Background

Manganese (Mn) is an essential dietary element biologically utilized for numerous physiologic 

processes as a constituent of enzymes and an activator of other enzymes (Nielsen, 1999), such 

as Mn superoxide dismutase (MnSOD), a principal antioxidant enzyme of mitochondria (Leach 

and Harris, 1997). Mn enzymes are also involved in bone development (Keen and ZidenbergCherr, 1996), wound healing (Shetlar and Shetlar, 1994), and the metabolism of carbohydrates, 

amino acids, and cholesterol (Institute of Medicine 2001). Upon ingestion, Mn is subject to tight 

homeostatic control (Papavasiliou et al.,1966). Inhaled Mn, however, can bypass biliary 

excretion mechanisms and directly enter the systemic circulation (Davis, 1998; Davis, 1999; 

Keen et al., 1999). Inhaled Mn exposure may have a dose-related continuum of nervous 

system dysfunction, and the lowest level linked with neurotoxicity is unknown (Mergler et al., 

1999). At the high end of exposure (>1 mg/m3), Mn can result in Manganism, an 

extrapyramidal movement disorder similar to, but clinically distinguishable from, Parkinson’s 

disease (Aschner et al., 2005; Huang et al., 1993; Pal et al., 1999). At concentrations near or 

below the reference concentration (RfC) of 50 ng/m3established by the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency (EPA, 2009), Mn neurotoxicity includes effects on neuropsychological and 

motor function (Mergler et al., 1999), postural stability (Hudnell, 1999; Standridge et al., 2008; 

Hernández-Bonilla et al 2011), and increased risk for physician diagnosis of Parkinson’s 

disease (Finkelstein and Jerrett, 2007). Children and infants may be particularly susceptible for 

the neurotoxic effects of environmental ambient Mn exposure due to the development of the 

brain and central nervous system and the ability of ambient Mn to cross the blood-brain barrier 

and accumulate in the brain (Elder et al., 2006; Aschner, 1999; Aschner, 2000; Aschner, 2006). 

In utero exposure to environmental Mn has also been associated with decreased neurocognitive 

and neuromotor function in children (Takser et al., 2004). 
Mn is frequently a component of ambient particulate matter (PM), a complex mixture of 

acids, organic chemicals, metals and soil or dust particles. The coarse fraction (PM2.5-10) is 

often dominated by crustal materials (e.g., windblown dust, resuspension of road dust, 

demolition of buildings), whereas the particles in fine (PM2.5) and ultrafine (PM0.1) fractions are 

mostly formed through combustion processes including metal refining. Fine and ultrafine 

particles have been associated with adverse health effects (Schwartz et al., 1996; Pope et al., 

2009) which can be attributed to the properties of these particles including size, surface area, 

and composition. 

Eramet Marietta, Inc. (EMI), a ferromanganese refinery in operation since 1952 (Eramet 

Marietta, 2011) is located in Marietta, Ohio, a rural Appalachian American community situated 

along the Ohio River. The refinery has reported their fugitive Mn emissions to the EPA varying 

from 580,213 lbs/year in 1999 to 101,503 lbs/year in 2009 (EPA, 2011). An academiccommunity partnership was developed (Haynes et al., 2011) between the University of 

Cincinnati and the community to conduct an epidemiologic investigation of the neurobehavioral 

effects of Mn on children, the Marietta Community Actively Researching Exposure Study 

(CARES). The purpose of this study was to address, in part, one of the community-driven 

concerns of the “microenvironments” of children residing near the refinery by examining 

personal exposure to PM2.5 and its constituents in a subset of the cohort.

Traditionally, exposure to particulate matter and Mn, in particular, in the ambient 

environment is measured by stationary outdoor air monitoring; however, outdoor stationary 

monitors may not be representative of personal exposures for several reasons. Stationary 

monitors are typically placed in locations far above the typical breathing zone, i.e., rooftops, and 

humans spend the majority of their time indoors (Klepeis et al., 2001). Furthermore, personal 

exposures are often higher than shown by microenvironmental measurements in indoor or 
outdoor air because of so-called “personal cloud” effect, caused by closer proximity to pollution 

sources or particle resuspension due to human activity (Wallace, 2000). Thus, the goal of our 

study was to characterize personal exposure to Mn and PM2.5 in a cohort of children ages 7-9 

years residing near a ferromanganese refinery. We also wanted to address the following 

research questions: 1) What is the relationship between personal air Mn, stationary air Mn, and 

time-weighted distance from the refinery (TWD) and 2) what is the relationship among biological 

Mn concentrations (hair and blood) and personal exposure to ambient Mn.

Methods

Study Population. Children ages 7, 8, and 9 years were recruited for participation in the 

personal air sampling through their enrollment in CARES. Eligibility for CARES includes 

children ages 7-9 who have resided in the Marietta area throughout their life and their biological 

mother having resided in the area during pregnancy with the child. Children were recruited for 

participation in CARES through recruitment letters sent home through schools, radio and 

newspaper ads, and fliers. Children enrolled in CARES from Marietta were selected to 

participate in the personal air sampling study if they reported residing in a non-smoking 

household. The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the University of 

Cincinnati and all participants signed an informed consent and assent.

Stationary Air Sampling. A stationary air sampler was positioned on the rooftop of a 

Marietta College building approximately 8 kilometers from EMI. The site was selected based on 

its high population density within the catchment area. Positioning the stationary air monitor in 

the highest population density area within the community provided an exposure scenario 

experienced by the anticipated majority of the study participants. Stationary samples were 

collected using Harvard-type PM2.5 impactors (MS&T Area Sampler; Air Diagnostics, Inc, 
Harrison, ME) with a high volume sampling pump, calibrated to 10 liters per minute (LPM) ± 0.5 

LPM. The sampler was equipped with a sampler ring, a Whatman support pad to prevent filter 

blow out, and a 37 mm pre-weighed Teflon membrane filter (2 μm pore size; SKC Inc., EightyFour, PA) to collect airborne particles smaller than 2.5 μm. The sampling times were 48 hours 

±2 hours. Three 48-hour samples were collected each week. Stationary air sampling was 

conducted over a 2-year time frame from October 2008 – September 2010. Only the results 

from the stationary air sampling during the time of the personal air sampling are used in these 

analyses. 

Personal air sampling. Personal air samples were collected using a Personal Modular 

Impactor, PMI coarse (SKC Inc.). The PMI coarse sampler is a two stage impactor, capable of 

sampling for PM2.5, PM2.5-10, or both. The PMI coarse sampler was selected to minimize the 

bounce of large particles on the PM2.5 filter by using an oiled impaction plate on the PM2.5-10

stage instead of a collection filter. 

Air pumps and battery packs were placed in a backpack, with a short Tygon® tube to 

connect the PMI sampler to the air sampling pump. The pumps were calibrated to 3 LPM ±0.1 

LPM. The PMI sampler was equipped with the same type of Teflon filters used for outdoor 

sampling. The air sampling technician demonstrated how to wear the backpack and the 

sampler. The technician instructed to keep the air sampler near the child’s breathing zone 

during times when the child could not comfortably wear the backpack, for instance during sleep 

the equipment could be laid on a nightstand. The sampling time was 48 hours ± 2 hours and 

the sampler remained in or near the child’s breathing zone for the duration of the sampling time. 

All personal samples were collected during the Spring season of two consecutive years: AprilJune, 2009 and March–June, 2010. 
During a home visit with the participating families, a study team member conducted a 

brief questionnaire to determine the child’s potential exposure to particle sources during the 

sampling period. Questions included the child’s exposure to cigarette smoke, use of heating 

and cooking devices, candle use, and time sampling setup was not with subject or was outside 

of the Marietta area. Throughout the 48 hour period, parents of participants filled out an activity 

log to indicate the activities of the child during the sampling period and to identify when and if 

the sampling device was not with the child during the sampling period. 

Analysis of Air Sampling Filters. Teflon filters for personal and stationary outdoor 

samples were analyzed for particle mass gravimetrically and for Mn in the PM2.5 fraction using 

a Thermo X Series II inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) by a commercial 

laboratory (Research Triangle Institute, NC). Results were reported in μg/m3(PM2.5 mass) and 

ng/m3(Mn). Ten percent (10%) of the samples were laboratory blanks and another 10% were 

field blanks to protect the validity of the sample results. The detection limits were 4.1 μg/sample 

for PM2.5 mass and 2.5 ng/sample for Mn. 

Time Weighted Distance (TWD). TWD was calculated based on time spent at home 

(TimeHome) and school (TimeSchool) and the distance of each (DistanceHome and DistanceSchool) 

from the ferromanganese refinery divided by the child’s total sampling time (48±2hrs). The 

TWD was calculated using the following equation:

 

( ) ( )

 

(1)

Wind index. In order to account for the influence of wind direction on sampled 

concentrations of Mn, a continuous measure of the location of the child’s home relative to the 

wind direction during the 48 hours of sampling and the location of the primary Mn emission 

source, EMI, Inc. was derived. This measure, referred to as the wind index, was calculated as 
 

 ( )

 

(2)

 

 where AngleHomePlant is the Euclidean direction of the Mn point source from the child’s home 

and AngleWind is the average wind direction during the 48-hour sampling period obtained from 

the National Climatic Data Center climate data from the Parkersburg, West Virginia at the MidOhio Valley Airport. The cosine transformation allows for a rescaling of the difference in the 

home angle to the Mn point source and wind direction to a scale with range 0 to 1. Hence, a 

home directly upwind of the Mn point source during sampling will have a wind index variable of 

0 and homes directly downwind a value of 1.

Biological Collection and Analysis.

Blood. Venipuncture samples were collected by trained phlebotomists using a 23 gauge 

butterfly needle and vacutainer cuff or needle and syringe. Proper preparation and blood 

collection techniques were employed to ensure that samples were not contaminated. Blood 

collection equipment and supplies were tested to be trace-metal free and were stored and set 

up in a manner that kept them free of dust and contaminants. Blood collection tubes were 

placed in a small bag after the box was opened to protect the tops from being contaminated. 

Kimwipes®, a lint free cloth, were used to cover the tubes, place blood collection supplies on, or 

used whenever needed to protect equipment from contamination.

The blood puncture area at the site of the antecubital vein was prepared by briskly 

scrubbing the area twice with alcohol pads in a circular fashion inside to out, and wiping the 

area with a gauze sponge following each scrub. After a 5 second air drying time the needle was 

inserted into the vein and blood either aspirated into a syringe or vacutainer tube depending on 

the collection method best for the subject. A purple top tube with EDTA anticoagulant was filled 
for each participant. Immediately after collection the tubes were inverted several times and 

placed covered on an orbital mixer for several minutes. 

Whole blood for Mn analysis was refrigerated until shipped at least monthly to the New 

York State Dept of Health’s (NYSDOH) Wadsworth Center, Health Research, Inc. Albany 

Division. The Laboratory of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry under the direction of Dr. Patrick 

Parsons conducted the analyses of the whole blood for Mn by Graphite Furnace Atomic 

Absorption Spectroscopy (GFAAS). A Perkin-Elmer Model 5100ZL Atomic Absorption 

Spectrometer with Zeeman background correction and equipped with an AS-70 Auto-sampler 

was used for the analysis of the samples. The instrument was operated using a hollow cathode 

lamp at the 279.5 nm line along with a slit width of 0.2 nm. Blood was diluted 1 to 9 with an 

aqueous solution of 0.015% Mg(NO3)2 6H2O, 0.1% Triton® X-100, and 0.2% HNO3. Using the 

auto-sampler twenty (20) μL of the diluent was deposited into a graphite tube onto a L’vov 

platform. The diluent of each sample was analyzed twice. The Method Detection Limit (MDL), 

defined as three times the standard deviation of twenty separate runs of a low Mn concentration 

blood, was 1.5 μg/L for blood Mn. Quality control consisted of incorporating numerous 

secondary blood reference materials into daily analytical runs. There are no certified reference 

materials currently available for blood Mn (Praasma et al., 2011).

Hair. Hair samples were obtained from children using ceramic scissors cleaned with 

alcohol. Samples were taken from the occipital region, cut close to the scalp, and deposited in 

clean, white envelopes. Approximately 20 strands of hair were isolated and cut. For children 

with very short hair, samples were taken from several areas of the head and collected directly 

into the envelope. Hair was analyzed for Mn concentrations (μg/g) at the Channing Trace 

Metals Laboratory, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard School of Public Health (Boston, 

MA) using methods previously described (Wright et al., 2006).
Briefly, hair samples were cleaned in 10 mL of 1% Triton X-100 solution for 15 min, 

followed by repeated rinsing with distilled deionized water, and drying at 70 °C for 24 h. 

Subsequently, the samples were digested with 1 mL concentrated nitric acid for 24 h and diluted 

to 5 mL with deionized water. Acid-digested samples were analyzed using inductively coupled 

plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) (Elan DRC II, Perkin Elmer, Norwalk, CT). Analysis of Mn 

was performed using indium as the internal standard. Recovery of the analysis of quality control 

standard by this procedure is 90–110%, and the coefficient of variation of the within-day 

analysis was < 10%. Samples were measured by the instrument five times and the average of 

the five replicates is reported for each child. The average method detection limit was 1.63 ng/g.

Data analysis. The distribution of stationary and personal air Mn exposure was 

examined and natural log transformation was used to reach normality (lnsMn and lnpMn for 

stationary and personal Mn respectively). Geometric means, geometric standard deviations, and 

95% confidence intervals were used to describe the air Mn data. The Mn and PM2.5

concentrations of stationary and personal sampling were compared between the two testing 

years (2009 and 2010). Multiple linear regression models were used to examine the personal 

air Mn concentrations as a function of TWD, stationary air Mn concentration, wind speed and 

direction, and average precipitation. Separate regression models were used to examine the 

association between personal Mn concentration and blood and hair Mn. All data analyses were 

performed using SAS 9.2 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC), and a significance level of 0.05. 

Study data were collected and managed using REDCap electronic data capture tools 

hosted at the University of Cincinnati. REDCap (Research Electronic Data Capture) is a secure, 

web-based application designed to support data capture for research studies, providing: 1) an 

intuitive interface for validated data entry; 2) audit trails for tracking data manipulation and 

export procedures; 3) automated export procedures for seamless data downloads to common 
statistical packages; and 4) procedures for importing data from external sources (Harris et al., 

2009).

Results

A total of 48 children participated in the personal air sampling study. Equipment failures, 

i.e., air pump stopped during the sampling period, resulted in exclusion of 10 (20.8%) 

participants from the data analysis. Thus, complete personal air sampling data were collected 

on 38 children living within a 28.5 km radius of the ferromanganese refinery (Figure 1). All 

children were 7 (21%), 8 (39%), or 9 (39%) years old, and 66% (n=25) of the participating 

children were female. The majority of the participants were Caucasian (95%, n=36), 1 was 

African American (3%), and 1 was Native American (3%) (Table 1).

Although families were excluded based on report of a smoking family member, three 

(8%) participating families reported having a family member smoking in the home during the 

personal air sampling for 1-2 hours. Two (5%) children reported spending more than 3 hours 

during the 48 hour sampling period outside of the Marietta area (Table 1). The majority (n=29,

76%) remained in the Marietta area during the sampling period. The personal air sampling 

monitor remained with 28 (74%) of the children during the entire sampling period, whereas 7 

children (18%) did not have the monitor for 1-2 hours, and 2 children (5%) reportedly did not 

have the monitor for 3-4 hours (Table 1).

Mean blood Mn concentration in the personal air sampling cohort was 9.5 μg/L ranging 

from 5 μg/L to 14.4 μg/L. Mean hair Mn concentration was 0.47 μg/g and ranged from 0.085 

μg/g to 1.25 μg/g. Hair Mn and blood Mn were not significantly correlated in this sample, with 

correlation coefficient of 0.26, p=0.15. In multiple linear regression model adjusting for age, sex, 

and daily dietary Mn intake, hair Mn was only slightly higher in persons with high blood Mn with 
an estimate of 0.05 μg/g increase in hair Mn per 1 μg/L blood Mn (95% CI: -0.001 to 0.095, 

p=0.06). Approximately 58% (22/38) of the children had their blood and hair collected within 14 

days of their participation in the personal air sampling component of the study.

Personal air Mn concentration varied between the 2009 and 2010 during Spring 

sampling periods (Table 2). The personal air Mn appeared to be higher in 2010, but the 

variation did not reach statistical significance. The stationary air Mn also demonstrated similar 

trend, but again no statistical significance was found between 2009 and 2010. Differences 

between stationary and personal air Mn concentrations were not significant in both 2009 and 

2010.

PM2.5 concentration was consistently higher in the personal air filters than the stationary 

air filters (p<0.05 for both 2009 and 2010). The stationary air PM2.5 concentration was slightly 

higher in 2010 than 2009, with borderline significance (p=0.06). 

When combining the sampling periods for those with personal air sampling (n=38), the 

geometric mean (GM) personal air Mn was 8.1 ng/m3, and the GM stationary air Mn was 11 

ng/m3 (Table 3). The mean stationary PM2.5 was 10.8 μg/m3, and the GM personal PM2.5 was 

16.9 μg/m3. The TWD ranged from 4.7 km to 28.5 km with a mean distance of 11.1 km (4.7 km 

st.dev) from the ferromanganese refinery (Table 3). During the entire sampling period, wind 

speed averaged 8.1 km/hr and ranged from 2.6 to approximately 15 km/hr, and it rained an 

average of 0.43 cm (st.dev 0.54 cm; range 0 – 2.25 cm). The amount of time the participating 

children spent outdoors ranged from 0% to 45% with an average of 14% (st.dev.12%). 

Based on the multiple regression model, personal air Mn concentration (pMN) was 

positively associated with stationary Mn concentration and inversely associated TWD and wind 

speed (Table 4). For each km increase in TWD, i.e., further far from the stationary source, the 

lnpMn was decreased by -0.075 (95% CI: -0.13, -0.01). This was roughly translated to about 8% 
decrease (1-e

-0.075) in original personal air Mn concentrations by each km TWD. Neither age nor 

gender was associated with personal air Mn concentration. 

Using separate multiple regression models, neither blood Mn nor hair Mn was 

associated with the stationary or personal air Mn concentrations or TWD (data not shown); 

however, there was a positive trend in blood Mn by personal air Mn concentration, although this 

was not significant (Figure 2). After repeating the analysis with only those children (n=22) 

whose blood and hair were collected within 14 days of the personal air sampling, there 

remained no statistically significant association between personal air Mn and blood or hair Mn. 

Discussion

This is to our knowledge the first study of children’s personal exposure to ambient Mn 

and its relationship with biological markers of exposure. The results of this analysis demonstrate 

that in this rural Appalachian community personal exposure to Mn is significantly associated 

with children’s proximity to a ferromanganese refinery. Ambient background concentrations of 

Mn and wind speed were also significantly associated with personal Mn exposure. Biological 

markers of exposure including concentrations of Mn in blood and hair, however, were not 

associated with either sampled personal Mn exposure or the child’s time-weighted distance from 

the ferromanganese facility. This can potentially be explained by the small number of children 

participating in the personal air sampling (n=38). 

Low-level exposure to Mn has previously been associated with adverse child 

neurodevelopment including measures of intelligence, hyperactive behavior, memory, and 

motor function (Riojas-Rodrigues et al., 2010; Rodriguez-Agudelo et al., 2006; Wright et al., 

2006). Similar to other environmental neurotoxicants, exposure during critical periods of 

neurodevelopment, including prenatally and during early-childhood, is likely to have the greatest 

health impact. Unlike lead and some other known neurotoxicants (e.g. second-hand smoke), 
however, Mn is an essential element necessary for cellular function (Aschner and Aschner, 

2005). Inhalation is a particularly significant route of exposure to Mn as this pathway bypasses 

homeostatic excretory mechanisms allowing for direct exposure to the lung and brain via the 

olfactory nerve (Dorman et al. 2002; Tjalve et al. 1996). The significance of this study is 

underscored by its focus on children, who are considered particularly vulnerable to 

environmental neurotoxicants (National Research Council 1993; Woodruff et al., 2004; 

Landrigan et al., 2011). 

Similar to other studies of children’s personal exposure to PM2.5, our cohort’s personal 

exposure to PM2.5 was elevated in comparison to concurrent stationary air sampling. This 

observation, frequently referred to as a child’s ‘personal dust cloud’, is likely a function of the 

time-activity patterns of children, including time spent indoors at home and school, in vehicles, 

or walking, running or playing resulting in the resuspension of particles (Ozkaynak et al., 1996; 

Elgethun et al., 2003). Interestingly, however, personal exposure to Mn did not follow this trend 

across sampling periods. Whereas in the 2009 sampling period, personal Mn exposure did, on 

average, exceed Mn concentrations at the stationary sampling site, the results of the 2010 

personal air sampling demonstrated decreased personal Mn exposure compared to the 

stationary site. These findings may be a result of differing meteorological conditions, elevation 

of participant residences, or alterations in Mn emissions from the facility. In contrast to other 

studies of personal PM2.5 exposure, the variability in personal Mn exposure was similar, and in 

2010 less than, the observed variability in stationary air sampling. These results suggest that 

resuspension of particles is not a significant source of Mn exposure; rather, as seen by the 

association between distance to the ferromanganese facility and personal exposure, location 

near the industrial point source is likely the most significant source of personal exposure.

Though the association between personal exposure to ambient Mn and concentrations 

of Mn in hair were not statistically significant, we did observe a borderline relationship between 
personal exposure and blood Mn. Whereas hair Mn may reflect longer term exposure, 

concentrations of Mn in blood are likely to reflect more recent exposures due to its short half-life 

(Smith et al., 2007; Zheng, 2000). The relationship between personal Mn exposure and blood 

Mn is complicated by the large individual variability of blood Mn due to diet, iron status, and 

genes involved in iron metabolism (Haynes et al 2010; Claus Henn et al 2011). However, the 

concentrations of Mn in blood observed in this study were similar to or greater than other 

studies of children with environmental exposure to ambient Mn. For example, children residing 

near Mn mining and processing facilities in Mexico were reported to have a geometric mean Mn 

blood concentration of 9.71 μg/L (Riojas-Rodriguez et al., 2010). A study of children ages 6-12 

residing near a ferromanganese alloy plant in Brazil also reported a mean blood Mn 

concentration of 8.2 μg/L. 

Hair Mn in this study is at least 10-fold lower than was measured in similar crosssectional studies of children in Brazil where mean hair Mn was 5.8 μg/g ranging from (0.1 to 

86.7 μg/g) (Menezes-Filho et al., 2011), in Mexico where the hair Mn ranged from 0.40 to 48 

μg/g (Hernández-Bonilla et al., 2011), and in children exposed to Mn in drinking water in 

Canada (Bouchard et al., 2007) where the mean hair Mn was 5.1 μg/g. Our results, however, 

more closely approximate the measured Mn in hair of children residing near a hazardous waste

site in Oklahoma (Wright et al., 2006) where mean hair Mn was 0.47 μg/g ranging from 0.89 to 

2.1 μg/g and a study of young adults in Poland (Chojnacka et al 2010) where mean hair Mn was 

0.73 μg/g . Variation in hair sample length used and analysis methods may contribute to 

differences in hair Mn concentration. Similar to our study, Wright et al. (2006) analyzed their 

samples by ICP-MS and used the entire hair sample collected, whereas Menez-Filho et al., 

(2011), Bouchard et al., (2007) and Hernández-Bonilla et al., (2011)used Zeeman Atomic 

Absorption Spectroscopy and reported using only the first centimeter or the amount available. 

Although human scalp hair has been used for decades to assess environmental exposure to 
metals (Kopito et al., 1967; Hammer et al., 1971; Yamaguchi et al., 1971; Klevay, 1973; 

Menezes-Filho et al., 2011) variation across studies in the location of the hair sample collected, 

washing procedure, and length of hair analyzed (ATSDR, 2003, Seidel et al., 2001) limit the 

ability to compare hair Mn across studies. Thus, inter- and intra-laboratory validation of hair Mn 

collection, cleaning and analysis are needed. 

A potential limitation of the current study is the number of study subjects. Due to the 

difficulty associated with personal air sampling in children, a subset of the overall CARES cohort 

was enrolled in this study. The objective of this study, however, was to determine if a surrogate 

of Mn exposure, time-weighted distance to the ferromanganese facility, was applicable in the 

general cohort. An additional limitation of this study is the lack of residential locations near the 

industrial point source of Mn emissions. On average, the time-weighted distance from the facility 

was 11.24 km ranging from 4.7 to 28.5 km. However, due to the population distribution we 

expect the subset to reflect the overall exposure in the CARES cohort. We are not able to 

assess seasonal differences in personal exposure or long term personal exposure due to 

sampling occurring over the course of one season. We did not observe a significant association 

between wind direction, as reflected by the wind index, and personal exposure to manganese. 

This finding may be due to the use of wind direction reported at a nearby airport as a surrogate 

for wind direction at the participants’ homes as the topography of the study region may result in 

varying local wind patterns not reflected by the average regional wind direction. 

In conclusion, the findings of this study suggest the time-weighted average distance from 

the ferromanganese facility may be a suitable surrogate of personal exposure to airborne Mn for 

participants in the CARES cohort.