New York State Energy Research and Development Authority

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy 

Potential Study of New York State

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results

forEnergy

Final Report 

April 2014

Revised January 2015

Report Number 14-19
NYSERDA’s Promise to New Yorkers:

NYSERDA provides resources, expertise, 

and objective information so New Yorkers can 

make confident, informed energy decisions.

Mission Statement:

Advance innovative energy solutions in ways that improve New York’s economy and environment.

Vision Statement:

Serve as a catalyst—advancing energy innovation and technology, transforming New York’s economy, 

empowering people to choose clean and efficient energy as part of their everyday lives.

Core Values:

Objectivity, integrity, public service, partnership, and innovation.

Portfolios

NYSERDA programs are organized into five portfolios, each representing a complementary group of offerings with 

common areas of energy-related focus and objectives.

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Deployment

Helping New York State to achieve its aggressive energy efficiency 

and renewable energy goals – including programs to motivate 

increased efficiency in energy consumption by consumers (residential, 

commercial, municipal, institutional, industrial, and transportation), 

to increase production by renewable power suppliers, to support 

market transformation, and to provide financing.

Energy Technology Innovation and Business Development

Helping to stimulate a vibrant innovation ecosystem and a cleanenergy economy in New York State – including programs to support 

product research, development, and demonstrations; clean-energy 

business development; and the knowledge-based community at 

the Saratoga Technology + Energy Park® (STEP®). 

Energy Education and Workforce Development

Helping to build a generation of New Yorkers ready to lead and 

work in a clean energy economy – including consumer behavior, 

youth education, workforce development, and training programs 

for existing and emerging technologies.

Energy and the Environment

Helping to assess and mitigate the environmental impacts of energy 

production and use in New York State – including environmental 

research and development, regional initiatives to improve environmental 

sustainability, and West Valley Site Management.

Energy Data, Planning, and Policy

Helping to ensure that New York State policymakers and 

consumers have objective and reliable information to make 

informed energy decisions – including State Energy Planning, 

policy analysis to support the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative 

and other energy initiatives, emergency preparedness, and a 

range of energy data reporting.
NYSERDA Record of Revision

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Potential Study of New York State: Volume 2 Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results

April 2014

Revision Date Description of Changes Revision on Page(s)

April 2014 Original Issue Original Issue

January 2015 Edited text to reference the correct technology and better reflect the 

scope of the analysis. Added citations for values stated.

67

January 2015 Edited desuperheater discussion to reflect updated information. 71

January 2015 Edited wording to more accurately describe the consideration of ground 

source heat pumps in the analysis.

72

January 2015 Edited market barriers to better reflect constraints on ground source heat 

pumps.

72

i
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy 

Potential Study of New York State

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results

Final Report 

Prepared for: 

New York State Energy Research and Development Authority

Carl Mas, Senior Project Manager

Prepared by: 

Optimal Energy, Inc

Philip Mosenthal, Partner – Principal in Charge

Steve Bower, Managing Consultant – Project Manager, Commercial Efficiency Lead

American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy

Dan Trombley, Senior Analyst – Industrial Efficiency Lead

Vermont Energy Investment Corporation

David Hill, Managing Consultant – Renewable Energy Lead

Nick Lange, Consultant – Residential Efficiency Lead

NYSERDA Report 14-19 NYSERDA Contract 24799 April 2014
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Notice

This report was prepared by Optimal Energy, Inc., the American Council for an Energy Efficienct Economy 

(ACEEE), and the Vermont Energy Investment Corporation (VEIC) in the course of performing work contracted 

for and sponsored by the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (hereafter “NYSERDA”). 

The opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect those of NYSERDA or the State of New York, 

and reference to any specific product, service, process, or method does not constitute an implied or expressed 

recommendation or endorsement of it. Further, NYSERDA, the State of New York, and the contractor make no 

warranties or representations, expressed or implied, as to the fitness for particular purpose or merchantability of 

any product, apparatus, or service, or the usefulness, completeness, or accuracy of any processes, methods, or other 

information contained, described, disclosed, or referred to in this report. NYSERDA, the State of New York, and the 

contractor make no representation that the use of any product, apparatus, process, method, or other information will 

not infringe privately owned rights and will assume no liability for any loss, injury, or damage resulting from, or 

occurring in connection with, the use of information contained, described, disclosed, or referred to in this report.

NYSERDA makes every effort to provide accurate information about copyright owners and related matters in the 

reports we publish. Contractors are responsible for determining and satisfying copyright or other use restrictions 

regarding the content of reports that they write, in compliance with NYSERDA’s policies and federal law. If you 

are the copyright owner and believe a NYSERDA report has not properly attributed your work to you or has used 

it without permission, please email print@nyserda.ny.gov.

Abstract

This study presents the potential for increased adoption of energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies in 

New York State. It focuses on the long-term potential using a twenty-year study period, 2013–2032. Efficiency 

potential results are presented in terms of “achievable potential” and “economic potential” (the cost-effective energy 

savings). The report presents these results statewide as well as separately for each of four regional zones (Long 

Island, New York City, Hudson Valley, and Upstate). The efficiency portion of the study includes electricity, natural 

gas, and petroleum fuels in the building and industrial sectors, but excludes transportation energy use. For renewable 

energy, the study analyzes the economic potential and the “bounded technical potential,” a measurement of what 

theoretically would be possible if cost were not a factor. These figures are for renewable resources serving the 

energy needs of buildings and electric generation. The major renewable resource categories include biomass, hydro 

solar, and wind. The study also assesses alternative allocations between various renewable technology options. 

Overall, the study finds that large amounts of energy efficiency and renewable energy potential exist through the 

study period. Pursuing additional cost-effective clean energy potential in the State is anticipated to result in longterm net benefits to New York citizens.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results iii
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Table of Contents

NYSERDA Record of Revision................................................................................................. i

Notice........................................................................................................................................iii

Abstract ....................................................................................................................................iii

List of Figures ..........................................................................................................................vi

List of Tables...........................................................................................................................vii

Structure of the Full Report...................................................................................................viii

1 Overview and Approach................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Modeling Approach ....................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Market Segmentation .................................................................................................................... 2

1.3 Technology Characterization ........................................................................................................ 2

1.4 Electric Load Shapes .................................................................................................................... 3

1.5 Measure Cost-Effectiveness ......................................................................................................... 4

1.6 Economic Potential ....................................................................................................................... 4

1.7 Achievable Potential...................................................................................................................... 6

1.7.1 Measure Penetrations Methodology ..................................................................................... 7

1.7.1.1 Example of Estimating Measure Penetrations .................................................................. 9

1.7.2 Program Costs ....................................................................................................................10

1.7.3 Free Ridership and Spillover Assumptions .........................................................................10

1.8 Technology Learning Curve Effects............................................................................................11

2 Portfolio Level Results ....................................................................................................12

2.1 Electric Efficiency Potential .........................................................................................................16

2.2 Natural Gas Efficiency Potential..................................................................................................18

2.3 Petroleum Fuels Efficiency Potential ..........................................................................................19

2.4 Emissions Reductions.................................................................................................................21

3 Residential Efficiency......................................................................................................23

3.1 Summary of Results....................................................................................................................23

3.2 Overview of Approach.................................................................................................................25

3.3 Energy Sales Disaggregation......................................................................................................25

3.4 Measure Characterization ...........................................................................................................26

3.5 Market Characterization ..............................................................................................................30

3.6 Analysis of Economic Potential...................................................................................................30

3.7 Analysis of Achievable Potential .................................................................................................31

3.7.1 Program Costs ....................................................................................................................31

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results iv
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

3.8 Detailed Results for the Residential Sector ................................................................................32

3.8.1 Residential Economic and Achievable Electric Potential....................................................32

3.8.2 Residential Economic and Achievable Natural Gas Potential ............................................33

3.8.3 Residential Economic and Achievable Petroleum Fuels Potential .....................................34

4 Commercial Efficiency.....................................................................................................36

4.1 Summary of Results....................................................................................................................36

4.2 Overview of Approach.................................................................................................................38

4.3 Energy Sales Disaggregation......................................................................................................39

4.4 Measure Characterization ...........................................................................................................43

4.5 Market Characterization ..............................................................................................................47

4.6 Analysis of Economic Potential...................................................................................................47

4.7 Analysis of Achievable Potential .................................................................................................47

4.7.1 Program Costs ....................................................................................................................47

4.8 Detailed Results for the Commercial Sector...............................................................................48

4.8.1 Commercial Economic and Achievable Electric Potential ..................................................48

4.8.2 Commercial Economic and Achievable Natural Gas Potential ...........................................50

4.8.3 Commercial Economic and Achievable Petroleum Fuels Potential ....................................51

5 Industrial Efficiency.........................................................................................................53

5.1 Summary of Results....................................................................................................................53

5.2 Overview of Approach.................................................................................................................54

5.3 Energy Sales Disaggregation......................................................................................................55

5.4 Measure Characterization ...........................................................................................................58

5.5 Market Characterization ..............................................................................................................59

5.6 Analysis of Economic Potential...................................................................................................59

5.7 Analysis of Achievable Potential .................................................................................................60

5.7.1 Program Costs ....................................................................................................................61

5.8 Detailed Results for the Industrial Sector....................................................................................61

5.8.1 Industrial Economic and Achievable Electric Potential .......................................................61

5.8.2 Industrial Economic and Achievable Natural Gas Potential................................................62

5.8.3 Industrial Economic and Achievable Petroleum Fuels Potential.........................................63

6 Heat Pumps Research Module........................................................................................64

6.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................64

6.2 Selected Technologies................................................................................................................65

6.2.1 Ductless Mini-Split...............................................................................................................65

6.2.1.1 Overview .........................................................................................................................65

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results v
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

6.2.1.2 Market Trends and Ideal Site Characteristics ................................................................. 65

6.2.1.3 Market Barriers................................................................................................................66

6.2.1.4 Potential in New York......................................................................................................67

6.2.2 Variable Refrigerant Flow Systems.....................................................................................67

6.2.2.1 Overview .........................................................................................................................67

6.2.2.2 Market Status and Ideal Site Characteristics ..................................................................68

6.2.2.3 Market Barriers................................................................................................................68

6.2.2.4 Potential in New York......................................................................................................69

6.2.3 Ground Source Heat Pumps ...............................................................................................70

6.2.3.1 Overview .........................................................................................................................70

6.2.3.2 Market Status and Ideal Site Characteristics ..................................................................71

6.2.3.3 Market Barriers................................................................................................................71

6.2.3.4 Potential in New York......................................................................................................72

7 Bibliography.....................................................................................................................73

List of Figures 

Figure 1. Example of Estimating Measure Penetration Rates...................................................................... 9

Figure 2. Achievable Savings Potential by Fuel Relative to Sales Forecast. .............................................13

Figure 3. Achievable Savings Potential by Fuel and Sector, 2030.............................................................14

Figure 4. Achievable Savings Potential by Individual Petroleum Fuel Relative to Sales Forecast. ...........15

Figure 5. Achievable Coincident Summer Peak Savings Potential by Zone and Sector, 2030..................16

Figure 6. Sector Distribution of Economic Electric Efficiency, 2030 (GWh). ..............................................17

Figure 7. Sector Distribution of Achievable Electric Efficiency, 2030 (GWh)..............................................17

Figure 8. Sector Distribution of Economic Natural Gas Efficiency, 2030 (BBtu). .......................................18

Figure 9. Sector Distribution of Achievable Natural Gas Efficiency, 2030 (BBtu).......................................19

Figure 10. Sector Distribution of Economic Petroleum Fuels Efficiency, 2030 (BBtu). ..............................20

Figure 11. Sector Distribution of Achievable Petroleum Fuels Efficiency, 2030 (BBtu). ............................21

Figure 12. Distribution of Residential Achievable Efficiency Potential by Region and Fuel Type, 2030. ...23

Figure 13. Residential Hot Water Energy Intensity Model. .........................................................................27

Figure 14. Residential First-Year Lighting Savings Per Home. ..................................................................28

Figure 15. Distribution of Commercial Efficiency by Region and Fuel Type, Achievable Scenario, 2030. 36

Figure 16. Commercial Electric Sales Distribution by Building Type, 2013................................................40

Figure 17. Commercial Natural Gas and Petroleum Fuels Distribution by Building Type, 2013. ...............41

Figure 18. Commercial Electric Sales Distribution by End Use, 2013........................................................42

Figure 19. Commercial Natural Gas and Petroleum Fuels Distribution by End Use, 2013. .......................42

Figure 20. Distribution of Industrial Efficiency by Region and Fuel Type, Achievable Scenario, 2030. .....53

Figure 21. Weighted Average of Total Industrial Electricity End-Uses in New York, 2013. .......................57

Figure 22. New York Manufacturing Natural Gas and Petroleum End Use, 2013......................................58

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results vi
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

List of Tables

Table 1. Summary of Program Costs by Sector, Achievable Scenario (Non-Discounted Million 2012$)...15

Table 2. Summary of Economic and Achievable Electric Efficiency Potential Relative to Sales 

Forecast and NYS EEPS, 2020 and 2030.....................................................................................16

Table 3. Summary of Economic and Achievable Natural Gas Efficiency Potential relative to 

Sales Forecast and NYS EEPS, 2020 and 2030...........................................................................18

Table 4. Summary of Economic and Achievable Petroleum Fuels Efficiency Potential relative to 

Sales Forecast, 2020 and 2030 .....................................................................................................19

Table 5. Annual Emissions Reductions, Economic Potential, 2020 and 2030. ..........................................22

Table 6. Annual Emissions Reductions, Achievable Potential, 2020 and 2030. ........................................22

Table 7. Residential Sector Economic and Achievable Savings Potential by Market, 2030. .....................24

Table 8. Residential Sector Cost-Effectiveness Results by Market, Achievable Scenario, Total 

for 2013-2032 (Present Value Million 2012$). ...............................................................................24

Table 9. Residential Aggregate Measure Categories with Component Measures. ....................................26

Table 10. Residential Emerging Technologies and Trends........................................................................29

Table 11. Residential Sector Program Costs by Market, Achievable Scenario (Non-Discounted 

Million 2012$).................................................................................................................................32

Table 12. Distribution of Residential Electric Efficiency by End-Use, Economic and Achievable 

Scenarios, 2030. ............................................................................................................................33

Table 13. Distribution of Residential Electric Efficiency by Building Type, Economic and Achievable 

Scenarios, 2030. ............................................................................................................................33

Table 14. Distribution of Residential Natural Gas Efficiency by End-Use, Economic and Achievable 

Scenarios, 2030. ............................................................................................................................34

Table 15. Distribution of Residential Natural Gas Efficiency by Building Type, Economic and 

Achievable Scenarios, 2030. .........................................................................................................34

Table 16. Distribution of Residential Petroleum Fuel Efficiency by End-Use, Economic and 

Achievable Scenarios, 2030. .........................................................................................................34

Table 17. Distribution of Residential Petroleum Fuel Efficiency by Building Type, Economic and 

Achievable Scenarios, 2030. .........................................................................................................35

Table 18. Commercial Sector Economic and Achievable Savings by Market, 2030..................................37

Table 19. Commercial Sector Cost-Effectiveness Results by Market, Economic and Achievable 

Scenarios, Total for 2013-2032 (Present Value Million 2012$) .....................................................37

Table 20. Commercial Emerging Technologies and Trends.......................................................................45

Table 21. Commercial Sector Program Costs by Market, Achievable Scenario (Non-Discounted 

Million 2012$).................................................................................................................................48

Table 22. Distribution of Commercial Economic Electric Efficiency by End-Use, Economic and 

Achievable Scenarios, 2030. .........................................................................................................49

Table 23. Distribution of Commercial Electric Efficiency by Building Type, Economic and Achievable 

Scenarios, 2030. ............................................................................................................................49

Table 24. Distribution of Commercial Natural Gas Efficiency by End-Use, Economic and Achievable 

Scenarios, 2030. ............................................................................................................................50

Table 25. Distribution of Commercial Natural Gas Efficiency by Building Type, Economic and 

Achievable Scenarios, 2030. .........................................................................................................51

Table 26. Distribution of Commercial Petroleum Fuels Efficiency by End-Use, Economic and 

Achievable Scenarios, 2030. .........................................................................................................51

Table 27. Distribution of Commercial Petroleum Fuels Efficiency by Building Type, Economic 

and Achievable Scenarios, 2030. ..................................................................................................52

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results vii
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Table 28. Industrial Sector Economic and Achievable Savings, 2030. ......................................................54

Table 29. Industrial Sector Cost-Effectiveness Results, Economic and Achievable Scenarios, 

Total for 2013-2032 (Present Value Million 2012$). ......................................................................54

Table 30. Industrial Energy Consumption by Source and Subsector, 2013. ..............................................56

Table 31. Industrial Emerging Technologies and Trends. ..........................................................................59

Table 32. Industrial Measure Incentive Levels for the Achievable Scenario. .............................................60

Table 33. Industrial Sector Program Costs, Achievable Scenario (Non-Discounted Million 2012$). .........61

Table 34. Distribution of Industrial Electric Efficiency by End-Use, Economic and Achievable 

Scenarios, 2030. ............................................................................................................................62

Table 35. Distribution of Industrial Natural Gas Efficiency by End-Use, Economic and 

Achievable Scenarios, 2030. .........................................................................................................62

Table 36. Distribution of Industrial Petroleum Fuels Efficiency by End-Use, Economic and 

Achievable Scenarios, 2030. .........................................................................................................63

Structure of the Full Report

The full report is presented in six parts: 

• Summary

• Volume 1: Study Overview 

o Background and Purpose of Study

o Study Scope and General Approach

o High-Level Results

• Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results

o Study Scope

o Portfolio-Level Results

o Residential /Commercial / Industrial Efficiency (methodology and detailed results by sector)

• Volume 3: Renewable Energy Methodology and Detailed Results

o Overview and Approach

o Biomass / Hydro / Solar / Wind (methodology and detailed results by technology)

• Volume 4: Energy Efficiency Technical Appendices 

• Volume 5: Renewable Energy Technical Appendices

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results viii
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

1 Overview and Approach

The general approach and scope of this study are described in Volume 1. This section expands on the information 

provided in Volume 1, with additional detail specific to the energy efficiency potential assessment as it applies to 

all sectors (residential, commercial, industrial). The following section then provides more specific detail by sector.

1.1 Modeling Approach

Our general approach is a top-down analysis that begins with the energy forecast by sector, estimates the quantities 

of energy for various end uses, building types, and industrial sub-sectors for each year of the forecast, and then 

determines the amount of energy that can be saved by each efficient technology or practice within each “bucket” of 

applicable end-use energy. The approach used for the energy sales disaggregation is described below for each sector.

The study includes potential assessments for electricity, natural gas, and petroleum fuels. The petroleum fuels 

include distillate and residual fuel oil, LPG/propane, and kerosene – these have been assessed in aggregate rather 

than individually.

The following steps summarize the modeling approach used to assess the energy efficiency potential. Some of these 

modeling steps and their required inputs are described in greater detail in Volume 1, and some are expanded upon in 

the sections below.

1. Determine the energy forecast for each fuel type (electric, natural gas, petroleum fuels). 

2. Disaggregate the end-use energy by market segment (e.g., by end use and building type), 

to which efficiency measures apply. 

3. Identify efficiency measures applicable to each market segment. 

4. Characterize the costs, savings, and lifetimes of the efficiency measures. 

5. Determine the cost-effectiveness of the efficiency measures. 

6. Estimate measure market saturations and their applicability to the end-use energy categories 

as determined in step 2. 

7. Estimate annual measure penetrations (or installation rates) depending on the potential scenario

8. Estimate annual program costs (achievable scenario only). 

9. Perform the modeling, which accounts for measure installations by year, and their annual costs and 

savings.

Appendix H in Volume 4 provides a summary of the assumptions and inputs used for the analysis.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 1
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

1.2 Market Segmentation

The market for energy efficiency applications is segmented differently for each of the residential, commercial, and 

industrial sectors. For the residential sector, efficiency applications are segmented primarily by major end use and 

building type (single family and multifamily). The commercial sector also segments the market by end-use and 

building type, but with a larger number of each due to the much greater variation in building types and technology 

applications in the commercial sector. In contrast, the industrial sector is segmented primarily by the type of industry 

(chemicals, mining, etc.) due to the application-specific nature of each industry. 

The multifamily market spans both the residential and commercial sectors. Buildings with five or more living units 

were considered to be multifamily for the study. Larger multifamily buildings with central systems are generally on 

residential rates and were thus included in the residential analysis for this study. However, because natural gas and 

petroleum fuel opportunities are commercial in nature (e.g., large central boilers and water heating systems), we 

analyzed them under the commercial approach. We did not have suitable data for a detailed segmentation of the 

multifamily market between the residential and commercial sectors, and thus assumed that buildings with 20 or 

more units would have centralized heat and hot water suitable for the commercial analysis. Most multifamily electric 

usage was assumed to be in the residential sector. Given these assumptions, the multifamily segmentation was less 

rigorous than the primary segmentation of the residential, commercial, and industrial sectors. The multifamily 

results are presented within the detailed building-type results for each sector.

The market segments are further described below for each sector.

1.3Technology Characterization

The next step in the analysis is to characterize the efficiency measures that are either currently available or are 

expected to be available over the time frame of the analysis. Measure characterizations describe all aspects of an 

efficiency measure necessary to assess its impact, including the amount of energy it saves, its cost, the situations in 

which it is technically feasible, its expected useful operating life, and others. Measure characterizations must always 

be stated relative to an appropriate baseline. For example, we must assess how much energy an efficiency measure 

will save as compared to some other less efficient technology or equipment.

Although many potential studies are developed with the intent of informing program design and planning assistance 

in the near term (e.g., up to about 5 years), the emphasis of this study is on long-term projections of efficiency 

potential. Therefore, rather than seek a relatively high degree of confidence in the early years of the forecast, this 

study emphasizes estimates of the energy efficiency potential in the medium and long term under various scenarios 

for the future. The study thus has a focus on longer-term technology trends and on emerging technologies, which 

can be applied to alternative policy scenarios.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 2
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

To support this approach, we have generally characterized bundled or “aggregate” measures as opposed to highly 

specific or “granular” measures. For example, we have characterized “interior lighting controls” in aggregate, rather 

than analyze separate measures for occupancy sensors, daylight dimming, and other individual types of lighting 

controls. The use of more highly aggregated measures provides greater flexibility for longer-term projections of the 

potential impacts for different scenarios. However, this approach still requires us to develop underlying individual 

component measures which inform the aggregate measures’ costs and savings in the initial analysis year(s). These 

aggregate measure characterizations are then adjusted through time as necessary to reflect prevailing trends and 

assumptions of dominating technologies and practices. 

The scope of the energy efficiency assessment did not include the following measures:

• Fuel switching measures.

• Combined heat and power (CHP). Those who wish further information on potential energy savings from 

CHP in New York should refer to the 2002 Combined Heat and Power Market Potential for New York 

State.

1

• Passive solar homes. However, see the Advanced Solar Homes section of Volume 3 for a discussion of 

solar design opportunities and the associated potential for increased efficiency for residential new 

construction.

• Demand response measures.

Another area outside the scope of the study is the impact of increased energy efficiency on power factor, which is 

the ratio of the real power serving the electric load to apparent power in the circuit. Electric utilities seek to maintain 

a high power factor, which minimizes energy losses in the distribution system. There was no practical way to 

evaluate the impact of efficient equipment on power factor for the various efficiency scenarios, thus we are not able 

to speculate on whether there is any net effect on the power factor. This could be an area for future study.

Appendix D in Volume 4 provides the full measure characterizations for each sector. More detail on the measure 

characterizations is provided below for each sector.

1.4Electric Load Shapes

Because the market price of electric energy varies on an hourly and daily basis, an accurate estimate of the benefits 

of avoiding electricity consumption must consider the timing of these avoided kilowatt-hours. For ease of analysis, 

the avoided energy supply costs in this study were divided into six energy costing periods: summer peak and offpeak, winter peak and off-peak, summer shoulder, and winter shoulder (see Appendix A in Volume 4 for the exact 

time periods of the energy costing periods). The analysis requires electric load shapes to determine the portion of 

1 NYSERDA. 2002. Combined Heat and Power Market Potential For New York State. Prepared for NYSERDA by 

Energy Nexus Group and Onsite Energy Corporation. http://www.nyserda.ny.gov/Energy-Innovation-andBusiness-Development/Research-and-Development/Onsite-Power-Applications/Combined-Heat-andPower/Market-Potential-for-CHP.aspx. Accessed July 2013.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 3

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

each measure’s annual electric energy savings that occurs during each of these six periods. We developed load 

shapes specific to each end use and building type or industrial segment in this study. In the case of weather sensitive 

end uses (e.g., cooling and heating), load shapes were differentiated by regional analysis zone. Peak demand 

coincidence factors were also associated with each load shape, to determine the benefit of demand reduction during 

peak times as expressed by an avoided capacity value.

We derived our load shapes from 2002 Itron eShapes data for New York State. The eShapes data provide hourly 

load profiles by building type and end use for a variety of New York weather stations. This data set remains the 

best-available data for the broad range of building types, end uses, and climates accounted for in the analysis.

1.5 Measure Cost-Effectiveness

Measure cost-effectiveness is based on an assessment of the measures’ costs and benefits. A measure is considered 

to be cost-effective if its benefits equal or exceed its costs. Only cost-effective measures are included in the 

economic and achievable potential scenarios. For an overview of the costs and benefits associated with efficiency 

measures, and the methodology for assessing cost-effectiveness, see the Assessment of Cost-Effectiveness section 

in Volume 1. The measure benefit-cost ratios are presented in Appendix H in Volume 4.

In some cases, measures may not be cost-effective if installed in the near-term, but may become so in future years 

due to either to higher future avoided energy costs or to lower costs or other changes in measure characterizations. 

In such a case, the measure is included in the economic potential, but only beginning when it becomes costeffective. 

The following sections describe how all cost-effective measures are combined into the estimates of the economic 

and achievable potential scenarios.

1.6Economic Potential

The economic efficiency potential includes all efficiency potential that is cost-effective, assuming there are no 

market barriers to adoption of efficiency measures. Put another way, the economic potential assumes that people 

will choose to implement all cost-effective efficiency measures without the need for efficiency programs. Estimates 

of economic efficiency potential typically assume immediate installation of all cost-effective measures. To the 

extent that there are substantial opportunities for retrofit measures, this results in a theoretical potential that far 

exceeds what is feasible in the short-term, as there would be insufficient resources to implement all retrofits in one 

year. To generate an economic potential estimate with more relevance for public policy planning, we have prepared 

a resource-constrained economic potential. This estimate assumes that all market-driven measures (i.e., natural 

replacement, new construction, and renovation) are implemented at the time they become available, but that 

implementation of cost-effective retrofit measures is spread out over several years. 

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 4
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

The economic analysis prioritizes measures that have the highest energy savings, rather than those that are the most 

cost-effective. As a result, the economic analysis maximizes the efficiency potential and may not include measures 

that would be included in an achievable scenario. For example, the economic analysis assumes that all efficient 

cooling source equipment is “tier II”, which is more efficient than “tier I” equipment. The achievable scenario 

would include installation of both tier I and tier II equipment, since not everyone would be willing to install the 

more expensive or complex tier II equipment.

The economic potential does not explicitly distinguish between electric, fossil fuel, and petroleum fuel measures, 

as might occur in an achievable scenario with separate efficiency programs for these fuel types. The economic study 

results thus reflect the impact of all efficiency measures for all fuel types. Some measures have both primary and 

secondary fuel types. For example, efficient lighting measures reduce waste heat and thus increase the heating load, 

which increases overall fossil fuel use. This increase in fossil fuel use is reflected in the total economic efficiency 

potential for natural gas and petroleum fuels.

Our analysis accounts for interactions between measures installed in the same space. Individual measure savings are 

not necessarily additive. Because of interactions between measures, the total potential for all measures is less than 

the sum of individual measure opportunities. For example, building envelope improvements will reduce the cooling 

load and will thus lower the savings opportunities for high-efficiency air conditioning. The potential estimates take 

into account all the interactions between measures. This therefore represents the total economic savings achievable 

with maximum measure adoption. Note however, that if some measures were eliminated, the potential for remaining 

measures might increase depending on their original interactions with the removed measures.

Our analysis also accounts for measures installed in different markets where the markets affect one another. New 

measures can be installed in existing buildings either on an early-retirement (retrofit) basis, at the time of natural 

replacement, or at the time of renovation or remodeling. To avoid double counting, our analysis incorporates the 

changing eligible stock of equipment over time, based on the measure penetrations for each existing market. For 

example, if 10% of existing lighting fixtures are retrofit with high efficiency models, then only 90% of the original 

population of lighting remains eligible for efficiency upgrades in the natural replacement (or replace-on-failure) 

market in that year. However, assuming the fixtures had a 15-year measure life, the original 10% of lighting fixtures 

would again become eligible for replacement after 15 years. Similarly, once a building is renovated or remodeled, 

the opportunity for retrofit is diminished until the end of the measure lives for those measures installed during the 

renovation.

Finally, we note that the analysis did not consider any overall increase in economic activity that may result from 

implementation of efficiency measures and a shift to a more energy-efficient economy.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 5
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

1.7 Achievable Potential

In contrast to the economic potential, the achievable potential recognizes all real-world market barriers to the 

implementation of cost-effective energy efficiency, and the need for funded programs to help overcome those 

market barriers. The achievable potential represents that which is actually possible for a given level of funding or 

other real-world policies.

This study does not presume any specific portfolio of efficiency programs. Likewise, the assessment is not based 

on any particular model for program administration. Instead, we assume the efficiency programs are well-designed, 

well-executed, aggressive, and integrated across fuel types. This approach is consistent with the study emphasis on 

the longer-term (10-20 year) efficiency potential.

Many efficiency measures have multiple fuel impacts. For example, weatherization and building shell measures 

provide savings for both cooling (typically electric) and heating (typically fossil fuel). Efficiency programs that are 

limited to assessing either electric or fossil fuel savings would not recognize the combined benefits of electric and 

fuel savings for such measures. With integrated programs, the total impacts of efficiency measures are assessed 

without regard to the type of energy saved.

The incremental cost of an efficient measure is its cost relative to baseline equipment or practices, including any 

difference in installation costs. Efficiency potential studies commonly differentiate between achievable scenarios 

based on the degree to which each scenario offsets the incremental measure costs as one way of promoting their 

adoption. Of course, efficiency programs use a wide variety of methods to overcome market barriers, including 

marketing and education, technical assistance and training, upstream buydowns, and other elements of program 

design. 

Given these considerations, the achievable potential was defined as follows for this study:

The achievable potential is the cost-effective energy efficiency that could realistically be captured with welldesigned, aggressive efficiency programs, in which approximately half of the full incremental costs of all 

efficiency measures is offset by efficiency program incentives.

Efficiency program spending was limited to a level commensurate with paying incentives that average out to 

50% of measure incremental costs. The assumed incentives as a percent of incremental cost varied by market or 

by individual measure, as described below for each sector, but averaged out to 50% of incremental costs for each 

sector and program year. This represents a level of investment that is considerably higher than New York’s current 

spending on efficiency programs, but well below what could be achieved with unconstrained investment in energy 

efficiency.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 6
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

The achievable analysis relied on the same cost-effective aggregate measures as were used for the economic 

potential. However, the economic potential assumed that the efficiency measures with the highest savings levels 

would be implemented. For the achievable scenario we assumed a more realistic mix of measures, e.g., a mix of 

High Efficiency Cooling Equipment Tier I and Tier II instead of assuming all installations were at the Tier II level 

(with higher savings). 

1.7.1 Measure Penetrations Methodology

The estimation of measure penetrations, or installation rates, in response to financial incentives and other types 

of program intervention, is the basis for estimating achievable program savings and associated program costs. 

Our methodology for estimating penetration rates begins with an assessment of each measure’s market barriers.

Market barriers have been extensively discussed in the literature. For the purposes of our methodology, we consider 

market barriers grouped into four categories:

• Awareness: of efficiency measures’ potential application, benefits, and possible incentives

• Willingness: due to magnitude of lifetime benefits, personal/organizational practices, split incentives, 

uncertainty or distrust of performance/benefits, fear of unintended consequences, hassle factor, 

irreversibility, etc.

• Availability: of equipment or installation contractors.

• Cost: initial cost, operation and maintenance costs, access to financing

We first assess the impact of the “awareness” market barrier on a measure’s penetration rates. End-users, retailers, 

or contractors must be aware of an efficiency measure before it has the potential to be installed. “Awareness” means 

that one knows enough about the measure to have some opinion as to whether it’s worth consideration. Our 

methodology estimates an initial, current awareness and assumes that awareness will grow in response to program 

activity. We assumed the achievable scenario had well-funded, aggressive marketing and outreach activities to 

expand awareness of efficiency opportunities. Based on this assumption, we estimated the maximum awareness that 

could be attained for each measure, and the number of years needed to reach that level of awareness. In a given year, 

only the “aware” portion of the population is considered to be available for efficiency measure installations. Note 

that for some technologies it is possible for customers to participate in a program and receive an indirect incentive 

without being personally aware of the program, as with upstream buydown or supplier training programs. Therefore, 

efficiency measure “awareness” can be addressed by the program strategy at the customer level or within the supply 

chain.

We next assess and estimate the level of the “willingness” barrier for each measure on a scale of 1 to 5 (ignoring 

cost, which is a separate market barrier). We also estimate the first-year penetration rate based on current market 

conditions. The estimated level of the willingness barrier has associated with it a maximum penetration rate and the 

number of years to overcome market barriers and reach that penetration. The maximum penetration for the aware 

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 7
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

population is generally estimated in the range of about 50–85% depending on the measure and applicable options 

for program delivery.

The level of the willingness barrier also has associated with it the shape of the adoption curve for achieving the 

maximum penetration rate. We assume a standard S curve (sigmoid curve) where the adoption rate generally 

increases in the initial years in response to program intervention, eventually leveling off as it approaches the 

maximum penetration. The initial rate of response to program interventions is highest for measures with the lowest 

level of market barriers. For each year the “willingness” penetration is applied to the aware population to determine 

the resulting measure penetration. 

Measure “availability” is factored in at this point, which may lower the penetration rate due to limited availability 

of equipment or installation contractors. However, availability is usually not a limiting factor for increasing measure 

adoption rates. While some measures may have availability constraints, such as for measures that require specialized 

contractors, we generally assume that the market will respond in the near term when demand outstrips supply.

The last category of market barriers is “cost,” or the incremental costs of an efficiency measure over baseline 

equipment or practices. From the customer’s perspective, the incremental cost is decreased by any incentive 

received. The customer economics are typically measured by the measure’s participant benefit-cost ratio (BCR) 

and its simple payback. The BCR represents lifetime benefits relative to costs, and is thus a better measure of overall 

customer economics. However, although the simple payback ignores lifetime benefits, it is often given significant 

weight in the decision of whether to invest in energy efficiency. For various reasons, decision makers often place 

greater value on near-term rather than long-term cost-benefit trade-offs. We account for this by determining an 

implicit participant BCR for each measure based on a relatively high implicit discount rate.

2,3,4 We apply an implicit 

discount rate of 35%, which is roughly the median of published values.5 This has the effect of decreasing the value 

of future benefits, thus giving a higher relative value to measures with shorter payback periods. 

Based on each measure’s implicit BCR, we estimate the annual penetration rate as a portion of the penetration 

already derived based on awareness, willingness, and availability. The higher the implicit BCR, the greater the 

portion of the population assumed to install the efficiency measure. The resulting annual penetration rates are 

applied to determine a measure’s achievable potential in each year.

2 Eto, Joseph, Ralph Prahl, Jeff Schlegel. 1996. A Scoping Study on Energy-Efficiency Market Transformation by 

California Utility DSM Programs. LBNL-39058. Prepared for the California Demand-Side Measurement Advisory 

Committee. 3 Moezzi, Mithra, Maithili Lyer, Loren Lutzenhiser, James Woods. 2009. Behavioral Assumptions in Energy Efficiency 

Potential Studies. Prepared for the California Institute for Energy and Environment (CIEE) Behavior and Energy 

Program. 4 Sanstad, Alan, W. Michael Hanemann, Maxamilian Auffhammer. 2006. “Chapter 6, End-Use Energy Efficiency in a 

‘Post-Carbon’ California Economy: Policy Issues and Research Frontiers.” In Managing Greenhouse Gas Emissions in 

California. Prepared by the California Climate Change Center at UC Berkeley. 5 Sanstad et al. 2006, Table 1.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 8

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

The achievable measure penetrations are presented in Appendix F in Volume 4.

1.7.1.1 Example of Estimating Measure Penetrations

As an example, consider the aggregate measure for commercial Task Lighting in the lost opportunity market 

(natural replacement, new construction, and renovation). For this measure we assumed an initial awareness of 

60% and a maximum awareness of 90% that could be achieved over 8 years. We assumed that commercial Task 

Lighting has somewhat high market barriers (4 on a scale of 1 to 5), and an initial “willingness” penetration rate 

of 20%. For the assumed level of willingness barriers, and assuming fully-funded, optimized program delivery, the 

measure was assumed to have a maximum penetration of 50% that could be achieved over a period of 12 years. 

We also assumed that measure availability was not a limiting factor. Applying these assumptions (excluding the 

“cost” barrier) resulted in an overall penetration rate of 12% in the first year (60% aware * 20% willing), increasing 

to 45% by year 12 (90% aware * 50% willing).

The achievable penetration rates were then estimated based on the measure’s implicit participant BCR. Applying 

an implicit discount rate of 35%, we found the measure’s implicit participant BCR to be 2.45. Based on this implicit 

participant BCR, the annual achievable penetrations were estimated to be 61% of the penetrations calculated above 

based on the other market barriers. The figure below presents the assumptions applied and the resulting achievable 

penetration rates for this example.

Figure 1. Example of Estimating Measure Penetration Rates

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Penetration Rate

Year

Aware Customers

Willing Customers

Aware and Willing Customers

Achievable Penetration

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 9
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

1.7.2 Program Costs

Program costs include measure incentives along with other efficiency program costs, including marketing and 

outreach, technical assistance, building space to support program staff and operations, monitoring and evaluation 

of programs to measure and validate the savings, performance incentives for program administrators, and general 

program administration. We assumed the achievable scenario had well-funded and aggressive marketing and 

outreach activities to overcome various market barriers, and estimated the program costs based on the experience 

of current top-performing efficiency programs, scaling that cost data to the New York market and relative to 

incentive spending. 

1.7.3 Free Ridership and Spillover Assumptions

Efficiency programs provide various incentives to promote the adoption of efficiency measures. Of course, some 

people or businesses take advantage of incentives for efficient equipment that they would have bought without the 

incentive – these are free riders to the efficiency program. The savings from free riders’ efficiency measures should 

not be attributed to the efficiency program since they would have installed the measure without the program. 

At the same time, efficiency program activities tend to have a spillover effect, whereby they encourage adoption of 

efficiency measures by people who would not have done so without the program, but who for various reasons never 

collect an incentive. The savings of their measures should be attributed to the program since they would not have 

installed the measure without the program.

The balance between free ridership, which decreases program savings relative to the number of program participants 

(who receive an incentive), and spillover, which increases savings relative to the number of participants, is hotly 

debated within the industry. Program evaluations often find free ridership to be a greater factor, but many argue that 

free ridership is easier to measure and spillover is often ignored, and that the broader impacts of spillover take place 

over longer time horizons.6,7

This achievable scenario is focused on the longer-term potential for well-funded programs operating over two 

decades, with an expectation of a significant level of market transformation. We have also assumed that the savings 

from naturally occurring efficiency, much of which would typically be attributed to free riders, are embedded in the 

underlying econometric energy sales forecasts. As such, our top-down methodology considers the savings from 

6 State and Local Energy Efficiency Action Network. 2012. Energy Efficiency Program Impact Evaluation Guide. 

Prepared by Steven R. Schiller, Schiller Consulting, Inc. 

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/seeaction/pdfs/emv_ee_program_impact_guide.pdf 7 Blumstein, Carl. 2009. Program Evaluation and Incentives for Administrators of Energy-Efficiency Programs: Can 

Evaluation Solve the Principal/Agent Problem? ECEEE Paper 3147. 

http://www.ucei.berkeley.edu/PDF/csemwp184.pdf. Accessed 9/25/2013.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 10

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

those “naturally occurring” free riders as unavailable for energy efficiency. Given these factors, we have therefore 

assumed for this study that the effects of free ridership and spillover cancel each other out. We believe any 

uncertainty introduced by this assumption will be small relative to the overall uncertainties in a study of this 

duration and scope.

1.8Technology Learning Curve Effects

Learning curve effects have been observed for many new technologies as demand for them grows and their 

production volumes increase. The observed effect is that we learn how to refine and streamline the production 

process over time, resulting in lower costs per unit of output. Learning curve effects are separate from cost 

reductions due to economies of scale.

The degree to which energy efficiency technologies are subject to learning curve effects, and thus lower costs over 

time, is debatable. For emerging technologies there is certainly often a reduction in cost over time. But efficient 

technologies are different from many other products in that they are generally installed in place of lower-efficiency 

equipment to serve the same function. The impetus to install efficient equipment is that its incremental cost relative 

to baseline equipment be low enough to make the equipment desirably cost-effective. When the cost has come down 

enough that demand increases, the technology may have already experienced a substantial portion of the learning 

curve effects. Another aspect is that baselines gradually rise over time whether due to increased codes and standards, 

greater market acceptance, or a combination of reasons. So as costs come down, the energy savings may be reduced 

as well so that the cost per unit of energy saved remains fairly constant. There may be game-changing technologies 

like solid-state lighting that experience learning curve effects, but it is unclear if it would be appropriate to assume 

learning curve effects for all or a large part of the overall efficiency portfolio. In fact, the overall cost of energy 

efficiency per unit of energy saved has tended to track fairly constant over time, rather than experiencing a gradual 

reduction in the cost, as the market for efficiency responds to a multitude of economic, social, and political feedback 

effects.

Given these considerations, we have not applied any broad learning curve assumptions to our efficiency measure 

characterizations. For selected measures like LED lighting there is clearly an expectation of reduced costs in the 

future per lumen of light produced, and this is reflected in our solid-state lighting measure characterizations. But we 

handle this as a specific case that should not necessarily be extrapolated to a larger class of efficiency measures.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 11
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

2 Portfolio Level Results

The section provides additional study results to those already presented in the Energy Efficiency High-Level Results 

in Volume 1. Following the portfolio level results we present more detailed disaggregated results for each sector.

All electric savings and forecast energy values are at the “point of purchase” as opposed to “at meter.” Point of 

purchase savings correspond to avoided costs at the entrance to the utility service territories and include savings 

in transmission line losses. Customer meter level savings also reflect a reduction in distribution level losses 

commensurate with reduced system deliveries.

Figure 2 shows historic and baseline forecasts for each fuel, along with a shaded wedge showing the potential and 

lower resulting forecast if all achievable savings were captured. The overall achievable electric potential is 18% of 

forecast baseline load in 2030. Capture of this potential would result in a slightly declining electric demand in the 

first decade (i.e., negative “load growth”), followed by a slight rise in electric demand in the second decade. The 

increase in electric load in the second decade is a result of two factors, and should be viewed as a conservative 

estimate of future long term potential. First, as the study period expands, many of the early installed measures reach 

the end of their useful life and savings attributed to those measures goes away. We do not automatically assume 

these efficiency measures will necessarily be replaced with similar high efficiency versions absent continued market 

intervention programs and funding. Second, the effects of technology advancement over time become more and 

more speculative as one goes farther into the future. We have been conservative in assumptions about potential 

emerging technologies that cannot be defined with any reliability at this time. However, experience has shown 

that over decades technology advancement is likely to more than keep pace with improving baseline efficiency. 

For example, in 1989 the American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy (ACEEE) performed an electric 

efficiency potential study for New York State and estimated 30% achievable potential. After more than 14 years 

as a state leader in efficiency programs, Optimal Energy (with VEIC and ACEEE) performed a 2003 statewide 

electric efficiency potential study that estimated almost identical achievable potential as had existed in 1989.8,9

 

We therefore consider this uptick a conservative estimate of the potential, which can be revisited in a future study. 

8

 Miller, Peter, Joe Eto and Howard Geller. 1989. The Potential for Electricity Conservation in New York State. Energy 

Authority Report 89-12, prepared for the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority by the 

American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy. 9

 Optimal Energy Inc., Vermont Energy Investment Corp. (VEIC), American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy 

(ACEEE). Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Resource Development Potential in New York State: Final Report, 

Volumes 1 to 7. Prepared for the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. 

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 12

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Figure 2. Achievable Savings Potential by Fuel Relative to Sales Forecast

Percentages on the right refer to achievable savings as a percent of forecast in 2030.

The natural gas potential is estimated at 11% by 2030, roughly offsetting expected baseline forecast load growth. 

Natural gas potential tends to be relatively lower than electric for a number of reasons, where the primary driver 

is the relatively low cost of natural gas making efficiency measures less cost-effective. Petroleum potential is 

estimated at 20% by 2030, similar to electricity. Capture of this achievable petroleum potential would further reduce 

forecast loads that are already predicted to drop as a result of the current and projected significant economic savings 

of conversions to gas and environmental policies to reduce carbon and particulate emissions from heavy oil. 

Figure 3 shows the achievable potential by fuel and sector. For electric, commercial buildings offer a significantly 

larger portion of savings than residential or industrial. This is to be expected, and consistent with the results of many 

efficiency portfolios that find both more and more cost-effective electric opportunities in the commercial sector. 

This is partly driven by the higher electric loads in commercial facilities and greater cooling needs, the longer run 

hours of equipment and more favorable economics of efficiency, and also the dramatic progress in the past through 

efficiency programs and codes and standards that have significantly reduced cost-effective residential opportunities 

from lighting and appliances.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 13
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Figure 3. Achievable Savings Potential by Fuel and Sector, 2030

Natural gas savings by sector are relatively even between residential and commercial, reflecting the large building 

shell and space heating opportunities in the residential sector. For petroleum, residential offers the greatest share 

of efficiency potential. This is driven by the relatively higher market share of oil in residential homes and the lower 

heating needs of larger commercial buildings. 

Overall, industrial efficiency potential is much less significant in New York than commercial and residential sectors, 

driven primarily by the relative shifts in the economy away from heavy industries and toward more service 

industries (generally classified under commercial).

Figure 4 shows a disaggregation of the achievable scenario petroleum efficiency potential by fuel type. As is 

expected, the vast majority of potential comes from distillate oil, followed by LPG (propane). The graph also shows 

the significant forecasted usage reductions expected during the planning period from residual #4 and #6 fuel oil.

Table 1 shows annual program costs for the achievable scenario for selected years, broken out by sector.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 14
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Figure 4. Achievable Savings Potential by Individual Petroleum Fuel Relative to Sales Forecast

Table 1. Summary of Program Costs by Sector, Achievable Scenario (Non-Discounted 

Million 2012$)

Sector 2013 2015 2017 2020 2025 2030

Residential $384 $491 $513 $450 $951 $2,178 

Incentive Costs $258 $330 $345 $302 $638 $1,462 

Non-Incentive Costs $126 $162 $169 $148 $313 $716 

Commercial $941 $1,030 $998 $981 $904 $990 

Incentive Costs $621 $679 $658 $647 $597 $653 

Non-Incentive Costs $320 $350 $340 $334 $308 $337 

Industrial $14 $92 $140 $42 $27 $26 

Incentive Costs $9 $57 $87 $26 $17 $16 

Non-Incentive Costs $5 $35 $53 $16 $10 $10 

All Sectors $1,092 $1,342 $1,392 $1,257 $1,685 $2,972 

Incentive Costs $724 $887 $919 $833 $1,122 $1,984 

Non-Incentive Costs $368 $455 $474 $424 $564 $987 

 -

 50

 100

 150

 200

 250

 300

 350

 400

TBtu

Distillate

Kerosene

LPG

Residual

Achievable EE

History Forecast

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 15
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

2.1Electric Efficiency Potential

Table 2 provides a summary of the economic and achievable electric potential relative to the sales forecast. In 

addition, the potentials are compared to projected savings for New York’s current Energy Efficiency Portfolio 

Standard (EEPS) initiative. The electric economic potential is 36% and 45% of the forecast for 2020 and 2030, 

respectively. Pursuit of the achievable scenario would generate savings of 12% and 18% in 2020 and 2030, 

respectively, reflecting more than twice the savings currently forecast from the EEPS initiative by 2030.

Table 2. Summary of Economic and Achievable Electric Efficiency Potential Relative to Sales 

Forecast and NYS EEPS, 2020 and 2030

2020 2030

Statewide Forecast (GWh) 182,406 202,397 

Economic Potential (GWh) 66,123 91,856 

% of Forecast 36% 45%

Achievable Potential (GWh) 21,748 36,328 

% of Forecast 12% 18%

Savings from EEPS (GWh) 11,230 17,013 

% of Forecast 6% 8%

Figure 5 shows coincident summer peak demand savings by sector and analysis zone for the achievable scenario. 

The largest share of peak savings comes from New York City. This is reflected both by its large energy consumption 

and higher summer cooling loads relative to the other zones. 

Figure 5. Achievable Coincident Summer Peak Savings Potential by Zone and Sector, 2030

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 16
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Figure 6 shows the distribution of the total economic potential electric savings among the Residential, Commercial, 

and Industrial sectors. As discussed above, roughly 64% of the potential is available from commercial, with the bulk 

of the remainder from residential.

Figure 6. Sector Distribution of Economic Electric Efficiency, 2030 (GWh)

Figure 7 shows the distribution of the electric achievable potential savings among the Residential, Commercial, 

and Industrial sectors. The commercial sector makes up an even larger portion – 70% vs. 64% – of the potential 

compared to the distribution of economic savings. 

Figure 7. Sector Distribution of Achievable Electric Efficiency, 2030 (GWh)

9,415 , 26%

25,407 , 

70%

1,506 , 4%

Residential

Commercial

Industrial

28,553 , 

31%

58,550 , 

64%

4,753 , 5%

Residential

Commercial

Industrial

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 17
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

2.2 Natural Gas Efficiency Potential

Table 3 provides a summary of the economic and achievable natural gas potential relative to the sales forecast and 

EEPS projections. The natural gas economic potential is 20% and 33% of forecast for 2020 and 2030, respectively. 

Pursuit of the achievable scenario would generate savings of 6% and 11% in 2020 and 2030, respectively. This 

reflects about a third of the entire economic opportunities, but 3 times more in 2020 than current EEPS targets and 

about ten times more by 2030.

Table 3. Summary of Economic and Achievable Natural Gas Efficiency Potential relative to Sales 

Forecast and NYS EEPS, 2020 and 2030

2020 2030

Statewide Forecast (BBtu) 896,194 960,460 

Economic Potential (BBtu) 182,928 321,130 

% of Forecast 20% 33%

Achievable Potential (BBtu) 53,014 107,899

% of Forecast 6% 11%

Savings from EEPS (BBtu) 14,100 14,100 

% of Forecast 2% 1%

Figure 8 shows the distribution of economic potential savings for natural gas by sector. The greatest potential is 

in the residential sector, with 46% of the total savings potential. 

Figure 8. Sector Distribution of Economic Natural Gas Efficiency, 2030 (BBtu)

148,665 , 

136,793 , 46%

43%

35,672 , 

11%

Residential

Commercial

Industrial

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 18
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Figure 9 shows the distribution of the achievable potential savings for natural gas by sector. The opportunities 

are fairly evenly split between residential and commercial, with 43% and 46%, respectively. Industrial potential is 

about 11% of the total reflecting the diminishing role of heavy industry in New York’s economy. 

Figure 9. Sector Distribution of Achievable Natural Gas Efficiency, 2030 (BBtu)

2.3Petroleum Fuels Efficiency Potential

Table 4 provides a summary of the economic and achievable petroleum fuels potential relative to the sales forecast. 

The petroleum economic potential is 25% and 55% of forecast for 2020 and 2030, respectively. Pursuit of the 

achievable scenario would generate savings of 7% and 20% in 2020 and 2030, respectively. This reflects about a 

third of the entire economic opportunities. New York does not currently have EEPS targets for petroleum fuels.

Table 4. Summary of Economic and Achievable Petroleum Fuels Efficiency Potential relative 

to Sales Forecast, 2020 and 2030

2020 2030

Statewide Forecast (BBtu) 257,449 217,757 

Economic Potential (BBtu) 63,710 119,969 

% of Forecast 25% 55%

Achievable Potential (BBtu) 18,435 43,020

% of Forecast 7% 20%

49,445 , 

46,968 , 46%

43%

11,486 , 

11%

Residential

Commercial

Industrial

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 19
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Figure 10 shows the distribution of economic potential savings for petroleum fuels by sector. The residential sector 

offers the greatest share of petroleum efficiency at 60%, followed by commercial at 38% and industrial at 2%

Figure 10. Sector Distribution of Economic Petroleum Fuels Efficiency, 2030 (BBtu)

72,300 , 

60%

45,109 , 

38%

2,560 , 2%

Residential

Commercial

Industrial

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 20
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Figure 11 shows the distribution of the achievable potential savings for petroleum fuels by sector. As with the 

economic potential, the residential sector offers the greatest share of petroleum efficiency at 61%, followed by 

commercial at 36% and industrial at 3%. The somewhat higher portion of residential opportunities compared to 

natural gas reflects the greater market share of oil in this sector.

Figure 11. Sector Distribution of Achievable Petroleum Fuels Efficiency, 2030 (BBtu)

2.4Emissions Reductions

We assessed the emissions reductions associated with energy savings for three categories of emissions. Greenhouse 

gas reductions were assessed in terms of CO2-equivalent, or the equivalent amount of CO2 representing various 

greenhouse gases (CO2 is by far the main greenhouse gas reduced by energy efficiency). In addition, we assessed the 

reductions of two primary criteria pollutants, nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur dioxide (SO2), which are precursors 

to smog and acid rain, and cause other health hazards.

Emissions were calculated from the corresponding energy savings using a emissions factors for each fuel type: 

electric energy, natural gas, and petroleum fuels. The factors only account for the “smokestack” emissions for 

electric generation, and for the end use consumption for natural gas and petroleum fuels. The upstream impacts of 

extraction, refinement, and transportation of primary fuels were not included in the analysis. For the specific values 

applied and their sources, see Appendix J in Volume 4.

26,366 , 

61%

15,358 , 

36%

1,296 , 3%

Residential

Commercial

Industrial

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 21
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Table 5 provides projected emissions reductions for the economic potential in 2020 and 2030, and Table 6 provides 

the same for the achievable potential. The estimated 2030 economic and achievable CO2e emissions reductions are 

equivalent to removing 10.2 and 3.8 million vehicles, respectively, from the road that year.10

Table 5. Annual Emissions Reductions, Economic Potential, 2020 and 2030

Note: t = metric tons, MMtCO2e = million metric tons of CO2 equivalent.

Sector Economic, 2020 Economic, 2030

 CO2e

(MMtCO2e)

NOx

(t)

SO2

(t)

CO2e

(MMtCO2e)

NOx

(t)

SO2

(t)

Residential 10.17 11,551 9,679 20.43 23,111 17,376 

Commercial 17.87 20,304 18,261 25.49 28,759 25,504 

Industrial 3.18 3,281 2,120 3.29 3,344 1,969 

Total 31.22 35,135 30,059 49.21 55,214 44,850 

Table 6. Annual Emissions Reductions, Achievable Potential, 2020 and 2030

Note: t = metric tons, MMtCO2e = million metric tons of CO2 equivalent.

Sector Achievable, 2020 Achievable, 2030

 CO2e

(MMtCO2e)

NOx

(t)

SO2

(t)

CO2e

(MMtCO2e)

NOx

(t)

SO2

(t)

Residential 2.48 2,841 2,469 6.94 7,907 5,977 

Commercial 5.84 6,653 6,098 10.10 11,465 10,652 

Industrial 1.39 1,468 1,071 1.09 1,120 671 

Total 9.71 10,961 9,638 18.13 20,492 17,300 

10 Assuming 4.8 t/CO2e/vehicle/year, as calculated in EPA Clean Energy Calculations and References, accessed 

March 2014: http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-resources/refs.html 

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 22

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

3 Residential Efficiency

This section presents detailed results of the residential sector efficiency potential, as well as explanations of the 

residential methodology and major inputs and assumptions. 

3.1Summary of Results 

Figure 12 shows the total achievable scenario efficiency potential by region and fuel type in 2030. For electric, the 

largest region is New York City, followed by Upstate, Long Island, and the Hudson Valley. This reflects the New 

York City region accounting for the greatest share of residential electric load and the relatively higher cooling loads 

in that region. For petroleum, relative shares switch between New York City and Upstate, reflecting the relatively 

higher heating loads in that region and the relative greater portion of end users without natural gas availability.

Figure 12. Distribution of Residential Achievable Efficiency Potential by Region and Fuel Type, 

2030

Table 7 shows the total savings for each fuel by major market category for the residential economic and achievable 

scenarios. Appliances and plug loads represent the greatest economic savings opportunity in the residential electric 

sector, while lighting represents the greatest achievable savings opportunity. This reflects the fact that the barriers 

in the lighting market are relatively low compared to those for appliances and plug loads. The heating and cooling 

market represents the largest economic and achievable savings opportunity for both natural gas and petroleum fuels. 

 - 

10,000 

20,000 

30,000 

40,000 

50,000 

60,000 

 - 

1,000 

2,000 

3,000 

4,000 

5,000 

6,000 

7,000 

8,000 

9,000 

10,000 

Statewide New York City Upstate Long Island Hudson Valley

GWh

BBtu

Electric (GWh)

Natural Gas (BBtu)

Petroleum Fuels (BBtu)

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 23
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Table 7. Residential Sector Economic and Achievable Savings Potential by Market, 2030

Market

Electric 

Savings

(GWh)

Natural 

Gas

Savings

(BBtu)

Petrol 

Fuels

Savings

(BBtu)

Economic 28,553 148,665 72,300

Lighting 5,761 (7,721) (3,978)

Water Heating 3,357 69,079 22,294

Heating and Cooling 7,295 86,336 51,704

Appliances and Plug 

Loads

12,140 971 2,280

Achievable 9,415 49,445 26,366 

Lighting 3,427 (4,593) (2,366)

Water Heating 684 14,177 4,642 

Heating and Cooling 2,310 39,638 23,568

Appliances and Plug 

Loads 2,994 223 523

Table 8 provides economic impacts by major market category for the residential economic and achievable scenarios. 

Overall, capture of the achievable potential would result in nearly $24 billion in gross benefits for an investment of 

$16 billion, for a benefit-cost ratio of about 1.5. New York’s economy would capture about $7.6 billion in present 

value net benefits by 2032.

Table 8. Residential Sector Cost-Effectiveness Results by Market, Achievable Scenario, Total for 

2013-2032 (Present Value Million 2012$)

Market Costs

(Million$)

Benefits

(Million$)

Net Benefits

(Million$)

BCR

Economic $33,468 $73,465 $39,997 2.20 

Lighting $4,054 $5,780 $1,725 1.43 

Water Heating $6,948 $18,853 $11,905 2.71 

Heating and Cooling $17,653 $35,858 $18,204 2.03 

Appliances $4,812 $12,974 $8,162 2.70 

Achievable $16,004 $23,601 $7,597 1.47 

Lighting $1,852 $2,526 $674 1.36 

Water Heating $1,995 $3,874 $1,879 1.94 

Heating and Cooling $10,825 $14,007 $3,182 1.29 

Appliances $1,332 $3,194 $1,862 2.40 

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 24
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

3.2Overview of Approach

This study’s comprehensive, long-term focus required a proper assessment of equipment stock turnover and 

the interactive effects within and between measures. To do this with specificity over the long term, we bundled 

measures by end-use so that energy impacts could be characterized across a changing mix of technologies. For 

example, an increase in the penetration of simple water saving devices such as thermostatic flow-control valves 

reduced the per-unit savings available from the adoption of more efficient water heating equipment and drain 

water heat recovery units. Similarly the adoption of CFLs and LED lighting impacted the savings potential of 

lighting controls. Aggregating measures within the energy end-use categories enabled our end-use models to 

remain anchored to the energy sales forecast while retaining the granularity of individual technology cost and 

savings characterizations.

3.3Energy Sales Disaggregation

A top-down disaggregation of the energy sales was used to split the residential electricity consumption by end use 

and building type (single family and multifamily). The disaggregation was based primarily on RECS11 data and 

NYSERDA’s Patterns and Trends New York State Energy Profiles report.12 These sources provided details such 

as consumption by end-use, type of equipment and building type details required for the analyses. Specifically, the 

breakdown of household energy consumption in the Patterns and Trends report was used as a starting point for 

current consumption by end use and fuel type. 

End use consumption was corroborated by category and fuel with a bottom-up modeling of bundle characterizations 

where data were available. For instance, the proportion of lighting electricity consumption (including the impact 

on increased heating fuel to compensate for reduced waste heat to conditioned spaces due to lighting measures) 

utilized the RECS data for lighting electricity consumption and space heating technology type, fuel, and household 

distributions. The disaggregation was compared to independent estimates, where available, of the number of sockets 

per household by building type, hours of use per socket, average wattage and distribution by lamp/fixture 

technology type (incandescent, CFL, LED). Similarly the baseline inventory of the existing stock of building 

thermal performance, hot water, and heating and cooling equipment were developed for annual savings penetrations 

of the aggregate measure characterizations.

11 U.S. Energy Information Administration. 2009. "Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS)."

http://205.254.135.7/consumption/residential/data/2005/#consumption-expenditures. Accessed July 2013. 12 NYSERDA. 2011. Patterns and Trends - New York State Energy Profiles: 1995-2009.

http://www.nyserda.ny.gov/en/Publications/Energy-Analysis-Reports.aspx. Accessed July 2013.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 25

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

3.4 Measure Characterization

The approach to comprehensive and long term analysis of efficiency savings is a multi-faceted task that requires 

estimates of rapidly evolving efficient technologies such as lower power chipsets in consumer electronics, 

exponential improvements in LED lighting, and new application areas for heat pump technologies. The performance 

and cost-effective penetration of these products and systems were modeled and compared with estimates of baseline 

market activity performance, and federal standard levels. 

The models were informed by a top-down disaggregation of energy consumption into the following four main 

categories for analysis and measure characterization, as shown in the following table. For a complete listing of 

residential measure characterizations, see Appendix D in Volume 4.

Table 9. Residential Aggregate Measure Categories with Component Measures 

End-use Category Component Efficiency Measures

Aggregated 

Analysis 

Type

Lighting

• Standard CFLs

• Specialty CFLs 

• LEDs

• Controls & Integrated Design

Energy 

Intensity 

Model

Hot Water

• Low-Flow Aerators & Showerheads , Thermostatic 

Flow Shut-off Valve

• Drain Water Heat Recovery Devices

• Structured Plumbing 

• Gas Condensing Storage Water Heaters

• Gas Condensing Tankless Water Heaters, 

• Gas Heat Pump Water Heaters

• Electric Heat Pump Water Heaters

Energy 

Intensity 

Model

Thermal Comfort

Prototype building types:

• Ranch/MH

• Town and/or Row houses

• Colonial/2-story

• Garden Apartments Building (2-4 unit)

• Other (e.g., houseboats, small RVs)

• Heating and Cooling Equipment Replacement and 

Advanced Controls (Smart Thermostats)

Prototype 

Building 

Model, 

HVAC 

Equipment 

Turnover

Appliances and Plug 

Loads

Combined package of:

• Major electric appliances (refrigerator/freezer, 

clothes washer and drier, etc.)

• Brushless fan motor retrofit for furnaces

• Advanced Power Strips and control/operation

Appliance 

Package 

Model

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 26
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

The quality of information and type of end-use category for lighting and hot water permitted the construction of 

energy intensity models to aggregate and capture the effects of changing baselines and equipment stock turnover. 

This approach allowed for deeper investigation into the nature of the savings opportunities, the rates of change, 

and incorporation of interactive effects from the installation of multiple efficiency measures. These models were 

constructed specific to these two end-use categories, based upon the characterization of component measures and 

the rate of replacement.

Figure 13 indicates the declining baseline energy consumption per household for all hot water uses. Savings from 

reduced energy intensities are relative to this baseline. Both lines are estimates based upon the total efficiency of 

household hot water systems based upon a distribution of technology types and penetrations. 

Figure 13. Residential Hot Water Energy Intensity Model

For the lighting end use, Figure 14 shows the decline in savings due to previous installations of efficient lighting 

measures. For example, the annual savings of a specialty CFL installed in 2013 would be nearly five times the 

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 27
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

annual savings of a specialty CFL installed in 2019. This is because the average energy intensity of standard 

lights in 2019 is lower due to improvements in energy efficiency of the baseline.

Figure 14. Residential First-Year Lighting Savings Per Home

The other two energy end use categories were not well-suited to the approach used for the hot water and lighting 

end uses. For the thermal comfort end use, the collection of highly building-specific shell and systems (such as airsealing, building shell, heating, cooling and ventilation) has too much variation between building types for a 

coherent energy intensity model. Instead, prototype building types were analytically built and modeled using 

simulation software to handle the measure interactions. The prototypes and their energy efficient attributes were 

designed to represent archetype residential buildings that could be allocated across the state in accordance with 

census household information. The different regional climates were then applied in proportion to the prototypes 

and the energy impacts were calculated. The outputs of these models were used to estimate the savings available to 

the heating and cooling equipment and controls replacement measures.

The appliances and plug loads energy end use category relied on a similar prototypical approach. Variation in 

appliance and plug load usage between building types was assumed to vary much less on average than the appliance 

and plug load energy consumption by users within each building type. Therefore, a single appliance package 

prototype was modeled. This package included retrofits for all major appliances (relative to non-ENERGY STAR 

levels of energy consumption), basic electronic upgrades (advanced power strips and controls), and furnace fan 

motor replacements.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 28
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

The impact of significant emerging technologies and trends was modeled, wherever feasible, within each residential 

energy end-use category. Some trends, like the transition to solid-state lighting, have been extensively studied, and 

follow fairly predictable paths of improvement. Other trends, such as the volatility in the make-up and consumption 

of plug loads, are confounded by the opposing effects of increased power efficiencies of electronic devices, and their 

growth in number. In all cases, the treatment of cost and savings for each was informed by the potential application 

to the energy end-use category, the specific technology at hand, and comparable historic precedents. The following 

table summarizes the emerging technologies and trends considered for developing and characterizing efficiency 

measures.

Table 10. Residential Emerging Technologies and Trends

End-Use Emerging Technologies and Trends

Lighting

• Transition from incandescent/CFL mix to SSL continues and accelerates 

due to declining per lumen costs, saturation of product compatibility, 

application areas and availability.

• Occupancy & light-level controls

• Reduced lighting demand through integrated lighting design (fixture 

efficiency, controls, and day and task-lighting)

Space Comfort

• “Smart” dispatch & operation of equipment (adaptive and connected 

thermostats, variable load (“reset”) controls, and other controls 

optimizations.

• Ventilation: distribution efficiencies and enthalpy recovery

• Steady and increasing comprehensive envelope improvements (airsealing and insulation) in existing buildings 

• Heat pumps (ground, water, and multi-stage air-source; variable speed, 

inverter-based)

• Low-load brushless permanent magnet (DC-based) motors and electronic 

controls improves system comfort effectiveness to reduce “over 

ventilation” and “over-cooling”

Water Heating

• Condensing Gas and Combination Space heating, Tankless, Hybrid.

• Heat Pump: electric and gas-fired, direct and vented, waste-heat recovery

• Thermostatic automatic flow restriction and Low-flow showerheads and 

faucet aerators.

• Distribution System: drain-water heat recovery, structured plumbing, on 

demand circulator pump.

Appliances and 

Plug Loads

• Smart controls: advanced power strips, remote operation, sensors and 

diagnostics.

• Low-power electronics (standby and power-supplies)

• End use saturation and consumer trends 

General

• Market Segmentation and Delivery

o Ubiquitous Ratings & Certifications

o (Site-specific opportunity identifications, assessment, resolution; 

“Green Button” & Social Information Technologies)

• Holistic and Integrated Design and Controls.

• Smarter “defaults” convenient, lower cost, lower energy settings.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 29
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

A total of 21 aggregate measures were included in the analysis, including separate characterizations for single- and 

multifamily buildings. These measures were characterized by year, as needed, to reflect changes in measure costs 

and savings over the study period. This resulted in a total of 138 residential measures for each of the four regional 

analysis zones. 

Appendix D in Volume 4 provides the full list of residential measures with their characterizations.

3.5 Market Characterization

While residential energy use is in some ways more homogeneous than either of the commercial or industrial 

sectors, the residential sector has a much smaller per-site consumption and savings opportunity. Household-level 

information of specific building and equipment, and behavior details are required to model the twenty-year cost 

and savings impacts of measure-based comprehensive residential energy efficiency.

We built residential end-use category characterizations with the data available from appliance saturation surveys, 

energy efficiency program plans and evaluations, the census-based Residential Energy Consumption Survey, and 

long-term single and multifamily housing projections. The specifications of federal minimum appliance energy 

standards and energy codes established the baseline energy consumption for the residential market. 

Our model used the population-weighted average climate information (heating and cooling degree days), building 

type (single and multifamily and prototypical construction) and heating and cooling equipment allocation within 

each of the four regional analysis zones. 

3.6 Analysis of Economic Potential

We assumed that widely-available lower cost measures (e.g., lighting and controls, low-flow devices for hot water 

usage) would be rapidly deployed and reach high penetration rates within 5 to 10 years. For medium-priced measure 

bundles like the appliance and controls package and the heating and cooling package we assumed a replacement rate 

equal to annual sales estimates (equipment household saturation divided by the average equipment lifetime). For 

higher-cost measures like building shell upgrades and air sealing that require a certified contractor base and have 

longer project durations, we assumed that the full 20-year study period would be required to capture all of the costeffective opportunity.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 30
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

3.7 Analysis of Achievable Potential

In accordance with the study’s scenario methodology, we assessed the constraints of communication, psychology 

and program costs within each residential energy end-use category. Market barriers including awareness, 

willingness, and customer economics were modeled as constraints on efficiency penetrations in addition to 

the resource and cost-effectiveness constraints modeled in the economic potential.

These factors are specific to each measure due to the inherent differences between technologies and the complexity 

of realizing the savings potential. Some, such as lighting have high visibility and low-market barriers relative to the 

challenges of sophisticated hot water measures, and proportionally higher costs and lower demand for thermal 

comfort measures. Within each category, we assessed and estimated these initial and ongoing limiting factors. In 

each case we assumed a minimum initial and maximum final level, and estimated a rate of improvement between 

the two. The considered barriers to adoption included cost, complexity, trade-offs in capability and or convenience, 

non-energy benefits, and other details that are known from program experience to affect residential customer 

decision-making.

This approach provided a consistent manner to address the complex problem of predicting statewide market 

behaviors. In some cases, such as the lighting bundle, the initial penetration rate could be established definitively 

from existing market data for solid-state lighting (SSL), and the time to achieve maximum penetration could be 

aligned with the SSL projections of its capability to saturate lighting end-uses. In others, such as thermal comfort, 

the initial critical constraint for adoption is a resource constraint of trained and capable personnel rather than 

awareness. Our approach allowed for changes over time to appropriately model these known effects and 

complications.

3.7.1 Program Costs

Program Costs include the cost of customer incentives and the cost of program administration as a percentage of 

total incentive amounts. For the achievable scenario, the proportion of incremental cost paid by incentive ranged 

from a high of 70% for lighting measures, to a low of 30% for the building shell measures of the thermal comfort 

end-use. These levels were based on the costs and specific market barriers to adoption for each aggregated measure. 

As described above in the general approach to the energy efficiency potential, program costs were estimated based 

on the experience of the current highest-performing efficiency programs.

Table 11 shows the residential program costs, by major market category, for the achievable scenario. The costs are 

split between incentive and non-incentive costs. The heating and cooling market is generally the most expensive – a 

reflection of the high cost of the equipment and the high incentives required to move efficient equipment into the 

market.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 31
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Table 11. Residential Sector Program Costs by Market, Achievable Scenario (Non-Discounted 

Million 2012$)

Market 2013 2015 2017 2020 2025 2030

Lighting $97 $142 $77 $38 $28 $25 

Incentive Costs $65 $95 $52 $26 $19 $17 

Non-Incentive Costs $32 $47 $25 $13 $9 $8 

Water Heating $60 $82 $151 $140 $217 $151 

Incentive Costs $40 $55 $101 $94 $145 $102 

Non-Incentive Costs $20 $27 $50 $46 $71 $50 

Heating and Cooling $136 $155 $169 $225 $659 $1,954 

Incentive Costs $91 $104 $113 $151 $442 $1,311 

Non-Incentive Costs $45 $51 $55 $74 $217 $643 

Appliances $92 $113 $117 $47 $47 $47 

Incentive Costs $62 $76 $78 $32 $32 $32 

Non-Incentive Costs $30 $37 $38 $16 $16 $16 

Residential Sector 

Total $384 $491 $513 $450 $951 $2,178 

Incentive Costs $258 $330 $345 $302 $638 $1,462 

Non-Incentive Costs $126 $162 $169 $148 $313 $716 

3.8 Detailed Results for the Residential Sector

This section provides detailed results for the economic and achievable scenarios for the residential sector, including 

results by end-use and building type. 

3.8.1 Residential Economic and Achievable Electric Potential

As shown in Table 12 , the most significant achievable energy savings potential in the residential sector comes from 

lighting and thermal comfort, with 36% and 25% of the total savings respectively. The balance is split fairly evenly 

between the remaining end uses.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 32
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Table 12. Distribution of Residential Electric Efficiency by End-Use, Economic and Achievable 

Scenarios, 2030

Other appliances include clothes washers, dryers and dishwashers.

End Use Economic Achievable

Savings 

(GWh)

% of Total Savings 

(GWh)

% of 

Total

Lighting 5,761 20% 3,427 36%

Thermal Comfort 7,295 26% 2,310 25%

Refrigerators 4,338 15% 1,070 11%

Electronics and Controls 3,916 14% 966 10%

Other Appliances 3,886 14% 958 10%

Water Heating 3,357 12% 684 7%

Total 28,553 100% 9,415 100%

Table 13 shows that single family homes account for approximately two thirds of the total residential achievable 

scenario potential, with multifamily capturing about one third.13

Table 13. Distribution of Residential Electric Efficiency by Building Type, Economic and 

Achievable Scenarios, 2030

Building Type Economic Achievable

Savings 

(GWh)

% of Total Savings 

(GWh)

% of 

Total

Single Family 18,525 65% 6,111 65%

Multifamily 10,028 35% 3,304 35%

Total 28,553 100% 9,415 100%

3.8.2 Residential Economic and Achievable Natural Gas Potential

Table 14 shows the distribution of economic and achievable natural gas savings by end use in 2030. About 70% of 

the achievable opportunity comes from reductions in space heating usage, with the remainder coming from water 

heating systems and usage.

13 Note that some additional multifamily potential for central systems in large multifamily buildings classified as 

commercial customers are included in the commercial sector results.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 33

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Table 14. Distribution of Residential Natural Gas Efficiency by End-Use, Economic and Achievable 

Scenarios, 2030

End Use Economic Achievable

Savings 

(BBtu)

% of Total Savings 

(BBtu)

% of 

Total

Space Heating 79,586 54% 35,268 71%

Water Heating 69,079 46% 14,177 29%

Total 148,665 100% 49,445 100%

Table 15 shows the distribution of natural gas savings by end use for the economic and achievable scenarios in 

2030. About 70% of the opportunities come from reductions in single family homes, with the remainder coming 

from multifamily.

Table 15. Distribution of Residential Natural Gas Efficiency by Building Type, Economic and 

Achievable Scenarios, 2030

Building Type Economic Achievable

Savings 

(BBtu)

% of Total Savings 

(BBtu)

% of 

Total

Single Family 97,797 66% 34,211 69%

Multifamily 50,868 34% 15,234 31%

Total 148,665 100% 49,445 100%

3.8.3 Residential Economic and Achievable Petroleum Fuels Potential

Table 16 shows the distribution of petroleum fuel savings by end use for the economic and achievable scenarios in 

2030. About 80% of the opportunities come from reductions in space heating usage, with the remainder coming 

from water heating systems and usage. This somewhat higher share of savings from space heating for petroleum – as 

compared to natural gas – reflects the relatively smaller prevalence of petroleum water heating and the general older 

age and lower efficiency of petroleum heating systems.

Table 16. Distribution of Residential Petroleum Fuel Efficiency by End-Use, Economic and 

Achievable Scenarios, 2030

End Use Economic Achievable

Savings 

(BBtu)

% of Total Savings 

(BBtu)

% of 

Total

Space Heating 50,007 69% 21,725 82%

Water Heating 22,294 31% 4,642 18%

Total 72,300 100% 26,366 100%

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 34
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Table 17 shows the split in petroleum savings by building type for the economic and achievable scenarios. Single 

family homes account for about 75% of the opportunities. The relatively large single family share of potential for 

petroleum – as compared to natural gas – reflects the higher market share of oil in single family homes, and in 

particular, the relatively high availability of natural gas downstate where more multifamily buildings are located.

Table 17. Distribution of Residential Petroleum Fuel Efficiency by Building Type, Economic and 

Achievable Scenarios, 2030

Building Type Economic Achievable

Savings 

(BBtu)

% of Total Savings 

(BBtu)

% of 

Total

Single Family 51,907 72% 19,192 73%

Multifamily 20,393 28% 7,174 27%

Total 72,300 100% 26,366 100%

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 35
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

4 Commercial Efficiency

This section presents detailed results of the commercial sector achievable efficiency potential, as well as 

explanations of the commercial methodology and major inputs and assumptions. 

4.1Summary of Results

Figure 15 shows the total commercial sector achievable potential in 2030 for each fuel and region. For electricity 

New York City and Upstate regions each account for about a third of the statewide potential, with Long Island 

and Hudson Valley accounting for the remainder. For natural gas and petroleum New York City accounts for the 

largest share, with about 50% of the statewide potential, reflecting the relatively high population and fossil fuel 

consumption in that region. The Upstate region has about a third of the statewide fossil fuel potential, with Long 

Island and Hudson Valley accounting for the remainder. 

Figure 15. Distribution of Commercial Efficiency by Region and Fuel Type, Achievable Scenario, 

2030

 - 

2,000 

4,000 

6,000 

8,000 

10,000 

12,000 

14,000 

 - 

200 

400 

600 

800 

1,000 

1,200 

1,400 

1,600 

Statewide New York City Upstate Long Island Hudson Valley

GWh

BBtu

Electric (GWh)

Natural Gas (BBtu)

Petroleum Fuels (BBtu)

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 36
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Table 18 shows the economic and achievable savings, by major market category, for the each fuel. The new 

construction market represents the greatest economic opportunity for electric savings, while the retrofit market 

represents the greatest achievable opportunity. This trend is also apparent in natural gas and petroleum fuels. 

Table 18. Commercial Sector Economic and Achievable Savings by Market, 2030

Market

Electric 

Savings 

(GWh)

Natural 

Gas 

Savings 

(BBtu)

Petro 

Fuels 

Savings 

(BBtu)

Economic 58,550 136,793 45,109 

New Construction 28,992 71,114 22,393 

Equipment Replacement 12,218 28,165 10,723 

Retrofit 17,340 37,513 11,994 

Achievable 25,407 46,968 15,358 

New Construction 7,259 13,490 4,381 

Equipment Replacement 7,183 10,969 3,992 

Retrofit 10,966 22,509 6,984 

Table 19 provides economic impacts, by major market category, for the commercial economic and achievable 

scenarios. Overall, capture of the achievable potential would result in $36 billion in gross benefits for an investment 

of $16 billion, or a benefit-cost ratio of 2.25. New York’s economy would capture about $20 billion in present value 

net benefits by 2032

Table 19. Commercial Sector Cost-Effectiveness Results by Market, Economic and Achievable 

Scenarios, Total for 2013-2032 (Present Value Million 2012$)

Market Costs

(Million$)

Benefits

(Million$)

Net Benefits

(Million$)

BCR

Economic $37,962 $93,438 $55,476 2.46 

New Construction $15,692 $40,530 $24,838 2.58 

Equipment 

Replacement $9,163 

$22,246 

$13,083 

2.43 

Retrofit $13,107 $30,661 $17,555 2.34 

Achievable $15,936 $35,795 $19,859 2.25 

New Construction $3,490 $8,688 $5,198 2.49 

Equipment 

Replacement

$3,419 $8,959 $5,540 2.62 

Retrofit $9,027 $18,148 $9,121 2.01 

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 37
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

4.2Overview of Approach

The commercial sector, which includes institutional buildings, is relatively complex due to its wide variety 

of building types and sizes, the multitude of services provided, and the large number of potential efficiency 

applications. For example, different commercial building types have widely different occupation regimens, so 

that measure impacts and cost-effectiveness can vary widely between different building types. As well, the 

commercial sector is overall the largest energy consumer, and commercial electric usage is forecast to increase 

by about 40% over the next 20 years, while the residential and industrial electric usage essentially stay flat.

The top-down approach to the commercial analysis is similar to that used for the other sectors, but the energy 

and measure segmentation is more detailed. As described below, the segmentation by market, building type and 

analysis zone resulted in nearly 4,500 measure permutations. Due to its complexity and the large number of 

measure permutations, the commercial analysis relies on a commercial-specific model that processes the unique 

characterization of measures by building type, estimates the effect of measure interactions, and tracks the remaining 

energy available for energy efficiency as new installations are modeled. 

The assessment of potential proceeds is achieved by applying a series of factors to a defined quantity of energy. 

These factors are applied to the forecasted building-type and end-use or industrial segment sales by year to derive 

the potential for each measure for each year in the analysis period, as shown in the following equation and described 

in the subsequent bullets.

Energy 

Savings = kWh 

Sales x Applicability 

Factor x Feasibility 

Factor x 

Turnover 

Factor 

(replacement 

only)

x 

Not 

Complete 

Factor 

(retrofit 

only)

x Savings 

Fraction x 

Net 

Penetration 

Rate

• Sales is the total quantity of energy consumed by a particular end-use in a particular building type or 

industrial segment, across the entire market of interest, expressed in kWh or MMBtu. In this analysis, 

we assessed potential in each of four different regional analysis zones.

• Applicability is the fraction of the end-use level energy sales (from the sales disaggregation) for each 

building type or industrial segment that is attributable to equipment that could be replaced by the highefficiency measure. For example, for ambient lighting it would be the portion of total building type 

lighting electrical load consumed by ambient lighting.

• Feasibility is the fraction of end-use sales for which it is technically feasible to install the efficiency 

measure. Numbers less than 100% reflect engineering or other technical barriers that would preclude 

adoption of the measure. Feasibility is not reduced for economic or behavioral barriers that would 

reduce penetration estimates. Rather, it reflects technical or physical constraints that would make 

measure adoption impossible or ill advised.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 38
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

• Turnover is the number or percentage of existing equipment that will be naturally replaced each year 

due to failure, remodeling, or renovation. This applies to the natural replacement (“replace on burnout”) 

and renovation markets. In general, turnover factors are assumed to be 1 divided by the measure life 

(e.g., assuming that 10% (1/10) of existing stock of equipment is replaced each year for a measure with 

a 10 year estimated life). 

• Not Complete is the percentage of existing equipment that already represents the high-efficiency option. 

This only applies to retrofit markets.

• Baseline Adjustment adjusts the savings downward in future years for early-retirement retrofit measures 

to account for the fact that newer, standard equipment efficiencies are higher than older, existing stock 

efficiencies. This factor is only applied after the existing equipment would have reached its end-of-life 

(it is not shown in the above formula). 

• Savings Fraction represents the percent savings (as compared to either existing stock or new baseline 

equipment for retrofit and non-retrofit markets, respectively) of the high efficiency technology. Savings 

fractions are calculated based on individual measure data and assumptions about existing stock efficiency, 

standard practice for new purchases, and high efficiency options. Our estimates of savings fraction and all 

of the preceding factors are described in the “Measure Characterization” section.

• Annual Net Penetrations are the difference between the base case measure penetration (with no 

efficiency programs) and the measure penetrations that could be achieved with sustained efficiency 

initiatives. For the resource-constrained economic potential, it is assumed that 100% penetration is 

captured for all markets, with retirement measures generally being phased in and spread out over time 

to reflect resource constraints such as contractor availability. We describe our penetration estimates in 

the “Potential Estimate” section.

In the top-down approach, measure costs are expressed relative to energy savings (i.e., units of dollars per 

kWh or MMBtu saved) rather than equipment units. For purposes of estimated potential, total costs in each 

year are determined by multiplying the measure cost per unit energy saved by projected energy savings in that 

year. This same approach is used for other measure impacts such as operation and maintenance savings. 

The actual factors used for the commercial analysis are presented in Appendix E in Volume 4.

The following sections provide additional detail specific to the commercial sector analysis.

4.3Energy Sales Disaggregation

The commercial sector is relatively complex in that commercial sales are disaggregated into eleven end uses and 

twelve building types. This section provides an overview of the commercial sales disaggregation, while Appendix C 

in Volume 4 provides complete tables of the disaggregation.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 39
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Historical electric sales by regional analysis zone were first disaggregated into twelve building types using 

proprietary electric load data from three New York utilities – one for New York City, one for Hudson Valley, 

and the other for the Upstate region.14 These data reflected early to mid-1990s conditions, the best available data 

for this task.

Current year sales were estimated using economic growth data (business-level gross domestic product) by county 

from Moody’s (www.economy.com). As growth data in terms of electric, natural gas, and petroleum-based fuel 

sales were not available, economic growth was adopted as a suitable proxy. Figure 16 shows the resulting 

distribution of electric energy sales by building type for 2013.

Figure 16. Commercial Electric Sales Distribution by Building Type, 2013

Note: The “Other” building type includes buildings with commercial activity that do not fit 

into any other category (e.g. airplane hangars, crematoriums, laboratories, etc.). 

New York data on gas usage by building type were not available. As a result, the analysis started with the 

disaggregated electric load by building type. Based on average existing building energy intensities per square 

foot by building type for electricity and gas, the analysis estimated the natural gas consumption by building type. 

The estimates of energy intensity by building type were derived from 2002 Itron “eShapes” data. The eShapes 

data provide annual hourly “8760” end-use energy load shapes by building type for a broad array of New York 

weather stations. These are based on Itron modeling of thousands of existing commercial facilities audits. Figure 17

shows the resulting distribution of natural gas and petroleum fuels sales by building type for 2013. 

14 The building types include Office, Retail, Grocery, Warehouse, Education, Health, Lodging, Restaurant, Data Center, 

Multifamily, Street Lighting, and Other. The multifamily building type only applies to central, commercially-metered 

systems, generally for multifamily buildings of at least 20 units. 

Office

31%

Retail

8%

Grocery

8% Warehouse

5%

Education

9%

Health

8%

Lodging

3%

Restaurant

7%

Data Center

7%

Streetlighting

<0.5%

Other

14%

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 40
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Figure 17. Commercial Natural Gas and Petroleum Fuels Distribution by Building Type, 2013

Note: The “Other” building type includes buildings with commercial activity that do not fit 

into any other category (e.g. airplane hangars, crematoriums, laboratories, etc.). 

Again using eShapes data, we further disaggregated the zonal building-type sales forecasts into eleven separate end 

uses, using end-use energy intensities (kWh/sq. ft. or MMBtu/sq. ft.) by building type.15 Separate end-use energy 

intensities were applied for the New York City, Long Island, and Upstate zones and each building type based on 

eShapes data using New York City’s LaGuardia Airport, Islip, and Albany weather stations, respectively. No 

eShapes data were available for weather stations within the Hudson Valley, so the Albany weather station was 

assumed as a suitable proxy. Figure 18 shows the resulting distribution of electric sales by end use for 2013.

15 The end uses include Interior Lighting, Exterior Lighting, Space Cooling, Ventilation, Water Heating, Refrigeration, 

Space Heating, Office Equipment, Food Service, Data Center, and Other. 

Office

23%

Retail

16%

Grocery

3%

Warehouse

2%

Education

10%

Health

Lodging 10%

4%

Restaurant

7%

Multifamily

20%

Other

5%

Natural Gas by Building Type

Office

24%

Retail

15%

Grocery

3%

Warehouse

2%

Education

11%

Health

11%

Lodging

4%

Restaurant

7%

Multifamily

16%

Other

7%

Petroleum by Building Type

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 41

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Figure 18. Commercial Electric Sales Distribution by End Use, 2013

Note: The “Other” end use category includes end uses that do not fit into any other commercial end use

(e.g. televisions, cleaning equipment, security systems, etc.). 

Distribution of petroleum-based fuels by building type and end-use was assumed to be identical to that of natural 

gas with the exception that the cooling and food service end uses are not included. Figure 19 shows the resulting 

distribution of natural gas and petroleum fuels sales by end use for 2013.

Figure 19. Commercial Natural Gas and Petroleum Fuels Distribution by End Use, 2013

Natural Gas by End Use Petroleum Fuels by End Use

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 42
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Finally, end-use energy growth forecasts for 2013 through 2032 were adopted from the 2011 US DOE Building 

Energy Data Book and normalized to the overall sales growth rates from the electric, natural gas, and petroleumbased fuel sales forecasts.

Based on the EIA forecast of commercial new construction and projected improvements in energy use intensities 

per square foot for new and existing buildings, we estimated that approximately 80% of overall statewide load 

growth results from new construction over the analysis period.

4.4 Measure Characterization

The commercial sector analysis relied on aggregate measures generally organized by end use, which were then 

characterized for each applicable building type. This approach enables the top-down analysis of efficiency potential 

based on the energy sales disaggregation by end use and building type for each measure. We characterized measures 

separately for the lost opportunity (natural replacement and new construction/renovation) and retrofit markets.

The approach to developing aggregate measure characterizations differed by measure type and available data, but 

for many measures the approach followed a common set of steps. First, aggregate measure characterizations were 

developed by organizing the complete list of individual component measures into bins by end-use. Where measures 

overlap multiple end-uses, they are left as individual component measures. We refined the end-use bins of 

component measures by creating sub-groups based on similar component measure functionality. For example, 

measures in the indoor lighting end-use bin have been further refined into ambient lighting, task lighting, accent 

lighting, lighting controls, and lighting design. Each of those sub-groups represents an aggregate measure used 

in the analysis.

Having defined all of the aggregate measures, we then developed characterizations using a weighted average savings 

approach. To define the weighting factors for each component measure, we first identified each of the individual 

measures as either competing with or augmenting other component measures. Where component measures compete 

directly for savings, the weighting factors are scaled based on the prevalence of each component measure. For 

example, in the commercial hot water end-use bin the source equipment aggregate measure contains heat pump 

water heaters, tankless water heaters, and high-efficiency tank-type water heaters. A hot water system can only 

have one of those as its generation source, so the weighting factors are scaled to reflect the prevalence of installation 

of each of those components. Because every hot water system needs a generation source, the scaled weighting 

factors for each component measure total 100 percent. 

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 43
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Where component measures augment savings, the weighting factors reflect the interaction with the other component 

measures. For example, the source equipment aggregate measure in the hot water end-use bin also contains a drain 

water heat recovery system component measure. Because heat recovery can be installed in addition to any efficient 

generation source, the savings increase the overall savings captured by the aggregate measure. However, due to 

measure interactions the increased savings will be less than the total of the individual savings from these 

technologies. The weighting factor for each augmentative component measure reflects this interaction.

We developed two sets of individual component weighting factors, one for the “lost opportunity” market (natural 

replacement and new construction/renovation) and one for the retrofit market, in part because the characteristics of 

the building stock in each market warrant different assumptions about the baseline and distribution of individual 

component measures in any given aggregate measure. Once the weighting factors were complete, savings and 

measure lives for the each aggregate measure were calculated from the component measures. 

Emerging technologies are important to the long-term potential emphasized by the 20-year study. The table below 

highlights some of the emerging technologies that were considered and analyzed as part of the measure

characterization process. 

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 44
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Table 20. Commercial Emerging Technologies and Trends

End-Use Emerging Technologies and Trends

Lighting • SSL: Efficacy of conventional tech (fluorescent, incandescent, HID) 

approaching theoretical maximum; however, major improvements 

expected for LED and OLED tech (>230 lm/W have been achieved in lab 

tests)

• SSL costs continue to fall as conventional tech costs remain the same or 

increase

• LED will become cost-effective for more applications (ambient lighting, 

high/low bay, troffers, A-lamps)

• Emerging: scotopic (spectrally enhanced) lighting; retrofit networked 

lighting controls, integrated daylighting systems

Space Comfort / 

Shell

• Incremental improvements to conventional refrigeration technologies 

(“Advanced RTU”); EERs continue to improve, but plateauing; 

improvements in part load performance

• Ductless mini-split AC and HP, variable refrigerant flow (VRF) systems 

(mature tech but relatively new to US market)

• Envelope improvements: tighter, more insulated; retrofit air sealing 

opportunities (8 Aeroseal contractors in NYS), exterior retrofits

• Emerging: Cold-climate heat pumps, GSHPs, Energy recovery ventilation, 

Acoustic cooling, Solid-state cooling

Motors/Drives • Limited economic opportunities from addition efficiency improvements 

beyond NEMA Premium--shift focus to systems and optimization

• Variable speed pumps and fans; ECM, VFD costs continue to fall – 

increasing opportunities

Water Heating • Heat pumps and condensing systems; solar

• Increased integration (e.g. combined space and water heater)

Appliance and 

Plug Loads

• Smart Controls

Other • Improved Data Center Design; Variable-Speed CRAC Compressors

• Data Center “data furnaces”

• Fault Detection and Diagnostics (e.g. RTU), “Continuous commissioning”

• Occupant feedback systems/behavioral programs

The last step in preparing the aggregate measure characterizations was to develop time-varying adjustments to 

reflect changes in codes and standards and emerging new technologies. We accomplished this by developing a set of 

adjustment factors that increase or diminish specific aspects of aggregate measures, as necessary, over a specified 

period of years. For instance, an aggregate measure might include an individual component measure for an emerging 

technology with a low weighting factor. The adjustment factors are used to incrementally increase the savings and 

costs for the aggregate measure during the period of years that the emerging technology will come online. In another 

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 45
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

example, where a pending code increase is likely to take effect, an adjustment factor is applied to decrease the 

potential savings for the aggregate measure starting in the year that the code change comes into effect.

Some measures apply to multiple end uses, such as building envelope measures that have savings for both cooling 

and heating. For these measures we characterized separate component measures for each end use, so that savings 

could be reported by end use. However, such measures were evaluated for cost-effectiveness as a unit, by adding 

up the costs and benefits of the end-use components to determine the cost-effectiveness of the overall measure.

For most end uses we did not find compelling data to indicate how measure costs and savings would vary over 

the study period. The on-going high level of innovation for energy efficiency leads us to believe that emerging 

technologies will continue to keep pace with rising baselines as they have in recent decades. However, 

characterization of the commercial lighting end use is expected to change over time, driven by two major factors:

• Large increases in source efficacy and cost reduction with LED technology

• Technological advancements and cost reductions with lighting controls.

LED technology will continue to become more efficient, as efficacy improves from current levels of about 

100 lumens per watt to a projected efficacy of 162 lumens per watt in 2015, and 224 lumens per watt in 2020.16 

As the efficacy improves, the cost per kilolumen (klm) is also expected to decline from the current levels of 

about $8.00/klm to $2.30/klm in 2015, and to $0.70/klm in 2020. We expect these improvements in efficacy 

and reductions in price will lead to new efficiency opportunities with lighting at a pace that will exceed lighting 

opportunities of the past, across all lighting applications.

Lighting Controls will also offer increased lighting savings potential into the future, largely driven by technological 

advancements such as wireless controls, improved sensors, and system integration. We also expect cost reductions 

as lighting controls become more prevalent in the marketplace. New systems will allow multiple layers of control 

strategies to be installed on a lighting system, optimizing the control and efficiency of the lighting system. These 

control strategies include occupancy control, daylight control, scheduling, personal control, high-end trim, lumen 

maintenance dimming, among others. Software-based control systems and addressable lighting will allow all of 

these control strategies to work together, and open-source components and systems will allow for commoditization 

of lighting controls.

16 U.S. Department of Energy. 2012. Solid State Lighting Research and Development: Multi-Year Program Plan. 

Prepared by Bardsley Consulting, Navigant Consulting, Inc., Radcliffe Advisors, Inc., SB Consulting, and Solid 

State Lighting Services, Inc. for the U.S. Department of Energy, Lighting Research and Development.

http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/ssl/ssl_mypp2012_web.pdf. Accessed July 2013.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 46

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

A total of 63 aggregate measures were included in the analysis and characterized for:

• up to three applicable markets (new construction/renovation, natural replacement, and retrofit), and 

• up to 12 applicable building types (Office, Retail, Grocery, Warehouse, Education, Health, Lodging, 

Restaurant, Data Center, Multifamily, Street Lighting, and Other).

This resulted in a total of 1,114 measures for each of the four regional analysis zones including the end-use 

component measures noted above. Not all of these measures passed the cost-effectiveness test. Many measures were 

cost-effective in some building types but not others, due mainly to the different hours of use associated with 

different building types. 

Appendix D in Volume 4 provides the full list of commercial measures with their characterizations.

4.5 Market Characterization

The commercial market characterizations include the measure applicability, feasibility, and non-complete factors, 

which are estimated for each building type. These market factors are described above under the General Approach 

section.

4.6 Analysis of Economic Potential

The commercial sector analysis assumed that retrofit penetrations increased to 10% per year over the first three 

years, then held steady at 10% per year through year 11. This results in capturing all retrofit opportunities over a 

period of about 11 years, after which we assumed a low level of retrofit penetrations to apply to measures installed 

in earlier years that would again become available for retrofits. With these assumptions the economic potential 

essentially captures all available cost-effective efficiency potential by the end of the study period. 

4.7 Analysis of Achievable Potential

The achievable potential was analyzed using the top-down methodology described above under the Overview and 

Approach section, and the approach to measure penetrations and program costs described under the Achievable 

Potential section. 

4.7.1 Program Costs

Table 21 shows the commercial sector program costs for the achievable scenario by market for select years 

through 2030.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 47
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Table 21. Commercial Sector Program Costs by Market, Achievable Scenario (Non-Discounted 

Million 2012$) 

Market 2013 2015 2017 2020 2025 2030

New Construction $132 $165 $196 $249 $241 $248 

Incentive Costs $87 $109 $130 $164 $159 $164 

Non-Incentive Costs $45 $56 $67 $85 $82 $84 

Equipment Replacement $145 $166 $198 $225 $208 $240 

Incentive Costs $96 $110 $131 $148 $137 $158 

Non-Incentive Costs $49 $57 $68 $77 $71 $82 

Retrofit $416 $427 $345 $291 $258 $280 

Incentive Costs $275 $282 $227 $192 $170 $185 

Non-Incentive Costs $142 $145 $117 $99 $88 $95 

Commercial Sector 

Total

$693 $758 $740 $765 $708 $768 

Incentive Costs $457 $500 $488 $505 $467 $507 

Non-Incentive Costs $236 $258 $252 $260 $241 $261 

4.8 Detailed Results for the Commercial Sector

This section provides detailed results for the economic and achievable scenarios for the commercial sector, 

including results by end-use and building type. 

4.8.1 Commercial Economic and Achievable Electric Potential

As shown in Table 22, the end-use with the greatest efficiency potential for the commercial sector is indoor lighting,

accounting for about 35% of the total achievable electric opportunities. This is consistent with many other studies 

and also with many efficiency portfolios. Cooling accounts for the next highest share with 24% of achievable 

opportunities, followed by ventilation and refrigeration with 13% each. 

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 48
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Table 22. Distribution of Commercial Economic Electric Efficiency by End-Use, Economic and 

Achievable Scenarios, 2030

End Use Economic Achievable

Savings 

(GWh)

% of Total Savings 

(GWh)

% of 

Total

Indoor Lighting 22,464 38% 8,976 35%

Cooling 14,640 25% 6,022 24%

Ventilation 7,428 13% 3,430 14%

Refrigeration 6,405 11% 3,420 13%

Office Equipment 4,282 7% 1,966 8%

Outdoor Lighting 2,537 4% 1,317 5%

Space Heating 417 1% 128 1%

Water Heating 369 1% 145 1%

Food Preparation 7 0% 2 0%

Total 58,550 100% 25,407 100%

Table 23 shows the breakdown by building type of electric savings potential for the economic and achievable 

scenarios in 2030. As is typical with most potential studies, offices offer the largest opportunities, accounting 

for 29% of the total achievable potential. This is followed by “other” and retail, accounting for 14% and 10%, 

respectively. Multifamily accounts for only a minimal portion of the commercial potential since most multifamily 

electric usage and efficiency potential are in the residential sector. 

Table 23. Distribution of Commercial Electric Efficiency by Building Type, Economic and 

Achievable Scenarios, 2030

“Other” building type includes buildings with commercial activity that do not fit into any other category 

(e.g. airplane hangars, crematoriums, laboratories, etc.) 

Building Type Economic Achievable

Savings 

(GWh)

% of Total Savings 

(GWh)

% of 

Total

Office 18,227 31% 7,493 29%

Other 8,834 15% 3,664 14%

Retail 5,990 10% 2,608 10%

Grocery 5,101 9% 2,470 10%

Education 5,075 9% 2,309 9%

Restaurant 4,630 8% 2,032 8%

Health 4,610 8% 1,918 8%

Warehouse 2,786 5% 1,326 5%

Lodging 2,046 3% 907 4%

Data Center 964 2% 474 2%

Streetlighting 199 0% 162 1%

Multifamily 88 0% 44 0%

Total 58,550 100% 25,407 100%

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 49
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

4.8.2 Commercial Economic and Achievable Natural Gas Potential

As shown in Table 24, the end-uses with the greatest natural gas potential in the commercial sector are water 

and space heating, respectively accounting for 50% and 45% of the total achievable gas opportunities.

Table 24. Distribution of Commercial Natural Gas Efficiency by End-Use, Economic and 

Achievable Scenarios, 2030

End Use Economic Achievable

Savings 

(BBtu)

% of 

Total

Savings 

(BBtu)

% of 

Total

Water Heating 64,697 47% 23,522 50%

Space Heating 64,194 47% 21,199 45%

Food Preparation 6,202 5% 1,762 4%

Cooling 1,700 1% 485 1%

Total 136,793 100% 46,968 100%

Table 25 shows the breakdown by building type of economic and achievable natural gas savings potential in 2030. 

As is typical with most potential studies, office buildings offer the largest opportunities, accounting for 22% of the 

total. This is closely followed by multifamily buildings with large central systems categorized under commercial. 

Retail, health and education account for 14%, 13% and 10%, respectively. 

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 50
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Table 25. Distribution of Commercial Natural Gas Efficiency by Building Type, Economic and 

Achievable Scenarios, 2030

“Other” building type includes buildings with commercial activity that do not fit into any other category 

(e.g. airplane hangars, crematoriums, laboratories, etc.)

Building Type Economic Achievable

Savings 

(BBtu)

% of 

Total

Savings 

(BBtu)

% of 

Total

Office 30,394 22% 10,458 22%

Multifamily 28,987 21% 9,786 21%

Retail 19,527 14% 6,623 14%

Health 17,548 13% 6,324 13%

Education 13,436 10% 4,677 10%

Restaurant 8,590 6% 2,884 6%

Other* 6,840 5% 2,275 5%

Lodging 5,772 4% 1,930 4%

Grocery 2,861 2% 1,177 3%

Warehouse 2,542 2% 834 2%

Data Center 297 <0.5% 0 0%

Total 136,793 100% 46,968 100%

4.8.3 Commercial Economic and Achievable Petroleum Fuels Potential

Table 26 provides the end-use breakdown of petroleum fuel savings potential for the economic and achievable 

scenarios in 2030. Space and water heating respectively account for 51% and 49% of the total achievable petroleum 

opportunities. Food preparation accounts for less than 0.5% of the potential. 

Table 26. Distribution of Commercial Petroleum Fuels Efficiency by End-Use, Economic and 

Achievable Scenarios, 2030

End Use Economic Achievable

Savings 

(BBtu)

% of Total Savings 

(BBtu)

% of 

Total

Water Heating 21,384 47% 7,829 51%

Space Heating 23,595 52% 7,496 49%

Food Preparation 130 <0.5% 33 <0.5%

Total 45,109 100% 15,358 100%

Table 27 shows the breakdown by building type of petroleum fuel savings for the economic and achievable 

scenarios in 2030. As is typical with most potential studies, offices offer the largest opportunities, accounting for 

23% of the total. This is closely followed by multifamily buildings (17%) with large central systems categorized 

under commercial. Retail, health and education account for 16%, 14% and 9%, respectively. These figures are very 

similar to the natural gas breakdown by building type.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 51
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Table 27. Distribution of Commercial Petroleum Fuels Efficiency by Building Type, Economic and 

Achievable Scenarios, 2030

“Other” building type includes buildings with commercial activity that do not fit into any other category 

(e.g. airplane hangars, crematoriums, laboratories, etc.)

Building Type Economic Achievable

Savings 

(BBtu)

% of Total Savings 

(BBtu)

% of 

Total

Office 10,288 23% 3,497 23%

Multifamily 7,814 17% 2,576 17%

Retail 7,345 16% 2,475 16%

Health 5,759 13% 2,104 14%

Education 4,132 9% 1,436 9%

Restaurant 3,404 8% 1,157 8%

Other* 2,098 5% 688 4%

Grocery 1,583 4% 609 4%

Lodging 1,803 4% 598 4%

Warehouse 756 2% 218 1%

Data Center 127 0% 0 0%

Total 45,109 100% 15,358 100%

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 52
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

5 Industrial Efficiency

This section presents detailed results of the industrial sector economic and achievable efficiency potential, as well 

as explanations of the industrial methodology and major inputs and assumptions.

5.1Summary of Results 

Figure 20 shows the total industrial sector achievable scenario potential in 2030 for each fuel and region. For 

electricity New York City and Upstate regions each account for about a third of the statewide potential, similar to 

the commercial sector. Long Island and Hudson Valley account for the remainder, representing a little more than 

10% each. For natural gas and petroleum Upstate accounts for by far the largest share of potential, consistent with 

most of the larger and heavier industries relying on high levels of fossil fuel usage being located in this region. The 

vast majority of industrial fossil fuel potential is associated with natural gas usage. This is driven by large energy 

intensive industries locating in places that have gas service, and often relying on dual fuel burners that provide the 

flexibility to switch between gas and oil. Given the current large favorable price differential for gas as compared to 

oil, large heavy industries have generally reduced petroleum consumption dramatically. Of course, because of dual 

fuel capability, this relationship could shift over time if the price advantage currently enjoyed by the natural gas 

industry were to disappear or reverse. However, the underlying forecasts do not expect this to be the case during 

the study period.

Figure 20. Distribution of Industrial Efficiency by Region and Fuel Type, Achievable Scenario, 

2030

 - 

2,000 

4,000 

6,000 

8,000 

10,000 

12,000 

14,000 

 - 

200 

400 

600 

800 

1,000 

1,200 

1,400 

1,600 

Statewide New York City Upstate Long Island Hudson Valley

GWh

BBtu

Electric (GWh)

Natural Gas (BBtu)

Petroleum Fuels (BBtu)

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 53
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Table 28 shows the industrial sector savings, by fuel, for the economic and achievable scenarios. Unlike the 

residential and commercial sectors, the industrial sector is not divided into separate markets for analysis. This is 

because the industrial sector is smaller and generally doesn’t require a targeted approach by market segment.

Table 28. Industrial Sector Economic and Achievable Savings, 2030

Scenario

Electric 

Savings

(GWh)

Natural 

Gas

Savings

(BBtu)

Petrol

Fuels 

Savings

(BBtu)

Economic 4,753 35,672 2,560 

Achievable 1,506 11,486 1,296 

Table 29 provides economic impacts for the industrial sector for the economic and achievable scenarios. 

Overall, capture of the achievable potential would result in $3 billion in gross benefits for an investment of about 

$1.3 billion, or a benefit-cost ratio of about 3.3. New York’s economy would capture about $1.8 billion in present 

value net benefits by 2032. Note this is just the direct net benefits accruing from reduced energy purchases, and 

ignores the significant economic multiplier effects associated with significantly reducing industrial energy costs, 

enhancing competitiveness, and increasing industrial profits and jobs in New York.

Table 29. Industrial Sector Cost-Effectiveness Results, Economic and Achievable Scenarios, Total 

for 2013-2032 (Present Value Million 2012$)

Scenario Costs

(Million$)

Benefits

(Million$)

Net Benefits

(Million$)

BCR

Economic $2,357 $7,817 $5,460 3.32 

Achievable $1,330 $3,142 $1,813 2.36 

5.2Overview of Approach

Due to the diversity of the industrial sector, particularly the many different processes and other end uses of 

each manufacturing subsector, we developed a model to estimate the energy use of each of these subsectors 

from a base year of 2007 through 2032, the final study year. This methodology is described in the “Energy Sales 

Disaggregation” section below. We then applied the measures described in the Measure Characterization section 

to those subsector-specific end uses to develop the overall energy efficiency potential for each measure and for the 

industrial sector overall.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 54
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

5.3Energy Sales Disaggregation

The industrial sector is made up of a diverse group of economic entities spanning agriculture, mining, construction 

and manufacturing. Significant diversity exists within most of these industry sub-sectors, with the greatest diversity 

within manufacturing. The various product categories within manufacturing are classified using the North American 

Industrial Classification System (NAICS). 

Comprehensive, highly-disaggregated electricity, natural gas, or petroleum data for the industrial sector are not 

available at the state level. To estimate the energy consumption, this study drew upon a number of resources, all 

using the NAICS system and a consistent sample methodology. Fortunately, a conjunction of the various economic 

censuses for each state allows us to use a common base-year of 2007. 

We then used national industry energy intensities derived from industry group electricity, natural gas, and petroleum 

consumption data reported in the 2010 Annual Energy Outlook (AEO)17 and value of shipments data reported in the 

2007 Annual Survey of Manufacturing (ASM)18 to apportion total industrial energy consumption to each sub-sector. 

These energy consumption estimates were then used to estimate the share of the industrial sector energy 

consumption for each sub-sector. 

As is the case for state-level energy consumption data, no state-level disaggregated energy consumption forecasts 

are publicly available. Future energy consumption for each industry is a function of three things: the base-year 

energy consumption, change in economic output, and change in energy intensity. 

Because state-level disaggregated economic growth projections are not publicly available, we used data from 

Moody’s (economy.com). We estimated the average growth rates for specific industrial-subsectors in New York 

based on Moody’s estimates of gross state product (GSP) for those sub-sectors. We then applied the annual percent 

change in GSP for each subsector to the base-year energy consumption. The AEO includes a forecast of nationallevel energy intensities for each sub-sector, which are also applied to the base-year energy consumption estimate. 

The energy use by each industrial subsector calculated by this methodology was then scaled so that total industrial 

energy consumption matched the forecast of industrial energy consumption used by this study.

17 U.S. Energy Information Administration. 2010 “Annual Energy Outlook.” 

infousa.state.gov/economy/technology/docs/0383.pdf. Accessed July 2013. 18 U.S. Census Bureau. 2007. “Annual Survey of Manufacturers.” http://www.census.gov/manufacturing/asm/index.html. 

Accessed July 2013.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 55

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

The industry sector is comprised of four sub-sectors: Manufacturing, Mining, Agriculture, and Construction. The 

manufacturing subsector is further broken down into 21 subsectors, defined by three digit NAICS codes. In order 

to most closely match available data from the ASM and AEO, three subsectors were further broken down to four 

digit NAICS codes: chemical manufacturing, nonmetallic mineral product manufacturing, and primary metal 

manufacturing. Table 30 shows the estimated electrical, natural gas, and petroleum consumption for all major 

subsectors in New York for 2013.

Table 30. Industrial Energy Consumption by Source and Subsector, 2013

Sector NAICS 

Code

 Electricity Natural Gas Petroleum 

(GWH) (%) (BBtu) (%) (BBtu) %

Agriculture

Mining 

Construction

Total Manufacturing

11

21

23

33

116

27

766

14,329

0.8%

0.2%

5.0%

94.0%

461

141

8,314

92,085

0.5%

0.1%

8.2%

91.2%

928

56

18,349

7,824

3.4%

0.2%

67.6%

28.8%

Food mfg

Paper mfg

Chemical mfg

 Pharmaceutical & medicine mfg 

 All other chemical products

Plastics & rubber products mfg

Nonmetallic mineral products mfg

 Cement & concrete product mfg

 Other minerals (including glass)

Primarily metal mfg

 Alumina and Aluminum

 Nonferrous Metals except Aluminum

 Other Metal mfg (incl iron & steel)

Fabricated metal product mfg

All other manufacturing

311

322 

325

3254

325x

326

327

3273

327x

331

3313

3314

331x

332

3xx

414

363

6,093

3,190

2,903

629

1,220

877

344

3,264

1,505

1,535

223

363

1,983

3%

2%

40%

21%

19%

4%

8%

6%

2%

21%

10%

10%

1%

2%

13%

3,794

2,128

62,290

32,614

29,676

1,496

5,565

616

4,949

6,653

2,392 

2,439

1,822

1,782

8,376

4%

2%

62%

32%

29%

1%

6%

1%

5%

7%

2%

2%

2%

2%

8%

37

213

2,579

1,350

1,229

45

2,704

2,118

586

1,158

545

555

58

29

1,059

0%

1%

9%

5%

5%

0%

10%

8%

2%

4%

2%

2%

0%

0%

4%

Total Industrial Sector 15,239 100% 101,000 100% 27,156 100%

As shown in the table above, the chemical industry is the largest user of energy across the board, consuming 

nearly 10% of industrial petroleum, 40% of electricity, and over 60% of natural gas. Over two-thirds of the 

industrial petroleum is consumed by the construction sector. Other major industries are primary metal 

manufacturing, which consumes over 20% of industrial electricity and 7% of industrial natural gas, and 

non-metallic mineral manufacturing (mostly cement and concrete), which consumes 6% of industrial natural gas. 

Much of the energy consumed by industry is directly involved in processes required to produce various products. 

Electricity accounts for almost a quarter of the primary energy used by industries. Electricity is used for many 

purposes, the most important being to run motors, provide lighting, provide heating, and to drive electrochemical 

processes. 

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 56
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

While detailed end-use data are only available for each manufacturing sub-sector and group through the MECS 

survey, motor systems are estimated to consume 60% of the industrial electricity.19 

Motors are used for many diverse applications from fluid applications (pumps, fans, and air and refrigeration 

compressors), to materials handling and processing (conveyors, machine tools and other processing equipment). 

The distribution of these motor uses varies significantly by industry, with material processing being the largest 

consumer in the sector. The figure below shows the total weighted average of end-use industrial electricity 

consumption in New York with a breakdown of the motors end use.

Figure 21. Weighted Average of Total Industrial Electricity End-Uses in New York, 2013

A similar methodology was used to determine industrial natural gas and petroleum end use. The MECS survey 

(EIA 2010) provided both end use categories and nationwide consumption by industry, which was then applied to 

the actual industry mix in New York. Figure 22 shows the natural gas and petroleum fuel usage by end-use for the 

manufacturing sector (note that an end-use breakdown for construction, which accounts for nearly two-thirds of 

industrial petroleum consumption, is not available). 

19 XENERGY, Inc. 1998. United States Industrial Electric Motor Systems Market Opportunities Assessment. Prepared 

for the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Industrial Technology and Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/manufacturing/tech_assistance/pdfs/mtrmkt.pdf. Accessed July 2013.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 57

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Figure 22. New York Manufacturing Natural Gas and Petroleum End Use, 2013

5.4 Measure Characterization

For the industrial electric analysis, we used a suite of 40 industrial measures characterized and combined into 

14 aggregate measures. The cost and performance of these measures has been developed over the past decade 

by ACEEE from research into the individual measures and review of past project performance. The costs of many 

of these measures has increased in recent years as a result of significant increases in key commodity costs such as 

copper, steel, and aluminum, as well as overall manufacturing costs due to energy prices and market pressures. 

These recent cost increases are reflected in the measure characterizations.

For the natural gas and petroleum fuel end uses we identified 36 fuel measures that were combined into 18 aggregate 

measures each for analysis. The cost and performance of these measures were largely drawn from a 2006 Itron 

report20 , with applicable updates to measure costs. 

Industrial measure costs and savings are assumed to remain fairly constant over the time span of this study. 

Particularly with aggregate measures, as measures penetrate the market, newer measures continue to enter and 

replace them as the new opportunity, often at a similar cost in nominal dollars.21

The table below highlights some of the emerging technologies and trends in industrial energy efficiency. These 

technologies and practices are either included in or enabled by the aggregate measures analyzed for the industrial 

sector.

20 Itron, Inc. and KEMA, Inc. 2008. California Energy Efficiency Potential Study. Prepared for Pacific Gas & Electric 

Company. http://www.calmac.org/publications/PGE0264_Final_Report.pdf. Accessed July 2013. 21 Shipley, Anna Monis, R. Neal Elliott. 2006. Ripe for the Picking: Have We Exhausted the Low-Hanging Fruit in the 

Industrial Sector?. ACEEE Report Number IE061. http://www.aceee.org/research-report/ie061. Accessed July 2013.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 58

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Table 31. Industrial Emerging Technologies and Trends

Application Emerging Technologies and Trends

Advanced 

Manufacturing 

Processes

• Advanced motor systems (including pump, fan, and air compressor 

technology and system design)

• Process heating (infrared, microwave, e-beam, radio frequency)

• Heat recovery, boiler optimization, and combustion controls

Smart 

Manufacturing

• Sensors and submetering

• Plant-wide data and energy information systems

• Process integration and utility (compressed air, steam, etc.) automation

• Energy management systems (e.g., ISO 50001)

Supply Chain 

Integration

• Lean Energy

• Supplier data systems and energy goals

• Flexible Manufacturing and redundant processing

Due to limited data for efficiency measures applicable to non-manufacturing industrial sectors (agricultural, 

mining, and construction), few of the electricity measures and none of the natural gas and petroleum measures 

apply to non-manufacturing industry. Non-manufacturing industry accounts for about 6% of industrial electricity, 

9% of industrial natural gas, and 71% of industrial petroleum use in New York over the period of this study. While 

this doesn’t significantly impact the bounded technical potential for electricity or natural gas, it largely accounts 

for the relatively low savings potential for petroleum, as construction accounts for over two-thirds of the industrial 

petroleum use in New York, and efficiency programs do not target that sector.

Appendix D in Volume 4 provides the full list of industrial measures with their characterizations.

5.5 Market Characterization

As mentioned above, manufacturing accounts for the vast majority of industrial energy in New York, with 

agriculture, mining, and construction making up the rest. Manufacturing energy varies by end use, and end uses 

vary greatly between subsectors. Table 28 in the previous section lays out the energy consumption in key subsectors.

5.6 Analysis of Economic Potential

For the industrial analysis we assumed penetration rates increased by a steady implementation ramp up of 

10% to 30% per year until measures reach their full economic potential. Implementation then slows down or 

stops until previously-installed measures are retired, when replacement measures are installed.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 59
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

5.7 Analysis of Achievable Potential

The achievable scenario takes into account the market barriers that account for how aware end users are of the 

costs and benefits of each measure as well as how willing they would be to implement them. The awareness 

barrier is important in manufacturing, because while some companies are relatively savvy at identifying efficient 

technologies and new trends in energy management, many companies have little or no focus on energy. Energy

is often considered a fixed cost and not part of the company’s core competency. For these companies, outreach 

and education are key to overcoming the awareness barrier. The willingness barrier is significant in all industry, 

regardless of how savvy industrial energy managers may be regarding new technologies and practices. Many 

manufacturing energy efficiency opportunities require an interruption of key processes or supporting equipment 

such as compressed air or boilers. Additionally, any changes to a manufacturing processes or supporting equipment 

are seen as an extra risk of failure. The willingness barrier accounts for manufacturers who understand the benefits 

of energy efficiency measures but may not be willing to install them.

The achievable scenario assumed that on average the incentives paid across all cost-effective measures represented 

50% of the incremental measure costs. Instead of a flat 50% incentive for each measure, the incentives assumed for 

the achievable scenario ranged from 20% to 75% based on the benefit-cost ratio (BCR) of each measure, reflecting 

each measure’s cost-effectiveness. The assumed incentives are shown in the following table.

Table 32. Industrial Measure Incentive Levels for the Achievable Scenario

BCR Incentive % of 

Incremental Cost

< 1.5 75%

≥ 1.5 and < 5 50%

≥ 5 and < 10 30%

≥ 10 20%

The hurdle of high initial costs for energy efficiency projects is an especially significant barrier to the adoption 

energy efficiency in manufacturing and other industry. In many cases a manufacturing plant’s energy bills are often 

paid (and hence savings accrued) through the operations and maintenance budget, while investment comes out of the 

capital budget. This not only creates a disconnect between those managing the energy and capital budgets, but it pits

energy efficiency project investments against all possible investments the company could make. Energy projects are 

generally considered less valuable than, for example, investments in production increases. These in-house barriers 

were considered when developing measure penetrations for the achievable scenario.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 60
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

5.7.1 Program Costs

Program costs were developed relative to the incentive levels assumed for the achievable scenario. Program 

administration, marketing and other outlays were based largely on program spending data collected by the Northeast 

Energy Efficiency Partnerships’ (NEEP) Regional Energy Efficiency Database (REED). Table 33 presents the 

industrial sector program costs for select years through 2030, broken out by incentive and non-incentive costs. 

Table 33. Industrial Sector Program Costs, Achievable Scenario (Non-Discounted Million 2012$)

Market 2013 2015 2017 2020 2025 2030

Total Industrial Costs $14 $92 $140 $42 $27 $26 

Incentive Costs $9 $57 $87 $26 $17 $16 

Non-Incentive Costs $5 $35 $53 $16 $10 $10 

5.8 Detailed Results for the Industrial Sector

This section provides detailed results for the economic and achievable scenarios for the industrial sector that 

show how savings break out by end-use. 

5.8.1 Industrial Economic and Achievable Electric Potential

As shown in Table 34, the end-use with the greatest electric efficiency potential in the industrial sector is process, 

accounting for 66% of the total achievable opportunities. This is consistent with many other studies and also with 

many efficiency portfolios.22, 23 Other end uses account for the next highest share with 19% of the achievable 

opportunities, followed by lighting with 14%. Overall, the 2030 achievable potential of 1,506 GWh is about 32% 

of the economic potential.

22 Eldridge, Maggie, Steve Nadel, Amanda Korane, John A. "Skip" Laitner, Vanessa McKinney, Max Neubauer, and 

Jacob Talbot. 2009. Potential for Energy Efficiency, Demand Response, and Onsite Solar Energy in Pennsylvania. 

ACEEE Report Number E093. http://aceee.org/research-report/e093. Accessed July 2013. 23 Navigant Consulting, Inc. and Heschong Mahone Group. 2011. Analysis to Update Energy Efficiency Potential, 

Goals, and Targets for 2013 and Beyond: Track 1 Statewide Investor Owned Utility Energy Efficiency Potential 

Study. Prepared for California Public Utilities Commission. 

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 61

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Table 34. Distribution of Industrial Electric Efficiency by End-Use, Economic and Achievable 

Scenarios, 2030

Other end uses include HVAC, non-process water heating, miscellaneous plug loads, etc.

End Use Economic Achievable

Savings 

(GWh)

% of Total Savings 

(GWh)

% of 

Total

Process 2,827 59% 1,000 66%

Other 1,002 21% 290 19%

Lighting 924 19% 216 14%

Total 4,753 100% 1,506 100%

5.8.2 Industrial Economic and Achievable Natural Gas Potential

As shown in Table 35, the end-use with the greatest natural gas efficiency potential in the industrial sector is boilers, 

accounting for about 60% of the total achievable gas opportunities. Process accounts for most of the remainder 

usage. Note that the vast majority of “boiler” savings are for process steam or hot water thermal energy (as opposed 

to space conditioning). However, because boilers alone account for such a large portion we differentiate here 

between boilers and other process energy use. This is consistent with many other studies and also with many 

efficiency portfolios. Overall, the 2030 achievable potential of 11,486 BBtu is about 32% of the economic potential. 

Table 35. Distribution of Industrial Natural Gas Efficiency by End-Use, Economic and Achievable 

Scenarios, 2030

End Use Economic Achievable

Savings 

(BBtu)

% of Total Savings 

(BBtu)

% of 

Total

Boiler 25,100 70% 6,917 60%

Process 9,906 28% 4,340 38%

HVAC 666 2% 229 2%

Total 35,672 100% 11,486 100%

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 62
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

5.8.3 Industrial Economic and Achievable Petroleum Fuels Potential

Table 36 shows the industrial petroleum fuels efficiency potential by end-use. Similar to the natural gas breakdown, 

the vast majority of opportunities are from boilers, at 56% of achievable savings, with virtually all the remainder for 

non-boiler process usage. Similar to the gas efficiency, we separate out boiler process use from non-boiler process 

usage because of the very large opportunities associated with these single systems. Overall, the 2030 achievable 

potential of 1,296 BBtu is about 51% of the economic potential.

Table 36. Distribution of Industrial Petroleum Fuels Efficiency by End-Use, Economic and 

Achievable Scenarios, 2030

End Use Economic Achievable

Savings 

(BBtu)

% of Total Savings 

(BBtu)

% of 

Total

Boiler 1,181 46% 720 56%

Process 1,355 53% 560 43%

HVAC 23 1% 16 1%

Total 2,560 100% 1,296 100%

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 63
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

6 Heat Pumps Research Module

6.1 Introduction

Heat pumps are a group of space conditioning devices that can extract heat from a cold reservoir and move it to a 

hot reservoir. As such, heat pumps are basically air conditioners that can run in reverse in the winter in order to 

provide heating. Because heat pumps move heat as opposed to creating it, they can achieve a coefficient of 

performance (COP)24 many times higher than 1.0, which is the theoretical maximum efficiency for typical 

combustion heat sources and traditional electric resistance heat. 

Heat pumps are often grouped into two distinct categories – air source heat pumps (ASHP) and ground source heat 

pumps (GSHP). Air source heat pumps use outdoor air as a thermal reservoir. This allows for simpler and less 

expensive installations, but ASHPs are also highly susceptible to reduced performance at lower air temperatures. 

Because the efficiency of heat pumps is inversely proportional to the difference in temperature between the hot and 

cold reservoirs, the heat pumps become less efficient as the temperature difference becomes larger. The difference in 

temperature between inside and outside is typically higher in the winter than in the summer, so this problem mainly 

impacts the heating season. In fact, for climates in most of New York, heat pumps need an auxiliary heat source for 

the coldest nights. Conventional air source heat pumps, designed for mild climates, for example, have a COP barely 

above 1 at 50 degrees Fahrenheit, and a lower temperature limit of 45 degrees Fahrenheit. However, heat pumps 

designed for improved cold weather performance has significantly increased in recent years, and now some ASHP 

models can provide space heating at a COP of 1.75 at 5 degrees Fahrenheit, and lower limit temperatures as low as -

25 degrees Celsius (-13 degrees Fahrenheit).25

Ground source heat pumps attempt to address the problem of cold weather performance by using the ground soil or a 

body of water as a heat reservoir, instead of the outdoor air. Ground temperatures in the US stay at a fairly constant 

temperature throughout the year of between, depending on latitude, 45 degrees to 75 degrees Fahrenheit.26 Since the 

temperature difference between the ground and the desired setpoint remains fairly small all year, ground source heat 

pumps are able to achieve higher seasonal efficiencies than air source heat pumps. However, extra piping and 

digging expenses also mean that the installation costs for GSHPs are much higher than those for ASHPs.

Within each of these two broad categories, there are several distinct types of heat pumps. This report will review 

several of these types of heat pumps, giving an overview of the technology, the market status and ideal site 

characteristics for installation, barriers preventing market adoption, and a high level estimate of energy savings 

potential.

24 The coefficient of performance (COP) is the ratio of the heating or cooling energy pumped between reservoirs to the 

energy consumed. 25 ETSAP and IRENA, p. 1 (see the bibliography at the end of this research module for full citations). 26 DOE Website, June 24, 2012.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 64

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

6.2Selected Technologies

6.2.1 Ductless Mini-Split

6.2.1.1 Overview

Ductless mini-splits are a type of air-source heat pump used primarily in residential and small commercial settings. 

Like standard central air conditioning (AC) units, ductless mini-splits have an outdoor compressor and an indoor air 

handler/evaporator connected by refrigerant lines. However, no ductwork is needed – instead, the evaporator units 

are typically located directly in the space to be cooled. Multiple indoor units can be connected to the same outdoor 

unit, allowing easy multi-zone control. Further, ductless mini-split units typically use inverter-driven variable speed 

compressors and multi-speed fans which allows for efficient part-load operation. This means less cycling and thus a 

tighter indoor temperature range. The eliminated duct losses, efficient part load operation, and easy zone control 

combine to allow ductless mini-splits to achieve higher seasonal efficiencies than traditional central ACs; units can 

reach as high as a 26 SEER. The lack of duct losses that often degrade the system efficiency in ducted systems 

contribute to additional energy savings. On the heating side, with seasonal average COPs reaching 3.5, ductless 

mini-splits provide significant advantages over electric resistance heat, and potentially even over fossil fuel boilers 

and furnaces, for which the highest efficiencies are in the upper nineties not including any duct losses. 

In most areas of New York supplemental heating would likely be needed with ductless mini-splits. However, recent 

years have seen large advancements in cold-climate mini-splits, and units have recently become available that 

provide full heating capacity at 5 degrees Fahrenheit with COPs in the range of 1.5-1.8.27

6.2.1.2 Market Trends and Ideal Site Characteristics

Internationally, ductless mini-split heat pumps (DMSHPs) are not a new market, and in fact they are estimated to 

make up as much as 98% of the Asian residential HVAC market, and 50-70% of the European market.28 Despite 

the international popularity, they have been slow to take hold in the US market, and are thought to make up less 

than 5% of the residential market. However, US adoption has recently been picking up, with an average annual 

growth rate of 12% for the past 5 years, despite a contracting overall Unitary HVAC market.29

Part of the reason for the slower uptake in the US market is that ductless mini-splits have a higher first-cost than a 

traditional AC and furnace. A pilot program in Connecticut and Massachusetts found an average cost per ton of 

cooling for a ductless mini-split retrofit of $2,715.30 This agrees closely with a case study done by the US 

Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) in Austin, which found a 

27 Roth, Sehgal and Akers, 2013. 28 NAHB Research Center, 2008. 29 Landwehr, 2012. 30 KEMA Inc., 2009.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 65

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

cost of $2,922 per ton.31 The EERE study also found an incremental cost of $275 per ton, assuming both the furnace 

and the AC need to be retrofit in the base case. A comprehensive study in the Pacific Northwest finds a slightly 

higher incremental cost, estimating a 30% premium for DMSHPs.32 However, given that a large portion of the costs 

for DMSHPs are for labor and their relatively low acceptance in the marketplace, it is reasonable to expect that costs 

will come down as the technology becomes more well-known. Further, DMSHP systems are likely already cheaper 

than traditional ducted systems for retrofit add-ons in houses with pre-existing non-ducted systems, or for room 

additions or renovations where it is infeasible to extend the existing ductwork. 

6.2.1.3 Market Barriers

As evidenced by very high penetration rates of DMSHPs in Europe and Asia, the market barriers preventing 

US adoption of the technology should be addressable. These barriers include:

• High first cost: as mentioned above, first costs for DMSHPs are often higher than for traditional ducted 

systems when replacing existing equipment. However, the incremental cost will likely fall as DMSHPs 

gain more acceptance in the US.

• Aesthetic concerns: Many US homeowners do not like the aesthetics of having the indoor air handling 

unit right in the conditioned space, preferring to have the conditioned air enter through the nearly invisible 

vents typical of a ducted system. These concerns are likely to be mitigated with increased knowledge of 

the other comfort benefits of DMSHPs. In the CT/MA pilot project, for example, 31 of 40 participants 

indicated that the DMSHP system worked better than their old one. Surveys for pilot projects have 

found that although many customers complain about the sight of the system at first, they gradually grew 

accustomed. Further, many high-end residential homes are now putting in DMSHPs with short ductwork 

in order to address these concerns.

• Lack of awareness: In the past, manufacturers have directed marketing materials exclusively to trade 

contractors. This means consumer awareness of the product is still very low. 

• Low temperature heating: In the past, the low-temperature performance has been a significant barrier 

to adoption in cold climates. However, as discussed above, this performance has improved significantly 

in recent years, and will likely continue to improve.

• Uncertainty and lack of installers: Many builders are reluctant to install DMSHPs due to uncertainty 

of market acceptance. Builders who do want to install DMSHPs often report having trouble finding an 

installer.33

• Lack of contractor training: DMSHPs require specialized training for proper installation, including how 

to size the system properly, and where to install the indoor AHUs. If this is not done properly, there will 

likely be issues with temperature and humidity control. Further, contractors are typically much more 

comfortable working with ducts than with refrigerant lines.

31 Roth, Sehgal and Akers, 2013. 32 NAHB Research Center, 2008. 33 Ibid.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 66

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

6.2.1.4 Potential in New York

This section provides a high-level estimate of the technical potential for ductless mini-split heat pumps. The estimate 

represents the total energy savings potential from replacing existing electric heating equipment with heat pumps, 

without consideration of the time it would realistically require to capture the full potential. We assume that 70% of 

New York homes with electric heat have a resistance heater with a COP of 1, and the other 30% have standard heat 

pumps, with a seasonal COP of 2.3. These assumptions imply that a ductless mini-split heat pump provides 61% 

energy savings over a baseline of electric heat during winter, and 39% savings over a central air conditioner in 

summer. We further assume that DMSHPs are feasible in 80% of New York homes. Finally, the scope of the 

analysis does not cover fuel-switching, and so the estimates only include buildings currently using electric heat. 

However, it important to note that site-specific considerations may drive significant heat pump adoption in buildings 

with gas or oil heat. For example, given current high costs of fuel oil, the customers without access to natural gas 

may have a strong financial incentive to switch to heat pumps – a typical Vermont household can save about 

$1,000/year by switching from a fuel oil boiler or furnace to a cold climate heat pump.34 Further, heat pumps have

other environmental benefits; where the electric system has higher than average rates of hydro or other renewable 

sources, switching to electricity can decrease air pollution even when not also reducing source Btus. 

Using the above assumptions, the total meter-level electricity reduction potential for ductless mini-split heat pumps 

in New York is 1,244,243 MWh.

6.2.2 Variable Refrigerant Flow Systems

6.2.2.1 Overview

Variable refrigerant flow (VRF) heat pumps are similar to mini-splits in that one outdoor compressor is connected to 

multiple indoor air handlers/evaporators. However, where mini-split (and multi-split) systems require separate 

refrigerant lines for each indoor unit, the variable refrigerant flow capability allows all indoor units to connect to 

the compressor via the same two refrigerant lines. Further, by adding an extra refrigerant line, VRF systems are 

able to use heat recovery, enabling simultaneous heating and cooling by zone. With heat recovery, VRF systems will 

typically use three refrigerant lines – a liquid line, a hot gas line, and a suction line. An indoor unit requiring cooling 

will open the liquid and suction lines, and act as an evaporator, and a unit requiring heating will open its hot gas line 

34 This savings value is based on experience with specific projects in Vermont where oil heated homes switched to using 

heat pumps. Similar savings values could be expected in cold climates in upstate New York. 

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 67

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

and liquid line, and act as a condenser. Heat exchangers in the indoor units will transfer reject heat from units being 

cooled to the refrigerant line that is going to the zone to be heated. The waste heat can also potentially go to heat 

domestic hot water, or hot water for a separate hydronic heating system. Since the heat recovery gives energy 

savings to both the heated zones and the cooled zones, the effective COP may increase significantly.35

6.2.2.2 Market Status and Ideal Site Characteristics

Due to the VRF system’s ability to efficiently provide tight zone-level temperature control to buildings with many 

zones, they are best suited to larger commercial and residential buildings that benefit from a high degree of 

individual zone control. This includes offices, hospitals, large multifamily buildings, nursing homes, strip malls, 

and schools. If zones in the building are expected to have highly variable cooling/heating loads, or if heat for DHW 

is desired, it may be worth paying a premium for a VRF system with heat recovery. Costs for VRF systems are 

highly variable, and depend on many site specific conditions. However, studies indicate that a VRF system typically 

costs 5-20% more than an equivalent standard HVAC system.36 VRF systems are also a highly cost-effective retrofit 

on commercial buildings without a current cooling system.

Like ductless mini-split systems, the larger VRF systems also have much higher usage in Asia and Europe than in 

the US. In Japan, for example, VRF systems are used in about 50% of medium sized commercial buildings, and 

33% of large commercial buildings (greater than 70,000 sf). Although US penetration is starting to increase in 

sectors such as luxury high rises in New York, overall market share is very low. In 2007, less than 10,000 VRF 

systems were installed in the U.S.37

6.2.2.3 Market Barriers

Market Barriers to widespread adoption of VRF systems in the US include:

• High first cost: In countries where VRF systems are well established, the higher equipment costs from 

VRFs are somewhat offset by lower labor costs. This is less true in the US, where most contractors are not 

familiar with VRFs.

• Poor understanding of savings: There is not much reliable third-party data available examining the 

performance and cost data of VRF systems in the United States. Until this data is more widely available 

and accepted, risk-averse contractors and builders are unlikely to specify a VRF system.

• Concerns about refrigerant leaks: Since VRF systems have long lengths of refrigerant pipes, there has

been concern relating to the potential for leaks. Installation must be performed in accordance with 

ASHRAE Standard 15-2007. As more contractors gain experience safely installing long refrigerant lines, 

this barrier should diminish in importance.

• Manufacturer presence: US manufacturer presence and support for VRF systems has traditionally been 

very limited. This seems to be changing in recent years as Japanese manufactures have moved into the 

US market space.

35 Bhatia, 2011. 36 Ibid. 37 Amarnath and Blatt, 2008.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 68

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

• Ventilation Requirements: Depending on the design, a building with a VRF system may also need a 

dedicated ventilation system in order to comply with ASHRAE standard 62 requirements. This offsets 

part of the advantage of using a VRF system.

• Lack of test rating procedures: While Japan and Europe have well established rating systems for VRFs, 

there are no code compliance procedures certified by the ARI and approved by US DOE.

6.2.2.4 Potential in New York

This section provides high-level estimates of the technical potential for variable refrigerant flow heat pumps. The 

estimates represent the total energy savings potential from replacing existing electric heating equipment with heat 

pumps, without consideration of the time it would realistically require to capture the full potential. Due to the sitespecific nature of VRFs and a lack of third-party field data, savings from VRFs are highly uncertain. The following 

studies provide an indication if the potential for energy savings:

38

• EnergyPlus modeling of a 10-story office building in Shanghai showed 20% energy savings compared to 

a VAV system, and 10% compared to a fan coil system.

• Manufacturers suggest that a VRF could achieve 30-40% savings compared to a chiller based system.

• A pilot study of 14 building in Italy done by a VRF manufacturer found that the VRF system used 

35% less energy and had 40% lower maintenance costs.

• A modeling study done in Brazil shows 30% savings in summer and over 60% in winter. However, 

the study suggested that savings of 5-15% were more likely in a US climate.

Since the savings are so uncertain, and since large parts of New York State have a cold climate, this potential 

estimate assumes savings on the low end of the range found in the above studies, at 10% of heating and cooling 

usage. Further, we assume that it is technically feasible to reach Japanese levels of penetration, at 50% of mid-sized 

buildings and 33% of large buildings. Finally, given these conservative savings estimates and the New York climate, 

fuel switching applications are assumed to be not desirable for replacing fossil fuel heating. We therefore limit the 

below potential to buildings with electric heat; however, there likely are individual instances in which VRF systems 

make sense as a fuel switching measure – especially downstate where the cooling load is smaller.

With these assumptions, new construction meter-level electricity reduction potential is 6,250 MWh per year. 

The total retrofit potential is 211,892 MWh. 

38 Ibid.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 69

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

6.2.3 Ground Source Heat Pumps

6.2.3.1 Overview

Ground-source heat pumps (GSHPs) use either the ground, or a nearby lake or other body of water as a heat 

reservoir. Since the ground temperature is relatively stable throughout the year, GSHPs provide an efficiency 

advantage over air-source heat pumps and have much better cold climate performance than air-source heat pumps. 

This is demonstrated by their popularity in Scandinavian countries – 30% of Swedish houses have GSHPs, and there 

are an estimated 15,000 GSHP systems in Norway and 46,000 in Finland.39

There are two broad categories of GSHPs: open-loop systems and closed-loop systems. Open-loop systems pump 

water from a nearby lake, ocean, or river into a heat exchanger in the heat pump, and then discharge the water into 

the same body of water. While installation costs are typically cheaper than for closed-loop systems, the site must be 

situated nearby an appropriate body of water, and local codes regarding groundwater discharge may further restrict 

possible installation sites.

A closed-loop system pumps a fluid with a low freezing temperature through the ground or body of water. As the 

fluid gets pumped through the pipe, it exchanges heat with the surrounding ground. The longer the pipe, the more 

heat will be exchanged; typical estimates call for 720-1040 feet per ton of heat pump capacity. Closed-loop GSHPs 

can be further broken down into horizontal and vertical systems. Horizontal systems are generally cheaper to install, 

and more cost-effective for residential installations, if sufficient space is available. In these systems, the piping is 

installed over a fairly large area, at a depth of between four and six feet below ground. Cold climate installations 

may need to go in at the deeper end of this range in order to avoid ground frost in the winter. Vertical systems are 

used more often for larger systems, where the amount of land area required for a horizontal system would be 

prohibitive. Vertical systems are far more expensive than horizontal systems, as they require piping to depths of 

100 to 400 feet. 

In recent years, direct exchange (DX) ground-source heat pumps have been gaining popularity. DX systems pump 

refrigerant directly through the ground loop, instead of using a secondary water/glycol loop. DX systems eliminate 

the water-to-refrigerant heat exchanger as well as water loop pumping, making them generally cheaper and more 

efficient than traditional GSHPs. However, there are potentially serious environmental concerns relating to the 

potential leakage of refrigerant into the groundwater, and the high cost of repairing such leaks.

Desuperheaters: A desuperheater is an auxiliary heat exchanger that captures heat from the hot refrigerant as it 

leaves the heat pump compressor and transfers it to the domestic hot water. While there are desuperheaters available 

39 Denali Commission, 2011.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 70

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

for standard air source heat pumps and even central AC units, they most commonly come with GSHPs. 

Desuperheater costs range from around $400-$700, and can meet up to 50% of annual water heating demand.40,41

6.2.3.2 Market Status and Ideal Site Characteristics

GSHP installations in the US have been rising rapidly in recent years. In 2005, there were only about 600,000 GHP 

units installed in the US; however 2008 and 2009 both saw annual shipments of over 100,000, equaling more than 

400,000 tons of capacity per year.42, 43 Ground source heat pumps are more common in residential and small 

commercial installations, as the amount of pipe needed to cool very large commercial and industrial spaces is 

often prohibitive. It is rare to see GSHPs in buildings over 100,000 square feet.

Despite the increase in installations, high first cost continues to be a significant barrier to GSHP penetration. Costs 

for GSHPs are highly variable, and dependent both on the soil type in the area, and on the availability of drillers 

with the type of experience needed to drill for GSHP systems. Also, incremental costs tend to get smaller as the 

system gets larger (for the same type of GSHP system) – a survey of the market in the Pacific Northwest found 

costs for a 2,000-square-foot (sf) home between $10,000 and $14,000, and costs for a larger 4,000 sf home at 

$12,000 to $18,000.44 For this reason, most systems installed are going into homes larger than 3,000 sf. However, 

the same survey found that, if equipment were sold at cost, GSHPs would only be slightly more expensive than 

ASHPs for homes as small as 2,000 sf. In contrast, a 2010 ORNL study estimates the incremental cost of retro

fitting a 3-ton GSHP system at more than double the costs of installing a CAC and gas furnace.45

Commercial installations of GSHPs are rarer than residential installations, due to more complex systems and higher 

costs. Cost premiums for commercial installations are also highly variable, but estimated at between 0 and 100%.46

An ASHRAE study of a sample of GSHPs in commercial installation found an average installed cost of $7,694 per 

ton. However, the study also found that the ground loop portion only made up 25.5% of the total costs, implying that 

there is likely significant room for cost reduction on the actual HVAC components of GSHPs. 

6.2.3.3 Market Barriers

The largest barrier to GSHP adoption is high first costs, as discussed above. The two main factors contributing to 

higher first costs are complexities associated with the ground loop, and limited production volume of the other parts. 

One would expect both of these two go down as GSHPs gain market acceptance. Other barriers include:

40 Builder Guide, 2003. 41 Olszewski and Fontana, 1983. 42 Liu, 2010. 43 Navigant Consulting, Inc., 2012. 44 Regional Economic Research, Inc., 2010. 45 Liu, 2010. 46 Regional Economic Research, Inc., 2010.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 71

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

• Complexity: The need for a ground loop adds significant complexity and risk to GSHP installations,

and may necessitate site-specific design. 

• Economics compared to ASHPs: Top of the line ASHPs may have more attractive economics than 

GSHPs, despite higher total savings from GSHPs. This is especially true as advances in ASHPs make 

them more suitable for colder climates. The lifetime and payback period for GSHPs are also longer than 

for ASHPs.

• Site limitations: GSHP installation may be infeasible for a specific location, based on soil type, 

proximately to water, space constraints, and availability of drillers. 

• Limited number of qualified, trained installers.

• Potential for glycol or refrigerant leaks.

6.2.3.4 Potential in New York

This section provides high-level estimates of the technical potential for ground source heat pumps. The estimates 

represent the total energy savings potential from replacing existing electric heating equipment with heat pumps, 

without consideration of the time it would realistically require to capture the full potential. 

There is far more research and literature on GSHPs in the US than there is for VRF systems. Some studies include:

• A comprehensive Department of Energy (DOE) overview that finds Mid-Atlantic residential primary 

savings of 55% compared to a gas furnace/AC (or a standard ASHP) and commercial savings of 48% 

compared to a typical ASHP.47

• A residential technical potential study by the National Energy Policy Institute that finds space heating 

savings for the Mid-Atlantic region of 65%-84% and cooling savings of 74%-77%, depending on the 

baseline.48

This potential estimate assumes savings levels equivalent to the EERE estimates for the Mid-Atlantic census region, 

at 55% for residential, and 48% for commercial. Due to the limited scope of the analysis, only GSHPs for 

commercial buildings smaller than 100,000 square feet currently using electric heat were assessed. In total, we 

estimate total residential meter-level electricity savings potential of 729,051 MWh. The commercial potential is 

2,324,010 MWh. If all GSHPs installed are assumed to have desuperheaters that offset electric DHW use, there 

are additional residential savings of 516,820 MWh, and commercial savings of 292,892 MWh. This gives total 

residential and commercial meter-level electricity savings potential from GSHPs of about 4,000 GWh.

47 Navigant Consulting, Inc., 2009. 48 Liu, 2010.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 72

 
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

7 Bibliography

Amarnath, Ammi and Morton Blatt. 2008. Variable Refrigerant Flow: An Emerging Air Conditioner and Heat 

Pump Technology. 2008 ACEEE Summer Study Conference. 

http://www.aceee.org/files/proceedings/2008/data/papers/3_228.pdf. Accessed July 2013.

ASHRAE. June 2012. Commercial GSHP Performance. ASHRAE Journal.

Bhatia, A. 2011. HVAC Variable Refrigerant Flow Systems. CED Engineering. 

http://www.seedengr.com/Variable%20Refrigerant%20Flow%20Systems.pdf. Accessed July 2013.

Denali Commission. May 31, 2011. Ground Source Heat Pumps in Cold Climates. 

http://cchrc.org/docs/reports/Ground-Source-Heat-Pumps-in-Cold-Climates.pdf. Accessed July 2013.

DOE. June 24, 2012. Geothermal Heat Pumps. http://energy.gov/energysaver/articles/geothermal-heat-pumps. 

Accessed July 2013.

ETSAP and IRENA. January, 2013. Heat Pumps: Technology Brief. IEA-ETSAP and IRENA Technology Brief 

E12. http://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/IRENAETSAP%20Tech%20Brief%20E12%20Heat%20Pumps.pdf. Accessed July 2013.

Geothermal Heat Pump Consortium. 2004, revised 2007. Information for Evaluating Geoexchange Applications. 

Prepared for the New York State Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA). 

http://www.nyserda.ny.gov/en/PageSections/Renewables/~/media/Files/EERP/Residential/Geothermal/geothermal-manual.ashx. Accessed July 

2013.

Improve Energy Efficiency with Desuperheaters. On stampededrive.net.

http://stampededrive.net/PDF/BuilderGuide3E.pdf. Accessed July 2013.

KEMA Inc. June 2009. Ductless Mini Pilot Study Final Report. 

http://rtf.nwcouncil.org/meetings/2009/11/Conn%20-%20Mass%204%20Ductless%20Mini%20Pilot.pdf. 

Accessed July 2013.

Landwehr, Frank. April 23, 2012. Trends to Watch in Ductless. The Air Conditioning Heating and Refrigeration 

News. http://www.achrnews.com/articles/119825-trends-to-watch-in-ductless. Accessed July 2013.

Liu, Xiaobing. September 2010. Assessment of National Benefits from Retrofitting Existing Single-Family Homes 

with Ground Source Heat Pump Systems. NEPI. http://nepinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/RFF-NEPIORNL-Residential-GSHP2.pdf. Accessed July 2013.

NAHB Research Center. June 2008. Ductless Heat Pump Market Research and Analysis. Northwest Energy 

Efficiency Alliance. http://neea.org/docs/reports/residentialductless.pdf. Accessed July 2013.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 73
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Potential Study of New York State

Navigant Consulting, Inc. February 3, 2009. Ground-Source Heat Pumps: Overview of Market Status, Barriers to 

Adoptions , and Options for Overcoming Barriers. 

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/pdfs/gshp_overview.pdf. Accessed July 2013.

Navigant Consulting, Inc. October 2012. Research and Development Roadmap: Geothermal (Ground-Source) Heat 

Pumps. EERE. http://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/pdfs/ghp_rd_roadmap2012.pdf. Accessed July 2013.

Olszewski, M., and E. C. Fontana. 1983. Heat Pump Desuperheaters for Supplying Domestic Hot Water –

Estimation of Energy Savings and Economic Viability for Residential Applications. ORNL. 

http://rtf.nwcouncil.org/meetings/2008/08/ornl_con_114.pdf. Accessed July 2013.

Regional Economic Research, Inc. September 2010. Ground-Source Heat Pump Market Assessment. NEEA. 

http://neea.org/docs/reports/ground-sourceheatpumpmarketassessment.pdf. Accessed July 2013.

Rogers, Tom. 2011. Super Energy Savers Ground Source Heat Pump. DOE and ORNL. 

http://www.ornl.gov/adm/partnerships/events/Dec_Spark/Rogers_Spark%2011.23%20GSHP%20rev6.pdf. 

Accessed July 2013.

Roth, K., N. Sehgal, and C. Akers. March 2013. Ductless Mini-Split Heat Pump Comfort Evaluation. 

http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/building_america/ductless_minisplit_hp.pdf. Accessed 

March 2013.

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results 74
NYSERDA, a public benefit corporation, offers 

objective information and analysis, innovative programs, 

technical expertise, and funding to help New Yorkers 

increase energy efficiency, save money, use renewable 

energy, and reduce reliance on fossil fuels. NYSERDA 

professionals work to protect the environment and 

create clean-energy jobs. NYSERDA has been 

developing partnerships to advance innovative energy 

solutions in New York State since 1975. 

To learn more about NYSERDA’s programs and funding opportunities, visit 

nyserda.ny.gov or follow us on Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, or Instagram.

New York State 

Energy Research and 

Development Authority

17 Columbia Circle

Albany, New York 12203-6399

toll free: 866-NYSERDA

local: 518-862-1090

fax: 518-862-1091

info@nyserda.ny.gov

nyserda.ny.gov
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Potential Study of New York State

Volume 2: Energy Efficiency Methodology and Detailed Results

Final Report 

April 2014

Revised January 2015

New York State Energy Research and Development Authority

Richard L. Kauffman, Chairman | John B. Rhodes, President and CEO 

State of New York 

Andrew M. Cuomo, Governor