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Prota 14: Vegetable oils/Oleagineux 

Record display 

Brassica carinata A.Braun 

Protologue 

Flora 24: 267 (1841). 

Family 

Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) 

Chromosome number 

2n=34 

Synonyms 

Brassica integrifolia (H.West) Rupr. var. carinata (A.Braun) 

O.E.Schulz (1919). 

Vernacular names 

Ethiopian kale, Ethiopian mustard, Ethiopian rape, Abyssinian 

mustard (En). Chou ethiopien, moutarde d'Abyssinie (Fr). Figiri 

(Sw). 

Origin and geographic distribution 

Brassica carinata is an amphidiploid with one genome from 

Bras sica nigra (L.) Koch and the other from Bras sica oleracea L. 

Ethiopia is the centre of genetic diversity of Brassica carinata, and 

its cultivation is thought to have started there about 4000 years BC. 

Truly wild types are not known, but Brassica carinata often escapes 

from cultivation. In the literature it has been much confused with 

Brassicajuncea (L.) Czern., and therefore its exact distribution in 

Africa is difficult to indicate. The cultivation of Brassica carinata 

as an oil crop is restricted to Ethiopia, but as a leafy vegetable it is 

often grown in East and southern Africa, less so in West and Central 

Africa. 

Uses 

In most parts of Africa, the primary use of Brassica carinata is as a 

cooked leafy vegetable, whereas in Ethiopia, where it is called 

'gomen zer' in Amarainya, the seed oil is of major importance too. 

Outside Africa, especially in western and southern Asia, it is 

occasionally grown as an oilseed crop or for mustard. The seeds are 

crushed and the oil is used for cooking and in the mustard industry. 

The oil has limitations for cooking because of high contents of 

glucosinolates and erucic acid. In Ethiopia it is used for oiling the 

baking plates of earthenware ' injera' stoves. It is also used for 

illumination. The seed is used in folk medicine to treat stomachache. People in Ethiopia use the sharp-tasting seeds as a spice to 

flavour raw meat. The crop is occasionally used as fodder for 

livestock and the seeds to feed birds. The seed cake is used as high 

protein food for animals, although the presence of glucosinolates is 

a limiting factor. Of late, there has been an interest in utilizing the 

oil, like other Brassica seed oils, as a biodiesel and for the 

preparation of special erucic acid derivatives. 

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planted and naturalized 

1, habit of young plant; 2, 

flowering and fruiting branch; 

3,fruit. 

Redrawn and adapted by Jskak 

Syamsudin 

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Production and international trade 

Production of Brassica carinata for its seed is important only in 

Ethiopia; production in Canada and the Mediterranean region is still 

mainly experimental. As a leafy vegetable it is mostly grown as a 

kitchen garden crop, although in Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia and to a 

lesser extent in Zimbabwe it is also grown as a market crop. Its use 

as a leaf crop appears to be declining because of higher yielding leaf 

cabbage (Brassica oleracea) and leaf mustard (Brassicajuncea). No 

statistical data on its production are known. 

Properties 

There is no information on the nutritional composition of Brassica 

carinata leaves, but it is probably comparable to Brassica juncea. 

The seeds are rich in oil, containing 2S-4 7% depending on cultivar 

and growing conditions; the protein content is also high, 2S-4S% 

and comparable to that of pulses. The oil consists of: erucic acid 3S44%, linoleic acid 1S-22%, linolenic acid 16-20%, oleic acid 10-

12%, eicosenoic acid 7-9% and palmitic acid 2-4%. Lines 

containing oil without erucic acid have been developed through 

cross-breeding with Bras sica juncea and Brassica napus L. and 

through mutagenesis. The seeds have a high content of 

glucosinolates (100-200 Jlmoles/g), almost exclusively sinigrin, 

which has antioxidant but also goitrogenic properties. The 

phytoalexin brassilexin and several of its precursors are synthesized 

by Brassica carinata in response to attack by the blackleg pathogen 

Leptosphaeria maculans, which may explain its resistance to it. 

Adulterations and substitutes 

The Brassica carinata leaf crop can be replaced by the various types 

ofleaf cabbage (Brassica oleracea) or leaf mustard (Brassica 

juncea ), the seed crop by Brassica juncea, Brassica napus or 

Brassica nigra. 

Description 

Erect, annual or occasionally biennial or perennial herb up to 1 SO(-

200) em tall, usually branched, glabrous to slightly hairy at stem and 

petiole bases, slightly glaucous; taproot strong. Leaves alternate, 

usually simple, lower ones sometimes with 1 pair of small side lobes 

at base; stipules absent; all leaves with short petiole; blade obovate, 

up to 20 em x 10 em, double-crenulate but upper ones often more or 

less entire. Inflorescence initially a rather loose umbel-like raceme 

but soon elongating, up to SO em long. Flowers bisexual, regular, 4-

merous; pedicel ascending, S-12 mm long; sepals oblong, 4-6(-7) 

mm long, green; petals obovate, 6-10 mm long, clawed, pale to 

bright yellow; stamens 6; ovary superior, cylindrical, 2-celled, 

stigma globose. Fruit a linear silique 2.S--6 em x 2-3.S mm, often 

somewhat constricted between the seeds, with a conical beak 2-6(-

7) mm long, dehiscent, up to 20-seeded. Seeds globose, 1-1.S mm 

in diameter, finely reticulated, pale to dark brown. Seedling with 

epigeal germination, with a strong main root and fibrous lateral 

roots; hypocotyl2-3 em long, epicotyl very short; cotyledons 

broadly obovate, c. 2.S em long, dark green. 

Other botanical information 

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plant habit 

~ 

Ethiopian kale in homegarden 

the distinctly broad siliques 

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Three wild Brassica species are found in the Mediterranean region: 

Bras sica nigra (L.) Koch (black mustard) with the basic 

chromosome number n = 8 (B genome), Brassica oleracea L. 

(cabbage) with n = 9 (C genome) and Brassica rapa L. (turnip) with 

n = 10 (A genome). Brassica carinata is considered an 

amphidiploid hybrid between Brassica nigra and Brassica oleracea, 

with genomes BBCC, 2n = 34. The hybridization may have 

occurred on several occasions; genetic evidence indicates that in all 

cases Brassica nigra has been the female parent. Bras sica juncea is 

an amphidiploid hybrid between Brassica nigra and Brassica rapa 

with 2n = 36. It is often confused with Brassica carinata and 

information can not always be attributed to either of these species 

with certainty. The lower leaves of Brassicajuncea usually have 

more lobes and its fruit beak is longer (usually> 6 mm). 

Growth and development 

The time from sowing to emergence of the seedling is about 5 days, 

depending on temperature and soil moisture. Plants develop an 

extensive root system, larger than in other Brassica species. In 

general, large-leaved cultivars have fewer branches than smallleaved ones. There is a difference in first flowering date between oil 

types and vegetable types; oil types start flowering about 10 weeks 

after germination, vegetable cultivars after about 12 weeks, 

depending on cultivar and growing conditions. Flowering of 

vegetable cultivars is delayed by regular harvesting of leaves or 

young shoots. Plants grown in dry regions flower earlier and 

produce ripe seeds within 4 months from sowing. Vegetable crops 

grown with adequate moisture produce seeds in 5-6 months. Some 

tall cultivars, when grown with adequate moisture, may develop 

new shoots after removal of the infructescences and become 

perennial, normally for one further season, but plants of up to 4 

years old have been recorded. Most Brassica species are crosspollinating, which contributes to the great diversity within species. 

Brassica carinata is an exception as it sets seed very efficiently 

through self-pollination without insects acting as pollinators. It does 

not need low temperatures for flower initiation, and seed production 

is therefore much easier in Africa than for most Brassica oleracea 

leaf cabbages except for Portuguese kale. 

Ecology 

Ethiopian kale is rather versatile and can be found in highland 

regions up to 2600 m with a cool climate, but also in lowlands with 

relatively warm and dry conditions. It grows best in the dry season 

under irrigation when there are few pests and diseases. The crop is 

suited to a wide range of soils and especially the oil crop is often 

grown in marginal areas; the vegetable crop is mostly grown on 

more fertile soils. Ethiopian kale can grow from the equator to 

Canada and appears to be daylength neutral. It is sensitive to salt 

and seeds may not germinate in soils with an above average salinity 

level. Waterlogging is not tolerated. 

Propagation and planting 

Propagation is normally by seed and rarely through cuttings. The 

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weight of 1000 seeds is 3-5 g. When grown for the leaves, sowing 

in a nursery and transplanting are widely practised. Seedbeds are 

normally raised above the soil to reduce the incidence of damping 

off. The top layer is dug and some well-fermented manure is worked 

in to produce a friable soil. Seeds are drilled in the nursery in lines 

15-20 em apart. Watering in the nursery should be done with a fine 

rose. Farmers may cover the seedbeds with long grass or similar 

material to keep the surface moist and dark. When the cotyledons 

have spread after germination, this mulch is removed or placed next 

to the plantlets. Seedlings can be transplanted at the 4-leaf stage, 

about 5 weeks after germination. When seedlings become too tall, 

they may become spindly and unlikely to develop into strong plants. 

The field spacing is about 35-40 em within and 50-60 em between 

rows, depending on the plant size. Near Nairobi (Kenya) the space 

between rows is interplanted with shallot, parsley and the leafy 

vegetable Crotalaria sp. When grown as an oil crop, seeds are sown 

directly in lines or broadcast when a short-duration leaf crop is 

aimed for. 

Management 

Ethiopian kale responds well to organic manure of up to 20 tlha. 

Most farmers find it easier to incorporate chemical fertilizers in the 

plant beds at the rate of about 100 kg Nand 30 kg P. Higher levels 

of nitrogen will increase proteins and enhance leaf production, 

whereas more phosphorous will enhance the seed production 

potential. Some vegetable farmers will therefore increase the initial 

amount to 300 kg N, whereas others give a fortnightly side dressing 

of 50 kg Nat a time. For oilseed production, all fertilizers are 

incorporated at planting and no topdressing is given. For leaf 

production regular irrigation is necessary when it is not raining since 

water stress induces early flowering. When the crop is sown at the 

onset of the rains, attack by pests and diseases will be severe. To 

avoid such attacks, it is recommended that the crop be sown 5-6 

weeks before rains are expected so that the crop can be transplanted 

at the onset of the rains. 

Diseases and pests 

Ethiopian kale is sensitive to turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) and 

especially the leaf crop is vulnerable. TuMV is transmitted by a 

range of aphids, of which the cabbage aphid Brevicoryne brassicae 

and the green peach aphid Myzus persicae are the most important. 

Oilseed types with bluish leaves have a thicker layer ofleafwax 

than green-leaved vegetable types and it has been noticed that leaf 

wax keeps aphids at bay to some extent. Leaf wax is also associated 

with the level of tolerance to Alternaria leaf spot (Alternaria 

brassicae ). Ethiopian kale is susceptible to black rot (Xanthomonas 

campestris), black spot (Alternaria brassicicola), and to damping 

off and seedling root rot (Rhizoctonia solani). Cultivar 'Nanga' 

from Zambia has shown tolerance to black rot. Ethiopian kale is 

tolerant to black leg disease Leptosphaeria maculans (asexual form: 

Phoma lingam). White rust (Albugo candida) is mainly found on 

vegetable cultivars, but not in the oil crop. Xanthomonas, 

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Alternaria, Phoma and Rhizoctonia are seedborne diseases, so a 

reliable seed source is most important, but these diseases are also 

retained in the soil so appropriate crop rotation is also essential. To 

avoid black rot, production during the rainy season is not 

recommended. The best disease control is proper management 

rather than a spraying regime with agro-chemicals. 

Diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) is less problematic on 

Ethiopian kale than on cabbages and cauliflower. Other pests 

include caterpillars of the cabbage butterfly (Pieris brassicae) and 

the grubs of mustard sawfly (Athalia proxima), a pest that is 

particularly important at the seedling stage. Other pests are the 

cabbage and mustard aphid (Hyadaphis pseudobrassicae, synonym: 

Lipaphis erysimi), cabbage weevil (Lixus sp. ), flea beetles 

(Phyllotreta spp.), and hurricane bug (Bagrada cruciferarum). 

Harvesting 

There are several ways to harvest this vegetable. Plants from seeds 

that were broadcast at high density can be harvested by uprooting 

the whole plant 6 weeks after sowing. This method is normally used 

when the land is needed for another crop. For a conventional crop, 

the first harvest takes place about S weeks after transplanting. Leaf 

harvesting is best done once in 2 weeks with SO% defoliation. 

Small-leaved cultivars are often collected in the form of shoots 

rather than as individual leaves. 

Seed crops are harvested when the fruits turn brown. 

Infructescences are cut and placed on a tarpaulin or similar sheet, 

where they are allowed to dry without risk of seed shattering. The 

crop is then threshed and winnowed. 

Yield 

The farmer can expect an average leaf and shoot yield of3S tlha, but 

at research stations leaf yields of SO-S S tlha have been reported, 

depending on production season and cultivar. In India and Canada 

farmers may get seed yields of 1200-1800 kg/lm in a good year. 

Handling after harvest 

The leaves are rather perishable and wilt or become yellow when 

left on the shelf for more than a day. Farmers therefore harvest 

small quantities at a time. To retain freshness, the leaves are kept 

moist inside a bag that is left in the shade or in a cool place. When 

the product is offered as whole plants with roots, traders place the 

roots in water and plants can thus be kept for a few days. 

Genetic resources 

The genetic diversity in Brassica carinata based on molecular DNA 

markers is much less than in Brassica juncea. In spite of the 

comparatively small variation in Brassica carinata, there are many 

landraces for both the oilseed and the leafy vegetable types, 

differing in earliness, plant structure, leaf size, shape and structure, 

seed yield, and glucosinolate and erucic acid levels in the seed. 

There is a need for further collection, conservation and evaluation of 

this diversity before farmers start using new cultivars at the expense 

of their traditionallandraces. A collection is maintained at the 

Centre for Genetic Resources (CGN), Wageningen, Netherlands. 

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Working collections are available at research institutes in Ethiopia, 

Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. 

Breeding 

In Africa some breeding work has been done and several selections 

have been made in Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Selection 

criteria are leaf size, late bolting, reduced susceptibility to major 

diseases and pests, and high yield. Well-known cultivars are 'White 

Figiri', 'Purple Figiri', 'Lushoo', 'Mbeya Green' and the largeleaved 'Lambo' from Tanzania, 'RRS-V' from Zimbabwe, 

'Chibanga' and 'NIRS-2' from Zambia. 'TAMU Tex Sel' is a 

vegetable cultivar released in Texas (United States). In Zambia, 

Ethiopian kale has been crossed with Portuguese cabbage and with 

Brassica nigra. More breeding work has taken place on cultivars 

used for oilseed, mainly in Canada, India and Italy. Low erucic acid 

and glucosinolate content and high seed yield are major selection 

criteria. 

Prospects 

Ethiopian kale is a leafy vegetable and oil crop that is fully adapted 

to African conditions and has a high potential. There are many 

different landraces, allowing the breeder ample scope for 

advancement. Seed production by farmers themselves is easy, but 

the availability of reliable and healthy commercial seed would also 

benefit farmers. If no action is taken soon, this species will 

gradually disappear, and be replaced by new cultivars of especially 

Brassicajuncea and loose-leaved types of Brassica oleracea, for 

which more research has been done and which receive more 

attention from breeders. 

Major references 

• Alemayehu, N. & Becker, H., 2002. Genotypic diversity and 

patterns of variation in a germplasm material of Ethiopian mustard 

(Brassica carinata A. Braun). Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 

49: 573-582. 

• Getinet, A., Rakow, G. & Downey, R.K., 1996. Agronomic 

performance and seed quality of Ethiopian mustard in 

Saskatchewan. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 76: 387-392. 

• Getinet, A., Rakow, G., Raney, J.P. & Downey, R.K., 1997. 

Glucosinolate content in interspecific crosses ofBrassica carinata 

with B. juncea and B. napus. Plant Breeding 116: 39-46. 

• Getinet, A., Rakow, G., Raney, J.P. & Downey, R.K., 1997. The 

inheritance of erucic acid content in Ethiopian mustard. Canadian 

Journal ofPlant Science 77: 33-41. 

• Maundu, P.M., Ngugi, G.W. & Kabuye, C.H.S., 1999. Traditional 

food plants of Kenya. Kenya Resource Centre for Indigenous 

Knowledge (KENRIK), Nairobi, Kenya. 270 pp. 

• Mingochi, D.S. & Jensen, A., 1988. Reaction of rape and 

Ethiopian mustard selections to blackrot and turnip mosaic virus 

(TuMV) in Zambia. Acta Horticulturae 218: 289-294. 

• Mnzava, N.A. & Msikita, W.W., 1988. Leafyield response of 

Ethiopian mustard (Brassica carinata A. Br.) selections to 

defoliation regimes. Acta Horticulturae 218: 77-81. 

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• Mnzava, N.A. & Olsson, K., 1990. Studies in tropical vegetables: 

Part 1. Seed amino, fatty acid and glucosinolates profile of 

Ethiopian mustards (Brassica carinata Braun). IBPGR 1990. Food 

Chemistry 35: 229-235. 

• Msikita, W.W. & Mnzava, N.A., 1988. Comparitive field 

performance of mustard, tronchuda and kale during mild winters in 

Zambia. Acta Horticulturae 218: 59-61. 

• Schippers, R.R., 2002. African indigenous vegetables, an overview 

of the cultivated species 2002. Revised edition on CD-ROM. 

National Resources International Limited, Aylesford, United 

Kingdom. 

Other references 

• Cardone, M., Mazzoncini, M., Menini, S., Rocco, V., Senatore, A., 

Seggiani, M. & Vitolo, A., 2003. Brassica carinata as an alternative 

oil crop for the production ofbiodiesel in Italy: agronomic 

evaluation, fuel production by transesterification and 

characterization. Biomass and Bioenergy 25: 623-636. 

• Cowley, W.R., 1970. Quality ofBrassica carinata as a green leaf 

vegetable. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 

95(1): 3-5. 

• del Rio, M., de Haro, A. & Fernandez-Martinez, J.M., 2003. 

Transgressive segregation of erucic acid content in Brassica carinata 

A. Braun. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 107: 643--651. 

• Edwards, S.B., 1991. Crops with wild relatives found in Ethiopia. 

In: Engels, J.M.M., Hawkes, J.G. & Melaku-Worede (Editors). 

Plant Genetic Resources of Ethiopia. Cambridge University Press, 

Cambridge, United Kingdom. pp. 42-74. 

• F AO, 1988. Traditional food plants: a resource book for promoting 

the exploitation and consumption of food plants in arid, semi-arid 

and sub-humid lands ofEastern Africa. FAO food and nutrition 

paper 42. F AO, Rome, Italy. 593 pp. 

• Gildemacher, P., 1997. Ethiopian mustard (Brassica carinata A. 

Br.) as a leafy vegetable in Tanzania: farmers practices and possible 

improvements. Student report Wageningen University/AVRDCTengeru. Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands. 

• G6mez-Campo, C. (Editor), 1999. Biology ofBrassica 

coenospecies. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 489 pp. 

• Jonsell, B., 2000. Brassicaceae (Cruciferae). In: Edwards, S., 

Mesfin Tadesse, Demissew Sebsebe & Hedberg, I. (Editors). Flora 

ofEthiopia and Eritrea. Volume 2, part 1. Magnoliaceae to 

Flacourtiaceae. The National Herbarium, Addis Ababa University, 

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and Department of Systematic Botany, 

Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden. pp. 121-154. 

• Mathai, P.J., 1984. Vegetable growing in Zambia. Zambia Seed 

Co., Lusaka, Zambia. 344 pp. 

• Mnzava, N.A., 1986. Compensatory leaf and seed yield increase in 

vegetable mustard (Brassica carinata A. Braun) in response to 

defoliation intensity. HortScience 21(3): 723. 

• Pearson, M.N. & Bock, K.R., 1976. Notes on East African plant 

virus diseases. 10. Turnip mosaic virus. East African Agricultural 

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and Forestry Journal41: 344-348. 

• Pedras, M.S.C., Loukaci, A. & Okanga, F.I., 1998. The cruciferous 

phytoalexins brassinin and cyclobrassinin are intermediates in the 

biosynthesis of brassilexin. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry 

Letters 8: 3037-3038. 

• Seegeler, C.J.P., 1983. Oil plants in Ethiopia, their taxonomy and 

agricultural significance. Agricultural Research Reports 921. Pudoc, 

Wageningen, Netherlands. 368 pp. 

• SEPASAL, 2003. Acanthosicyos naudinianus. [Internet] Survey of 

Economic Plants for Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (SEPASAL) 

database. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, United 

Kingdom. http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/ceb/sepasal/acantho.htm. 

Accessed 24 February 2003. 

• Stephens, J.M., 1994. Mustard collard- Brassica carinata L. 

[Internet] Fact Sheet HS-629, Horticultural Sciences Department, 

Florida Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida, 

Gainesvile FL, United States. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MV096. 

Accessed March 2004. 

• Stephens, T.S., Saldana & Lime, B., 1975. Quality oftex-sal 

greens (Brassica carinata A. Br.) during maturation. Journal of the 

Rio Grande Valley Horticultural Society 29: 91-97. 

• Westphal, A. & Marguard, R., 1981. Yield and quality ofBrassica 

spp. in Ethiopia. Plant Research and Development 13: 114--127. 

Sources of illustration 

• Jonsell, B., 2000. Brassicaceae (Cruciferae). In: Edwards, S., 

Mesfin Tadesse, Demissew Sebsebe & Hedberg, I. (Editors). Flora 

ofEthiopia and Eritrea. Volume 2, part 1. Magnoliaceae to 

Flacourtiaceae. The National Herbarium, Addis Ababa University, 

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and Department of Systematic Botany, 

Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden. pp. 121-154. 

• Jonsell, B., 1982. Cruciferae. Flore de Madagascar et des 

Comores, families 84-87. Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, 

Paris, France. pp. 3-32. 

Author(s) 

• N.A. Mnzava 

Oleris Consultancy, P.O. Box 1371, Arusha, Tanzania 

• R.R. Schippers 

De Boeier 7, 3742 GD Baarn, Netherlands 

Editors 

• H.A.M. van der Vossen 

Steenuil18, 1606 CA Venhuizen, Netherlands 

• G.S. Mkamilo 

Naliendele Agricultural Research Institute, P.O. Box 509, 

Mtwara, Tanzania 

General editors 

• R.H.M.J. Lemmens 

PROT A Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. 

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Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, Netherlands 

• L.P.A. Oyen 

PROT A Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. 

Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, Netherlands 

Photo editor 

• A. de Ruijter 

PROT A Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. 

Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, Netherlands 

Correct citation of this article: 

Mnzava, N.A. & Schippers, R.R., 2007. Brassica carinata A.Braun 

In: van der Vossen, H.A.M. & Mkamilo, G.S. (Editors). PROT A 14: 

Vegetable oils/Oleagineux. [CD-Rom]. PROT A, Wageningen, 

Nether lands. 

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