## Pest Risk Anal**ys is for the Importation of Oncidium Orchid** 

**Plants, Oncidium**  **spp., in Approved Grow ing Media** 

**From Taiwan into United States**

**Ma y**  **7 , 201**  **2 Version**  **5**

**Agency contact** Center for Plant Health Science and Technology Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service Plant Protection and Quarantine 1730 Varsity Drive, Suite 300 Raleigh, NC 27606

- 5202Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 ii 

### Executive Summary In this pathway

- initiate d commodity pest risk analy sis, we examine the risks associated with the proposed importation of Oncidium orchid plants( Oncidium spp.), in APHIS

- approved growing media from Taiwan into the United States. The quarantine pests that are likely to follow the p athway are analyzed using the methodology described in our guidelines (PPQ, 2000), in which we examine pest biology

in the context of the Consequences of Introduction and the Likelihood of Introduction, and estimate the baseline Pest Risk Potential. We i dentified fourteen quarantine pests that may follow the pathway

on Oncidium spp. plants in growing media from Taiwan : **Order Taxonomy**  **Pest Pest Risk Potential**  Acari Arachnida

- : Tetranychi dae Tetranychus kanzawai Kishida High Insecta Lepidoptera: Arctiidae Amsacta lactinea Cramer High

Lepidoptera: Noctuidae Spodoptera litura (F.) High Thy sanoptera : Thripidae Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood High Thrips palmi Karny High Mollusca Stylomatophora:

Achatinidae Lissachatina fulica (Bowdich) High Stylomatophora: Agriliomacidae Deroceras laeve ( Müller) High Stylomatophora: Parmarion martensi Simroth High Helicarionidae Petalochlamys vesta (Pfeiffer) High Stylomatophora: Meghimatium bilineatus (Benson) High Philomycidae Meghimatium pictum Stoliczka High Stylomatophora: Veronicellidae Laevicaulis alte (Férussac, 1822) High Bacteria Gammaproteobacteria:

Enterobacteriaceae Pectobacterium cy pripedii (Hori) Brenner et al. Medium Fungi Ascomycetes: Pleosporales Bipolaris zizaniae Medium
We rated Bipolaris zizaniae and Pectobacterium cypripedii as Medium risk potential . A ll the others pests were given High pest risk potential s . S pecific phyt osanitary measure s may

be necessary for Medium risk pests , but are strongl y recommended for pests with H igh risk potential ( PPQ, 2000 ). In the pest risk management section of this document, we consider the manner in which regulations for the importation of plants in APHI S
- approved gro wing media ( 7 CFR § 319.37
- 8, 2009a) could reduce the pest risks associated with this importation.Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 iii 

### Table of Contents **Executive Summary ................................**  **................................ ................................**  **...................... ii**  **1. Introduction ................................**  **................................ ................................**  **............................... 1**  **2. Risk Assessment ................................**  **................................ ................................**  **........................ 1**  2.1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action
................................ ................................ ........................ 1 2.2. Assessment of the Weediness Potential of Oncidium spp. Plants
................................ ....... 1 2.3. Current Status and Pest Intercep tions
................................ ................................ .................. 2 2.4. Pest Categorization
................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 5 2.5. Analy sis of Quarantine Pests
................................ ................................ ............................. 16 2.6. Conclusion
................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... 32 **3. Risk Management ................................**  **................................ ................................**  **................... 33**  3.1. Introduction
................................ ................................ ................................ ........................ 33 3.2. Sy stems Approaches
................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 33 3.3. General Program Requirements for Plants in Growing Media
................................ .......... 34 3.4. Evidence for the Effective Removal of Pests of Concern from the Pathway
.................... 35 3.5. Program Safe guards to Ensure Compliance
................................ ................................ ...... 36 3.6. Conclusion
................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... 36 **4. Authors ................................**  **................................ ................................**  **................................ .....**  **36 5. Literature Cited**  **................................ ................................**  **................................ ......................**  **36**Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 1 

### 1. Introduction This pest risk analy sis was prepared by the United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine, Center for Plant Health Science and Technology , Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analy sis Laboratory (USDA, APHIS, PPQ, CPHST, PERAL) to examine the plant pest risks associated with the importation of Oncidium orchid plants in approved growing media from Taiwan into the United States. Taiwan is currentl y approved to export bare root orchid plants and Ph alaenopsis in growing media to the USA under the 2004 approved work plan. Risk is characterized as high, medium or low, following version 5.02 of the PPQ Guidelines ( PPQ, 2000 ) with supporting scientific evidence. The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) administered by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, provide both guidance for conducting pest risk assessments ( IPPC, 2007 : I SPM #2) and the use of biological and phy tosanitary terms ( IPPC, 2007 : I SPM #5). The terms and the methods used to initiate, conduct and report this assessment are consistent with these international guidelines. This document satisfies the requirements of the three stages of th e FAO guidelines (Initiation, Risk Assessment, and Risk Management), and is consistent with applicable U.S. regulations, e.g

. 7 CFR § 319.37
- 8(g). 

### 2. Risk **Assessment 2.1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action**  This commodity

- based, pathway

- initiated pest risk assessment was prepared in response to a request for USDA authorization to allow the importation of live Oncidium orchid plants established in APHI S
- approved growing media from Taiwan. Bare

- root orchid plants, including Oncidium spp., are generally enterable with appropriate documentation. Oncidium cut flowers are also enterable. Epiphy tic plants (including orchid plants) are enterable established on approved materials in 7 CFR 319.37

- 8(d). Phalaenopsis orch ids in growing media from Taiwan is approved in 7 CFR 319.37

- 8(e) requiring a phytosanitary certificate, CITES documentation, and inspection at a plant inspection station at the US port of entry by USDA, APHI S, PPQ inspectors. **2.2. Assessment of the Weed iness Potential of Oncidium spp. Plants**  If the species considered for import poses a risk as a weed pest, then a “pest initiated” risk assessment is conducted. The results of the screening for weed potential for Oncidium orchid (Table 1) did not prompt a pest initiated risk assessment because plants already present in the United States are not reported as weeds.
**Table 1.** Determining the Weediness Potential of Oncidium spp. Plants. Commodity : Oncidium Sw. (Orchidaceae). A genus of 320 species of orchids from the subfamily Epidendroideae ( Baker and Baker, 2006 ), native to tropical North, Central, and South America, and the Caribbean. **Phase 1** : Consider whether the genus is new to or not widely prevalent in the UnitedPest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 2 States (exclude plants grown under USDA permit in approved containment facilities) Oncidium is widely

cultivated in greenhouses in Florida and other places in the United States. **Phase 2** : Answer Yes or No to the following questions: Is the genus listed in: NO Geographical Atlas of World Weeds (Holm et al., 1979 ) NO World's Worst Weeds ( Holm et al., 1977 ) NO Report of the Technical Committee to Evaluate Noxious Weeds; Exotic Weeds for Federal Noxious Weed Act ( Gunn and Ritchie, 1982 ) NO Economically

Important Fo reign Weeds ( Reed, 1977 ) NO Weed Science Society of America list (WSSA, 2007 ) NO Do any literature references indicate weed potential, e.g

. , AGRI COLA, CAB, Biological

Abstracts, AGRIS; search on " Oncidium” combined with "weed"). **Phase 3** : Conclusion: Some species of this genus are present in the United States and the

answer to all of the questions is “No,” therefore, the commodity does not have weediness potential. **2.3. Current Status and Pest Interceptions** Taiwan has not previously requested access for Oncidium spp . plants for planting rooted in APHI S
- approved growing media. Bare

- root orchid plants, including Oncidium spp., are generall y ent erable with appropriate documentation. Oncidium cut flowers are also enterable. Epiphy tic plants (including orchid plants) established on coconut fiber, coconut husks, tree fern slabs, new clay

pots, and new wooden baskets are allowed entry from Taiwan into the United States ( 7 CFR § 319.37
- 8, 2009b ) Phalaenopsis in growing media from Taiwan is approved in 7 CFR 319.37
- 8(e) requiring a phyt osanitary certificate, CITES documentation, and inspection at a plant inspection station at the US port of entry by USDA, APHI S, PPQ inspectors. We report pests intercepted betw een 1985
- 2009 at U.S. ports
- of

- entry (Table 2) ( PestID, 2010 ), and discuss them later (Section 2.5). Seventy two pests were intercept ed on Oncidium orchids during this period (Table 2), including seventeen pathogens, twelve insects, six mites, and three mollusks. Most interceptions were in permit cargo at California ports. Pests identified only to the famil y level were generall y not con sidered in the pest categorization list. This and other considerations are discussed in relation to the pest list (Table 3) below.
**Table 2** . Pests intercepted on Oncidium spp. from Taiwan at U.S. ports

- of

- entry between 1985 and 2010 ( PestID, 2010 ) **Pest State**  **Interception date**  **a Host** 

**part Where**  **intercepted Imported** 

**as Material for**  Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer) (Tenebrionidae) CA Sep
- 06 Permit cargo Plant Propagation Aphididae CA May
- 86 Flower Quarters Cut flower Non
- entry Aphididae CA Feb

- 96 (2) Flower Permit cargo Plant Propagation Aphididae NY Jan
- 09 Flower Permit cargo Cut flower ConsumptionPest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 3 **Pest State**  **Interception date**  **a Host** 

**part Where**  **intercepted Imported** 

**as Material for**  Aphis gossypii Glover (Aphididae) CA Apr
- 99 Baggage Cut flower Consumption Archipini species of (Tortricidae) NY Jan
- 09 Flower Permit cargo Cut Flower Consumption Ascochyta sp. (Coelomycetes) CA Nov
- 07 Permit cargo Plant Consumption Bradybaena similaris (Férussac) (Bradybaenidae) CA Apr
- 03 Permit cargo Plant Propagation Bradybaena similaris (Férussac) (Bradybaenidae) NY Ju n - 09 Flower Permit cargo Plant Consumption Bradybaena sp. (Bradybaenidae) CA Mar
- 97 Leaf Permit cargo Leaf Propagation Brevipalpus sp. (Tenuipalpidae) CA Jul

- 01 Permit cargo Plant Propagation Cardiocondyla emeryi Forel (Formicidae) CA Feb

- 02 Permit cargo Plant Propagation Coccidae CA Dec
- 06 Permit cargo Plant Propagation Coccidae CA Dec
- 09 Mail Plant Propagation Colletotrichium crassipes (Speg.) Arx (Coleomycetes) CA Aug
- 02 Permit cargo Plant Propagation Colletotrichium crassipes (Speg.) Arx (Coleomycetes) FL Jul

- 02 Leaf Permit cargo Plant Propagation
Colletotrichium sp. (Coleomycetes) CA Sep, Dec
- 01, May
- 04 Leaf Permit cargo Plant Propagation Colletotrichium sp. (Coleomycetes) CA Aug
- 03 Permit cargo Plant Propagation Deroceras laeve (Agriolimacidae) CA Nov
- 99 Permit cargo Plant Propagation Dichromothrips phalaenopsidis *Saki mura (Thripidae) CA Feb

- 96 Leaf Permit cargo Plant Propagation Dydimosphaeria sp. (Dydimosphaeriaceae) CA May
- 98 Stem Permit cargo Plant Propagation Frankliniella intonsa (Tybrom)(Thripidae) NY May
- 10 Flower Permit cargo Cut Flower Consumption Fusicoccum sp. (Coelomycetes) CA May
- 08 Leaf Mail Plant Propagation Glomerella sp. (Glomerellaceae) CA Aug
- 94 Permit cargo Plant Propagation Halothrips chinensis* Priesner (Thripidae) NY Jan
- 09 Flower Permit cargo Cut Flower ConsumptionPest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 4 **Pest State**  **Interception date**  **a Host** 

**part Where**  **intercepted Imported** 

**as Material for**  Leptosphaeria sp. (Leptosphaeriaceae) CA Oct
- 96 Leaf Permit cargo Leaf Propagation Macrophoma sp. (Coelomycetes) CA Sep
- 96 Leaf Permit cargo Plant Propagation Microsphaeropsis sp. (Coelomycetes) CA Jan
- 01 Permit cargo Leaf Propagation Microsphaeropsis sp. (Coelomycetes) CA Sep
- 02 Stem Permit cargo Plant Propagation Mycosphaerella sp . (Mycosphaerellaceae) CA Aug, Sep, Oct
- 96 Leaf Permit cargo Plant Propagation Mycosphaerella sp . (Mycosphaerellaceae) CA May
- 05 Permit cargo Plant Propagation Mycosphaerella sp . (Mycosphaerellaceae) CA Mar
- 07 Stem Permit cargo Plant Propagation Myzus persicae (Aphididae) CA Apr
- 99 Baggage Cut flower Propagation Neotarsonemoides sp. (Tarsonemidae) CA May
- 07 Leaf Permit cargo Cut flower Propagation Noctuidae HI Ju n - 86 Flower Baggage Cut flower Consumption Noctuidae NY Oct
- 08 Flower Permit cargo Cut flower Consumption Noctuidae NY Jul

- 09 Flower Permit cargo Cut flower Consumption Noctuidae NY Mar
- 10 Flower Permit cargo Cut flower Consumption Ophiodotella sp. (Phyllacoraceae) CA Jan
- 01 Permit cargo Leaf Propagation Ophiodotella orchidearum (Phyllacoraceae) CA Jul

- 07 Permit cargo Leaf Propagation Phaeosphaeria sp. (Phaeosphaeriaceae) CA Jan
- 01 Permit cargo Plant Propagation Phoma sp. (Coelomycetes) CA Aug
- 96, Aug
- 03 Permit cargo Plant Propagation Phoma sp. (Coelomycetes) CA Apr
- 97 Stem Permit cargo Plant Propagation Phoma sp. (Coelomycetes) CA Oct
- 96 Leaf Permit cargo Plant Propagation Phomopsis sp . (Coelomycetes) CA May
- 97 Stem Permit cargo Plant Propagation Phomopsis sp. (Coelomycetes) CA Jul

- 02, Jul

04, Mar
- 05, Oct
- 07 Leaf Permit cargo Plant Propagation Phomopsis sp. (Coelomycetes) CA Ju n, Aug
- 02 Permit cargo Plant Propagation Phomopsis sp . (Coelomycetes) CA Jul

- 09 Stem Mail Plant Propagation Planococcus minor (Pseudococcidae) CA Feb

- 10 Flower Permit cargo Cut flower Consumption Pseudococcidae NY Jan
- 09 Flower Permit cargo Cut flower PropagationPest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 5 **Pest State**  **Interception date**  **a Host** 

**part Where**  **intercepted Imported** 

**as Material for**  Pseudomonas sp . (Pseudomanaeae) FL Aug (2) 07, Sep
- 07, May
- 08 Leaf Permit cargo Plant Propagation
Pseudoribillardia sp . CA Aug
- 05 Permit cargo Plant Propagation Psocoptera NY Feb

- 09 Flower Permit cargo Cut flower Propagation Saissetia coffeae (Walker) CA Jul

- 01 Permit cargo Plant Propagation Saissetia coffeae (Walker) CA Apr
- 99 Permit cargo Plant Propagation Sminthuridae CA Apr
- 03, Jul

02, Aug
- 02 Permit cargo Plant Propagation Spodoptera litura* (F.) (Noctuidae) CA Oct
- 04 Flower Permit cargo Cut flower Consumption Spodoptera litura* (F.) (Noctuidae) NY Jul

- 07, May
10 Flower Permit cargo Cut flower Consumption Spodoptera litura *(F.) (Noctuidae) NY Ju n, Jul

- 10 Flower Permit cargo Cut flower Consumption Spodoptera sp. (Noctuidae) NY Sep
- 08 (2) Flower Permit cargo Cut flower Consumption Tarsonemidae CA May
- 07 Leaf Permit cargo Plant Propagation Tarsonemus bilobatus Suski (Tarsonemidae) CA Apr
- 03 Permit cargo Plant Propagation Thrips palmi *Karny (Thripidae) NY Jan
- 09 (2) Flower Permit cargo Cut flower Consumption Tydeus sp. (Tydeidae) CA Apr
- 03 Permit cargo Plant Propagation Xenotarsonemus sp. (Tarsonemidae) CA Apr
- 03 Permit cargo Plant Propagation Zonitoides arboreus (Say) (Gastrodontidae) CA May
- 98, Jul

99, Aug
- 03, Ju n - 05, Apr
06 Permit cargo Plant Propagation

Zonitoides arboreus (Say) (Gastrodontidae) FL Aug
- 00 (2) Permit cargo Plant Propagation Zonitoides arboreus (Say) (Gastrodontidae) FL Mar
- 02 Bulb Permit cargo Plant Consumption Zonitoides arboreus (Say) (Gastrodontidae) FL Apr
- 02 Leaf Permit cargo Cutting Propagation Zonitoides arboreus (Say) (Gastrodontidae) FL Dec
- 10 Permit cargo Plant Propagation

a Year (x) = Year (number of interceptions) *Reportable pest. **2.4. Pest Categorization** Here we determine whether or not pests are quarantine pests. First, we develop a comprehensive list of potential quarantine pests known to occur in the country or region from which the commodity

is to be exported, which are associated with the commodity . To be a quarantine pestPest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 6 ISPM #5 ( IPPC, 2007 ), the organism must be “A pest of potential economic importance to the area endangered thereb y and not yet present there, or present but not widely distributed and being officiall y controlled” . Because all pests on the list are associated with the plant species, they are considered to be “of potential economic importance” ( IPP C, 2007 ). The listed pests may or may not also occur in the United States. W e list pests associated with Oncidium orchids in Taiwan below (Table 3). We produced the list based on information provided by the Bureau of Animal and Plant Health Inspection and Quarantine (BAPHIQ) of Taiwan, and our review of the scientific literature. In this list we identify (1) the presence or absence of these pests in the United States, (2) the generally affected plant part or parts, (3) the quarantine status of the pest with respect to the United States, (4) the likelihood of the pest following the pathway on commercially

imported Oncidium orchids, and (5) pertinent citations for the distribution or the biology of the pest. We shaded rows containing quarantine pests likel y to follow the pathway and selected for further analysis. Even if non

- quarantine pests are able to follow the pathway , phy tosanitary measures against these pests would not be justified. Therefore, for those pests we do not need information on plant part association and whether the pest is likely to follow the pathway . Accordingl y, in those cases we put N/A (= Not Applicable) in the columns for “Plant Part(s) Association” and “Likel y to Follow Pathway .”
**Table 3.** Pests of Oncidium orchids in Taiwan. For every pest listed, the host was Oncidium sp. unless otherwise noted **Pest Distribution**  1 **Quaran**   ** tine pest** **Follow**

**pathway Plant part** 

**affected References**  **ARTHROPODA ACARI**  **Tarsonemidae** Neotarsonemoides sp. TW, US No N/A N/A Lin and Zhang, 1999 ; PestID, 2010 ; Beer, 1960 Tarsonemus bilobatus 2 (Suski) TW, US No N/A N/A Gill et al., 2003 ; Lin and Zhang, 1999 ; PestID, 2010 **Tenuipalpidae** Brevipalpus sp. TW, US No N/A N/A Miranda et al., 2007 ; PestID, 2010 ; Rodrigues et al., 2008

1 TW= Taiwan, US= United States, CA= California , FL= Florida, GA= Georgia, HI= Hawaii, PR= Puerto Rico, TX= Texas , VI= Virg in Islands. 2 The Tarsonemus bilobatus mite feeds on fungus. The mite can then move the fungus around the greenhouse to additional plants ( Gill et al., 2003 ). Thus, this pest may be present on the commodity but is not directly associated with it
.Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 7 **Pest Distribution**  1 **Quaran**   ** tine pest** **Follow**

**pathway Plant part** 

**affected References**  Tenuipalpus pacificus Baker TW,US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A BAPHIQ, 2007 ; Denmark, 2006 ; Migeon and Dorkeld, 2006 ; Wen et al., 2007 ; Gleason and Morishita, 1968 ; Wolcott, 1948 ; PestID, 2012 **Tetranichidae** Tetranychus kanzawai Kishida TW, US Yes ( PR, HI) L eaf

, St em Yes BAPHIQ, 2007 ; Anderson and Dixon, 2008 ; CABI, 2011 ; Migeon and Dorkeld, 2006 ; Navajas et al., 2001 ; PestID, 2012 **Tydeidae** Tydeus sp. TW, US No N/A N/A PestID, 2010 ; Kerns, 2003 ; McCoy et al., 1969 **INSECTA Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae**  Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer) TW, US (HI , PR) No N/A N/A CABI, 2011 ; PestID, 2010 ; Cuckler and Alicata , 1944 **Hemiptera: Aphididae** Aphis gossypii (Glover) TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A BAPHIQ, 2007 ; CABI, 2011 ; PestID, 2010 Myzus per

sicae (Sulzer) TW, US (HI,

PR) No N/A N/A CABI, 2011 ; PestID, 2010 **Hemiptera: Coccidae** Coccus hesperidum (L.) TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A CABI, 2011 ; Maes, 2004 Saissetia coffeae (Walker) (Signoret) TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A BAPHIQ, 2007 ; CABI, 2011 ; Garland and Dixon, 2003 ; Hollingsworth, 2005 ; PestID, 2010 ; TARI, 2009 ; Wen et al., 2007 **Hemiptera: Diaspididae** Chrysomphalus aonidum (Linnaeus) TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A Ben
- Dov et al., 2001 ; CABI, 2011 ; Miller and Davidson, 2005; TARI, 2009 ; Watson, 2009 ; PestID, 2012 Chrysomphalus dictyospermi (Morgan) TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A Ben
- Dov et al., 2001 ; Bio

Nica, 2009 ; CABI, 2011 ; Maes, n.d. ; PestID, 2012Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 8 **Pest Distribution**  1 **Quaran**   ** tine pest** **Follow**

**pathway Plant part** 

**affected References**  Diaspis boisduvalii Signoret TW, US (PR, HI) No N/A N/A Ben
- Dov et al., 2001 ; Granara De Willink and E., 2003 ; Miller and Davidson, 2005 ; T ARI, 2009 ; PestID, 2012 Diaspis bromeliae (Kerner) TW, US (HI, PR No N/A N/A Ben
- Dov et al., 2001 ; Granara De Willink and E., 2003 ; Miller and Davidson, 2005 ; Watson, 2009 ; PestID, 2012 ; Sipes, 2000 Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret) TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A Ben
- Dov et al., 2001 ; CABI, 2011 ; Mil ler and Davidson, 2005 ; PestID, 2012 Ischnaspis longirostris (Signoret) TW, US (PR, HI) No N/A N/A Ben
- Dov et al., 2001 ; Miller and Davidson, 2005 ; PestID, 2012 Lindingaspis rossi (Maskell) TW, U S (HI No N/A N/A Ben
- Dov et al., 2001 ; Miller and Davidson, 2005 ; Watson, 2009 ; PestID, 2012 Parlatoria proteus (Curtis) TW,US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A BAPHIQ, 2007 ; Ben
- Dov et al., 2001 ; Miller and Davidson, 2005 ; TARI, 2009 ; Watson, 2009 ; PestID, 2012 Pinnaspis buxi (Bouché) TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A Ben
- Dov et al., 2001 ; Coile and Dixon, 1999 ; PestID, 2012 **Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae** Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell) TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A Ben
- Dov et al., 2001 ; CABI, 2011 ; Inoue et al., 2006 ; PestID, 2012 Planococcus minor (Maskell) 3 TW, US N o N/A N/A Ben
- Dov et al., 2001 ; Tri

ology, 2010; PestID, 2012 Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni Tozzetti) TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A BAPHIQ, 2007 ; Ben
- Dov et al., 2001 ; CABI, 2011 ; TARI, 2009 ; PestID, 2012 **Hymenoptera: Formicidae** Cardiocondyla emeryi Forel TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A PestID, 2010 ; AntWeb, 2009 ; HEAR, 2006

3 We found very little evidence for an association of Planoco ccus minor with Oncidium : just a single interception on a cut flower shipment ( PestID, 2010 ). Typically, a single interception is ins ufficient evidence for a host association. Due to the broad host range of the pest ( Ben
- Dov et al., 2010 ), we included it in this list.Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 9 **Pest Distribution**  1 **Quaran**   ** tine pest** **Follow**

**pathway Plant part** 

**affected References**  **Lepidoptera: Arctiidae** Amsacta lactinea Cramer TW Yes Yes Leaf, Flower BAPHIQ, 2007 ; TARI, 2009 **Lepidoptera: Noctuidae** Spodoptera sp. TW, US No N/A N/A PestID, 2010 Spodoptera litura (F.) TW, US (FL4 , HI) Yes Yes Leaf, Stem BAPHIQ, 2007 ; CABI, 2011 ; Kumari and Lyla, 2001 ; Meagher et al., 2008 ; PestID, 2010 ; Wen et al., 2007 **Orthoptera: Acrididae** Atractomorpha psittacina de Haan TW Yes No 5 Leaf, Stem, Flowers BAPHIQ, 2007 ; Wen et al.,

2007 TARI, 2009 **Thysanoptera: Thripidae** Thrips hawaiiensis (Morgan) TW, US (HI, PR No N/A N/A BAPHIQ, 2007 ; PestID, 2012 Thrips p almi Karny TW, US (FL, HI , PR) Yes Yes 6 Flowers PestID, 2010 ; Breithaupt, 2010 Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood TW, US (FL, GA, HI, TX PR) Yes Yes Flowers Diffie et al., 2008 ; EPPO, 1997a ; APHIS
- USDA, 2006 ; Kumar et al., 2010 **MOLLUSCA Achatinidae**  Lissachatina fulica (Bowdich) [Syn; Achatina fulica Bowdich] TW, US (FL: eradicated; HI) Yes Yes Flower, Leaf, Stem, Roots BAPHIQ, 2007 ; CABI,

2011 ; Chao et al., 1994 ; Wen et al., 2007 ; White

McLean, 2011 **Agriolimacidae** Deroceras laeve (Müller) TW, US (HI) Yes (PR) Yes Flower, Leaf, Stem, Roots PestID, 2010 ; White

McLean, 2011 **Bradybaenidae** Bradybaena similaris (Férussac) TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A PestID, 2010 ; BAPHIQ, 2007 ; Chao et al., 1994 ; GSMFC, 2003; Taketani, 1936 ; Wen et al., 2007 ; Capinera and White, 2011 ; White

- McL ean, 2011

4 One male Spodoptera litu ra wa s trapped in a greenhouse in Florida in 2007. Subsequent intensive surveys with pheromone lures have failed to collect this moth again ( Meagher et al., 2008 ). 5 This pest is a large, active, winged insect that may feed on the plants, but is highly unlikely to be associated with it during handling and shipping. 6 From approximately 12,200 interceptions of T. palmi from different countries only two of them were from Taiwan on cut flowers. The numbers of interceptions on Oncidium s from other countries besides Taiwan (Thailand) are mo re frequent in this commodity, indicating a potential pathway. We will consider this pest for further analysis.Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 10 **Pest Distribution**  1 **Quaran**   ** tine pest** **Follow**

**pathway Plant part** 

**affected References**  **Helicarionidae** Parmarion martensi Simroth TW, US (HI) Yes (PR) Yes Flower, Leaf, Stem, roots BAPHIQ, 2007 ; NAPIS,

2009 ; Qvarnstrom et al., 2007 ; White

- McLean, 2011 Petalochlamys vesta (Pfeiffer) TW Yes Yes Flower, Leaf, Stem, roots BAPHIQ, 2007 ; Taketani,

1936 **Lymnaeidae** Austropeplea ollula Gould TW, US (HI) No 7 N/A N/A BAPHIQ, 2007 ; Cliver and Fayer, n.d. **Lym acidae**  Limacus flavus (Linnaeus, 1758) Syn: Limax flavus Linnaeus TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A BAPHIQ, 2007 ; GSMFC, 2003; PestID, 2010 ; White

McLean, 2011 **Philomycidae** Meghimatium bilineatum (Benson) Syn: Incilaria bilineata (Benson) TW, US (HI) Yes, PR Yes Flower, Leaf, Stem, roots BAPHIQ, 2007 ; Chao et al.,

1994 ; Cowie, 1997 Meghimatium pictum Stoliczka, TW Yes Yes Flower, Leaf, Stem, roots BAPHIQ, 2007 **Veronicellidae** Laevicaulis alte (Férussac, ) Syn: Vaginulus alte Férrussac TW,US (HI) Yes, PR Yes Flower, Leaf, Stem BAPHIQ, 2007 ; Chao et al.,

1994 ; Wen et al., 2007 ; White

- McLean, 2011 **Zonitidae** Zonitoides arboreus (Say) TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A GBIF., 2010 ; PestID, 2010 ; RBC, 2010 ; Karlin, 1956 , **BACTERIA** 8 **Acidovorax avenae**  **subsp. cattleyae**  (Pavarino) Willems et al., 1992 comb. no. [Betaproteobacteria, Comamonadaceae] TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A Baker and Baker, 2006 ; BAPHIQ, 2007 ; Bradbury, 1986; CABI, 2011 ; Hsieh, n.d. ; OEPP/EPPO, 2008 ; Saddler, 1994a ; Schaad et al., 2008 ; CISFH, 2011 ; CABI, 2011 **Burkholderia gladioli**  **pv gladiol**  i (Severini 1913) Yabuuchi et al. 1993 , [Betaproteobacteria, Burkholderiaceae] TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A BAPHIQ, 2007 ; Bradbury, 1986 ; Saddler, 1994b ; CABI, 2011 ; Ura et al., 2006

7 Species with in th e family are fresh water snails and are not quarantine significant. 8 Taxonomy according to Euzéby, 2007 )Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 11 **Pest Distribution**  1 **Quaran**   ** tine pest** **Follow**

**pathway Plant part** 

**affected References**  Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum (

Jones, 1901) Hauben et al. 1999. Syn: **Erwinia carotovora subsp.**  **carotovora** (Jones) Bergey et al.1923 [Gammaproteobacteria, Enterobacteriaceae] TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A Anonymous, 2006 ; BAPHIQ, 2007 ; Baker and Baker, 2006 ; Bradbury, 1986 ; CABI, 2011 ; Su and Lue, 1992

Dickeya chrysanthemi (Burkholder et al. 1953) Samson et al. 2005. Syn: **Erwinia chrysanthemi** Burkholder et al

. [Gammaproteobacteria, Enterobacteriaceae] TW, US (PR, HI) No N/A N/A Baker and Baker, 2006 ; EPPO, 1997b ; Lee et al., 2006 ; CABI, 2011

Dickeya zeae Samson et al. 2005 **. Syn: Erwinia chrysanthemi**  **pv. zeae**  (Sabat) Victoria, Arboleda & Munoz (Enterobacteriaceae) [Gammaproteobacteria, Enterobacteriaceae] TW, US (PR, HI) No N/A N/A Anonymous, 2006 ; BAPHIQ, 2007 ; Bradbury, 1986 ; CABI, 2011

**Pectobacterium cypripedii** (Hori) Brenner et al. [Gammaproteobacteria, Enterobacteriaceae] TW, US (HI) Yes (PR) Yes Root, Stem, Leaves Anonymous, 2006 ;

Bradbury, 1986 ; CABI, 2011 ; Kado, 2006 ; Simone and Burnett, 1995 ; CISFH, 2011 **Pseudomonas** sp. [Gammaproteobacteria: Pseudomonales] TW, US No N/A N/A PestID, 2010
**FUNGI 9**  **Ascochyta** sp. [Fungi Imperfecti: Colelomycetes] TW, US No N/A N/A Farr and Rossman, 2011; PestID, 2010 **Bipolaris maydis** (Y. Nisik.) Shoemaker [Ascomycete: Pleosporales] TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A CABI, 2011 ; Hsieh et al., 2000 ; Farr and Ro ssman, 2011; CISEH, 2011

9 Taxonomy according to Farr and Rossman ( 2011 )Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 12 **Pest Distribution**  1 **Quaran**   ** tine pest** **Follow**

**pathway Plant part** 

**affected References**  **Bipolaris oryzae** (Breda de Haan) Shoemaker **10** [Ascomycete: Pleosporales] TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A CABI, 2011 ; Hsieh et al. , 2000 ; Farr and Rossman, 2011; Gonsalves and Ferreira, 1994a **Bipolaris zizaniae** (Y. Nisik.) Shoemaker [Ascomycetes: Pleosporales] TW Yes 11 Yes Flower BAPHIQ, 2007 ; Hsieh et al., 2000 ; Hsieh, n.d. ; Simone and Burnett, 1995 **Botryti s cinerea**  Pers.: Fr. [Botryotinia fuckeliana (de Bary) Whetzel] [Ascomycetes: Helotiales]) TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A Baker and Baker, 2006 ; Farr and Rossman, 2011; Hsieh, n.d. **Colletotrichum crassipes** (Speg.) Arx [Ascomycetes: Phyllachorales] TW US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A Gonsalves an d Ferreira, 1994b ; Farr and Rossman, 2011; PestID, 2010 **Colletotrichum gloeosporioides**  (Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. In Penz. [teleomorp h: Glomerella cingulata (Stoneman) Spauld. & H. Schrenk] [Ascomycetes: Incertae sedis] TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A BAPHIQ, 2007 ; CABI, 2011 ; Farr and Rossman, 2011; Rivera

- Coto and Corrales

- Moreira, 2007 ; PestID, 2010 ; Simone and Burnett, 1995
**Colletotrichium** sp. [Fungi Imperfecti, Coelomycetes] TW, US No N/A N/A PestID, 2010 **Didymosphaeria** sp. [Ascomycetes: Pleosporales] TW, US No N/A N/A Farr and Rossman, 2011 ; PestID, 2010

10 This is proposed by Shimizu et al., 1998 as a synonym of Bi polaris leersiae (Atk.) Shoem. and B. zizaniae ( Y. Nisik.) Shoemaker ( Shimizu et al., 1998 ) , Because this synonymy is not yet officially recognized by the ICBN, we treated them as separate species here
. 11 Scientific literature indicates that B. zizaniae and B. ory zae shoul d be considered one species. Intercross fertility among H. oryzae and H. zizaniae (Chang, 1974 ) is evidence that these species should be considered as one species. In a similar study, Tsuda ( 1987 ) showe d in mating studies that B. or yzae, B. leersiae, and B. zizaniae were sexually compatible and concluded that they

w ere all conspecific. In addition, B. oryzae from rice, B. maydis from corn, and Bipolaris sp. from bamboo cause d similar brown spot symptoms on petals of the inoculated Oncidium in pathogeni city tests ( Hsieh et al., 2000 ). Based on currently available scientific evidence, we believe B. leersiae , B. oryzae and B. zizaniae are the same species. Because this synonymy has not been recognized by th e ICBN, we treated them as separate species here.Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 13 **Pest Distribution**  1 **Quaran**   ** tine pest** **Follow**

**pathway Plant part** 

**affected References**  **Fusarium oxysporum** Schltdl. ; Fr. [Ascomycetes: Hypocreales] TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A BAPHIQ, 2007 ; Baker and Baker, 2006 ; CABI, 2011 ; Simone and Burnett, 1995 ; Farr and Rossman, 2011; Rivera

- Coto and Corrales

Moreira, 2007 **Fusicoccum sp.**  [Fungi Imperfecti, Coelomycetes] TW, US No N/A N/A PestID, 2010
**Glomerella** sp. [Ascomycetes: Incertae sedis] TW, US No N/A N/A PestID, 2010 **Leptosphaeria** sp. [Ascomycete: Pleosporales] TW, US No N/A N/A Farr and Rossman, 2011 ; PestID, 2010 **Macrophoma** sp. [Fungi Imperfecti, Coelomycetes] TW, US No N/A N/A Farr and Rossman, 2011; PestID, 2010 **Microsphaeropsis** sp. [Ascomycetes: Pleosporales] TW, US No N/A N/A Farr and Rossman, 2011; PestID, 2010 **Mycosphaerella** sp. [Ascomycetes: Mycosphaerellales] TW, US No N/A N/A Farr and Rossman, 2011; PestID, 2010 **Ophiodothella sp**
. [Ascom ycetes: Phyllachorales] TW, US No N/A N/A Farr and Rossman, 2011; PestID, 2010 **Phaeosphaeria sp**  . [Ascomycetes: Diaporth ales] TW, US No N/A N/A Farr and Rossman, 2011; PestID, 2010 **Phoma** sp. [Fungi Imperfecti, Coelomycetes] TW, US No N/A N/A Farr and Rossman, 2011; PestID, 2010 **Phomopsis** sp. [Fungi Imperfecti, Coelomycetes] TW, US No N/A N/A Farr and Rossman, 2011; PestID, 2010 **Pseudorobillarda** sp. [Ascomycetes: Incerta sedis] TW, US No N/A N/A PestID, 2010 **Phytophthora cactorum** (Lebert & Cohn) J. Schröt. [Oomycetes: Pythiales] TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A Baker and Baker, 2006 ; CABI, 2011 ; Cating et al., 2009 ; Farr and Rossman, 2011Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 14 **Pest Distribution**  1 **Quaran**   ** tine pest** **Follow**

**pathway Plant part** 

**affected References**  **Phyt ophthora nicotianae**  Breda de Haan var. **parasitica** (Dastur) G. M. Waterhouse [Oomycetes: Pythiales] TW, US (HI, PR, VI) No N/A N/A CABI, 2011 ; Erwin and Ribeiro, 1996 ; Farr and Rossman, 2011; Hsieh, 1984; Hsieh, n.d. **Phytophthora palmivora** (Buttler) Buttler [Oomycetes: Pythiales] TW, US (HI, PR; VI) No N/A N/A BAPHIQ, 2007 ; CABI, 2011 ; Cating et al., 2009 ; Erwin and Ribeiro, 1996 ; Farr and Rossman, 2011; Hsieh, n.d. ; Tsai et al., 2006 **Pythium ultimum** Trow [Oomycetes: Pythiales] TW, US (HI, PR, VI) No N/A N/A Baker and Baker, 2006 ; Farr and Rossman, 2011 **Rhizoctonia solani Kühn**  Teleomorph: Thanatephorus cucumeris (Frank) Donk [Basidiomycetes, Ceratob asidiales] TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A Baker and Baker, 2006 ; CABI, 2011 ; Simone and Burnett, 1995
Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. Teleomorph: **Athelia rolfsii**  (Curzi) Tu & Kinbr. [Basidiomycetes: Polyporales]) TW, US (HI, PR No N/A N/A BAPHIQ, 2007 ; Baker and Baker, 2006 ; CABI, 2011 ; Farr and Rossman, 2011
**VIRUSES Cym**  **bidium Mosaic**  **Virus** (CymMV) TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A Baker and Baker, 2006 ; BAPHIQ, 2007 ; Brunt et al., 1996 ; CABI, 2011 ; Tsai, n.d. **Cucumber Mosaic Virus** (CMV) TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A BAPHIQ, 2002 ; Brunt et al., 1996 ; CABI, 2011 ; Chang et al., 2003 **Odontoglossum Ringspot Virus**  (ORSV) tobacco mosaic virus

- orchid strain (= Odontoglossum ringspot tobamovirus ) TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A BAPHIQ, 2007 ; Baker and Baker, 2006 ; Brunt et al., 1996 ; CABI, 2011 ; Pearson et al., 2006 **Tom a** **to Spotted Wilt Virus** (TSWV TW, US (HI, PR) No N/A N/A Brunt et al., 1996 ; CABI, 2011 ; Chang et al., 2003 ; Hu et al., 1993 ; Simone and Burnett, 1995Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 15 2.4.1. Pests not considered for further mitigation Other listed plant pests may be potentiall y detrimental to the agricultural s ystems of the United States; however, they

were not subjected to further anal ys is for a variety of reasons. First, the pest’s primary

association may

be with plant parts other than the commodity . Secondl y, the pests may not be associated with the commodity during transport or processing because of their inherent mobility

and/or instinct to avoid light or human activity . Thirdl y, sterile insect stages can be transported in a shipment but are unable to establish viable populations upon entry
. Lastl y, packing procedures and production s ys tems at the country of origin may

cause contamination by

organisms not normally

associated with Oncidium orchids. Should any of these biological contaminants be intercepted during inspection by PPQ Officers, quarantine action will be required ( PestID, 2010 ). **Pests not identified t o species**  . The biological hazard of organisms identified only to the genus level is not directly

assessed in this document. This applies to the genera Bradybaena (Mollusca), Brevipalpus, Neotarsonemoides, Xenotarsonemu s, and Tydeus (Arthropoda), Spodoptera (Insecta), Ascochyta, Colletotrichum, Didymosphaeria, Fusicoccum, Glomerella, Leptosphaeria, Macrophoma, Microsphaeropsis, Mycopsphaerella, Ophiodotella, Phaeosphaeria, Phoma, Phomopsis, Pseudorobillarda (Fungi), and Pseudomonas (Bacteria), because of the uncertainty about the lack of species identifications. The IPPC No. 11 indicate that “The identity

of the pest should be clearl y defined to ensure that the assessment is being performed on a distinct organism, and that biological and other information use d in the assessment is relevant to the organism in question” ( IPPC, 2007 : I SPM #2). The taxonomic level for organisms considered in risk assessments is usually the species. The use of a higher or lower taxonomic level should be supported b y a scientifically sound rationale. In case s where levels below the species level are being analyzed, the rationale for this distinction should include evidence of reported significant variation in factors such as virulence, pesticide resistance, environmental adaptability , host range or its role a s a vector ( IP PC, 2007 : IS PM #2). **Pests not reliably associated with host or in country.** Single or a few interceptions of known species of , Dichromothrips phalaenopsidis, Haplothrips chinensis, and Ophiodothella orchiodearum are not sufficient evidence of an association with Oncidium , or for their presence in Taiwan. Therefore we did not include them in the pest list above. If more interceptions occur later, we may

re - evaluate their risk. The genus Xenotarsonemu s (Acari) also had insufficient evidence for its association with Oncidium or presence in Taiwan , so we did not include it on the list. Some of the listed pests identified only to genus were associated with Oncidium only by interceptions in cargo, passenger baggage, or mail at ports

- of

- entry . Some of the pests intercepted are biological contaminants that are not expected to be present in every shipment. For example, the reported hosts for Psocoptera species do not include Oncidium: these insects usually feed on fungal hyphae and spores, lichens, algae, bark, and plant debris, moreover, most psocids are woodland insects with little economic importance (Meyer, 2005 ; Kalinovic et al., 2006 ).Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 16 2.4.2. Pests considered for further mitigation Several arthropod pests were identified as quarantine pests likely to be impo rted with unmitigated shipments of Oncidium spp. orchids, possibly requiring phy

tosanitary measures to mitigate risk. We further anal yz ed fourteen quarantine pests, five arthropods , six mollusks, one b ac terium, and one fungi (Table 4).
**Table 4.** Quarantine pests likely to follow the pathway

on Oncidium plants in growing media from Taiwan
. **Type Pest**  **Arthropods** Amsacta lactinea

Scirtothrips dorsalis Spodoptera litura Tetranychus kanzawai Thrips palmi **Mollusks** Deroceras laeve

Lissachatina fulica Laevicaulis alte Meghimatium bilineata Meghimatium pictum Parmarion martensi Petalochlamys vesta **Bacteria** Pectobacterium cypripedii **Fungi** Bipolaris zizaniae **2.5. Analysis of Quarantine Pests** In this risk assessment we identify and characterize the main sources of uncertainty . These include the use of a developing or evolving process (PPQ, 2000 ; Orr et al., 1993 ), the approach used to combine risk elements ( Bier, 1999 ; Morgan and Henrion, 1990 ), and the evaluation of risk by comparisons to lists of factors within the guidelines ( Kaplan, 1992 ; Orr et al., 1993 ). To address this last source of uncertainty , the lists of factors were interpreted as illustrative and not exhaustive, implying that additional biologic al information, even if not explicitly part of the criteria, can be used when relevant to a rating. Other sources of uncertainty include the quality

of the biological information and the amount of information available on the regional flora and fauna ( Gallegos and Bonano, 1993 ) and the inherent biological variation within a population of organisms introduces uncertainty as well ( Morgan and Henrion, 1990 ). 2.5.1. Consequences of Introduction In this part of the analy sis we consider the negative outcomes that may occur when the identified quarantine pests are associated with Oncidium orchids from Taiwan and are introduced into the United States. We rated the consequences of introduction for each pest according to the following five risk elements ( PPQ, 2000 ): Climate

–Host Interaction, Host Range, Dispersal Potential, Economic Impact, and Environmental Impact. These risk elements reflect the biologyPest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 17 of the pest and its hosts. For each risk element, we assigned pests a rating of L o w (1), Medium (2), or High (3). We then calculate a cumulative risk value as the sum of the ratings for each pest. These ratings are helpful in interpreting detailed results; however, the ratings are considered supplemental information within the context o f the overall risk anal ys is document. We summarized these ratings below for the anal yz ed pests. **Amsacta lactinea Climate/Host Interaction**  . This species is distributed over several subtropical and tropical countries including China, India, Korea, Laos, Malay sia, M yanmar, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam ( CABI, 2011 ). These places correspond to Plant Hardiness Zones 9

– 11 of the continental United States (Fig. 1). ( Magarey et al., 2008 ). The risk rating is **Medium**
. **Host Range** . The host range of A. lactinea is very wide. It feeds on virtually all cultivated and wild vegetation. Some affected host are Oncidium sp. (Orchidaceae) ( BAPHIQ, 2007 ; TARI, 2009 ), Arachis sp. ( Peanut Crop Germplasm Committee, 2003 ), Leucaena leucocephala (Wu et al., 2007 ), Phaseolus sp., ( Sharma and Ramamurthy , n.d. ), Glycine sp. ( Jayappa et al., n.d. ), Camelia sinensis ( Banerjee, 1987 ), Gossypium sp. ( Gentry , 1965 ), Ligustrum sinennsis (Zh ang et al., 2008 ), Oriza sp. ( Maxwell

- Lefro y, 19 07 ; Gentry , 1965 ), Phragmites australis (Wen et al., 2007 ; Maxwell

- Lefro y, 1907 ; Gentry , 1965 ),_ Helianthus annuus ( IK IS AN, 2009 ), Ocimun basilicum (Wen et al., 2007 ), and Sapium sebiferum ( TARI, 2009 ). The numbers of plants attacked belong to the families Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Malvaceae, Oleaceae, Orchidaceae, Poaceae, Rosaceae, and Theaceae. The risk rating for the host range for this pest is **High**
. **Dispersal Potential** . We found little information about dispersal potential for this species. Females of a similar species, A. moorei , may lay 500
- 1900 eggs during their life spans (CABI, 2011). After eclosion, early instar larvae feed gregariously . Later instars spread throu ghout the field (CABI, 2011). Adults of A. moorei are poor fliers, but they are strongly

attracted to artificial light

–especiall y males (CABI, 2011). For A. lactinea raised in the laboratory on maize, the incubation period ranged from 3 to 4 days, the total larval period from 24.8±1.3 to 31±1 day s, and the total life cycle ranged from 35.8±2.3 days in the 1st generation (beginning of July to end of August) to 252±4 day s in the 3rd generation (mid

- October to end of June) (Yazdani et al., n.d. ). Hence, A. lactinea may have several generations per ye ar. This pest h as a high reproductive potential, but its dispersal could be considered low. For these reasons, we rated this risk element **Medium**
. **Economic Impact** . Amsacta lactinea may not be of significant impact on the ornamental production under greenhouse conditions, but if introduced on field crops it could cause damage and economic losses, e.g., the Peanut Crop Germplasm Committee ( 2003 ) rated the economic impact for this pest in peanuts growing areas as medium. Damage caused by a larva from a similar Amsacta sp. differs from crop to crop. Seedlings of certain crops (e.g., clusterbean , Cyamopsis tetragonolobus ) are completel y killed because the larvae feed on the soft stem rather than on leaves (CABI, 2011). Other crops, such as pearl millet ( Pennisetum glaucu m ), mostly survive damage. If introduced, this pest could lower the yi eld of several crops of economic importance and may cause plant mortality, but damages depend upon the type of crop and the growth stage affected.Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 18 Controlling this pest will increase pro duction costs. The risk rating for the Economic Impact of this pest is **High**
.

**Figure 1** . Plant Hardiness Zones potentially suitable for establishment by Amsacta lactinea , Laevicaulis alte , Meghimatium bilineatum, M. pictum, Parmarion martensi, Petalochla mys vesta , and Thrips palmi. **Environmental Impact** . Hosts include species of Helianthus ( IKISAN, 200 9 ). This genus includes one endangered species, H. schweinitzii, and one threatened species, H. paradoxus , in the continental United States ( 50 CFR§17.12, 2005 ). Outbreaks would likely trigger increased chemical control programs. The risk rating for the Environmental Impact of this pest is High. **Bipolaris zizaniae Climate**  **- Host Interaction** 
. Bipolaris zizaniae infects Zizania latifolia ( Hsieh et al., 2000 ), so we would expect it to survive where Z. latifolia grows naturally and the environmental condition are suitable for its development. Zizania latifolia is pre sent in: Asia in China, India, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, M yanmar, Russian Federation, Vietnam, and Australasia in New Zealand ( GRIN, 2011 ), but B. zizaniae has only

been reported from Taiwan ( BCRC, 2004 ) and Japan (NBRC, 2004 ; NIAS Genebank, 2011 ), in areas corresponding to U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 9

- 11 ( PERAL, 2008 ). The potential hosts for B. zizaniae occur in these zones (NRCS, 2011 ). This warrants a **Medium** ris k rating for Climate

- Host Interaction. **Host Range**
. Bipolaris zizaniae infects water bamboo (Zizania latifolia (Family : Poaceae)), and petals of Oncidium orchid ( Oncidium sp. (Family : Orchidaceae)) ( Hsieh et al., 2000 ). The factPest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 19 that Oncidium petals are only infected when Z. latifolia plants infected with B. zizaniae are nearb y orchid nurseries ( Hsieh et al., 2000 ) indicates that Oncidium is not a primary host for this fungus. Based on the above information the risk rating for Host Range is **Medium. Dispersal Potential.**  There is very little specific information on the biology of B. zizaniae . In general, Bipolaris species produce spores on infected tissue which are readily dispersed by

rain splashing and wind (Waggoner, 1973 ). Spore production on helminthosprium infected leaves vary with host and environmental condition. Grainger ( 1954 ) studied the number of spores trapped at different highs from oats infected fields. The number of spores trapped during that tes t varied from 96 to 399 spores /100sq cu feet of air collected. Indicating that this H. avenae is very prolific and easily

dispersed by

wind. On the other hand , this group of pathogens can survive for long time in debris and in the soil. For example, Coch liobolus miyabeanus (whose anamorph B. oryzae is closel y related (or even s ynonym ous) to B. zizaniae) can survive in infected plant residues for long time periods, but the source of most primary infection is infected seed ( CABI, 2011 ). Another species, Bipolaris sorokiniana can survive on wheat residues and in the soil for up to one year ( Malaker et al., 2007 ). The duration of survival of B. zizaniae on Oncidium petals or debris is unknown. Based on the above information the risk rating for dispersal potential is **High. Economic Impact**  . It is difficult to determine the economic impact that Bipolaris zizaniae may have on the U.S. agricultural industry . The host range of B. zizaniae is restricted to only two plant species, water bamboo (Z. latifolia ), and petals of Oncidium orchids ( Oncidium sp.) ( Hsieh et al., 2000 ). There are no records of B. zizaniae infecting other Zizania species. Zizania. latifolia is not known to grow in the continental United States

. Therefore, we assigned this species a **Low** risk rating for Economic Impact. **Environmental Im** **pact.** Bipolaris zizaniae may h ave direct or indirect impacts on plants listed as threatened or endangered in the United States. The only p lant species that could be directl y impacted by

the introduction of B. zizaniae (if proven to be a hos t) is Zizania texana (NRCS, 2011 )

. Zizania texana only grows in the San Marcos River in Hays County , central Texas; Edwards Plateau region. Currently , only o ne population is known ( Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, 2009 **).** The likelihood of B. zizaniae in getting in contact with Z. texana (if proven been a host) is very

low. Therefore, we assigned a L **ow** risk rating for Environmental Impact. **Lissachatina fulica Climate/Host Interaction.**  Most members of Achatinidae are tropical and subtropical, but some species, most nota

bly A. fulica , can inhabit ranges far outside tropical areas. Lissachatina fulica remains active at a temperature range of 9

–29 o C, and can survive temperatures as low as 2 o C, and as high as 30 o C ( Raut and Barke, 2002 ). Large adults can aestivate for 10 months, while hatchling snails are restricted to about two months due to desiccation (PERAL , 2005 ). Lissachatina fulica can survive cold conditions, even snow, b y aestivating, though it is unable to establish itself in temperate regions ( CABI, 2011 ). However, Raut and Barke ( 2002 ), based on the worldwide distribution of L . fulica , suggested that this snail is most closely associated with tropical and subtropical broadleaf forests. Because that kind of forest does not occur in the United States, much less than 1 percent of the area within the continental United States is suitable for its establishment.Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 20 Additionally , L . fulica is normally nocturnal and crepuscular in its habits, though it becomes active in the day

time during rainy

or overcast periods. Thus, light, temperature, moisture, and food are all vital factors in snail activity (CABI, 2011) . Conditions essential to the permanent survival of L . fulica do not seem to occur anywhere in the continental United States, no part of which is completely

free at all times of winter frosts. In addition, most of the warmer areas are deficient in rainfall or lack protection against the sun ( Raut and Barke, 2002 ). Overall, then, this snail is only likel y to survive in Plant Hardiness Zones 10

- 11 (Fig. 1) ( Raut and Barke, 2002 ; Magarey et al., 2008 ). Accordingl y, we rated this risk element **Low. Host Range** 

. Lissachatina fulica has a broad range of host plants: more than 200 plant species in about 40 families ( Raut and Barke, 2002 ). Major hosts include Amaranthus sp.,(Amaranthaceae); Alocasia sp ., Colocasia sculenta, Xanthosoma brasiliensis (Araceae); Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae); Citrillus lanatus, Cucumis melo, C. sativus, Cucurbita maxima, C. pepo, Luffa sp ., (Cucurbitaceae); Arachis hypogea, Glycine max, Pisum sativum (Fabac eae); Allium cepa (Liliaceae); Gossypium sp (Malvaceae); Musa paradisiaca ( Musaseae ); Coffea arabica, C. canephora , (Rubiaceae); Citrus sinensis, C. reticulata (Rutaceae); Solanum melongena, Lycopersicum sculentum, Capsicum annun (Solanaceae); Theobroma ca cao (Sterculiaceae); and Camellia sinensis (Theaceae), among others (Raut and Barke, 2002 ). Young snails are most predacious on living vegetation, while very small and older individuals prefer detritus and decaying vegetation ( The Global Invasive Species Database, 2006 ). We rated this element **High.**

_ **Figure 2.** Hardiness Zones potentially suitable for establishment by Lissachatina fulicaPest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 21 **Dispersal Potential.** The distance travelled by L . fulica in one active night varies with the season and the age of the mollusk. The average distance travelled varied from 0.9 in October to 1.5 m. in June (India); and from 1.0 m in immature stages to 1.6 m in adult stages ( Raut and Barke, 2002 ).The most active individuals tracked in a study moved 500 meters in six months ( Tomiyama and Nakane, 1993 ), and natural spread is estimated to be a few hundred meters per ye ar ( Lambert and Tillier, 1993 ). Human assisted movement is the best way for long distance dispersal of quarantine pest. Lissachatina fulica could be introduced on: bulbs, tubers, corms, rhizomes, leaves, roots, stems (above ground), shoots, trunks, branches. All of them could carry eggs, and juveniles that could be v isible to the naked eye (CABI, 2011). Other pathways for long distance movement include: conveyances (transport vehicles); all vehicles: land, sea, air. This pest has a high reproductive potential and the potential for natural spread appears to be limited, but deliberate movement by man has spread giant African snails to many areas of the world; thus, we rated the dispersal potential as **High. Economic Impact** 

**.** Lissachatina fulica is a major agricultural pest, feeding on a variety of crops and causing significant economic losses. It is difficult to quantify the damage wrought by A. fulica to gardens and crops, but it is the most damaging land snail in the world ( CABI, 2011 ). In Florida, L . fulica would have caused an estimated annual loss of $11 million in 1969 (or almost $54 million in 2002 dollars) if not controlled (PERAL , 2003 ). In India, L . fulica, caused severe damage to vegetable crops and rice paddies during 1946

- 47 when it appeared in epidemic proportions (Pallewatta et al., 2002), in The Global Invasive Species Database, 2006 ). Lissachatina fulica may

also increase the spread of certain plant diseases via its feces, such as black pod disease cau sed by Phytophthora palmivora ( Mead, 1961 ; Muniappan et al., 1986, in CABI, 2011 ). Many

reports of widespread damage by L . fulic a have been anecdotal. More recentl y, Civey

rel ( 1996 ) suggest that the lasting impact of L . fulica on agriculture may not be severe, and the human health risk is probably minor. The establishment of L

. fulica in the United States could result in costs incurred not onl y for actual monetary damage to crops but also for control measures and surveys, and the potential loss of foreign markets for various agricultural commodities. The risk rating Host Range i s **High. Environmental Impact.**  Introduction of an exotic can lead to loss of native populations and other impacts on communities; but measuring the economic value of a population of a rare species that is not used by humans is difficult ( Civey rel and Simberloff, 1996 ). Lissachatina fulica consumes large volumes of native plants, modifies habitats and out

- competes native snails (Moore, 2005, in The Global Invasive Species Database, 2006 ). Lissachatina fulica may als o affect native ecos ys tems by altering the food chain, by providing an alternative food source for predators ( Mead, 1961 ). This can have unfortunate consequences if the predator species is also invasive ( CABI, 2011 ). Outbreaks in U .S. crops would likely trigger increased chemical control programs. Hence, we rated environmental impact for this pest to be **High. Mollusks:**  **Derocera s**  **laeve ,**  **Laevicaulis alte, Meghimatium bilineatum ,**  **M. pictum ,**  **Parmarion martensi** **, and Petalochlamys vesta**  With the exception of Lissachatina fulica , we analyze d these mollusks species as a group because the lack of available scientific information to determine the risk element for eachPest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 22 individual species, the biology of the pest (they

share similar characteris tics such as having an inefficient means of locomotion), and been generalist feeders spending little time searching for specific foods ( Speiser, 2 001 ). Many mollusks are herbivorous and considered agricultural pests, but the majority

of terrestrial gastropods feed on microorganisms associated with decaying vegetation ( Speiser, 2001 ). **Climate/Host Interaction** . Most of these mollusks have been reported from countries in East Asia: Cambodia, Vietnam, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Japan, Taiwan, Singapore, Samoa, and American Sam oa ( Hollingsworth et al., 2007 ; Noseworthy and Choi, 2007 ; Wu and Tsai, 2003 ). These correspond to Plant Hardiness Zones 9

- 11 (Fig. 1). The risk rating for the Climate

- Host Interaction for these pests is **Medium**
. **Host Range** . Terrestrial snails are he rbivorous. They feed on plant material (leaves, stems, soft bark, and fruits) and algae. The host range of these species covers several families, including Amryllidaceae, Araceae, Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Lauraceae, Malvaceae, Oleaceae, Orchida ceae, Passifloraceae, and Zingiberaceae (Hollingsworth et al., 2007 ). The risk rating for the Host Range for these pests is **High**
. **Dis persal Potential**  . Some plant parts or material are not known to carry these pests in trade/transport, as follows: growing medium accompanying plants, flowers, inflorescences, cones, cal yx , seedlings, micropropagated plants, true seeds, and wood ( CABI, 2011 ). These pests can be transported for long distances, though, on conveyances (transport vehicles) and non

- host plant material (e.g., , soil, gravel, and baggage) ( CABI, 2011 ). Adults and juveniles move slowly from one site to another, and the reproductive cycle is long and few eggs are produced ( Lai, 1984 ). Laev icaulis reproduce b y parthenogenesis or out

- crossing, although in some cases selfing only in isolation ( Cowie et al., 2009 ). Primarily because of the likelihood of human

- mediated transport, we rated the disp ersal potential as **Medium. Economic Impact**  . Mollusk feeding reduces plant quality and productive leaf area, and some mollusks clip off succulent plant parts ( Godan, 1983 ; Flinth, 1999 ). The introduction of the mollusk Bradybeana similaris into L ouisiana and other states necessitated control treatments for this pest (Aguirre and Poss, 2000 ). Parmarion cf. martensi could become an important vector of Angiosiorus cantonensis in Hawaii ( Hollingsworth et al., 2007 ). We found no reports about agricultural losses caused by Petalochlamys vesta, but this species could be as destructive as Pomacea canaliculata because of pol yphagia and the huge population sizes ( Lee and Wu, 2006 ). We rated this element **High. Environmental Impact**  . Nonindigenous species (NI S) had major impacts including degradation of wildlife habitat, decreased biological diversity, altered natural ecos ys tems, and negative effects on fishing and water sports ( OTA, 1993 ). There is concern that because Taiwan is climactically

similar to Florida, as well as California, in the continental United States and trust that nonindigenous species imported with orchids from Taiwan are more likely to become established in these areas. Biologists and ecolog ists caution that many poorly studied NIS have the potential of becoming agricultural pests, transmitting diseases, or displacing indigenous species (Ota, 1993).Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 23 The impact could be similar to that caused b y L. fulica which could consume large volumes of n ative plants, modifies habitats and out

- competes native snails (Moore, 2005, in The Global Invasive Species Database, 2006 ), affecting the native ecos y stems by altering the food chain, by providing an alternative food source for predators ( Mead, 1961 ). Outbreaks in U.S. crops would likely trigger increased chemical control programs. The risk rating for the environmental impact of this pest is **High**
. **Pectobacterium cypripedii Climate/Host Interaction.**  Pectobacterium cypripedii was reported in the U . S. in the States of California, Florida, Idaho, California, New Mexico, and New York. These States represent at least 5 plant hardiness zones. Based on this distribution is estimated that P. cypripedii could establish in Puerto Rico and Hawaii. The risk rating for the Climate

- Host Interaction for these pests for Hi and PR is **High. Host Range** 
. Pectobacterium cypripedii has been reported affecting Cypipedium sp, and Phalaenopsis amabilis . This pest affects plants species within the Orchidaceae family and an occasionally

infection on Carica papaya (Caricaceae) was reported by Leu ( 1980 ). We rated the Host Range for these pests as **Medium. Dispersal Potential**  . Movement in trade is likely to be by the transport of infected plants and/or compost (CABI, 2012)
. As many bacteria spread P. cypripedi can also be rain spla shed. We rated **High** for the dispersal potential. **Economic Impact**

. There is no evidence that this pest has caused significant economic losses in the area where it has been established in the United States; therefore , the risk rating for the Economic Impact of this pest is **Low. Environmental Impact** 
. This pest has the potential to affect orchidaceae plants listed as Endangered or Threatened in the Puerto Rico and Hawaii ( Cranichis ricartii, Lepanthes eltoroensis, and Platanthera holochila ) ( 50 CFR§17.12, 2005 ), but we found no evidence of signif icant impact s in areas in the continental United S tates where this pest is already established. The risk rating for the Environmental Impact of this pest is **Medium Scirtothrips dorsalis**  **Climate/Host Interaction.** This species is distributed over several countries:, Bangladesh, Barbados Brunei, China, , Indonesia, India, Israel, Jamaica, Ivory Coast, Japan, Kenya, Korea Republic, Venezuela, Vietnam , Papua New Guinea, Solomon I sland, South Africa in the US (HI, FL, TX, GA) ( CABI, 2011 , EPPO, 1997a). This species is widely distributed over several subtropical and tropical countries ( EPPO, 1997a) corresponding to Plant Hardiness Zones 7

- 11 (USDA
- APHIS
- PPQ
- CPHST, 2005 ). The risk rating for the Climate

- Host Interaction for these pests is **High. Host Range**  . This thrips is mainly a foliage feeder; it does not feed on flower pollen (Edwards, 2010). The host range of S. dorsalis includes over 40 plant families. Plant species attacked b y S. dorsalis include Odontonema strictum (Acanthaceae); Actinidia deliciosa (Actinidiaceae) ; Ilex crenata , I. integra (Aquifoliaceae); Alternanthera sessilis, Amaranthus spp. , A

. blitum, (Amaranthaceae); Anacardium occidentale, Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae); CalotropisPest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 24 gigantea (Apocinaceae); Schefflera arboricola (Araliaceae); Chrysanthemum x morifolium, Dahlia pinnata, Imorphotheca aurantiaca, Helianthus annuus , Sonchus asper (Asteraceae); Viburnum awabuki, V. suspensum (Caprifoliaceae); Euonymus japonicus (Celastraceae); Beta vulgaris (Chenopodiaceae); Conocarpus erectus , Laguncularia racemosa (Combretaceae); Ipomoea batatas (Convolvulaceae); Citrullus lanatus, Cucumis melo, C. sativus, Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae); Diospyros kaki (Ebenaceae); Pieris japonica , Rhododendron sp. (Ericaceae); Hevea brasiliensis, Hevea sp., Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae); Acacia arabica , A. brownie, Acacia spp. A. auriculiformis,Arachis hypogaea, Brownea spp., Dolichos lablab, Glycine max, Melanoxylum sp., Melilotus indica, Mimosa pudica, Phaseolus vulgaris, Saraca minor, Saraca spp., Tamarindus indica, Vi gna radiata (Fabaceae); Castanea crenata, Quercus glauca, Q. virginiana , Saraca indica (Fagaceae); Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgoaceae); Distylium racemosum (Hamamelidaceae); Hydrangea spp. (Hydrangeaceae); Laurus nobilis (L auracea), Lamium barbatum (Lamiaceae); Allium cepa, A. sativum , Asparagus officinalis (Li liaceae); Cuphea hyssopifolia (Ly

thraceae); Gossypium herbaceu, G.hirsutum (Malvaceae); Ficus carica, F. elastic, Morus sp. (Moraceae); Musa sp. (Musaceae); Syzygium malaccense, S. samarangense (My rtaceae); N

elumbo lutea, N. nucifera (Nelumbonaceae); Jasminum multiflorum , Ligustrum japonicum , Osmanthus heterophyllus (Oleaceae); Passiflora edulis (Passifloraceae); Eurya japonica (Pentaphylacaceae); Sauropus androgynus (Phyllanthaceae); Pittosporum tobira (Pitto sporaceae); Plumbago auriculata (Plumbaginaceae); Zea mays (Poaceae); Coccoloba uvifera (Polygonaceae); Podocarpus macrophyllus (Podocarpaceae); Fagopyrum esculentum (Polygonaceae); Portulaca oleracea (Portulacaceae); Punica granatum (Punicaceae); Zizyphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae); Fragaria x ananassa, F. chiloensis, Photinia glabra, Prunus sp., P. mume , P. persica, P. salicina, Pyracantha angustifolia , Pyrus spp., Rhaphiolepis indica , R. umbellata Rosa spp., Rubus spp. (Rosaceae); Gardenia jasminoides (Rubi aceae) Citrus aurantiifolia, C. maxima, C. sinensis, C. unshiu, Murraya paniculata, Zanthoxylum piperitum (Rutaceae); Populus deltoids (Salicaceae); Acer sp., Dimocarpus longan, Litchi chinensis, Nephelium lappaceum (Sapindaceae); Capsicum annuum, C. frutescens, Lycopersicon esculentum, Nicotiana tabacum, Solanum melongena, . (Solanaceae), Theobroma cacao (Sterculiaceae); and Camellia japonica , C. sasanqua, C. sinensis Theaceae Ampelopsis brevipedunculata , Cayratia japonica, Vitis pteroclada V. vinifera (Vi taceae) ( CABI, 2011 ; EPPO, 1997a ; Edwards et al., 2010 ). The risk rating for the Host Range for these pests is **High**
. **Dispersal Potential** . Reproduction potential: Fecundity depends on host plant quality . Duration of each life stage (Amin and Palmer 1985): eggs 6

- 8 day s, larval stages 6

- 7 day s, pupal stages 2

- 3 day s, adults up to 22 day s with an average of 11 day s. Reproduction is both sexually and parthenogenically

( Edwards et al., 2010 ). In castor, the total number of eggs laid by a female ranges from 40
- 66; in chilies, a female lays 2
- 4 eggs per day for about 32 day s ( CABI, 2011 ), The thrips female oviposit 60 to 200 eggs in her lifetime ( Ludwing et al., 2007 ). The life

- cycle is completed in 13

- 20 day s, depending on host plant and season. Dispersal: Records from USDA PestID database indicate 90 interceptions of S. dorsalis , including some on fresh fruit (13), flowers (33), foliage (16) and undetermined (24) ( PestID, 2 010 ). Because this pest has a high reproductive potential and is able to fly for long distance the risk rating for the dispersal potential is **High**
. **Economic Impact** . Scirtothrips dorsalis is poly phagous with a very

large host range, S cirtothrips dorsalis has the potential to cause significant economic damage if it were toPest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 25 establish in the U.S.( Seal et al., 2010 ) S cirtothrips dorsalis has been reported as a serious pest of a diverse variety of commodities in several countries. S cirtothrips dorsalis has been reported as a serious pest on cotton in Ivory Coast, India, and Pakistan, citrus in Japan ( Masui, 2008 ; Lo ngo, 1986 ) and Taiwan, peanuts in India, peppers and chilies in India, mangos in Taiwan, litchis in China, roses in India and Taiwan, Hevea brasiliensis in Malay sia, lotus in Taiwan, (USDA
APHI S
- PPQ
- CPHST, 2005 ), strawberries in Queensland and Australia, tea in Taiwan, soy beans in Indonesia, ( Edwards et al., 2010 ), capsicum and groundnuts in India, grapevine (although S cirtothrips dorsalis may not breed on grapevines) and tea in Japan, (GPDD 2006), and chili peppers in Sri Lanka (Schall 1995). S cirtothrips dorsalis has also been reported to cause damage in onions, tomatoes, tamarind, cashews, and castor beans ( Edwards et al., 2010 ). The majority of the above listed commodities occur in the U.S. and in fact 34 major commodity hosts exist in areas clim atically

suitable for establishment (USDA
- APHIS
- PPQ
- CPHST, 2005 ). Therefore, the risk rating for the Economic Impact of this pest is **High**
. **Environmental Impact** . The following End angered or Threatened species could be attacked: Allium munzii (CA), Amaranthus pumilus (DE, MA, MD, NC, NJ, NY, RI , SC, VA), Cucurbita okeechobeensis ssp. okeechobeensis (FL) ( 50 CFR§17.12, 2005 ). Additional chemical control would likely

be implemented since it is often used against this pest ( CABI, 2011 ; Seal et al., 2006 ; Reddy

et al., 2005 ). The risk rating for the Environmental Impact of this pest is **High**
. **Spodoptera litura Climate/Host Interaction.**  This species is distributed over several countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Christmas I sland, Hong Kong, Indonesia, India, Iran, Japan, Korea Democratic People's Republic, Korea Republic, Lao, Maldives, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, Viet Nam, American Samoa, Australia (Northern Territory , New South Wales, Queensland, W estern Australia), Cocos Islands, Cook I slands, Fiji, French Poly nesia, Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, New Caledonia, Niue, Norfolk Island, Northern Mariana Islands, Micronesia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon I slands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Wallis and Futuna Islands; Russia, and in the US (Hawaii) ( CABI, 2011 ). This species is widely distributed over several subtropical and tropical countries ( EPPO, 1997c ) corresponding to Plant Hardiness Zones 7
- 11 (Fig. 3). ( Magarey

et al., 2008 ). The risk rating for the Climate

- Host Interaction for these pests is **High. Host Range**  **.** The host range of S. litura includes over 40 plant families. Plant species attacked by S. litura in the tropics are Oncidium sp. ( TARI, 2009 ), Dendrobium sp. (Orchidaceae) ( Kumari and Lyla, 2001 ; Weaver, 2003 ), Colocasia esculenta (Araceae), Brassica sp. (Brassicaceae), Ipomea batatas (Convolvulaceae), Cucumis sp. (Cucurb itaceae), Ricinus sp. (Euphobiaceae), Arachis sp., Glycine sp., Leucaena leucocephala, Medicago sativa, Phaseolus sp., Vigna sp (Fabaceae), Linum sp (Linaceae), Corchorus sp ., Gossypium sp . ( Malvaceae

), Zea mays, Oryza sp. (Poaceae), Capsicum sp., Nicotiana tabaccum, Solanum melongena, S. tuberosum (Solanaceae), and Camelia sp. (Theaceae) ( CA BI, 2011 ; EPPO, 1997c ). The risk rating for the Host Range for these pests is High. **Dispersal Potential.** The moths can fly about 2 km in 4 hours overnight, facilitating dispersion and oviposition on differ ent hosts ( CABI, 2011 ; EPPO, 1997c ). Inintern ational trade, eggs orPest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 26 larvae may

be present on planting material, cut flowers, or vegetables. Fecundity may be as high as 5,900 eggs per female ( Chu and Ou

- Yang, 1991 ) with up to 12 generations annually ( CABI, 2011 ; EPPO, 1997c ). Because this pest has a high reproductive potential and is able to fly for long distance the risk rating for the dispersal potential is High. **Econom ic Impact** 

**.** S. litura is an extremely serious pest, for example, in India, soy bean yield loss was estimated at over 40 percent due to this pest and up to 50 percent on tobacco. In Japanese greenhouses, a 10 percent yi eld loss in peppers was found ( EPPO, 1997c ). Similar losses may

be expected on crops in the PRA area ( EPPO, 1997c ). In addition, its establishment in the United States may

lead to the loss of export markets. Ther efore, the risk rating for the Economic Impact of this pest is High.

**Figure 3** . Plant Hardiness Zones potentially suitable for establishment by Spodoptera litura and Scirtothrips dorsalis **Environmental Impact** . Hosts include endangered species in the genera Trifolium ( T. amoenum, T. stoloniferum, T. trichocalyx) and Phaseolus (P. supinus) ( 50 CFR§17.12, 2005 ). Outbreaks in crops in the PRA area would likely trigger increased chemical control programs similar to those now in effect for other caterpillars. The risk rating for the Environmental Impact of this pest is **High**
.Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 27 **Tetranychus kanzawai Climate/Host Interaction.**  Tetranychus kanzawai was reported in the US in the States of California, and New York (Migeon and Dorkeld, 2006 ) . These states represent at least 5U.S. plant hardiness zones. Based on this distribution, it is estimated that T. kanzawai could establish permanent in Puerto Rico and Hawaii. One or more of its potential hosts occur in these zones (Magarey et al., 2008 ). The risk rating for the Climate

- Host Interaction for these pests is **High Host Range** 
. Tetranychus kanzawai is a poly phagous pest that affects more than 160 plant species in at least 60 families (Migeon and Dorkeld, 2006 ); therefore t he risk rating for this pests is **High**
. **Dispersal Potential** . The biology of T. kanzawai species was recently studied in detail by

Kim ( 1993 ) in Korea. Under constant temperatures of 15, 20, 25 and 30°C, the egg periods averaged 15.1, 8.9, 4.4 and 2.3 days, respectivel y, the larval periods 6.4, 3.5 , 1.9 and 1.2 day s, protony mphal periods 5.6, 2.8, 1.7 and 1.0 day s, and deutony mphal periods 7.5, 4.0, 2.1 and 1.3 day s. The corresponding adult female lifespans were 33.3, 16.8, 15.5 and 13.4 days, and average numbers of eggs laid per female 37.5, 59.4, 100.6 and 103.3. Similar biological studies have been reported b y Tsai ( 1989 ) in Taiwan and in China Cao et al., 1998 . Female of T
. kanzawai can mature and deposit up to 3,00 0 eggs during their life; generation times range from 13

- 33 day s, depending on the temperature and host plant (Kim et al., 1993) so s everal generations per ye ar are possible. Because this pest has a high reproductive potential and is able to disperse long distances in contaminated plant material the risk rating for the dispersal potential is **High Economic Impact.**  T. kanzawai is a major pest of tea, egg plants, and other crops in Japan and southern China. Wang ( 1981 ) reported that it caused serious damage to cherries in China. This species is an important pest of egg plants in Taiwan (Ho and Chen, 1992 ). It was recentl y recorded on cassava in Congo ( Gutierrez and Bonato, 1994 ) and in the Philippines (Villacarlos and Vasquez, 1988 ). The cost of chemical control of T. kanzawai on strawberries in Taiwan exceeds US$233/ha ( Chang and Huang, 1995 ). Its establishment in the Puerto Rico and Hawaii could result in the loss of foreign markets for various agricultural commodities, but there is no evidence of significant impact in areas present in the continental U. S., t herefore, we rated **Medium** for the Economic Impact. **Environmental Impact**
. This pest has the potential to attack plants listed as endangered or threatened in the United States. Species that could potentially be affected in the PRA area (HI) are Canavalia spp.(2 species), Euphorbia sp, Gardenia spp (2 species), Hibiscus spp. (4 species) Solanum spp. (1 species), Vicia spp., Vigna spp., Viola spp.., Zanthophyllum spp. ( 50 CFR§17.12, 2005 ) . Its introduction could initiate control programs in areas of the United States to which it was newl y introduced because it is a major pest of numerous economic crops, but there is no evidence of significant impact s in areas in the continental United S tates where this pest is already established. The risk rating for the Environmental Impact of this pest is **Medium .**  **Thrips palmi Climate/Host Interaction.**  Thrips palmi is subtropical to tropical in distribution; populations in temperate climates are able to overwinter in greenhouses or other artificial situations since it cannot survive subzero temperatures for more than a few days ( Lewis, 1997 ; Capinera, 2010 ). This thrips occurs in Asia, (Bangladesh, Brunei, China, I ndia, Indonesia , Japan, Korea DPR, Korea republic,Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 28 Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey; Africa (I vory coast, Mauritius , Nigeria, Reunion, and Sudan), north America (Bermuda, Mexico, US

– FL and HI), Central America (Antigua, Bahamas, Barbados, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Ja maica, Martinique, Puerto Rico and Trinidad and Tobago) South America (Brazil, Colombia, Guyana., Suriname, Venezuela); parts of the tropical Pacific (American Samoa, Australia, French Poly nesia, Samoa, and Africa, and, recently, in the Caribbean and northern South America. United States populations are restricted to American Samoa, southern Florida, Guam, Hawaii and Puerto Rico (CABI, 2011 , Capinera, 2010 ). Based on this distribution, it is estimated that T. palmi could establish permanent outside populations in the United States in U.S . Plant Hardiness Zones 9

- 11 (Figure 1). One or more of its potential hosts occur in these zones (Magare y et al., 2008 ). The risk rating for the Climate

- Host Interaction for these pests is **Medium Host Range** 
. Thrips palmi is a poly phagous pest that attacks plants in several families. Among primary hosts are species of Actinidia chinensis, A. deliciosa (Acitnidiaceae); Amaranthus spinosus, A. tricolor, A. viridis (Amaranthaceae); Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae); Ageratum spp ., A

. conyzoides, Chrysanthemun sp. , Helianthus annuus, Lactuca sativa (Asteraceae), Cucumis melo, C. sativus , Cucurbita moschata, C

. pepo (Cucurbitaceae); Allium cepa (Liliaceae), Arachis hypogaea, Glycine max , Phaseolus vulgaris , Vigna ungiculat (Fabaceae), Persea americana (Lauraceae); Gossypium sp. , Abelmoschus esculentus (Malvaceae); Oryza sativa (Poaceae), Sesamum indicum (Pedaliaceae); Citrus spp. , C. medica, C. sinensis (Rutaceae) , Capsicum spp., C

. annuum, Nicotiana tabacum , Solanum lycopersicum , S. melongena, and S. tuberosum (Solanaceae) ( CABI, 2011 ). The risk rating s for these pests is **High**
. **Dispersal Potential** . Female T
. palmi can mature and deposit up to 204 eggs during their life; generation times range from 11.5

- 20 days, depending on the temperature and host plant ( CABI, 2011 ; Capinera, 2001 ) . Several generations per year are possible. Originally restricted to south and Southeast Asia, over the past 25 years, T
. palmi has rapidly

spread to Australia, Africa, and the Western Hemisphere (CABI, 2011 ). Bournier, (1986) suggested that rapid, long

- distance dispersal is facilitated by

wind and aircraft transport of infested plant materials. Adults are capable of flight, and their small size and fringed wings allow long distance dispersal via wind Le wis, 1997
. The species has been intercepted over 8100 times at U.S. ports during the last 25 years (PestID, 2010 ); thus, this pest could be easily moved on plant material. . Because this pest has a high reproductive potential and is able to fly for long distance the risk rating for the dispersal potential is **High**
. **Economic Impact**

. Thrips palmi is a serious pest of cucurbits and eggplant. Losses of 50

- 90% in these crops have been reported ( CABI , 2007 ). On cucumber, feeding stunts plants, causing premature bud and fruit drop, and deforming fruits that survive; infestations can be as low as one thrips per leaf, which results in fewer tendrils and leaves, and dead plants (Lewis, 1997 ). The species is a vector of tomato spotted wilt tospovirus ( CABI , 2011 ). It is difficult to control chemically, requiring repeated applications of insecticides to achieve acceptable levels of control ( Sakimura et al., 1986 ). Its establishment in the United States could result in the loss of foreign markets for various agricultural commodities. . Therefore, the risk rating for the Economic Impact of this pest is **High**
. **Environmental Impact**
. This pest has the potential to attack plants listed as Endangered or Threatened in the United S tates ( e.g. , Allium munzii (CA), Cucurbita okeechobeensis ssp. okeechobeensis (FL), Helianthus spp. three species in AL, KY, NC, NM, SC, TN, TX.) ( 50Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 29 CFR§17.12, 2005 ) . Its introduction would undoubtedly initiate control programs in areas of the United States to which it was newl y introduced because it is a m ajor pest of numerous economic crops ( e.g., beans, peppers and tomatoes ). Similar programs have been considered in other countries ( e.g. , Japan) (Hirose et al., 1993 ). ) Outbreaks in crops in the PRA area would likel y trigger increased chemical control programs similar to those now in effect for other caterpillars. The risk rating for the Environmental Impact of this pest is **High**
**Table 5.** Summary

of the risk ratings for the Consequences of Introduction **Pest Climate/Host**  **interaction Host** 

**range Dispersal** 

**potential Economic** 

**impact Environ**  ****

**mental impact**  **Cumulative**

**risk rating a**  Amsacta lactinea Med (2) High (3) Med (2) High(3) High (3) High (13) Bipolaris zizaniae Med (2) Med (2) High (1) Low (1) Low (1) Med (9) Lissachatina fulica Low (1) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (13) Mollusks: Deroceras laeve , Laevicaulis alte, Meghimatium bilineata, M. pictum, Parmarion martensi, Petalochlamys vesta Med (2) High (3) Med (2) High (3) High (3) High (13)
Pectobacterium cypripedii High (3) Med (2) High (3) Low (1) Med (2) Med (11) Scirtothrips dorsalis High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (15) Spodoptera litura High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (15) Tetranychus kanzawai High (3) High (3) High (3) Med (2) Med (2) High (13) Thrips palmi High (2) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (14) a Lo w = 5
- 8 points, Medium = 9

- 12, and High = 13

- 15. 2.5.2. Likelihood of Introduction We assess the Likelihood of Introduction for a pest based on six factors ( PPQ, 2000 ). One is the amount of commodity

likely to be imported. The other five are based on the biology of the pest in interaction with the commodity, as follows: the effectiveness of post

- harvest treatments, pest survival during shipping, p est detection at ports

- of

- entry , the pest being moved to a suitable environment, and the pest coming into contact with suitable hosts. These represent a series of independent events that must all take place before a pest outbreak occurs. The value for the Likelihood of Introduction is the sum of these six ratings, which we summarized below (Table 6). **Quantity of commodity imported annually** . This rating is based on the amount reported b y the country of proposed export converted into standard units of 40

- fo ot long shipping containers. Permission to import into the United States is likely to be linked with an increase in production in the future and subsequent increases in the volumes of imports. Cut flowers of Oncidium spp. is the major product for export but live plants and seedlings are also exported. The United States is the leading market for live Oncidium sp. plants, at about 24,000 kg ( BAPHIQ, 2007 ). No more than ten containers per ye ar have ever been exported orPest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 30 are expected to be exported from Taiwan into the United States. Given that, we rated this sub

element **Low** for all pests. **Availability of post -**  **harvest treatm ents**  . For this sub

- element, post

- harvest treatment refers to any manipulation, handling, or specific phy tosanitary treatment to which the commodity is subjected. Examples of post

- harvest treatment include culling, washing, chemical treatment, cold storage, etc. No specific postharvest treatments have been proposed for this commodity , so we rated this sub

- element **High. Survive shipment**  . To obtain optimum success in propagation and cultivation, live plant material should be transported as rapidly as possibl e, which usually means to be shipped via airfreight, which makes its transport period short in duration ( CITES., 2010 ). The conditions are likely to be moderate temperatures and humidity, which is unlikely to adversel y affect any

of the quarantine pest populations. For example, larval stages of Spodoptera sp. are often intercepted, indicating they

routinel y survive shipment ( PestID, 2010 ). Finall y, the conditions required for plant survival during shipment are very unlikel y to inhibit the growth of any pest that is likel y to follow the pathway . For these reasons, we rated this sub

- element **High** for all the pests. **Not detected at the port -**  **of -**  **entry**
. Amsacta lactinea. Damage caused b y early instars of Amsacta lactinea is easily detected as chlorophyl l

- free, whitish leaves, with the network of veins intact. Heavy foliar damage indicates the presence of late

- instar larvae which, being reddish brown and possessing tufts of long hair, are easily spotted against the green b ackground of the crop ( CABI, 2011 ). Minute pellets of larval excreta and/or early instars feeding in large numbers on the undersurface of leaves are also visible. The eggs are laid in grouped rows of 6

- 22 eggs, which makes their detection easier ( CABI, 2011 ). Thus, we rated this sub

- element **Low** for this pest. Bipolaris zizaniae
. Standard v isual inspection techniques are likel y to detect spots on petals of Oncidium orchids caused by B. zizaniae. In fection studies of rice cultivars with various isolates of Helminthosporium oryzae (a closely related species to B. zizaniae) indicated that this pathogen does not have any type of dormancy, and that inoculated plants readily express symptoms (Vidhyasekaran, 1991 ). We rated this element **Low** for B. zizaniae
. Pectobacterium cypripedii

. This pathogen causes brown rot on orchids with fleshy leaves. Initial sy mptoms are small, water

- soaked lesions which enlarge to become brown, greas y- looking, slightly sunken areas ( CABI, 2012 ). These lesions are eas y to detected during inspection, therefore we rated this sub

- element **Low** for this pathogen Spodoptera litura. The larvae of S. litura can be up to 45 mm in length and are typicall y found on plant surfaces ( CABI, 2011 ; Matsuura and Naito , 1992 ; EPPO, 1997c ; Pogue, 2002 ). Eggs hidden between leaves, in media, or within flowers are more difficult to detect ( Pogue, 2002 ). We rated this sub

- element **Medium** for S. litura
. Scirtothrips dorsalis, Tetranychus kanzawai , and T hrips palmi. Thrips are not easily detectable because of their small size, so quarantine procedures are difficult to manage. In addition the plant characteristic allow for the presence of places where these pests could hide (pseudobulb scalesPest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 31 and leaf sheath). Thrips leave numerous scars and deformities. We rated this sub

- e lement **High** for these pests. Deroceras laeve, L

. fulica, L. alte, M. bilineatum , M. pictum , P. martensi, and P. vesta. These mollusks cause lesions on plants that may be detected by

visual inspection. Standard inspection techniques are highly

likely to detect larger mature and juvenile forms of mollusks on plants (e.g., Acusta tourranensis ; Robinson, 2002 ). Small eggs in soil are highl y likely to escape detection. We rated this sub

- element **High** for these p ests. **Moved to a suitable habitat** . Amsacta lactinea , Pectobacterium cypripedii , Spodoptera litura , Scirtothrips dorsalis, Tetranychus kanzawai , and Thrips palmi have tropical and subtropical distributions, and those areas are limited in the continental United States to the South and the West Coast. These comprise 10

- 12 percent of the total land area of the continental United States. Imported plants could also be placed in warm, indoor sites (such as greenhouses or shops) where the pests may

proliferate. For these reasons, we rated this sub

- element **High** for these pests. Bipolaris zizaniae is similar to the above pests in distribution, but has a much more limited host range. For that reason, we rated i t **Medium**
. Mollusks. Lissachatina fulica and the other mollusks species shipped to temperate United States ports in winter, spring, or fall are not likel y to find suitable outdoor habitats, but if moved into warm, indoor sites (such as greenhouses or shops) the pests may proliferate ( CABI, 2011 ; Godan, 1983 ; Lai, 1984 ; Flinth, 1999 ). Pests on plants shipped to subtropical ports are more likely to find a suitable habitat. For these reasons, we rated this sub

- element **High** for these pests. **Contact with host material** . All of the pest s are highl y likely to contact host material because the infested orchids are likely to be grown near other orchids indoors or in greenhouses. Additionally , all of the pests were rated High for host range, above, so they are more likely

to find acceptable host material. For these reasons, we rated this sub

- element **High** for all pests, but B. zizaniae
. A series of events have to occur for the pest to contact suitable host material and establish a colony . First, infected plant material must produce inoculum that will be disseminated to other susceptible plants (there are no records that infected Oncidium petals produce significant amounts of inoculum to initiate infection of petals on other Oncidium orchids in blooming stage, instead, the source of inoculum fo r the disease was considered to come from Bipolaris

- infected water bamboo (Zizania latifolia ) nearby . Second, the natural host of this pathogen is not present in the US; therefore lacking appropriate conditions for establishment, we rated it as **Low** risk fo r this sub

- elementPest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 32 **Table 6.** Summary

of the risk ratings for the Likelihood of Introduction. The ratings for all pests for ‘Quantity

imported annually ’ were Low. a **Pest Survive post**  **** **harvest treatment**  **Survive**

**shipment Not detected** 

**at port -**  **of**

  ** entry** **Moved to** 

**a suitable habitat**  **Find**

**suitable hosts**  **Cumulative**

**risk rating b**  Amsacta lactinea High (3) High (3) Low (1) High (3) High (3) Med (14) Bipolaris zizaniae High (3) High (3) Low (2) Med ( 1 ) Low ( 1 ) Med(11) Lissachatina fulica High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High(16) Mollusks: Deroceras laeve, Laevicaulis alte, Meghimatium bilineata , M. pictum, Parmarion martensi, Petalochlamys vesta High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High(16)

Pectobacterium cypripedii High (3) High (3) Low (1) High (3) High (3) Med (1 4 ) Scirtothrips dorsalis High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (16) Spodoptera litura High (3) High (3) Med (2) High (3) High (3) High (15) Tetranychus kanzawai High (3) High (3) Med (2) High (3) High (3) High (1 5 ) Thrips palmi High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (16) a This rating adds 1 point to the sum of each row for all pests. b Lo w = 6
- 9 points, Medium = 10

- 14 points, and High = 15

- 18 points.
**2.6. Conclusion** Summing the values for Consequences of Introduction and Likelihood of Introduction gives an estimate of the Pest Risk Potential (Table 7). For pests with a High Pest Risk Potential, specific phy tosanitary measures (in addition to port of entry inspection) are recommended to ensure phy tosanitary security.
**Table 7.** Pest Risk Potentials for quarantine pests of Oncidium spp. from Taiwan. **Pest Consequences**  **of Introduction**  **Likelihood of**

**Introduction Pest risk** 

**potential a**  Amsacta lactinea High (13) High (16) High (29) Bipolaris zizaniae Med (9) Med (11) Medium (20) Lissachatina fulica High (13) High (16) High (29) Mollusks: Deroceras laeve , Laevicaulis alte, Meghimatium bilineata , M. pictum , Parmarion martensi, Petalochlamys vesta High (13) High (16) High (29) Pectobacterium cypripedii Med (11) Med (14) Medium (25) Scirtothrips dorsalis High (15) High (16) High (31) Spodoptera litura High (15) High (15) High (30) Tetranychus kanzawai High (13) High (15) High (28) Thrips palmi High (14) (High 16) High (30) a Lo w (11

- 18 points), Medium (19

- 26 points), and High (27

- 33 points)Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 33 

### 3. Risk **Management 3.1. Introduction**  This section describes the phy tosanitary measures required if Oncidium spp. plants in approved growing media are imported into the United States from Taiwan. The pest risks identified above are the baseline risk associated with the unmitigated importation of Oncidium spp. orchids from Taiwan in APHIS

- approved growing media. The proposed importation, if approved, would be regulated b y the existing regulations for plants in growing media ( 7 CFR § 319.37
- 8, 2009a). The mitigations described therein comprise a systems approach designed to establish and maintain a pest

- free production environment and ensure the use of pest

- free parent plants. These mitigations, when applied to this importation, effectively reduce the risk of these pests following the pathway

on Oncidium in growing media from Taiwan. **3.2. Systems Approaches** The Plant Protection Act of 2000 ( 7 U.S.C. § 7701
- 7786, 2000 ) defines systems approach as “...a defined set of phyt osanitary procedures, at least two of which have an independent effect in mitigating pest risk associated with the movement of commodities.” This is similar to the international standards definition , “The integration of different pest ri sk management measures, at least two of which act independentl y, and which cumulatively achieve the desired level of phy tosanitary protection ” ( IP PC, 2007 : I SPM #5 ). Sy stems approaches are employed as an alternative to the use of single measures that achieve an appropriate level of phy tosanitary protection when a single phy tosanitary measure is nonexistent, infeasible, or undesirable. The combinations of specific mitigation measures that provide overlapping or sequential safeguards are distinctly

different from single mitigation methodologies such as fumigation or inspection. Sy stems approaches vary in complexity but they all require the integrating multiple measures with a cumulative effect and are often tailored to specific commodity- pest - origin combinations. Options for specific measures may be selected from a range of pre

- harvest and post

- harvest measures, e.g., survey s, inspections, sanitation, chemical treatment. Options may include mitigation measures to compensate for uncertainty . PPQ uses sy stems approaches for the importation of many

commodities including Unshu oranges from Japan ( 7 CFR § 319. 28, 2008 ), tomatoes from Spain, France, Morocco, and Western Sahara), and peppers from I sra el ( 7 CFR § 319.56, 2009 ). These programs have performed successfull y for many years. The three main categories of mitigation measures that would be specifically required b y 7 CFR § 319.37
- 8(e) for Oncidium plants in growing media from Taiwan are as follows:  pest - free propagative material  pest - exclusionary

greenhouses  inspection Ensuring pest

- free propagative material requires monitoring and testing of mother stock and descendant plants ( Agrios, 1997 ; BAPHIQ, 2002 ; Jarvis, 1992 ). Pest

- exclusionary greenhouses employ treatments, good sanitation (e.g ., surface disinfestation of tools and plant materials).(Agrios, 19 97 ; Jarvis, 1992 ; Baker and Baker, 2006 ; Kahn and Mathur, 1999 ), clean water sources ( Jarvis, 1992 ; Kahn and Mathur, 1999 ; Van der Plank, 1963 ), and use of approvedPest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 34 growing media. Pathogens are typicall y not present in APHI S
- approved growing media ( Palm, 1994 ; Santacroce, 1991 ). While not specifically

required under 7 CFR § 319.37
- 8(e), standard industry practices help to further ensure that the pests of concern do not follow the pathway . These include in vitro or aseptic vegetative propagation (Hsieh, n.d. ; Pearson et al., 1991 ) to ensure pest free seedlings; and chemical treatments designed to reduce or eliminate mealy bugs ( Cory

and Highland, 1959 ), viruses ( Gara et al., 1997 ; In ouye and Gara, 1996 ; Wey et al., 2001 ) and fungi ( Baker and Baker, 2006 ; McCain et al., 1973 ). Other cultural practices enhance plant vigor so that pests are less likely to infest plants ( Smith and Neal, 1998 , proper lighting (Konow and Wang, 20001 ), temperature ( Baker and Baker, 2006 ; Wey , 2002 ), aeration and watering ( Frank, 1998 ; Miller, 1990 ), and nutrition (Wang, 1998 ; Wang and Gregg, 1994 ). **3.3. General Program Requirements for Plants in Growing Media** Approved growing media include baked expanded clay pellets, c oal cinder, coir, cork, glass wool, organic and inorganic fibers, peat, perlite, phenol formaldehyd e, plastic particles, polyethyl ene, poly

mer stabilized starch , polystyr ene, pol yurethane, rock wool, sphagnum moss, ureaformaldehyde, stockosorb superabsorb ent poly mer, vermiculite, volcanic rock, or zeolite, or any combination of these media ( 7 CFR § 319.37
- 8, 2009b ). Growing media must not have been previously

used. Risk mitigation measures for Oncidium plants from Taiwan are drawn from the g eneral risk mitigation program requirements for certain plants in growing media (7 CFR § 319.37
- 8(e), 2010). That regulation states: (1) Plants must be established in approved unused growing media. (2) Articles must be grown in compliance with a written agreement for enforcement of this section signed b y the plant protection service of the country of the country of origin and Plant protection and quarantine APHI S. The plants must be developed from mother stock which has been inspected no more than sixty day s before establishment of the plants. The inspection will be performed b y an AP HI S inspector or an inspector of the plant protection service of the country of origin. (3) The plants must be grown in compliance with a written agreement between the grower and the plant protection service of the country of origin. The grower must allow acce ss to his facility to make sure he is complying with the regulations. (4) “Grown solel y in a greenhouse in which sanitary procedures are adequate to exclude plant pests and diseases are always employed, including cleaning and disinfection of floors, benches, and tools, and the application of measures to protect against any injurious plant diseases, and injurious insect pests, and other plant pests” (7 CFR § 319.37

– 8(e)(2)(ii)). All entry way s must be equipped with automatic closing doors. (5) Rooted and grown in an active foliar state for at least four consecutive months before export. (6) Grown from seeds germinated in the greenhouse or descended from a mother plant that was grown for at least nine months in the exporting country . I f the mother plant was imported into the exporting country then it must be grown for at least twelve months prior to establishmentPest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 35 of the descendent plants or treated at the time of importation into the exporting country with a treatment for pests of the plant prescribed b y the plant protection service of the exporting country and then grown for nine months prior to establishment of descendent plants. (7) Watered only

with rainwater that has been boiled or pasteurized , with clean well water or with potable water. (8) Rooted and grown in approved growing media on benches supported b y legs and raised at least 46cm off the floor. (9) Stored and packed only in areas free of soil earth and plant pest. (10) Inspected in the greenhouse and found free of evidence of plant pests and diseases by an APHI S inspe ctor or an inspector of the plant protection service of the country of origin. **3.4 .**  **Evidence for the Effective Removal of Pests of Concern from the Pathway Measure**  **Evidence Pest**  **Reference** 1 Approved growing media is not a good

pathway for snail movement. Mollusks (Laevicaulis alte, Lissahatina fulica , Meghimatium bilineata , M. pictum, Parmarion martensi, Petalochlamys vesta) Hollingsworth

and Sewake, 20 02

2, 5, 10 All mother stock must be examined no

more than sixty

days before establishment and plants must be actively growing stage for four months. In addition, the orchids must be inspected in the greenhouse and found free of evidence of quarantine pest by an APHI S inspector or an inspector of the plant protection service of the country of origin. Snails are detectable b y slime trails, chewed leaves and excrement. Since standard inspection techniques are highl y likely to detect larger mature and juv enile forms of mollusks, this would allow snails to be found either before they move into the greenhouse or during required inspections. Amsacta lactinea, Mollusks, Scirtothrips dorsalis, Spodoptera litura, Thrips palmi. Robinson,

2002 ; Santacroce, 1991 ; CABI, 2011

4, 7, 8, 9 Plants will be grown sol ely in greenhouses with sanitary

procedures adequate to exclude mollusks and other plant pests, e.g. , there are no irrigation ditches or other openings in which the snails could gain access. The greenhouse must be free of soil and sand to prevent another p otential pathway for entry of snails. In addition orchids must be stored and packaged in Amsacta lactinea, Mollusks, Scirtothrips dorsalis, Spodoptera litura, Thrips palmi Be ssin et al.,

1997 ; Hamon, 1995 ; Hollingsworth and Sewake, 2002Pest Risk Assessment for Oncidium plants from Taiwan in Growing Media

Ver. 5 May 7, 2012 36 areas free of soil, sand, earth and plant pests, which would further aid in eliminating snails from the pathway The **3.5. Program Safeguards to Ensure Compliance** As outlined above the plants in growing media regulation 7 CFR § 319.37
- 8(e) mandates certain procedures b y APHIS and the plant protection service of the country of origin to ensure compliance with the regulation. A written agreement between the plant protection service of the country of origin and APHI S outlines the respective responsibilities and obligations for the enforcement of the various requirements of 7 CFR § 319.37
- 8(e). This agreement is called the “Operational Work Plan”. A current operational work plan for Phalaenopsis plants in growing media from Taiwan i s in place (APHI S
- PPQ, 2004 ). Before Oncidium plants in growing media can be imported from Taiwan, a similar work plan will be developed and signed. **3.6. Conclusion** The mitigations described in 7 CFR § 319.37

- 8 (e) are designed to establish and maintain a pest

free production environment and ensure the use of pest

- free parent plants. These mitigations, when applied to the importation of Oncidi um plants in growing media from Taiwan, are highl y likely to remove the pests of concern identified in the risk assessment from the pathway , thus precluding their introduction into the United States. 

### 4. Authors Walter A. Gutiérrez, Ph.D. a Gary L . Cave, Ph.D. a

aUSDA
- APHI S
- PPQ
- CPHST Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analy sis Laboratory 

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