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Risk and Protective Factors										Related Pages
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			Risk Factors for VictimizationRisk Factors for PerpetrationProtective Factors
		
Risk factors are characteristics that may increase the likelihood of experiencing or perpetrating child abuse and neglect, but they may or may not be direct causes. A combination of individual, relational, community, and societal factors contribute to the risk of child abuse and neglect. Although children are not responsible for the harm inflicted upon them, certain factors have been found to increase their risk of being abused and or neglected.
Watch Moving Forwardto learn more about how increasing what protects people from violence and reducing what puts people at risk for it benefits everyone.
Risk Factors for Victimization
Individual Risk Factors
Children younger than 4 years of age
Children with special needs that may increase caregiver burden (e.g., disabilities, mental health issues, and chronic physical illnesses)
Risk Factors for Perpetration
Individual Risk Factors
Caregivers with drug or alcohol issues
Caregivers with mental health issues, including depression
Caregivers who don’t understand children’s needs or development
Caregivers who were abused or neglected as children
Caregivers who are young or single parents or parents with many children
Caregivers with low education or income
Caregivers experiencing high levels of parenting stress or economic stress
Caregivers who use spanking and other forms of corporal punishment for discipline
Caregivers in the home who are not a biological parent
Caregivers with attitudes accepting of or justifying violence or aggressionFamily Risk Factors
Families that have household members in jail or prison
Families that are isolated from and not connected to other people (extended family, friends, neighbors)
Families experiencing other types of violence, including relationship violence
Families with high conflict and negative communication stylesCommunity Risk Factors
Communities with high rates of violence and crime
Communities with high rates of poverty and limited educational and economic opportunities
Communities with high unemployment rates
Communities with easy access to drugs and alcohol
Communities where neighbors don’t know or look out for each other and there is low community involvement among residents
Communities with few community activities for young people
Communities with unstable housing and where residents move frequently
Communities where families frequently experience food insecurity
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Protective Factors for Child Abuse and Neglect
Protective factors may lessen the likelihood of children being abused or neglected. Identifying and understanding protective factors are equally as important as researching risk factors.
Individual Protective Factors
Caregivers who create safe, positive relationships with children
Caregivers who practice nurturing parenting skills and provide emotional support
Caregivers who can meet basic needs of food, shelter, education, and health services
Caregivers who have a college degree or higher and have steady employmentFamily Protective Factors
Families with strong social support networks and stable, positive relationships with the people around them
Families where caregivers are present and interested in the child
Families where caregivers enforce household rules and engage in child monitoring
Families with caring adults outside the family who can serve as role models or mentorsCommunity Protective Factors
Communities with access to safe, stable housing
Communities where families have access to high-quality preschool
Communities where families have access to nurturing and safe childcare
Communities where families have access to safe, engaging after school programs and activities
Communities where families have access to medical care and mental health services
Communities where families have access to economic and financial help
Communities where adults have work opportunities with family-friendly policies

**See Child Abuse and Neglect Resources****for more resources about child abuse and neglect prevention.**ReferencesChu, AT, Pineda, AS, DePrince, AP, & Freyd, JJ. (2011) Vulnerability and protective factors for child abuse and maltreatment. In: White JW, Koss MP, & Kazdin AE, eds. Violence against women and children, Vol. 1: Mapping the terrain. American Psychological Association. p. 55-75. https://doi.org/10.1037/12307-003external icon
S. Department of Health & Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children’s Bureau. (2021). Child Maltreatment 2019. Available from https://www.acf.hhs.gov/cb/research-data-technology/external icon
Assink M, van der Put CE, Meeuwsen MW, de Jong NM, Oort FJ, Stams GJ, Hoeve M. Risk factors for child sexual abuse victimization: A meta-analytic review. Psychological bulletin. 2019 May;145(5):459.
Oliver WJ, Kuhns LR, Pomeranz ES. Family Structure and Child Abuse. Clinical Pediatrics. 2006;45(2):111-118. doi:10.1177/000992280604500201
Stith SM, Liu T, Davies LC, Boykin EL, Alder MC, Harris JM, Som A, McPherson M, Dees JE. Risk factors in child maltreatment: A meta-analytic review of the literature. Aggression and violent behavior. 2009 Jan 1;14(1):13-29.
Stansfield R, Semenza D, Napolitano L, Gaston M, Coleman M, Diaz M. The Risk of Family Violence After Incarceration: An Integrative Review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. September 2020. doi:10.1177/1524838020957986
Wilkins, N., Tsao, B., Hertz, M., Davis, R., Klevens, J. (2014). Connecting the Dots: An Overview of the Links Among Multiple Forms of Violence. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Oakland, CA: Prevention Institute.
Coulton CJ, Crampton DS, Irwin M, Spilsbury JC, Korbin JE. How neighborhoods influence child maltreatment: A review of the literature and alternative pathways. Child abuse & neglect. 2007 Nov 1;31(11-12):1117-42.
Schofield TJ, Lee RD, Merrick MT. Safe, stable, nurturing relationships as a moderator of intergenerational continuity of child maltreatment: A meta-analysis. Journal of Adolescent Health. 2013 Oct 1;53(4):S32-8.
Hunter, A.A., Flores, G. Social determinants of health and child maltreatment: a systematic review. Pediatr Res 89, 269–274 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-020-01175-xexternal icon
Li F, Godinet MT, Arnsberger P. Protective factors among families with children at risk of maltreatment: Follow up to early school years. Children and Youth Services Review. 2011 Jan 1;33(1):139-48.
Lachman JM, Cluver L, Ward CL, Hutchings J, Mlotshwa S, Wessels I, Gardner F. Randomized controlled trial of a parenting program to reduce the risk of child maltreatment in South Africa. Child abuse & neglect. 2017 Oct 1;72:338-51.
Chaffin M, Bonner BL, Hill RF. Family preservation and family support programs: Child maltreatment outcomes across client risk levels and program types. Child Abuse & Neglect. 2001 Oct 1;25(10):1269-89.
Plourde KF, Ippoliti NB, Nanda G, McCarraher DR. Mentoring interventions and the impact of protective assets on the reproductive health of adolescent girls and young women. Journal of Adolescent Health. 2017 Aug 1;61(2):131-9.
Fortson, B. L., Klevens, J., Merrick, M. T., Gilbert, L. K., & Alexander, S. P. (2016). Preventing child abuse and neglect: A technical package for policy, norm, and programmatic activities. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
							
					
						Page last reviewed:  April 6, 2022					Content source: 	National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Division of Violence Prevention homeViolence PreventionAbout Usplus iconStrategic VisionConnecting the dotsTimelinePublic Health ApproachThe Social-Ecological ModelFunding Hubplus iconFunding OpportunitiesFunded ResearchFunded Programs and Initiativesplus iconThe Cardiff Violence Prevention Modelplus iconToolkitWhat Is the Cardiff Model?Hospital GuidanceLaw Enforcement GuidanceLegal, Technical, and Financial ConsiderationsBuilding PartnershipsExternal Communications and Media RelationsReadiness ChecklistJournal ArticlesContact UsAdverse Childhood Experiencesplus iconFast FactsRisk and Protective FactorsPrevention StrategiesHelp Youth At Risk for ACEsCDC-Kaiser ACE StudyBRFSS ACE DataEssentials for Childhood: Preventing Adverse Childhood Experiences through Data to ActionPreventing Adverse Childhood Experiences: Data to ActionResourcesChild Abuse & Neglectplus iconFast FactsRisk and Protective FactorsPrevention StrategiesAbusive Head TraumaEssentials for Childhoodplus iconAboutEssentials for ParentingFunded StatesFramework ResourcesViolence Against Children Surveysplus iconFast FactsPrevention StrategiesPartnersUS PEPFARCountry Reports & DataCountry ProcessResourcesResourcesChild Sexual Abuseplus iconPreventing Child Sexual Abuse in Youth-Serving OrganizationsCommunity Violence PreventionElder Abuseplus iconFast FactsRisk and Protective FactorsPrevention StrategiesResourcesFirearm Violence Preventionplus iconFast FactsFirearm Homicide TrendsFirearm Suicide TrendsFunded ResearchFunded Firearm Research FindingsFunded SurveillanceResourcesIntimate Partner Violenceplus iconFast FactsRisk and Protective FactorsPrevention StrategiesIntimate Partner Violence, Sexual Violence, and Stalking Among MenStalkingTeen Dating ViolenceDating Matters®plus iconAboutThe ScienceSuccess StoriesGet StartedPublications and ResourcesDELTA AHEADPreventing Teen Dating Violence and Youth Violence Programplus iconAboutGrantee ProfilesResourcesSexual Violenceplus iconFast FactsRisk and Protective FactorsPrevention StrategiesSex TraffickingSexual Violence and Intimate Partner Violence Among People with DisabilitiesPregnancy Resulting from RapeRape Prevention and Education (RPE)plus iconGrantee ProfilesResourcesplus iconUnited States Health and Justice Measures of Sexual VictimizationYouth Violenceplus iconFast FactsRisk and Protective FactorsPrevention Strategiesplus iconEnvironmental DesignBullyingSchool Violenceplus iconSchool-Associated Violent Death StudyNational Centers of Excellence in Youth Violence Prevention (YVPCs)plus iconAboutSite DescriptionsAccomplishmentsLessons LearnedResourcesStriving to Reduce Youth Violence Everywhere (STRYVE)Preventing Violence Affecting Young Lives (PREVAYL)ResourcesCoping with StressData Sourcesplus iconThe National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS)plus iconOverviewReports and PublicationsKey Terms & FAQsNational Violent Death Reporting System (NVDRS)plus iconFrequently Asked QuestionsState ProfilesResourcesData AccessFeatured TopicsCommunication Resourcesplus iconInfographicsResources for ActionVideosViolence Education Tools Online (VETOViolence) To receive email updates about this page, enter your email address: Email Address			What's this?				Submit
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