St. Marks River Watershed

Surface Water Improvement and Management 

Plan Update

Northwest Florida Water Management District

August 2009

Program Development Series 2009–02
St. Marks River Watershed

Surface Water Improvement and Management 

Plan Update

Developed by the Northwest Florida Water Management District under the 

auspices of the Surface Water Improvement and Management (SWIM) Program 

and in cooperation with the Florida Department of Environmental Protection

Program Development Series 2009-2

August 2009
GOVERNING BOARD

George Roberts, Chair

Panama City

Philip McMillan, Vice Chair

Blountstown

Steve Ghazvini, Secretary/Treasurer

Tallahassee

Douglas E. Barr — Executive Director

Stephanie Bloyd Peter Antonacci Jerry Pate

Panama City Beach Tallahassee Pensacola

Tim Norris Joyce Estes Ralph Rish

Santa Rosa Beach Eastpoint Port St. Joe
ABOUT THE NORTHWEST FLORIDA WATER MANAGEMENT DISTRICT

The Northwest Florida Water Management District is one of five water management 

districts in Florida, created by the Water Resources Act of 1972 (Chapter 373, Florida 

Statutes) to address regional water resource issues while furthering statewide goals and 

policies. The District stretches from the St. Marks River Basin in Jefferson County to 

the Perdido River in Escambia County, covering approximately 11,305 square miles, or 

17 percent of the state’s geographic area. There are 63 incorporated cities within the 

District. It is bordered on the north by Georgia and Alabama, on the west by Alabama, 

on the south by the Gulf of Mexico, and on the east by the Suwannee River Water 

Management District, which shares Jefferson County with the District. 

The District has worked for decades to protect and manage water resources in a 

sustainable manner for the continued welfare of people and natural systems across its 

16-county region. A nine member Governing Board, appointed by the Governor and 

confirmed by the Florida Senate, guides District activities. The District serves Bay, 

Calhoun, Escambia, Franklin, Gadsden, Gulf, Holmes, Jackson, Leon, Liberty, 

Okaloosa, Santa Rosa, Wakulla, Walton, Washington and western Jefferson County. 

As directed by Florida Statutes, the District has four interrelated areas of responsibility: 

Water Supply, Water Quality, Flood Protection, and Natural Systems. The District 

meets these responsibilities through programs established and implemented in 

cooperation with local governments, state and federal agencies, and resource 

stakeholders.

For additional information, write or call:

Northwest Florida Water Management District

81 Water Management Drive

Havana, Florida 32333-9700

(850) 539-5999

Or visit us on the web at: www.nwfwmd.state.fl.us
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This document was developed by the Northwest Florida Water Management District 

under the auspices of the Surface Water Improvement and Management (SWIM)

Program and in accordance with sections 373.451-459, Florida Statutes. The plan 

update was prepared under the supervision and oversight of Ron Bartel, Director, 

Division of Resource Management.

Program Direction: Ron Bartel

Document Text: Leigh Brooks, Paul Thorpe, and Ron Bartel

Geographic Information Systems: Leigh Brooks and Karen Kebart

Cover Photograph: Dogwoods blooming at Cherokee Sink, Edward Ball Wakulla 

Springs State Park. Leigh Brooks, 2008

District staff would like to especially recognize members of the St. Marks River 

Watershed SWIM Technical Advisory Group (TAG), who volunteered their time and 

efforts to assist in the development of this plan. Their assistance and thoughtful 

comments were invaluable and are gratefully acknowledged.

St. Marks SWIM Technical Advisory Group

Mr. Dan Pennington, 1000 Friends of Florida

Ms. Bonita Gorham, Florida Department of Environmental Protection

Mr. Paul Johnson, Paul G. Johnson and Associates

Mr. Jamie Shakar, City of Tallahassee

Ms. Lindsay Stevens, Wakulla County

Mr. Jim Stevenson, Wakulla Spring Basin Working Group
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Since the first Surface Water Improvement and Management (SWIM) Plan was approved

for the St. Marks River Watershed in 1997, considerable progress has been made both in 

developing an improved understanding of watershed resources and challenges and in 

implementing projects and initiatives to address these challenges. Such progress has 

included implementation of a number of stormwater retrofit projects to improve water 

quality and flood protection, enactment of local government initiatives and regulations 

protecting water resources, and significant investment in improved wastewater treatment 

and management systems. Additionally, ongoing scientific investigations have yielded 

new insights into the hydrogeology of the watershed and increased public awareness of its 

vulnerability. At the same time, the population of the region has been increasing at a rapid 

pace, bringing with it additional development and non-point source pollution.

The accomplishments achieved have proven important and timely, as the effects of 

population growth and development on some of the region’s most valued resources have 

become increasingly apparent. Improvements that have been achieved must be seen as 

providing a foundation for continued and future efforts. Continued investment in 

stormwater retrofits, advanced wastewater treatment, and scientific research will protect 

water resources and help to reverse adverse effects that have already been realized.

This update to the St. Marks River Watershed SWIM Plan provides a framework for 

watershed protection and restoration, complementing other programs and initiatives of the 

Northwest Florida Water Management District, local governments, and state and federal 

agencies. The plan is focused on the long-term sustainability of watershed resources and

functions that are essential to healthy and productive natural systems and the quality of the 

human environment. Among these are water storage and flood attenuation, water quality 

protection and improvement, and fish and wildlife habitat. These in turn provide quality of 

life, public health, and economic benefits for the community.

The resource challenges and management actions within this SWIM plan update describe 

three overarching priorities: water quality protection and improvement, natural systems 

protection and restoration, and flood protection. These are inherently interrelated, as 

reflected in the complementary strategies and practices proposed for implementation. The 

specific management actions described include those taken at multiple scales – from 

individual best management practices to regional scale projects requiring considerable 

community investment. Nonstructural approaches to resource protection are considered 

significant priorities, along with stormwater retrofit and other capital improvement projects.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY................................................................................................................... i

TABLE OF CONTENTS...................................................................................................................iii

1.0 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Purpose and Scope ............................................................................................................ 1

1.2 Planning Approach.............................................................................................................. 1

1.3 Plan Goal and Vision .......................................................................................................... 1

1.4 Related NWFWMD Programs and Activities ....................................................................... 2

2.0 ST. MARKS RIVER WATERSHED ............................................................................................ 5

3.0 WATERSHED CONDITIONS ................................................................................................... 12

3.1 Water Quality.................................................................................................................... 12

3.2 Natural Systems ............................................................................................................... 17

3.3 Flood Protection................................................................................................................ 19

4.0 MANAGEMENT ACTIONS ...................................................................................................... 21

5.0 IMPLEMENTATION FUNDING AND ANNUAL WORK PLAN ................................................. 26

6.0 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES......................................................................................... 27

APPENDIX: RELATED AND SUPPORTING INITIATIVES........................................................... 32

List of Figures

Figure 1. St. Marks River Watershed..............................................................................................6

Figure 2. Surface Water Features of the St. Marks River Watershed..............................................7

Figure 3. Land Use and Land Cover in the St. Marks River Watershed ........................................10

Figure 4. Conservation Lands in the St. Marks River Watershed..................................................11

Figure 5. Point Source Discharges in the St. Marks River Watershed ..........................................16

Figure 6. Distribution of On-Site Sewage Treatment and Disposal Systems.................................18

Figure 7. Wetland and Aquatic Habitats in the St. Marks River/Apalachee Bay Watershed ..........20

List of Tables

Table 1. Conservation Lands in St. Marks River/Apalachee Bay Watershed ..................................9

Table 2. Population Estimates and Projections by County: 1980-2030 ........................................15

Table 3. Objectives and General Strategies .................................................................................21

Table 4. Management Tactics and Funding Options.....................................................................22
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St. Marks River Watershed SWIM Plan

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Purpose and Scope

The purpose of the St. Marks River Watershed Surface Water Improvement and Management 

(SWIM) plan is to provide a framework for watershed resource protection and restoration, 

encompassing programs and statutory responsibilities of the Northwest Florida Water Management 

District (NWFWMD or District). This plan is an update to the original plan developed in 1997 (Ryan 

and Hemmert 1997). The planning area includes the Florida portion of the St. Marks River 

watershed, encompassing portions of Leon, Wakulla, and Jefferson counties. The scope of the 

plan includes management actions to address strategic priorities of water quality, natural systems, 

and flood protection, as described in Chapter 4.0 Management Actions.

The SWIM plan has been developed pursuant to the Surface Water Improvement and 

Management Act, as enacted through sections 373.451-373.459, Florida Statutes (F.S.). Through 

this act, the Legislature recognized threats to the quality and function of the state’s surface water 

resources. The act directed the five water management districts to develop plans and programs 

for improvement and management of surface waters and to conduct research in order to improve 

scientific understanding of the causes and effects of the degradation of surface waters and 

associated natural systems.

1.2 Planning Approach

The approach of the St. Marks River SWIM plan update is to identify priority challenges affecting 

watershed resources and functions and prescribe a set of management actions to meet those 

needs. The management actions are limited to those within the mission and scope of the 

NWFWMD SWIM program, recognizing the ongoing initiatives of local communities and other 

agencies. Successful watershed management requires coordination and implementation of 

complementary programs under the purview of all jurisdictions and agencies involved in the 

watershed. Among these are local, state, and federal regulatory agencies; conservation lands 

acquisition and management programs; and other public, private, and stakeholder initiatives.

This plan is designed to address water quality and natural systems challenges that are more 

generally outlined in the District Water Management Plan (DWMP) (NWFWMD 2005). The plan 

integrates a number of complementary programs and activities to protect and restore watershed 

resources and functions. Projects may include stormwater retrofits for water quality improvement 

and flood protection, wetland and aquatic habitat restoration, resource assessments, floodplain 

mapping, public outreach and awareness initiatives, and watershed protection in support of water 

supply planning.

1.3 Plan Goal and Vision

The St. Marks River watershed shall be managed to ensure the long-term sustainability of 

watershed resources, values, and functions. This shall encompass preservation and, where 

necessary, restoration of ecosystem health and integrity.

The District’s vision for this plan recognizes important water resource functions and benefits of the

watershed which are further defined through the underlying hydrologic and ecological functions or 

processes, which may be described as follows:
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 Important hydrologic functions include surface water storage, flood attenuation, recharge to 

ground water, and the quantity of surface water discharge. Maintaining and or restoring 

these functions are also strongly related to water quality. 

 Water quality protection and improvement are accomplished through a variety of means,

such as stormwater treatment facilities, best management practices (BMPs), wastewater 

treatment, pollution prevention, and public awareness.

 Habitat, which is highly dependent upon hydrologic function, provides for ecological 

diversity among aquatic, wetland-dependent, and terrestrial species. Restoration or 

preservation of these water resources provides many natural ecosystem benefits. 

Associated with these functions are numerous benefits contributed by ecosystems for the human 

community, including:

 Usable surface and ground water resources;

 Public health benefits of good water quality;

 Fish and wildlife resources;

 Commercial and recreational fisheries ;

 Recreational and aesthetic water resource values;

 Environmental resiliency; and

 Economic benefits derived from all of the above.

1.4 Related NWFWMD Programs and Activities

A number of other programs and initiatives of the District are supportive of the SWIM program and 

cooperative efforts of local governments and other agencies. Thus, an important part of the 

District’s vision is to integrate SWIM program activities in a coordinated fashion with these other 

programs. Cumulatively, the overall effort results in significant protection and improvement of 

water resources within the St. Marks River basin.

 Environmental Resource Permitting — Phase I (stormwater) of the Environmental Resource 

Permitting (ERP) program began October 1, 2007. With the first phase, the District 

implemented stormwater permitting to address water quality and flooding from construction and 

development. The program initiated special standards for sensitive karst areas. Phase II 

(wetland permitting) is expected to be implemented in the near future. Additional information 

may be found at www.nwfwmd.state.fl.us/permits/permits-ERP.html.

 Flood Map Modernization — National flood maps are being updated by the District through the 

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) map modernization program. The District is 

the cooperating technical partner with FEMA for performing flood hazard mapping in the Florida 

Panhandle. Flood insurance rate maps are being developed using high resolution aerial 

photography, Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) elevation data, and hydrologic studies, and 

are now available digitally for the first time. Public outreach is an important component of this

initiative. The project is expected to be completed in 2010. For more information visit 

nwfwmdfloodmaps.com.
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 Land Acquisition and Management — The NWFWMD has to date protected about 1,375 acres

within the St. Marks River watershed through less-than-fee acquisition. Additionally, the District 

has worked cooperatively with the Tallahassee-Leon County Blueprint 2000 Intergovernmental 

Agency (Blueprint 2000) to protect and preserve lands with high water resources value within 

the St. Marks River basin in Leon County. 

 Florida Forever Grant Program — The District had a competitive grant program for local 

governments and other government entities in northwest Florida as a means of identifying and 

funding capital improvements, with emphasis on those that help implement the SWIM plans. 

To date, nearly $2 million in grant funding has been awarded for four stormwater retrofit 

projects within the St. Marks River watershed. These grants have leveraged over $11 million in 

local match funding. Further information is available by visiting

www.nwfwmd.state.fl.us/rmd/swim/fla_forever_grants/fla_forever_grants.htm.

 Regional Mitigation Planning — The District implements the Umbrella Regional Mitigation Plan 

for mitigation of regional transportation impacts. The plan encompasses state mitigation 

requirements under Section 373.4127, F.S. and federal requirements under Section 404 of the 

Federal Clean Water Act. Information is available at www.nwfwmdwetlands.com. Together 

with the District’s Five Year Land Acquisition Work Plan, the SWIM Plan may help establish 

watershed acquisition and restoration priorities that would be eligible for funding through the 

Umbrella Mitigation Plan. 

 Water Protection and Sustainability Program — The District provides cooperative construction 

grants for alternative water supply development and springs protection projects, with funding 

provided by the Water Protection and Sustainability Program Trust Fund. Among the projects 

that have received funding under this program are water reuse and advanced wastewater 

treatment initiatives of the City of Tallahassee and Wakulla County. Limited funding for SWIM 

may also be provided by this source.

 Regulation of Consumptive Use of Water and Wells — The District regulates the consumptive 

use of water under Rule 40A-2; wells are regulated under Rule 40A-3. District rules may be 

found at www.nwfwmd.state.fl.us/permits/ruleform.htm.

 LiDAR — This District is working with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA), Florida Division of Emergency Management, and local governments to acquire 

detailed topographic data using the LiDAR technology. Through the SWIM program, data will 

be available for the Florida portion of the basin, as well as other areas of the District.

 Monitoring — The District operates 53 surface water and rainfall monitoring stations in 

cooperation with Leon County and the City of Tallahassee. In a cooperative effort with the 

County, the District and National Weather Service operate the Leon County flood warning 

network – a real-time radio telemetry flood warning system that includes 14 stream and rainfall 

stations to help identify developing flood conditions for emergency management staff. 

Additionally, in cooperation with FDEP, the District collects long-term ground and surface water 

data through the Integrated Water Resources Monitoring and Ambient Surface Water Quality 

Assessment programs.

 Florida Springs Initiative – Through the Florida Springs Initiative, the District monitors discharge 

from Wakulla Springs. Additionally, the District conducts quarterly discharge measurements at 

St. Marks Spring and has completed a spring inventory of the St. Marks and Wakulla rivers

(Barrios 2006).
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 Regional Water Supply Planning – The District has updated a water supply assessment 

addressing the consumptive demands and the availability of ground water and surface water 

resources in the basin.

 Minimum Flows and Levels (MFL) – The District included Wakulla Springs on its MFL priority 

list, although establishment of a reservation may be the preferred means of protecting

ecologically significant flows. See the discussion of freshwater needs in 3.2 Natural Systems.
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2.0 ST. MARKS RIVER WATERSHED

The St. Marks River watershed (Figure 1) extends from the red hills of southern Georgia to the Gulf 

of Mexico, covering approximately 1,170 square miles (748,800 acres). Approximately 91 percent 

of the watershed (1,060 square miles or 678,400 acres) lies within Jefferson, Leon, and Wakulla 

counties in Florida; the remainder is in Thomas County, Georgia. Surface water features include

the St. Marks River; its major tributary the Wakulla River, and the headwaters of the Wakulla River,

Wakulla Springs. Other major surface water features within the watershed are lakes Miccosukee, 

Lafayette, and Munson, and the coastal receiving waters of Apalachee Bay. A brief description of 

these features and their condition follows. Lewis et al. (2009) provides a more complete account of 

the features, physiography, hydrology, biological resources, and resource uses of the watershed 

and Apalachee Bay. The watershed’s hydrogeology is described by Chelette et al. (2002b) and 

Barrios (2006).

The St. Marks River begins as an intermittent blackwater stream, collecting surface water drainage 

from much of eastern Tallahassee. The stream submerges at Natural Bridge and re-emerges onehalf mile south at St. Marks River rise, with its flow greatly augmented by the contribution of ground 

water. Discharge measurements indicate that on average about 24 percent of the discharge at St. 

Marks River rise is contributed by inflow at Natural Bridge swallet (Barrios 2006). From the rise, 

the river receives water from a series of Floridan Aquifer springs and takes on characteristics of a 

karst stream (Barrios 2006). The ten-mile long Wakulla River is the major tributary, beginning at 

Wakulla Springs and merging with the St. Marks River at the City of St. Marks about five miles 

north of Apalachee Bay. Surface water features of the watershed are shown in Figure 2. The 

estimated regional ground water contribution area for Wakulla Springs and springs of the St. Marks 

River is depicted in Figure 1 (Chelette et al. 2002b; Barrios 2006).

The watershed encompasses two main physiographic regions: the Tallahassee Hills subdivision of 

the Northern Highlands in the north and the coastal lowlands in the southern portion of the 

watershed (FDEP 2001; Pratt et al. 1996). These regions are physically divided by an escarpment 

designated as the Cody Scarp (Figure 2). North of the scarp, water generally drains to closed 

basin lakes. These lakes are karst features with connections to the Floridan Aquifer where the 

confining layer has been breached or is more permeable. Within the St. Marks River watershed, 

the eastern portion of the coastal plain is characterized by numerous karst features where surface 

and ground waters readily interact. This area is known locally as the Woodville Karst Plain. 

Barrios (2006) documents significant karst features within the watershed. 

An essential aspect of the watershed with important management implications is the complex and 

widespread interaction between surface and ground waters. Recent and ongoing investigations 

have substantially increased understanding of the linkages between surface waters and the 

underlying Floridan Aquifer. Ground water is susceptible to contamination north of the Cody Scarp 

from pollutants carried a long distance in surface runoff draining to the lakes, and south of the 

scarp due to the relative absence of a confining layer. Detailed discussions are provided by

Chelette et al. (2002b), Kinkaid (2003), and Barrios (2006).

Much of urban Tallahassee drains to Lake Munson, located southwest of the city, and Lake 

Lafayette, located to the east. Lake Munson is a cypress-lined impoundment of Munson Slough 

covering 255 acres. The lake drains south several miles to Ames Sink. The ground water tracing

program of the Florida Geological Survey has confirmed a hydrologic connection between Ames 

Sink and Wakulla Springs (Kinkaid 2003).
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Figure 1. St. Marks River Watershed
St. Marks River Watershed SWIM Plan

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Figure 2. Surface Water Features of the St. Marks River Watershed
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Lake Lafayette was an ancient tributary of the St. Marks River that now is a closed basin,

connected only intermittently to the river during high water (Chelette et al. 2002b). The lake 

system has been the subject of multiple hydrologic alterations that have resulted in four distinct 

lake sections: Upper Lake Lafayette, Piney Z Lake, Lower Lake Lafayette, and Alford Arm. Upper 

Lafayette Sink, located in Upper Lake Lafayette, receives drainage from eastern Tallahassee. 

Lake Miccosukee covers approximately 6,226 acres northeast of Tallahassee in Jefferson County. 

It too was a historic tributary of the St. Marks River that is now a closed basin (Chelette et al.

2002b). An impoundment at the south end of the lake and a berm blocking Lake Miccosukee Sink 

artificially maintain the lake level. Agriculture and rural development are the primary land uses 

within the lake’s drainage basin.

The St. Marks River discharges into Apalachee Bay, a shallow estuary at the Big Bend of 

northwest Florida that is open and in direct contact with the Gulf of Mexico (Lewis et al. 2009). The 

portion of the bay of primary focus in this plan extends from Ochlockonee Point in the west to a 

southward extension of the NWFWMD boundary in the east. This includes tidal portions of the St. 

Marks and Wakulla rivers, as well as Dickerson Bay and Oyster Bay. The St. Marks River is a 

major source of freshwater to the central portion of Apalachee Bay. The bay also receives fresh 

water from many small streams within the St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge and the Spring Creek 

springs group. The Spring Creek group consists of 14 spring vents, including four major vents. It

discharges into the mouth of Spring Creek at its confluence with Apalachee Bay. The springs are 

tidally influenced and are considered to be one of the largest groups of submarine springs in terms 

of flow. Reports suggest that the flow is highly variable and change significantly with tides and 

aquifer levels (Lane 2001). The spring system reportedly stopped discharging seaward for several 

months during the drought of 2006-2007. 

In addition to the watershed being a SWIM priority, numerous waterbodies and segments within 

the St. Marks River watershed have been recognized and receive additional regulatory protection

through designation as Outstanding Florida Waters (OFW) per Section 62-302.700, Florida 

Administrative Code (F.A.C.). Among the areas within the surface watershed designated as OFW 

are:

 The St. Marks River, except between Rattlesnake Branch and the confluence of the St. 

Marks and Wakulla rivers;

 Wakulla River;

 Big Bend Seagrasses Aquatic Preserve;

 St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge;

 Florida State Parks, including Edward Ball Wakulla Springs State Park, San Marcos de 

Apalachee State Historic Site, Letchworth Mounds, Natural Bridge Battlefield State Historic 

Site;

 Mashes Sands (Wakulla County park);

 Fort San Luis; and,

 Big Dismal Sink within the Apalachicola National Forest.

Additionally, Lake Jackson, Lake Talquin, and the Ochlockonee River are OFWs within the larger 

ground water contribution area (Figure 1).

Predominant land cover and land use in the watershed includes upland forest and silviculture, 

wetlands, and urban lands associated primarily with the City of Tallahassee. Other centers of 

development include the cities of St. Marks and Monticello and the unincorporated communities of 

Crawfordville, Woodville, and Panacea. Residential areas, while predominately in Leon County, 

are increasing in the Wakulla County portion of the watershed. Concentrations of residential 
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development are scattered across unincorporated areas throughout much of the watershed. 

Figure 3 displays generalized land use and land cover across the Florida portion of the St. Marks 

River watershed.

Over 220,000 acres within the watershed consist of public and private conservation lands (Table 1; 

Figure 4). Prominent among these are the Apalachicola National Forest, Wakulla State Forest, 

Wakulla Springs State Park, St. Marks River State Park and the St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge. 

A significant portion of the lower watershed and adjacent lands are within the National Wildlife 

Refuge. This refuge was established in 1931 to provide wintering grounds for migratory bird 

species (Lewis et al. 2009). Among other public lands in the watershed are the Tallahassee-St. 

Marks Historic Railroad State Trail (multi-use recreational trail from Tallahassee to St. Marks) and 

the San Marcos de Apalache Historic State Park (old Spanish fort at St. Marks). Lands of 

continuing public conservation acquisition interest are identified in the District’s Five Year Land 

Acquisition Work Plan1and FDEP’s Florida Forever Five Year Work Plan.

2

Table 1. Conservation Lands in St. Marks River/Apalachee Bay Watershed

Owner or Easement Holder Area (acres)*

NWFWMD (Less than Fee) 1,375

City of Tallahassee 1,214

Leon County 662

Wakulla County 427

Tall Timbers Land Conservancy (Less Than Fee) 15,074

The Nature Conservancy 11,686

State of Florida 32,293

State of Florida (Less Than Fee) 1,363

St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge 51,106

Apalachicola National Forest 106,944

Total 222,144

*Area in acres, based on GIS analysis.

 

1 www.nwfwmd.state.fl.us/pubs/lands/workplan.pdf

2 www.dep.state.fl.us/lands/FFplan.htm
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Figure 3. Land Use and Land Cover in the St. Marks River Watershed
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 Figure 4. Conservation Lands in the St. Marks River Watershed
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3.0 WATERSHED CONDITIONS

The St. Marks River watershed supports a wide array of aquatic and wetland resources and 

provides numerous functions and benefits for the human community. While the watershed 

continues to support a diverse ecosystem and important economic, cultural, and recreational 

characteristics and uses, it has been affected by anthropogenic impacts common to most of 

Florida’s watersheds and coastal systems. Among these are point source and nonpoint source

(NPS) pollution, habitat loss and degradation, and other direct and indirect effects of population 

growth and land use change. Existing literature and data sources are sufficient to provide a 

generalized description, if not a detailed assessment, of watershed conditions and trends. 

3.1 Water Quality

Water quality protection within the St. Marks River watershed requires appropriate treatment and 

management of both point and nonpoint source pollution. The frequent interaction between 

surface and ground waters discussed in Section 2.0 presents a considerable management 

challenge. The closed basin lakes in the more northern extent of the watershed are breached in 

places by karst features, enhancing leakage to underlying aquifers. To the south, the Woodville 

Karst Plain receives stormwater runoff generated in the Tallahassee area as well as locally. The 

runoff and associated nonpoint source pollution can then be recharged directly into the Floridan 

Aquifer through karst features and generally unconfined conditions. Affected ground water later 

reemerges as surface water through numerous springs. This vulnerability of ground water quality 

affects both drinking water resources and springs that discharge back into surface waters.

A ground water tracing project in the Woodville Karst Plain conducted by the Florida Geological 

Survey and Hazlett-Kincaid, Inc., has confirmed through dye tests that Wakulla Springs receives 

ground water from Leon Sinks, Ames Sink, and the City of Tallahassee’s Southeast Farm 

sprayfield (Kincaid 2003). Continuing work on this project has also found ground water 

connections between Leon Sinks and disappearing streams to the west. The vulnerability of 

ground water to contamination adversely affects water quality in spring systems as well as drinking 

water resources.

Nitrate levels observed in Wakulla Springs tripled from the 1970s through the 1990s (Chelette et al.

2002b). This increase is largely attributable to nitrogen inputs south of the Cody Scarp. Nitrogen 

sources include atmospheric deposition, wastewater treatment facilities, on-site sewage treatment 

and disposal systems (OSTDS or septic systems), livestock, commercial fertilizer, and sinking 

streams (Chelette et al. 2002b). Stormwater runoff also carries pollutants from the Tallahassee

urban area into the spring contribution area through Munson Slough and Ames Sink. Karst 

features can rapidly transport surface pollutants into and through ground water (Chanton 2008). 

The extensive system of caves and underground conduits are probably important pathways of 

contamination (Kinkaid 2003). 

Water quality problems have been documented in the St. Marks River and associated water

bodies, including low dissolved oxygen related to nutrient enrichment (FDEP 2003). Lakes 

Munson and Lafayette receive most of the urban stormwater runoff from Tallahassee and are 

therefore among the most problematic areas affected by NPS pollution. Lake Munson, including 

Munson Slough, has experienced nutrient enrichment, low dissolved oxygen, algal blooms, high 

bacteria counts, and degraded sediment conditions (Bartel and Ard 1992). Water quality in the 

lake has reportedly improved since sewage discharge was discontinued and restoration efforts

were initiated (Bartel and Ard 1992; FDEP 2003; and McGlynn 2006). Upper and Lower Lakes 
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Lafayette and Piney Z Lake are affected by intensive NPS pollution, manifested as nutrient 

enrichment, low dissolved oxygen, and bacterial contamination (FDEP 2003). Upper Lake 

Lafayette discharges to a sinkhole. Lake Miccosukee receives rural surface water runoff and has 

problems with excess nutrients, low dissolved oxygen, and high bacteria counts (FDEP 2003).

Bacterial contamination from across the landscape affects water quality. Persistently high bacteria

counts have been found at Wakulla County beaches (Williams et al. 1981; Florida Department of 

Health 2008), with associated health advisories being issued. Sources of bacteriological 

contamination are often not well understood. Septic systems, NPS pollution, and wastewater 

overflows are commonly cited possible sources, as well as wildlife in unpopulated areas. 

Nearshore waters may also be affected by upland sources via submarine ground water discharge

(FDEP 1999; Rutkowski et al 1999).

Point Source Pollution

As of December 2007, and as identified in Figure 5, there were 18 active industrial facilities and 17 

active domestic facilities permitted by FDEP for wastewater discharge in the watershed.

In 2006, the City of Tallahassee committed to sizeable capital investment in advanced wastewater 

treatment (AWT) improvements at its treatment facilities. These efforts are expected to reduce 

nitrogen in treated wastewater by approximately 75% over six years (FDEP 2008). The T. P. Smith 

Water Reclamation Facility and Lake Bradford Road Wastewater Treatment Facility currently treat 

approximately 27.5 and 4.5 million gallons per day (MGD), respectively, of raw sewage. The 

resulting wastewater is used to irrigate the Southeast Farm Wastewater Reuse Facility eight miles 

east of the T. P. Smith facility. The City has constructed a new public access reuse facility on

Tram Road that will use highly treated reclaimed water to replace 1.2 MGD of potable water 

irrigation in the southeast portion of the city. The AWT and reuse improvements are expected to 

reduce nitrogen inputs to ground water and improve the quality of water discharging at Wakulla

Springs. The City of St. Marks’ sewage treatment plant sends treated wastewater to Tallahassee’s 

Purdom Power Plant for industrial reuse. The Purdom plant uses zero-discharge technology. 

The defunct St. Marks Refinery on the bank of the St. Marks River in the City of St. Marks is a 55-

acre site with significant environmental contamination from decades of asphalt and petroleum 

production. Contaminants found in sampling include dioxin, oils and grease, organics, and 

pentachlorophenol (PCP) (FDEP 2003). Dioxin has been found in the soil, ground water, and 

sediment (FDEP 2003). Contamination has been capped and contained by a berm that limits

runoff from the site, and FDEP has overseen removal of the worst petroleum-contaminated soil. 

There are 31 active landfills in Leon and Wakulla counties, and 33 inactive or closed facilities. 

Most of these sites have ground water monitoring wells. The Leon County Sanitary Landfill is 

located next to Lower Lake Lafayette. This landfill was identified as a possible source for 

impairment of this portion of the lake (FDEP 2003).

Nonpoint Source Pollution

Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution is generated when stormwater runoff collects pollutants from 

across the landscape (lawns, pavement, dirt roads, buildings, farms, forestry operations, and 

construction sites, etc.) and carries them into receiving waters. Pollutants entering the water in this 

way include nutrients, microbial pathogens, sediment, pesticides, heavy metals, and petroleum 

products. Pollutants entering the ground water may also emerge in surface waters via seepage 

and spring discharges.
St. Marks River Watershed SWIM Plan

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Evaluations of the relationship between land use and water quality consistently report that urban 

land uses tend to have the greatest NPS pollutant loading per unit of area, generally followed by 

agricultural and lower intensity land uses (Harper 1994; NWFWMD 1998). Natural forests and 

wetlands tend to be associated with good water and habitat quality (Wang et al. 1997; Allan et al.

1997). Vegetation provides habitat, regulates runoff, maintains surface and surficial ground water 

flow, prevents erosion, and moderates effects of floods and droughts. Wetland functions include 

floodwater storage, sediment and shoreline stabilization, nutrient cycling, primary production, and 

fish and wildlife habitat. Silviculture activities can result in the discharge of sediments and other 

pollutants; however, when appropriate best management practices (BMPs) are employed, 

silviculture has been found to be consistent with maintenance of excellent water quality (FDEP 

1997; NWFWMD 1998). 

The environmental degradation commonly associated with intensive land use reflects not only the 

deposition of NPS pollutants, but also hydrologic changes and habitat loss caused by physical 

alterations to the land. Urbanization leads to the channeling of surface water, increased 

impervious surface area, erosion, and habitat loss. Resulting hydrologic effects include increased 

peak discharge volume and velocity, decreased time for runoff to reach receiving waters, increased 

frequency and severity of flooding, a lowered water table, and reduced dry weather stream flow 

(U.S. EPA 1993). Similarly, agricultural land use may cause stream channelization, erosion, and 

loss of protective vegetation, which affect surface water hydrology. Alterations such as these, 

coupled with the deposition of pollutants, generally increase pollutant loading and sedimentation. 

As is the case across much of northwest Florida, the St. Marks River region has experienced 

considerable population growth. The population of Wakulla County has nearly tripled since 1980, 

exceeding the rate of growth of the state as a whole. Jefferson County’s growth rate has been

lower than the state’s. Leon County’s growth rate was high relative to the state’s, but has been 

declining since 2000. Population figures are shown in Table 2. This growth has resulted in the 

transformation of land use in many areas from rural to urban/suburban in character. Resulting 

effects include increased NPS pollution, generation of additional wastewater, and habitat loss and 

fragmentation. 

As noted above, on-site sewage treatment and disposal, or septic, systems are potential 

widespread sources of nutrients and other pollutants. Significant concentrations of OSTDS can 

result in degraded water quality in ground water and proximate surface waters. When a karst 

aquifer is close to the surface, there is limited ability for soils to attenuate nitrate from septic 

systems (Harden et al. 2008). Figure 6 illustrates the general distribution of septic systems in the 

watershed.
St. Marks River Watershed SWIM Plan

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Table 2. Population Estimates and Projections by County: 1980-2030

County

Population

Census1 Estimate2 Projections2

1980 1990 2000 2006 2010 2020 2030

Jefferson36,422 6,778 7,741 8,612 8,940 9,660 10,320

Wakulla410,887 14,202 22,863 28,393 34,100 42,400 49,600

Leon4148,655 192,493 239,452 272,497 291,700 331,600 363,700

Region 

Total4 165,964 213,473 270,056 309,502 334,740 383,660 423,620

Florida 9,746,961 12,938,071 15,982,824 18,349,132 19,974,200 23,552,100 26,513,300

1Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000

2Source: University of Florida, Bureau of Economic and Business Research, Population Program,

 Florida Statistical Abstract 2007, Gainesville, FL, 919 p.

3

Jefferson County figures represent the estimated NWFWMD share, approximately 60% of the county total.

4Population figures are not limited to the St. Marks River watershed area.

Other potential sources of pollution include marinas, vessels, and boat ramps. Marinas are 

currently located in St. Marks, Panacea, and Shell Point. The Clean Vessel Act of 1992 prohibits 

discharge of raw sewage into fresh water or coastal salt-water. Under the Act, FDEP administers 

federal grant funding for construction and installation of sewage pump-out facilities and floating 

restrooms at marinas, purchase of pump-out boats, and educational programs for boaters. The 

FDEP also administers the Florida Clean Marina Program3to raise awareness of environmentally 

friendly practices to protect Florida’s waterways and offers a ―clean‖ designation for marinas, 

boatyards, and marine retailers that commit to using appropriate best management practices. 

None of the major marinas in the basin have pump-out facilities or Clean Marina designations.

 

3 www.dep.state.fl.us/cleanmarina/CVA/default.htm
St. Marks River Watershed SWIM Plan

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Figure 5. Point Source Discharges in the St. Marks River Watershed
St. Marks River Watershed SWIM Plan

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3.2 Natural Systems

Wetland and Aquatic Habitats

The St. Marks River watershed includes a diverse association of upland, wetland, and aquatic 

ecosystems (Wolfe et al. 1988; Lewis et al. 2009). Fresh water aquatic habitats include the 

streams, lakes, springs, and sinks described above. Approximately 30% of the watershed consists 

of wetlands, as estimated from National Wetland Inventory data (Figure 7). Among these are wet 

pine flatwoods, bottomland hardwood forests, seepage swamps, and tidal freshwater and salt 

marshes. Wetlands provide important hydrologic, water quality, and habitat functions that have

been widely described (e.g., NRC 2001, and many others). It should also be noted that upland 

ecosystems are integrated with and vital to the health of wetland and aquatic systems. Intact 

terrestrial communities, for example, regulate the storage and discharge of water, provide buffer 

areas protective of water quality, recharge ground water systems, and provide corridors necessary 

for the sustainability of wildlife and plant communities.

Apalachee Bay supports one of the most extensive continuous seagrass systems in the United 

States (Figure 7) (Lewis et al. 2009; FDNR 1988). Much of this system is encompassed within the 

Big Bend Seagrasses Aquatic Preserve (FDNR 1988). Nearshore waters are also substantially 

protected by the St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge. These habitats support wintering migratory 

waterfowl and many marine organisms, including juvenile Ridley sea turtles and commercially and 

recreationally important fish and shellfish. Seagrasses beds are among the most important 

ecological components of the estuary. They may, however, be readily affected by water quality 

degradation and physical impacts from prop scarring (Handley et al. 2007 and Sargent et al.

1995)). Lewis et al. (2009) reports on historical seagrass coverage data for Apalachee Bay. The 

data are indicative of a decline in seagrass area; however, there are uncertainties with the use of 

these data with respect to identification of long term trends.

The St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge and other public and private conservation lands provide a 

substantial buffer system that helps to protect water quality, provide flood protection, and sustain 

integrated terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The buffer also helps to protect inland areas from 

major storms and allows natural systems to adapt to sea level rise and climate-related change.

The upper reach of the Wakulla River has experienced extensive invasion by non-native aquatic 

plants. This has diminished native plant cover and stressed aquatic species. Hydrilla (Hydrilla 

verticillata) growth substantially impacted the ecosystem and may have contributed to the

disappearance of native apple snails and the limpkin population that feeds on them (Loper et al.

2005). Intensive efforts have been undertaken to remove hydrilla, including chemical treatment

and mechanical harvesting. Long-term maintenance will be needed to keep the plant under 

control. Invasive aquatic plants are also a problem on the St. Marks River, notably hydrilla, water 

hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) (FDEP 2003).
St. Marks River Watershed SWIM Plan

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Figure 6. Distribution of On-Site Sewage Treatment and Disposal Systems
St. Marks River Watershed SWIM Plan

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Freshwater Needs

The District has a minimum flows and levels (MFL) schedule for high priority water bodies.4 This 

schedule and priority list includes Wakulla Springs within the St. Marks River Watershed. Wakulla 

Springs was added to the list when Florida Statutes directed the District to include all first 

magnitude springs on the MFL priority list. However, rather than develop an MFL, the District may 

elect to reserve the flows from the spring through formal adoption of a reservation. A reservation 

of all flows less previously permitted consumptive uses may be more protective than establishment 

of minimum flows, which may be too low to sustain or protect the system. Cumulative consumptive 

withdrawals across the region largely reflect groundwater withdrawals by local water supply 

utilities. These withdrawals are not expected to significantly affect total spring discharge. Further 

study through application of groundwater models developed for the basin is expected to provide a 

better understanding of the cumulative effects of withdrawal on spring flow. In order to quantify or 

at least depict the extent that freshwater flow from Wakulla Springs and the St. Marks River 

supports downstream aquatic systems, a freshwater needs assessment is ongoing. The Wakulla 

and St. Marks rivers support a significant estuarine aquatic system as well as freshwater riverine 

aquatic ecosystems. The extent that these freshwater sources influence the salinity and 

temperature distribution downstream has not been very well studied. The physical characteristics 

of the St. Marks River estuary have only recently been measured to better understand this flow 

system. The freshwater needs assessment will therefore take a closer look at the freshwater 

inputs from the St. Marks and Wakulla rivers to determine the influence freshwater flows have on 

the system downstream to the estuary.

3.3 Flood Protection

Flood protection needs within the St. Marks River watershed are closely related with stormwater 

management, as well as land use planning and land development regulation. Thus, for both retrofit 

and new development, flood protection and water quality treatment efforts must be closely 

coordinated through protection of floodplains, wetlands, natural hydrology, and recharge. Where 

necessary and appropriate, both retrofit needs and stormwater management for new development 

should be addressed through construction of facilities that provide both flood protection and water 

quality treatment.

To facilitate protection of floodplain and wetland resources, development of improved flood maps 

and elevation data are ongoing. These needs are being addressed through a cooperative effort 

between the District and FEMA to accurately identify flood hazards through the Flood Hazard Map 

Modernization program, the SWIM program, storm surge modeling, and other cooperative efforts. 

Additionally, ongoing land acquisition efforts serve to protect floodplains, wetlands, and associated 

public benefits. Restoration efforts implemented through SWIM and wetland mitigation also help 

restore natural hydrology, with benefits for flood protection, habitat, and water quality. Finally, 

implementation of the Environmental Resource Permitting (ERP) program in northwest Florida will 

help ensure flood protection is addressed in an integrated manner with water quality protection.

 

4 www.nwfwmd.state.fl.us/rmd/mfl/mfl.htm
St. Marks River Watershed SWIM Plan

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Figure 7. Wetland and Aquatic Habitats in the St. Marks River/Apalachee Bay Watershed
St. Marks River Watershed SWIM Plan

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4.0 MANAGEMENT ACTIONS

Based on consideration of watershed conditions as outlined above, priority objectives for the St. 

Marks River watershed SWIM Plan are:

 Water quality protection and improvement, with a primary focus on prevention and 

abatement of nonpoint source pollutant loading.

 Natural systems protection, enhancement, and (as necessary) restoration.

 Flood protection, with a focus on protecting and restoring floodplain areas and functions.

Addressing these priorities will help accomplish the SWIM Plan goal as outlined in Chapter 1.4: 

The St. Marks River watershed shall be managed to ensure the long-term 

sustainability of watershed resources, values, and functions. This shall encompass 

preservation and, where necessary, restoration of ecosystem health and integrity. 

While watershed needs and management strategies span the responsibilities and programs of a 

number of federal, state, and local agencies, the recommended actions discussed below are points 

of entry in which the SWIM program may best contribute to the overall watershed management 

effort. It should be noted that the management strategies described provide an umbrella for 

numerous, site-specific projects that may be ongoing at any given time. For the purpose of this 

plan, management actions are defined as ―tactics‖ in recognition of the applicability of the 

encompassed approaches for a broad array of sites and conditions. 

Table 3 describes objectives, strategies, and general indicators under the SWIM program for 

addressing the watershed priorities described above. Descriptions of individual management 

tactics that may be implemented to achieve these objectives follow. Due to the inherently 

interrelated and interactive nature of these objectives, the strategies and tactics listed generally 

apply to multiple objectives.

Table 3. Objectives and General Strategies

Objectives General Strategies

Water quality protection 

and improvement

Reduce nonpoint source pollution watershed-wide through 

stormwater planning, retrofit and related activities. 

Support efforts to more effectively treat and reuse wastewater

and stormwater.

Natural systems 

protection, 

enhancement, and 

restoration

Protect, enhance, and (as necessary) restore wetlands, aquatic 

habitats, and riparian and upland buffer areas. 

Develop an improved understanding of the freshwater inflow 

needs of riverine and estuarine ecosystems.

Flood protection –

protect and restore 

floodplain area and 

function

Develop/ distribute improved flood maps and topographic data.

Protect and restore floodplain areas and functions.

Implement stormwater retrofit projects to address flood protection 

in an integrated manner with water quality improvement.
St. Marks River Watershed SWIM Plan

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Individual tactics that may be employed to implement these strategies are described below. Due to 

the inherently interrelated nature of the objectives, most tactics are applicable to multiple 

objectives. Relationships of the prescribed tactics to SWIM plan objectives are listed in Table 4. 

Potential funding alternatives are listed. General descriptions follow. 

Table 4 also identifies the importance of key watershed protection and restoration strategies for 

water supply. Particularly in the St. Marks River watershed, where surface waters and major water 

aquifers interact as a single system, watershed management is essential for sustaining public 

water supplies. Additional information may be found in the current water supply assessment 

(NWFWMD 2008).

Table 4. Management Tactics and Funding Options

Management 

Tactics

Water 

Quality

Natural 

Systems

Flood 

Protection

Water 

Supply

Funding 

Alternatives

Resource 

characterization    

SWIM

State 

appropriation

Federal grants

Hydrologic data 

collection and 

monitoring

   

SWIM

State funding

Federal grants

Freshwater needs 

assessment

  SWIM

Local stormwater 

planning assistance   

Local 

governments

SWIM 

Construction of 

stormwater retrofit 

facilities and 

implementation of 

BMPs

  

Local 

governments

SWIM 

Florida Forever

Federal grants

Integration of Flood 

Hazard Map 

Modernization 

  

Federal (FEMA)

SWIM

Preservation of critical 

lands and habitats   

Local 

governments 

Florida Forever

USDA programs

Private 

landowners and 

initiatives

Ecological restoration   

Local 

governments 

SWIM

Private 

landowners and 

initiatives

FDOT Mitigation

Federal grants
St. Marks River Watershed SWIM Plan

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Management 

Tactics

Water 

Quality

Natural 

Systems

Flood 

Protection

Water 

Supply

Funding 

Alternatives

Public education and 

outreach    

Local 

governments

SWIM

Reuse of reclaimed 

water

  

Local 

governments

WPSPTF

SWIM 

Florida Forever

Federal

* USDA – U.S. Department of Agriculture;

FEMA – Federal Emergency Management Agency;

WPSPTF – Water Protection and Sustainability Program Trust Fund;

Resource characterization – Due to the complexity of the St. Marks River watershed, an improved 

understanding of its characteristics (hydrology, water chemistry, and ecology) is essential to define 

appropriate strategies and implement successful management actions. Lewis et al. (2009) have 

drafted the most recent characterization under the SWIM program.

Hydrologic data collection and monitoring - Ongoing monitoring of conditions and trends improves 

understanding of resource characteristics and allows for adaptive management and assessment of 

plan implementation. Monitoring as previously described in Chapter 1.4 continues for Wakulla 

Springs, for basin delineation, hydrologic analyses and water quality. This program is integrated 

with other programs, including water supply planning and assessment, consumptive use 

permitting, the FDEP-funded springs initiative, and development of detailed topographic data using 

LiDAR technology.

Freshwater needs assessment: An important aspect to the conditions and management needs of 

the watershed is the role freshwater inflows from the Wakulla and St. Marks rivers have in 

supporting downstream aquatic ecology. Application of modern electronic measuring equipment 

and hydrodynamic modeling technology will help quantify freshwater flow needs of the estuarine 

system. Model development and analyses will be applied to improve the understanding of how 

freshwater flows from Wakulla Springs and the St. Marks River affect the downstream salinity 

distribution in the estuary. Cumulative effects on the estuarine system of potential future 

withdrawals then can be better evaluated. This analysis should quantify the extent of the 

downstream area affected by freshwater inflow and also relate to the discharge of freshwater from 

Wakulla Spring and other springs in the watershed. Further analysis utilizing recently developed

groundwater models of the Floridan Aquifer by the USGS and others is also needed and planned 

to better understand the cumulative effects of groundwater withdrawals on spring flows during 

droughts or low flow periods.

Local stormwater planning assistance – Local stormwater master planning is important to the 

prevention of new sources of runoff and pollutant loading and to the abatement of existing NPS 

pollution. Stormwater plans detail the contributing areas of land-generated pollutant sources,

water quality and flooding challenges, and identify priority projects and funding options. Structural 

and nonstructural approaches to resource protection are incorporated, depending on landscape 

characteristics, existing land use, and approved future land uses. Leon County and the City of 

Tallahassee have stormwater plans that address water quality. Wakulla County and the City of St. 

Marks have indicated a need to initiate development of stormwater plans.
St. Marks River Watershed SWIM Plan

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Construction of stormwater retrofit facilities and implementation of BMPs – Development of 

regional and other priority retrofit facilities is essential for addressing existing NPS pollutant 

loading, addressing flooding issues, and restoring hydrologic conditions where necessary. 

Widespread implementation of best management practices, ideally implemented through a 

treatment train approach, maintains localized on-site hydrology and water quality and cumulatively 

benefits water quality and natural storage function throughout the watershed.

Integration of Flood Hazard Map Modernization Program – Modern and accurate floodplain maps 

and detailed topographic data will help improve resource protection on the part of the District, local 

governments, and other agencies. The data are directly applicable for stormwater management, 

floodplain delineation and protection, and restoration and protection of wetland and floodplain 

functions. As noted above, the District is working with FEMA to develop Digital Flood Insurance 

Rate Maps (DFIRMS) for the St. Marks River watershed. New DFIRMS have been developed for 

Leon County, and map development for Jefferson and Wakulla counties will continue through 

2009. The DFIRMS will be publically available in electronic format.

Preservation of critical lands and habitats – Through the SWIM program, District staff will identify

and map priority areas for land and habitat protection. Groundwater recharge areas, wetlands, 

floodplains, and riparian habitats must be protected in order to sustain and improve the quality and 

natural function of springs, rivers, and other water resources in the basin. Associated with the

protection of lands are other public resource benefits, including fish and wildlife, recreational and 

aesthetic resources, public health benefits, useable surface and ground water resources, 

environmental resiliency, and the economic benefits of all of these.

Priority habitats and areas for preservation may include:

Protective buffers along riparian areas and karst features, including mapped underlying 

cave systems

Wetlands and floodplains

Critical recharge areas

Springs

Potential wetland mitigation sites

Implementation may be achieved through a variety of nonstructural measures:

Developing a land acquisition plan for protection of water resources and functions

Coordination of planning initiatives which direct land acquisition initiatives

Acquisition of conservation lands and easements, with emphasis on public access together 

with resource protection, enhancement, and restoration

Private landowner initiatives

Public education and outreach

Ecological restoration – Basin-wide priorities for restoration of existing resources may be 

indentified through monitoring, local knowledge, remote sensing, and onsite surveys. Watershed 

resource restoration is inclusive of wetland, lake, hydrologic, floodplain, vegetation, and aquatic

habitat restoration. Potential restoration projects may include removal of sediments from Lake 

Munson and elimination of legacy pollutant loading affecting this waterbody; stream, wetland, and 

riparian habitat restoration; and mitigation projects. 

Public education and outreach – Public education and outreach efforts are important to all aspects 

of watershed resource protection. Information may be provided through a variety of media, 

including the Internet, brochures, documents, presentations, and participation in public events. 
St. Marks River Watershed SWIM Plan

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Topics may include personal practices for preventing NPS pollution and preservation of critical 

habitats on private lands. Modern flood maps will be made available to the public, as well as to 

local governments and others. Additionally, public education and awareness efforts concerning 

watershed management help to develop public support for watershed initiatives through enhanced 

understanding of the issues involved and management approaches.

Reuse of reclaimed water – Treated wastewater and stormwater may prove to be feasible as a

resource for landscape irrigation, agricultural crops, and other non-potable water needs. In 

addition to reducing demand on potable water supply sources and maximizing efficiency, reuse of 

reclaimed water may provide benefits for water quality and may enhance water available for 

natural systems when properly applied. Due to treatment requirements and distribution of 

reclaimed water over a wider treatment area, for example, reuse can reduce watershed loading of 

nutrients and other pollutants. Additionally, reuse distribution can increase beneficial ground water 

recharge over a relatively broad area of the watershed. Future reuse application should be located 

within suitable areas based on hydrogeologic and land use considerations. Additional needs 

include appropriate application and careful monitoring.
St. Marks River Watershed SWIM Plan

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5.0 IMPLEMENTATION FUNDING AND ANNUAL WORK PLAN

Funding is budgeted annually for implementation of SWIM projects. An annual work plan of 

planned and project level funding for SWIM plan implementation is provided under separate cover 

and included within Chapter VIII of the District’s March 1st Consolidated Annual Report.5 

By working through complementary programs, as described above, SWIM plan implementation 

integrates and leverages a variety of funding sources. Direct funding to the District may be 

provided from:

 Water Management Lands Trust Fund, s. 373.59 F.S.

 Water Protection and Sustainability Program Trust Fund (if funded by the Legislature for 

SWIM), 403.890 F.S.

 Florida Forever Trust Fund (construction only), s. 259.1051 F.S.

 Legislative special appropriations, s. 373.459 F.S.

 Local government funding

 Florida Springs Initiative

 Other state and federal grant funds such as the 319H grant program.

Associated program funding, which complements and furthers implementation of this plan, may be 

indirectly provided by:

 Florida Department of Transportation mitigation funding, where appropriate, 373.4137 F.S.

 Water Protection and Sustainability Program Trust Fund, Alternative Water Supply (for 

construction of reuse facilities, and potentially other alternative water supply and water 

resource development projects), s. 373.1961 and s. 403.890 F.S.

 Environmental Resource Permitting Program (ERP), s. 373.4145 F.S. and s. 62-346, F.A.C.

 Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Map Mod

 

5 www.nwfwmd.state.fl.us/pubs/consolidatedAR/consolAR.html
St. Marks River Watershed SWIM Plan

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6.0 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES

Agharahimi, H. 2006. EcoSummary: Wakulla Springs Stream Health. 2006. Tallahassee: Florida 

Department of Environmental Protection Environmental Assessment.

ftp.dep.state.fl.us/pub/labs/lds/reports/7610.pdf

Allan, J.D., D.L. Erickson, and J. Faye. 1997. ―The Influence of Catchment Land Use on Stream 

Integrity Across Multiple Spatial Scales.‖ Freshwater Biology 37: 149-161.

Arthur, J.D., A.E. Baker, J.R. Cichon, A.R. Wood, and A. Rudin. 2005. Florida Aquifer 

Vulnerability Assessment (FAVA): Contamination Potential of Florida’s Principal Aquifer System. 

Tallahassee: Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Florida Geological Survey.

ftp.dep.state.fl.us/pub/geo/hydrogeology/fava/fava_final_dep_report/FAVA_REPORT_MASTER_D

OC_3-21-05.pdf. See also www.dep.state.fl.us/geology/programs/hydrogeology/fava.htm.

Barrios, K. 2006. St. Marks River and Wakulla River Springs Inventory: Leon and Wakulla 

Counties, Florida. Havana: Northwest Florida Water Management District. Water Resources 

Special Report 06-3. www.nwfwmd.state.fl.us/rmd/springs/Wakulla_StMarks/index.htm

Bartel, R.L. and F.B. Ard. 1992. U.S. EPA Clean Lakes Program, Phase I: Diagnostic Feasibility 

Report for Lake Munson. Havana: Northwest Florida Water Management District. Water 

Resources Special Report 92-4.

Berndt, M.P., E.T. Oaksford, G. Mahon and W. Schmidt. 1998. Groundwater. Pp. 38-63 in Water 

Resources Atlas of Florida. Fernald, E.A. and E.D. Perdum (eds.). Tallahassee: Institute of 

Science and Public Affairs, Florida State University.

Castellanos, M. and P.F. Detscher. 1998. The St. Marks Outreach Regional Collaboration Plan, a 

Collaborative-Watershed-Action Plan (“The St.ORC Plan”). Pensacola: Florida Department of 

Environmental Protection, Northwest District.

Chanton, J. P. 2008. Woodville Basin Tracer Study, FDEP Agreement No: WM926, Wakulla 

County Septic Tank Study. Tallahassee: Florida State University, Department of Oceanography.

Charbonneau, M. 2008. Big Bend Seagrasses Aquatic Preserve Manager. Personal 

communication, January 2008.

Chelette, A., T.R. Pratt, and J. Godin. 2002a. Florida Springs Initiative, FY2001-2002 Final Report. 

Havana, Florida: Northwest Florida Water Management District, Technical File Report 02-01. 

www.nwfwmd.state.fl.us/pubs/florida_springs/flasprgs0102.htm

Chelette, A., T.R. Pratt, and B.G. Katz. 2002b. Nitrate Loading as an Indicator of Nonpoint Source 

Pollution in the Lower St. Marks-Wakulla Rivers Watershed. Havana: Northwest Florida Water 

Management District. Water Resources Special Report 02-1.

www.nwfwmd.state.fl.us/pubs/nitrate/wrsp02-1.htm

Davis, H. 1996. Hydrologic Investigation and Simulation of Ground-Water Flow in the Upper 

Floridan Aquifer of North-Central Florida and Southwestern Georgia and Delineation of 

Contributing Areas for Selected City of Tallahassee, Florida, Water-Supply Wells. U.S. Geological 

Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 95-4296.
St. Marks River Watershed SWIM Plan

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Florida Department of Community Affairs and Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 

2002. Protecting Florida’s Springs: Land Use Planning Strategies and Best Management 

Practices. Tallahassee: Florida Springs Task Force.

Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 1997. Biological Assessment of the 

Effectiveness of Forestry Best Management Practices: Okaloosa, Gadsden, Taylor, and Clay 

Counties. Tallahassee: Division of Administrative and Technical Services.

Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 1999. ―Ground Water – Surface Water

Interaction in a Coastal Watershed.‖ Florida Geology Forum, Vol. 13, No. 2. Tallahassee: Florida 

Geological Survey. www.dep.state.fl.us/geology/news/forum99_2.pdf

Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 2001. Basin Status Report: Ochlockonee and 

St. Marks. Division of Water Resource Management.

Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 2003. Water Quality Assessment Report, 

Ochlockonee and St. Marks. Tallahassee: Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 

Division of Water Resource Management, Bureau of Watershed Management.

ftp://ftp.dep.state.fl.us/pub/water/basin411/stmarks/assessment/Ochlockonee-GP1AR-WEBX.pdf

Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 2008. Notice of Permit to the City of Tallahassee 

for the T.P. Smith Wastewater Reuse Facility. Pensacola: Florida Department of Environmental 

Protection, Northwest District Office.

Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 2009. Ochlockonee/St. Marks Basin Group 1 

Verified List.

www.dep.state.fl.us/water/watersheds/assessment/docs/303d/group1/adopted/cycle2/stmarksverified-c2.pdf

Florida Department of Health. 2008. Tallahassee: Florida Department of Health, Florida Healthy 

Beaches Program. Wakulla County data:

esetappsdoh.doh.state.fl.us/irm00beachwater/beachresults.aspx?county=Wakulla 

Florida Department of Natural Resources. 1988. Big Bend Seagrasses Aquatic Preserve and Big 

Bend Marsh Buffer Management Plan. Tallahassee: Division of State Lands.

www.dep.state.fl.us/coastal/sites/bigbend/

Florida Department of Transportation. 1999. Florida Land Use, Cover, and Forms Classification 

System. Florida Department of Transportation Surveying and Mapping Office, Geographic 

Mapping Section.

Handley, L., D. Altsman, and R. DeMay, eds. 2007. Seagrass Status and Trends in the Northern 

Gulf of Mexico: 1940–2002. Reston: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2006-

5287 and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 855-R-04-003. 

pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2006/5287/

Harden, H. S., R. Eberhard, M. Hooks, J.P. Chanton. 2008. ―Evaluation of onsite sewage 

treatment and disposal systems in shallow karst terrain.‖ Water Research 42 (2008) 2585-2597.
St. Marks River Watershed SWIM Plan

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Harper, H. H. 1994. Estimation of Stormwater Loading Rate Parameters for Central and South 

Florida. Orlando: Environmental Research and Design, Inc.

Harrington, J. and J. Guo. 2007. OSTDS and Decentralized Systems Wastewater Treatment 

Program. Tallahassee: Florida State University Center for Economic Forecasting and Analysis. 

Phase I Report, Planning Area Characteristics.

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Phase II Report

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Harrington, J. and T.L. Walton, Jr. 2007. Climate Change in Coastal Areas in Florida: Sea Level 

Rise Estimation and Economic Analysis to Year 2080. Tallahassee: Florida State University 

Center for Economic Forecasting and Analysis and Beaches and Shores Resource Center. 

www.cefa.fsu.edu/uploaded%20current%20projects/ncep.pdf

Kimley-Horn and Associates, Inc. 2008. Wakulla County Evaluation and Appraisal Report, 

January 2008. Crawfordville, Fla. Wakulla County Board of County Commissioners.

www.mywakulla.com/docs/EAR/WakullaCountyRevisedEAR.pdf

Kinkaid, T.R. 2003. ―Groundwater Tracing in the Woodville Karst Plain - Part I: An Overview of 

Groundwater Tracing.‖ DIR Quest (Journal of the Global Underwater Explorers), Vol. 4, No. 4. 

www.hazlett-kincaid.com/HTML/main.htm

Lake Munson Action Team. 1994. Lake Munson Action Plan: Restoring and Preserving for 

Future Generations. Produced for Leon County Board of County Commissioners, January 1994.

Lane, E. 2001. The Spring Creek Submarine Springs Group. Florida Geological Survey Special 

Publication No. 47.

Lewis, F.G., N.D. Wooten, and R.L. Bartel. 2009. Lower St. Marks River/Wakulla River/Apalachee 

Bay Resource Characterization: With a Discussion of Freshwater Dependent Habitats and 

Species (Draft). Havana: Northwest Florida Water Management District. Water Resources 

Special Report 09-Draft.

Loper, D.E., D. Landing, C.D. Pollman, and A.B. Chan Hilton. 2005. Degradation of Water Quality 

at Wakulla Springs, Florida: Assessment and Recommendations. Tallahassee: Florida Department 

of Environmental Protection, Florida Geological Survey. Special Publication 58 – 2006.

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Maristany, A.E., R.L. Bartel, and D. Wiley. 1988. Water Quality Evaluation of Lake Munson. 

Havana: Northwest Florida Water Management District. Water Resources Assessment 88-1.

McGlynn Laboratories, Inc., MACTEC, Tallahassee-Leon County GIS, Ardaman and Associates. 

2006. Woodville Recharge Basin Aquifer Protection Study, Phase III Final Report. Board of Leon 

County Commissioners. BC-07-19-02-29. www.mcglynnlabs.com/WRBPhaseIII.html

McGlynn, S.E. 2006. Leon County Lakes Ecology, Lake Munson. Tallahassee: McGlynn 

Laboratories, Inc. www.mcglynnlabs.com/LakeMunson.pdf
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Mossa, J. 1998. ―Groundwater.‖ Pp. 38-63 in Water Resources Atlas of Florida. Fernald, E.A. 

and E.D. Perdum (eds.). Tallahassee: Institute of Science and Public Affairs, Florida State 

University.

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Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences.

Northwest Florida Water Management District. 1998. Land Use, Management Practices, and 

Water Quality in the Apalachicola River and Bay Watershed. Havana: Northwest Florida Water 

Management District. Water Resources Assessment 98-1.

Northwest Florida Water Management District. 2005. District Water Management Plan. Havana: 

Northwest Florida Water Management District. Program Development Series 05-1. 

www.nwfwmd.state.fl.us/pubs/dwmp2005/dwmp05.htm

Northwest Florida Water Management District. 2006. Surface Water Improvement and 

Management Program Priority List. Havana: Northwest Florida Water Management District. 

Program Development Series 06-2. www.nwfwmd.state.fl.us/rmd/swimpriority%20list%202-06.pdf

Northwest Florida Water Management District. 2008. 2008 Water Supply Assessment Update. 

December 2008. Havana: Northwest Florida Water Management District. Water Resources 

Assessment 08-2.

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2009. www.nwfwmd.state.fl.us/pubs/consolidatedAR/consolAR.html

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Seepage on Nutrient Delivery and Seagrass Distribution in the Northeastern Gulf of Mexico.‖ 

Estuaries, Vol. 22, No. 4. P. 1033-1040.

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Management Plan. Havana: Northwest Florida Water Management District. Program 

Development Series 97-1.

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Assessment and Management Options. St. Petersburg: Florida Department of Environmental 

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APPENDIX: RELATED AND SUPPORTING INITIATIVES

Local Initiatives

a) Leon County — In 1992 Leon County initiated an Aquifer Protection Program, as 

specified in its Aquifer/Wellhead Protection Ordinance, to prevent contamination of 

the aquifer in Leon County. In 2005, the county updated its Aquifer Protection Code:

www.talgov.com/you/water/pdf/aquifer_protection_code_2006.pdf.

Leon County has also completed the Leon County Aquifer Vulnerability 

Assessment (LAVA) to provide a science-based management tool to help minimize 

adverse impacts on ground-water quality. Additional information may be found at

www.adgeo.net/lava.php.

The City of Tallahassee in 2006 signed an agreement to invest more than $160 

million over six years to convert two wastewater facilities to advanced wastewater 

treatment, reducing the flow of nutrients into Wakulla Springs by 75 percent and 

significantly improving the quality of reuse water.

In 2008 the City of Tallahassee enacted a pet waste ordinance that requires pet 

owners to remove and properly dispose of their pet’s fecal matter from public areas 

(Ordinance Number 08-O-23AA). This was a response to concern about coliform 

bacteria reported in area waters.

In 2009 the City of Tallahassee adopted a fertilizer use ordinance that sets forth 

specific management guidelines to minimize environmental effects. The ordinance 

requires training and licensing of applicators (Ordinance Number 08-O-72AA).

Amendments to the Tallahassee-Leon County Comprehensive Plan that provide 

further watershed protections were adopted in January 2009. Local ordinances to 

implement policies of the Comprehensive Plan are under development. City and 

county government have already adopted ordinances establishing a Primary 

Springs Protection Zone, to become effective upon the effective date of the 

Comprehensive Plan amendments.

The Tallahassee–Leon County Watershed Protection Initiative is seeking to 

address flood control and watershed protection through stormwater capital 

improvement projects. The Initiative is under the guidance of the Watershed 

Management Policy Board, established to coordinate watershed management plans 

of the City of Tallahassee and Leon County. Both Lakes Munson and Lafayette are 

included in the capital improvement plan. For more information, see

www.leoncountyfl.gov/wpi/home.html.

Tallahassee-Leon County Blueprint 2000 pledged to protect Lake Munson and Lake 

Lafayette through funding from a local option one cent sales tax. Included in the plan 

are several projects for stormwater improvement to these lakes and associated 

waterways. The plan also includes projects for ground water and floodplain 

protection. For more information, see www.blueprint2000.org/home.html. 

Additionally, as noted above, Blueprint 2000 has entered into agreement with the 

District to jointly pursue environmentally sensitive lands in the St. Marks River 

watershed for acquisition.
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b) Wakulla County — In July 1994, Wakulla County passed the Wakulla Springs 

Water Quality Protection Ordinance. The ordinance requires registration of 

regulated substances in the special planning area and provides for inspection, 

containment, reporting, cleanup and monitoring. In April 2008, the county expanded 

the Springs Special Planning Area to include additional areas that have a 

demonstrated connection to the Wakulla Springs cave system.

An aquifer vulnerability assessment is under development in Wakulla County by 

Advanced GeoSpatial Inc. Version 1.3 is under review with the Florida Geological 

Survey, and when finalized will be available on the FGS web site.

www.dep.state.fl.us/geology/programs/hydrogeology/hydro_index.htm

In 2006 the county passed a wetlands protection ordinance. Ordinance 06-27 

identifies allowable and conditional uses of wetlands and wetland buffer zones, 

establishes a 75 foot natural buffer zone, provides for variances, establishes design 

standards, and provides for enforcement and penalties.

Wakulla County Ordinance 2006-58, also passed in 2006, revised the comprehensive 

plan to protect and improve water quality. Among other things, the ordinance 

requires performance-based treatment systems (PBTS) that remove a higher level 

of nitrogen (treatment standard is 10 milligrams per liter) for onsite wastewater 

treatment and disposal for all new construction. Existing septic tanks and package 

treatment plants are to discontinue service if central sewer is made available or be 

replaced with performance-based treatment systems when they fail. All septic 

systems, new and existing, are to be inspected every three years by a licensed 

contractor. Standards and guidelines are established for central wastewater 

treatment facilities in this ordinance.

On behalf of Wakulla County, Harrington and Guo’s 2007 work was an effort to 

provide citizens and officials with the best available information for decision making 

regarding the use of onsite sewage treatment and disposal systems and 

decentralized wastewater systems in order to reduce nutrients in ground water 

flowing to Wakulla Springs.

The 2006 ordinance also: adds karst buffers; requires a nitrate loading study for any 

proposed development greater than one acre; incorporates practices of the Florida 

Yards and Neighborhoods Program and landscaping standards that promote native 

vegetation for new subdivisions; reduces nitrates from public facilities; and, 

addresses stormwater, water conservation, wastewater facilities, treated wastewater

reuse, and natural water flows.

The County’s January 2008 Evaluation and Appraisal Report specifies several 

areas of the Land Development Code, the Comprehensive Plan and

intergovernmental coordination to be addressed to protect environmental resources. 

Among the needed actions are monitoring impacts of multi-state water transfers; 

inventory of water, sewer and stormwater systems; countywide stormwater planning; 

a master plan for centralized or retrofit sewer systems; strengthening buffer 

regulations; a coastal management plan; preservation of habitat corridors; and, 

promoting smart development methods.

www.mywakulla.com/docs/EAR/WakullaCountyRevisedEAR.pdf
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Wakulla County, in cooperation with the District, is funding the Wakulla Gardens 

Stormwater Project, an NPS water quality improvement and stormwater management 

plan for this historic subdivision.

c) Jefferson County — The county’s comprehensive plan requires a 100 foot buffer 

around sinkholes and caves to protect ground water. Drainage wells are not allowed 

that dispose of stormwater into recharge areas of potable water aquifers. Untreated 

stormwater discharge is not allowed into natural water bodies; however, septic 

systems continue to be allowed in flood areas. Buffer widths of 100 feet are required 

for rivers, streams and lakes.

State and Regional Initiatives

a) Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) Program — The federal Clean Water Act, 

Section 303(d), is implemented in Florida under FDEP’s TMDL program to check that 

surface waters meet water quality standards. The process includes assessing water 

quality, listing impaired waters, adopting TMDLs, determining pollutant sources, and 

implementing strategies to reduce pollution. TMDLs are the thresholds of pollutants 

that a water body can assimilate and still maintain water quality standards. FDEP’s 

2002 listing of impaired waters included 16 water bodies in the St. Marks River and 

Apalachee Bay watershed, and that may increase to 24 under proposed list revisions. 

TMDLs have not yet been developed for the watershed. 

www.dep.state.fl.us/water/tmdl/index.htm

b) State Lands — The State of Florida has acquired 2,590 acres along the upper St. 

Marks River corridor for a new state park. The State plans to protect additional lands 

in this area through fee simple acquisition under the Upper St. Marks River Corridor 

Florida Forever Project. Additional acquisitions have increased the size of Edward 

Ball Wakulla Springs State Park to 6,055 acres. Nearby, the Wakulla State Forest 

has been established and is now 4,219 acres. Additional lands may be acquired 

through the Wakulla Springs Protection Zone Florida Forever Project.

c) The Florida Aquifer Vulnerability Assessment is a GIS-based model developed by 

the Florida Geological Survey to show the relative probability that an aquifer could 

become contaminated from activities on the land surface. The maps are useful in 

guiding land use decisions and in identifying ground water recharge areas in need of 

protection. www.dep.state.fl.us/geology/programs/hydrogeology/fava.htm

d) A Sensitive Karst Areas map was developed by Florida Geological Survey for use in 

the Environmental Resource Permit Applicant’s Handbook - Volume II, Engineering 

Requirements for Stormwater Treatment and Management Systems - Water Quality 

and Water Quantity. The map is used when siting proposed stormwater ponds and 

establishes additional design criteria for these structures. The designated area 

covers most of Leon and Wakulla counties.

www.dep.state.fl.us/geology/programs/hydrogeology/hydro_resources.htm#Sensitive

_Karst_Areas

e) The multi-agency Florida Springs Task Force was formed in 1999 with support of 

the Governor and Florida Legislature to address declines seen in many of the state’s 

springs. The manual Protecting Florida’s Springs: Land Use Planning Strategies and 

Best Management Practices was developed to inform land use decision makers on 
St. Marks River Watershed SWIM Plan

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strategies for protection and restoration of springs and specifies permitting 

considerations for karst areas (FDCA and FDEP 2002). In 2001, the Florida Springs 

Initiative within FDEP was established as a comprehensive, coordinated program to 

increase protection of the state’s springs. www.floridasprings.org

f) The Big Bend Seagrasses Aquatic Preserve is initiating seagrass monitoring in 

eastern Apalachee Bay, between the St. Marks and Aucilla rivers. Twenty five fixed 

sites will be monitored every other year, gathering various measurements 

(Charbonneau 2008).

g) The new Urban Turf Fertilizer Rule of the Florida Department of Agriculture and 

Consumer Services requires that fertilizer products for urban lawns and sports turf 

limit the amounts of nitrogen and phosphorous to that needed for healthy turf 

maintenance. This should reduce nutrients entering our water resources. 

www.flaes.org/complimonitoring/fertilizer.html

h) Coastal Change Planning — The Century Commission for a Sustainable Florida is 

developing technical information, recommendations, and policy proposals related to 

climate change, emerging sustainability technologies, and coastal resiliency in 

Florida. Related documents and information are at 

www.centurycommission.org/current_projects.asp. Two publications to assist 

community leaders and planners address the vulnerability of coastal areas and water 

resources have been developed by the Texas Coastal Watershed Program: The 

Resilient Coast: Policy frameworks for adapting the built environment to climate 

change and growth in coastal areas of the U.S. Gulf of Mexico6, and The Resilient 

Coast: Policy frameworks for adapting the Wetlands to climate change and growth in 

coastal areas of the U.S. Gulf of Mexico7.

 

6 www.urban-nature.org/publications/documents/TheBuiltEnvironment08-sm_000.pdf

7 www.urban-nature.org/publications/documents/ResilentCoastWetlands-sm.pdf
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