United States Department of Agriculture 

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service 

Plant Protection and Quarantine

 

 

Importation of Aechmea, Cryptanthus, Guzmania, 

Hohenbergia, Neoregelia, Tillandsia and Vriesea, 

in growing media, into the United States from 

Belgium, Denmark and the Netherlands 

7 CFR 319.37 

Risk Management Document

February 2008 

Revised: October 2008, November 2008, July 2009 

Plant Health Programs (PHP) 

Regulations, Permits and Manuals (RPM) 

Contact Person: William Aley
1

Introduction 

The European Union member countries of Belgium, Denmark and the Netherlands have 

requested permission to export plants established in growing media in the genera Aechmea, 

Cryptanthus, Guzmania, Hohenbergia, Neoregelia, Tillandsia and Vriesea in the family 

Bromeliaceae to the United States (Embassy of Belgium, Royal Danish Embassy, Embassy of 

Israel, and Royal Netherlands Embassy, 1994; European Commission, 1998). 

The importation of Bromeliaceae plants as restricted articles is authorized in 7 CFR 319.37 of the 

Code of Federal Regulations (CFR, 2008). Importation and pest interception data of currently 

enterable bromeliads in the above mentioned genera from Belgium, Denmark and the 

Netherlands are discussed in the Appendix. However, the importation of above mentioned genera 

as plants established in growing media is not currently authorized in 7 CFR 319.37-8 (Plants in 

Growing Media). 

In response to the request by Belgium, Denmark and the Netherlands, the Animal and Plant 

Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) 

conducted a pest risk assessment (PRA) as required in 7 CFR 319.37-8(g). In the PRA, entitled 

“Importation of Aechmea, Cryptanthus, Guzmania, Hohenbergia, Neoregelia, Tillandsia and 

Vriesea (Bromeliaceae) in Growing Media, into the United States From Belgium, Denmark and 

the Netherlands” (USDA, 2009), one quarantine pest was identified that could reasonably be 

expected to follow the pathway on these plants: 

Fusarium oxysporum Schlechtend.:Fr. f. sp. aechmeae (Saut. & Gerlach) Gordon (Fungi 

Imperfecti: Hyphomycetes). 

This fungus was characterized as having a low pest risk potential. According to APHIS 

guidelines (USDA, 2000), pests with a risk rating of “low” typically do not require specific 

mitigation measures. The standard port-of-entry inspection to which all commodities imported 

into the United States are subjected is expected to provide sufficient phytosanitary security. 

Nevertheless, all plants established in growing media must comply with the regulations in 7 CFR 

319.37-8 (Plants in Growing Media). 

APHIS will subsequently propose to amend 7 CFR 319.37-8(e) to add Aechmea, Cryptanthus, 

Guzmania, Hohenbergia, Neoregelia, Tillandsia and Vriesea from Belgium, Denmark and the 

Netherlands to the list of approved plants. If imported into Hawaii, these Bromeliaceae will be 

subject to postentry quarantine in accordance with 7 CFR 319.37-7. 
2

Risk management measures 

The following risk management measures will apply to articles in the genera Aechmea, 

Cryptanthus, Guzmania, Hohenbergia, Neoregelia, Tillandsia and Vriesea in the family 

Bromeliaceae, imported in approved growing media into the United States from Belgium, 

Denmark, and the Netherlands. The articles must be: 

1. Artificially propagated and not collected from the wild (USDA, 2009). 

2. Established in approved growing media and in compliance with all requirements of 7 

CFR 319.37-8. 

3. Subject to postentry quarantine if imported into Hawaii, in accordance with 7 CFR 

319.37-7. 

4. In compliance with all other requirements in 7 CFR 319.37, and as specified in the 

written agreement between APHIS and the National Plant Protection Organizations 

(NPPOs) of the above three countries. 

Discussion of risk management measures 

Bromeliads currently enterable as bare-root plants into the United States are grown in APHISapproved growing media and are then subject to washing of the root system with clean, potable 

water to remove growing media from the root system. Plants that are washed free of media 

facilitate visual inspection and the removal of symptomatic plants from the pathway, or rejection 

of infested plant lots. Regulatory officials inspect above- and below-ground plant parts for the 

presence of plant pests and diseases. 

When plants are established in growing media, non-destructive visual inspections may be 

rendered more difficult. It may not be possible to inspect for plant pests and diseases or 

biological contaminants on below-ground plant parts without damaging the plant. Establishment 

in media may also lead to production of larger plants, or additional or larger plant parts - 

including leaves or roots. These may provide additional locations for pests to hide and may 

increase the difficulty of visual inspection (USDA, 2009). 

However, the risks of importing propagative materials in growing media have been addressed by 

APHIS (Santacroce, 1991) and mitigated in regulations outlined in 7 CFR 319.37-8 (USDA, 
3

2009). Similar programs have been applied to various other groups of plants listed in 7 CFR 

319.37-8(e). 

The requirements outlined in 7 CFR 319.37-8 comprise a “systems approach” with a 

combination of measures aimed at reducing pest risk. The International Plant Protection 

Convention (IPPC) defines a “systems approach” as “The integration of different risk 

management measures, at least two of which act independently, and which cumulatively achieve 

the appropriate level of protection against regulated pests” (IPPC, 2007). Similarly, the Plant 

Protection Act of 2000 (SEC. 401. 7 U.S.C. 7701) defines a “systems approach” as “...a defined 

set of phytosanitary procedures, at least two of which have an independent effect in mitigating 

pest risk associated with the movement of commodities.” 

Systems approaches are employed by an importing country to achieve an appropriate level of 

phytosanitary protection as an alternative to the use of single measures when a single measure is 

nonexistent, infeasible or undesirable. The combinations of measures comprising systems 

approaches provide overlapping or sequential safeguards rather than depending on single 

mitigation methodologies, such as fumigation or inspection alone (Jang and Moffitt, 1994; 

USDA, 2009). 

The three main categories of mitigation measures specifically required in 7 CFR 319.37-8(e) 

include the use of pest-free propagation material, pest-exclusionary greenhouses, and inspection 

and oversight. 

Pest-free propagation material 

The Aechmea, Cryptanthus, Guzmania, Hohenbergia, Neoregelia, Tillandsia and Vriesea spp. 

must be artificially propagated and not collected from the wild (USDA, 2009). 

7 CFR 319.37-8(e)(2) requires the articles to be developed from mother stock that was inspected 

and found free from evidence of pests and diseases by an APHIS inspector or foreign NPPO 

inspector no more than 60 days prior to the time the article is established in the greenhouse, 

except for articles developed from seeds germinated in the greenhouse. The use of clean mother 

stock is an essential component of ornamental plant production. This requirement may reduce or 

eliminate the initial introduction of diseases and pests into the plant production environment 

(Kahn, 1977; Jarvis, 1992; Metcalf and Metcalf, 1993; Bodman et al., 1996; Agrios, 1997; Kahn 

and Mathur, 1999; Mizell and Short, 1999; Jones and Benson, 2001). 

If articles are grown from mother plants, 7 CFR 319.37-8(e)(2)(iv) requires the mother plant to 

be grown for at least 9 months in the exporting country prior to importation of the descendent 
4

plants into the United States. If the mother plant was imported into the exporting country from 

another country, it must be grown for at least 12 months in the exporting country prior to 

importation of the descendent plants into the United States. The mother plant may also be treated 

at the time of importation into the exporting country as prescribed for pests of that plant by the 

NPPO of the exporting country, and then grown for at least 9 months in the exporting country 

prior to importation of the descendent plants into the United States. 

7 CFR 319.37-8(e)(2)(iii) further requires the articles to be rooted and grown in an active state of 

foliar growth for at least four consecutive months immediately prior to importation into the 

United States, in a greenhouse unit that is used solely for articles grown in compliance with this 

paragraph. Mother and descendent plants in an active state of growth, and grown for the 

respective time periods required in 7 CFR 319.37-8(e)(2), are more likely to express potential 

symptoms of pests or pathogens that may be present. These may then be more readily detected 

and eliminated from the pathway by inspection. 

Pest-exclusionary greenhouses 

According to 7 CFR 319.37-8(e)(2)(ii), the articles must be grown solely in a greenhouse in 

which sanitary procedures adequate to exclude plant pests and diseases are always employed, 

including cleaning and disinfection of floors, benches and tools, and the application of measures 

to protect against plant pests and diseases. 

 

Sanitation is the general cleanliness and pathogen-free condition of the nursery operation, aimed 

at reducing the overall inoculum level in the nursery (Jones and Benson, 2001). Pestexclusionary greenhouses employ good sanitation, e.g., surface disinfection of tools and plant 

materials (Jarvis, 1992; Barry, 1996; Agrios, 1997; Kahn and Mathur, 1999; Bessin, 2001; Jones 

and Benson, 2001), clean water sources (van der Plank, 1963; Pirone, 1978; Jarvis, 1992; 

Bodman et al., 1996; Kahn and Mathur, 1999), and use of approved growing media. 

Growing media approved by APHIS are listed in 7 CFR 319.37-8(e)(1), and must not have been 

previously used. Articles must be rooted and grown in these media (7 CFR 319.37-8(e)(2)(vi)). 

Studies on APHIS-approved growing media indicated that pathogens are not present (Santacroce, 

1991). According to 7 CFR 319.37-8(e)(2)(v), plants must be watered only with rainwater that 

has been boiled or pasteurized, with clean well water, or with potable water. 

7 CFR 319.37-8(e)(2) requires the greenhouse to be free from sand and soil, and articles to be 

grown on benches supported by legs and raised at least 46 cm above the floor. Import restrictions 

barring soil carried with propagative horticultural plants prevent the introduction of various 
5

mollusks (Robinson, 2002). 7 CFR 319.37-8(e)(2)(vii) also requires the articles to be stored and 

packaged only in areas free of sand, soil, earth, and plant pests. 

7 CFR 319.37-8(e)(2)(ii) requires screening with openings of not more than 0.6 mm on all vents 

and openings except entryways. All entryways must be equipped with automatic closing doors. 

Screens and doors exclude the entry of flying or crawling pests that cannot fit through screens 

(Metcalf and Metcalf, 1993; Bessin, 2001). The greenhouse enclosure further provides a physical 

barrier that reduces the plants’ exposure to fungal spores that are rain splashed or windborne 

(Pirone, 1978; Barry, 1996; Agrios, 1997). 

While not specifically required in 7 CFR 319.37-8, various industry practices commonly used in 

the production of ornamentals may further reduce the likelihood of pests of concern following 

the pathway (USDA, 2009). These may include sanitation and chemical treatments designed to 

reduce or eliminate pests and diseases (Reinert, 1981; Mizell and Short, 1999; Bessin, 2001; 

Jones and Benson, 2001; Osborne, et. al., 2001; Ghidiu and Roberts, 2003), in vitro or aseptic 

vegetative propagation (Hartman et al., 2002), and cultural practices enhancing plant vigor and 

rendering the plants less susceptible to pests and diseases (Bodman et al., 1996; Kahn and 

Mathur, 1999; Jones and Benson, 2001). 

Improper nursery practices are often the primary means by which pathogens and pests are 

introduced and spread in the nursery (Jones and Benson, 2001). The inspection, oversight and 

written agreements required in 7 CFR 319.37-8 therefore provide additional phytosanitary 

quality control and rigor, and reduce the possibilities of improper practices being employed. 

Inspection and oversight 

According to 7 CFR 319.37-8(e)(2), articles imported under this paragraph must be grown in 

compliance with a written agreement signed by APHIS and the NPPO of the country where 

grown. 

7 CFR 319.37-8(e)(2)(i) also requires that articles are grown in compliance with a written 

agreement between the grower and the NPPO of the country where the article is grown. In this 

document, the grower agrees to comply with the provisions of this section and to allow 

inspectors, and representatives of the NPPO of the country where the article is grown, access to 

the growing facility as necessary to monitor compliance with the provisions of this section. 

7 CFR 319.37-8(e)(2) requires articles to be inspected and found free from evidence of plant 

pests and diseases by an APHIS inspector or an inspector of the NPPO of the exporting country. 

Mother stock must be inspected no more than 60 days prior to establishment of the articles in the 
6

greenhouse. Articles must also be inspected in the greenhouse no more than 30 days prior to the 

date of export to the United States. Regular inspections are recognized as an important part of a 

pest management program (Kahn and Mathur, 1999). 

Author 

Carissa Marasas, PhD 

Senior Risk Manager, Plants for Planting 

References 

Agrios, G. N. 1997. Plant Pathology. 4th Ed. Academic Press. San Diego. 

Barry, D. W. (ed.). 1996. Greenhouse Pesticide Management. Section 10 – Management of 

Greenhouse Diseases. http://www.ag.ndsu.nodak.edu/aginfo/pesticid/publications/GreenH/gpm1.htm. 

Bessin, R. 2001. Controls for greenhouse ornamental insect pests. Univ. Kentucky Coop. Ext. 

Service. http://www.uky.edu/Agriculture/Entomology/entfacts. 

Bodman, K.; Carson, C.; Forsberg, L.; Gough, N.; Hughes, I.; Parker, R.; Ramsey, M. and 

M. Waterhouse. 1996. Ornamental Plants. Dept. Primary Industries, Info. Series QI 96001, 

Australia. 

Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). 2008. http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/textidx?c=ecfr&tpl=%2Findex.tpl. 7 CFR 319.37. Subpart–Nursery Stock, Plants, Roots, Bulbs, 

Seeds, and Other Plant Products. http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/textidx?c=ecfr&sid=ec37e455be2142273f36279a61d28a82&rgn=div6&view=text&node=7:5.1.1.1.

6.7&idno=7 [accessed October 2008]. 

Embassy of Belgium, Royal Danish Embassy, Embassy of Israel, and Royal Netherlands 

Embassy. 1994. Letter to the United States Department of Agriculture, dated August 18, 1994. 

[On file with the contact person]. 

European Commission. 1998. Letter to International Services, Animal and Plant Health 

Inspection Services, United States Department of Agriculture, dated June 19, 1998. [On file with 

the contact person]. 

Ghidiu, G. M. and W. J. Roberts. 2003. Greenhouse Screening for Insect Control, Factsheet 

FS640. The State University of New Jersey, Rutgers Cooperative Extension. 

www.rce.rutgers.edu/pubs/pdfs/fs640.pdf. 
7

Hartmann, H. T., Kester, D. E., Davies, Jr., F. T, and R. L. Geneve. 2002. Hartmann and 

Kester's Plant Propagation Principles and Practices. 7th ed., Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River. 

International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC), 2007. International Standards for 

Phytosanitary Measures. ISPM No. 5. Glossary of Phytosanitary Terms. 

https://www.ippc.int/servlet/BinaryDownloaderServlet/184195_ISPM05_2007_E.doc?filename=

1180102644600_ISPM_05_2007.doc&refID=184195 [accessed October 2008]. 

Jang, E. B. and H. R. Moffitt. 1994. Systems approaches to achieving quarantine security. In: J. 

L. Sharp and G. J. Hallman (eds.). 1994. Quarantine treatments for pests of food plants. 

Westview Press, Boulder. 

Jarvis, W. R. 1992. Managing Diseases in Greenhouse Crops. American Phytopathology Society, 

St. Paul. 

Jones, R. K. and D. M. Benson. 2001. Diseases of Woody Ornamentals and Trees in Nurseries. 

APS Press, St. Paul. 

Kahn, R. P. 1977. Plant quarantine: Principles, methodology, and suggested approaches. In: W. 

B. Hewitt and L. Chiarappa. Plant Health and Quarantine in International Transfer of Genetic 

Resources. CRC Press, Boca Raton. 

Kahn, R. P. and S. B. Mathur. 1999. Containment Facilities and Safeguards. APS Press, St. Paul. 

Metcalf, R. L. and R. A. Metcalf. 1993. Destructive and Useful Insects, their Habits and Control, 

5th ed. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York. 

Mizell, R. F. and D. E. Short. 1999. Integrated pest management in the commercial ornamental 

nursery, 1999 Insect Management Guide. Univ. Florida, FL Coop Ext. Service. 

http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu. 

Osborne, L. S., Buss, E. A. Mannion, C. M. and J. F. Price. 2001. Commercial Foliage and 

Woody Ornamental Arthropod Pest Management. University of Florida Cooperative Extension 

Service, document ENY-311. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu. 

Pirone, P. P. 1978. Diseases and Pests of Ornamental Plants, 5th ed. John Wiley and Sons, New 

York. 

Plant Protection Act. 2000. SEC. 401. 7 U.S.C. 7701. 

Reinert, J. A. 1981. Evaluation of Miticides for Control of Paracalacarus podocarpi on 

Podocarpus. J. Econ. Entomol. 74: 85 - 87. 

Robinson, D. 2002. E-mail communication with M. Hennessey, April 2, 2002. Animal and Plant 

Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture. (Cited in USDA, 2009). 
8

Santacroce, N.G. 1991. An Evaluation of pests associated with packaged peat, rockwool and 

expanded clay and their association with media in greenhouse production. Animal and Plant 

Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture. 

United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). 2000. Guidelines for pathway-initiated pest 

risk assessments. Version 5.02. Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Riverdale, 

Maryland. 

United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). 2009. Importation of Aechmea, Cryptanthus, 

Guzmania, Hohenbergia, Neoregelia, Tillandsia and Vriesea, in growing media, into the United 

States from Belgium, Denmark and the Netherlands. Animal and Plant Health Inspection 

Service. July 6, 2009. 

van der Plank, J. E. 1963. Plant Diseases: Epidemics and Control. Academic Press, New York. 
9

APPENDIX 

Importation and pest interception data of currently enterable bromeliads 

Table 1 indicates the volume of currently enterable Aechmea, Guzmania, Neoregelia, Tillandsia 

and Vriesea plants imported into the United States from Belgium and the Netherlands in Fiscal 

Year 2007. No imports were recorded from Denmark, and no Cryptanthus and Hohenbergia spp. 

were imported from any of the three countries. More than 4.7 million plant units and 0.9 million 

flasks of plants were imported from Belgium and the Netherlands in 2007. Flasks were only 

imported from Belgium in this year, while flasks were also imported from the Netherlands in 

Fiscal Year 2006 (APHIS 280 data). 

Table 1. Volume of Aechmea, Guzmania, Neoregelia, Tillandsia, and Vriesea spp. imported into 

the United States from Belgium and the Netherlands (2007) 

Commodity Plant units Flasks 

Belgium Netherlands Total Belgium 

Aechmea 320,614 86,008 406,622 71,220 

Guzmania 1,820,343 1,554,552 3,374,895 579,869 

Neoregelia 38,571 39,310 77,881 84,444 

Tillandsia 144,409 175,947 320,356 51,429 

Vriesea 338,430 244,957 583,387 119,271 

Total 2,662,367 2,100,774 4,763,141 906,233 

Source: Adapted from APHIS 280 data 

Interceptions recorded on certain bromeliads imported from Belgium and the Netherlands into 

the United States over the period 1985-2007 are discussed in the PRA (USDA, 2009). All 

interceptions were from permit cargo. No interceptions were recorded for Neoregelia or for 

Denmark. Though certain intercepted taxa were listed as quarantine pests in the PRA, they were 

not further analyzed (USDA, 2009). Some listed taxa may contain actionable pests and were 

intercepted during port-of-entry inspections of these commodities. However, the listed taxa are 

based on incomplete identifications. This may be due to the state of the taxonomy, or the 

condition or life stage of the specimen submitted for identification. Some taxa, even if identified 

to species level, are not associated with these bromeliad genera in the scientific literature and 

were intercepted as biological contaminants during port-of-entry inspections. They would not be 

expected to be found with every shipment. 

In the PRA (USDA, 2009), only one quarantine pest was identified that could reasonably be 

expected to follow the pathway on Aechmea, Cryptanthus, Guzmania, Hohenbergia, Neoregelia, 

Tillandsia and Vriesea spp. from Belgium, Denmark, and the Netherlands. This fungus, 

Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. aechmeae, was characterized as having a low pest risk potential. 
10

According to APHIS guidelines (USDA, 2000), pests with a risk rating of “low” typically do not 

require specific mitigation measures. The standard port-of-entry inspection to which all 

commodities imported into the United States are subjected is expected to provide sufficient 

phytosanitary security. Nevertheless, all plants established in growing media must comply with 

the regulations in 7 CFR 319.37-8 (Plants in Growing Media).