4/14/2015 Protabase Record 

# Prota 14: Vegetable oils/Oleagineux Record display

Brassica carinata 

# A.Braun
Protologue Flora24: 267 (1841). 

### Family Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) 

### Chromosome number 2n=34 

### Synonyms Brassica integrifolia (H.West) Rupr. var. carinata (A.Braun) O.E.Schulz (1919). 

### Vernacular names Ethiopian kale, Ethiopian mustard, Ethiopian rape, Abyssinian mustard (En). Chou ethiopien, moutarde d'Abyssinie (Fr). Figiri (Sw). 

### Origin and geographic distribution Brassica carinata is an amphidiploid with one genome from Bras sica nigra (L.) Koch and the other from Bras sica oleracea L. Ethiopia is the centre ofgenetic diversity ofBrassica carinata, and its cultivation is thought to have started there about 4000 years BC. Truly wild types are notknown, butBrassica carinata often escapes from cultivation

. Inthe literature it has been much confused with Brassicajuncea (L.) Czern., and therefore its exact distribution in Africa is difficult to indicate. The cultivation ofBrassica carinata
as an oil crop is restricted to Ethiopia, but as a leafy vegetable it is often grown in East and southern Africa, less so in West and Central Africa. 

### Uses In most parts ofAfrica, the primary use ofBrassica carinata is as a cooked leafy vegetable, whereas in Ethiopia, where it is called 'gomen zer' in Amarainya, the seed oil is ofmajor importance too

. Outside Africa, especially in western and southern Asia, it is occasionally grown as an oilseed crop or for mustard. The seeds are crushed and the oil is used for cooking and in the mustard industry. The oil has limitations for cookingbecause ofhigh contents of glucosinolates and erucic acid

. In Ethiopia it is used for oiling the baking plates ofearthenware 'injera' stoves. It is also used for illumination. The seed is used in folk medicine to treat stomachache. People in Ethiopia use the sharp-tasting seeds as a spice to flavour raw meat. The crop is occasionally used as fodder for livestock and the seeds to feed birds. The seed cake is used as high protein food for animals, althoughthe presence ofglucosinolates is
a limiting factor. Oflate, there has been an interest in utilizing the oil, like otherBrassica seed oils, as a biodiesel and for the preparation ofspecial erucic acid derivatives. http:l/da tabase

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1, habit of young plant; 2, flowering and fruiting branch; 3,fruit. Redrawn andadaptedbyJskak Syamsudin

1/94/14/2015 Protabase Record Production and international trade Production ofBrassica carinata for its seed is important only in Ethiopia; production in Canada and the Mediterranean region is still mainly experimental. As a leafy vegetable it is mostly grown as a kitchen garden crop, although in Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia and to a lesser extent in Zimbabwe it is also grown as a market crop. Its use as a leafcrop appears to be declining because ofhigher yielding leaf cabbage (Brassica oleracea) and leafmustard (Brassicajuncea). No statistical data on its production are known. Properties There is no information on the nutritional composition ofBrassica carinata leaves, but it is probably comparable to Brassica juncea. The seeds are rich in oil, containing 2S-47% depending on cultivar and growing conditions; the protein content is also high, 2S-4S% and comparable to that ofpulses. The oil consists of: erucic acid 3S44%, linoleic acid 1S-22%, linolenic acid 16-20%, oleic acid 10- 12%, eicosenoic acid 7-9% and palmitic acid 2-4%. Lines containing oil without erucic acid have been developed through cross-breeding withBras sica juncea and Brassica napus L. and through mutagenesis. The seeds have a high content of glucosinolates (100-200 Jlmoles/g), almost exclusively sinigrin, which has antioxidant but also goitrogenic properties. The phytoalexin brassilexin and several ofits precursors are synthesized by Brassica carinata in response to attack by the blackleg pathogen Leptosphaeria maculans, which may explain its resistance to it. Adulterations and substitutes The Brassica carinata leafcrop can be replaced by the various types ofleafcabbage (Brassica oleracea) or leafmustard (Brassica juncea ), the seed crop by Brassica juncea, Brassica napus or Brassica nigra. Description Erect, annual or occasionally biennial or perennial herb up to 1 SO(- 200) em tall, usually branched, glabrous to slightly hairy at stem and petiole bases, slightly glaucous; taproot strong. Leaves alternate, usually simple, lower ones sometimes with 1pair ofsmall side lobes at base; stipules absent; all leaves with short petiole; blade obovate, up to 20 em x 10 em, double-crenulate but upper ones often more or less entire. Inflorescence initially a rather loose umbel-like raceme but soon elongating, up to SO em long. Flowers bisexual, regular, 4- merous; pedicel ascending, S-12 mm long; sepals oblong, 4-6(-7)
mm long, green; petals obovate, 6-10 mm long, clawed, pale to bright yellow; stamens 6; ovary superior, cylindrical, 2-celled, stigma globose. Fruit a linear silique 2.S--6 em x 2-3.S mm, often somewhat constricted between the seeds, with a conical beak 2-6(- 7) mm long, dehiscent, up to 20-seeded. Seeds globose, 1-1.S mm in diameter, finely reticulated, pale to dark brown. Seedling with epigeal germination, with a strong main root and fibrous lateral roots; hypocotyl2-3 em long, epicotyl very short; cotyledons broadly obovate, c. 2.S em long, dark green. Other botanical information

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.htm planthabit**~** Ethiopian kale in homegarden

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2194/14/2015 Protabase Record Three wildBrassica species are found in the Mediterranean region: Bras sica nigra (L.) Koch (black mustard) with the basic chromosome number n = 8 (B genome), Brassica oleracea L. (cabbage) with n = 9 (C genome) andBrassica rapa L. (turnip) with
n = 10 (A genome). Brassica carinata is considered an amphidiploid hybrid betweenBrassica nigra andBrassica oleracea, with genomes BBCC, 2n = 34. The hybridization may have occurred on several occasions; genetic evidence indicates that in all
cases Brassica nigra has beenthe female parent. Bras sica juncea is
an amphidiploid hybrid betweenBrassica nigra andBrassica rapa with 2n = 36. It is often confused withBrassica carinata and information can not always be attributed to either ofthese species with certainty. The lower leaves ofBrassicajuncea usually have
more lobes and its fruit beak is longer (usually> 6 mm). Growth and development The time from sowing to emergence ofthe seedling is about 5 days, depending ontemperature and soil moisture. Plants develop an extensive root system, larger than in otherBrassica species. In general, large-leaved cultivars have fewer branches than smallleaved ones. There is a difference in first flowering date between oil types and vegetable types; oil types start flowering about 10 weeks after germination, vegetable cultivars after about 12 weeks, depending on cultivar and growing conditions. Flowering of vegetable cultivars is delayed by regular harvesting ofleaves or young shoots. Plants grown in dry regions flower earlier and produce ripe seeds within 4 months from sowing. Vegetable crops grown with adequate moisture produce seeds in 5-6 months. Some tall cultivars, when grown with adequate moisture, may develop
new shoots after removal ofthe infructescences and become perennial, normally for one further season, but plants ofup to 4 years old have been recorded. MostBrassica species are crosspollinating, which contributes to the great diversity within species. Brassica carinata is an exception as it sets seed very efficiently through self-pollination without insects acting as pollinators. Itdoes not need lowtemperatures for flower initiation, and seed production is therefore much easier in Africa than for mostBrassica oleracea leafcabbages except for Portuguese kale. Ecology Ethiopian kale is rather versatile and canbe found in highland regions up to 2600 m with a cool climate, but also in lowlands with relatively warm and dry conditions. Itgrows best in the dry season under irrigation whenthere are few pests and diseases. The crop is suited to a wide range ofsoils and especially the oil crop is often grown in marginal areas; the vegetable crop is mostly grown on more fertile soils. Ethiopian kale can grow from the equator to Canada and appears to be daylength neutral. It is sensitive to salt and seeds may not germinate in soils with an above average salinity level. Waterlogging is nottolerated. Propagation and planting Propagation is normally by seed and rarely through cuttings. The

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### 1000 seeds is 

### 3-5 g. When grown for the leaves, sowing in a nursery and transplanting are widely practised. Seedbeds are normally raised above the soil to reduce the incidence ofdamping off. The top layer is dug and some well-fermented manure is worked in to produce a friable soil. Seeds are drilled in the nursery in lines 

### 15-20 em apart. Watering in the nursery should be done with a fine
rose. Farmers may cover the seedbeds with long grass or similar material to keep the surface moist and dark. When the cotyledons have spread after germination, this mulch is removed or placed next to the plantlets. Seedlings can be transplanted atthe 4-leafstage, about 5 weeks after germination. When seedlings become too tall, they may become spindly and unlikely to develop into strong plants. The field spacing is about 

### 35-40 em within and 

### 50-60 em between rows, depending onthe plant size. NearNairobi (Kenya) the space between rows is interplanted with shallot, parsley and the leafy vegetable Crotalaria sp. When grown as an oil crop, seeds are sown directly in lines or broadcast when a short-duration leafcrop is aimed for. Management Ethiopian kale responds well to organic manure ofup to 

### 20 tlha. Most farmers find it easier to incorporate chemical fertilizers inthe plant beds at the rate ofabout 

### 100 kg Nand 

### 30 kg P. Higher levels ofnitrogen will increase proteins and enhance leafproduction, whereas more phosphorous will enhance the seed production potential. Some vegetable farmers will therefore increase the initial amount to 

### 300 kg N, whereas others give a fortnightly side dressing of

### 50 kg Nat a time. For oilseed production, all fertilizers are incorporated at planting and no topdressing is given. For leaf production regular irrigation is necessary when it is not raining since water stress induces early flowering. Whenthe crop is sown at the onset ofthe rains, attack by pests and diseases will be severe. To avoid such attacks, it is recommended that the crop be sown 

### 5-6 weeks before rains are expected so that the crop can be transplanted at the onset ofthe rains. Diseases and pests Ethiopian kale is sensitive to turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) and especially the leafcrop is vulnerable. TuMV is transmitted by a range ofaphids, ofwhich the cabbage aphidBrevicoryne brassicae and the green peach aphid Myzuspersicae are the most important. Oilseed types with bluish leaves have a thicker layer ofleafwax than green-leaved vegetable types and it has been noticed that leaf
wax keeps aphids at bay to some extent. Leafwax is also associated with the level oftolerance to Alternaria leafspot (Alternaria brassicae). Ethiopian kale is susceptible to black rot (Xanthomonas campestris), black spot (Alternaria brassicicola), and to damping offand seedling root rot (Rhizoctonia solani). Cultivar 'Nanga' from Zambiahas shown tolerance to black rot. Ethiopian kale is tolerant to black leg disease Leptosphaeria maculans (asexual form: Phoma lingam). White rust (Albugo candida) is mainly found on vegetable cultivars, but not in the oil crop. Xanthomonas,

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.htm 4/94/14/2015 Protabase Record Alternaria, Phoma and Rhizoctonia are seedborne diseases, so a reliable seed source is most important, butthese diseases are also retained in the soil so appropriate crop rotation is also essential. To avoid black rot, production during the rainy season is not recommended. The best disease control is proper management rather than a spraying regime with agro-chemicals. Diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) is less problematic on Ethiopian kale than on cabbages and cauliflower. Other pests include caterpillars ofthe cabbage butterfly (Pieris brassicae) and the grubs ofmustard sawfly (Athaliaproxima), a pest that is particularly important atthe seedling stage. Other pests are the cabbage and mustard aphid (Hyadaphispseudobrassicae, synonym: Lipaphis erysimi), cabbage weevil (Lixus sp.), flea beetles (Phyllotreta spp.), and hurricane bug (Bagrada cruciferarum). Harvesting There are several ways to harvest this vegetable. Plants from seeds that were broadcast at high density can be harvested by uprooting the whole plant 6 weeks after sowing. This method is normally used when the land is needed for another crop. For a conventional crop, the first harvest takes place about S weeks after transplanting. Leaf harvesting is best done once in 2 weeks with SO% defoliation. Small-leaved cultivars are often collected in the form ofshoots rather than as individual leaves. Seed crops are harvested when the fruits turn brown. Infructescences are cut and placed on a tarpaulin or similar sheet, where they are allowed to dry without risk ofseed shattering. The crop is then threshed and winnowed. Yield The farmer can expect an average leafand shoot yield of3S tlha, but at research stations leafyields ofSO-SStlha have been reported, depending onproduction season and cultivar. In India and Canada farmers may get seed yields of 1200-1800 kg/lm in a good year. Handling after harvest The leaves are rather perishable and wilt orbecome yellow when left on the shelffor more than a day. Farmers therefore harvest small quantities at a time. To retain freshness, the leaves are kept moist inside a bag that is left in the shade or in a cool place. When the product is offered as whole plants with roots, traders place the roots in water and plants can thus be kept for a few days. Genetic resources The genetic diversity in Brassica carinata based on molecular DNA markers is much less than in Brassica juncea. In spite ofthe comparatively small variation in Brassica carinata, there are many landraces for boththe oilseed and the leafy vegetable types, differing in earliness, plant structure, leafsize, shape and structure, seed yield, and glucosinolate and erucic acid levels inthe seed. There is a need for further collection, conservation and evaluation of this diversity before farmers start using new cultivars at the expense oftheir traditionallandraces. A collection is maintained atthe Centre for Genetic Resources (CGN), Wageningen, Netherlands.

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.htm 5194/14/2015 Protabase Record Working collections are available at research institutes in Ethiopia, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Breeding In Africa some breeding work has been done and several selections have been made in Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Selection criteria are leafsize, late bolting, reduced susceptibility to major diseases and pests, and highyield. Well-known cultivars are 'White Figiri', 'Purple Figiri', 'Lushoo', 'Mbeya Green' and the largeleaved 'Lambo' from Tanzania, 'RRS-V' from Zimbabwe, 'Chibanga' and 'NIRS-2' from Zambia. 'TAMU Tex Sel' is a vegetable cultivar released in Texas (United States). InZambia, Ethiopian kale has been crossed with Portuguese cabbage and with 

### Brassica nigra. More breeding work has taken place on cultivars used for oilseed, mainly in Canada, India and Italy. Low erucic acid and glucosinolate content and high seed yield are major selection criteria. Prospects Ethiopian kale is a leafy vegetable and oil crop that is fully adapted to African conditions and has a high potential. There are many different landraces, allowing the breeder ample scope for advancement. Seed production by farmers themselves is easy, but the availability ofreliable and healthy commercial seed would also benefit farmers. Ifno action is taken soon, this species will gradually disappear, and be replaced by new cultivars ofespecially 

### Brassicajuncea and loose-leaved types of

### Brassica oleracea, for which more research has been done and which receive more attention from breeders. Major references
• Alemayehu, N. & Becker, H., 2002. Genotypic diversity and patterns ofvariation in a germplasm material ofEthiopian mustard (Brassica carinata A. Braun). Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 49: 573-582.
• Getinet, A., Rakow, G. & Downey, R.K., 1996. Agronomic performance and seed quality ofEthiopian mustard in Saskatchewan. Canadian Journal ofPlant Science 76: 387-392.
• Getinet, A., Rakow, G., Raney, J.P. & Downey, R.K., 1997. Glucosinolate content in interspecific crosses ofBrassica carinata with B. juncea and B. napus. Plant Breeding 116: 39-46.
• Getinet, A., Rakow, G., Raney, J.P. & Downey, R.K., 1997. The inheritance oferucic acid content in Ethiopian mustard. Canadian Journal ofPlant Science 77: 33-41.
• Maundu, P.M., Ngugi, G.W. & Kabuye, C.H.S., 1999. Traditional food plants ofKenya. Kenya Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowledge (KENRIK), Nairobi, Kenya. 270 pp. • Mingochi, D.S. & Jensen, A., 1988. Reaction ofrape and Ethiopian mustard selections to blackrot and turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) in Zambia. Acta Horticulturae 218: 289-294.
• Mnzava, N.A. & Msikita, W.W., 1988. Leafyield response of Ethiopian mustard (Brassica carinata A. Br.) selections to defoliation regimes. ActaHorticulturae 218: 77-81.

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• Mnzava, N.A. & Olsson, K., 1990. Studies in tropical vegetables: Part 1. Seed amino, fatty acid and glucosinolates profile of Ethiopian mustards (Brassica carinata Braun). IBPGR 1990. Food Chemistry 35: 229-235.
• Msikita, W.W. & Mnzava, N.A., 1988. Comparitive field performance ofmustard, tronchuda and kale during mild winters in Zambia. Acta Horticulturae 218: 59-61.
• Schippers, R.R., 2002. African indigenous vegetables, an overview ofthe cultivated species 2002. Revised edition on CD-ROM. National Resources International Limited, Aylesford, United Kingdom. Other references
• Cardone, M., Mazzoncini, M., Menini, S., Rocco, V., Senatore, A., Seggiani, M. & Vitolo, A., 2003. Brassica carinata as an alternative oil crop for the production ofbiodiesel in Italy: agronomic evaluation, fuel production by transesterification and characterization. Biomass and Bioenergy 25: 623-636.
• Cowley, W.R., 1970. Quality ofBrassicacarinata as a green leaf vegetable. Journal ofthe American Society for Horticultural Science 95(1): 3-5.
• del Rio, M., de Haro, A. & Fernandez-Martinez, J.M., 2003. Transgressive segregation oferucic acid content in Brassica carinata A. Braun. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 107: 643--651.
• Edwards, S.B., 1991. Crops with wild relatives found in Ethiopia. In: Engels, J.M.M., Hawkes, J.G. & Melaku-Worede (Editors). Plant Genetic Resources ofEthiopia. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom. pp. 42-74.
• FAO, 1988. Traditional food plants: a resource book for promoting the exploitation and consumption offood plants in arid, semi-arid and sub-humid lands ofEasternAfrica. FAO food and nutrition paper 42. FAO, Rome, Italy. 593 pp. • Gildemacher, P., 1997. Ethiopian mustard (Brassica carinata A. Br.) as a leafy vegetable in Tanzania: farmers practices and possible improvements. Student report Wageningen University/AVRDCTengeru. Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands.
• G6mez-Campo, C. (Editor), 1999. Biology ofBrassica coenospecies. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 489 pp. • Jonsell, B., 2000. Brassicaceae (Cruciferae). In: Edwards, S., Mesfin Tadesse, Demissew Sebsebe & Hedberg, I. (Editors). Flora ofEthiopia and Eritrea. Volume 2, part 1. Magnoliaceae to Flacourtiaceae. The National Herbarium, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and Department ofSystematic Botany, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden. pp. 121-154.
• Mathai, P.J., 1984. Vegetable growing in Zambia. Zambia Seed Co., Lusaka, Zambia. 344 pp. • Mnzava, N.A., 1986. Compensatory leafand seed yield increase in vegetable mustard (Brassica carinata A. Braun) in response to defoliation intensity. HortScience 21(3): 723.
• Pearson, M.N. & Bock, K.R., 1976. Notes onEast African plant virus diseases. 10. Turnip mosaic virus. East African Agricultural

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.htm 7194/14/2015 Protabase Record and Forestry Journal41: 344-348.
• Pedras, M.S.C., Loukaci, A. & Okanga, F.I., 1998. The cruciferous phytoalexins brassinin and cyclobrassinin are intermediates in the biosynthesis ofbrassilexin. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters 8: 3037-3038.
• Seegeler, C.J.P., 1983. Oil plants in Ethiopia, their taxonomy and agricultural significance. Agricultural Research Reports 921. Pudoc, Wageningen, Netherlands. 368 pp. • SEPASAL, 2003. Acanthosicyos naudinianus. [Internet] Survey of Economic Plants for Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (SEPASAL) database. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, United Kingdom. http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/ceb/sepasal/acantho.htm

. Accessed 24 February 2003.
• Stephens, J.M., 1994. Mustard collard- Brassica carinata L. [Internet] Fact Sheet HS-629, Horticultural Sciences Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, University ofFlorida, Gainesvile FL, United States. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MV096

. Accessed March 2004.
• Stephens, T.S., Saldana & Lime, B., 1975. Quality oftex-sal greens (Brassica carinata A. Br.) during maturation. Journal ofthe Rio Grande Valley Horticultural Society 29: 91-97.
• Westphal, A. & Marguard, R., 1981. Yield and quality ofBrassica spp. in Ethiopia. Plant Research and Development 13: 114--127. Sources ofillustration
• Jonsell, B., 2000. Brassicaceae (Cruciferae). In: Edwards, S., Mesfin Tadesse, Demissew Sebsebe & Hedberg, I. (Editors). Flora ofEthiopia and Eritrea. Volume 2, part 1. Magnoliaceae to Flacourtiaceae. The National Herbarium, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and Department ofSystematic Botany, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden. pp. 121-154.
• Jonsell, B., 1982. Cruciferae. Flore de Madagascar et des Comores, families 84-87. Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France. pp. 3-32. Author(s)

• N.A. Mnzava

Oleris Consultancy, P.O. Box 1371, Arusha, Tanzania

• R.R. Schippers

De Boeier 7, 3742 GD Baarn, Netherlands

Editors

• H.A.M. van der Vossen

Steenuil18, 1606 CA Venhuizen, Netherlands

• G.S. Mkamilo

Naliendele Agricultural Research Institute, P.O. Box 509, Mtwara, Tanzania General editors

• R.H.M.J. Lemmens

PROT A Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O.

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• L.P.A. Oyen

PROT A Network Office Europe, WageningenUniversity, P

.O. Box 341, 6700 AHWageningen, Netherlands
Photo editor

• A. de Ruijter

PROT A Network Office Europe, WageningenUniversity, P

.O

. Box 341, 6700 AHWageningen, Netherlands

Correct citation ofthis article: Mnzava, N

.A. & Schippers, 

### R.R., 2007

. Brassica carinata A.Braun In: van der Vossen, H.A.M. & Mkamilo, G.S

. (Editors). PROT A 14: Vegetable oils/Oleagineux. [CD-Rom]. PROT A, Wageningen, Nether lands.

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