## In the



# U n ited S ta tes Co urt o f Ap p ea ls

F o rth eS e v e n th C ir cu it
N o. 09

- 4073 E D UA RD S HL AHT I CHMA N , Plai nt i f f

-Appe l l ant, v. 1- 800 C ONTACTS, I NC ., D efend a nt-A pp ellee.

A pp eal from the United S t ates Di strictC our t fo r the N o rthernDi stricto f Illino is, Eas tern Div isi on. No . 09 C4032

—Jo hn W. Darrah, Judge .
A RGUED A PRIL 15, 2010

— D ECIDED A UGUS T 10, 2010

Befo re B AUER, R OV NER, a nd H A MI L T ON, C ircu it Judges . R OV NER, Cir cu i tJudg e . Aft e r Ed ua r d S hl a ht i c hm an pu rchas ed conta ct l enses o verthe I nter net, 1-8 00 Contacts , I nc. em ai l ed hi m a confi rm ati on o fhi s o rder w h ich r eflec te d t h e e x p ira tio n d at e o f h is c re d it c ar d . Th e F air and Accurate Credi t Tr ansact i ons A ct o f20 03 ( “FAC TA ”) prohibi ts a ve nd orwh o accepts a cre dito r debi t ca rd as a m eans ofpaym ent fro m “print[ i ng] m or e than the l ast 5 di gi ts ofthe car d num ber o r the e xpir ati on date upon2 N o. 09

- 4073 any r ecei pt prov i ded to th e car dh ol der a t the poi nt o f the s al e o r tr ansa c tion, ” 1 5 U.S
. C. § 1 681c ( g) ( 1) ; the proh ibit ion “a p p l[ies ] on ly to rec eip ts th at are ele c tr on ica lly p rin te d ,” as o p p os ed t o th os e on w h ich th e c re d it or d eb it c a r d i n f o r ma t i o n i s wr i t t e n b y h a n d o r t a k e n b y i m pr i nt orphotoc op y, § 1681 ( c) ( g) ( 2)
. Did 1

- 800 Contacts “e l ectronically print” th e exp irati on d ate of Shlahtich m an ’s c re d i t car d, and thereby vi ol ate FA CT A , by i ncl ud i ng it i n the e m ai l ? Thi s i s a que st i o n o f fi r sti m pr es si o n a t th e appell ate l eve l
. W e a n sw er thatquesti on in the negat i ve and affi rm the dism i ssa lo fS hl ahti chm an’ s co m pla i nt. 1- 800 Co n tacts s el l s co ntact l enses o verthe I nter net and accep ts paym ent b y c re ditcar d. On or bef or e J une 2, 2009 , S hl ahti chm an m ade an Inter net purchas e fro m 1- 800 Con ta ct s us i nghi s cr edi t ca r d. 1

- 80 0 Con ta ct s th ens en t S hl ah ti ch m ana co m put er - g en er at ed emai lc o nfi r m i ng his ord er. A m ong the in form ation inclu d ed i n th e con fi rm at ion w as th e e x p ira tio n d at e o f Sh lah tic h m an ’s c re d it c ar d
. S h lah tic h m an rec eiv ed th e e m ail a t h is h om e in I l l i noi s o n J une 2, 20 09. These ar e t he es senti alf actual a l l e g a t i o ns o fS h l a h t i c h ma n ’ s c o mp l a i n t, a n d w e a s s u me thei r tr uth f orpurposes o fr ev iew ing the di sm i ssa lo f h is s u it. E.g
. , A dd is v. Wh i t burn , 15 3 F
. 3d 836, 83 7 ( 7th C ir. 1998). FA CT A am ended the Fa i r Credi t Repor ti ng Act of19 70, 15 U .S.C. §§ 16 81 ets eq . ( “FCRA ”) , to add, am ong othe r provi si ons, a “r ecei pt truncati on” re quir em ent a i m ed at c om b at in g id en tit y t h eft
. See § 1 68 1c ( g )
. As a m en ded, the sta tute provi des:N o. 09

- 4073 3 T ru n c atio n of cre d it ca rd an d d eb it ca rd n u m b ers ( 1) I n gener al Exce pt as o th er wi se pr o vi d ed in thi s su bs ec ti o n, no per so n tha t ac ce pts c r edi t ca r ds o r de bi t ca r ds f o r the tr a ns a c t i o n o fb us i ne s s s ha l lp r i ntmo r e tha n the l a st 5 dig i ts of the car d num ber or the expir atio n d ate upo n a ny r ec ei pt pr o vi ded to the c ar dho l dera t th e po i nto fthe s al e o r t r an sa ct i o n. ( 2) Li m i t at i on T his s u bsec tion sh allap p ly only to receipt s tha t are el ectr oni cal l y pr i nted, and shal lnot a pp l y t o tr ansactio n s in w h ich th e s ole m ea n s o f rec or d in g a cr ed it ca r d o r de bi t ca r d a cc o untnumbe r i s byha ndwri ting o r b y a n i mpr i nto r c o pyo fthe c a r d. (3) Effecti ve d ate This subsect i on s hal lbec om e e ffecti ve

— ( A) 3 y ea r s afte r Dec embe r 4, 20 03 , wi th r es pec t to a ny c as h reg ist er or oth er m ac h in e o r d ev ice th at ele c tr on ically p rints receip ts for cred it card or d ebit card tr an sa ct i o ns tha t i s i n us e be f o r e J anua r y 1 , 2 00 5; a nd (B) 1 y ear after Decem ber4, 20 03, with r espectto any c ash r egi ste r oro therm ac hi ne o r devi ce that ele c tr on ica lly p rin ts rec e i p ts for c re d it c ar d or d eb it car d tra nsacti on s that i s fi rs t put into use o n or afterJ anuary1, 20 05. § 1 68 1c ( g )
. The st atut e pe r m i ts a c o ns um ert o r ec o ve r a ny ac tu alda m ages he sus ta i ns a s a r es ul t o fa ne g l i g en t vio lat ion, tog et h er w ith th e c os ts of su it, see 15 U
. S
. C.4 N o. 09

- 4073

The C reditand D ebitCard Receip t C la ri fic ati on A ctof2007, 1 P u b . L . N o . 11 0 -2 4 1 , 12 2 St a t. 1 5 6 5 (en a ct ed Ju n e 3 , 20 0 8 ), prov ided a ( parti al) s afe harbor t o vend ors w ho m erel y printe d the e xpi ra t i on dat e ofa c ons um er ’ s c re di tor d eb itc ar d on a rec ei pt prior to J une 3, 2008, by d ecl ari n g t h at this l im it ed vi ol at i on of the s t atut e would n otam ountt o a wil l ful vi ol at i on o f th e st a t u te
. S ee§ 16 81 n(d ). H ow ev er, 1-800 C on tacts em ailed the re ceip t to Sh lah tichm an after J u ne 3 , 2 0 0 8 , an d so the safe harbor i s inapplic able t o thi s cas e. § 1 681 o , o r sta tutory dam age s (w ithout any pr oo fo f i nj ur y ) o f$ 10 0 to $ 10 00 pe r v i o l at i o n, a l o ngwith th e c os ts of su it, if t h e v iola tio n of th e s ta tu te w as w illfu l, see 15 U
. S. C
. § 1681n (1)( A ), ( 3). 1 Shl ahti chm an fi l ed a c l ass act i on s uiti n I l lin ois st ate c o ur to n b e ha l fo fh i mse l fa nd o the r s s i mi l a r l y s i t ua t e d, co nt en di ngtha t 1- 800 Co nt ac ts ha d v i o l at ed th e F CRA as am ended by FAC TA byi ncl ud i ng the expi ra tion date o fa pur ch as er ’s cr edi t ca r d i n the o r derc o nfi r m at i o ns i t sent b y e m ai l
. Because the s uitar i ses under a federa l st atut e, 1

- 80 0 Con ta ct s r emov ed th e ac ti o n t o the d ist ric t c ou rt
. See 2 8 U
. S. C. §§ 1331 , 14 41, 14 46. I t then m o ve d t o di smi ss S hl ah ti ch m an ’ s co m pl aintpur su an t to F e d e ral R ule of CivilProced ure 12(b)( 6) f or f ail ure t o s t a t e a c l a i m o n whi c h r e l i e fc o ul d b e g r a nt e d. The dis tr i ct c ourtgr anted t h e m oti on a nd di sm i sse d th e s u it. Shlahtichm an v. 1-800 C ontacts, Inc. , N o. 09 C 403 2, 20 09 W L 4 50 65 35 ( N
. D
. Il l. De c. 2 , 2 00 9) ; R. 26 , 2 8. The c ou rt ci ted two pri nci pal r eas ons f orco ncl ud i ng tha t a n em ai l ed or der c onfi rm ati on f al l s o utsid e th e s cope o fN o. 09

- 4073 5 th e s ta tu te . “ First, e- m ai lo rd er co nfi rm ati ons ar e no t
‘ el ectro ni cal l y pr i nted’ re cei pts under F A CT A
. ” Id. at*2 (em p ha sis ours). N o t in g tha t the statu te leaves th e term “pr i n t e d ” u n d e fi n e d , th e c o u r ta d o p t e d th e p l a i n a nd o r di na r y mean i ng of t he t er m , whi chs i g ni fi es the tr ansfero ftext, i m age s, desi gns, and other i nfo rm ati on to p ap er . Id. at* 3. It r ej ecte d Shl ahti chm an’ s co ntenti on that the t er m sho uld al so be t ake n to i n c lu d e th e di spl ay ofi nfo rm ati on o n a c om pu terscr een, r eas oni ng tha t ev en if th e w or d “p rin t” c an b e un d er st oo d int h is w ay , t h is is n otits ord in ar y im p or t. Id. The f ac t th atthe effec ti ve da te o fthe t r unc at i ngpr o vi si o n tur ne d o n the date o n w hi ch the vendor’ s “ cash r eg ist er o r othe r m achi ne o r devi ce that e l ectr oni cal ly pri nts r ecei pts” cam e into use co nfi rm ed that the pr ovi si on s houl d be und er sto od to r each r ecei pts thatar e pr i nted on paper b y ca sh re gis te rs an d sim ilar d e v i c e s . Id. a t * 4. And the l e g i s l a t i v e h i s t o r y r e v e a l e d th a ti twa s the mi s a ppropri ati on o ft hose kind s o fr ecei pts thatCongr ess w as c o n c er n ed ab ou t w h en it p as se d FA C T A
. Id. “ Se co nd, ane - m ai lo r der c onfi r m at i o n i s no t pr o vi ded ‘ atthe poi nt o fthe sal e o r tr ansact ion ’ under F A CT A
. ” Id. at*2 ( emphas i s o ur s)
. As o th erc o ur ts ha d o bs er ve d , the s ta tu
to r y r efer en ce to r ec ei pts pr o vi ded at “the po i nt of the sa l e o r t r an sa ct i o n” c o nt empl at es i n- st o r e tr an sa ct i o ns ra th er th an ele c tr on ic c om m er c e. Id. a t * 5. Ev eni fa po i nt ofsale c an be ascr ibed to an Inter net purchas e

— S hl ah tic hm ana r g ue d tha t th e co m put erus ed bythe consum erto m ake the purchase re prese nts the poin t of sa le

— an e m ai lse nt to the pu rchas erto co nfi rm that p u rc h as e i s n otp ro vid ed atth at p oin t b u t ra th er is6 N o. 09

- 4073 dir ecte d to an em ai lacc ou n t th at can be acc ess ed anyw h er e. Id. A l though S hl ahti chm an br ought thi s ca se as a cl ass ac ti o n, no c l as s was e ve r c erti fi ed ( no mot i o n a sk i ngthe di st r i ctc o ur t to do s o was fi l ed) , s o the di smi ss alo fthe com pla i nt o nl y di spose s o fS hl ahti chm an’ s ind i vi du al c laim f o r relie f. See, e . g. , Phil l ips v. Fo r d M ot orCo. , 43 5 F. 3d 785, 78 7 ( 7th Ci r. 20 06)
. N onethel es s, the di str i ct cour t m ade cl ear that i t conte m pla ted no furtherp ro c ee d in gs in t h is c as e, seeR. 26 ( d eem ing t h e c ase closed ), so i ts j ud gm ent i s fi naland ouro w n appell ate j uri sdic

tio n is s ec u re . See, e . g. , M cC la in v . Reta il Fo o d E m plo yers Joi ntPe ns i on Plan , 413 F.3d 582 , 585 n .2 (7th C ir. 2005). C o n s i s t e n twi th th e f a c tth a tn o c l as s wa s c e r t i fi e d , we s ha l lt r e a tS hl a ht i c hma n’ s c o mpl a i nta s i fi twe r e fi l ed so lely on h is ow n be h alf. R utan v. R ep u blican Pa rty of Ill
. , 86 8 F .2d 94 3, 94 7 (7 th C ir. 19 89 ) (en ba n c ), af f’ d i n p art & rev’d in par ton othe rgroun ds , 4 9 7U. S
. 6 2 , 1 1 0 S
. Ct
. 2 729 (1990). Ou r re vi ew o f the dis tr i ct c ourt ’ s deci si on i s de no vo. E.g
. , H uk ic v. A uro ra L o a n S ervs. , 5 88 F.3d 420, 43 4 (7th C ir. 20 09 )
. The v i ab i l i tyo fS hl ah ti ch m an ’ s co m pl ainttur ns o n th e me a n i n go fF AC T A’ s t e r ms

— i n par ti cul ar, the te r m “ pr i nt
. ” Abse nta de fi ni ti o n su p pl i ed bythe st atut e i ts el f, we lookt o the o r di na r y o r na tu r almean i ng of th e t er m . FD I C v. M eyer, 5 10 U .S. 47 1, 47 6, 11 4 S
. Ct. 996, 10 01 ( 1994 ) ( ci ti ng Sm ith v. U nited S ta tes , 508 U
. S. 22 3, 2 2 8 , 1 1 3 S . C t. 20 50 , 205 4 (1 99 3)); s e eal s o Hardtv. Rel i ance S td. Li

f eIns . Co. , 1 30 S
. Ct
. 2 14 9, 2 15 6 ( 20 10 )
. But we musta l so l o o kt o the s ta tu te as a w hol e i n di sc erni ngN o. 09

- 4073 7

a te r m ’ s m ea ni ngr athe r tha n ex am ini ngi t i n i so l at i o n. Sam ant arv. Yous uf

, 1 30 S
. Ct
. 2 27 8, 2 28 9 ( 20 10 ) ( quo ting U ni t e d S t at e s v. M or t on , 46 7 U.S
. 82 2, 828 , 1 04 S. Ct. 27 69, 27 73 (19 84 )); Nk en v . Ho lder, 12 9 S
. Ct. 1 74 9, 1756 ( 2009 ) (quoti ng Robi ns on v. Sh e l l O i l Co. , 5 1 9 U. S
. 3 3 7, 3 4 1 , 11 7 S. C t. 84 3 , 84 6 (1 99 7)). “[ W ]h en th e s ta tu te ’s la n gu ag e is pla i n, the sol e functi on of th e c ourt s

— atl ea stwher e th e d is p o siti on req uired by the text i s not ab su rd

— i s to enf or ce i t a ccor ding to i ts ter m s. ” La m ie v. U .S. Tr u s t ee, 54 0 U. S
. 5 26 , 5 34, 1 24 S
. Ct
. 1 023, 1 03 0 ( 20 04 ) ( quo ting H artf or d Unde rwr i t e rs In s . Co
. v . Uni on Pl an t e rs Ba n k, N. A. , 530 U
. S. 1, 6, 120 S. Ct
. 1942, 1947 (2000)). As the di st r i ctc o ur t no te d, mos t co ur ts ha ve c o nc lu d ed th at th e ter m “e lec tr on ica lly p rin te d ” re ac h es on ly th ose r ec ei pts tha t ar e pr i nt ed o n pa per, a s th atunde rst an di ngo fthe st atu te co nf o r m s to the o r di na r y mean i ng of the t er m “print. ” See Tur ne rv. Ticke tAni m al, LL C, N o. 08

- 6 1 0 3 8 -C I V , 2009 W L 10352 41 (S. D
. Fl a. A p r. 16, 2009 ); Sm ith v. U nder A rm our, Inc. , 59 3 F. Sup p. 2d 12 81 ( S. D. Fl a. 20 08 ); Sm ith v. Z a zzle. com , Inc. , 58 9 F
. S up p. 2d 13 45, 13 48 (S.D . Fla. 20 08 ); Grab e i n v . Jupi t e r i m age s Corp. , N o. 07

- 2228 8-C I V , 2008 W L 27044 51 (S. D
. Fl a. Jul. 7, 2008) (report an d r ec om m en d at ion of m ag ist ra te j u d ge ), a do pted , 20 08 W L 29 06 86 6 (S .D . F la. Ju l. 28 , 200 8); Kin g v . M oviet icke ts
. com , Inc. , 55 5 F
. S up p . 2 d 1 339, 13 40 ( S. D. Fl a. 2008 ); Haslam v. Fe derated D ep’tStores, Inc. , N o. 07

- 6187 1 C IV , 2 00 8 W L 55 74 76 2 (S .D . Fla. M ay 16 , 200 8); Nars o n v . G oD add y.c om , Inc. , N o. CV-08- 0177, 20 08 W L 2 7902 11 ( D. A ri z. M ay 5, 20 08)
. A m i nor i ty have concl ud ed that th e t er m sh ou ld be u n d er st oo d to rea c h ele c tr on ic receip ts th at are d isplayed on th e con su m er’s com p ut er.8 N o. 09

- 4073

An I nt er ne t m er c han t, i n addi t i on t o or i n l i eu ofsending 2 the con sum er a re ceip t or co nfirm atio n via em ail, m ay ge ne rate a rec ei pt on its w eb sit e atthe ti m e ofthe tr ansac ti on, w hich the c ons um er m ay ( and i s oft ene nc our age d t o) pr i ntoutf or her r ec o rd s. S ee, e. g. , Unde rArmo ur, 593 F. Supp
. 2d at 1282. W e do n otvi e w a s m a t e r i a l the di s t i nc ti ons be t we e n a r e c e i pt tha t is d isp lay ed on the m erch an t’ s w eb site and on e tha t is em ail ed to t h e con sum er for purp oses ofthe i ss ue prese nted in this cas e. R om ano v. ActiveNet w ork, In c. , N o . 0 9 C 1 9 0 5 , 2 0 0 9 WL 2 9 1 6 83 8 (N .D . I ll. Se p t. 3, 20 09 ); Har r i s v. Be s tBuy Co. , 25 4 F.R .D
. 82 , 86 -87 (N .D
. Ill. 2 0 0 8); Grab e i n v . 1- 800- Flow ers. com , Inc. , No
. 0 7

- 2 2 2 3 5

- CI V, 2 008 W L 3 4 3 1 7 9 ( S
. D. Fla . J a n . 29, 20 08 ); Va sq uez-To rres v. Stub hub, Inc. , No
. CV 07- 1328 , 20 07 U
. S. Dis t. LE XI S 6371 9 ( C.D. Cal
. J ul. 2, 2007 )
. W e con c lu d e that the m aj or i ty vi ew adopted by

2 the di s t r i c tc o ur ti n thi s c a s e i s o n fi r merg r o un d. W hat F A CT A co ver s a re prin tedr e c e i pt s . T h e s a me tech nological adv a n c e s tha t hav e given con su m ers m ul ti pl e m ea ns o fpa y i ngthe i r b i l l s an d pur ch as i ng g o o ds an d s er vi ce s ha ve als o made i t po ss ibl e f o r the re c eip ts co n firm in g t h o se tra n sa c tio n s t o b e p ro vid ed in th e fo rm of a v oic em ail, em ail, an d te x t m e s s ag e a s w ell as the t r a di t i o na lp a pe r r e c e i pt
. Bu twh e n o ne r e fe r s to a p rin te d rec eip t, w h at sp rin gs to m in d is a t an gib le docum ent. T o “pri nt” a r ecei pt thus o rdi nari l y c onnote s re cor ding i t o n paper. “That is w h y [ the pl ai nti ff ] had to pr i nta c o py o fhi s r e c e i p tt o g e ti to ffo fh i s c o mp u t e r ; i ti s w h y th e ma c h i n e u s e d t o t r a n s fe r t e x t f r o m a c o mput e r t o pa pe r i s c a l l ed a p r i n ter; and i t i s why aN o. 09

- 4073 9 j u d ge w ho a sks a l aw cl er k t o pr i nta c a s e d o e s n o ti n te nd f orthe c l e r kt o me r e l y di s pl a y the c a s e o n hi s c o mpute r scr een. ” Jup iteri m a ges , 200 8 W L 27 04 45 1, at *8 (em p h as is in ori ginal). Di ct i o na r i es a r e a he l pfulr es o ur ce i n a sc er ta i ni ngthe c o mm o n mea ningo ft e r ms tha ta s t a t ut e l e a v e s u nd e fi ne d, see, e . g. , Crawf

or d v
. M e t r o. Gov’ tof Nas hvi l l e& D avi ds on County, Te nn. , 12 9 S
. C t. 846, 85 0 ( 2009 ) , and a c anvass o f seve ra l l eadi ng di cti onar i es re veal s that “ pri nt” in i ts tr ansi ti ve verb f or m ord inari l y c onnote s the tr ansfero f wor ds o r i m ages to a t an g ibl e m edium

— often p ap er. See O X F OR D E NGL I S H D ICTIO NA RY O NL I NE, ava i l abl e a t http: //engl i sh. oxf or dd i cti onar i es. com ( l astvi si ted A ug. 5, 2010 ) (“pro d u c e (books, ne w sp ap ers, m agaz ines, etc. ), especi al l y in l ar ge quant iti es, bya m echani calpro cess involving th e trans fer of text, i m ages, or d esigns to p ap er: a tho usa nd cop ies of th e boo kw ere printed ”) ; M ERRI AM W EBSTER D ICTIO NA RY O NL I NE, a v a i l ab l e a th t t p : //me r r i a mw ebst er . com /di cti onar y ( l astvi si ted A ug. 5, 20 10) (“ a : to i m pr es s so m ethi ngi n o r o n b : to st am p (as a m a r k ) in o r o n s o m ethi ng ”); D ICTIO NA RY . CO M , ava ilab le at ht t p : // d i c t i o n a r y . r e fe r e n c e . c o m ( l a s tv i s i t e d Au g . 5 , 2 0 1 0) ( “to pro du ce ( a t ext, pi cture , et c. ) by ap ply i ng inke d types, pla tes , bl ock s, o r the l i ke, to p aper oro therm ate ri alei ther by di r e c tp r e s s ur e o r i nd i r e c t l y b y o ff s e t t i nga n i m age onto an inter m ed iat e rol l er ”) ( ci ti ng Random H ouse Dict i onar y)
. True enough, thes e s ourc es re cogni ze that the t er m , wh en use d w i th r efer ence to com pu ter s, al so c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d to me a n th e d i s p l a y o ft e x to n a c o mp u te r’s vie w in g s c re en . M ERR I AM -W E BSTER D ICTIO NA RY O NL INE (“P R I NTOUT; a lso : to di spl ay on a sur f ace ( as a10 N o. 09

- 4073

com p ut er screen ) for view ing”); D ICTIO NA RY . CO M (“ C o mp u t e rs. to pro du ce ( data) i n l egibl e a l phanu m er i c o r gr aphic f or m ”)
. F or t h at m att er, o ne can al so “pri nt to fi l e” a nd “ pr i ntt o PDF ” ( po r tabl e d ocu m en t f o r m at ) i n a com pu terenviro nm ent without t ra nsfer ring any thi ng to p ap er . See O X FORD E NGL I S H D ICTIO NA RY O NLI NE ( “s en d (a com p ut er fi le) to a printer or to an oth er, tem p orary fi l e” )
. Butthe se us ag es o fthe t er m , wh i l e m o r e fr eque nt in r ecentye ar s, do notye t r epres ent the o rdi naryo r natu ra l m eani ng o f“print. ” S hl ahti chm an sugg est s that use o fthe adverb “e l ectr onical l y” i n sec ti on 1 681c ( g) ( 2) (“[t] his su bsec tion sh allap p ly only to rec eipts that are e l e ctro nic al l y p r i nt e d
. . . ”) ( emphas i s o ur s) e vinc es a c o ngressiona l inten t t o b road en the m ean ing of th e statu tory te r m t o i nc l ud e the mor e mod e r n us a g e s , s o thatan “e lec tr on ica lly p rin te d ” re c eip t w ill in c lu d e o n e t h a t is opened and displ aye d on the consum er ’ s co m pu ter
. Yet, th e m o di fi er“ el ec tr oni ca l l y ” appe ar s i nt en ded to di st i ngui sh tho se re c ei pts thatar e pr i nted by m achi ne, as opposed to tho se w hi ch ar e handw ri tte n o r cre ate d by taki ng an i m press i on o fthe car d usi ng an i m pri nt er . See A ctiv e Netw o rk, 20 09 W L 29168 38, at * 3. I n any case , wh atev er so rtof p rin ti n g t h at th e c on su m er m igh t d o on h is orherco m pu teri s no t pr i nti ng don e b y a “perso n that accepts cr edi t ca rds o r debi t c ards f orthe tr ansact i on o f busine ss , ” § 16 81 c( g ) ( 1) ; a nd i t i s pr i nt i ngb y the v en dor, ra th er th a n b y t h e c on su m er , at w h ich th e s ta tu te is aim ed
. M ovi e t i cke t s . co m , 55 5 F
. S up p . 2d at13 41- 42; GoD addy
. co m , 20 08 W L 27902 11, at* 3. A n em ai lge nera ted bythe v en do r mightne ve r b e vi ewe d o r di spl ay ed bythe co ns um era nd thus mightne ve r b e pr i nt ed ev eni n theN o. 09

- 4073 11 expansi ve sense that Shl ahti chm an advoca tes
. Thi s l eave s S hl a ht i c hma n t o a r g ue tha tthe v e nd o r “ pr i nt s ” a r e c e i pt si m plyby s e ndi ng the e m ai lto the consum er . S hl ahti chm an R ep ly a t 1 7-1 8. B u t t h at to o is a d e p a r t u r e f ro m th e o rd in a r y o r n a t u r a lme a n i n go fth e t e r m. U ltim at ely , “[s]t at u to ry lan gu a g e o n ly h as m ea n in g in conte xt, ” Gra ha m County S oi l & Wat e rCons e r vat i on D i s t
. v. U ni t e d S t at e s ex re l
. Wi l s on , 54 5 U
. S. 409, 41 5, 12 5 S
. Ct. 24 44, 24 49 ( 20 05 ) , a nd th e o ve r al ls ta tu to r y c o nt ex t o fF AC TA su g g es ts , c o ns i st en t w ith th e o r di na r y mean i ngo fthe w or d “pri nt, ” that the st atute i s a i m ed at paper r ecei pts
. T he s t a t ut e ’ s b a n o n pr i nt i ngmo r e tha n the l ast fi ve d igit s o fa debi t o r cre ditcar d orthe expir ati on date ofthe car d app l i es to re cei pts thatar e pr i nt ed and “provi d ed t o the c ar dh ol der at th e po int o f the sal e or tran sac t i on . ” § 16 81c( g) ( 1) ( em phasi s o urs)
. T hi s l anguage has a re ady appli cati on t o f ace- to- f ac e tra nsacti ons that tak e p lac e in a “b ric ks -an d -m or t a r ” s to re or s om e c om p ar ab le ph y s i c a ll oca ti o n a twh i c h the c o ns ume r i s h a nd e d a re c eip t. Se eGoD addy
. co m , 2 0 0 8 WL 2 7 9 0 2 1 1 , a t* 5
. I t s a ppli cati on t o I nter net purchas es ra i ses a hosto fque stio ns. W here i s the poi nt o fsa l e forsuch a purchase

— th e consu m er ’ s co m put er ? th e ve ndo r ’ s he adqua r te r s? the v en dor’ s s er ver ? cyber space gener al l y? A nd i s that the s a me po i nta t whi cha n e m ai l ed r ec ei pt i s pr o vi ded to the consum er ? Assum i ngtha tthese questi ons can be answered ina w ay th at co m p or ts w ith th e s ta tu to r y lan gu ag e, see Ehrh e ar t v
. Bos eCorp. , Ci v. A
. N o. 07

- 350, 20 08 W L 64491 , at* 4- * 6 ( W
. D. Pa
. Jan
. 4 , 2 00 8) ( o n pr emi se tha t “po i nt ofsa l e o r tr ansact i on” has no fi xed m eani ng and can re ferto a ti m e o r eve nt r atherthan a l oca ti on, cour t e s-12 N o. 09

- 4073 ch ews a n un der st an di ngo f th e te r m a s us ed i n F AC TA that w oul d refert o a p arti cul arphysi calsi te) , a separ ate su b se c tio n of se c t i on 16 81 c (g) p oin ts ag ain to tra d itional, i n-store tran sact ions. I n su bsec tion 168c (g)( 3), Con g r es s spe ci fi ed two di ffer en t effec ti ve da tes f o r the tr uncati on r equi re m ent: Decem ber4, 20 06, “with re spect to any ca sh reg ister or oth e rm a c h i ne o r dev ice th at ele c tr on ical l y pr i nts r ecei pts f orcr edi t ca rd o r debi t ca rd tr ansacti ons t hati s i n u s eb e

f oreJanu ary 1 , 20 05, ” a nd Decem ber4, 2004 with r espectto any su c h m achi ne o r devi ce “ that is f i rs tpu ti nt o u se o n o r af t e rJanu ary 1 , 20 05 .” (E m p h as is ours . ) The ci tat i on o fthe cash r egi ste r as th e le ad ex am p le of a m ac h in e o r d ev ice u se d to ele c t r o n ica lly pri nt a re cei pt i s co nsi ste nt with the n ot ion that Congr ess m ea ntt o r egul at e th e ty pes o fr ece i pts tha t do cumenti np erso n tra ns action s betw een the con su m er and the m erc h ant; few te rm s br i ng to m i nd a sto re bet terthan “cas h re gi ste r. ” On the othe r hand , sco re s o fbusi ne sses us e th e sa m e so r ts o f co m put er s to g en er at e an d pr i nt r ec ei pts tha t c ons um er s no w pos se ss i n the i r ho m es , a nd technol ogicaladvances ar e f astbl urr i ng the l i ne be tw een tr adit i onalcas h re gi ste rs and consum er -own ed devi ces th at ca n p er for m th e s am e fu n c tio n s. See, e . g. , Eri ck Sc h on feld , Squ a re Turn s Yo ur iP a d Into A C a sh R egister, T EC H C RUNC H ( Ap r . 3 , 2 0 1 0 ) , a v a i l ab l e a th t t p : // t e c h c r u n c h
. c o m/ 2010 /04/03/sq ua re-i p ad / ( last v is ited A ug . 5, 2010). M ore te l l i ng, p erha ps, i s th atCo ng r es s ch o se t o make the effec ti ve da te o fthe t r unc at i o n r equi r ementde pen den t on the vintage o fthe d ev ice u sed to pri nt the r ecei pt. See GoD addy
. co m , 20 08 W L 27902 11, at*5; F ed erated D ep’t Sto res , 20 08 W L 55747 62, at* 4. I fthe sta tute appli es toN o. 09

- 4073 13 onl y thos e re cei pts that ar e printed on pap er by a vendor u s i n g a c a s h r e g i s t e r o r s i mi l a r d e v i c e , th e n t h e t wo differ ent e ffec tive dates co m pri sed a w or kabl e s chem e. I f, however, the sta tute re ach es n ot o nl y those r ecei pts th at ar e pr i nted by the v endor i n the tr aditi onalway, buta l so th ose th ata r e emai l ed to the c o ns um era nd d i s p l a y e d o n th e d e v i c e o fh e r c h o o s i n g( p e r s o n a lc o mpu ter, sm ar tphone, et c. ) , then w i th r espectto the l att er subseto fr ecei p ts , C ongres s m ade the effecti ve date o f th e trunc at i o n r equi r ementde pen den t o n a f ac t ( th e d at e th e d evi ce was fi rs t put into use) thatwas w hol ly beyo nd the c o nt e mpl a t i o n a nd c o nt r o lo fthe v e ndor f aci ng l i abi l i ty. Of c ou rs e, that i s waterunder the br i dge n ow th at th e la te r effe c tiv e d at e h as p as se d , bu t itis i mpl a us ib l e t o thinktha tCo ng r e s s wo ul d h a v e p r em i sed a v en d or ’s l i a b ility on circ u m st an c es th at w er e e n tir ely beyo n d it s contr ol
. In shor t, “[ t] he l anguage o f§ 1681 c( g) as a w hol e cl ear l y s how s that the st atute co ntem pla tes tr an sact i o ns wher e r ec ei pts a r e phy si ca l l y pr i nt ed us i ng el ectr oni c poi nt o fsa l e devi ces l i ke ele ctr oni c ca sh re gi ste rs or dial

- up te rm i nal s. ” GoD addy
. co m , 2 0 0 8 WL 27 90 21 1, at *6; s e eal s o Ti cke tAni m al , 200 9 W L 10 35 24 1, at *3 ( “the ter m s ‘ poi nt o fthe sal e’ and ‘a n y c ash r egi ste r or othe r m achi ne o r devi ce’ i m m ed iate l y e vok e the i m age of a p ap er rec eip t” ); U nde rAr m our, 59 3 F
. S up p. 2 d at 12 87(sa m e); Zazzl e . co m , 589 F. Sup p . 2d at 1348 (sam e). The sta tutory l anguage st ri kes us a s s i gni fi cant no t on l y f o r the t e r ms tha ti tu s e s b utf o r tho s e i tdo e s n ot. E- co m m er ce was c o m m o n by 2003 ; r et ai ls al es v i a th e I nter net r eached $5 6 bi l l i on in the U ni ted Sta tes that ye ar . U .S. D e p ’ t o f C om m er c e, E -St at s: E-Com m e r ce20 0314 N o. 09

- 4073 H ighlights , a t4 ( Ma y 1 1 , 2 0 0 5 ) , a v a i l ab l e a t h t t p : //www . census. gov/e con/ est ats /2 003/2003 fi nal text. pd f( l astvi si ted A ug. 5, 20 10)
. Yet the s ta tu te m ake s no use of ter m s l i ke “I nter net” or“e m ai l ” that wou ld signalan i nt en t to r ea chpa per l es s r ec ei pts t r an smi tt ed to the c o ns ume rv i a e mai l
. El s e whe r e , Co ng r e s s h a s ma de expli ci t that i t is incl ud i ng el ectr oni c m edi a a nd tr ansactio n s w ith inth e s c op e o f a st at u te
. See, e . g. , 1 5 U. S
. C. § 12 78 ( c) ( 1) ( A) ( Con su m erPr o ductS afety I m pr o ve m en t A ct o f20 08) ( “A ny advertis em en t bya re tai l er, m anufa ctu re r, i m p orter, d istribu tor, or private labeler ( i nc l udi ng a dv ertisem ents o n Internet w e b s ites o r i n cata l ogue s o r o th erpr i nt ed m at er i al s) tha t pr o vi des a direct mea ns f o r the pu rch as e o r o r dero fa pr o ductf o r whi cha c au ti onar y s tat em ent i s r equi re d und er subsecti on ( a) o r ( b) shal li ncl ud e the appropr i ate cauti onar y s tat em en t d i spla yed o n ori m m edi ate l y a dj acent to that advert i sem e n t
. . . . ”) (e m p h as is ou rs ); 15 U .S.C . §§ 7 70 1, ets eq . ( Con tr o l l i ngthe Ass au lto fNon- S o l i ci te d Po r no g r aph y an d M ar ke tin g A c t o f 20 03 ) (rec og n izin g t h at “[e ]lec tr on ic m ai lha s be co m e anex tremel y po pul ara nd i m po r ta nt m ea n s o fco m m unica ti on, r el i ed on bym i l l i ons ofA m erican s on a d a ily basis forpers ona l an d com m ercial p urposes ” a nd “o ffer [ s] uni que oppo rt u n iti es f orthe develo p m en t a n d gro w th of fric tio n les s com m er c e,” § 7 701( a) ( 1) , a n d pro ceedi ng to se t for th se ri es ofr equi re m ents ai m ed at unsol i ci ted com m er ci al el ectr oni c m ail or“s pam ”) ; 18 U
. S. C. § 2 343( e) ( 1) ( Contrab and C i gar ett e Traffi cki ng Act of19 78, as a m ended by 20 06 re new al ofPatr i ot A ct) ( defini ng “del i very sa le” ofci gar ett es or sm okel ess tobacco , as to wh i ch cer tain i nfo rm ati on m ustN o. 09

- 4073 15 be m ai ntai ned as r equi re d b y U .S
. A tto rneyGenera l, to i ncl ud e sal e i n w hi ch “the consum er subm i ts th e o rd er f orsuch s al e by m eans ofa tel ephone o r othe r m etho d of v oic e t ra n sm iss ion, th e m ails , o rt h e I n ternet o r oth er o n line s ervice, o r b y a nyo the r me a ns wh e r e the c o nsum er i s no t in the sam e physi call oca ti on a s the se l l erwh en th e pu rch ase or offer of sale i s m a d e”) ( em p ha sis ours); 28 U
. S. C. § 1920( 2) (J ud i ci alA dm i ni str ati on a nd Techni cal A m en d m en ts A c t of 20 08 ) (in c lu d in g w ith int a x ab le c o s t s o fl i t i g a t i o n “ [ f ] e e s f o r p r i nt e d or e le ctronically reco rded t r an sc r i pts ne ce ss ar i l y o bt aine d f o r u se i n the case ”) ( em phasi s o u rs ) ; 42 U
. S. C. § 2 000a a- 7 ( Pri vacy Pro tect i on Act of19 80 ) ( defini ng “docum entar y m ate
ri al s” gathere d i n cour se offedera li nvest i gat i on, as to w h ich st atute se ts f or th ce rt ai n pri vacypro tect i ons, to i nc l ud e “ mat e r i a l s u po n w hi c h i nfo r mat i o n i s r e c o r de d, and i ncl ud es , b ut i s no t l i m i ted to , wri tte n orpri nted m ate ri al s, photo gr aphs, m oti on pi cture fi l m s, nega ti ves, vi deo t apes, audio ta pes, and other m echani cal l y, m ag [n e]t ica lly, o r electron ica llyrecord edcar ds , t ap es, o r d iscs .
. . ”) ( em p ha sis ours). In view of su ch st a tu tory p ro vis ion s, it is rea so n ab le t o e x p ec t t h at C on gr es s w ou ld have used si m i l ar t er m i nol ogyhad i t m eant to re ach electron ic receipts view ed or p r inted by the cons um er. U nde rAr m our, 59 3 F
. S up p. 2d at12 87. W e r eco gni ze that sect i on 1681c( g) was one ofse ver al provi si ons i n FA CT A that w er e enacte d t o c om bat id en tit y t h eft
. See Pub. L. 10 8- 159, 11 7 S tat
. 19 52 ( Dec. 4, 20 03 ) ( des cr ibingF AC TA as “ [ a] n [ a] ct[ t] o a m en d the Fa ir C re d it R e p or tin g A c t, to pre vent ident ity the ft, i m pr o ve re so l ut i o n o fc o ns um erdi spu te s, i m pr o ve the16 N o. 09

- 4073

W e ne ed n ote xpl or e FACTA ’ s l eg i s l at i ve hi s t or y i n vi ew of 3 th e u n a m b ig u o u s te rm s o f th e st a tu te
. E.g. , B oyle v. U n i te d S tat es , 12 9 S. Ct. 223 7, 224 6-4 7 ( 20 09 ). W e d o, ho w ev er, no te (co n tin u ed ...) ac c u ra c y of c on su m er rec or d s, m ak e im p ro ve m en ts in th e us e o f, a nd c o ns um era cc es s to , c r edi t i nf o rm atio n, an d f o r o th erpur po se s” ) ( emphas i s o urs ). Appl y i ng FA C T A ’s t ru n c at ion req u ire m en ts to ele c t r on ic a s w ell as pri nted r ecei pts would no doubt be consi ste nt with th at p u rp os e, A ctiv e Netw o rk, 20 09 W L 29168 38, at* 2; Bes tBuy, 25 4 F.R .D . a t 87 ; 1-8 00 -Flo w ers , 20 08 W L 34317 9, at *3; St ub H ub , 20 07 U
. S. Dis t. LEX I S 6371 9, at* 8- * 9, al though a s w e no te bel ow, ther e a re o therst atute s that addr es s th e i nt eg r i tyo fe l ec tr o ni c co m m un icati o ns . But we may not igno r e th e una m bi g uo us l an g ua g e o fthe sta tu te i n or der t o furtherCongr ess ’ s e xpresse d pu rpos e inen ac tin g t h e s ta tu te
. M or r i s on v. Nat ’ l Aus t r al i a Bank Lt d. , 1 30 S. Ct. 28 69, 28 86 ( 2010 ) ( “I t i s o ur functi on t o gi ve the s tatute the effect i ts l anguage sugg est s, however m od est th at m ay be; not to e x ten d i t to ad m irable p urp os es it m igh t b e u se d to ac h iev e.” ); see also , e . g. , Carrv. U nited Sta tes , 13 0 S
. Ct. 22 29, 2 24 1 ( 2010 ) ( ci ti ng M e r t e ns v. Hew itt A ssoc s. , 50 8 U.S
. 24 8, 26 1, 11 3 S. C t. 2063 , 207 1(1 993) )
. Both the l anguage and conte xt o fthe tr uncati o n r equi r ementmake p la i n tha t Con g r es s was r egul at i ngo nl y tho se r ec ei pts phy si ca l l y pr i nt ed by the ve n d or atth e p oin t o f th e s ale o r t r a n sa c tio n ; to a p p ly the s tatute t o re cei pts thatar e e m ai l ed to the consum er wo ul d b r o a de n the s t a t ut e ’ s r e a c h b e y o nd th e wo r ds tha tCo ng r e s s a c t ua l l y u s e d. 3N o. 09

- 4073 17

(
. . . c on t i nu e d) 3 thatne i the r par t y i n thi s c as e nor an y c our taddr es s i ng the reac h ofs ect ion 1681c ( g)( 1) has ci ted any le gis lat ive hi st ory thatconfli ct s w ith our und ers tanding ofthe s tatute. Ou r const ructi on o fthe sta tute does not pr oduce absur d r esul ts. A l though el ectr oni c re cei pts m ay al so be m i sappropri ate d by i denti ty th ieves, o ne m i ght r easonab l y b el i eve thatpaper re ceip ts pose unique, i fnot gr eat er, danger s in that re gar d. A paper r ecei pt produced a tthe p o i nto f s a l e o r t r a ns a c t i o n may b e dr o pp e d, mi s l a i d, or d isc ar d ed by t h e co n su m er in a n y n u m b er of p u b lic pl ac es wher e i t ea si l y ca n be r et r i ev ed an d putt o ne f ar i o us us e byo th er s. An e l ec tr o ni c r ec ei pt, b y c o nt r as t, t o the extent i t i s v i ew ed o n the consum er ’ s o w n com pu tero r o th erdi g i ta lde vi ce a t a ti m e an d pl ace of h i s ch o o sing ( i nc l ud i ngh i s h o me o r o ffi c e ) , i s a r g uab l y l e s s s ubj ect to ina d ve r t e n t d isc los u re an d th eft
. U nde rAr m our, 59 3 F
. S up p . 2 d a t 128 8. To b e su r e, the r e m ayb e so m eo ne l o o k i n go v e r th e c o n s u me r ’ s s h o u l d e r w he n h e v i e ws an em ai li n a p u b l i c pl ace, and em ai l s a nd o ther el ectr oni c data can be a c c ess ed w i thout author i zati on ( “h ac ked ”) a t bo ththe c o ns um er ’ s an d the v en do r ’ s en d of th in gs . See, e . g. , Act i veNe tw o rk, 2009 W L 29168 38, at * 2. But Congre ss m i ght ha ve thought that the m i sap p ro pri ati on ofel ectr oni c data w as bett eraddress ed by o th ers ta tu to r y pr o vi si o ns tha t spe ci fi cal l y de alwi ththe p riv a c y a n d m isu se of su c h d at a. See, e . g. , 1 8 U. S
. C. § 1 028( c) ( 3) ( A ) ( I denti ty Th eft and D ete rr ence A ct o f 19 98 , a s am en d ed byInt erne t F al se I den ti fi ca ti o n P r ev en ti o n At o f2 00 0) ( cr i m i na l i zingthe kno wi ngpr o duct i o n, tr an sfer, po ss es si on, u se, o r s al e o fs to l eno r fo r g ed i den

-18 N o. 09

- 4073 ti fi cati on docum ents i n oraffecting i nter sta te orf or eign com m er ce, “i ncl ud i ng the tr ansfero fa docum ent b y el ectr oni c m eans” ) ; 18 U
. S. C. § 1 030( a) ( 4) ( Com pu ter Fr aud and A buse A ct of1986) ( cri m i nal i zi ng the unauthori zed acc ess o f a com puter own ed by gov er nm ent o r fi nanci al in st i tuti on, o r w hi ch i s use d i n i nter sta te or f o r e i g n c o mm e r c e , w i thi nt e ntt o de fr a ud ) ; 1 8 U. S
. C. § 2 511( 1) (a) (Elec tr oni c Com m unica ti ons Pri vacyA ct o f 1986 ) ( cri m i nal i zi ng unauthor i zed i nter cepti on o fel ectr oni c co m m unica ti ons) ; 18 U
. S. C. §§ 2701, 27 07 ( St or ed C o mmu n i c a t i o n s A c t, en a c t e d a s p a r to fE l e c t r o n i c C o mm unica ti ons Pri vacyA ct o f19 86) ( authorizing sui t for dam age s byvi cti m o funauthor i zed, i ntenti onalacc ess to com m un ications h eld in electron ic storage). S hl ah ti ch m anmake s a be l at ed ar g um en t th atc o ns trui ng the t runcati on pro vi si on notto ap plyto em ai lr ecei pts i s i nc o ns i st en t w ith th e F CRA’s pr ee m pti o n pr o vi si o n, 15 U
. S. C. § 1 681t ( b)
. That pro vi sio n f or ecl ose s r egul ati on by the S t a t e s o fa nyc o nd uc tr e g ul a t e d b y the i nd i v i du al p r ov isio n s o f th e s ta tu te , in c lu d in g t h e t ru n c at ion p ro visi on. S ee§ 1681 t( b) ( 5) ( A )
. S hl ahti chm an r eas ons that i fem ai lr ecei pts ar e no t co ver ed by the federa lst atute , then S tat es w i l lbe fre e t o i m pose thei r own truncati on re quir em ents on e m ai lr ecei pts , p roducing the v er y c ra zy qui l to fS t a t e l a ws tha tF CR A’ s p r e e mpt i o n pr o v i s i on w as m ea n t t o a vo id . B u t Sh lah tic h m an fo r f eit ed th is ar gum ent b y f ai l i ng to m ake i t in the dist ri ct c ourt , e . g. , O ce an A tl antic D ev. C orp. v. Aurora C hris ti an Schoo ls, Inc. , 322 F. 3d 983, 10 05 ( 7th Ci r. 20 03) , and thi s i s no t o ne o f th e ra re civ il c as es in w h ich w e m igh t o ve rloo k t h e fo rfe itu re , see R uss ian M edia Group, LLC v. Ca bleAm
. , Inc. , 598 F.3d 302, 308 (7th Cir. 2010).N o. 09

- 4073 19 W e no te fi na l l y tha t ev eni fw e ha ve c o ns true d the s t a t u t e t o o n a r r o wly, d i s mi s s a l o f S h l a h t i c h ma n’ s c o mpl aintwas ne ve r th el es s appr o pr i at e be ca us e 1- 80 0 Con

tact s di d not wil l fully v i ol ate the sta tute. S hl ahti chm an h as alleg ed n o a c tu al inj u ry , see§ 1681 o ( a) ( 1) , an d h as i nstea d sou gh t the st atuto rydam age s that a re autho ri zed for w illfu l viola tio n s o ft h e t ru n c at ion req u ire m en t, see § 1 681n( a) ( 1) ( A )
. Li ke thi s cou rt, 1- 800 Contacts has const rued the tr unc at ion requi re m ent no t t o apply to em ailreceipts
. T o d a t e, th ere has been no con trary opi ni on fro m a cour t o f ap peal s o r federa lag ency sugges ti ng tha t the co m pa n y’s u nd er sta nd i ng o fthe sta tute i s wrong; and eve n i fi ts const ructi on of the st atute tu rn s o u t t o b e m ist ak en , i t is o b je c tiv ely rea so n ab le no ne the l e s s f o r a l lo fthe r e a sons w e h a v e di s c us s e d. Consequentl y, i f 1- 800 Contacts did vi ol ate th e statute b y i n c lu d in g t h e e x p ira tio n d at e o f Sh lah tic h m an ’s c re d it car d i n the re cei pt i t e m ail ed to hi m , i t di d not do so kn ow in gly or re c kle ss ly. See Sa feco Ins. C o . of A m . v. B urr, 551 U
. S. 47, 69 -70 & n. 20, 12 7 S
. Ct. 22 01, 22 15- 16 & n. 20 (20 07 ); Lev ine v. Wor l d F i n. Ne t workNat ’ l Bank, 55 4 F
. 3d 1314 , 1319 (11th Cir. 2009) (“ Safeco m ak es cle ar th at ev id en c e o f s u bj ec tiv e b ad fait h ca n n otsu p p or t ‘a w illful ne ss fi ndi ng. . . whenthe c o m pan y’s r ea di ngo fthe st at u te is ob j ec tiv ely rea so n ab le’ ”); M ovi e t i cke t s . co m , 55 5 F. S up p. 2d at13 42- 43. Foral lo fthes e r eas ons, we A FFIRM t h e d istri ct cou rt’s j ud gm ent.

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