. 

The anaerobically digested POME and the sludge obtained from desludging are applied as fertiliser in the plantation. The emissions associated with that are dealt with in section 6.7. Since there is no discharge of waste 

water, there are no emissions to water from POME treatment. 

10.6 Co-products/waste to treatment 

According to Figure 10.1 there are several co-products from the palm oil mills stage. Table 10.9 provides an 

overview of how the co-products are dealt with in the life cycle inventory. 
10 Oil mill stage: Palm oil 165 

Co-products Description of how the co-product is dealt with in the LCI 

CPO (Crude Palm Oil) Together with processed kernels (palm kernel oil), CPO is the product of 

interest 

Kernel Together with CPO, the processed kernels (palm kernel oil) is the product of 

interest. The LCI of the palm kernel oil mill is described in section 11

Land application of POME This is dealt with as inputs to nutrient balances in the agricultural stage of oil 

palm, section 6.7

N:P:K eq. This co-product is processed decanter cake sold as organic fertiliser. However, it is not normal to have a decanter attached to the clarification process 

in the palm oil mill. Therefore, there is no output of this co-product in Figure 

10.1

Shell (fuel) 

Fibre (fuel) 

According to Figure 10.1 fibre and shell sold as fuel is zero. However, this is 

based on steam consumption at 0.65 t/t FFB which may be too high. Therefore, a sensitivity analysis where the steam consumption is 0.5 t/t FFB is 

described in 21.19. In the sensitivity analysis with steam consumption at 0.5 

t/t FFB there is excess of fibre and shell and therefore some of it is sold as 

fuel 

Electricity According to section 10.3 there is 30% excess of electricity from the power 

central. This displaces electricity from the grid in Malaysia which is described 

in section 3.2

Steam 

Steam release 

The produced steam is either used internally in the palm oil mill or released to 

the atmosphere. Thus, steam as a co-product does not displace anything 

EFB to mulching This is dealt with as inputs to nutrient balances in the agricultural stage of oil 

palm, section 6.7. A sensitivity analysis presented in section 21.20 analyses 

two alternative management options, i.e. utilisation for energy purposes in a 

biomass plant and disposal at landfill site 

Table 10.9: Co-products from the palm oil mill stage and implications for LCI. 

10.7 Overhead 

No data on electricity use in administration, research and laboratory buildings have been identified. Therefore 

it is assumed that electricity use from rapeseed oil milling is representative for the palm oil mill. These numbers are very uncertain. However, the electricity consumption for overhead from rapeseed oil milling at AarhusKarlshamn only accounts for 1% of the total electricity use. Therefore, the uncertainties in the assumption 

that electricity use for overhead is the same for rapeseed oil milling and palm oil milling will only affect the 

results insignificantly. The electricity consumption for overhead is then assumed to be 4 MJ/t CPO corresponding to 1 MJ/t FFB. Buildings are not heated in Malaysia. 

10.8 Capital goods 

The interventions related to capital goods in the vegetable oil industry are described in section 9.7. There are 

three types of capital goods considered in the vegetable oil industry: ‘Building, hall, steel construction’, 

‘Building, multi-storey’ and ‘Facilities, chemical production’. 

It is assumed that the capital goods estimated per tonne rapeseed oil for the rapeseed oil mill are representative 

for the palm oil mill per tonne of palm oil. Thus, the capital goods can be calculated as: 

• 1.8⋅10-4 m2

 ‘Building, hall, steel construction’ per t FFB 

• 0.34⋅10-3 m3

 ‘Building, multi-storey’ per t FFB 

• 0.040 kg ‘Facilities, chemical production’ per t FFB 

In the ecoinvent database capital goods for the palm oil mill is also estimated, in the data set: ‘Crude palm oil, 

at plant/MY’ (ecoinvent 2004). However, that data set is per kg crude palm oil, and mass based co-product 

allocation between CPO, kernels and shell has been done. Weidema and Wesnæs (2006) have ‘translated’ the 

ecoinvent data set on palm oil into consequential modelling. Therefore, according to Weidema and Wesnæs 

(2006) the data set ‘Crude palm oil, at plant/MY’ should be multiplied with 1.186 in order to include the FFB 
166 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

needed for generation of kernel and shell. Thus, the use of buildings and machinery per tonne FFB can be calculated as: 

• 10⋅10-4 m2

 ‘Building, hall, steel construction’ per t FFB 

• 15⋅10-3 m3

 ‘Building, multi-storey’ per t FFB 

• 1.2 kg ‘Facilities, chemical production’ per t FFB 

It appears from a comparison between the applied data on capital goods and the figures determined from the 

ecoinvent data set, that there are significant differences. None of the data on capital goods are regarded as certain. Therefore a sensitivity analysis is carried out in section 21.17. 

10.9 Transport of raw materials and ancillaries to palm oil mill 

Transport of FFB to the oil mill is included in the agricultural stage of oil palm since the oil mill is situated in 

or very near to the plantation. Thus, all transport of FFB is taking place in the plantation. The only material 

transported to the palm oil mill is then diesel to the power central and diesel for vehicles. According to section 

10.3 diesel to the power central is 0.37 litre of diesel per t FFB corresponding to 0.32 kg per t FFB. Diesel used 

for vehicles is 7.6 MJ diesel/t FFB (see Table 10.5) corresponding to 0.18 kg diesel. Thus, the total use of 

diesel is 0.50 kg/t FFB. It is very roughly estimated that the diesel is transported in a 28 t lorry 200 km from a 

regional store house. Interventions related to transport with lorry are described in section 4.1. 
10 Oil mill stage: Palm oil 167 

10.10 LCI of palm oil mill, summary 

Table 10.10 summarises the inventory data relating to 1 tonne FFB. 

Malaysia and Indonesia: processing of 1.000 t FFB in oil mill 

Interventions Power 

central 

Oil mill POME 

treatment 

Overhead Total Applied LCI data 

Product output 

Crude palm oil - 199.8 kg - - 199.8 kg Together with processed kernels (palm kernel oil), 

CPO is the product of interest 

Kernels - 53.2 kg - - 53.2 kg Together with CPO, the processed kernels (palm 

kernel oil) is the product of interest. The LCI of the 

palm kernel oil mill is described in section 11. 

Fibre (fuel) - 0 kg - - 0 kg Co-product 

Shell (fuel) - 0 kg - - 0 kg Co-product 

Electricity 104 MJ -72 MJ - -1 MJ 31 MJ Co-product, see displaced products below 

N:P:K eq. - 0 kg - - 0 kg Co-product 

Displaced products 

Electricity from the 

grid 

31 MJ - - - 31 MJ See section 3.2

Sand 68 kg - - - 68 kg ‘Sand, at mine’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Material use

FFB - 1000 kg - - 1000 kg The interventions related to production of FFB are 

included in the plantation stage 

Water 0.65 t 0.72 t - - 1.37 t See Table 13.5

Energy use 

Steam from power 

central 

- 1,691 MJ - - 1,691 MJ The emissions to air from burning of 130 kg fibre 

and 70 kg shell are given in this table 

Electricity from power 

central 

- 72 MJ - 1 MJ 73 MJ The emissions to air from burning of 130 kg fibre 

and 70 kg shell are given in this table 

Electricity from the 

grid 

- 0.8 MJ - - 0.8 MJ See Table 3.3

Diesel for startups in 

power central 

14 MJ - - 14 MJ Modified version of ‘Diesel, burned in building 

machine’ (ecoinvent 2004), see section 10.3

Diesel for vehicles 7.6 MJ 7.6 MJ ‘Diesel, burned in building machine’ (ecoinvent 

2004) 

Waste to treatment

Anaerobically digested POME and 

sludge from desludging of POME 

- - 672.5 kg - 672.5 kg POME is applied in the plantation. Interventions 

related to that are described in section 6.7

EFB - 225 kg - - 225 kg EFB are applied as mulch in the plantation. Interventions related to that are described in section 6.7

Capital goods

Building halls - 4.6⋅10-3 m2 - - 4.6⋅10-3 m2 ‘Building, hall, steel construction’, (ecoinvent 2004) 

Building, multi story - - - 8.5⋅10-3 m3 8.5⋅10-3 m3 ’Building, multi-storey’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery - 1.0 kg - - 1.0 kg ‘Facilities, chemical production’, (ecoinvent 2004) 

Transport of raw materials and ancillaries to the oil mill

Diesel 0.064 tkm 0.036 tkm - - 0.10 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004)

Table 10.10: Interventions per t FFB processed. Table continued on the next page... 
168 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Interventions Power central Oil mill POME 

treatment 

Overhead Total Applied LCI data 

Emissions to air

Methane 1.33 g - 8,743 g - 8,744 g Emission to air 

NOx 272 g - - - 272 g Emission to air 

SO2 2.40 g - - - 2.40 g Emission to air 

CO 671 g - - - 671 g Emission to air 

Particulates < 2.5 um 151 g - - - 151 g Emission to air 

Acetaldehyde 1.16E-01 g - - - 1.16E-01 g Emission to air 

Ammonia 3.40 g - 39.0 g - 42.4 g Emission to air 

Arsenic 1.90E-03 g - - - 1.90E-03 g Emission to air 

Benzene 1.734 g - - - 1.734 g Emission to air 

Benzene, ethyl- 5.72E-02 g - - - 5.72E-02 g Emission to air 

Benzene, hexachloro- 1.37E-08 g - - - 1.37E-08 g Emission to air 

Benzo(a)pyrene 9.52E-04 g - - - 9.52E-04 g Emission to air 

Cadmium 1.33E-03 g - - - 1.33E-03 g Emission to air 

Chlorine 3.42E-01 g - - - 3.42E-01 g Emission to air 

Chromium 7.54E-03 g - - - 7.54E-03 g Emission to air 

Chromium VI 7.62E-05 g - - - 7.62E-05 g Emission to air 

Copper 4.20E-02 g - - - 4.20E-02 g Emission to air 

Dinitrogen monoxide 5.80 g - 1.01 g - 6.81 g Emission to air 

Dioxins, measured as 2,3,7,8-

tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin 

5.90E-08 g - - - 5.90E-08 g Emission to air 

Formaldehyde 2.48E-01 g - - - 2.48E-01 g Emission to air 

Hydrocarbons, aliphatic, alkanes 1.73 g - - - 1.73 g Emission to air 

Hydrocarbons, aliphatic 6.00 g - - - 6.00 g Emission to air 

Hydrogen sulphide - - 58.0 g - 58.0 g Emission to air 

Lead 4.76E-02 g - - - 4.76E-02 g Emission to air 

m-Xylene 2.28E-01 g - - - 2.28E-01 g Emission to air 

Manganese 3.24E-01 g - - - 3.24E-01 g Emission to air 

Mercury 5.72E-04 g - - - 5.72E-04 g Emission to air 

Nickel 1.14E-02 g - - - 1.14E-02 g Emission to air 

NMVOC 1.71 g - - - 1.71 g Emission to air 

PAH 2.12E-02 g - - - 2.12E-02 g Emission to air 

Phenol, pentachloro- 1.54E-05 g - - - 1.54E-05 g Emission to air 

Phosphorus 5.72E-01 g - - - 5.72E-01 g Emission to air 

Toluene 5.72E-01 g - - - 5.72E-01 g Emission to air 

Zinc 5.72E-01 g - - - 5.72E-01 g Emission to air 

Table 10.10: ... Continued from previous page. Interventions per t FFB processed.
11 Oil mill stage: Palm kernel oil 169 

11 Oil mill stage: Palm kernel oil 

The LCI for the palm kernel oil mill stage represents average palm kernel oil mills in Malaysia in 2005 and 

2006. Palm kernel oil and palm kernel cake are extracted from the kernels in a mechanical pressing process. It 

is also possible to extract the oil using solvent extraction. However, only one out of Malaysia’s 41 palm kernel 

oil mills were using that technology in 2005 (Singh 2006 and MPOB 2006). Therefore, the inventory in this 

study assumes that all palm kernel oil extraction takes place using mechanical extraction. According to 

Subranamiam (2006a) mechanical pressing in Malaysia is typically done using a double pressing method without pre-heating. 

The inventory is mainly based on a survey of five palm kernel oil mills in Malaysia provided by MPOB 

(Subranamiam 2006a and Subranamiam 2006b). The palm kernel oil mill processes the kernels from the palm 

oil mill into palm kernel oil (PKO) and palm kernel meal. Not many data on interventions related to palm kernel oil milling exist. Therefore some figures are determined as estimates based on data for palm oil mills described in section 10. 

11.1 Oil mill product flow 

The product flow in the palm kernel oil mills is shown in Figure 11.1. The product flow of palm kernel oil 

(PKO), palm kernel cake (PKC) and processed kernels is based on figures from 2002/03 and 2003/04 given in 

Oil World (2005), see Table 11.1. The flow chart is based on Bockisch (1998). 

Kernel: 2.228 t

Structuring

Double pressing

Clarification

Drying

Raw material reception and

storage

Overhead

Electricity

Oil mill processing

PKC: 1.161 t Crude PKO: 1.000 t

Figure 11.1: Product flow related to production of 1 t crude PKO in the palm kernel oil mill. The grey shaded boxes represent the unit processes in the palm kernel oil mill stage.

Product 2002/03 2003/04 Average per t PKO 

Kernels processed 3,634,000 t 3,544,000 t 2.228 t 

Palm kernel oil (PKO) 1,628,000 t 1,594,000 t 1.000 t 

Palm kernel cake (PKC) 1,896,000 t 1,844,000 t 1.161 t 

Loss (difference between input and output) 110,000 t 106,000 t 0.067 t 

Table 11.1: Processing of kernels and production of PKO and PKC in Malaysia 2002/03 and 2003/04. (Oil World 2005) 

11.2 Omitted inventory data in palm kernel oil mill stage 

As in the LCI of the rapeseed oil mill and the palm oil mill lubricating oil is omitted. Also consumption of 

varies minor products such as tools, paper, computers, pencils, miscellaneous equipment etc. for process man-
170 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

agement and administration are omitted. Because of no data on water consumption and that it is regarded as 

insignificant, the use of water has been omitted. 

11.3 Energy use 

Several sources on energy use in the palm kernel oil milling process have been identified, see Table 11.2. 

Table 11.2 shows the energy use associated with production of 1 tonne PKO and 1.161 tonne PKC, i.e. processing of 2.228 tonne kernels. 

Energy use MJ per t PKO 

Energy 5 PKO mills in 

Malaysia 

(Subranamiam 

2006b) 

PKO mills >500 

t/year in Nigeria 

(Bamgboye and 

Jekayinfa 2006)

PKO mills in Malaysia 

(Zah and Hischier 

2003) and corrected in accordance with (Weidema and 

Wesnæs 2006) 

PKO mills in Malaysia 

(Schmidt 2004) based 

on (Unilever 1990) 

and (Shonfield 2004) 

Applied data 

Electricity from the 

grid 

962 MJ 91 MJ 228 MJ 540 MJ 962 MJ 

Fuel burned for 

steam production 

- 252 MJ 6,217 MJ 740 MJ 0 MJ 

Diesel for machinery/transportation - - - 72 MJ 0 MJ 

Table 11.2: Energy use per t PKO and attendant PKC, i.e. 1 t PKO and 1.161 t PKC. The applied data are marked with a 

dotted line. 

It appears from Table 11.2 that the different sources on energy use per tonne PKO vary significant. According 

to Subranamiam (2006a) the main difference is whether the oil mills use a 100% mechanical pressing or if it is 

combined with heating with steam. Bamgboye and Jekayinfa (2006) applies to rather small PKO mills in Nigeria (500 t/year and above) which may operate under different circumstances that in Malaysia and the electricity 

use seems to be unrealistic low. Zah and Hischier (2003) are based in figures in Hirsinger et al. (1995) which 

do not provide consistent energy figures. One example is that no reference for energy uses is given, i.e. it is not 

specified if the energy uses are per kg PKO or kernels or per kg or tonne product (Hirsinger et al. 1995, table 

3). It is also difficult to see if energy for production of material inputs is included for the different figures provided. The use of fuel oil for steam in Zah and Hischier (2003) seems to be too high compared to steam consumption at 1,586 MJ/t rapeseed oil, see Table 9.6. Schmidt (2004) applies to oil mills that are using preheating 

before pressing which is not the most common technology in Malaysia. Therefore, the energy use given in 

Subranamiam (2006b) is regarded as the most representative for present energy use in Malaysian palm kernel 

oil mills. 

Inventory data for electricity from the grid in Malaysia are described in Table 3.3. 

11.4 Material use 

Water is the only material used in the palm kernel oil mill. However, no data on water consumption in palm 

kernel oil mills have been identified. Since no water is needed for steam production or other processing, the 

water consumption is regarded as insignificant and is omitted. 

11.5 Emissions 

The only emissions from the palm kernel oil mill are emissions to air from the power central and contaminants 

in the discharged effluent. These emissions are described in section 11.3 and 11.6 respectively. 

11.6 Waste to treatment 

No data on the amount of waste water from the PKO mill as well as the applied technology for waste water 

treatment have been identified. However, as described in section 11.4 the consumption of water is regarded as 
11 Oil mill stage: Palm kernel oil 171 

insignificant. Therefore, the amount of waste water is also regarded as low. It is assumed that the waste water 

is treated in an aerobic pond. The COD content can be estimated to be of the same magnitude as for the effluent from the rapeseed oil mill, i.e. 3,578 mg/l, see section 9.5. This is not enough for anaerobically digestion. 

In an aerobic pond the content of COD (organic matter) reacts with oxygen and forms CO2. However, this is of 

biotic origin and therefore, it has no impacts on global warming. There may be minor emissions of methane 

from small anaerobic pockets in the aerobic ponds. However, this is regarded as insignificant. The content of 

nitrogen in the effluent is assumed to be same per kg oil as for rapeseed oil mill effluent, i.e. 0.7 kg N (based 

on the amount of effluent per kg rapeseed oil, i.e. 57 kg and Aarhus United 2005a). The amount of phosphorus 

and other contaminants in the effluent is assumed to be insignificant. Further it is assumed that all of the content of N in the effluent sent to treatment ends as emissions of nitrate to water, i.e. 3 g NO3

-

 to water per tonne 

PKO. 

11.7 Overhead 

As in the case for palm oil mills no data on electricity use in administration, research and laboratory buildings 

have been identified. Therefore it is assumed, as for the palm oil mill, that electricity use in rapeseed oil milling is representative for the palm kernel oil mill, i.e. 4 MJ/t PKO. 

11.8 Capital goods 

The interventions related to capital goods in the vegetable oil industry are described in section 9.7. There are 

three types of capital goods considered in the vegetable oil industry: ‘Building, hall, steel construction’, 

‘Building, multi-storey’ and ‘Facilities, chemical production’. 

It is assumed that the capital goods estimated per tonne input of rapeseed for the rapeseed oil mill are representative for the palm kernel oil mill per tonne of input of kernels. Thus, the capital goods can be calculated as: 

• 8.6⋅10-4 m2

 ‘Building, hall, steel construction’ per t PKO 

• 1.6⋅10-3 m3

 ‘Building, multi-storey’ per t PKO 

• 0.19 kg ‘Facilities, chemical production’ per t PKO 

Determination of capital goods is regarded as very uncertain. Therefore a sensitivity analysis is carried out in 

section 21.17. 

11.9 Transport of raw materials and ancillaries to palm kernel oil 

mill 

According to Subranamiam (2006b) the average distance from palm oil mills, where the kernels are produced, 

to the palm kernel oil mill is 79 km. It is assumed that the 2,228 kg kernels per tonne PKO are transported in a 

28 t lorry. 

The distance from the palm kernel oil mill to a meal trader is assumed to be 200 km. The palm kernel cake is 

assumed to be transported in a 28 t lorry. 

Transportation of the palm kernel oil to the refinery is included in the refinery stage in section 15. 

11.10 LCI of palm kernel oil mill, summary 

Table 11.3 summarises the inventory data relating to 1 tonne crude palm kernel oil. 
172 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Malaysia and Indonesia: 1.000 t crude palm kernel oil from oil mill 

Interventions Palm kernel oil mill Overhead Total Applied LCI data 

Palm kernel oil 1000 kg - 1000 kg Together with CPO from the palm oil mill PKO is the 

product of interest 

Palm kernel cake 1,161 kg - 1,161 kg Co-product allocation is avoided by system expansion, 

see Table 2.3

Material use 

Kernels 2,228 kg - 2,228 kg The interventions related to production of kernels are 

included in the plantation stage and the palm oil mill 

stage 

Water 400 kg - 400 kg See Table 13.5

Energy use 

Electricity from the grid 751 MJ 4 MJ 755 MJ See Table 3.3

Emissions 

Nitrate to water 3 g - 3 g Emission to water 

Waste to treatment 

No interventions - - - - 

Capital goods 

Building halls 8.6⋅10-4 m2 - 8.6⋅10-4 m2 ‘Building, hall, steel construction’, (ecoinvent 2004) 

Building, multi story - 1.6⋅10-3 m3 1.6⋅10-3 m3 ’Building, multi-storey’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery 0.19 kg - 0.19 kg ‘Facilities, chemical production’, (ecoinvent 2004) 

Transport of raw materials and ancillaries to the oil mill 

Kernels 176 tkm - 176 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004)

Palm kernel cake 46 tkm - 46 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Table 11.3: Interventions per t palm kernel oil 
12 Oil mill stage: Soybean meal 173 

12 Oil mill stage: Soybean meal 

The LCI for the soybean mill stage represents average soybean mills in around 2000-2005. Soybean oil and 

soybean meal are extracted from the soybeans in a solvent extraction process similar to rapeseed milling. The 

inventory data for soybean meal milling are mainly obtained from Dalgaard et al. (2007). Since the LCI of 

soybean mills in Dalgaard et al (2007) is not as detailed as in this study, the missing data are represented with 

the inventory data for rapeseed milling. These data include; electricity for overhead, capital goods and transport of raw materials to the soybean mill. 

12.1 Oil mill product flow 

The product flow in the soybean oil mill is shown in Figure 12.1. The figure is based on Bockisch (1998). The 

product flow of soybean oil (SO), soybean meal (SM) and processed soybeans is based on figures from 

2002/03 and 2003/04 given in Oil World (2005), see Table 12.1. 

Soybeans: 1.294 t

Structuring

Pre pressing

Clarification

Drying

Raw material reception and

storage

Overhead

Electricity

Oil mill processing

Crude SO: 0.249 t Soybean meal: 1.000 t

Solvent extraction

Solvent

removal

Desolventisation

Figure 12.1: Product flow related to processing of 1 t soybeans in the soybean mill. The grey shaded boxes represent the 

unit processes in the palm kernel oil mill stage.

Product 2002/03 2003/04 Average per t soybean meal 

Soybeans crushed 27,718,000 t 29,298,000 t 1.294 t 

Soybeanl oil 5,325,000 t 5,629,000 t 0.249 t 

Soybean meal 21,534,000 t 22,520,000 t 1.000 t 

Loss (difference between input and output) 859,000 t 1,149,000 t 0.046 t 

Table 12.1: Processing of soybeans and production of soybean oil and soybean meal in Brazil 2002/03 and 2003/04. (Oil 

World 2005) 

12.2 Omitted inventory data in soybean oil mill stage 

As in the LCI of the rapeseed oil mill and the palm oil mill lubricating oil is omitted. Also consumption of 

varies minor products such as tools, paper, computers, pencils, miscellaneous equipment etc. for process management and administration are omitted. Because of lack of data on water consumption it has been omitted. 

12.3 Energy use 

The energy use for processing of the soybeans is obtained from Dalgaard et al. (2007), see Table 12.2. 
174 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Source Energy use 

Electricity from the grid 56 MJ 

Fuel oil 188 MJ 

Natural gas 365 MJ 

Table 12.2: Energy use per t soybean meal and attendant soybean oil, i.e. 1 t SM and 0.249 t SO. 

Inventory data for electricity from the grid in Brazil are described in Table 3.3. Inventory data for burning of 

fuel oil are specified in Table 9.4: ‘Light fuel oil, burned in boiler 100kW, non-modulating’, ecoinvent (2004). 

The applied inventory data for burning of natural gas is: ‘Natural gas, burned in industrial furnace 

>100kW/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004). The inventory data for energy use in the soybean oil mill all include production, maintenance and disposal of capital goods. 

12.4 Material use 

Hexane for solvent extraction and water are the only materials used in the soybean oil mill. According to Dalgaard et al. (2007) the use of hexane is 0.52 kg per t soybean meal. The inventory data applied for hexane are 

described in Table 9.5. 

Because of lack of data interventions related to water consumption have been omitted. 

12.5 Emissions 

The only emissions from the soybean oil mill are emissions to air of hexane and emissions from the power 

central, and contaminants in the discharged effluent. According to Dalgaartd et al. (2007) the emissions of 

hexane and nitrate in waste water are 0.26 kg/t soybean meal and 0.005 g/t soybean meal respectively. The 

emissions from the power central are included in the inventory data on burning of fuel oil and natural gas described in section 12.3. 

12.6 Waste to treatment 

There are no significant wastes sent to treatment from the soybean oil mill. 

12.7 Overhead 

As in the case for palm oil mills and palm kernel oil mills no data on electricity use in administration, research 

and laboratory buildings have been identified. Therefore it is assumed that electricity use in rapeseed oil milling per tonne input is representative for the soybean oil mill per tonne processed soybeans, i.e. 1.3 MJ/t soybean meal. 

12.8 Capital goods 

The interventions related to capital goods in the vegetable oil industry are described in section 9.7. There are 

three types of capital goods considered in the vegetable oil industry: ‘Building, hall, steel construction’, 

‘Building, multi-storey’ and ‘Facilities, chemical production’. 

It is assumed that capital goods in rapeseed oil milling per tonne input rapeseed is representative for the soybean oil mill per tonne input of soybeans. Thus, the capital goods can be determined as: 

• 5.0⋅10-4 m2

 ‘Building, hall, steel construction’ per t soybean meal 

• 9.2⋅10-4 m3

 ‘Building, multi-storey’ per t soybean meal 

• 0.11 kg ‘Facilities, chemical production’ per t soybean meal 
12 Oil mill stage: Soybean meal 175 

Determination of capital goods is regarded as very uncertain. Therefore a sensitivity analysis is carried out in 

section 21.17. 

12.9 Transport of raw materials and ancillaries to soybean oil mill 

Soybeans and ancillary materials are transported with lorry to the oil mill. Since there are several suppliers and 

since there is a general lack of data on the specific marginal affected supplier, all transport distances are based 

on rough estimates. Determination of size of lorries is roughly based on Table 4.3. 

Material Amount per t 

soybeam meal 

From To Distance Lorry size 

Soybeans 1.294 t Seed trader Oil mill 200 km 40t 

Fuel oil 4.6 kg Fuel oil supplier Oil mill 200 km 28t 

Hexane 0.52 kg Abroad chemical plant Oil mill 1000 km 40t 

Soybean meal 1.000 t Oil mill Meal trader 300 km 40t 

Table 12.3: Transport distances of the used raw materials and ancillaries in the oil mill stage. The return trip is included 

in the inventory data. 

The amount of fuel oil is calculated from the use of 188 MJ fuel oil and data on fuel oil in Appendix 1: Data on 

fuels. The transport of soybean oil to the refinery is included in the refinery stage. 

Inventory data per tkm transport by lorry are described in section 4.1. 
176 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

12.10 LCI of soybean oil mill, summary 

Table 11.3 summarises the inventory data relating to 1 tonne soybean meal. 

Brazil: 1.000 t soybean meal from oil mill 

Interventions Soybean oil mill Overhead Total Applied LCI data 

Soybean meal 1000 kg - 1000 kg Product of interest 

Crude soybean oil 0,249 kg - 1,161 kg Co-product allocation is avoided by system expansion, see 

Table 2.3

Material use 

Soybeans 1,294 kg - 1,294 kg The interventions related to production of soybeans are included in the agricultural stage:Soybean, see section 7

Hexane 0.52 kg - 0.52 kg

Energy use 

Electricity from the grid 56 MJ 1.3 MJ 57 MJ See Table 3.3

Fuel oil 188 MJ 188 MJ ‘Light fuel oil, burned in boiler 100kW, non-modulating’, ecoinvent (2004) 

Natural gas 365 MJ 365 MJ ‘Natural gas, burned in industrial furnace >100kW/RER’ 

(ecoinvent 2004) 

Emissions 

Hexane to air 0.26 kg 0.26 kg Emission to air 

Nitrate to water 0.005 g - 0.005 g Emission to water 

Waste to treatment 

No interventions - - -

Capital goods 

Building halls 5.0⋅10-4 m2 - 5.0⋅10-4 m2 ‘Building, hall, steel construction’, (ecoinvent 2004) 

Building, multi story - 9.2⋅10-4 m3 9.2⋅10-4 m3 ’Building, multi-storey’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery 0.11 kg - 0.11 kg ‘Facilities, chemical production’, (ecoinvent 2004) 

Transport of raw materials and ancillaries to the oil mill 

Soybeans 259 tkm - 259 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 40t’ (ecoinvent 2004)

Fuel oil 0.9 tkm - 0.9 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Hexane 0.5 tkm - 0.5 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 40t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Soybean meal 300 tkm - 300 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 40t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Table 12.4: Interventions per t soybean meal. 
13 Refinery stage: Rapeseed oil 177 

13 Refinery stage: Rapeseed oil 

The refining process includes neutralisation, bleaching and deodorisation of the oil. The output from the refinery is then NBD rapeseed oil (neutralised, bleached and deodorised). Principally, there are two different ways 

of refining; chemical refining and physical refining (Bockisch 1998). The most widespread method for refining 

is chemical refining which is also used at AarhusKarlshamn. However, according to Hansen (2006) the tendency goes towards more and more physical refining of oil for food purposes. The inventory in this section 

takes point of departure in chemical refining. The description of the refining process is based on Hansen 

(2006) and Bockisch (1998). 

The purpose of neutralisation, which includes degumming and neutralisation, is to remove lecithin and free 

fatty acids. Firstly, the lecithin is removed by applying phosphoric acid in the degumming process. After that 

the content of free fatty acids are removed by applying sodium hydroxide. When the sodium hydroxide reacts 

with the free fatty acids the outcome is soap and water. Next, the mix of oil, soap and water is centrifuged in 

order to separate out the soap. The soap is sent through the soap stock splitting process, where sulphuric acid is 

applied. The soap and acid react and the outcome are free fatty acids which are used as fodder and sodium 

sulphate which is sent with waste water to the municipal sewage water system (Hansen 2006). Loss in the neutralisation process includes the separated free fatty acids (1% of the oil) and loss of oil to the soap fraction 

(0.1%) (Hansen 2006). Thus the total loss of the crude oil input to the process is 1.1%. 

The bleaching process is applied in order to remove undesired coloured particles and substances. In the bleaching process the oil is brought in contact with surface-active substances which absorb the undesired particles. 

Bleaching earth (bentonite) is the most common used agent for filtering the oil. Sometimes filter aid is added 

to the bleaching earth. This helps building up a filter structure and avoiding the filter to get clogged. Filter aid 

consists of e.g. cellulose fibres. However, at AarhusKarlshamn no filter aid is used. The oil content in used 

bleaching earth is 30-40% (Hansen 2006). In Table 13.1 it appears that the use of bleaching earth is 9.0 g per 

kg NBD oil. Assuming oil content at 35% in used bleaching earth, loss of oil to the bleaching earth can be 

determined as 4.8 g oil per kg NBD oil. 

Finally, the oil is sent through the deodorisation process. The purpose of deodorisation is to remove undesired 

odoriferous or flavouring compounds. In the deodorisation process minor amounts of different ancillaries are 

applied, e.g. citric acid, BHT, ascorbyl palmitate and A and D vitamins. Since these ancillaries constitute insignificant amounts (0.19 – 20 g per tons NBD oil) and since there is a lack of life cycle inventory data on 

these ancillaries, they are omitted from the study. 0.1% of the oil is lost in the deodorisation process (Hansen 

2006). The loss goes with the separated compounds to the free fatty acids which are used as fodder. 

The product flow related to 1 tonne NBD rapeseed oil is shown in Figure 13.1. 
178 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil Refining

Neutralization

Bleaching

Deodorisation

Soap stock splitting

Oil: 1.006 t

Oil: 1.001 t

Oil in fodder:

12 kg

Crude rapeseed oil: 1.017 t

Oil in bleaching earth:

5 kg

NBD rapeseed oil:

1.000 t

11 kg

1 kg

Overhead

Heat

Electricity

Figure 13.1: Product flow related to production of 1 t NBD rapeseed oil. Based on Hansen (2006).

13.1 Material use 

Table 13.1 shows the material use per tonne NBD rapeseed oil. All numbers are based on refining of rapeseed 

oil at AarhusKarlshamn in 2004 and data are delivered by Hansen (2006). 

The consumption of phosphoric acid in the degumming process amounts 0.08% of the input of oil. Since the 

density of phosphoric acid is 1.58 g/cm3

 the consumption is 1.3 g per kg NBD oil. The consumption of sodium 

hydroxide in the neutralisation process is 9.1 g (14% solution). Since sodium hydroxide is purchased in 50% 

solution, the 9.1 g is equivalent to 2.6 g (50% solution). The soap from the neutralisation process is sent to 

soap stock splitting where sulphuric acid is applied. The consumption of sulphuric acid equals 0.19 kg H2SO4

per kg free fatty acids (Hansen 2006)23. Since the content of free fatty acids is 10 g per kg NBD oil, the consumption of sulphuric acid is 1.9 g per kg NBD oil. 

The water consumption in the neutralisation process amounts 2% of the input of oil, i.e. 20.3 g per kg NBD oil. 

Further, there is an input of water from the sodium hydroxide solution. At AarhusKarlshamn the purchased 

50% sodium hydroxide solution is diluted to 14% by adding 7.0 g water per kg NBD oil. Thus the water consumption in the neutralisation process is 27.3 g per kg NBD oil. 

In the bleaching process the consumption of bleaching earth amounts ~0.9% of the input of oil, i.e. 9.0 g. 

There is no use of water in the bleaching and deodorisation processes. 

Ancillaries Neutralisation Bleaching Deodorisation 

Phosphoric acid 0.8 kg - - 

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH in 50% water) 2.1 kg - - 

Sulphuric acid (100%) 1.9 kg - - 

Bleaching earth - 9.0 kg - 

Tap water 27.3 kg - - 

Table 13.1: Material uses in the refining stage. All numbers are related 1 t NBD oil. (Hansen 2006)

The following describes the used inventory data relating to the materials given in Table 13.1. 

Phosphoric acid: Two life cycle inventories have been identified for production of phosphoric acid. Analysing 

the data sets in Simapro and using the EDIP97 for LCIA, it appears that global warming, acidification and 

toxicity are the most significant impact categories. In Table 13.2 the data sets are compared within these categories. 

 

23 This is calculated using the reaction equation below. A surplus of 10% of H2SO4 is used. 

2C17H33COONa (soap) + H2SO4 (sulphuric acid)→ 2C17H33COOH (fatty acid) + Na2SO4 (Sodium sulphate) 
13 Refinery stage: Rapeseed oil 179 

LCI-data for phosphoric acid CO2-eq. SO2-eq. ETWC, m3

water 

Description of data 

‘Phosphoric acid’, ETH-ESU 

database (Frischknecht et al., 

1996) 

1.17 kg 22 g 695 m3 Time: Data from before 1980 

Geography: Western Europe 

Technology: Average 

Co-product allocation: Not described 

Capital goods: Included for sub processes but not for the 

production of phosphoric acid 

‘Phosphoric acid, industrial 

grade, 85% in H2O, at plant’, 

ecoinvent database 

(Althaus et al. 2003) 

1.31 kg 34 g 2430 m3 Time: Data from 1995-2000 

Geography: Weighted average of production in US and Morocco 

Technology: Average 

Co-product allocation: Mass-allocation between phosphoric 

acid and fluosilicic acid 

Capital goods: Machinery, buildings 

Table 13.2: Comparison of LCIs of phosphoric acid. The comparison is shown as characterised results using the EDIP97-

method for LCIA. Both life cycle inventories are for 1 kg H3PO4 in water solution. The applied data are marked with a 

black dotted frame.

According to Table 13.2 there is no significant difference between phosphoric acid from Frischknecht (1996) 

and Althaus et al. (2003) except from toxicity. Since the data from Althaus et al. are the newest and since they 

include capital goods it is chosen to use this data set. 

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH): Several life cycle inventories on sodium hydroxide have been identified. As in 

the case of phosphoric acid an analysis of the data sets in Simapro and using the EDIP97-method for LCIA 

shows, that global warming, acidification and toxicity are the most significant impact categories. In Table 13.3

the data sets are compared within these categories. 
180 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

LCI-data for NaOH CO2-eq. SO2-eq. ETWC, m3

water 

Description of data 

‘NaOH’, BUWAL database 

(BUWAL 250, 1996) 

1.20 kg 15 g 69 m3 Time: Data from 1990-94 

Geography: Western Europe 

Technology: Average 

Co-product allocation: Mass-allocation between sodium hydroxide 

and chlorine 

Capital goods: No 

‘NaOH’, ETH-ESU database 

(Frischknecht et al., 1996) 

0.88 kg 6 g 336 m3 Time: Data from 1990-94 

Geography: Western Europe 

Technology: Average 

Co-product allocation: Mass-allocation between sodium hydroxide 

and chlorine 

Capital goods: Included for sub processes but not for the production 

of NaOH. 

‘Sodium hydroxide, diaphragm 

cell, at plant’, ecoinvent database 

(Althaus et al. 2003) 

1.06 kg 6 g 1,020 m3

‘Sodium hydroxide, membrane 

cell, at plant’, ecoinvent database 

(Althaus et al. 2003) 

0.87 kg 5 g 866 m3

‘Sodium hydroxide, mercury cell, 

at plant’, ecoinvent database 

(Althaus et al. 2003) 

0.94 kg 5 g 928 m3

‘Sodium hydroxide, production 

mix, at plant’, ecoinvent database 

(Althaus et al. 2003) 

0.95 kg 5 g 937 m3

Time: Data from 2000 

Geography: Europe 

Technology: Present state of technology for diaphragm cells 

Co-product allocation: Mass-allocation between sodium hydroxide, 

chlorine and hydrogen 

Capital goods: Machinery, buildings 

Table 13.3: Comparison of LCIs of sodium hydroxide. The comparison is shown as characterised results using the 

EDIP97-method for LCIA. All the life cycle inventories are for 1 kg NaOH in 50% water solution. The applied data are 

marked with a black dotted frame.

It appears that the differences in environmental burden from the different data sets are relatively small concerning global warming and acidification. Within ecotoxicity the data from BUWAL 250 (1996) and 

Frischknecht et al. (1996) shows significant lower values than the data from Althaus et al. (2003). It has not 

been possible to identify the reason for this difference, but the two first mentioned data sets are based on other 

data for both the production processes for NaOH and for sub processes. It is chosen to use data from Althaus et 

al. (2003) since these data include capital goods and they are 7-10 years newer than the data in BUWAL 250 

(1996) and Frischknecht et al. (1996). Further it is chosen to use the data for production mix of the three technologies; diaphragm cell, membrane cell and mercury cell. Since there is no significant difference between the 

three data sets and since the use of sodium hydroxide in the oil mill stage is very small this choice will not 

have any substantial effects on the result of the LCA. 

Sulphuric acid: Three life cycle inventories have been identified for production of sulphuric acid. As in the 

case for sodium hydroxide, analysis of the data sets in Simapro and using the EDIP97 for LCIA shows that 

global warming, acidification and toxicity are the most significant impact categories. In Table 13.4 the data 

sets are compared within these categories. 
13 Refinery stage: Rapeseed oil 181 

LCI-data for sulphuric acid CO2-eq. SO2-eq. ETWC, m3

water 

Description of data 

‘Sulphuric acid’, BUWAL database 

(BUWAL 250 1996) 

92 g 26 g 2.1 m3 Time: Data from before 1995 

Geography: Europe 

Technology: Not specified 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: Not included 

‘Sulphuric acid, liquid, at plant’, 

ecoinvent database 

(Althaus et al. 2003) 

111 g 13 g 241 m3 Time: Data from 1994-2003 

Geography: Europe 

Technology: Data based on sources on averages as well as stateof-art technologies 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: Machinery, buildings 

‘Svovlsyre (H2SO4)’ EDIP 

database 

(EDIP 1996) 

160 g 43 g 0.009 m3 Time: Data from before 1995 

Geography: Europe 

Technology: Not specified 

Co-product allocation: Not relevant 

Capital goods: Not included

Table 13.4: Comparison of LCIs of sulphuric acid. The comparison is shown as characterised results using the EDIP97-

method for LCIA. All the life cycle inventories refer to 1 kg 100% H2SO4. The applied data are marked with a black dotted frame.

According to Table 13.4 there is some difference between the contributions to global warming and acidification. The contribution to toxicity varies with a factor 27,000 from the lowest value to the highest value. Since 

the data from Althaus et al. are the newest and since they include capital goods it is chosen to use this data set.

Bleaching earth: Only one life cycle inventory of production of bleaching earth has been identified; Bentonite, at processing/DE (Kellenberger et al. 2003). This inventory is part of the ecoinvent database and it is 

available in SimaPro. The data represents a mix of alkaline activated bentonite (61%), acid activated bentonite 

(38%) and catalytic converters (1%). Only the acid activated bentonite is used in oil mills. Some of the most 

important uses of the other bentonites are for casting moulds, as a cement product in building industry, wine 

clarification and for removal of printing ink in the recycling process of waste paper. The data set covers data 

for 1998 for one German company which comprises 70% of the total German production in 1998 (Kellenberger et al. 2003). The data includes mining and processing of the bentonite, transport and production, maintenance and breaking down of capital goods. 

Tap water: Three life cycle inventories for tap water have been identified; ‘Water, tap’ (Nielsen et al. 2005), 

‘Vandværksvand, dansk’ (EDIP, 1996) and ‘Tap water, at user/RER’ (Althaus et al. 2003). It is chosen to use a 

modified version of the data from Nielsen et al. (2005). The data in Nielsen et al. (2005) describes tap water in 

Copenhagen in 1999. Capital goods are not included. The modifications include adjustment of LCI data for 

electricity to be consistent with section 3.1 and clarification of LCI data on auxiliaries. The two other data sets 

for tap water are omitted because the data from EDIP (1996) only include energy consumption and the data 

from Althaus et al. (2003) cover water supply in Germany and Switzerland. The modifications of the data from 

Nielsen et al. (2005) are shown in Table 13.5. 
182 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

LCI-data for tap water Amount Original LCI used in Nielsen et al. 

(2005) 

LCI data used in this study 

Ground water 1.05 kg resource resource 

Electricity 1.3 kJ ‘Electricity gas power plant in NL’, ETHESU database (Frischknecht et al., 

1996) 

See Table 3.3

Sodium hypochlorite 4 mg ‘Sodium hypochlorite, 15% in H2O, at 

plant/RER’, ecoinvent (2004) 

Ammonium sulphate 0.46 mg ‘Ammonium sulphate, as N, at regional storehouse/RER’, ecoinvent (2004) 

Sodium hydroxide 0.06 mg 

‘Chemicals organic’, ETH-ESU database 

(Frischknecht et al., 1996) 

‘Sodium hydroxide, production mix, at plant’, 

ecoinvent (2004) 

Table 13.5: Modification of LCI of 1 kg tap water delivered to consumer in Nielsen et al. (2005). 

13.2 Energy use 

Table 13.6 shows the energy use per tonne NBD rapeseed oil. All numbers are based on refining of rapeseed 

oil at AarhusKarlshamn in 2004 and data are provided by Hansen (2006). 

Energy Neutralisation Bleaching Deodorisation Total 

Electricity 20 MJ 84 MJ 104 MJ

Heat 41 MJ 41 MJ 144 MJ 226 MJ

Table 13.6: Energy use in the refining stage relating to 1 t NBD rapeseed oil. (Hansen 2006) 

The interventions related to production of electricity are described in section 3.1. The heat is produced at the 

power central at AarhusKarlshamn, see interventions in Table 9.4

13.3 Emissions 

There are no direct emissions from refining. 

13.4 Waste to treatment/co-products 

Table 13.7 shows the waste/co-products identified in Figure 13.1 and the section ‘Material use’. Also, Table 

13.7 specifies the further treatment or application of the flows. 
13 Refinery stage: Rapeseed oil 183 

Waste/co-product Amount Treatment 

Free fatty acids from soap splitting 10 kg 9.1 g is sold as fodder and 0.09 is lost with waste water, see ‘Waste water’ below 

Oil loss from neutralisation 1 kg Sold as fodder 

Oil loss from deodorisation 1 kg Sold as fodder 

Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) (100%) 0. 8 kg This is neutralised with NaOH in the neutralisation process. The P is discharged 

with the waste water from soap stock splitting to the municipal sewage system, 

see ‘Waste water’ below 

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) (100%) 1.05 kg The NaOH reacts with the free fatty acids in the neutralisation process and forms 

soap (C17H33COONa) 

Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) (100%) 1.9 kg The H2SO4 reacts with the soap in the soap stock splitting process and forms 

sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) and free fatty acids (which is used as fodder, see 

above). Na2SO4 is a salt and is discharged with the waste water from soap stock 

splitting to the municipal sewage system, see ‘Waste water’ below 

Bleaching earth 9 kg

Oil loss from bleaching: oil in bleaching 

earth 

5 kg

The used bleaching earth is sent to biogas. The oil content in the bleaching earth 

is 35%. 

Waste water 79 litre The 79 litre waste water has the following content: 

COD: 0.54 kg (Aarhus United, 2005a) 

Fat: 0.09 kg (Aarhus United, 2005a) 

P: 0.26 kg (Calculated from the consumption of phosphoric acid) 

Na2SO4: 2.5 kg (Determined from stoichiometric calculation from reaction between soap and H2SO4 to FFA and Na2SO4

The waste water is sent the municipal sewage system where it is lead to the 

municipal waste water treatment plant 

Table 13.7: Overview of waste and co-product flows and their treatment/application. All numbers refer to 1 t NBD oil. 

Based on (Hansen 2006). 

The different co-products/wastes to treatment from the refinery stage include: 1) Fodder fat, 2) Waste water 

and 3) Bleaching earth sent to biogas. The interventions related to these three outputs of co-products/wastes are 

described in the following. 

Fodder fat 

This co-product is treated in the LCI by system expansion, see section 2.2. 

Waste water, COD and P 

Interventions related to waste water and its contents of COD and P are described in Table 9.9. 

Biogas (residual from rapeseed and bleaching earth) 

In the biogas plant the residual from rapeseed screening and oil containing bleaching earth is digested. According to Kromann (1996) the production of biogas can be estimated from the content of fat, protein, cellulose 

(difficult digestible carbon) and glucose (easy digestible carbon) in the biomass. The only digestible component in bleaching earth is fat and the residual from rapeseed screening is presumed to mainly consist of cellulose. According to Kromann (1996, p 37) biogas production (methane) can be expected as 0.81 Nm3

 per kg fat 

and 0.12 Nm3

 per kg cellulose. The energy content in biogas is 36.1 MJ/Nm3 (methane) and the density is 0.72 

kg/m3

 (Kromann, 1996, p 36 and Kromann et al. 2004). 

The following data for the biogas plant, i.e. energy production and emissions are based on Kromann et al. 

(2004). Before the biomass is sent to digestion it is hygienized, i.e. heated from approximately 15C to 75C, 

requiring 281 kWh per tonne DS. Assuming water content at ~10% in residual and bleaching earth, the energy 

for hygienization is 312 kWh per tonne. The produced gas (methane) is burned at the biogas plant with coproduction of electricity and heat in a gas motor with 37% electrical efficiency and 48% heat efficiency. The 

electricity use at the biogas plant is 9 kWh per tonne biomass. Emission of methane is estimated to 1.5% of the 

input of gas to the motor. Other emission from the gas motor include 0.018 g SO2/MJ input of energy in biogas 
184 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

and 0.200 g NOx/MJ input of energy in biogas. In an LCA of organic waste from catering sent to biogas, the 

emission of ammonia constitutes the most significant contribution to eutrophication and acidification (Kromann et al. 2004). In Kromann et al. (2004) the emission of ammonia from storing of the biomass material 

before the digesting process is estimated as 4% of the total N content. The emission of ammonia from slurry 

spreading after digestion is estimated as 10-15% of the N content. The content of N in riddle from rapeseed 

and bleaching earth would be contained in the protein. It is presumed that the content of protein in the riddle is 

very little. Furthermore, there is no protein in the fat in bleaching earth. Thus, emission of ammonia is assumed 

as 0. Since the content of N is estimated as 0 the emission of N2O from slurry spreading can also be set to 0. 

Furthermore, since the content of N is estimated as 0, displacement of fertilizers from slurry spreading is also 

estimated as insignificant. Another significant emission in Kromann et al. (2004) is methane from storing the 

biomass before digestion. However, the riddle from rapeseed and bleaching earth are stored with a low content 

of water. Thus anaerobic conditions, which are required for biogas production, will not be likely to appear. In 

Kromann (1996, p 41) transport of the digested biomass to field application is estimated to 50 MJ/tonne DS of 

biomass input to the plant including transport with truck, slurry spreading and ploughing. The 50 MJ/tonne is 

based on 20% weight reduction in the digester. Assuming of water content of riddle from rapeseed and bleaching earth at 10%, the energy use for transport is 56 MJ/tonne. There is assumed no emissions to soil/water from 

the digested riddle and bleaching earth. Buildings and machinery is not included for the biogas plant. 

The inventory data for 1 kg rapeseed residual and 1 kg bleaching earth (35% fat) is shown in Table 13.8. 

1 kg residual from rapeseed screening Amount Applied LCI data 

Produced gas 0.12 Nm3/4.3 MJ The gas is incinerated and electricity and heat are produced, see below. 

Electricity (from energy production at the 

plant) 

-1.6 MJ See Table 3.3

District heating (from energy production 

at the plant) 

-2.1 MJ See section 3.6

Heat for hygienization 1.1 MJ This is taken from own production of heat, see above 

Electricity, own consumption 0.03 MJ See Table 3.3

Emission of methane (CH4) 1.3 g Emission to air 

Emission of SO2 0.078 g Emission to air 

Emission of NOx 0.87 g Emission to air 

Transport of digested biomass to field 

application 

56 KJ ‘Diesel, burned in building machine/GLO’, ecoinvent (2004) 

1 kg bleaching earth (35% fat) Amount Applied LCI data 

Produced gas 0.28 Nm3/10.2 MJ The gas is incinerated and electricity and heat are produced, see below. 

Electricity (from energy production at the 

plant) 

-3.7 MJ See Table 3.3

District heating (from energy production 

at the plant) 

-4.9 MJ See section 3.6

Heat for hygienization 1.1 MJ This is taken from own production of heat, see above 

Electricity, own consumption 0.03 MJ See Table 3.3

Emission of methane (CH4) 3.0 g Emission to air 

Emission of SO2 0.18 g Emission to air 

Emission of NOx 2.0 g Emission to air 

Transport of digested biomass to field 

application 

56 KJ ‘Diesel, burned in building machine/GLO’, ecoinvent (2004) 

Table 13.8: Inventory data for 1 kg rapeseed riddle and 1 kg bleaching earth sent to biogas. 

13.5 Overhead 

The energy consumption related to overhead at AarhusKarlshamn is described in section 9.6. 10% of the total 

energy consumption from overhead, i.e. administration, laboratories, marketing etc., is allocated to refining. 

Since three oils constitute the main oils used at AarhusKarlshamn; rapeseed oil, shea oil and palm oil, refinery 

of rapeseed oil constitute one third of the 10%. Hence, assuming that one third of the refined oils was rapeseed 

oil the proportion related to rapeseed activities can be estimated as 3.3%. 
13 Refinery stage: Rapeseed oil 185 

According to Aarhus United (2005b) electricity consumption for administration and laboratories was approximately 1220 MWh in 2004. In 2004 the production of refined oils at AarhusKarlshamn was 200,000 tonne 

(Aarhus United 2005b). Thus, the electricity consumption for overhead related to refining of rapeseed oil can 

be estimated as 0.7 MJ/t NBD rapeseed oil. This amounts 0.5% of the total electricity consumption for production of refined rapeseed oil at AarhusKarlshamn, see Table 13.11. 

Heat consumption for administration and laboratories was approximately 550 MWh in 2004 (Aarhus United, 

2005b). Using abovementioned allocation factor and the annual production of refined oils, the heat consumption can be found as 0.3 MJ/t NBD rapeseed oil. Administration buildings and laboratories are heated with 

municipal district heat. Interventions from district heating in Aarhus are described in section 3.6. 

13.6 Capital goods 

The interventions related to capital goods in the vegetable oil industry are described in section 9.7. There are 

three types of capital goods considered in the vegetable oil industry: ‘Building, hall, steel construction’, 

‘Building, multi-storey’ and ‘Facilities, chemical production’. 

The area covered by buildings is estimated from the municipal district plan for the current district (Århus 

Kommune 2004). 

Refinery buildings 

Refining and storage of finished products: The buildings for refining cover approximately 4000 m2 and silos 

for storage of oil are estimated to cover approximately 300 m2

. Thus, the buildings for refining and storage of 

finished products are estimated as 4,300 m2

 building hall. An average life time of building halls is estimated to 

50 years. The annual amount of NBD oil at AarhusKarlshamn is approximately 200,000 tonne. Hence the 

building hall required per kg of pressed and extracted oil can be determined as approximately 4.3⋅10-4 m2

building hall/t oil. 

Overhead: In section 9.7 the area of administration buildings per tonne NBD rapeseed oil has been estimated. 

Half this is ascribed to the oil mill and the other half to the refinery. Thus, the area of administration buildings 

related to refining of rapeseed oil at AarhusKarlshamn has been estimated as 3.3⋅10-3 m3

 multi story building/t 

oil divided by 2, i.e. 1.7⋅10-3 m3

 multi story building/t oil. 

Refinery machinery (facilities) 

The weight of machinery is very roughly estimated from personal communication with Kronborg (2006). The 

relevant numbers are given in Table 13.9. 

Process Weight of machinery incl. pipes Estimated life time Annual production Machinery (kg) per 

kg oil 

Refining 300 tonne 10 years 200,000 tonne 0.15 kg/t oil

Table 13.9: Required machinery (kg) per t oil produced at AarhusKarlshamn. Numbers are based on very rough estimates. 

13.7 Transport of raw material and ancillaries to refinery 

It is assumed that refineries are attached to oil mills. Thus there is no transport of crude rapeseed oil to the 

refinery. This is also the case at AarhusKarlshamn. Table 13.10 provides an overview of the ancillaries transported to AarhusKarlshamn, both in terms of total annual amounts and amounts per tonne NBD oil. Since there 
186 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

are several suppliers and since there is a general lack of data on the specific marginal affected suppliers, all 

transport distances are based on rough estimates. Determination of size of lorries is based on Table 4.3. 

Material Amount to AarhusKarlshamn Amount per t NBD 

oil 

From To Distance Lorry size 

Phosphoric acid ~21 tonne/year 0.8 kg Abroad chemical plant Aarhus 1000 km 28t

NaOH ~55 tonne/year 2.1 kg Abroad chemical plant Aarhus 1000 km 28t

Sulphuric acid ~49 tonne/year 1.9 kg Abroad chemical plant Aarhus 1000 km 28t

Bleaching earth ~230 tonne/year 9.0 kg Abroad chemical plant Aarhus 1000 km 40t

Light fuel oil ~36,000 t/year 6.4 kg Fuel oil supplier Aarhus 200 km 28t

Fodder fat ~3,700 t/year 12 kg Refinery Fodder trader 10 km 28t

Table 13.10: Transport distances of the used raw materials and ancillaries in the refinery stage. The return trip is included 

in the inventory data. 

The amounts in the column ‘Amount to AarhusKarlshamn’ are calculated from figures in Table 9.1 and Table 

13.11, the amount of fuel oil is given in Table 9.12. The amounts in the column ‘Amount per t NBD oil’ are 

obtained from figures in Table 13.11. 
13 Refinery stage: Rapeseed oil 187 

13.8 LCI of rapeseed oil refinery, summary 

Table 13.11 summarises the inventory data relating to 1 kg NBD rapeseed oil. 

Denmark: 1.000 t NBD rapeseed oil from refinery 

Interventions Refining Overhead Total Applied LCI data 

Product output

NBD rapeseed oil 1.000 t - 1.000 t Product of interest 

Fodder fat 12 kg - 12 kg Co-product allocation is avoided by system expansion, 

see Table 2.3

Material use

Crude rapeseed oil 1.017 t - 1.017 t The interventions related to production of rapeseed oil 

are included in the oil mill stage stage, see section 9

Phosphoric acid 0.8 kg - 0.8 kg ‘Phosphoric acid, industrial grade, 85% in H2O, at plant’ 

(ecoinvent 2004) 

NaOH 2.1 kg - 2.1 kg ‘Sodium hydroxide, production mix, at plant’ (ecoinvent 

2003) 

Sulphuric acid 1.9 kg - 1.9 kg ‘Sulphuric acid, liquid, at plant’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Bleaching earth 9.0 kg - 9.0 kg ’Bentonite, at processing/DE’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Tap water 27.3 kg - 27.3 kg See Table 13.5

Energy use 

Electricity 104 MJ 0.7 MJ 105 MJ See Table 3.3

Heat (steam) 226 MJ - 226 MJ See Table 9.4

Heat (district heat) - 0.3 MJ 0.3 MJ See section 3.6

Waste to treatment

Waste water, quantity 79 ltr. - 79 ltr. see Table 9.9

Waste water, P 0.26 kg - 0.26 kg see Table 9.9

Waste water, COD 0.54 kg - 0.54 kg see Table 9.9

Bleaching earth (35% 

veg. oil) to biogas 

14 kg - 14 kg See Table 13.8

Capital goods

Building halls 4.3⋅10-4 m2 - 4.3⋅10-4 m2 ‘Building, hall, steel construction’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Building, multi story - 1.7⋅10-3 m3 1.7⋅10-3 m3 ’Building, multi-storey’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery 0.15 kg - 0.15 kg ‘Facilities, chemical production’, (ecoinvent 2004) 

Transport of raw materials and ancillaries to oil mill

Phosphoric acid 0.8 tkm - 0.8 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

NaOH 2.1 tkm - 2.1 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Sulphuric acid 1.9 tkm - 1.9 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Bleaching earth 9.0 tkm - 9.0 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 40t’ (ecoinvent 2004)

Light fuel oil 1.3 tkm - 1.3 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Fodder fat 0.1 tkm - 0.1 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Table 13.11: Interventions per t NBD rapeseed oil. 
188 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 
14 Refinery stage: Palm oil 189 

14 Refinery stage: Palm oil 

Refining of palm oil is principally similar to refining of rapeseed oil. However, the interventions may differ 

due to different practices in the refinery. Also the loss of oil during neutralisation differs because of different 

content of free fatty acids (FFA) to be removed. The FFA content of crude palm oil produced at United Plantations Berhad is maximum 2.5% while the maximum limit for traded crude palm oil is 5% (Singh 2006). According to Kang (2006) CPO normally has a content of free fatty acid at 3 to 5%. Thus, it is assumed that CPO 

sent to refining has FFA content at 4%. 

Losses of oil take place in the deodorisation, bleaching and neutralisation processes. The loss in the deodorisation process is assumed to be the same as in rapeseed refining, i.e. 0.1%. In the bleaching process oil is lost due 

to oil content of approximately 30% in the spent bleaching earth (Singh 2006). Since the use of bleaching earth 

is 4.53 kg/t NBD palm oil (UPRD 2004) the loss of oil in the bleaching process can be calculated as 1.94 kg 

palm oil. The loss in the neutralisation process can be calculated from the content of FFA at 4%. The loss of oil 

from deodorisation is assumed to be discharged with effluent. The product flow related to production of 1 

tonne NBD palm oil is shown in Figure 14.1. Refining

Neutralization

Bleaching

Deodorisation

Oil: 1.003 t

Oil: 1.001 t

FFA:

42 kg

Crude palm oil: 1.045 t

Oil in bleaching earth:

2 kg

NBD palm oil:

1.000 t

1 kg

Oil in waste water:

1 kg

Overhead

Electricity

Figure 14.1: Product flow related to production of 1 t NBD palm oil. 

14.1 Material use 

Table 14.1 shows the material use per tonne NBD palm oil. The consumption of sodium hydroxide in the neutralisation process is 10.4 kg per t, see Table 14.1, (assumed 14% solution as in AarhusKarlshamn). Since 

sodium hydroxide is purchased in 50% solution, the 10.4 kg/t NBD oil is equivalent to 2.9 kg/t (50% solution). 

The soap from the neutralisation process is sold to soap manufacturing. It is assumed that there is excess of 

soap from oils and fat refineries. Thus, the soap does not displace any other soap material in the market. 

Ancillaries Neutralisation Bleaching Deodorisation 

Phosphoric acid 0.25 kg - - 

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH in 50% water) 2.9 kg - - 

Bleaching earth - 4.53 kg - 

Water 700 kg - - 

Table 14.1: Material uses in the refining stage. All numbers are related 1 t NBD oil. (UPRD 2004)

The used inventory data for phosphoric acid, sodium hydroxide, bleaching earth and water are described in 

section 13.1. For water, it is assumed that the interventions related to water in Malaysia are the same as in 

Denmark. The energy and material use pr. m3

 water are very low; 1.3 MJ electricity/m3 and 4.5 g chemicals/m3

(see Table 13.5). Thus, this assumption may only cause insignificant impacts on the result. 
190 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

14.2 Energy use 

Table 13.6 shows the energy use per tonne NBD palm oil 

Energy Neutralisation, bleaching and deodorisation 

Electricity from the grid 126 MJ

Heat (burning of diesel) 328 MJ

Table 14.2: Energy use in the refining stage relating to 1 t NBD palm oil. The use of heat energy is based on diesel consumption at 9 litres/t NBD palm oil and calorific value given in Appendix 1: Data on fuels. 

The interventions related to production of electricity are described in section 3.2. Interventions related to burning of diesel in boiler are obtained from ecoinvent: ‘Light fuel oil, burned in boiler 100kW, nonmodulating/CH’ (ecoinvent 2004). This data set includes air emissions from combustion, production of fuel oil 

and capital goods (boiler, chimney and storage of fuel oil). 

14.3 Emissions 

There are no direct emissions from refining. 

14.4 Waste to treatment/co-products 

Table 14.3 shows the waste to treatment and co-products from the refining of palm oil. The table is based on 

Table 13.7 (describing the waste to treatment and co-products from the refining of rapeseed oil) and the material inputs identified in section 14.1. 

Waste/co-product Amount Treatment 

FFA 42 kg It is assumed that the distillate formed from the FFA displaces the marginal 

source of fodder energy, i.e. barley. 

Oil loss from deodorisation 1 kg Discharged with effluent 

Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) (100%) 0. 25 kg This is neutralised with NaOH in the neutralisation process. The P is discharged 

with the waste water 

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) (100%) 1.5 kg The NaOH reacts with the free fatty acids in the neutralisation process and forms 

soap (C17H33COONa) 

Bleaching earth 4.5 kg

Oil loss from bleaching: oil in bleaching 

earth 

1.9 kg

The 6.4 kg used bleaching earth is landfilled. The oil content in the bleaching 

earth is 30%. 

Waste water 700 litre The 700 litre waste water has the following content: 

COD: 630 g (900 mg/litre), (Ma 1999b) 

Fat: 1 kg 

P: 0.08 kg (Calculated from the consumption of phosphoric acid) 

The waste water is sent the municipal sewage system where it is lead to the 

municipal waste water treatment plant 

Table 14.3: Overview of waste and co-product flows and their treatment/application relating to 1 t NBD oil. 

Interventions from disposal of the waste streams given in Table 14.3 are described in the following. 

Waste water, COD and P 

The waste water is treated in an aerobic lagoon, see Figure 14.2. The amount of N in the effluent is assumed to 

be insignificant because clean vegetable oil does not contain N. The content of COD (organic matter) reacts 

with oxygen and form CO2. However, this is of biotic origin. Therefore, it has no impacts. There may be minor 

emissions of methane from small anaerobic pockets in the aerobic ponds. However, this is regarded as insignificant. The content of P will be discharged with the treated effluent to a water stream, i.e. 0.08 kg P/t NBD 

palm oil. 
14 Refinery stage: Palm oil 191 

Figure 14.2: Pond for aerobic treatment of palm oil refinery effluent (Picture taken in United Plantation Berhad 2006). 

Used bleaching earth to landfill 

The used bleaching earth is normally disposed of to landfill locally. Over time the oil content will be decomposed into CO2 and water. Since the CO2 is of biotic origin, it does not contribute to any impacts. There may 

be forming of methane in anaerobic pockets in the landfill. However, this is regarded as insignificant. Bleaching earth mainly consists of silicon dioxide, aluminium oxide, ferric oxide, magnesium oxide and calcium oxide (AVL 2006). None of these substances cause environmental effects of significance. Thus, no interventions 

are included for landfilling of used bleaching earth. 

FFA used for animal fodder 

This co-product is treated in the LCI by system expansion, see section 2.2. 

14.5 Overhead 

No data on overhead in palm oil refining are available. Therefore, the same data as for refining of rapeseed oil 

are applied. However, no heating of administration buildings are applied since refining takes place in Malaysia. According to section 13.5 the electricity use per tonne NBD rapeseed oil is 0.7 MJ. 

14.6 Capital goods 

No data on capital goods in palm oil refineries have been identified. Thus, it is assumed that data for capital 

goods for a rapeseed oil refinery are representative for a palm oil refinery. The data are described in section 

13.6. 

14.7 Transport of raw material and ancillaries to refinery 

It is assumed that refineries are attached to oil mills. Thus there is no transport of crude palm oil to the refinery. This is also the case at United Plantation Berhad. Table 14.4 provides an overview of the ancillaries transported to the refinery. Since there are several suppliers and since there is a general lack of data on the specific 

marginal affected suppliers, all transport distances are based on very rough estimates. Lorry sizes in Malaysia 

are all assumed to be 28t 
192 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Material Amount per t NBD 

oil 

From To Distance Lorry size 

Phosphoric acid 0.25 kg Abroad chemical plant Refinery 1000 km 28t 

NaOH 2.9 kg Abroad chemical plant Refinery 1000 km 28t 

Bleaching earth 4.5 kg Abroad chemical plant Refinery 1000 km 28t 

Diesel 7.8 kg Fuel oil supplier, Malaysia Refinery 200 km 28t 

Fodder fat 42 kg Refinery Fodder trader 200 km 28t 

Table 14.4: Transport distances of the used raw materials and ancillaries in the refinery stage. The return trip is included 

in the inventory data. 

The amounts in the column ‘Amount per t NBD oil’ are obtained from the figures in Table 14.5, and for diesel 

also the calorific value given in ‘Appendix 1: Data on fuels’ has been used. 

14.8 LCI of palm oil refinery, summary 

Table 14.5 summarises the inventory data relating to 1 kg NBD palm oil. 
14 Refinery stage: Palm oil 193 

Malaysia and Indonesia: 1.000 t NBD palm oil from refinery 

Interventions Refining Overhead Total Applied LCI data 

Product output 

NBD palm oil 1.000 t - 1.000 t Product of interest 

FFA 42 kg - 42 kg Co-product allocation is avoided by system expansion, 

see Table 2.3

Material use 

Crude palm oil 1.045 t - 1.045 t The interventions related to production of palm oil are 

included in the oil mill stage stage, see section 10

Phosphoric acid 0.25 kg - 0.25 kg ‘Phosphoric acid, industrial grade, 85% in H2O, at plant’ 

(ecoinvent 2004) 

NaOH 2.9 kg - 2.9 kg ‘Sodium hydroxide, production mix, at plant’ (ecoinvent 

2003) 

Bleaching earth 4.5 kg - 4.5 kg ’Bentonite, at processing/DE’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Water 700 kg - 700 kg See Table 13.5

Energy use 

Electricity 126 MJ 0.7 MJ 127 MJ See Table 3.3

Heat (steam) 328 MJ - 328 MJ ‘Light fuel oil, burned in boiler 100kW, nonmodulating/CH’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Emissions to water 

Phosphorus 0.08 kg - 0.08 kg Emission to water (from waste water) 

Waste to treatment 

Waste water 700 kg - 700 kg Emission of P, see above 

Bleaching earth to 

landfill 

6.4 kg - 6.4 kg No interventions 

Capital goods 

Building halls 4.3⋅10-4 m2 - 4.3⋅10-4 m2 ‘Building, hall, steel construction’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Building, multi story - 1.7⋅10-3 m3 1.7⋅10-3 m3 ’Building, multi-storey’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery 0.15 kg - 0.15 kg ‘Facilities, chemical production’, (ecoinvent 2004) 

Transport of raw materials and ancillaries to oil mill 

Phosphoric acid 0.25 tkm - 0.25 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

NaOH 2.9 tkm - 2.9 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Bleaching earth 4.5 tkm - 4.5 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004)

Diesel 1.6 tkm - 1.6 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Fodder fat 8.4 kg - 8.4 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Table 14.5: Interventions per t NBD palm oil. 
194 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 
15 Refinery stage: Palm kernel oil 195 

15 Refinery stage: Palm kernel oil 

Refining of palm kernel oil is principally similar to refining of palm oil and rapeseed oil. However, the interventions may differ due to different practices in the refinery. Also the loss of oil during neutralisation differs 

because of different content of free fatty acids (FFA) to be removed. 

No data on refining of palm kernel oil have been identified. Therefore, it is assumed that refining of palm kernel oil is similar to refining of palm oil. The only difference is the content of FFA in crude PKO which is lower 

than in crude palm oil. It is assumed that the FFA content is 1% as in crude rapeseed oil, see section 13. The 

product flow chart including this modification of the refining process of palm oil is shown in Figure 15.1. Refining

Neutralization

Bleaching

Deodorisation

Oil: 1.003 t

Oil: 1.001 t

FFA:

10 kg

Crude palm kernel oil: 1.013 t

Oil in bleaching earth:

2 kg

NBD palm kernel oil:

1.000 t

1 kg

Oil in waste water:

1 kg

Overhead

Electricity

Figure 15.1: Product flow related to production of 1 t NBD palm kernel oil. 

The interventions related to refining of palm kernel oil are described in section 14. The only difference is the 

amount of the co-product, 10 kg FFA sold as fodder fat, which displaces palm oil, barley and soybean meal. 

The system expansion is described in section 2.2. 

15.1 LCI of palm kernel oil refinery, summary 

Table 15.1 summarises the inventory data relating to 1 tonne NBD palm kernel oil. 
196 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Malaysia and Indonesia: 1.000 t NBD palm kernel oil from refinery 

Interventions Refining Overhead Total Applied LCI data 

Product output 

NBD palm kernel oil 1.000 t - 1.000 t Product of interest 

FFA 10 kg - 10 kg Co-product allocation is avoided by system expansion, 

see Table 2.3

Material use 

Crude palm kernel oil 1.013 t - 1.013 t The interventions related to production of palm kernel 

oil are included in the oil mill stage stage, see section 

11

Phosphoric acid 0.25 kg - 0.25 kg ‘Phosphoric acid, industrial grade, 85% in H2O, at plant’ 

(ecoinvent 2004) 

NaOH 2.9 kg - 2.9 kg ‘Sodium hydroxide, production mix, at plant’ (ecoinvent 

2003) 

Bleaching earth 4.5 kg - 4.5 kg ’Bentonite, at processing/DE’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Water 700 kg - 700 kg See Table 13.5

Energy use 

Electricity 126 MJ 0.7 MJ 127 MJ See Table 3.3

Heat (steam) 328 MJ - 328 MJ ‘Light fuel oil, burned in boiler 100kW, nonmodulating/CH’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Emissions to water 

Phosphorus 0.08 kg - 0.08 kg Emission to water (from waste water) 

Waste to treatment 

Waste water 700 kg - 700 kg Emission of P, see above 

Bleaching earth to 

landfill 

6.4 kg - 6.4 kg No interventions 

Capital goods 

Building halls 4.3⋅10-4 m2 - 4.3⋅10-4 m2 ‘Building, hall, steel construction’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Building, multi story - 1.7⋅10-3 m3 1.7⋅10-3 m3 ’Building, multi-storey’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery 0.15 kg - 0.15 kg ‘Facilities, chemical production’, (ecoinvent 2004) 

Transport of raw materials and ancillaries to oil mill 

Phosphoric acid 0.25 tkm - 0.25 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

NaOH 2.9 tkm - 2.9 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Bleaching earth 4.5 tkm - 4.5 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004)

Diesel 1.6 tkm - 1.6 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Fodder fat 2.0 tkm - 2.0 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Table 15.1: Interventions per t NBD palm kernel oil. 
16 Refinery stage: Soybean oil 197 

16 Refinery stage: Soybean oil 

No data on refining of soybean oil have been identified. Therefore it is assumed that the interventions related 

to 1 tonne NBD rapeseed oil is the same as 1 tonne NBD soybean oil. The inventory data for refining rapeseed 

oil are summarised in Table 13.11. 

However a few adjustments to the inventory for rapeseed oil refining are done: 

• Electricity from the grid: Marginal electricity in Brazil is applied, see See Table 3.3

• District heat: No district heating is used 

• Bleaching earth to biogas: This is not sent to biogas in Brazil, disposal is assumed to be landfilling 

without any interventions 

• Transport distance of fodder fat from refinery to fodder trader is assumed to be 300 km instead of 10 

km as in Denmark 
198 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 
17 Transport stage 199 

17 Transport stage 

The transport stage includes transportation of the finished refined rapeseed oil and palm oil to final consumption which is assumed to be in central Europe represented by Amsterdam. 

The refined rapeseed oil is transported in a 40 t lorry from AarhusKarlshamn in Aarhus in Denmark to Amsterdam in the Netherlands, i.e. 791 km (Krak 2006). 

The refined palm oil produced in Malaysia and Indonesia is regarded as being transported 200 km in a 28 t 

lorry to a port. From there it is transported in an oceanic tanker 8,117 nautical miles corresponding to 15,033 

km24 (Distances 2006). The distance is represented by the distance from Port Kelang in Malaysia to the port in 

Amsterdam, the Netherlands. 

The interventions related to transportation of the refined oil to final consumption are summarised in Table 

17.1. The interventions related to each tonne kilometre (tkm) are described in section 4. 

Transport of NBD oil Rapeseed oil Palm oil Applied LCI data 

Lorry, 28 t - 200 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 

2004) 

Lorry, 40 t 791 tkm - ‘Transport, lorry 40t’ (ecoinvent 

2004)

Ocean tanker - 15,033 tkm ‘Transport, transoceanic 

tanker/OCE’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Table 17.1: Interventions per t NBD vegetable oil in the transport stage. 

 

24 1 nautical mile corresponds to 1.852 km. 
200 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 
18 Emissions from intensified cultivation 201 

18 Emissions from intensified cultivation 

The emissions from intensified production are mainly determined from the business as usual cultivation of 

crops described in sections 5, 6, 7 and 8. Firstly the marginal technologies of increasing yields are determined. 

After that, the parameters representing the identified means of changing the yields are changed in the business 

as usual cultivation of crops in sections 5, 6, 7 and 8. 

18.1 Identification of methods of increasing yields 

Based on Schmidt (2007b) Table 18.1 provides an overview of the most common means of achieving increased productivity in agriculture. 

Increased agricultural inputs Alternative technology Management 

Fertiliser Agricultural machinery (man, ox or tractor) Scheduling of agricultural inputs 

Irrigation GMO Integrated pest management (weed control)

Pesticides (weed control) Variety selection Double-cropping (more crop rotations per 

year) 

- Seed improvement - 

- Drainage - 

Table 18.1: Overview of most important means of inccreasing yields. 

Identifying the marginal method of increasing productivity in agriculture is very difficult. Some improvements 

take place regardless of changes in demand for the crop of interest. Thus, most farmers seek to maximise economical benefit of their farm which often imply changes in agricultural inputs, technology and management. 

The marginal changes are those which are directly related to increased demand for the desired crop. 

According to Weidema (2003) the marginal method of increasing yields in Europe is by additional nitrogen 

fertiliser input. Based on discussions with United Plantations Research Department (Singh 2006) nitrogen fertiliser is also considered as the marginal source of increasing yields of oil palm. Soybean is only fertilised with 

phosphate, thus it is assumed that there are no significant yield responses to input of N-fertiliser. According to 

Jales et al. (2006) and USDA (2006) the most important method used for increasing yields of soybean in Argentina and Brazil has been increased double-croppping. The use of biotechnology has resulted in a shorther 

crop cycle of soybean which has made increased double-cropping possible (USDA 2006). Therefore, the marginal method for increasing yields in Brazil is assumed to be increased double-croppping. According to Table 

8.1 the yield of barley in Canada is considerable lower than in Denmark and according to IFA et al. (2002) the 

use of fertilisers in Canadian barley cultivation is also significant lower than in Denmark. Therefore, corresponding to the EU, it is assumed that N-fertiliser is also the marginal method for increasing the yields in Canada. 

18.2 Determination of changed parameters 

In the previous section the marginal methods for increasing yields of rapeseed, oil palm, soybean and barley 

have been identified. In order to calculate the emissions from intensified cultivation, the changed parameters 

firstly have to be determined. 

Level of intensification 

Rapeseed, oil palm and barley: For increased yields of rapeseed, oil palm and barley which are achived by 

additional N-fertiliser, intensified cultivation is assumed to be with an additional fertiliser input of 5%. 
202 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

The level of intensification at 5% increase is chosen abitrary since there is no information on how much fertiliser application is increased in order to increase yields. However, since the N- and P-related emissions that will 

be affected by additional fertiliser are proportional with N and P input this assumption will not affect the results. 

Soybean: Intensified soybean cultivation is assumed to take place with 5% points increase in the area which is 

double-cropped, i.e. the double-cropped area is inreased from 25% to 30%. 

Yield responses to fertiliser (rapeseed, oil palm, barley) 

In Table 18.2, which is directly obtained from Schmidt (2007b), yield responses to additional N-fertiliser 

are given for different levels of N-application. 

Δyield (kg/ha) /ΔN-rate (kg N/ha) 

Crop and region 0-50 kg N/ha 50-100 kg N/ha 100-150 kg N/ha 150-200 kg N/ha 

Maize (Nebraska, USA) 56 19 7 4 

Maize (Oklahoma, USA) 24 22 12 8 

Winter wheat (Oklahoma, USA) 15 6 - - 

Winter wheat (Sweden) 40 17 12 4 

Rapeseed (Denmark) 13 15 9 4 

Rapeseed (Germany) 10 12 10 4 

Soybean (Argentina) 0 0 0 0 

Fresh fruit bunches from oil palm (Malaysia) 149 87 62 48 

Table 18.2: Yield responses to increased N-fertiliser input. (Schmidt 2007b).

It appears from Table 18.2 that the yield response is very sensitive to the desired region/study (e.g. compare 

winter wheat in USA and Sweden) and the level of N-application (e.g. compare maize responses to additional 

fertiliser in Nebraska for low and high levels of N-application). Therefore, determination of emissions related 

to increased production by increased yields is associated with considerable uncertainties. These uncertainties 

are assessed in a sensitivity analysis in section 21.20. 

The levels of N-application are obtained from section 5.4, 6.5 and 8.4. In Table 18.2 the data for rapeseed in 

Sweden are applied for rapeseed cultivation, the data for winter wheat in Sweden are applied for barley cultivation and the data for FFB in Malaysia are applied for oil palm cultivation. The yield responses to additional 

application of N-fertiliser applied in this study are summarised in Table 18.3. 

Crop and region 

Level of Napplication N-application interval 

in Table 18.2

Present yield, t/ha Yield response, 

kg crop/ha per kg N/ha 

Rapeseed, Denmark 167 kg N/ha 150-200 3.24 4 

Oil palm, Malaysia and Indonesia 105 kg N/ha 100-150 18.87 62 

Barley, Denmark 121 kg N/ha 100-150 5.23 12 

Barley, Canada 67 kg N/ha 50-100 2.91 17 

Table 18.3: Yield responses applied in this study.

Based on the present levels of N-application and the yield responses to additional N-fertiliser in Table 18.3

and the increase in N-fertiliser at 5%, the N-application and yields in intensified cultivation are summarised in 

Table 18.4. 
18 Emissions from intensified cultivation 203 

Crop and region 

Additional N-application, ΔN 

(5% increase) 

New level of Napplication 

Yield response, ΔY 

kg crop/ha 

Yield, kg/ha 

Rapeseed, Denmark 7.0 kg N/ha 147.0 kg N/ha* 28 kg/ha 3,268 (3,240+28) 

Oil palm, Malaysia and Indonesia 5.3 kg N/ha 110.3 kg N/ha 329 kg/ha 19,199 (18,870+329) 

Barley, Denmark 6.1 kg N/ha 127.1 kg N/ha 73 kg/ha 5,303 (5,230+73) 

Barley, Canada 3.4 kg N/ha 70.4 kg N/ha 58 kg/ha 2,968 (2,910+58) 

Table 18.4: N-application and yields in intensified cultivation. * The reason why N-application in rapeseed cultivation is 

less than specified in Table 18.3 is that the value in Table 18.3 is inclusive a ‘previous crop’ value at 27 kg N/ha. 

When determining the emissions from intensified cultivation of rapeseed, oil palm and barley only the input of 

N-fertiliser and the yield is changed. In order to maintain balance in the application of different nutrients to the 

fields, P and K fertilisers are also increased by 5%. 

The changes in yield affect energy for drying of seed and transport of crops and co-products to traders. The 

changes in application of fertilisers affect transportation of fertilisers to farm and N and P related emissions. 

The N and P related emissions are calculated establishing new N and P balances, and the emissions are calculated using the same method as described in sections 5.6, 6.7 and 8.6. 

Yield responses to increased double-cropping (soybean) 

According to Table 7.1 the yield for single-cropping is 2.68 t/ha and for 25% double-croppping the yield is 

3.35 t/ha. If the area that is double-cropped is 30% the yield yield for single-cropping must be multiplied by a 

factor of 1.3 (=0.30⋅2 + 0.70). Thus, the yield when 30% of the area is double-cropped is 3.484 t/ha. 

When determining the emissions from intensified cultivation of soybean almost all interventions are proportional with the increase in yield. Thus these are simply multiplied with a facto of 3.484/3.350 = 1.04. However, 

the N-related emissions are not directly proportional with increased in yield. This is because the input of N 

from atmospheric deposition is not changed as a consequence of double-cropping. Therefore, a new N-balance 

is established and the N-related emissions are calculated using the same method as described in section 7.5. 

18.3 LCI of intensified cultivation, summaries 

In this section the summary tables of the inventories of intensified cultivation of rapeseed (Denmark), FFB 

(Malaysia and Indonesia), soybean (Brazil), barley (Denmark) and barley (Canada) are presented. The inventories are based on data and methods described in sections 5, 6, 7 and 8 and the changed parameters presented in 

previous section (section 18.2). 
204 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

LCI of intensified rapeseed cultivation (Denmark), summary 

Table 18.5 summarises the inventory data relating to 1 ha y rapeseed field. 

Denmark: 1 ha y intensified rapeseed field 

Interventions Amount Applied LCI data 

Product output

Rapeseed 3.259 t* Product of interest, 3,259 kg (=3,268 kg minus 9 kg for seed production) 

Straw removed from field 381 kg Co-product allocation between rapeseed and straw is avoided by system expansion, see below 

System expansion 

Burning of straw in biomass plant 381 kg See Table 5.25

Energy use 

Traction, burned diesel 3,612 MJ See Table 4.5

Drying of rapeseed (evaporated water) 101 kg* Modified version of: ‘Grain drying, low temperature/CH‘ (ecoinvent 2004), see 

section 5.3

Miscellaneaus transport (passenger car) 79 km ‘Transport, passenger car/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Material use

Seed 5 kg See Table 5.12

N-fertiliser (as N) 147 kg* ‘Calcium ammonium nitrate, as N, at regional storehouse/RER’, (ecoinvent 

2004) 

P-fertiliser (as P2O5) 60 kg* Modified version of: ‘Triple superphosphate, as P2O5, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004), see section 5.4

K-fertiliser (as K2O) 104 kg* ‘Potassium chloride, as K2O, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Herbicide (clomazone) 0.050 kg Modified version of: ‘Pesticide unspecified, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004), see section 5.4

Herbicide (propyzamid) 0.18 kg Modified version of: ‘Pesticide unspecified, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004), see section 5.4

Herbicide (clopyralid) 0.020 kg Modified version of: ‘Pesticide unspecified, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004), see section 5.4

Insecticide (Pyrethroid, cypermethrin) 0.0070 kg Modified version of: ‘Pyretroid-compounds, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004), see section 5.4

Insecticide (Pyrethroid, alpha-cypermethrin) 0.0020 kg Modified version of: ‘Pyretroid-compounds, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004), see section 5.4

Insecticide (Pyrethroid, tau-fluvalinat) 0.0072 kg Modified version of: ‘Pyretroid-compounds, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004), see section 5.4

Capital goods

Agricultural buildings 0.070 m2 ‘Shed/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, tractor 7.5 kg ‘Tractor, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, combine harvester 6.3 kg ‘Harvester, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, tillage 9.2 kg ‘Agricultural machinery, tillage, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, general/miscellaneous 3.5 kg ‘Agricultural machinery, general, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Transport

16t lorry 0.5 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 16t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

28t lorry 366 tkm* ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

40t lorry 1,942 tkm* ‘Transport, lorry 40t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

... table continued on the next page...

Table 18.5: Interventions per ha y intesified rapeseed field in Denmark. Parameters which are changed compared to the 

inventory in section 5 are marked with a *. Table continued on the next page...
18 Emissions from intensified cultivation 205 

... continued from previous page...

Emissions Air Water Soil 

Ammonia (NH3) 9.6 kg* - - 

Dinitrogen oxide (N2O) 5.3 kg* - - 

Nitric oxide (NO) 3.0 kg* - - 

Nitrate (NO3) - 188 kg* - 

Phosphorus (P) - 0.17 kg* - 

Clomazone 0.017 kg 0.017 kg 0.017 kg 

Propyzamid 0.060 kg 0.060 kg 0.060 kg 

Clopyralid 0.0067 kg 0.0067 kg 0.0067 kg 

Cypermethrin 0.0023 kg 0.0023 kg 0.0023 kg 

Alpha-cypermethrin 0.0067 kg 0.0067 kg 0.0067 kg 

Tau-fluvalinat 0.0024 kg 0.0024 kg 0.0024 kg 

Arsenic (As) - - 1.2 g* 

Cadmium (Cd) - 0.61 g* -0.20 g* 

Chromium (Cr) - 0.19 g* 35 g* 

Cobalt (Co) - 0.045 g* 0.24 g* 

Copper (Cu) - 1.0 g* 7.0 g* 

Mercury (Hg) - 0.037 g* -0.010 g* 

Molybdenum (Mo) - - 1.2 g* 

Nickel (Ni) - 1.0 g* 11 g* 

Lead (Pb) - 2.0 g* -0.60 g* 

Selenium (Se) - 0.016 g* 2.5 g* 

Zink (Zn) - 16 g* 68 g* 

Table 18.5: Interventions per ha y intesified rapeseed field in Denmark. Parameters which are changed compared to the 

inventory in section 5 are marked with a *. 
206 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

LCI of intensified oil palm cultivation (Indonesia and Malaysia), summary 

Table 18.6 summarises the inventory data relating to 1 ha y cultivated with oil palm. 

Malaysia and Indonesia: 1 ha y intensified oil palm plantation 

Interventions Amount Applied LCI data 

Product output

FFB 19,199 kg* Product of interest 

Energy use 

Traction, burned diesel 2,118 MJ See section 4.3

Electricity for overhead 0.053 MJ See Table 3.3

Material use

N-fertiliser, ammonium sulphate (as N) 80.3 kg* ‘Ammonium sulphate, as N, at regional storehouse/RER’ 

(ecoinvent 2004) 

N-fertiliser, urea (as N) 29.7 kg* ‘Urea, as N, at regional storehouse/RER’, 

(ecoinvent 2004) 

P-fertiliser (as P2O5) 73 kg* Phosphate rock, see section 6.5: Fertilisers

K-fertiliser (as K2O) 215 kg* Potassium chloride, as K2O, at regional storehouse/RER’, ecoinvent (2004) 

Herbicide, typically glyphosate 2.4 kg ‘Glyphosate, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Insecticide, typically cypermethrin 0.31 kg ‘Pesticide unspecified, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Fungicides, various different 0.013 kg ‘Pesticide unspecified, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Rodenticide, typically warfarin 0.00021 kg ‘Pesticide unspecified, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Capital goods

Agricultural buildings, shed 0.041 m2 ‘Shed/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Agricultural buildings, administration etc. 0.00139 m3 ‘Building, multi-storey’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, tractor 4.4 kg ‘Tractor, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, tillage 0.4 kg ‘Agricultural machinery, tillage, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, general/miscellaneous 2.1 kg ‘Agricultural machinery, general, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Transport

40t lorry 1,208 tkm* ‘Transport, lorry 40t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Oceanic tanker 12,080 tkm* ‘Transport, transoceanic tanker/OCE’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Emissions Air Water Soil 

Carbon dioxide (CO2) 1,500 kg 

Ammonia (NH3) 18.9 kg* - - 

Dinitrogen oxide (N2O) 10.4 kg* - - 

Nitric oxide (NO) 3.3 kg* - - 

Nitrate (NO3) - 375 kg* - 

Phosphorus (P) - 1.7 kg* - 

Glyphosate 0.80 kg 0.80 kg 0.80 kg 

Cypermethrin 0.10 kg 0.10 kg 0.10 kg 

Fungicides, various different Not included, no characterisation data exist in LCIA methods 

Warfarin Not included, no characterisation data exist in LCIA methods 

Arsenic (As) - - 1.1 g* 

Cadmium (Cd) - - 2.0 g* 

Chromium (Cr) - - 47 g* 

Cobalt (Co) - - 0.25 g* 

Copper (Cu) - - 12 g* 

Mercury (Hg) - - 0.028 g* 

Molybdenum (Mo) - - 0.12 g* 

Nickel (Ni) - - 5.4 g* 

Lead (Pb) - - 2.1 g* 

Selenium (Se) - - 0.44 g* 

Zink (Zn) - - 72 g* 

Table 18.6: Interventions per ha y intensified oil palm plantation in Malaysia and Indonesia. Parameters which are 

changed compared to the inventory in section 6 are marked with a *. 
18 Emissions from intensified cultivation 207 

LCI of intensified soybean cultivation (Brazil), summary 

Table 18.7 summarises the inventory data relating to 1 ha y soybean field. 

Brazil: 1 ha y intensified soybean field 

Interventions Amount Applied LCI data 

Product output

Soybean 3.341 t* Product of interest, 3,341 kg (=3,484 kg minus 143 kg for seed production) 

Energy use 

Traction, burned diesel 1,987 MJ* See Table 4.5

Drying of soybeans (evaporated water) 71 kg* Modified version of: ‘Grain drying, low temperature/CH‘ (ecoinvent 2004), see 

section 5.3

Material use

Seed 143 kg* See Table 7.2

P-fertiliser (as P2O5) 48 kg* Phosphate rock, see section 6.5: Fertilisers

Herbicide, glyphosate 2.4 kg* ‘Glyphosate, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Herbicide, 2-4 D - - 

Herbicide, imazethapyr - - 

Insecticide, pyrethroid, cypermethrin 0.014 kg* ‘Pyretroid-compounds, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Insecticide, Chlorpyrifos 0.21 kg* ‘Pesticide unspecified, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Capital goods

Agricultural buildings 0.038 m2* ‘Shed/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, tractor 4.2 kg* ‘Tractor, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, combine harvester 3.4 kg* ‘Harvester, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, tillage 5.0 kg* ‘Agricultural machinery, tillage, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, general/miscellaneous 2.0 kg* ‘Agricultural machinery, general, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Transport

40t lorry 1,769 tkm* ‘Transport, lorry 40t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Oceanic tanker 843 tkm* ‘Transport, transoceanic tanker/OCE’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Emissions Air Water Soil 

Ammonia (NH3) 0 kg - - 

Dinitrogen oxide (N2O) 4.9 kg * - - 

Nitric oxide (NO) 1.2 kg* - - 

Nitrate (NO3) - 0 kg - 

Phosphorus (P) - 0.072 kg* - 

Glyphosate 0.80 kg* 0.80 kg* 0.80 kg* 

2-4 D No LCI data on a.i., and no characterisation data exist in LCIA methods 

Imazethapyr No LCI data on a.i., and no characterisation data exist in LCIA methods 

Cypermethrin 0.0045 kg* 0.0045 kg* 0.0045 kg* 

Chlorpyrifos 0.070 kg* 0.070 kg* 0.070 kg* 

Arsenic (As) - - - 

Cadmium (Cd) - 0.023 g* 1.2 g* 

Chromium (Cr) - 0.20 g* 29 g* 

Cobalt (Co) - 0.030 g* -0.016 g* 

Copper (Cu) - 5.9 g* 1.5 g* 

Mercury (Hg) - 0 g* 0.00048 g* 

Molybdenum (Mo) - - - 

Nickel (Ni) - 2.0 g* 0.60 g* 

Lead (Pb) - 0.030 g* 0.56 g* 

Selenium (Se) - 0.038 g* 0.046 g* 

Zink (Zn) - 18 g* 10 g* 

Table 18.7: Interventions per ha y intensified soybean field in Brazil. Parameters which are changed compared to the 

inventory in section 7 are marked with a *. 
208 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

LCI of intensified barley cultivation (Denmark), summary 

Table 18.8 summarises the inventory data relating to 1 ha y spring barley field in Denmark. 

Denmark: 1 ha y intensified spring barley field 

Interventions Amount Applied LCI data 

Product output

Spring barley (Denmark) 5.193 t* Product of interest, 5,193 kg (=5,303 kg minus 110 kg for seed production) 

Straw removed from field 2,207 kg* Co-product allocation between barley and straw is avoided by system expansion, 

see below 

System expansion 

Burning of straw in biomass plant 2,207 kg* See Table 5.25

Energy use 

Traction, burned diesel 4,029 MJ See Table 4.5

Drying of barley (evaporated water) 108 kg* Modified version of: ‘Grain drying, low temperature/CH‘ (ecoinvent 2004), see 

section 5.3

Material use

Seed 110 kg See Table 8.2

N-fertiliser (as N) 127.1 kg* ‘Calcium ammonium nitrate, as N, at regional storehouse/RER’, (ecoinvent 2004) 

P-fertiliser (as P2O5) 48 kg* Modified version of: ‘Triple superphosphate, as P2O5, at regional storehouse/RER’

(ecoinvent 2004), see section 5.4

K-fertiliser (as K2O) 69 kg* ‘Potassium chloride, as K2O, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Capital goods

Agricultural buildings 0.078 m2 ‘Shed/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, tractor 8.4 kg ‘Tractor, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, combine harvester 7.0 kg ‘Harvester, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, tillage 10.3 kg ‘Agricultural machinery, tillage, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, general/miscellaneous 3.9 kg ‘Agricultural machinery, general, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Transport

40t lorry 2,050 tkm* ‘Transport, lorry 40t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Emissions Air Water Soil 

Ammonia (NH3) 9.2 kg* - - 

Dinitrogen oxide (N2O) 4.3 kg* - - 

Nitric oxide (NO) 2.6 kg* - - 

Nitrate (NO3) - 147 kg* - 

Phosphorus (P) - 0.10 kg* - 

Arsenic (As) - - 0.93 g* 

Cadmium (Cd) - 0.045 g* 0.29 g* 

Chromium (Cr) - 0.21 g* 28 g* 

Cobalt (Co) - 0.0056 g* 0.22 g* 

Copper (Cu) - 2.5 g* 4.2 g* 

Mercury (Hg) - 0.034 g* -0.0076 g* 

Molybdenum (Mo) - - 1.0 g* 

Nickel (Ni) - 0.22 g* 9.1 g* 

Lead (Pb) - 0.23 g* 0.86 g* 

Selenium (Se) - 0.023 g* 2.1 g* 

Zink (Zn) - 21 g* 48 g* 

Table 18.8: Interventions per ha y intensified barley field in Denmark. Parameters which are changed compared to the 

inventory in section 8 are marked with a *. 
18 Emissions from intensified cultivation 209 

LCI of intensified barley cultivation (Canada), summary 

Table 18.9 summarises the inventory data relating to 1 ha y barley in Canada. 

Canada: 1 ha y intensified barley field 

Interventions Amount Applied LCI data 

Product output

Barley (Canada) 2.858 t* Product of interest, 2,858 kg (=2,968 kg minus 110 kg for seed production) 

Straw removed from field 0 - 

System expansion 

Burning of straw in biomass plant 0 - 

Energy use 

Traction, burned diesel 4,029 MJ See Table 4.5

Drying of barley (evaporated water) 61 kg* Modified version of: ‘Grain drying, low temperature/CH‘ (ecoinvent 2004), see 

section 5.3

Material use

Seed 110 kg See Table 8.2

N-fertiliser (as N) 70.4 kg* ‘Ammonium nitrate, as N, at regional storehouse/RER’, (ecoinvent 2004) 

P-fertiliser (as P2O5) 27 kg* Phosphate rock, see section 6.5: Fertilisers

K-fertiliser (as K2O) 11 kg* ‘Potassium chloride, as K2O, at regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Capital goods

Agricultural buildings 0.078 m2 ‘Shed/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, tractor 8.4 kg ‘Tractor, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, combine harvester 7.0 kg ‘Harvester, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, tillage 10.3 kg ‘Agricultural machinery, tillage, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Machinery, general/miscellaneous 3.9 kg ‘Agricultural machinery, general, production/CH/I’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Transport

40t lorry 1,502 tkm* ‘Transport, lorry 40t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Emissions Air Water Soil 

Ammonia (NH3) 7.8 kg* - - 

Dinitrogen oxide (N2O) 2.4 kg* - - 

Nitric oxide (NO) 1.6 kg* - - 

Nitrate (NO3) - 60 kg* - 

Phosphorus (P) - 0.090 kg* - 

Arsenic (As) - - 0.17 g* 

Cadmium (Cd) - 0.025 g* 0.73 g* 

Chromium (Cr) - 0.12 g* 17 g* 

Cobalt (Co) - 0.0032 g* 0.064 g* 

Copper (Cu) - 1.4 g* 2.8 g* 

Mercury (Hg) - 0.019 g* -0.0049 g* 

Molybdenum (Mo) - - 0.27 g* 

Nickel (Ni) - 0.12 g* 2.1 g* 

Lead (Pb) - 0.13 g* 0.57 g* 

Selenium (Se) - 0.013 g* 1.0 g* 

Zink (Zn) - 12 g* 9.5 g* 

Table 18.9: Interventions per ha y intensified barley field in Canada. Parameters which are changed compared to the 

inventory in section 8 are marked with a *. 
210 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 
19 Emissions from transformation of land and from non-cultivated land 211 

19 Emissions from transformation of land and from noncultivated land 

Increases in agricultural production are often achived by expanding the cultivated area. Emissions arise when 

non-cultivated land (e.g. set-aside land, forest, savannah, grassland) is transformed into agricultural land and 

the emissions from the non-cultivated land are displaced by the emissions from the new agricultural land. 

In this section the emissions related to transformation of land are inventoried. As indicated above, this includes 

two sources of emissions: Firstly, there are emissions arised from the transformation itself, i.e. emissions related to difference in stading stock of carbon, nitrogen and other substances, and secondly, when noncultivated land is transformed into agricultural land the contineous emissions from this non-cultivated land are 

avoided and subsequently displaced by the emissions from the new agricultural land. 

The two sources of emissions are treated seperately because the emissions from the transformation itself are 

hard to relate to the functional unit, while the avoided contineous emissions from non-cultivated land are proportional with the annual yields and thereby easy to relate to the functional unit. The emissions from the transformation itself are referred to as emissions from transformation processes and the contineous emissions are 

referred to as avoided emissions from occupation of non-cultivated land. These terms are in accordance with 

the terms used i relation to land use in LCA and are described more in detail in Schmidt (2007c). The emissions from transformation processes are defined as all emissions that are related to a change in equilibrium of 

the standing stock of living and dead biomass. The annual change in the soil organic carbon and nitrogen due 

to land transformation years ago could be included as emissions related to occupation processes. This is actually the case in Nielsen et al. (2005). However, annual changes of carbon and nitrogen in the soil matter are not 

constant with time, and consequentily it is difficult to relate the changes to the functional unit. According to 

Petersen and Berntsen (2002), the duration before a new equilibrium state is reached may take up to more than 

200 years. 

In section 2.3, the affected land use types related to transfomation of 1 ha non-cultivated land into agriculture 

are specified, see Table 19.1. 

Region Transformation from... Transformation to... 

Denmark Set-aside area Cropland, rapeseed 

Indonesia and Malaysia Secondary/degraded tropical rainforest (50%) 

Alang-alang grass land (50%) 

Perennial cropland, oil palm plantation 

Brazil Secondary/degraded tropical rainforest (5%) 

Cerrado savannah (95%) 

Cropland, soybean 

Canada Prairie grass land Cropland, barley 

Table 19.1: Affected land use types when 1 ha non-cultivated land is transformed into agriculture in the relevant regions. 

The data are obtained from section 2.3. 

For the land use types in Table 19.1, the following two sections describe the emissions that arise from transformation processes (section 19.1) and the avoided emissions from occupation of non-cultivated land (section 

19.2). 
212 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

19.1 Emissions from transformation processes 

The relevant emissions related to transformation processes are those which are related to the C- and N-cycles. 

The emissions related to the C-cycle are CO2, CO and CH4. Because of lack of data the emissions of CO and 

CH4 have been omitted. In the IPCC guidelines (IPCC 2003) emissions of CO and CH4 are only considered in 

the case of burning of residues and therefore these emissions are considered as insignificant when claering 

forests wiothout burning. The emissions related to the N-cycle are N2O, NO, N2 and nitrate. The emissions of 

N2O are calculated based on the change in the stock of nitrogen. Because of lack of data it has not been possible to calculate the emission of NO related to transformation processes. Therefore, this emission has been 

omitted. The emission of N2 is based on generalised figures on the ration between N2O and N2 and the emission of nitrate is calculated as the residual from the N-balance. 

There may also be emissions of P and heavy metals because the land transformation processes may contribute 

to a release of these substances. However, this is omitted from this study. 

Table 19.2 and Table 19.3 specify the carbon stocks in the different affected land use types. The carbon stock 

is constituted by soil organic carbon and carbon in biomass. In some cases, for carbon in biomass, data have 

only been available for above ground biomass. In these cases the total carbon in biomass have been calculated 

using the root-to-shoot ratios given in IPCC (2003, p 3.110). 

Crop and region Applied data 

Carbon stock Reference Determining parameters for calculation/estimation of carbon stock 

Rapeseed, Denmark 

Soil organic carbon 23 t C/ha (IPCC 2003, p 3.75-

3.77) 

Cultivation: full tillage, low input of organic matter 

Conditions: cold temperate, dry, average of clay and sandy soils 

Carbon in biomass 0 t C/ha (IPCC 2003, p 3.84) Since the dominant vegetation is removed allmost entirely every year the 

stock is assumed to be zero 

Total 23 t C/ha - - 

Plantation, Malaysia and Indonesia 

Soil organic carbon 50 t C/ha Estimated from 

Henson (2004, p 17) 

- 

C in biomass 26 t C/ha (Henson 2004, p 7) Average value for 25 years replanting cycle in Malaysia 

C in ground vegetation 1.3 t C/ha (Henson 2004, p 

10) 

Average value for 25 years replanting cycle in Malaysia 

C in frond piles 2.1 t C/ha (Henson 2004, p 

12) 

Average value for 25 years replanting cycle in Malaysia 

C in felled non-burned 

oil palm material 

2.5 t C/ha (Henson 2004, p 

12) 

Average value for 25 years replanting cycle in Malaysia 

Total 82 t C/ha - - 

Soybean, Brazil 

Soil organic carbon 26 t C/ha (IPCC 2003, p 3.75-

3.77) 

Cultivation: reduced tillage, medium input of organic matter 

Conditions: tropical, moist, average of clay and sandy soils 

Carbon in biomass 0 t C/ha (IPCC 2003, p 3.84) Since the dominant vegetation is removed allmost entirely every year the 

stock is assumed to be zero 

Total 26 t C/ha - - 

Barley, Canada 

Soil organic carbon 25 t C/ha (IPCC 2003, p 3.75-

3.77) 

Cultivation: full tillage, medium input of organic matter Conditions: cold 

temerpate, dry, average of clay and sandy soils 

Carbon in biomass 0 t C/ha (IPCC 2003, p 3.84) Since the dominant vegetation is removed allmost entirely every year the 

stock is assumed to be zero 

Total 25 t C/ha - - 

Table 19.2: Determination of carbon stock per hectare in the fields of the affected crops. 
19 Emissions from transformation of land and from non-cultivated land 213 

Land-use type and Data 

region Carbon stock Reference Determining parameters for calculation/estimation of carbon stock 

Set-aside land, Denmark 

Carbon stock in setaside 47 t C/ha (IPCC 2003, p 3.75-

3.77) 

Carbon in soil is calculated using (IPCC 2003, p 3.75-3.77) and Cultivation: 20 year set-aside, no tillage, high input of organic matter, Conditions: 

cold temerpate, dry, average of clay and sandy soils, i.e. 38 t C/ha 

Carbon in biomass is assumed to be the same as grassland in cold, temperate, dry climate (IPCC 2003, p 3.109-3.110), i.e. 9 t C/ha. 

Applied data 47 t C/ha - - 

Secondary/degraded forest, Indonesia and Malaysia 

Carbon stock in tropical forest 195 t C/ha (IPCC 2003) Tropical forest, Asia, wet:: 57 t C/ha in soil (PCC 2003, p 3.43) and 138 t 

C/ha in biomass stock (IPCC 2003, 3.157) 

Applied data 195 t C/ha - - 

Alang-alang grassland, Malaysia and Indonesia 

Carbon stock in grassland 30 t C/ha (Tian et al. 2000) Grassland (Amazon) 

Carbon stock in grassland 66 t C/ha (IPCC 2003) Grassland, tropical, moist, average of clay and sandy soils: 50 t C/ha in soil 

(IPCC 2003, p 3.117) and 16 t C/ha in biomass stock (IPCC 2003, pp 

3.109-3.110) 

Carbon stock in grassland 73 t C/ha (IPCC 2003) Grassland, tropical, wet, average of clay and sandy soils: 57 t C/ha in soil 

(IPCC 2003, p 3.117) and 16 t C/ha in biomass stock (IPCC 2003, pp 

3.109-3.110) 

Applied data 73 t C/ha - The figures from IPCC for wet tropical grassland are applied. The reason 

for chosing wet grassland is that oil palm requires >2000 mm precipitation 

annually (Corley and Tinker 2003, p 67) 

Cerrado savannah, Brazil 

Carbon stock in savannah 204 t C/ha (Chen et al. 2003) Tropical savannah, Australia 

Carbon stock in savannah 102 t C/ha (Tian et al. 2000) Savannah (Amazon) 

Carbon stock in grassland 59 t C/ha (IPCC 2003) Grassland/savannah, tropical, moist, average of clay and sandy soils: 50 t 

C/ha in soil (IPCC 2003, p 3.117) and 9 t C/ha in biomass stock (IPCC 

2003, pp 3.109-3.110) 

Applied data 102 t C/ha - Singificant differences between compared data. The actual modelling of 

savannah in the Amazon at 102 t C/ha is close to the average of the three 

references. This is applied 

Secondary/degraded forest, Brazil 

Carbon stock in tropical forest 226 t C/ha (Tian et al. 2000) Tropical evergreen forest (Amazon) 

Carbon stock in tropical forest 243 t C/ha (Tian et al. 2000) Other forest/woodland (Amazon) 

Carbon stock in tropical forest 231 t C/ha (IPCC 2003) Tropical forest, America, wet:: 57 t C/ha in soil (IPCC 2003, p 3.43) and 

174 t C/ha in biomass stock (IPCC 2003, 3.157) 

Applied data 231 t C/ha - The difference between the compared data is small. The data from IPCC 

are applied 

Prairie, grassland, Canada 

Carbon stock in grassland48 t C/ha (IPCC 2003, p 

3.117) 

Grassland, cold temperate, dry, average of clay and sandy soils: 39 t C/ha 

in soil (IPCC 2003, p 3.117) and 9 t C/ha in biomass stock (IPCC 2003, pp 

3.109-3.110)

Applied data 48 t C/ha - - 

Table 19.3: Determination of carbon stock per hectare in the affected non-cultivated land use types that are transformed 

into agriculture. 

In addition to the changes in the stock of carbon related to land transformation, there are also associated 

changes in the stock of nitrogen. IPCC (2003, p 3.94) suggest a C:N-ratio in soils at 15. Billore et al. (1995) 

suggest C:N-ratios for biomass of grassland and evergreen forests at 65 and 32 respectively. These ratios are 

applied to the carbon stocks given in Table 19.2 and Table 19.3. The N in soil matter for the affected land use 

types is specified in Table 19.4 and Table 19.5. 
214 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Crop and region Carbon stock C:N-ration Nitrogen stock 

Rapeseed, Denmark 

Soil 23 t C/ha 15 1.5 t N/ha 

Biomass 0 t C/ha - - 

Total 23 t C/ha - 1.5 t N/ha 

Plantation, Malaysia and Indonesia 

Soil 50 t C/ha 15 3.3 t N/ha 

Biomass 32 t C/ha 32 1.0 t N/ha 

Total 82 t C/ha - 4.3 t N/ha 

Soybean, Brazil 

Soil 26 t C/ha 15 1.7 t N/ha 

Biomass 0 t C/ha - - 

Total 26 t C/ha - 1.7 t N/ha 

Barley, Canada 

Soil 25 t C/ha 15 1.7 t N/ha 

Biomass 0 t C/ha - - 

Total 25 t C/ha - 1.7 t N/ha 

Table 19.4: Determination of nitrogen stocks per hectare in the fields of the affected crops. 

Land use type and 

region 

Carbon stock C:N-ration Nitrogen stock 

Set-aside, Denmark 

Soil 38 t C/ha 15 2.5 t N/ha 

Biomass 9 t C/ha 65 0.1 t N/ha 

Total 47 t C/ha - 2.6 t N/ha 

Secondary/degraded forest, Indonesia and Malaysia 

Soil 57 t C/ha 15 3.8 t N/ha 

Biomass 138 t C/ha 32 4.3 t N/ha 

Total 195 t C/ha - 8.1 t N/ha 

Alang-alang grassland, Malaysia and Indonesia 

Soil 57 t C/ha 15 3.8 t N/ha 

Biomass 16 t C/ha 65 0.2 t N/ha 

Total 73 t C/ha - 4.0 t N/ha 

Cerrado savannah, Brazil

Soil 86 t C/ha 15 5.7 t N/ha 

Biomass 16 t C/ha 65 0.2 t N/ha 

Total 102 t C/ha - 5.9 t N/ha 

Secondary/degraded forest, Brazil

Soil 57 t C/ha 15 3.8 t N/ha 

Biomass 174 t C/ha 32 5.4 t N/ha 

Total 231 t C/ha - 9.2 t N/ha 

Prairie, grassland, Canada

Soil 39 t C/ha 15 2.6 t N/ha 

Biomass 9 t C/ha 65 0.1 t N/ha 

Total 48 t C/ha - 2.7 t N/ha 

Table 19.5: Determination of nitrogen stocks per hectare in the affected non-cultivated land use types that are transformed into agriculture. 

Table 19.6 summarises the changes in carbon and nitrogen stocks related to land use transformation. 
19 Emissions from transformation of land and from non-cultivated land 215 

Rapeseed From set-aside to rapeseed, Denmark 

Carbon release Nitrogen release 

Soil 15 t C/ha 1.0 t N/ha 

Biomass 9 t C/ha 0.1 t N/ha 

Total 24 t C/ha 1.1 t N/ha 

Oil palm From secondary/degraded forest to oil palm, Malaysia and Indonesia 

Carbon release Nitrogen release 

Soil 7 t C/ha 0.5 t N/ha 

Biomass 106 t C/ha 3.3 t N/ha 

Total 113 t C/ha 3.8 t N/ha 

Oil palm From alang-alang grassland to oil palm, Malaysia and Indonesia 

Carbon release Nitrogen release 

Soil 7 t C/ha 0.5 t N/ha 

Biomass -16 t C/ha -0.8 t N/ha 

Total -9 t C/ha -0.3 t N/ha 

Soybean From cerrado savannah to soybean, Brazil 

Carbon release Nitrogen release 

Soil 60 t C/ha 4.0 t N/ha 

Biomass 16 t C/ha 0.2 t N/ha 

Total 76 t C/ha 4.2 t N/ha 

Soybean From secondary/degraded forest to soybean, Brazil 

Carbon release Nitrogen release 

Soil 31 t C/ha 2.1 t N/ha 

Biomass 174 t C/ha 5.4 t N/ha 

Total 205 t C/ha 7.5 t N/ha 

Barley From prairie grassland to barley, Canada 

Carbon release Nitrogen release 

Soil 14 t C/ha 0.9 t N/ha 

Biomass 9 t C/ha 0.1 t N/ha 

Total 23 t C/ha 1.0 t N/ha 

Table 19.6: Summary of the changes in carbon and nitrogen stocks related to land use transformation.

Since open burning when clearing land in Indonesia and Malaysia is prohibited, it is assumed that clearing for 

oil palm is done without burning. Hereby, all the change in carbon is assumed to oxide to carbon dioxide and 

the change in nitrogen is assumed to be distributed between N2O, N2 and nitrate. According to IPCC (2003, p 

3.94) the emission factor for N2O related to changes in soil N is 0.0125 kg N2O-N/kg N. Since degradation of 

biomass will end as nitrate in the soil, it is assumed that the emission factor provided by IPCC applies to the 

total change in the nitrogen stock. The emission of N2 is based on a N2/N2O-ration at approximately 3 for 

mixed sand and clay soils in Denmark (Vinther and Hansen 2004). Thus it can be calculated that the relase of 

nitrogen is distributed on 1.25% N2O-N, 3.75% N2-N and 95% NO3-N. However, when there is a net up-take 

of N as in the case of transformation of alang-alang grassland into oil palm in Malaysia and Indonesia, no 

emissions related to N are accounted for. This is because it is assumed, that the plant’s need for nitrogen is met 

by N-fertiliser, i.e. no removal of N in soil matter. Table 19.7 summarises the emissions that arise from transformation. The amounts of emissions per kg C or kg N are calculated using the molar proporties: 3.67 kg 

CO2/kg C, 1.57 kg N2O/kg N and 4.43 kg nitrate/kg N. 
216 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Rapeseed From set-aside to rapeseed, Denmark 

CO2 88 t CO2/ha 

N2O 0.022 t N2O/ha 

Nitrate 4.6 t NO3/ha 

Oil palm From secondary/degraded forest to oil palm, Malaysia and Indonesia 

CO2 415 t CO2/ha 

N2O 0.075 t N2O/ha 

Nitrate 16.0 t NO3/ha 

Oil palm From alang-alang grassland to oil palm, Malaysia and Indonesia 

CO2 -33 t CO2/ha 

N2O 0 t N2O/ha 

Nitrate 0 t NO3/ha 

Soybean From cerrado savannah to soybean, Brazil 

CO2 279 t CO2/ha 

N2O 0.082 t N2O/ha 

Nitrate 17.7 t NO3/ha 

Soybean From secondary/degraded forest to soybean, Brazil 

CO2 752 t CO2/ha 

N2O 0.147 t N2O/ha 

Nitrate 31.6 t NO3/ha 

Barley From prairie grassland to barley, Canada 

CO2 84 t CO2/ha 

N2O 0.020 t N2O/ha 

Nitrate 4.2 t NO3/ha 

Table 19.7: Summary of the changes in carbon and nitrogen stocks related to land use transformation.

19.2 Avoided emissions from occupation of non-cultivated land 

This section describes emissions from non-cultivated land. The only relevant emissions from non-cultivated 

land are assumed to be N-related emissions. The only input is atmospheric deposition and this is distributed on 

the following emissions: 

• N2O and NO: These are determined from literature studies 

• N2: This is calculated assuming a N2/N2O-ratio at 3 correspondingly to determination of N2 in section 

19.1

• Nitrate: The emission of nitrate is regarded as the residual 

Since non-cultivated land is assumed to be in an equilibrium state, there will be no changes in the soil matter of 

C and N. 

N2O- and NO-emissions 

Set-aside area: Ruser et al. (2001) have measured the annual emission of dinitrogen oxide from set-aside areas 

in Southern Germany as 0.29 kg N2O-N/ha. This is also applied as N2O-emissions from set-aside areas in 

Denmark. No data on NO-emissions from set-aside areas have been identified. Therefore, it is assumed that the 

ratio between N2O and NO emissions from set-aside areas is the same as for natural grassland described below. 

Thus, the emission of NO is 1.1 kg NO-N/ha. 

Grassland: N2O emissions from grassland, i.e. alang-alang grassland in Malaysia and Indonesia and prairie 

grassland in Canada, are obtained from Stehfest and Bouwman (2006). Stehfest and Bouwman (2006) compare 

the N2O and NO emissions from soils under natural vegetation on the global scale calculated with two models. 

It is chosen to apply the average of the two emissions levels given in Stehfest and Bouwman (2006). Thus the 

emission of N2O from grassland is 0.32 kg N2O-N/ha. The NO-emission from grassland is 0.89 kg NO-N/ha. 
19 Emissions from transformation of land and from non-cultivated land 217 

Savannah: N2O-emissions from the Cerrado savannah in Brazil are obtained from the same source as emissions from grassland described above. The N2O-emission from savannah/open tropical forest in Stehfest and 

Bouwman (2006) is in average 0.59 kg N2O-N/ha. The emission of NO is 1.8 kg NO-N/ha. 

Tropical forests: Tropical forests in Indonesia and Malysia and to a lesser extent Brazil are affected in this 

study. According to Kiese and Butterbach-Bahl (2003) there are great variations of N2O emissions from tropical forests from year to year. Thus, they show a difference with a factor of 6-7 from one year to the following 

year. Kiese and Butterbach-Bahl (2003) specify an emission at 0.97 kg N2O-N/ha while Kiese and ButterbachBahl (2002) specify an emission at 6.2 kg N2O-N/ha. Stehfest and Bouwman (2006) specify a N2O-emission at 

1.37 kg N2O-N/ha. Werner et al. (2006) summarises varies studies of N2O emissions from primary and secondary forests in South Easy Asia. The average N2O emission from primary forests in Werner et al. (2006) is 

0.34 kg N2O-N/ha and from secondary forests it is 0.63 kg N2O-N/ha. These figures are significant lower than 

those given in Kiese and Butterbach-Bahl (2002), Kiese and Butterbach-Bahl (2003) and Stehfest and 

Bouwman (2006). The variations may be due to differeces in soil types, precipiation, and methods of measurements and modelling. However, since Werner et al. (2006) include a summary of several real measurements 

and since these measurements are in South East Asia, it is chosen to apply the average value of primary and 

secondary forest, i.e. 0.49 kg N2O-N/ha. 

The only identified data on NO-emissions from tropical forests are found in Stehfest and Bouwman (2006) 

where the average of the given figures is 0.53 kg NO-N/ha. This is applied in this study. 

N2-emissions 

The N2-emissions are determined using a N2/N2O-ration at 3. 

Nitrate 

The emissions of nitrate are calculated as the input of N which is assumed to be the atmospheric N-deposition 

minus the emissions of N2O, NO and N2. The N-deposition is the affected areas are descibed in sections 5.6, 

6.7, 7.5 and 8.6. The atmospheric N-depositions are Denmark (15 kg N/ha), Indonesia and Malaysia (17.5 kg 

N/ha), Brazil (8 kg N/ha) and Canada (3.3 kg N/ha). The nitrate emissions are shown in Table 19.8. 

Summary of avoided emissions from occupation of non-cultivated land 

Table 19.8 summarises the N-balance for non-cultivated land. 

Region DK MY&IN BR CAN 

Land-use type Set-aside Forest Grassland Savannah Forest Grassland 

Input: 

N-deposition 15.0 kg N/ha 17.5 kg N/ha 17.5 kg N/ha 8.0 kg N/ha 8.0 kg N/ha 3.3 kg N/ha 

Output 

Denitrification: N2O 0.29 kg N/ha 0.49 kg N/ha 0.32 kg N/ha 0.59 kg N/ha 0.49 kg N/ha 0.32 kg N/ha 

Denitrification: NO 1.1 kg N/ha 0.53 kg N/ha 0.89 kg N/ha 1.8 kg N/ha 0.53 kg N/ha 0.89 kg N/ha 

Denitrification: N2 0.87 kg N/ha 1.47 kg N/ha 0.96 kg N/ha 1.77 kg N/ha 1.47 kg N/ha 0.96 kg N/ha 

Total denitrification 2.3 kg N/ha 2.5 kg N/ha 2.2 kg N/ha 4.2 kg N/ha 2.5 kg N/ha 2.2 kg N/ha 

Surplus: Nitrate 12.7 kg N/ha 15.0 kg N/ha 15.3 kg N/ha 3.8 kg N/ha 5.5 kg N/ha 1.1 kg N/ha 

Table 19.8: N-balance for non-cultivated land. All values are given in kg N/ha. 

Table 19.9 Summarises the avoided emissions from occupation of non-cultivated land. 
218 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Region DK MY&IN BR CAN 

Land-use type Set-aside Forest Grassland Savannah Forest Grassland 

N2O 0.46 kg N2O/ha 0.77 kg N2O/ha 0.50 kg N2O/ha 0.93 kg N2O/ha 0.77 kg N2O/ha 0.50 kg N2O/ha 

NO 2.4 kg NO/ha 1.1 kg NO/ha 1.9 kg NO/ha 3.9 kg NO/ha 1.1 kg NO/ha 1.9 kg NO/ha 

Nitrate 56 kg NO3/ha 66 kg NO3/ha 68 kg NO3/ha 17 kg NO3/ha 24 kg NO3/ha 5 kg NO3/ha 

Table 19.9: Summary of the avoided emissions from non-cultivated land. 
20 Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) 219 

20 Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) 

The purpose of this report is to provide life cycle inventory data on the product systems of rapeseed oil and 

palm oil, not to carry out an LCIA. However, in order to carry out sensitivity analyses (see section 21), the 

characterised results for the inventoried scenarios are presented here but without comments and interpretation. 

The scenarios are described in section 2.4. 

Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4 Scenario 5 

Impact category RSOa RSOb PO RSOa RSOb PO RSO PO RSO PO RSO PO 

Global warming (t CO2) 12.0 8.19 2.16 5.15 2.40 2.32 17.1 2.60 2.39 2.36 2.22 2.47 

Ozone depletion (mg 

CFC11) 

366 304 43.8 210 147 44.6 549 77.8 147 44.6 163 54.5 

Acidification (kg SO2) 52.2 47.9 13.8 39.2 25.8 13.0 82.4 23.5 26.0 13.3 20.2 14.8 

Eutrophication (t NO3) 1549 1159 80.6 201 172 102 2733 337 211 119 140 124 

Photochemical smog (kg 

ethene) 

1.36 1.30 0.526 1.22 0.869 0.509 1.95 0.617 0.869 0.509 0.887 0.551 

ETWC (mio m3 water) -4857 -4857 1354 -4685 -4685 1423 -5748 -13.4 -4685 1423 75.2 1407 

ETWA (mio m3 water) -133 -133 49.8 -127 -127 52.3 -161 -0.362 -127 52.3 3.12 51.6 

ETSC (mio m3 soil) -25.1 -25.1 0.538 -24.5 -24.5 0.625 -27.6 -0.0602 -24.5 0.625 0.0473 0.670 

Land use (ha y) -0.281 0.170 0.235 0.960 0.337 0.175 0 0 0.337 0.175 0.548 0.242 

Biodiversity (wS100) 1.11 6.97 6.64 2.36 10.8 6.84 0 0 10.8 6.84 7.13 6.78 

Table 20.1: Characterised results of the inventoried scenarios. The results are obtained using the updated EDIP97-method 

for LCIA (see section 1.4). Biodiversity is obtained using the method of Schmidt (2007c) 
220 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 
21 Sensitivity analyses 221 

21 Sensitivity analyses 

Throughout the scope definition in section 2 and the LCI described in sections 3 to 19, several improvement 

options and uncertainties in assumptions and data have been identified. Most of these influencing factors are 

evaluated in this section. The sensitivity analyses presented in this section tests how sensitive the results of the 

inventory are to various assumptions, uncertainties of data and alternative cultivation practices/technologies 

(improvement options). In order to have consistency and to maintain comparability of the different sensitivity 

analyses, each sensitivity analysis is carried out using the same functional unit (1 tonne vegetable oil) and the 

same scenario (scenario 4). Scenario 4 is chosen because this scenario is not related to uncertainties regarding 

system expansion in the agricultural stage where especially modelling of increased yield is regarded as uncertain. These uncertainties are analysed in separate sensitivity analyses using other scenarios than scenario 4. 

Table 21.1 provides an overview of the included sensitivity analyses. Table 21.1 also provides references to 

the sections where the uncertainties of interest are described. 
222 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

No. Reference Aim Description of sensitivity analyses 

1 Section 1.4 Uncertainty LCIA-methods: EDIP97 is applied as default LCIA-method. This sensitivity analysis compares the 

results when using the LCIA-methods; Impact2002+ and Eco-indicator 99 (H) 

2 Section 2.1 Uncertainty System delimitation, marginal supplier of crops: The identification of marginal suppliers is related to 

uncertainty, especially the marginal supplier of barley (Canada). This sensitivity analysis shows results 

when the marginal suppliers of barley are EU25 and Russia, and when the marginal suppliers of FFB are 

either Indonesia or Malaysia alone. The identification of Brazil as the marginal supplier of soybean is less 

uncertain, and cultivation of soybean in Argentina is much similar to Brazil 

3 Section 2.3

and 19.1

Uncertainty 

& 

Improvement option 

System delimitation, type of land transformed into agricultural land: Uncertainties in identifying the 

affected land types are present. The uncertainties regarding land for oil palm in Indonesia/Malaysia and 

land for barley in Canada are regarded as the most significant. This sensitivity analysis compares the 

results when transformed land in Indonasia/Malaysia is alang-alang grassland, secondary forest and 

primary forest, and when transformed land in Canada is natural grassland (prairie) and degraded land 

(similar to EU set-aside land) 

4 Section 3.1 Uncertainty Energy, marginal source of electricity: This sensitivity analysis compares the results when marginal 

electricity is coal based and natural gas based 

5 Section 3.6 Uncertainty Energy, representativiness of data on district heating in Denmark: This sensitivity analysis assesses 

the uncertainties in the obtained results due to uncertainties in the applied data for district heating in 

Denmark 

6 Section 5.6, 

6.7, 7.5, 8.6

Uncertainty Agricultural cultivation, energy for traction: Uncertainties in the determination of energy use for 

traction for the affected crops are assessed in this sensitivity analysis 

7 Section 5.6 Uncertainty 

& 

Improvement option 

Rapeseed cultivation, soil type: This sensitivity analysis compares the results when cultivating rapeseed on average soil, clay soils and sandy soils 

8 Section 5.4 Improvement option 

Rapeseed cultivativation, N-fertiliser produced using best available techniques (BAT): The tail gas 

from the production of nitric acid, which is used in the production of calcium ammonium nitrate, is treated 

using best available techniques. Hereby the N2O in the tail gas is reduced by 85%

9 Section 5.6, 

6.7, 7.5, 8.6

Uncertainty Agricultural cultivation, N changes in soil matter: The changes in N in soil matter in this study are 

assumed to be zero for continuous cultivation and all the changes are ascribed to transformation of land 

use. This sensitivity analysis compares the obtained results with a situation when changes in N in soil 

matter for rapeseed, soybean and barley cultivation are included 

10 Section 5.6, 

6.7, 7.5

Uncertainty Agricultural cultivation, heavy metal contents in fertilisers: The heavy metal content in fertilisers 

vary significantly in the used data sources. This sensitivity analysis assesses the uncertainties related to 

that

11 Section 5.6, 

6.7, 7.5

Uncertainty Agricultural cultivation, initial compartment of pesticide emissions: This sensitivity assess the 

uncertainties in the obtained results related to the assumption that the initial compartment of pesticide 

emissions are 33% air, 33% water and 33% soil 

12 Section 6 Uncertainty Oil palm cultivation, yields: The yield of oil palm is dependant on cultivation practices which again are 

depandant on the region (Malaysia and Indonesia) and the ownership plantation (smallholder, stateowned FELDA or private estate). This sensitivity analysis assesses the uncertainty in the obtained results 

relating the determination of the yield 

13 Section 6

and 6.7

Uncertainty 

& 

Improvement option 

Oil palm cultivation, soil type: This sensitivity analysis compares the results when cultivating oil palm 

on mineral soils versus peat soils 

14 Section 6.7 Uncertainty Oil palm cultivation, uncertainties in CO2-emissions from peat soil: This sensitivity analysis assesses the uncertainties in the obtained results for palm oil relating to the determination of CO2-

emissions from peat soils 

15 Section 8.4 Uncertainty Barley cultivation, omission of use and emissions of pesticides: This sensitivity analysis assesses 

the uncertaines relating to the omission of pesticides in barley cultivation 

Table continued on the next page... 

Table 21.1: Sensitivity analyses. The numbers refer to the sensitivity analyses presented in the following sections. Table 

continued on the next page... 
21 Sensitivity analyses 223 

Table continued from the previous page... 

No. Reference Aim Description of sensitivity analyses 

16 Section 9 Uncertainty 

& 

Improvement option 

Rapeseed oil mill, solvent extraction versus full press: This sensitivity analysis compares the results 

when using the solvent extraction technology with a situation when using the full press technology 

17 Section 9.7, 

10.8, 11.8, 

12.8

Uncertainty Oil mills, capital goods: The amount of capital goods used in the oil mill stage is related to significant 

uncertainties. Therefore, this sensitivity analysis assesses the significans of these uncertainties 

18 Section 10, 

10.5

Uncertainty 

& 

Improvement option 

Palm oil mill, POME-treatment: Normally the treatment of palm oil mill effluent is anaerobic and aerobic 

tretamtn in ponds. This sensitivity analysis applies a situation where digester tanks are used instead of 

anaerobic ponds and the collected biogas is utilised for electricity generation 

19 Section 10, 

10.1, 10.6

Uncertainty Palm oil mill, steam requirement: This sensitivity analysis applies a steam requirement at 0.5 t instead 

of the 0.65 t which is applied as default in the study 

20 Section 10 Improvement options 

Palm oil mill, alternative management options for EFB: Empty fruit bunches (EFB) from the palm oil 

mill are applied as mulch in the plantation in the baseline scenario. This sensitivity analysis analyses the 

effect of two alternative management options for EFB: 1) Disposal in landfill and 2) Utilisation in a biomass plant with electricity production

21 Section 18.2 Uncertainty 

& 

Improvement option 

Insensified cultivation, yield-responses to additional fertiliser: Great differences in yield-responses 

to additional fertiliser input have been identified. Therefore, this sensitivity analysis assesses the uncertainties related to that. In Malaysia and Indonesia there are great differences in the level of fertiliser 

application. Therefore, there may be potentials for improvements by additional fertiliser application in 

extensively cultivated areas 

Table 21.1: Sensitivity analyses. The numbers refer to the sensitivity analyses presented in the following sections. 

21.1 No. 1: LCIA-methods 

The uncertainties in the obtained results related to the use of the EDIP97 LCIA-method are assessed in this 

sensitivity analysis. The following impact categories are assessed; global warming, acidification, eutrophication, photochemical smog and ecotocicity. For each of the impact categories the top-five of the most significant emissions is identified using the LCIA-methods: EDIP97 (see section 1.4), Impact2002+ (Jolliet et al. 

2003) and Eco-indicator (Goedkoop and Spriensma 2001). For each impact category the intersection of sets is 

counted, i.e. the number of emissions that appears in all three compared methods. If the intersection of sets is 

5, there is a high level of consistency among the compared methods while if the intersection of sets is zero, 

there is a low level of consistency. 

EDIP97: Global warming Impact2002+ Eco-indicator 99 (H) 

Emission Contribution Emission Contribution Emission Contribution 

CH4 40% CO2 53% CH4 36% 

CO2 31% N2O 26% CO2 31% 

N2O 29% CH4 21% N2O 32% 

CO 0,13% CO 0,050% CO 0.10% 

NMVOC 0,04% Sulfur hexaflouride 0.023% Sulfur hexaflouride 0.010% 

Total 2,358 kg CO2-eq Total 1,371 kg CO2-eq Total 4.92E-4 DALY 

Table 21.2: Global warming, 1 t palm oil (scenario 4).

The intersection of sets is four. The difference between EDIP97 and Eco-indicator 99 is insignificant. But it 

appears that there are differences in the total kg CO2-eq. between EDIP97 and Impact2002+. His is somehow 

surprising because characterisation models for global warming are normally regarded as relatively certain. The 

reason for the difference is primarily because EDIP97 applies a 100 years time horizon while Impact2002+ has 

applied a 500 years time horizon. This implies that the characterisation factors in Impact2002+ for methane is 

only one third of EDIP97 and for dinitrogenmonoxide it is only half of EDIP97. 
224 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

EDIP97: Acidification Impact2002+: Terrestrial acid/nutri Eco-indicator 99 (H): Acidification/ Eutrophication 

Emission Contribution Emission Contribution Emission Contribution 

NH3 59% NH3 73% NH3 73% 

SO2 17% NOx 18% NOx 18% 

NOx 15% NO 6.6% NO 6.6% 

NO 5.4% SO2 2.6% SO2 2.6% 

H2S 3.8% - - SO4 -0.0068% 

Total 13.3 kg SO2-eq Total 85.9 kg SO2-eq Total 89.4 pdf*m2yr 

Table 21.3: Acidification, 1 t palm oil (scenario 4).

The intersection of sets is four. In general the consistency between the methods is regarded as relatively high. 

However, comparing the total contribution using the EDIP97-method and the Impact2002+ method the difference is significant. This is primarily because the category indicator of acidification in Impact2002+ covers 

acidification as well as eutrophication. Thus, the total of the results is not directly comparable. 

EDIP97: Eutrophication Impact2002+: Terrestrial acid/nutri Eco-indicator 99 (H): Acidification/ Eutrophication 

Emission Contribution Emission Contribution Emission Contribution 

NO3 71% NH3 73% NH3 73% 

NH3 13% NOx 18% NOx 18% 

P 13% NO 6.6% NO 6.6% 

NOx 3.2% SO2 2.6% SO2 2.6% 

NO 1.2% - - NO3 -0.0068% 

Total 119 kg NO3-eq Total 85.9 kg SO2-eq Total 89.4 pdf*m2yr 

Table 21.4: Eutrophication, 1 t palm oil (scenario 4).

The intersection of sets is three different emissions. It appears that nitrate which is a major contribor using 

EDIP97 is insignificant when using Impact 2002+ and Eco-indicator. Also phosphorus is not present as a contributor in Impact 2002+ and Eco-indicator. The reason why nitrate is insignificant in Impact2002+ and Ecoindicator is that these methods only concerns terrestrial eutrophication while EDIP97 covers aquatic as well as 

terrestrial eutrophication. 

EDIP97: Photochemical smog Impact2002+: Respiratory organics Eco-indicator 99 (H): : Respiratory organics 

Emission Contribution Emission Contribution Emission Contribution 

CH4 57% CH4 54% CH4 51% 

NMVOC 25% NMVOC 41% NMVOC 39% 

CO 8.8% HC, aliphatic, alkanes 0.74% HC, aliphatic, unsaturated 5.6% 

HC, aliphatic, unsaturated 4.9% Toluene 0.59% HC, aliphatic, alkanes 0.69% 

HC, aliphatic, alkanes 0.8% Pentane 0.59% Toluene 0.55% 

Total 509 g ethene-eq Total 456 g ethylene-eq Total 1.04E-6 DALY 

Table 21.5: Photochemical smog, 1 t palm oil (scenario 4). 

The intersection of sets is three different emissions which indicates a relatively good consistency. However, 

the top-two which account for 82-95% of the total contribution is the same in all three methods, which indicates a very good consistency. 
21 Sensitivity analyses 225 

EDIP97: Ecotoxicity, water, chonic Impact2002+: Aquatic ecotoxicity Eco-indicator 99 (H): Ecotoxicity 

Emission Contribution Emission Contribution Emission Contribution 

Cypermethrin to 

water 

101% Cypermethrin to 

water 

80% Zinc to soil 40% 

Chlorpyrifos to water -0.83% Copper to soil 11% Chromium to soil 32% 

Strontium to water 0.0013% Zinc to soil 4.3% Zinc to air 6.9% 

Copper ion to water 0.00094% Aluminium to soil 1.4% Nickel to soil 6.5% 

Glyphosate to water 0.00086% Chromium to soil 0.79% Nickel to air 4.3% 

Total 1.4E9 m3 water Total 5.51E5 kg TEG 

water 

Total 1,270 PAF*m2yr 

Table 21.6: Ecotoxicity (aquatic), 1 t palm oil (scenario 4). 

The intersection of sets is zero and the total number of different emissions identified is 12 out of 15 possible. 

This indicates a very low level of consistency among the compared methods. Since the number of included 

pesticides in the three methods vary, the comparison is also carried out when excluding the pesticides, see 

Table 21.7. 

EDIP97: Ecotoxicity, water, chonic Impact2002+ Eco-indicator 99 (H) 

Emission Contribution Emission Contribution Emission Contribution 

Strontium to water 31% Copper to soil 55% Zinc to soil 40% 

Copper ion to water 24% Zinc to soil 22% Chromium to soil 32% 

Aluminium to water 13% Aluminium to soil 7.1% Zinc to air 6.9% 

Iron ion to water 9.0% Chromium to soil 4.1% Nickel to soil 6.5% 

Zinc ion to water 8.8% Aluminium to air 2.6% Nickel to air 4.3% 

Total 5.7E4 m3 water Total 1.08E5 kg TEG 

water 

Total 1,270 PAF*m2yr 

Table 21.7: Ecotoxicity (aquatic) excluding pesticides, 1 t palm oil (scenario 4). 

Excluding the pesticides from the comparison does not affect the consistency among the compared LCIAmethods. The intersection of sets is still zero and the total number of different emissions identified is 13. Because of the very significant differences between the results and contributors in the LCIA-methods, the results 

obtained for ecotoxicity are regarded as extremely uncertain and almost useless. 

It appears from the sensitivity analysis presented in this section that the LCIA-methods seem to be relatively 

consistent regarding global warming, acidification, eutrophication and photochemical smog. Thus, the results 

within these impact categories are not affected significantly by uncertainties in LCIA-methods. But when it 

comes to ecotoxicity the uncertainties are significant, and the value added by characterising the inventory results is regarded as very limited. 

21.2 No. 2: System delimitation, marginal supplier of crops 

When identifying the marginal suppliers of crops in section 2.1, the main uncertainties associated with that are 

regarded as identification of Canada as the marginal supplier of barley and identification of Indonesia and Malaysia together as the marginal supplier of palm oil. The identification of the marginal supplier of rapeseed (the 

EU) and soybean (Brazil) is regarded as more certain as well as the identification of the margional crop in the 

EU is regarded as relatively certain. In this section the following sensitivity analyses are carried out, see Table 

21.8. 
226 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Most uncertain identifications of marginal suppliers Description of sensitivity analyses 

Marginal supplier of barley Two sensitivity analyses are carried out: One where Russia is applied as the marginal 

supplier of barley and one where EU25 is applied as the marginal supplier of barley 

Marginal supplier of palm oil Two sensibility analyses are carried out: One where Malaysia is applied as the marginal supplier and one where Indonesia is applied as the marginal supplier 

Table 21.8: Description of sensitivity analyses carried out in this section. 

The presumptions for each sensibility analysis are described in the following. These data are the only ones that 

are changed in the inventory. Based on that new N- and P-balances and calculations of emissions are carried 

out following the methods described in section 6.7 for oil palm and section 8.6 for barley. 

Russia as the marginal supplier of barley: Carrying out the sensitivity analysis where Russia is regarded as 

the marginal supplier of barley the following parameters are changed: The yield is changed from 2.91 t/ha to 

1.85 t/ha (calculated for 2005 by regression from 1992 to 2005 based on FAOSTAT 2006) and the use of fertiliser is changed from 67 kg N, 26 kg P2O5 and 10 kg K2O to 47 kg N, 20 kg P2O5 and 69 kg K2O respectively 

(IFA et al. 2002). It is assumed that 0% of the straw is removed and utilised for energy purposes. The N deposition is assumed to be the same as in Canada. 

EU25 as the marginal supplier of barley: Here the yield is changed from 2.91 t/ha to 4.38 t/ha (calculated for 

2005 by regression from 1993 to 2005 based on FAOSTAT 2006). The same fertiliser input as in Denmark is 

assumed, i.e. 121 kg N/ha, 46 kg/ha P2O5 and 66 kg K2O/ha. It is assumed that 50% of the straw is removed 

and utilised for energy purposes. The N deposition is assumed to the same as in Denmark. 

The emissions related to N- and P-balances from barley cultivation in the default situation (Canada) and in the 

two sensitivity analyses are summarised in Table 21.9. 

Emission Barley, Canada Barley, Russia Barley, EU25 

Ammonia (NH3) to air 7.7 kg/ha 7.2 kg/ha 9.0 kg/ha 

Dinitrogen oxide (N2O) to air 2.2 kg/ha 1.6 kg/ha 4.6 kg/ha 

Nitrix oxide (NO) to air 1.6 kg/ha 1.4 kg/ha 1.9 kg/ha 

Nitrate (NO3) to water 50 kg/ha 36 kg/ha 199 kg/ha 

Phosphorus (P) to water 0.078 kg/ha 0.094 kg/ha 0.176 kg/ha 

Table 21.9: Emissions related to the N- and P-balances for barley cultivation in the considered regions. 

Indonesia as the marginal supplier of FFB: The yield is changed from 18.87 t/ha to 17.95 t/ha (calculated 

for 2005 by regression from 1990 to 2005 based on FAOSTAT 2006). The same fertiliser input as in Malaysia/Indonesia is assumed. 

Malaysia as the marginal supplier of FFB: The yield is changed from 18.87 t/ha to 19.84 t/ha (calculated for 

2005 by regression from 1990 to 2005 based on FAOSTAT 2006). The same fertiliser input as in Malaysia/Indonesia is assumed. 

The emissions related to N- and P-balances from oil palm cultivation in the default situation (Malaysia and 

Indonesia tougether) and in the two sensitivity analyses are summarised in Table 21.10. 
21 Sensitivity analyses 227 

Emission FFB, MY&IN FFB, MY FFB, IN 

Ammonia (NH3) to air 18.3 18.3 18.3 

Dinitrogen oxide (N2O) to air 10.1 10.0 10.1 

Nitrix oxide (NO) to air 3.19 3.19 3.19 

Nitrate (NO3) to water 353 344 361 

Phosphorus (P) to water 1.61 1.60 1.62 

Table 21.10: Emissions related to the N- and P-balances for oil palm cultivation in the considered regions. 

Table 21.11 and Table 21.12 shows the characterised results of the baseline and the sensitivity analyses described for rapeseed oil and palm oil respectively. The results are all for scenario 4. 

Impact category 1 t rapeseed oil 

(baseline) 

1 t rapeseed oil 

(barley, RUS) 

1 t rapeseed oil 

(barley, EU25) 

1 t rapeseed oil 

(FFB, MY) 

1 t rapeseed oil 

(FFB, IN) 

Global warming (t CO2) 2.39 2.35 2.45 2.38 2.41 

Ozone depletion (g CFC11) 0.147 0.143 0.149 0.147 0.148 

Acidification (kg SO2) 26.0 25.3 26.4 25.8 26.1 

Eutrophication (t NO3) 0.211 0.209 0.207 0.209 0.214 

Photochemical smog (kg ethene) 0.869 0.845 0.878 0.867 0.870 

Land use (m2y) 3.37 3.03 3.57 3.34 3.41 

Table 21.11: Characterised results of 1 t rapeseed oil, baseline compared with the the sensitivity analyses were the margin 

suppliers of barley and FFB (oil palm fruit) are changed. 

It appears from Table 21.11 that the results of rapeseed oil are not very sensitive to the identification of marginal suppliers of barley and FFB. For global warming the results vary between -2% and +3% compared to the 

baseline situation. The most sensitive impact category is land use where the changes are within -10% and +6% 

compared to the baseline situation. The results of rapeseed are most sensitive to the identification of the marginal supplier of barley while the marginal supplier of FFB only affects the results -1% to +1%. 

Impact category 1 t palm oil 

(baseline) 

1 t palm oil 

(barley, RUS) 

1 t palm oil 

(barley, EU25) 

1 t palm oil 

(FFB, MY) 

1 t palm oil 

(FFB, IN) 

Global warming (t CO2) 2.36 2.30 2.43 2.28 2.43 

Ozone depletion (g CFC11) 0.0446 0.0389 0.0463 0.0431 0.0461 

Acidification (kg SO2) 13.3 12.4 13.7 12.7 13.8 

Eutrophication (t NO3) 0.119 0.116 0.113 0.111 0.127 

Photochemical smog (kg ethene) 0.509 0.480 0.520 0.503 0.515 

Land use (m2y) 1.75 1.32 2.00 1.63 1.88 

Table 21.12: Characterised results of 1 t palm oil, baseline compared with the the sensitivity analyses were the margin 

suppliers of barley and FFB (oil palm fruit) are changed. 

The results of palm oil are slightly more sensitive to the identification of marginal suppliers of barley and FFB 

than rapeseed oil. The results of global warming vary between -3% to +3% compared to the baseline situation. 

The most sensitive impact category is land where the results vary from -25% to +14%. In general the results 

are more sensitive to the identification of the marginal supplier of barley than the identification of the marginal 

supplier of FFB. 

Comparing Table 21.11 and Table 21.12 it appears that the results of rapeseed oil and palm oil change in the 

same direction when the marginal suppliers are displaced by alternative suppliers in the sensitivity analyses. 

Thus, the identification of marginal suppliers of barley and FFB has only little effect on the comparative results of rapeseed oil and palm oil. 
228 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

21.3 No. 3: System delimitation, type of land transformed into agricultural land 

Section 19.1 shows that the emissions from transformation of non-cultivated land into oil palm plantations in 

Malaysia and Indonesia and into soybean fields in Brazil vary significantly dependant on the affected type of 

land (grassland, savannah, forest). Also in the case of transformation into barley fields in Canada the results 

are regarded as uncertain because it is assumed that undisturbed prairie grassland is affected. There may be 

other types of land available for transformation into barley fields, e.g. set-aside land as in the EU. 

This sensitivity analysis tests the effect on impacts of transformation of land from different assumptions regarding the affected land. 

Sensitivity analyses Affected crops 

Rapeseed (DK) Oil palm (MY&IN) Soybean (BR) Barley (CAN)

Baseline Set-aside 50% alang-alang grassland 

50% deg. forest 

95% savannah 

5% deg. forest 

Grassland, natural prairie 

MY&IN (grassland affected) Set-aside Alang-alang grassland 95% savannah 

5% deg. forest 

Grassland, natural prairie 

MY&IN (deg. forest affected) Set-aside Deg. forest 95% savannah 

5% deg. forest 

Grassland, natural prairie 

MY&IN (primary forest affected) Set-aside Primary forest 95% savannah 

5% deg. forest 

Grassland, natural prairie 

BR (savannah affected) Set-aside 50% alang-alang grassland 

50% deg. forest 

Savannah Grassland, natural prairie 

BR (deg. forest affected) Set-aside 50% alang-alang grassland 

50% deg. forest 

Deg. forest Grassland, natural prairie 

BR (primary forest affected) Set-aside 50% alang-alang grassland 

50% deg. forest 

Primary forest Grassland, natural prairie 

CAN (set-aside affected) Set-aside 50% alang-alang grassland 

50% deg. forest 

95% savannah 

5% deg. forest 

Set-aside 

Table 21.13: Description of sensitivity analyses testing affected land transformed into agricultural land. 

The scenario analysed is scenario 2. Two different alternatives of scenario 2 exist for rapeseed oil; expansion 

of the cultivated takes place locally in Denmark or increased cultivation of rapeseed displace the marginal 

crop, which is barley. This is then compensated for by increased production in Canada. Here the alternative 

when increased rapeseed cultivation takes place locally in Denmark is applied. Scenario 4 is not suitable analysing impacts from transformation because it does not include any transformation processes. 

Only two impact categories are analysed, i.e. global warming and biodiversity. Characterisation factors for 

biodiversity are based on Schmidt (2007c) and additional characterisation factors given in Appendix 4: Characterisation factors for land use in Brazil and Canada. Characterisation factors for transformation of primary 

forest in Malaysia/Indonesia are assumed to be representative for primary forest in Brazil, and transformation 

of set-aside land in Denmark is assumed to be representative for transformation of set-aside land in Canada. 

The characterised results for changed parameters in Malaysia/Indonesia, Brazil and Canada are shown in 

Table 21.14, Table 21.15 and Table 21.16 respectively. 

The results shown here represent the needed land to be transformed in order to increase the production of rapeseed oil and palm oil with 1 tonne. This functional unit is not directly comparable to the one used when considering contineous cultivation/production because transformation of a piece of land can support several functional units over time. The results are calculated using the inventory data described in section 19.1. 
21 Sensitivity analyses 229 

Baseline MY&IN => grassland MY&IN => deg. forest MY&IN => prim. forest 

Impact category 1 t RSO 1 t PO 1 t RSO 1 t PO 1 t RSO 1 t PO 1 t RSO 1 t PO 

Global warming (t CO2) -59.4 43.4 -74.2 -14.9 -44.6 102 -44.6 102 

Biodiversity (wS100) -385 -72.4 -402 -138 -368 -7.08 47.0 1628 

Table 21.14: Characterised results of 1 t rapeseed oil (RSO) and 1 t palm oil (PO), baseline compared with the sensitivity 

analyses were different types of land in Malaysia/Indonesia (MY&IN) are transformed into oil palm. (Scenario 2 has been 

used for this sensitivity analysis) 

It appears from Table 21.14 that the contributions to global warming and biodiversity are very sensitive to 

assumptions regarding the affected land in Malaysia/Indonesia. Though, the results are sensitive to assumptions the ranking of rapeseed oil and palm oil is not affected in any of the sensitivity analyses shown in the 

table. The negative impacts associated with rapeseed oil are because of avoided transformation of savannah 

and forest in Brazil and prairie grassland in Canada. It also appears that when forest (degraded or primary) is 

transformed in order to expand oil palm cultivation the contribution to global warming is significant: more 

than 100 t CO2-eq. per t palm oil. Assuming a contribution to global warming at 2.4 t CO2-eq-/t palm oil from 

continuous cultivation/production the contribution at 102 t CO2-eq. from transformation corresponds to approximately 43 years of cultiovation/production of palm oil from the transformed area. 

Baseline BR => savannah BR => deg. forest BR => prim. forest 

Impact category 1 t RSO 1 t PO 1 t RSO 1 t PO 1 t RSO 1 t PO 1 t RSO 1 t PO 

Global warming (t CO2) -59.4 43.4 -49.0 43.5 -256 43.0 -256 43.0 

Biodiversity (wS100) -385 -72.4 -393 -72.5 -229 -72.1 -3005 -78.6 

Table 21.15: Characterised results of 1 t rapeseed oil (RSO) and 1 t palm oil (PO), baseline compared with the sensitivity 

analyses were different types of land in Brazil (BR) are transformed into soybean fields. 

It appears from Table 21.15 that palm oil is not sensitive to assumptions regarding affected land in Brazil 

while rapeseed oil is more sensitive. But still no of the tested assumptions can affect the ranking between rapeseed oil and palm oil. 

Baseline CAN => set-side 

Impact category 1 t RSO 1 t PO 1 t RSO 1 t PO 

Global warming (t CO2) -59.4 43.4 -59.4 43.4 

Biodiversity (wS100) -385 -72.4 -310 22 

Table 21.16: Characterised results of 1 t rapeseed oil (RSO) and 1 t palm oil (PO), baseline compared with the sensitivity 

analysis were set-aide land in Canada (CAN) is transformed into barley fields. 

Table 21.16 shows that the contribution to biodiversity from palm oil is very sensitive the assumptions regarding affected land in Canada while rapeseed oil is less sensitive. The sensitivity analysis show no effects on the 

impact of global warming. Again, the assumptions regarding affected land in Canada does not affect the ranking of rapeseed oil and palm oil. 

21.4 No. 4: Energy, marginal source of electricity 

This sensitivity tests the effect of uncertainties in identification of the marginal source of electricity in Denmark, Malaysia/Indonesia, Brazil and Canada. Table 21.17 shows the marginal sources of electricity in the 

baseline situation and the included sensitivity analyses. 
230 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Region Baseline Coal Natural gas 

Denmark Coal Coal Natural gas 

Malaysia/Indonesia Coal Coal Natural gas 

Brazil Natural gas Coal Natural gas 

Canada Natural gas Coal Natural gas 

Table 21.17: Description of sensitivity analyses testing the marginal source of electricity.

Table 21.18 show the characterised results for the baseline situation and when the marginal source of electricity in all regions are coal and natural gas respectively. The results are not shown for land use and biodiversity 

because these impact categories are not affected in this sensitivity analysis. 

Baseline Coal Natural gas 

Impact category 1 t RSO 1 t PO 1 t RSO 1 t PO 1 t RSO 1 t PO 

Global warming (t CO2) 2.39 2.36 2.36 2.36 2.29 2.34 

Ozone depletion (g CFC11) 0.147 0.045 0.154 0.045 0.169 0.048 

Acidification (kg SO2) 26.0 13.3 25.9 13.3 25.6 13.2 

Eutrophication (t NO3) 0.211 0.119 0.211 0.119 0.211 0.119 

Photochemical smog (kg ethene) 0.869 0.509 0.873 0.509 0.880 0.511 

Table 21.18: Characterised results of 1 t rapeseed oil (RSO) and 1 t palm oil (PO), baseline compared with the sensitivity 

analyses were the marginal source of electricity is coal and natural gas respectively.

It appears from Table 21.18 that the source of marginal electricity has only little influence on the results. The 

result for rapeseed oil of global warming is somehow surprising because both the sensitivity analyses with only 

gas electricity and coal electricity respectively show lower contribution than the baseline situation. The reason 

why the sensitivity analysis that applies coal shows a lower contribution than the baseline is, that the electricity 

in the coutries of substituted commodities; Canada and Brazil, contributes with more CO2 while Denmark is 

unchanged. The reason why the sensitivity analysis that applies gas shows a lower contribution than the baseline is that the electricity in Denmark contributes with less CO2 (gas instead of coal) while Canada and Brazil 

are unchanged. 

21.5 No. 5: Energy, representativiness of data on district heating 

in Denmark 

In scenario 2 the two alternatives of rapeseed oil (local expansion versus crop displacement) show significant 

different results. The main reason for that is that in the ‘constraint area scenario’ the displaced spring barley in 

Denmark is associated with a significant smaller environmental impacy than the required extra barley in Canada. In the ‘local expansion’ scenario the cultivation of spring barley in Denmark is not affected. The main 

reason that spring barley in Denmark performs good is that the straw is utilised for heat and electricity production. The data for the displaced heat are based on site specific data only valid for the city Aarhus and its surroundings. Therefore, this sensitivity applies other data for district heating production. Many district heating 

plants in Denmark are small decentralised back pressure natural gas fired combined heat and power plants. 

Opposite to large central heat and power plants which can swich between condensating mode and back pressure mode, the small decentralised produce an output of electricity and heat with fixed ratio. According to 

Danish Energy Authority (2004), a typical decentralised heat and power plant (40-125 MW gas turbine) have a 

total energy efficuency at 91% and a electricity efficiency at 36-42% (assumed 39%). Thus, the energy output 

per 100% input is 39% electricity and 52% heat. The production is determined from the local demand for heat 

and co-produced electricity is sold to the grid where it substitutes the marginal source of electricity. The inventory data for production of 1 MJ heat are shown in Table 21.19. 
21 Sensitivity analyses 231 

Interventions Amount Applied LCI-data 

Product outputs 

District heat 1 MJ Product of interest 

Electricity 0.75 MJ Co-product, see system expansion below 

System expansion 

Avoided electricity -0.75 MJ See Table 3.3

Energy use 

Natural gas burned in gas turbine 1.92 MJ Natural gas, burned in power plant/NORDEL U 

Table 21.19: Description of sensitivity analyses testing the marginal source of electricity.

The characterised results of the baseline and the sensitivity analysis are shown in Table 21.20. The results are 

not shown for land use and biodiversity because these impact categories are not affected in this sensitivity 

analysis. 

Baseline Decentralised district heat 

Impact category 

1 t rapeseed oil 

(constrained area) 

1 t rapeseed oil 

(local expansion) 

1 t rapeseed oil 

(constrained area) 

1 t rapeseed oil 

(local expansion) 

Global warming (t CO2) 5.15 2.40 4.53 2.54 

Ozone depletion (g CFC11) 0.210 0.147 0.208 0.148 

Acidification (kg SO2) 39.2 25.8 37.9 26.1 

Eutrophication (t NO3) 0.201 0.172 0.200 0.172 

Photochemical smog (kg ethene) 1.22 0.869 1.18 0.878 

Table 21.20: Characterised results of 1 t rapeseed oil (constrained area as well as local expansion), baseline compared 

with the sensitivity analyses were district heating from a centralised power plant is displaced by decentralised district 

heat. The results are for scenario 2. 

Table 21.20 shows that the data for district heating have some influence. If decentralised district heating is 

applied instead of centralised heat as in the baseline situation, the impact of the constrained area scenario are 

reduced while impacts of the local expansion scenario are increased. The reason why the impacts in the constrained area scenario are reduced is that the district heating in the sensitivity analysis is associated with 

smaller impacts than the impacts from centralised heat as in the baseline situation. The constrained area scenario is associated with a considerable high use of district heat. This is because Danish spring barley is displaced and spring barley displaces heat from utilisation of straw. On the other hand, the reason why the impact 

in the local expansion scenario are increased in the sensitivity analysis is that this scenario is associated with a 

negative net use of heat because more is displaced (utilisation of rapeseed straw) than used (rapeseed oil mill 

and refinery). 

21.6 No. 6: Agricultural cultivation, energy for traction 

According to Table 5.11 the energi use for traction per ha rapeseed field varies from 3,369 MJ to 4,488 MJ 

depandant on the soil type, cultivation practice and data source. These variations correspond to percentual deviations from the applied energy use for traction at 3,612 MJ between -7% and +24%. The sensitivity analysis 

presented in this section present the baseline situation compared with two situations; one situation where the 

energy use for traction for all crops are reduced by 7% and one where it is increased by 24%. These variations 

are also in good accordance with the variations for traction in oil palm plantations (see Table 6.3) 

The characterised results of the sensitivity analyses are shown in Table 21.21. The results are not shown for 

land use and biodiversity because these impact categories are not affected in this sensitivity analysis. 
232 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Baseline Reduced traction all crops 

(-7%) 

Increased traction all crops 

(+24%) 

Impact category 1 t RSO 1 t PO 1 t RSO 1 t PO 1 t RSO 1 t PO 

Global warming (t CO2) 2.39 2.36 2.38 2.36 2.44 2.36 

Ozone depletion (g CFC11) 0.147 0.045 0.146 0.044 0.153 0.045 

Acidification (kg SO2) 26.0 13.3 25.9 13.3 26.4 13.3 

Eutrophication (t NO3) 0.211 0.119 0.211 0.119 0.212 0.119 

Photochemical smog (kg ethene) 0.869 0.509 0.861 0.508 0.894 0.512 

Table 21.21: Characterised results of 1 t rapeseed oil (RSO) and 1 t palm oil (PO), baseline compared with the sensitivity 

analyses were the marginal source of electricity is coal and natural gas respectively.

It appears from Table 21.21 that variations in the energy use for traction affect the results insignificantly. 

Therefore, the uncertainties related to that are regarded as of minor importance. 

21.7 No. 7: Rapeseed cultivation, soil type 

The applied soil type on which Danish rapeseed is cultivated in the study is an average of 59% clay and 41% 

sand. The sensitivity analysis presented in this section shows the difference of cultivating rapeseed on clay and 

sandy soils. The inventory data for cultivation on clay and sand are comprehensively described in section 5. 

The characterised results are shown in Table 21.22. 

Impact category 1 t rapeseed oil 

(baseline) 

1 t rapeseed oil 

(clay soil) 

1 t rapeseed oil 

(sandy soil) 

Change 

(clay) 

Change 

(sand) 

Global warming (t CO2) 2.39 2.17 2.79 -9% 17% 

Ozone depletion (g CFC11) 0.147 0.138 0.164 -6% 11% 

Acidification (kg SO2) 26.0 24.3 28.9 -7% 11% 

Eutrophication (t NO3) 0.211 0.166 0.294 -21% 39% 

Photochemical smog (kg ethene) 0.869 0.823 0.955 -5% 10% 

Land use (m2y) 3374 2716 4590 -19% 36% 

Biodiversity (wS100) 10.8 9.90 12.3 -8% 15% 

Table 21.22: Characterised results of 1 t rapeseed oil, baseline compared with rapeseed cultivated on clay and sandy soil. 

It appears from Table 21.22 that the impact categories eutrophication and land use are the ones most sensitive 

to the type of soil. In general cultivation on clay is environmental preferable to cultivation on sand. However, 

since most of Denmark is already occupied with agriculture, cities and infrastructure it is hard to move agriculture from cultivation on sandy soils to cultivation on clay soils. However, when agriculture is transformed into 

other types of land use it is environmental preferable to locate these transformations on sandy soils. 

In section 5 it is assumed that rapeseed fields are evenly distributed on the 59% clay soil and 41% sandy soil in 

Denmark. Since the difference between cultivation on sand and clay is relatively limited, the actual distribution 

of rapeseed fields can deviate relatively much from these figures without changing the results of the LCA in 

the same rate. Therefore, it is not likely that the soil type cultivated can affect the ranking of rapeseed oil and 

palm oil (see baseline for palm oil in Table 20.1. 

21.8 No. 8: Rapeseed cultivativation, N-fertiliser produced using 

best available techniques (BAT) 

According to section 5.4 the emission of N2O from the production of nitric acid, which is used for the production of ammonium nitrate fertilisers, can be significantly reduced using BAT. The European Commission 

(2006d) presents a range of different technologies to be considered in order to reduce N2O emissions from 

production of nitric acid. Examples of technologies are alternative oxidation catalysts, extension of reactor 

chamber, catalytic N2O decomposition in the oxidation reactor, combined NOx and N2O abatement in tail gases 
21 Sensitivity analyses 233 

and non-selective catalytic reduction of NOx and N2O in tail gases. The presented technologies reduce the N2O 

emission from 30-50% up to 98-99%. There are no trade offs in order to achieve the given reductions. This 

sensitivity analysis analyses the effect on the results if the emission of N2O in the tail gas from nitric acid is 

reduced by 85%. This is done by reducing the N2O emission from 8.39 g to 1.26 g per kg nitric acid. The 

change is implemented in the ecoinvent process: ‘Nitric acid, 50% in H2O, at plant/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004). 

Table 21.23 shows the characterised results of the sensitivity analysis. The contributions to land use and biodiversity are not shown because these impact categories are not affected in this sensitivity analysis. 

Impact category 1 t rapeseed oil 

(baseline) 

1 t rapeseed oil 

(fertiliser produced with BAT) 

Change 

Global warming (t CO2) 2.39 1.89 -21% 

Ozone depletion (g CFC11) 0.147 0.147 0% 

Acidification (kg SO2) 26.0 26.0 0% 

Eutrophication (t NO3) 0.211 0.211 0% 

Photochemical smog (kg ethene) 0.869 0.869 0% 

Table 21.23: Characterised results of 1 t rapeseed oil, baseline compared with rapeseed oil produced in an oil mill using 

the full press technology. 

It appears from Table 21.23 that the only affected impact category is global warming. Using fertiliser produced with BAT reduces the contribution to global warming remarkably with 21%. 

21.9 No. 9: Agricultural cultivation, N changes in soil matter 

In section 5.6 the changes in N soil matter is assumed to be zero. The argument for that is that the the changes 

in N soil matter should be ascribed to transformation of land rather than continuous cultivation and therefore 

the changes in N soil matter are included in the impacts of transformation (see section 19.1). However, in order 

to monitor the effect of chosing that approach, this sensitivity analysis applies an annual decrease in N soil 

matter at 24 kg N/ha for rapeseed, barley and soybean. The 24 kg N/ha is estimated for rapeseed in section 5.6. 

The same change in N soil matter is assumed for barley in Canada and soybean in Brazil. However, the change 

in N soil matter for palm oil is regarded as of minor importance since input of N in crop residues are higher 

and because the crop rotation has a duration of 25 years compared to only one year for the other crops. Henson 

(2004) also regards the change in N soil matter under oil palm to be zero. 

The change in N soil matter at 24 kg/ha is fed into the N-balances in sections 5.6, 7.5 and 8.6 as an input of N 

(which increases the N-surplus), and the corresponding emissions are calculated using the same methods as 

described in these sections. The affaected emissions are nitrate (which is calculated as the difference between 

the N-surplus and the other N-related emissions) and N2O (indirect from increased nitrate emissions). 

The characterised results of the sensitivity analysis are shown in Table 21.24. Only the contributions to global 

warming and eutrophication are shown since these are the only impact categories affected. 

Baseline Change in N soil matter included 

Impact category 1 t RSO 1 t PO 1 t RSO 1 t PO 

Global warming (t CO2) 2.39 2.36 2.54 2.34 

Eutrophication (t NO3) 0.211 0.119 0.268 0.111 

Table 21.24: Characterised results of 1 t rapeseed oil (RSO) and 1 t palm oil (PO), baseline compared with the sensitivity 

analyses were the annual change in N soil matter is 24 kg N/ha.

Table 21.24 shows that an annual change in N soil matter at 24 kg N/ha for soil under rapeseed increases the 

contribution to global warming and eutrophication 6% and 27% respectively. The change in N soil matter has 
234 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

only minor influence on the results of palm oil. If changes in N soil matter are included the ranking of rapeseed 

oil and palm oil regarding global warming changes from being almost even to a situation where palm oil performs 7% better than rapeseed oil. 

21.10 No. 10: Agricultural cultivation, heavy metal contents in 

fertilisers 

According to section 5.6 and 6.7 the determination of the contents of heavy metals in fertiliser is related to 

uncertainties. Therefore this sensitivity analysis assesses these uncertainties’ influence on the LCIA results. 

Heavy metals contribute to ecotoxicity and human toxicity. Human toxicity is not considered here because the 

LCIA methods for that are even more uncertain than of ecotoxicity (see description of uncertainties of ecotoxicity in section 21.1). Applying the EDIP97-method to the baseline situation and analysing the agricultural 

stage only, the contribution to ecotoxicity (chronical, water) is shown in Table 21.25. 

Contributing processes Rapeseed FFB Soybean Barley 

Heavy metals from fertilisers 0.065% <0.00001% 0.00061% 5.4% 

Pesticides 99.5% >99.9% >99.9% not included 

Other (e.g. production of fertiliser and transport) 0.46% 0% 0.0014% 94.6% 

Table 21.25: Process contriobution to aquatic ecotoxicity for the affected crops (only the agricultural stage is included).

Table 21.25 shows that heavy metals constitute only a minor share of the total contribution to ecotoxicity. 

Thus, it is estimated that uncertainties in determination of the heavy metal content in fertilisers contribute with 

insignificant uncertainties in the result. The very low contribution to aquatic ecotoxicity from FFB is because it 

is assumed that all emissions are to soil, and most of those emissions do not contribute to aquatic ecotoxicity. 

If carrying out the same analysis for ecotoxicity to soil (EDIP97) for FFB the contribution from heavy metals 

are still insignificant. 

In addition it should be mentioned that because of uncertainties in LCIA-methods, see section 21.1, toxicity 

should be dealt with in a more qualitative manner than the remaining impact categories. 

21.11 No. 11: Agricultural cultivation, initial compartment of pesticide emissions 

In sections 5.6, 6.7 and 7.5 it is assumed that the applied pesticides ends as evenly distributed emissions to air, 

water and soil. This is a very rough assumption. Therefore, this sensitivity analysis compares the baseline 

situation with situations where all applied pesticides ends as emissions to air, water and soil respectively. Only 

the contribution to ecotoxicities is included. The characterised results are shown in Table 21.26. 

Impact category Baseline Compartment => air Compartment => water Compartment => soil 

1 t RSO 1 t PO 1 t RSO 1 t PO 1 t RSO 1 t PO 1 t RSO 1 t PO 

ETWC (mio m3) -4685 1423 0.532 0.0567 -149600 3951 0.532 0.0567 

ETWA (mio m3) -127 52.3 0.0560 0.0082 -4168 148 0.0560 0.0082 

ETSC (mio m3) -24.5 0.625 0.0156 0.00249 0.0153 0.00249 -736 0.315 

Table 21.26: Characterised results of 1 t rapeseed oil (RSO) and 1 t palm oil (PO), baseline compared with the sensitivity 

analyses were the compartment of pesticides are changed. Abbreviations: ETWC (ecotoxicity, water, chronic), ETWA 

(ecotoxicity, water, acute) and ETSC (ecotoxicity, soil, chronic)

It clearly appears from Table 21.26 that the contribution to ecotoxicity is extremely sensitive to the intial compartment of pesticide emissions. E.g. the contribution to ETWC from rapeseed oil varies from -149600 mio m3
21 Sensitivity analyses 235 

(when the initial compartment is water) to 0.532 m3

 (when the initial compartment is either air or soil). Similar 

vaiations are found for the impact categories ETWA and ETSC and for palm oil. 

Therefore, the characterised results for ecotoxicity are associated with very significant uncertainties and they 

do not provide useful information if not a more precise determination of compartment is carried out. However, 

referring to the uncertainties regading toxicity modelling in LCIA-methods in general as described in section 

21.1, the characterised results will still be associated with significant uncertainties. Hence, improved modelling 

of compartments of pesticide emissions will not improve the certainty of the results of toxicity notably. 

21.12 No. 12: Oil palm cultivation, yields 

As described in section 21.2 the yield of oil palm may vary dependant on the supplier, i.e. Malaysia or Indonesia. The yields are also depandant on the cultivation practices (see section 6). Cultivation practices vary among 

the actors, i.e. small holders, FELDA and private estates. Thus, there may be significant differences in yields in 

a small holder plantation and in a large private estate, even if the same agricultural inputs are used. The differences may be due to water management (drainage), breeding of new palms, timing of harvest and replanting 

and weed control. No data correlating agricultural practices and yields (regardless fertiliser input) have been 

identified. Therefore, the sensitivity analysis presented in this section refers to the results of the sensitivity 

analysis in section 21.2 where FFB yields of 17.95 t/ha, 18.87 t/ha and 19.84 t/ha are compared (these yields 

represent Indonesia, Malaysia/Indonesia and Malaysia respectively). The variations above correspond to yield 

variations between -5% and +5%. The results of the sensitivity analysis in section 21.2 show that changes of 

oil palm yields at ±5% cause changes in the contribution to global warming at ±3% and changes in land use 

requirements at ±7%. Thus, the determination of yields and the effect of cultivation practice have a relative 

large effect on the obtained results. Thus, if the marginal suppliers of oil palm are represented by plantations 

with cultivation practice and corresponding yields well above average (20-25 t FFB/ha), the contribution to 

global warming and land use of palm oil may be reduced significantly, i.e. up to 20% for global warming and 

45% for land use. 

21.13 No. 13: Oil palm cultivation, soil type 

It appears from section 6.7 that the levels of emissions from cultivation on peat and mineral soil vary significantly. According to Henson (2004) approximately 4.1% of the oil palm cultivated area in Malaysia is on peat. 

The same is assumed to be valid for Indonesia. According to Corley and Tinker (2003, p 81) much of the open 

land remaing land for expanding the oil palm cultivation in SE-Asia is peat soils. According to Wetland International (2007), more than 50% of the planned new plantations in Malaysia and Indonesia are on peat soils. 

Therefore, the applied 4.1% peat may not represent the marginal land cultivated with oil palm. This sensitivity 

analysis compares cultivation on peat soil with cultivation on mineral soil. The inventory data relating to that 

are described in section 6.7. The characterised results are shown in Table 21.27. The results are only shown 

for global warming, acidification and eutrophication since these impact categories are only ones affected in 

this sensitivity analysis. 

Impact category 1 t palm oil 

(baseline) 

1 t palm oil 

(peat soil) 

1 t palm oil 

(mineral soil) 

Change 

(peat soil) 

Change 

(mineral soil) 

Global warming (t CO2) 2.36 12.8 1.91 444% -19% 

Acidification (kg SO2) 13.3 19.8 13.0 49% -2% 

Eutrophication (t NO3) 0.119 0.105 0.119 -11% 1% 

Table 21.27: Characterised results of 1 t palm oil, baseline compared with oil palm cultivated with low and high levels of 

CO2-emissions from peat.
236 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

It appears from Table 21.27, that cultivation on peat contributes significantly more to global warming (4 to 5 

times more) and to a lesser extent acidification than cultivation on average soil (of wich 4.1% is peat). The 

difference between average soil and mineral soil is less pronounced. The main reason why cultivation on peat 

contributes more to global warming is a higher level of CO2-emission, but also a higher level of N2O-emission 

contributes. The difference in contribution to acidification is due a higher level of nitric oxide (NO) from denitrification peat soil. 

The significant high contribution to global warming from cultivation of oil palm on peat soil exceeds the contribution to global warming from rapeseed oil many fold. Though, the uncertain and probably overestimated 

contribution to global warming from rapeseed cultivated by increased yield (scenario 3) is not matched by oil 

palm cultivated on peat. However, as mentioned rapeseed oil in scenario 3 is not very likely to occur since 

regulations on N-fertiliser in the EU makes this way of increasing yields impossible in most regions. Another 

aspect is that increases by yield achieved by increased NPK-fertiliser will probably take place on the least fertilised soils. Thus, the crop response to additional fertiliser will probably by higher than the response modelled 

for rapeseed in scenario 3. 

Hence, most efforts towards cleaner production and better environmental performance regarding global warming in the palm oil industry will be of little significance and will be overruled if the oil palm is cultivated on 

peat. 

21.14 No. 14: Oil palm cultivation, uncertainties of CO2-emissions 

from peat soil 

According to section 6.7 the annual carbon emission from cultivation of 1 ha with oil palm is 10 t (corresponding to 37 t CO2). However, this is related to some uncertainties. In section 6.7 annual emission levels of carbon 

from cultivation of peat between 7.5 t C/ha and 20 t C/ha have been identified. These figures correspond to 28 

t CO2 and 73 t CO2 respectively. Thus, the sensitivity analysis presented in this section compare the baseline 

scenario with above mentioned CO2 emission levels. The characterised results are shown in Table 21.28. The 

results are only shown for global warming since this is the only impact category affected in this sensitivity 

analysis. 

Impact category 1 t palm oil 

(baseline) 

1 t palm oil 

(low: 28 t CO2/ha) 

1 t palm oil 

(high: 73 t CO2/ha) 

Change compared to baseline 

(low: 28 t CO2/ha) 

Change compared 

to baseline 

(high: 73 t CO2/ha) 

Global warming (t CO2) 2.36 2.27 2.73 -4% 16% 

Table 21.28: Characterised results of 1 t palm oil, baseline compared with oil palm cultivated with low and high levels of 

CO2-emissions from peat. 

It appeat from Table 21.28 that the uncertainties in the determination of CO2-emissions from peat have some 

effect on the results for global warming. However, if more than the actual 4.1% of the oil palm is cultivated on 

peat, the uncertainties of determination of CO2 from peat may be more significant. 

21.15 No. 15: Barley cultivation, omission of use and emissions of 

pesticides 

The use of and the emissions of pesticides are omitted from the inventory of barley. As shown in section Table 

21.26 in section 21.10, the emissions of pesticides contribute significantly to ecotoxicity. Thus, when omitting 

the emissions of pesticides from the inventory of barley, the credit from displaced barley will be zero when 

performing system expansion. Since more barley is displaced in the product system of palm oil than for rape-
21 Sensitivity analyses 237 

seed oil, the omission of pesticides is therefore in the favour of rapeseed oil. However, as described in section 

21.1 and 21.11 the uncertainties in LCIA-methods regarding toxicity and uncertainties in the determination of 

the receiving compartments of pesticide emissions make the results of toxicity so uncertain, that the results do 

not contribute with usable information. 

21.16 No. 16: Rapeseed oil mill, solvent extraction versus full 

press 

In the baseline cenario, the applied technology in the rapeseed oil mill is solvent extraction. This sensitivity 

analysis applies the full press technology instead. The inventory presented here is based on data provided by 

Emmersen (2006) for the rapeseed oil mill; Scanola in Aarhus, Denmark. This oil mill uses the full press technology. In 2005 Scanola processed 220,000 tonne rapeseed (Emmersen 2006). 

When using the full press technology, no solvents are used for extraction. Not using solvents will affect the 

amount of oil in the oil meal. According to Emmersen (2006), the product flow in Scanola rapeseed oil mill in 

Aarhus Denmark related to 1 t crude rapeseed oil include an input of 2.597 t rapeseed and outputs of 1.558 t oil 

meal and 0.039 t loss (water). Based on the oil content in rapeseed given in Møller et al. (2000) it can be calculated that the oil content in the oil meal is 9.5%. The properties of rapeseed oil meal with 10% fat are given in 

Table 21.29. 

Paramter Rapeseed meal, 

per kg meal (10% fat) 

Protein 310 g protein 

Fodder energy* 1.059 SFU 

Table 21.29: Relevant properties of rapeseed oil meal. * Fodder energy is measured in SFU (Scandinavian Fodder Units). 

(Møller et al. 2000)

 

Based on the figures in Table 21.29 and the product flow in the full press rapeseed oil mill specified above, the 

product flow related to 1 t refined rapeseed oil produced with full press technology is given in Figure 21.1 and 

Equation (6). The losses in the refinery stage are the same as in Figure 2.1. 

Rapeseed oil (RSO)

Rapeseed oil mill

1.000 t NBD RSO

1.584 t meal

2.641 t rapeseed

Rapeseed field

0.817 ha y

Denmark

491 kg protein

1,677 SFU energy

Refinery

1.017 t crude RSO

12 kg fodder fat

0 kg protein

28 SFU energy

Figure 21.1: Product flow in the oil mill stage and refinery stage related to 1 t refined rapeseed oil (full press). 

The affected palm oil, soybean meal and barley are calculated in Equation (6). 
238 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

BLt 0.545

SMt 1.022

0.249POt

1.000 RSOt 

SFU0

prot.kg0

oilt1

BLSFU/t952

BLprot./tkg91.8

BLoil/tt0

BLt

SMSFU/t1,207

SMprot./tkg436

SMoil/tt0.244

SMt

POSFU/t191

POprot./tkg19.2

POoil/tt1

POt

1,705 RSOSFU/t 

RSOprot./t kg491

RSOoil/tt 1

RSO t 1

−=

−=

=

=

⇓

⎥

⎥

⎥

⎦

⎤

⎢

⎢

⎢

⎣

⎡

=

⎥

⎥

⎥

⎦

⎤

⎢

⎢

⎢

⎣

⎡

⋅+

⎥

⎥

⎥

⎦

⎤

⎢

⎢

⎢

⎣

⎡

⋅+

⎥

⎥

⎥

⎦

⎤

⎢

⎢

⎢

⎣

⎡

⋅+

⎥

⎥

⎥

⎦

⎤

⎢

⎢

⎢

⎣

⎡

⋅

(6)

The energy use related to 1 t crude rapeseed oil at the full press rapeseed oil mill, Scanola are given in Table 

21.30. 

Energy 1 t rapeseed oil 

Electricity 467 MJ 

Heat (fuel oil) 852 MJ 

Table 21.30: Energy use in the oil mill stage related to 1 t crude rapeseed oil using full press technology. 

The remaining LCI data are similar to the solvent extraction oil mill as described in Table 9.13 except the use 

and emission of hexane and waste water. The applied LCI data for burning of fuel oil is: ‘Light fuel oil, burned 

in boiler 100kW, non-modulating’ (ecoinvent 2004). 

Applying the product flow given in Equation (6) and the inventory data described above to scenario 4, the 

characterised results can be calculated, see Table 21.31. 

Impact category 1 t rapeseed oil 

(baseline) 

1 t rapeseed oil Change 

(full press technology) 

Global warming (t CO2) 2.39 2.27 -5% 

Ozone depletion (g CFC11) 0.147 0.129 -12% 

Acidification (kg SO2) 26.0 24.6 -5% 

Eutrophication (t NO3) 0.211 0.212 0% 

Photochemical smog (kg ethene) 0.869 0.537 -38% 

Land use (m2y) 3374 2723 -19% 

Biodiversity (wS100) 10.8 11.5 6% 

Table 21.31: Characterised results of 1 t rapeseed oil, baseline compared with rapeseed oil produced in an oil mill using 

the full press technology. 

It appears from Table 21.31 that the oil mill technology has only limited influence on the result regarding 

global warming, ozone depletion, acidification and eutrophication. The most significant change is the contribution to photochemical smog, which is reduced because of elimination of hexane emissions. The land occupation is reduced because of avoided barley production in Canada which is relatively larger than the increased 

land use in Denmark. The corresponding impact on biodiversity is increased in the full press sensitivity analysis. The reason for this is that occupation of land in Denmark is weighted higher than occupation of land in 

Canada (Schmidt 2007c and Appendix 4: Characterisation factors for land use in Brazil and Canada). 

21.17 No. 17: Oil mills, capital goods 

The determination of the use of capital goods in the oil mill stage is related to notable uncertainties. Table 

21.32 provides on overview of the assumed use of capital goods in the different affected oil mills and the associated contribution to global warming. 
21 Sensitivity analyses 239 

Capital goods Oil mill Baseline Global warming (% of the 

oil mill stage) 

Building halls 3.9⋅10-4 m2 0.094% 

Building, multi story 7.1⋅10-4 m3 0.12% 

Machinery 0.085 kg 0.40% 

Rapeseed oil mill 

Total 0.61% 

Building halls 1.8⋅10-4 m2 0.028% 

Building, multi story 3.4⋅10-4 m3 0.035% 

Machinery 0.040 kg 0.12% 

Palm oil mill 

Total 0.18% 

Building halls 3.9⋅10-4 m2 0.081% 

Building, multi story 7.1⋅10-4 m3 0.10% 

Machinery 0.085 kg 0.35% 

Palm kernel oil mill 

Total 0.53% 

Building halls 3.9⋅10-4 m2 0.10% 

Building, multi story 7.1⋅10-4 m3 0.12% 

Machinery 0.085 kg 0.43% 

Soybean oil mill 

Total 0.65% 

Table 21.32: The use of capital goods in the oil mill stage (per 1 t crop processed) 

It appears from Table 21.32 that the use of capital goods accounts for an insignificant share of the total contribution from the oil mill stage. The use of capital goods could be of magnitiude five fold larger and still be insignificant. Thus, uncertainties in the determination of the use of capital goods in the oil mill stage have insignificant effect on the results. 

21.18 No. 18: Palm oil mill, POME treatment 

One of the hotspots from palm oil is the emission of methane from anaerobic digestion of palm oil mill effluent 

which contributes to global warming. This sensitivity analysis examines the effect of installing a digester tank 

and utilisation of the biogas for electricity production in a gas turbine. The emissions related to that technology 

is based on UNFCCC (2006) which describes the emissions from a CDM project at United Plantation, Jendarata Palm Oil Mill. According to UNFCCC (2006, p 25, 28) 92.2% of the methane is captured. The remaining 

7.8% is emitted to air from anaerobic pockets in the subsequently aerobic pond treatment. 8.4% of the methane 

that enters the combustion process is emitted due to incomplete combustion in boiler and flaring system 

(UNFCCC 2006, p 30). It is assumed that the total generation of biogas and methane is the same in the anaerobic lagoon system and when a digester tank is installed, i.e. 13.0 kg methane/t POME (see section 10.5). According to UNFCCC (2006) it can be estimated that 85% of the methane is utilised for energy purposes and the 

remaining 15% is flared. Thus, 10.2 kg of the 11.99 kg captured methane is utilised for energy purposes. The 

flaring efficiency is 50% (UNFCCC 2006, p 30). Thus the methane emission from incomplete flaring is 15% 

of 11.99 kg methane multiplied with 50%, i.e. 0.90 kg methane. 

It is assumed that the methane is used for electricity production since most palm oil mills have excess of heat 

and that electricity can be sold to the national grid. An efficiency at 40% for the turbine is assumed and emissions related to displaced electricity in Malaysia and Indonesia are described in Table 3.3. The emissions from 

burning of biogas are described in section 13.4, i.e. emission of methane is 1.5% of the input of gas to the motor, emission of sulphur dioxide is 0.018 g SO2/MJ input of energy in biogas and the emission of nitrogen oxides is 0.200 g NOx/MJ input of energy in biogas. The energy content of methane is 50.4 MJ/kg (see Appendix 

1: Data on fuels). 

The emissions of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and ammonia (NH3) in the baseline treatment (anaerobic lagoon) 

are assumed to be eliminated when applying the digester tank and utilisation of biogas. The emission of Dinitrogen oxide (N2O) is assumed to be unchanged as done in UNFCCC (2006, p 10-11). 
240 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

The inventory of treatment of 1 t POME when the anaerobic lagoon treatment is displaced with a digeter tank 

and ultilisation of the biogas is summarised in Table 21.33. 

1 t POME Baseline Sensitivity analysis 

Energy production 0 MJ 205 MJ electricity 

(40% of energy input at 10.2 kg CH4 with energy content at 50.4 MJ/kg) 

CH4 from treatment (lagoon/digester 

tank) 

13.0 kg CH4 11.99 kg CH4 captured (92.2%) 

1.01 kg CH4 emission (7.8%) 

CH4 from incomplete flaring 0 kg CH4 0.90 kg CH4 emission (50% of 15% of 11.99 kg) 

CH4 from gas motor 0 kg CH4 0.15 kg CH4 (85% of 1.5% of 11.99 kg) 

SO2 from gas motor 0 kg SO2 0.0092 kg SO2

NOx from gas motor 0 kg NOx 0.10 kg NOx

H2S from lagoon 0.0862 kg H2S 0 kg H2S 

NH3 from lagoon 0.058 kg NH3 0 kg NH3

N2O from lagoon 0.0015 kg N2O 0.0015 kg N2O 

Table 21.33: Inventory of treat ment of 1 t POME when digester tank and utilisation is installet. 

The characterised results are shown in Table 21.34. The contributions to land use and biodiversity are not 

shown because these impact categories are not affected in this sensitivity analysis. 

Impact category 1 t palm oil 

(baseline) 

1 t palm oil 

(biogas POME treatment) 

Change compared to 

baseline 

Global warming (t CO2) 2.36 1.36 -42% 

Ozone depletion (g CFC11) 0.0446 0.0439 -2% 

Acidification (kg SO2) 13.3 12.2 -8% 

Eutrophication (t NO3) 0.119 0.118 0% 

Photochemical smog (kg ethene) 0.509 0.256 -50% 

Table 21.34: Characterised results of 1 t palm oil, baseline compared with palm oil produced in an oil mill treating 

POME in a digester tank and with utilisation of biogas for electricity production. 

It appears from Table 21.34 that applying the biogas treatment of POME affects the impact categories global 

warming and photochemical smog significantly. The reduction in the contribution to global warming is mainly 

due to reductions in methane emissions but also displacement of CO2 from coal based electricity from the grid 

contributes. The reduction in the contribution to photochemical smog is due to the reduced methane emissions. 

The reduction of the contribution to global warming is quite significant. If palm oil is produced using biogas 

treatment of POME instead of the normally anaerobic lagoon systems palm oil will perform better than rapeseed oil in all scenarios. 

21.19 No. 19: Palm oil mill, steam requirement 

According to section 10.1 the steam requirement in palm oil mills per t FFB is 0.65 t steam. Data on steam 

requirement have been indetified between 0.4 t steam and 0.65 t steam which corresponds to an interval between 1040 MJ and 1690 MJ. This sensitivity analysis applies a situation were the steam requirement is 0.5 t 

(1300 MJ). 

In the baseline scenario 100% of the 130 kg fibre and 70 kg shell per t FFB are burned in the palm oil mill’s 

boiler producing 1708 MJ steam and 104 MJ electricity. The small difference between the produced steam 

(1708 MJ) and the required steam (1690 MJ) is released to the atmosphere. 

In the sensitivity analysis the reduced required steam is assumed to be produced from burning of 100% of the 

fibre and 50% of the shell. Applying the calorific values, moisture contentsm utilisation factors and heat to 

electricity ratio as described in section 10.3, the generated energy is then 1315 MJ steam and 78 MJ electricity. 
21 Sensitivity analyses 241 

The remaining 35 kg shell per t FFB are sold as fuel in the cement industry (Chavalparit et al. 2006). It is assumed that the shells substitutes coal in a ratio one to one by energy content. 35 kg shells have an energy content at 633 MJ. The avoided emissions associated with the avoided burning of 633 MJ coal are obtained from 

‘Hard coal, burned in power plant/NORDEL U’ (ecoinvent 2004). This inventory is modified so that only the 

emission from the burning of coal is included. It is assumed that the shells are transportated 300 km in a 28t 

lorry. 

The electricity consumption in the oil mill is 73 MJ/t FFB (see Table 10.5). In the baseline situation the electricity production is 104 MJ. Thus, 31 MJ/t FFB electricity from the grid is displaced. In the sensitivity the 

electricity production is 78 MJ. Thus the displaced electricity is only 5 MJ/t FFB. 

Table 21.35 shows the changed parameters in the sensitivity analysis compared to the baseline scenario. 

Interventions Baseline Sensitivity Applied LCI-data 

Displaced products 

Displaced electricity from the grid 31 MJ 5 MJ See Table 3.3

Displaced burning of coal in 

cement industry 

0 MJ 633 MJ Modyfied version of ‘Hard coal, burned in 

power plant/NORDEL’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Energ use

Steam from power central 1691 MJ 1300 MJ The emissions are described below 

Emissions

From palm oil mill power central, 

burning of... 

130 kg fibre 

70 kg shell 

130 kg fibre 

35 kg shell 

See Table 10.4

From cenment industry power 

central, burning of... 

0 kg fibre 

0 kg shell 

0 kg fibre 

35 kg shell 

See Table 10.4

Transport 

Shells from oil mill to cement 

industry 

0 tkm 10.5 tkm ‘Transport, lorry 28t’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Table 21.35: Changed parameters in the sensitivity analysis with low steam requirement in the palm oil mill. 

The characterised results are shown in Table 21.36. The contributions to land use and biodiversity are not 

shown because these impact categories are not affected in this sensitivity analysis. 

Impact category 1 t palm oil 

(baseline) 

1 t palm oil 

(low steam requirement) 

Change compared to baseline 

Global warming (t CO2) 2.36 2.13 -10% 

Ozone depletion (g CFC11) 0.0446 0.0465 4% 

Acidification (kg SO2) 13.3 12.8 -4% 

Eutrophication (t NO3) 0.119 0.118 0% 

Photochemical smog (kg ethene) 0.509 0.504 -1% 

Table 21.36: Characterised results of 1 t palm oil, baseline compared with palm oil produced in an oil mill with low 

steam requirement and where excess shells are used in the cement industry where it displaces coal as fuel. 

Table 21.36 shows that the steam requirement and the use of excess biomass (shells) have a relatively large 

influence on the results for global warming. Reducing the steam requirement from 0.65 t steam with 23% to 

0.5 t steam and utilising the excess shells as biofuel causes a reduction of 10% contribution to global warming 

equalling 230 kg CO2 per t palm oil. 
242 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

21.20 No. 20: Palm oil mill, alternative management options for 

EFB 

Different uses/waste management options are available for the empty friut bunches (EFB) from the palm oil 

mill. Application of the EFB as mulch in the plantation is used in the baseline scenario since this is regarded as 

the most widespread management option. 

In less well managed palm oil mills the EFB is disposed of in landfill sites while the EFB is used as biofuel in 

the most well managed palm oil mills. This sensitivity analysis compares the three management options for 

EFB. 

Table 21.37 provides the relevant characteristics of EFB. 

Characteristics of EFB Value Source 

Amount of EFB per t FFB 0.225 t EFB/t FFB Table 10.1

Calorific value (lower) (fresh weight basis) 7.52 MJ/kg EFB (Subranamiam et al. 2004) 

Water content 60% Table 6.9

N content (fresh weight basis) 3.2 kg N/t EFB Table 6.9

P content (fresh weight basis) 0.38 kg P/t EFB Table 6.9

K content (fresh weight basis) 9.6 kg K/t EFB (Singh 1999) 

Table 21.37: Relevant characteristics of EFB for the sensitivity analysis presented in this section.

In both sensitivity analyses, it is assumed that the ‘missing’ application of N, P and K from the EFB (which is 

not applied as mulch) is compensated for by additional application of artificial fertiliser. The additional application of fertiliser is determined from the content of N, P and K in the EFB given in Table 21.37. Since the 

removal of the EFB is compensated for, the nutrient balances are not affected in the two sensitivity analyses. 

Emissions from the burning of EFB in the biomass plant are assumed to be the same per burned MJ biomass as 

in the power central in the palm oil mill burning fibre and shell. Table 10.4 shows the emissions per burned kg 

of fibre and shell. Since the burned composition of fibre and shell has a calorific value at 13.8 MJ/kg (see section 10.3), the emissions per MJ can easily be determined. The production of electricity is based on a biomass 

plant burning EFB in Malaysia. The plant is documented as a CDM project in UNFCCC (2007). It appears 

from UNFCCC (2007) that the electricity output is 1.25 MJ/kg burned EFB (fresh weight). This corresponds to 

an energy efficiency of the biomass plant at 17% (output of electricity compared to input of EFB in terms of 

calorific value). 

Only three emissions from the landfilling of the EFB have been accounted for, i.e. methane to air, leaching of 

nitrate and leaching of phosphorous. The emission of methane has been calculated using the the model described in UNFCCC (data of issue not given) and the model parameters presented in UNFCCC (2007). The 

methane emission from the landfilling of EFB has been calculated as 18 kg CH4/t EFB. The emissions of nitrate and phosphorous have been determined assuming that all the content of N and P in the EFB will leach as 

nitrate and phosphorous. 

Table 21.38 shows the changed parameters in the sensitivity analysis compared to the baseline scenario. 
21 Sensitivity analyses 243 

Interventions Baseline Sensitivity (EFB is 

disposed off by landfilingl) 

Sensitivity (EFB is 

utilised in a biomass 

plant) 

Applied LCI-data 

Displaced products 

Displaced electricity from the grid 0 MJ 0 MJ 281 MJ See Table 3.3

Additional use of fertiliser in agricultural stage 

Additional N-fertiliser (as N), 

ammonium sulphate 

0 kg N 0.53 kg N 0.53 kg N ‘Ammonium sulphate, as N, at 

regional storehouse/RER’ (ecoinvent 2004) 

Additional N-fertiliser (as N), urea 0 kg N 0.19 kg N 0.19 kg N ‘Urea, as N, at regional storehouse/RER’, (ecoinvent 2004) 

Additional P-fertiliser (as P2O5) 0 kg P2O5 0.20 kg P2O5 0.20 kg P2O5 Phosphate rock, see section 6.5: 

Fertilisers

Additional K-fertiliser (as K2O) 0 kg K2O 2.61 kg K2O 2.61 kg K2O Potassium chloride, as K2O, at 

regional storehouse/RER’, ecoinvent (2004) 

Emissions 

Emission from burning of EFB in 

biomass plant 

- - 225 kg EFB See Table 10.4

Emissions from EFB disposed off 

at landfill 

- 4.1 kg CH4 

3.2 kg NO3

0.086 kgP 

- - 

Table 21.38: Changed parameters in the sensitivity analyses with alternative management options for EFB from the palm 

oil mill. All values are given per t of processed FFB (this is equivalent to 0.225 t EFB). 

The characterised results are shown in Table 21.39. The contributions to land use and biodiversity are not 

shown because these impact categories are not affected in this sensitivity analysis. 

Impact category 1 t palm oil 

(baseline) 

1 t palm oil 

(EFB at landfill) 

1 t palm oil 

(EFB as biomass)

Change compared 

to baseline 

(EFB at landfill) 

Change compared 

to baseline 

(EFB as biomass)

Global warming (t CO2) 2.36 2.81 1.95 19% -17% 

Ozone depletion (g CFC11) 0.0446 0.0464 0.0451 4% 1% 

Acidification (kg SO2) 13.3 13.3 12.9 0% -3% 

Eutrophication (t NO3) 0.119 0.146 0.119 23% 0% 

Photochemical smog (kg ethene) 0.509 0.648 0.529 27% 4% 

Table 21.39: Characterised results of 1 t palm oil, baseline compared with alternative management options for EFB.

It appears from Table 21.39 that land filling of EFB increases the contributions to global warming, eutrophication and photochemical smog remarkable. The increased contributions to global warming and photochemical 

smog are caused by increased methane emissions from the landfill site while the increased contribution to eutrophication is caused by leaching of nitrate and phosphorous from the landfill site. 

Utilising EFB for energy purposes in a biomass plant reduces the contribution to global warming remarkably. 

This is due to displaced electricity production. No other impact categories are remarkably affected. 

21.21 No. 21: Insensified cultivation, yield-responses to additional fertiliser 

As it appears from section 18.2 and Table 18.2 the determination of yield-responses to additional fertiliser 

application is related to considerable uncertainties. Uncertainties in the determination of crop responses are 

directly proportional with the associated emissions in the agricultural stage. The yield-responses to additional 

fertiliser appliacation are highly dependant on the present level of fertiliser application that is changed. In this 

study the level of fertiliser application is determined as the average fertiliser application in the region of interest. However, it is more likely that additional fertiliser application will take place in fields where the highest 
244 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

yield-response can be achieved and that is in the fields fertilised below the average level. Thus, it is likely that 

the scenarios that represent increased yield underestimate the yield responses and correspondingly overestimate the environmental impact. Therefore, this sensitivity analysis tests the significance of these uncetainties. 

Table 21.40 shows the applied yield responses and the intervals from which the yield resposnes are determined. 

Crop 

Applied yield-response Interval 

ΔY/ΔN (kg crop/kg N) ΔY/ΔN (kg crop/kg N) 

Rapeseed 4 4-15 

FFB 62 48-149 

Barley, DK (represented by wheat) 12 4-40 

Barley, CAN (represented by wheat) 17 4-40 

Table 21.40: Applied yield-responses to additional fertiliser and the interval of identified yield-responses indicating the 

uncertainties. 

It appears from Table 21.40 that the applied yield-responses are in the lower end of the intervals. Because of 

proportionalibility between yield-responses from fertiliser application and some of the environmental impacts 

(global warming and eutrophication), a doubling of the yield-response will lead to a halving of the associated 

environmental impacts. Therefore, knowing the contribution to e.g. global warming from the agricultural stage, 

it is earsy to determine the characterised results for scenario 3 (increased yield) for different yield resposnes. 

Figur 21.2 shows the characterised results of scenario 3 for global warming and the contribution from the different stages. 

-5

0

5

10

15

20

Rapeseed oil Palm oil

t CO2-eq.

Rapeseed cultivation

Rapeseed oil mill and refinery

Oil palm cultivation

Palm oil mill and refinery

Sys. exp.: Soybean meal (BR)

Sys. exp.: Barley (DK)

Sys. exp.: Barley (CAN)

Transport

17.1

2.60

Rapeseed cultivation

17.3 t CO2-eq.

Oil palm cultivation

1.76 t CO2-eq.

Figur 21.2: Characterised results for global warming of scenario 3 per 1 t oil and the contribution from the agricultural 

stage. 

Table 21.41 shows the characterised results for rapeseed oil and palm oil when the yield responses for rapeseed 

and FFB are changed. 
21 Sensitivity analyses 245 

Vegetable oil 

Sensitivity analysis Yield-response Contribution to global 

warming 

Baseline 4 kg rapeseed per ha/kg N 17.1 t CO2/t oil 

Moderate yield response 8 kg rapeseed per ha/kg N 8.45 t CO2/t oil 

Rapeseed oil 

High yield response 15 kg rapeseed per ha/kg N 4.41 t CO2/t oil 

Baseline 62 kg FFB per ha/kg N 2.60 t CO2/t oil 

Low yield-response 48 kg FFB per ha/kg N 3.11 t CO2/t oil 

Palm oil 

High yield-response 149 kg FFB per ha/kg N 1.57 t CO2/t oil 

Table 21.41: Characterised results for 1 t rapeseed oil and 1 t palm oil when different yield-responses are applied (scenario 3).

It appears from Table 21.41 that the contribution to global warming is highly dependant on the determination 

of yield-responses. For rapeseed oil the interval of yield-responses represent a factor 3.9 difference in the contribution to global warming, and for palm oil the interval represents a factor 2.0 difference. 

Since the determination of yield-responses and the identification of means of increasing the yields are related 

to considerable uncertainties and since the results are very sensitive to yield-responses, the results of the scenarios where increases are met with yield (scenarion 1 and 3) are considered as very uncertain. However, the 

sensitivity analysis shows that uncertainties in the determination of yield-responses can not change the ranking 

of palm oil as the environmental preferable to rapeseed oil regarding global warming. 

There are great differences in the level of fertiliser application in different managed oil palm plantations (see 

section 21.12). Well managed plantations typically apply more fertiliser than poor managed small holder plantations. The extremes of the intervals of yield responses given in Table 21.40 can be considered as the yield 

responses in highly intensified and very extensive cultivation. It appears that the environmental performance of 

increasing FFB yields is markable in extensive cultivated areas (see high yield response of FFB in Table 

21.41). Thus additional fertiliser application in extensively cultivated oil palm cultivations is regarded as an 

improvement option. The level of fertiliser application on rapeseed in Denmark/the EU is considered as more 

uniform and closer to the N and P norms. It also appears that the contribution to global warming from rapeseed 

oil produced by increased yield with high yield responses is relatively high, i.e. 4.41 t CO2-eq./t rapeseed oil. 

Thus additional fertiliser application in rapeseed cultivation is not considered as an improvement option. 

21.22 Summary of sensitivity analyses 

Table 21.42 provides an overview of the main findings of the sensitivity analyses presented in this section. 

The table is organised to provide information on which sources of uncertainties (tested in the single sensitivity 

analyses) that causes significant uncertainty to the results, and which uncertainties that may change the ranking 

of rapeseed oil and palm oil. The significance of uncertainties of results are classified as low (<10% changes in 

results), moderate (10-30% changes in results) and high (>30% changes in results). If the tested sources of 

uncertainties cause uncertainties of high significance, they are marked with bold text. Corresponding to that the 

sources of uncertainties that change the ranking of rapeseed oil and palm oil are also maked with bold text. 
246 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Significanse of the tested source of uncertainty... 

Sensitivity analysis ... the results ... ranking of rapeseed oil/palm oil 

1: LCIA-methods High for toxicities and 

Low/moderate for the remaining impact categories 

- 

2: System delimitation, marginal 

supplier of crops 

Low Not affected 

3: System delimitation, type of land 

transformed into agricultural land 

High Not affected 

4: Energy, marginal source of electricity 

Low Not affected 

5: Energy, representativiness of data 

on district heating in Denmark 

Low/moderate in scenario 1a and 2a, and low for 

all other scenarios 

Not affected 

6: Agricultural cultivation, energy for 

traction 

Low Not affected 

7: Rapeseed cultivation, soil type Moderate Not affected 

8: Rapeseed cultivativation, N-fertiliser 

produced using best available techniques (BAT)

Moderate for global warming and low for the 

remaining impact categories 

Global warming: The ranking is changed from 

even to a situation where rapeseed oil performs 

better when fertiliser produced with BAT is used 

9: Agricultural cultivation, N changes 

in soil matter 

Moderate for eutrophication from rapeseed oil and 

Low for remaining impact categories and for palm 

oil 

Global warming: The ranking is changed from 

even to a situation where palm oil performs 

better when N changes in soil matter are included 

10: Agricultural cultivation, heavy 

metal contents in fertilisers 

Low Not affected 

11: Agricultural cultivation, initial 

compartment of pesticide emissions 

High for ecotoxicity. No effect on other impact 

categories 

Ecotoxicity: The ranking is affected. However, 

the results are very uncertain 

12: Oil palm cultivation, yields High for land use if FFB yields of marginal suppliers is significant higher than the applied 18.87 t/ha 

and moderate for the remaining impact categories 

Global warming: The ranking is changed from 

even to a situation where palm oil performs 

better if FFB yields are significantly higher than 

the applied 18.87 t/ha 

13: Oil palm cultivation, soil type High if land on peat soil is developed for oil palm 

cultivation 

Global warming: The ranking is changed from 

even to a situation where rapeseed oil performs 

significantly better if oil palm is cultivated on 

peat soil 

14: Oil palm cultivation, uncertainties 

in CO2-emissions from peat soil 

Moderate for global warming from palm oil. Global warming: The ranking is changed from 

even to a situation where rapeseed oil performs 

better if CO2-emissions are significantly higher 

than the applied 37 t CO2/ha per year 

15: Barley cultivation, omission of use 

and emissions of pesticides 

- - 

16: Rapeseed oil mill, solvent extraction versus full press High for photochemical smog from rapeseed oil 

and low/moderate for the remaining impact categories 

Not affected 

17: Oil mills, capital goods Low Not affected 

18: Palm oil mill, POME-treatment High for global warming and photochemical smog 

from palm oil and low for the remaining impact 

categories 

Global warming: The ranking is changed from 

even to a situation where palm oil performs 

significantly better if a digester tank is installed 

19: Palm oil mill, steam requirement Low Global warming: The ranking is changed from 

even to a situation where palm oil performs 

better if the steam requirement is lower than the 

applied 0.65 t steam/t FFB 

20: Palm oil mill, alternative management options for EFB

Moderate Global warming: The ranking is changed. 

Rapeseed oil performs best if the EFB is disposed off by landfill, and palm oil performs best 

if the EFB is used in a biomass plant

21: Insensified cultivation, yieldresponses to additional fertiliser High for scenario 1 and 3 Not affected 

Table 21.42: Overview of the main findings in the sensitivity analyses presented in this section.

It appears from Table 21.42 that 8 out of the 21 tested sources of uncertainty potentially affect the result significantly, i.e. at least one of the impact categories are affected with more than 30%. Futhermore 9 of the 21 

sensitivity analyses show that the tested sources of uncertainty may change the ranking of rapeseed oil and 

palm oil within at least one impact category. 
21 Sensitivity analyses 247 

In general the sensitivity analyses show that the uncertainties associated with ecotoxicity are so significant, 

that these results do not provide usable information. The causes of these uncertainties are primarily related to 

uncertainties in LCIA-methods, but also to uncertain determination of the initial compartment of pesticide 

emissions. The characterised results of the remaining impact categories seem to be less associated with uncertainties relating to LCIA-methods. 

Regarding the uncertainties that affects the ranking of rapeseed oil and palm oil, the only relevant impact category is global warming (when not taking ecotoxicity into account). In scenario 4 which is the scenario used in 

most sensitivity analyses the difference between rapeseed oil and palm oil regarding global warming is insignificant. The following uncertainties point in the direction that rapeseed performs better than palm oil: 

• the ammonium nitrate fertiliser used is produced with BAT 

• oil palm is cultivated on peat soil 

• CO2-emissions from peat are significantly higher than the presumed 37 t CO2/ha per year 

• EFB from the palm oil mill is disposed off in a landfill instead of being applied as mulch in the plantation 

On the other side, the following uncertainties point in the direction that palm oil performs better than rapeseed 

oil: 

• N changes in soil matter are included 

• FFB yields are significantly higher than the applied 18.87 t/ha 

• palm oil mill effluent (POME) is treated in a digester tank and the biogas is utilised 

• the steam requirement in the palm oil mill is lower than the applied 0.65 t steam/t FFB 

• EFB from the palm oil mill is utilised for energy purposes in a biomass plant instead of being applied 

as mulch in the plantation 

The last sensitivity analysis (no. 21) shows that the modelling of increased yield is a significance source of 

uncertainty. Therefore, the results of scenario 1 and 3 are associated with a significantly higher level of uncertainty than the other scenarios. 
248 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 
22 Identification of improvement options 249 

22 Identification of improvement options 

In the previous section both improvement options and data uncertainties have been treated together as sources 

of uncertainties in results. The reason for treating them together is that both the identification of the actual 

cultivation practice/technologies and the uncertainty in data may contribute to uncertainties in results. One of 

the purposes of this life cycle inventory is to identify improvement options. Therefore, this section presents 

those of the sensitivity analyses which represent improvement options. Table 22.1 summarises the identified 

improvement options. Only the effects on global warming and biodiversity have been considered. Each improvement option is compared with the baseline scenario in terms of index number (baseline = index 100) 

Ref. to sensitivity analysis Improvement option, rapeseed oil Improvement options Global 

warming 

Land use Biodiversity 

Rapeseed oil 

Cultivation on clay 91 81 92 

Baseline (59% clay, 41% sand) 100 100 100 

7 When agricultural land is transformed 

into other land use types, transformation of clay soils should be avoided 

since these soils give the highest yield 

Cultivation on sand 129 136 114 

8 Using N-fertiliser produced with best Fertiliser produced with BAT 79 - - 

available techniques (BAT) Baseline (BAT is not used) 100 - - 

16 Using full press technology in the oil mill Full press technology 95 81 106 

stage instead of solvent extraction 

technology 

Baseline (solvent extraction) 100 100 100 

Palm oil 

Expanding on grassland - - -191 

Baseline (50% secondary forest 

and 50% grassland) 

- - -100 

3 Expanding the oil palm planted area on 

grassland and avoiding transformation 

of forests 

Expanding in land covered with 

secondary forest 

- - -10 

Cultivation on mineral soils 81 - - 

Baseline (96% mineral soil and 

4% peat) 

100 - - 

13 Avoiding cultivation on peat 

Cultivation on peat soils 542 - - 

Treating POME in digester tank 

with biogas capturing and 

utilisation of the methane for 

energy purposes 

18 Installation of digester tank and utilisa- 58 - - 

tion of biogas instead of open anaerobic 

ponds for palm oil mill effluent (POME) 

treatment 

Baseline (treatment of POME in 

open anaerobic ponds) 

100 - - 

EFB disposed of by landfilling 119 - - 

Baseline (EFB applied as 

mulch in the plantation) 

100 - - 

20 Utilising EFB for energy purposes in a 

biomass plant instead of application as 

mulch in the plantation. Avoiding landfill 

as a magement option for EFB Utilising EFB in biomass plant 

with electricity production 

83 - - 

Extensively cultivated plantation (assumed yield response at 

149 kg FFB/kg N) 

60 - - 

Baseline (assumed yield response at 62 kg FFB/kg N) 100 - - 

21 Yield increases by additional fertiliser 

application in extensively cultivated 

areas 

Baseline (assumed yield response at 62 kg FFB/kg N) 120 - - 

Table 22.1: Overview of the effect of the considered improvement options. Only the effects on global warming and biodiversity have been considered. 

It appears from Table 22.1 that the greatest improvement potentials have been identified for palm oil. It should 

also be mentioned that the effect of the improvement options relating to the transformation of land only refer to the transformation process and not the overall environmental performance of the supply. That is because a piece of transformed 

land can support many functional units. 

23 Sensitivity, completeness and consistency checks 251 

23 Sensitivity, completeness and consitency checks 

According to ISO 14044 (2006) en evaluation in the interpretation phase including sensitivity, completeness 

and consistency check must be carried out in order to establish confidence in the results of the LCA. 

23.1 Sensitivity check 

The objective of the sensitivity check is to assess the reliability of the results and how they are affected by 

uncertainties in data, assumptions and LCIA-methods (ISO 14044 2006). Sensitivity has been assessed on 

three levels in this study: System boundaries, uncertainty in data and LCIA-methods. 

Regarding system boundaries the definition of scenarios represents a sensitivity analysis. In addition the sensitivity analyses in section 21.2 and 21.3 assess the result’s sensitivity to uncertainties in and alternative system 

boundaries. The differences between scenarios show that the approach to system delimitation (consequential/attributional) significantly affects the results (see Table 20.1). The sensitivity analyses in section 21 show 

that the identification of marginal suppliers has only little influence on the results while the impacts of transformation of different non-cultivated land use types into agricultural land has major effects on the results. 

Sensitivity regarding uncertainty in data is assessed during the inventory of each stage where different data 

sources have been compared and in section 21 where several sensitivity analyses have carried out in order to 

assess uncertainties in data. The results of the sensitivity analyses are summarised in section 21.22. 

LCIA-methods and the related uncertainties are assessed in section 21.1 where the characterised results of 

EDIP97, Impact2002+ and Eco-indicator are compared. The sensitivity analysis shows that the results of toxicities are related to so significant uncertainties that the information obtained from the characterised results is 

useless. The other impact categories are more consistent among the different LCIA-methods. 

The main sources of uncertainties are identified as: 

• The characterised results of toxicities do not provide usable information 

• The results of the scenarios where increased cultivation is achiedv by increased yields are associated 

with a significantly high level of uncertainty, i.e. scenario 1 and 3 

• The impacts from transformation of non-cultivated land into agricultural land are associated with considerable uncertainties due to determination of which type of land that is transformed 

• The contribution to global warming from palm oil may be significantly higher if the share of peat soil 

of new land development for oil palm is larger that the present applied value at 4.1% 

• The contribution to global warming from palm oil may be lower of the yields are higher than the applied 18.87 t FFB/ha, if POME is treated in a digester tank with utilisation of biogas, and and if the 

steam requirement is lower than the applied 0.65 t steam/t FFB 

If the uncertainty of the first three bullets should be reduced it would require a workload and further development of methodologies that exceeds the allocation of time for this study. Regarding the fourth bullets it is 

likely that a large part of future development of land for oil palm cultivation will take place on peat soil. According to Corley and Tinker (2003) much of the remaining land available for expansion of oil palm cultivation in South-East Asia is peat soil. Regarding the fifth bullet, it is likely that the marginal supplier of palm oil 

is represented by large private estates with good agricultural practices rather than private small-holders with 

poor cultivation practices. Therefore, the applied average yield at 18.87 t/ha may be too low. However, accord-
252 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

ing to MPOB (2005 and 2006) the share of private estates in Malaysia has increased from 59.1% in 2003 to 

60.2% in 2005, and the share of small-holders has increased from 10.2% in 2003 to 10.5% in 2005. Thus, statistics do not support that hypothesis. Regarding POME treatment, the technology of today is open anaerobic 

digestion in lagoons. However, several digester tanks and utilisation of biogas have been installed as CDMprojects within the Kyoto-protocol framework. Thus, digester tanks may very well be the technology of the 

future. Regarding steam requirement, the applied 0.65 t steam/t FFB is in the high end of the interval. And in 

addition increased focus on the value of excess shells as biofuel may be an incentive for reducing the steam 

consumption. Therefore, it is likely that the contribution to global warming per t palm oil will decrease in the 

future. 

23.2 Completeness check 

The objective of a completeness check is to ensure that the information provided in the difference phases of the 

LCA are sufficient in order to interpretate the results (ISO 14044 2006). 

In general the system boundaries and inventory data are described comprehensively in this report. The point of 

departure for each life cycle stage is that all environmental relevant processes are included in the inventory. 

Environmental relevant means relevant for the impact categories included in the study, see section 1.4. In the 

beginning of each section representing the life cycle stages included in the study, the omission of data, if any, 

is described. In general it assessed that all relevant information is included, except from the use of pesticides in 

barley cultivation. However, as described in section 21.1, the results of ecotoxicity are regarded so uncertain 

that the characterised results do not provide usable information. Therefore, the impact categories of toxicity are 

not supported sufficiently by the inventory data and LCIA-models available. 

Though, the relevant data are present and included, some of the data are related to significantly uncertainties. 

Thus, the following uncertainties in data affect the interpretation of the results: 

• The ratio between increased yield and increased area when cultivation of a certain crop is increased 

• The determination of the affected means of increasing yield (only increased yield by additional NPKfertiliser has been modelled) 

• The modelling of yield-responses by additional fertiliser application 

• The affected type of land use when transforming non-cultivated land into agricultural land 

• There share of new land developed for oil palm that is peat soil 

If abovementionned uncertainties should be reduced, it would require a workload and further development of 

methodologies that exceeds the allocation of time for this study. Therefore, these uncertainties are tested in 

sensitivity analyses (see section 21) and when conclusions are drawn they should be considered. 

23.3 Consistency check 

The objective of the consistency check is to verify that assumptions, methods and data are consistent with the 

goal and scope. Especially the consistency regarding data quality along the product chain, regional/temporal 

differences, allocation rules/system boundaries and LCIA are important (ISO 14044). 

As described in section 23.2 the point of departure of the inventory for each life cycle stage has been to include 

all environmental relevant processes. Among the traditional processes capital goods (machinery and buildings) 

have been included for all processes. Only very few data has been omitted from the inventory. When data have 

been taken from life cycle inventory databases, the largest and most comprehensive database available, ecoin-
23 Sensitivity, completeness and consistency checks 253 

vent, has been used in all cases. Thus, differences between LCI-databases do not contribute to inconsistency in 

this study. 

Regarding regional differences the location of the marginal supplier has been identified for all crops inventoried. Regarding temporal differences data have been collected for 2005 for crop yields and oil mills. However, 

most of the applied database data are of older date. 

Regarding allocation and system delimitation, the consequential approach has been consistently applied to 

most included technologies (electricity, heat, fertiliser, oil mills) and suppliers (crops). But the ecoinvent database uses average technology and allocate by using allocation factors which do not comply with the consequential approach. However, the effect of using allocation factors and of applying average technology has been 

assessed and when significant differences were identified, the processes from ecoinvent have been modifyied 

in order to represent consequential modelling. 

The updated version of EDIP97 has been applied for the impact categories; global warming, ozone depletion, 

acidification, eutrophication, photochemical smog and ecotoxicity. Land use has been assessed using inventory 

data (occupied and transformed area in units of m2

y and m2) and the method of Schmidt (2007c). EDIP as well 

as the method of Schmidt are so-called bottom-up LCIA-methods. However, the methods differ in the way that 

the indicator of Schmidt is representing an end-point indicator while the indicators of EDIP represent midpoint indicators. There is no overlapping between the impact categories in EDIP97 and in the method of 

Schmidt. Normalisation and weighting have not been carried out. 
254 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 
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28 Schmidt and Weidema (2007) is part of the Ph.D. thesis: ‘Life assessment of rapeseed oil and palm oil’ and it is published in the report ‘Life assessment of rapeseed oil and palm oil. Ph.D. thesis, Part 2: Article collection’. 
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266 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 
Appendix 1: Data on fuels 267 

Appendix 1: Data on fuels 

Fuel Density Energy content 

Fuelolie, heavy 0.95 tonne/m3 40.6 MJ/kg 38.6 MJ/litre

Diesel 0.87 tonne/m3 41.9 MJ/kg 36.4 MJ/litre

Petrol 0.72 tonne/m3 42.7 MJ/kg 30.8 MJ/litre

Methane 0.000717 kg/ m3

Table A1.1: Density and lower calorific values for different fuels (Andersen et al., 1981, p 218) 

methane at 0.717 g/litre (Andersen et al. 1981, p 119) 
268 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 
Appendix 2: Rapeseed production in Europe in 2004 269 

Appendix 2: Rapeseed production in Europe in 2004 

Major rapeseed producing countries in Europe Rapeseed production in 2004 

(1000 tonne) 

Rapeseed production 2004 

(winter + spring) 

(1000 tonne) 

Spring rapeseed’s share of 

total rapeseed 2004 

Source (FAOSTAT 2006) (Eurostat 2006) (Eurostat 2006) 

Germany 5,277 5,277 0.8% 

France 3,969 3,995 0.5% 

Poland 1,633 1,633 5.3% 

United Kingdom 1,609 - - 

Czech Republic 935 - - 

Denmark 468 468 0.8% 

Hungary 287 - - 

Russian Fed 276 - - 

Slovakia 263 263 2.3% 

Sweden 228 211 39.0% 

Lithuania 205 205 68.0% 

Ukraine 149 - - 

Belarus 143 - - 

Austria 121 121 0.5% 

Latvia 104 104 59.4% 

Other <100,000 tonne 432 - - 

Total 16,096 12,275 3.6% 

Table A2.1: Production of rapeseed in major rapeseed producing countries in Europe. In cases with no data available the 

cell is marked with a ‘-‘. When production data from FAOSTAT are compared with data from Eurostat, it appears that 

there is good consistency. 

Major rapeseed producing Yield , average 2002-2004 (tonne/ha) 

countries in Europe Rapeseed Rapeseed 

Winter rapeseed Spring rapeseed 

Spring rapeseed in relation to 

winter rapeseed 

Source (FAOSTAT 2006) (Eurostat 2006) 

Germany 3.32 3.32 3.35 1.97 -41% 

France 3.28 3.29 3.29 2.72 -17% 

Poland 2.35 2.35 2.43 1.69 -31% 

United Kingdom 3.18 3.23 - - - 

Czech Republic 2.47 2.47 - - - 

Denmark 3.25 3.25 3.29 2.39 -28% 

Hungary 1.96 1.98 - - - 

Russian Fed 1.04 - - - - 

Slovakia 1.99 1.96 1.96 1.63 -17% 

Sweden 2.43 2.59 3.07 2.09 -32% 

Lithuania 1.86 1.86 2.18 1.73 -20% 

Ukraine 1.07 - - - 

Belarus 0.90 - - - 

Austria 2.50 2.50 2.51 1.73 -31% 

Latvia 1.71 1.71 2.03 1.54 -24% 

Other <100,000 tonne 1.65 - - - - 

Total 2.78 2.58 2.68 1.94 -27% 

Table A2.2: Yields (average of 2002-2004) of rapeseed (winter + spring), winter rapeseed and spring rapeseed in major 

rapeseed producing countries in Europe. In cases with no data available the cell is marked with a ‘-‘. 
270 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 
Appendix 3: Soil types and adjustments to difference sources 271 

Appendix 3: Soil types and adjustments to different 

sources 

Several inventory data are related to different soil types. However, the data sources of these inventory data do 

not apply the same terminology for soil types. Therefore, this appendix adjusts the different terminologies to a 

common set, defined in Table A3.1. 

The share of different soil types under Danish agriculture is shown in Table A3.1. The column to the right 

shows a rough classification of the soil types into sand and clay. 

Adjustment of data from DJF (Danish Institute for Agricultural Science, 2005) 

DJF no. Soil type Area, km2 Share of agricultural soils Sand/clay 

1 Coarse sandy soil 10,548 26% Sand 

2 Grinding sand 4,233 10% Sand 

3 Sandy soil with clay 11,523 28% Clay 

4 Clay soil with sand 9,817 24% Clay 

5 Clay soil 2,390 6% Clay 

6 Heavy clay soil 303 1% Clay 

7 Humus soil 2,090 5% Sand 

8 Calcareous soil 87 0% Sand 

9 City 1,704 - - 

Total 42,694 100% Sand (41%)/clay (59%) 

Table A3.1: Distribution of soil types in Denmark. 

Soil types used in Plantedirektoratet (2005a) and conversion to soil types given in Table A3.1 are shown in 

Table A3.2. Data from Plantedirektoratet (2005a) are used for determination of fertiliser application. Firstly, 

the data from Plantedirektoratet (2005a) are adjusted in order to avoid distinguishing between irrigated and 

non-irrigated soils. The assumption that 50% is irrigated is applied. This adjustment is shown in the third column. Secondly, the adjusted soil types from Plantedirektoratet (2005a) are converted to soil types matching the 

data given in Table A3.1. This is shown in the fourth column. 

Adjustment of data from PDIR (Plantedirektoratet, 2005a) 

PDIR no. Types Adjusted PDIR no. Conversion og soil 

type: DJF no. 

Share Sand/clay 

1 Non-irrigated coarse sandy soil (JB 

1+3) 

Average of 1 and 3 1 26% Sand 

2 Non-irrigated grinding sand (JB 2+4 

and 10-12) 

Average of 1 and 3 2+7+8 16% Sand 

3 Irrigated sandy soil (JB 1-4) - - - - 

4 Mixed sand and clay soil (JB 5-6) 4 3+4 52% Clay 

5 Clay soil (JB 7-9) 5 5+6 7% Clay 

Table A3.2: Adjustment of soil types in Plantedirektoratet (2005a) to fit into the types given in Table A3.1. 

Soil types used in Vinther and Hansen (2004) and conversion to soil types given in Table A3.1 are shown in 

Table A3.3. Data from Vinther and Hansen (2004) are used for determination of denitrification. Firstly, the 

data from Vinther and Hansen (2004) are adjusted in order to fit into the categories defined by Table A3.1 – in 

some cases more than one soil in Vinther and Hansen (2004) fit into each type in Table A3.1. This adjustment 

is shown in the second column. Secondly, the adjusted soil types from Vinther and Hansen (2004) are converted to soil types matching the data given in Table A3.1. This is shown in the third column. 
272 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Adjust of data from SimDen (Vinther and Hansen 2004) 

SimDen no. Adjusted SimDen no. Conversion of soil type: 

DJF no. 

Share Sand/clay 

JB1 Average of JB1 and JB3 1 26% Sand 

JB2 Average of JB2 and JB4 2+7+8 16% Sand 

JB3 - - - - 

JB4 - 3+4 52% Clay 

JB5-6 JB5-6 5+6 7% Clay 

JB7-8 JB7-8 

Table A3.3: Adjustment of soil types in Vinther and Hansen (2004) to fit into the types given in Table A3.1. 
Appendix 4: Characterisation factors for land use in Brazil and Canada 273 

Appendix 4: Characterisation factors for land use in Brazil 

and Canada 

Schmidt (2007c) provides characterisation factors covering Denmark/N-Europe and Malaysia/Indonesia only. 

Since this study also include cultivation in Brazil (the Cerrado savannah and the Amazon tropical forests) and 

Canada (prairie grassland), characterisation factors for these regions are developed in this appendix. The 

method for calculation of characterisation factors is described in detail in Schmidt (2007c). 

Species richness: For Brazil, only the average species richness of a single-sized sample plots have been available. Therefore, S100 of these land use types has been calculated assuming a value for the species accumulation 

rate. Perelman et al. (2001) have calculated z = 0.14 for the pampas in Argentina. Thus, this value is applied to 

the Cerrado as well as to soybean fields in Brazil. The data and results of these land use types are shown in 

Table A4.1. The species richness of agriculture in Canada is assumed to be equal to that of N-Europe and the 

species richness of prairie grassland is assumed to be equal to imperata grassland in SE-Asia. 

Land use type S100 Comments to calculation of S100 in this study... 

Brazil 

1 Arable, cereals/annuals, soybean, intensive 16 one entry: 7.15 species on 0.4 m2 (Gomez and Gurevitch 1998) 

5 Nature, forest (Amazon forest) 98 Assumed value as in SE-Asia, obtained from Schmidt (2007c) 

7 Nature, grassland (Cerrado savannah) 24 one entriy: 430 species on 90,000 km2 (Perelman et al. 2001) 

Canada 

1 Arable, cereals/annuals, intensive 10 Assumed value as in N-Europe, obtained from Schmidt (2007c) 

7 Nature, grassland 12 Assumed value as in SE-Asia, obtained from Schmidt (2007c) 

Table A4.1: Species richness of vascular plants in a standardised area of 100 m2 for relevant land use types in Brazil and Canada. 

Ecosystem vulnerability: For the Brazil Cerrado, z is assumed to be represented by z = 0.14 for the Argentine 

Pampas given in Perelman et al. (2001), and for Canada, z is assumed to be represented by the same value as in 

N-Europe, i.e. z = 0.22 (Schmidt 2007c). The factors for ecosystem vulnerability are calculated in Table A4.2. 

Brazil Canada 

High intensity land

Arable 590,000 456,600 

Permanent crop 76,000 64,550 

Built-up, roads, barren land 1,046,440 4,397,610 

Low-intensity land

Permanent pasture 1,970,000 153,900 

Forest and woodland 4,776,980 4,020,850 

Total land area 8,459,420 9,093,510 

LI 0.80 0.46 

Z 0.14 0.22 

Factor for ecosystem vulnerability: z/LI 0.18 0.48 

Table A4.2: Land cover by land use types in km2. The values are used for determining LI. LI and z are used for calculating the factor for ecosystem 

vulnerability. Data for all land use types except forest and woodland are from 2003 (FAOSTAT 2006). Data for forest and woodland are from 2005 

(FAO 2006). 

Characterisation factors: Table A4.3 summarise the determining factors for calculating the characterisation 

factors as well as the calculated characterisation factors. The renaturalisation times for natural grassland and 

forests are all based on 500 years for the nature types in mid-Europe (Schmidt 2007c) corrected for the latitude 

using factors obtained from Schmidt (2007c). Characterisation factors for occupation impacts are calculated 

for two different areas in Brazil, i.e. the Amazon forests and the Cerrado savannah. This is because the renaturalisation potential (species richness) differs in the two regions. 
274 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil 

Land use type S100 z/LI S Characterisation factors (wS100) 100 ⋅ z/LI Renaturalisation 

time Occ. Trans. from... Trans. to... 

Brazil, Amazon region

1 Arable, cereals/annuals, soy, intensive 16 0.18 3 1 15 1 -1 

7 Nature, forest, Amazon* 98* 0.18 4 355 0* 3,131* -3,131* 

Brazil, Cerrado region 

1 Arable, cereals/annuals, soy, intensive 16 0.18 3 1 1 1 -1 

7 Nature, grassland, Cerrado* 24* 0.18 4 430 0* 929* -929* 

Canada

1 Arable, cereals/annuals, intensive 10 0.48 5 1 1 2 -2 

5 Nature, grassland* 12* 0.48 6 500 0* 1,440* -1,440* 

Table A4.3: Characterisation factors given in units of weighted species richness on a standard area of 100 m2, wS100. Reference states for natural 

relaxation in each region are marked with *. 
Abbreviations 275 

Abbreviations 

A.i. Active ingredients in pesticides 

Alang-alang Grassland in Indonesia is often reffered to as alang-alang. Often covered by the grass species; imperata. 

BL Barley 

BR Brazil 

CAN Canada 

CDM projects Cleaner Development project. Project within the Kyoto framework aiming at reducing greenhouse gas 

emissions. 

CPO Crude palm oil 

DK Denmark 

Dry climate <1000 mm annual precipitation, same definition as in IPCC (2003) 

EFB Empty fruit bunches 

FFA Free fatty acid 

FFB Fresh fruit bunches 

ha y Hectare years 

IN Indonesia 

LCI Life cycle inventory 

LCIA Life cycle impact assessment 

Moist climate 1000-2000 mm annual precipitation, same definition as in IPCC (2003) 

MPOB Malaysian Palm Oil Board 

MY Malaysia 

MY&IN Malaysia and Indonesia 

NBD Neutralised, Bleached and Deodorised (i.e. the processes in refining of vegetable oil) 

PKC Palm kernel cake 

PKO Palm kernel oil 

PO Palm oil 

PO+PKO Total output of vegetable oils from palm oil industry, i.e. PO from FFB and PKO from kernels 

POME Palm oil mill effluent 

RSO Rapeseed oil 

RSM Rapeseed meal 

RSPO Round Table on Sustainable Palm Oil 

SM Soybean meal 

SO Soybean oil 

Wet climate >2000 mm annual precipitation, same definition as in IPCC (2003) 
276 Ph.D. thesis, Part 3: Life cycle inventory of rapeseed oil and palm oil