MONTREAL PROTOCOL

ON SUBSTANCES THAT DEPLETE

THE OZONE LAYER

UNEP

2002 REPORT OF THE

REFRIGERATION, AIR CONDITIONING AND HEAT PUMPS

TECHNICAL OPTIONS COMMITTEE

2002 Assessment

2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report iii

Montreal Protocol

On Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

UNEP

2002 REPORT OF THE

REFRIGERATION, AIR CONDITIONING AND HEAT PUMPS

TECHNICAL OPTIONS COMMITTEE

2002 ASSESSMENT

The text of this report is composed in Times New Roman.

Co-ordination: Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat

Pumps Technical Options Committee

Composition: Lambert Kuijpers (Co-chair)

Reproduction: UNEP Nairobi, Ozone Secretariat

Date: January 2003

No copyright involved

Printed in Kenya; 2003.

ISBN 92-807-2288-3
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report iv

DISCLAIMER

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the Technology and Economic Assessment

Panel (TEAP) co-chairs and members, the Technical and Economic Options Committee, chairs, cochairs and members, the TEAP Task Forces co-chairs and members and the companies and

organisations that employ them do not endorse the performance, worker safety, or environmental

acceptability of any of the technical options discussed. Every industrial operation requires

consideration of worker safety and proper disposal of contaminants and waste products. Moreover,

as work continues - including additional toxicity evaluation - more information on health,

environmental and safety effects of alternatives and replacements will become available for use in

selecting among the options discussed in this document.

UNEP, the TEAP co-chairs and members, the Technical and Economic Options Committee, chairs,

co-chairs and members and the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel Task Forces co-chairs

and members, in furnishing or distributing this information, do not make any warranty or

representation, either express or implied, with respect to the accuracy, completeness, or utility; nor

do they assume any liability of any kind whatsoever resulting from the use or reliance upon any

information, material, or procedure contained herein, including but not limited to any claims

regarding health, safety, environmental effect or fate, efficacy, or performance, made by the source

of information.

Mention of any company, association, or product in this document is for information purposes only

and does not constitute a recommendation of any such company, association, or product, either

express or implied by UNEP, the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel co-chairs or

members, the Technical and Economic Options Committee chairs, co-chairs or members, the TEAP

Task Forces co-chairs or members or the companies or organisations that employ them.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The UNEP Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee acknowledges with

thanks the outstanding contributions from all of the individuals and organisations who provided

technical support to committee members. In developing this report, particularly the section chairs and

co-chairs were instrumental.

The names, addresses and contact numbers of all section chairs and members of the UNEP TOC

Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps can be found in Annex III.

The opinions expressed are those of the Committee and do not necessarily reflect the views of any

sponsoring or supporting organisations.

Gratitude is expressed to UNEP’s Ozone Secretariat, Nairobi, Kenya for the reproduction of this

report.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report v

UNEP

2002 REPORT OF THE

REFRIGERATION, AIR CONDITIONING AND HEAT PUMPS

TECHNICAL OPTIONS COMMITTEE

2002 ASSESSMENT
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report vi

T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s

ABSTRACT EXECUTIVE SUMMARY OF THE 2002 TOC REFRIGERATION, AIR

CONDITIONING AND HEAT PUMPS ASSESSMENT REPORT ........................................................ 1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARIES OF ALL CHAPTERS ................................................................................. 3

REFRIGERANTS ............................................................................................................................................ 3

STATUS OF REFRIGERANT DATA.................................................................................................................. 4

HEAT TRANSFER FLUIDS (“SECONDARY REFRIGERANTS”) FOR INDIRECT SYSTEMS ................................... 4

DOMESTIC REFRIGERATION......................................................................................................................... 5

COMMERCIAL REFRIGERATION.................................................................................................................... 6

LARGE SIZE REFRIGERATION (INDUSTRIAL, COLD STORAGE AND FOOD PROCESSING)............................... 7

TRANSPORT REFRIGERATION....................................................................................................................... 8

AIR CONDITIONING & HEAT PUMPS (REFRIGERANT-TO-AIR)..................................................................... 9

CHILLERS AND HEAT-PUMP WATER HEATERS .......................................................................................... 10

VEHICLE AIR CONDITIONING..................................................................................................................... 11

REFRIGERANT CONSERVATION.................................................................................................................. 11

1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................. 13

1.1 MONTREAL PROTOCOL DEVELOPMENTS.......................................................................................... 13

1.2 THE UNEP TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT PANEL..................................................... 14

1.3 THE TECHNICAL OPTIONS COMMITTEE REFRIGERATION, A/C AND HEAT PUMPS............................ 16

1.4 REFRIGERATION, AIR CONDITIONING AND HEAT PUMPS ................................................................. 19

1.4.1 General Remarks ................................................................................................................... 19

1.4.2 Long Term Options and Energy Efficiency............................................................................ 20

1.4.3 Set Up of the 2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Report................................... 22

2 REFRIGERANTS.............................................................................................................................. 23

2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 23

2.2 DATA SUMMARY.............................................................................................................................. 23

2.2.1 Ozone Depletion Potentials ................................................................................................... 24

2.2.2 ODP and GWP Data for Regulatory Reporting .................................................................... 25

2.3 STATUS AND RESEARCH NEEDS FOR DATA ...................................................................................... 26

2.3.1 Thermophysical Properties.................................................................................................... 26

2.3.2 Heat Transfer and Compatibility Data.................................................................................. 27

2.3.3 Safety Data ............................................................................................................................ 28

2.4 STATUS AND RESEARCH NEEDS FOR HEAT TRANSFER FLUIDS (“SECONDARY REFRIGERANTS”) FOR

INDIRECT SYSTEMS.................................................................................................................................... 29

2.4 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 31

3 DOMESTIC REFRIGERATION..................................................................................................... 37

3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 37

3.2 NEW EQUIPMENT ALTERNATIVE REFRIGERANTS ............................................................................. 37

3.3.1 Compressors:......................................................................................................................... 40

3.3.2 Improved Efficiency Evaporator and Condenser Fan Motors: ............................................. 40

3.3.3 Modified Control Technology and Defrost Algorithms:........................................................ 40

3.3.4 Modified Refrigeration System Configurations:.................................................................... 40

3.3.5 Realisable Efficiency Improvements in Article 5(1) and CEIT Countries:............................ 41

3.3.6 Closed Cell Foam Thermal Insulation: ................................................................................. 41

3.4 EXISTING EQUIPMENT RETROFITS AND FIELD SERVICE.................................................................... 43

3.4.1 Refrigeration Sealed System Failure Frequencies ................................................................ 43

3.4.2 Service Refrigerant Demand and Availability ....................................................................... 43

3.4.3 Special Field Repair Issues ................................................................................................... 44

3.5 UNIQUE DOMESTIC REFRIGERATION CONSERVATION AND CONTAINMENT CONCERN ..................... 45

3.5.1 Refrigerant Recovery During Service and End-Of-Life Disposal ......................................... 45

3.5.2 Blowing Agent Recovery During End-Of-Life Disposal........................................................ 45

3.6 SUMMARY COMMENTS..................................................................................................................... 45
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report vii

3.7 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 46

4 COMMERCIAL REFRIGERATION ............................................................................................. 49

4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 49

4.2 DATA ON SYSTEMS AND REFRIGERANT CHARGES............................................................................ 50

4.3 REFRIGERANT OPTIONS FOR NEW EQUIPMENT................................................................................. 53

4.4 STAND-ALONE EQUIPMENT AND CONDENSING UNIT SYSTEMS........................................................ 53

4.5 CENTRALISED SYSTEMS ................................................................................................................... 54

4.5.1 Direct Systems ....................................................................................................................... 54

4.5.2 Indirect Systems: HFCs, Ammonia, CO2 and HCs................................................................ 54

Medium Temperature Applications ................................................................................................................. 55

Low Temperature Applications ....................................................................................................................... 55

Refrigerant Choices ......................................................................................................................................... 55

Energy Consumption ....................................................................................................................................... 56

Defrosting Issue ............................................................................................................................................... 56

4.6 OPTIONS FOR EXISTING SYSTEMS .................................................................................................... 56

4.6.1 Stand-Alone Equipment and Condensing Units .................................................................... 56

4.6.2 Centralised Systems............................................................................................................... 57

CFC-12 Retrofit ............................................................................................................................................... 57

R-502 Retrofit.................................................................................................................................................. 57

HCFC-22 Retrofit ............................................................................................................................................ 57

4.7 REFRIGERANT CONTAINMENT.......................................................................................................... 57

4.8 ARTICLE 5(1) COUNTRY ASPECTS ................................................................................................... 58

4.9 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 59

5 LARGE REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS (INDUSTRIAL REFRIGERATION, COLD STORAGE

AND FOOD PROCESSING)...................................................................................................................... 61

5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 61

5.2 APPLICATIONS.................................................................................................................................. 62

5.2.1 Cold Storage.......................................................................................................................... 62

5.2.2 Food Processing .................................................................................................................... 62

5.2.3 Industrial Refrigeration......................................................................................................... 63

5.2.4 Liquefaction of Gases ............................................................................................................ 63

5.2.5 Industrial Heat Pumps and Heat Recovery ........................................................................... 63

5.3 CURRENT STATUS AND TRENDS....................................................................................................... 65

5.3.1 Developed Countries ............................................................................................................. 66

5.3.2 Article 5(1) Countries ............................................................................................................ 66

5.4 REFRIGERANT OPTIONS FOR NEW EQUIPMENT.................................................................................. 67

5.4.1 Ammonia (NH3) ..................................................................................................................... 67

5.4.2 HCFC-22 ............................................................................................................................... 68

5.4.3 HFCs...................................................................................................................................... 68

5.4.4 Hydrocarbons (HC)............................................................................................................... 69

5.4.5 Carbon Dioxide (CO2/R-744) ................................................................................................ 69

5.4.6 Water ..................................................................................................................................... 71

5.5 NEW TECHNOLOGIES ........................................................................................................................ 71

5.5.1 CO2 in the Transcritical Cycle............................................................................................... 71

5.5.2 Absorption / Compression Cycle ........................................................................................... 71

5.6 RETROFIT OPTIONS FOR EXISTING SYSTEMS .................................................................................... 71

5.7 SERVICE REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................................................. 72

TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HCFC FOR SERVICE............................................................................... 72

5.8 AVAILABLE DATA ON CONSUMPTION .............................................................................................. 73

5.8.1 Refrigerant Consumption....................................................................................................... 73

5.8.2 Forecast of Use...................................................................................................................... 74

5.9 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 74

6 TRANSPORT REFRIGERATION.................................................................................................. 77

6.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 77

6.2 CURRENT STATUS ............................................................................................................................ 77

6.2.1 Reefer Ships ........................................................................................................................... 78

6.2.2 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning on Merchant Marine, Naval and Fishing Vessels ........ 79
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report viii

6.2.3 Intermodal Refrigerated Containers...................................................................................... 79

6.2.4 Road Transport (Trailers, Diesel Trucks and Small Trucks) ................................................ 80

6.2.5 Refrigerated Railcars............................................................................................................. 81

6.2.6 Air Conditioning in Railcars ................................................................................................. 81

6.3 OPTIONS........................................................................................................................................... 82

6.4 RETROFITS ....................................................................................................................................... 82

6.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS.............................................................................................................. 83

6.6 CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................................... 83

6.7 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 84

7 AIR CONDITIONING & HEAT PUMPS (REFRIGERANT-TO-AIR) ...................................... 85

7.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 85

7.2 APPLICATIONS.................................................................................................................................. 85

7.2.1 Window-mounted and Through-the-Wall Air Conditioners .................................................. 85

7.2.2 Non-ducted (or duct-free) Split Air Conditioners.................................................................. 86

7.2.3 Ducted Split Residential Air Conditioners............................................................................. 86

7.2.4 Ducted Commercial Split and Packaged Air Conditioner..................................................... 86

7.3 CURRENT USE................................................................................................................................... 87

7.3.1 Window-mounted and Through-the-Wall Air Conditioners .................................................. 87

7.3.2 Non-ducted (or duct-free) Split Air Conditioners.................................................................. 88

7.3.3 Ducted Split Residential Air Conditioners............................................................................. 88

7.3.4 Ducted Commercial Split and Packaged Air conditioner...................................................... 88

7.3.5 Heat Pumps............................................................................................................................ 89

7.3.6 Summary of Unit Population and Refrigerant Inventory....................................................... 89

7.4 ALTERNATIVE REFRIGERANT OPTIONS ............................................................................................ 90

7.4.1 Single Component HFC Refrigerants and HFC Blends ........................................................ 91

7.4.1.1 HFC-134a......................................................................................................................................... 91

7.4.1.2 HFC-32/125/134a (R-407C) ............................................................................................................ 91

7.4.1.3 HFC-32/125 (R-410A) ..................................................................................................................... 92

7.4.1.4 HFC-125/ HFC-134a/ HC-600 (R-417A)........................................................................................ 92

7.4.2 Non-Fluorocarbon Refrigerants............................................................................................ 92

7.4.2.1 Hydrocarbon Refrigerants................................................................................................................ 92

7.4.2.2 Carbon Dioxide................................................................................................................................ 93

7.4.3 Lubricant Requirements......................................................................................................... 94

7.4.3.1 HFC Refrigerant Lubricants............................................................................................................. 94

7.4.3.2 Hydrocarbon Refrigerant Lubricants................................................................................................ 94

7.4.3.3 CO2 Refrigerant Lubricants.............................................................................................................. 94

7.4.4 Summary ................................................................................................................................ 95

7.5 NEW TECHNOLOGY (ALTERNATIVE REFRIGERANT CYCLES) ........................................................... 95

7.6 RETROFIT ......................................................................................................................................... 95

7.6.1 Retrofit Issues ........................................................................................................................ 95

7.6.2 Potential Candidates ............................................................................................................. 96

7.6.3 Anticipated Market Impact of Retrofit Refrigerants .............................................................. 96

7.6.4 HC-290 as a Retrofit Refrigerant .......................................................................................... 96

7.7 HCFC USAGE FORECAST................................................................................................................. 96

7.8 ARTICLE 5(1) COUNTRY CONSIDERATIONS...................................................................................... 99

7.9 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 99

ANNEX TO CHAPTER 7......................................................................................................................... 103

8 CHILLERS....................................................................................................................................... 105

8.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 105

8.1.1 Role of Water Chillers in Air Conditioning ......................................................................... 105

8.1.2 Types of Water Chillers ....................................................................................................... 105

8.1.3 Measures of Chiller Efficiency ............................................................................................ 105

8.1.4 World Market Characteristics ............................................................................................. 105

8.1.4.1 U.S. Market Characteristics .......................................................................................................... 106

8.1.4.2 Asian Market Characteristics /JAR00, JAR01, JAR02/ ................................................................. 106

8.1.4.3 European Market Characteristics /JAR00, JAR01, JAR02, DKV02/............................................ 107

8.1.4.4 India Market Characteristics .......................................................................................................... 108
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report ix

8.1.5 Inventories of Equipment and Refrigerants in Service ........................................................ 108

8.1.5.1 United States .................................................................................................................................. 108

8.1.5.2 Canada /HRAI00/........................................................................................................................... 109

8.1.5.3 India /Aga01/ ................................................................................................................................. 109

8.2 INTRODUCTION – HEAT PUMP WATER HEATERS ........................................................................... 110

8.2.1 Heat Pumps for Water Heating ........................................................................................... 110

8.2.2 Types and Volume of Equipment - Residential and Commercial/Institutional Applications110

8.2.3 Market Characteristics ........................................................................................................ 111

8.3 REFRIGERANT CHOICES ................................................................................................................. 112

8.3.1 Positive Displacement Compressors and Water Chillers.................................................... 112

8.3.2 Centrifugal Compressors and Water Chillers ..................................................................... 112

8.3.3 Average Refrigerant Charge Levels in Water Chillers........................................................ 112

8.3.4 Heat Pumps.......................................................................................................................... 113

8.4 OPTIONS FOR NEW EQUIPMENT ..................................................................................................... 113

8.4.1 Options for New Positive Displacement Compressor Chillers............................................ 114

8.4.1.1 HCFC-22........................................................................................................................................ 114

8.4.1.2 HFC-134a....................................................................................................................................... 115

8.4.1.3 R-407C........................................................................................................................................... 115

8.4.1.4 Other Refrigerants: R-404A, R-507A, R-410A, Other HFC blends, HFC-32................................ 115

8.4.1.5 Carbon Dioxide in the Transcritical Cycle..................................................................................... 116

8.4.1.6 Ammonia........................................................................................................................................ 116

8.4.1.7 Hydrocarbons................................................................................................................................. 117

8.4.2 Options for New Centrifugal Compressor Chillers ............................................................. 118

8.4.2.1 CFCs and Blends Containing CFCs: CFC-11, CFC-12, CFC-113, CFC-114, and R-500.............. 118

8.4.2.2 HCFC-22 and HCFC-123............................................................................................................... 118

8.4.2.3 HFC-134a....................................................................................................................................... 119

8.4.2.4 HFC-236fa ..................................................................................................................................... 119

8.4.2.5 HFC-245fa and Other Refrigerants ................................................................................................ 119

8.4.2.6 Design Issues with Zeotropes, Hydrocarbons, and Ammonia for Centrifugal Chillers.................. 120

8.4.2.7 Environmental Evaluation for Retention of HCFC-123 as a Refrigerant for Centrifugal Chillers. 120

8.4.3 Options for New Heat Pumps .............................................................................................. 121

8.4.3.1 HFC-134a....................................................................................................................................... 121

8.4.3.2 Other Pure HFC and HFE Alternatives.......................................................................................... 122

8.4.3.3 HFC Blends.................................................................................................................................... 122

8.4.3.4 Ammonia........................................................................................................................................ 122

8.4.3.5 Hydrocarbons................................................................................................................................. 123

8.4.3.6 Carbon Dioxide Used in the Transcritical Process......................................................................... 123

8.4.4 Alternative Technologies ..................................................................................................... 124

8.4.4.1 Absorption Chillers ........................................................................................................................ 124

8.4.4.2 Absorption Heat Pumps ................................................................................................................. 125

8.4.4.3 Water as a Refrigerant for Chillers ................................................................................................ 125

8.5 OPTIONS FOR EXISTING EQUIPMENT (RETROFITS) ......................................................................... 126

8.5.1 Positive Displacement Chillers............................................................................................ 126

8.5.1.1 HFC-134a as a Replacement for CFC-12....................................................................................... 126

8.5.1.2 R-407C, R-417A, HFC-134a, and Hydrocarbons as Candidate Replacements for HCFC-22........ 127

8.5.1.3 R-404A or R-507A as Replacements for HCFC-22....................................................................... 127

8.5.2 Centrifugal Chillers............................................................................................................. 128

8.5.2.1 HCFC-123 for CFC-11 in Centrifugal Chillers.............................................................................. 128

8.5.2.2 HFC-134a for CFC-12 and R-500 in Centrifugal Chillers ............................................................. 128

8.5.2.3 Other Candidates to Replace CFC-12 ............................................................................................ 129

8.5.2.4 Candidates to Replace HCFC-22 ................................................................................................... 129

8.5.2.5 Other Refrigerant Possibilities for Centrifugal Chillers ................................................................. 129

8.5.3 Heat Pumps.......................................................................................................................... 129

8.5.3.1 CFC-11 Alternatives ...................................................................................................................... 129

8.5.3.2 CFC-12 and R-500 Alternatives..................................................................................................... 130

8.5.3.3 R-502 Alternatives ......................................................................................................................... 130

8.5.3.4 HCFC-22 Alternatives ................................................................................................................... 131

8.6 FUTURE NEED FOR CFCS............................................................................................................... 131

8.7 ARTICLE 5(1) COUNTRIES .............................................................................................................. 131

8.8 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................. 133

9 VEHICLE AIR CONDITIONING................................................................................................. 137

9.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 137
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report x

9.2 OPTIONS FOR FUTURE VEHICLE AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS ...................................................... 138

9.2.1 Safety Aspects of Future Vehicle Air Conditioning Systems................................................ 138

9.2.2 Trans-critical Carbon Dioxide Systems (Figure 9-1).......................................................... 138

9.2.3 Systems Using Flammable Refrigerants.............................................................................. 139

9.2.3.1 Propane (HC-290).......................................................................................................................... 139

9.2.3.2 HFC-152a (Figure 9-3) ................................................................................................................. 139

9.3 REFRIGERANT RECOVERY AND RECYCLING................................................................................... 139

9.4 ARTICLE 5(1) COUNTRY ISSUES..................................................................................................... 140

9.5 CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK........................................................................................................ 141

9.6 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................. 142

10 REFRIGERANT CONSERVATION ............................................................................................ 147

10.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................... 147

10.2 WHAT’S NEW SINCE THE LAST ASSESSMENT............................................................................ 147

10.3 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................... 148

10.3.1 Definition of Refrigeration Conservation and Nature of Emissions.................................... 149

10.3.2 Reduction of Emissions Through Leak Tightness................................................................ 149

10.3.3 Reduction of Emissions Through Recovery and Reuse........................................................ 150

10.4 OPTIONS IN ENCOURAGING REFRIGERANT CONSERVATION ...................................................... 151

10.4.1 Financial Incentives............................................................................................................. 151

10.4.2 Direct Regulation................................................................................................................. 152

10.4.3 Examples of Existing Regulation ......................................................................................... 153

10.4.3.1 Required Service Practices and Leak Tightness ....................................................................... 153

10.4.3.2 Restrictions on the Sales and Imports of ODSs ........................................................................ 154

10.4.3.3 Certification of Service Companies and Technicians ............................................................... 155

10.5 CONTAINMENT .......................................................................................................................... 155

10.5.1 Design.................................................................................................................................. 156

10.5.2 Charge Minimising .............................................................................................................. 156

10.5.3 Installation........................................................................................................................... 156

10.5.4 Servicing .............................................................................................................................. 157

10.6 LEAK DETECTION ...................................................................................................................... 157

10.7 REFRIGERANT RECOVERY ......................................................................................................... 157

10.8 RECYCLING, RECLAMATION, DESTRUCTION ............................................................................. 158

10.8.1 Recycling ............................................................................................................................. 158

10.8.2 Refrigerant Reclamation and Separation ........................................................................... 159

10.8.3 Refrigerant Destruction ....................................................................................................... 160

10.9 REFRIGERANT CONSERVATION IN ARTICLE 5(1) COUNTRIES AND CEITS ................................. 160

10.9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 160

10.9.2 Refrigerant Conservation and Containment in Africa......................................................... 162

10.9.3 Refrigerant Management Plans (RMPs).............................................................................. 163

10.9.3.1 Implementation of RMPs.......................................................................................................... 164

10.9.3.2 Technician Training Programs.................................................................................................. 165

10.9.3.3 Training of Customs Officers ................................................................................................... 166

10.9.3.4 Recovery and Recycling ........................................................................................................... 166

10.9.3.5 Public Awareness...................................................................................................................... 166

10.9.3.6 Harmonisation of Standards for the Refrigeration Sector ......................................................... 166

10.9.3.7 Impact of RMPs........................................................................................................................ 167

ANNEX I: RECENT GLOBAL PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION DATA FOR

FLUOROCHEMICALS ........................................................................................................................... 169

AI.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................... 169

AI.2 DATA ANALYSIS ....................................................................................................................... 170

CFC Production Data (1986-2000) .................................................................................................. 170

CFC Consumption Data (1986-2000) .............................................................................................. 170

HCFC Production Data (1989-2000)............................................................................................... 171

HCFC Consumption Data (1989-2000) ........................................................................................... 172

HCFC Consumption in Different Sectors........................................................................................ 172

HFC-134a Production ...................................................................................................................... 173

CONCLUDING REMARKS .......................................................................................................................... 173

CONSUMPTION AND PRODUCTION DATA CFCS, HCFCS AND HFCS: GRAPHS AND TABLES ................... 175
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report xi

ANNEX II: GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................................... 185

ANNEX III: REPORTING AND CONSULTING MEMBERS........................................................... 187

REPORTING MEMBERS UNEP TOC REFRIGERATION, A/C AND HEAT PUMPS, ....................................... 187

FOR THE ASSESSMENT 2002..................................................................................................................... 187

CONSULTING MEMBERS UNEP TOC REFRIGERATION, A/C AND HEAT PUMPS, FOR THE ASSESSMENT 2002

................................................................................................................................................................ 192

ANNEX IV: PHYSICAL, SAFETY, AND ENVIRONMENTAL DATA FOR HISTORICAL,

CURRENT, AND CANDIDATE REFRIGERANTS............................................................................. 193

2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 1

Abstract Executive Summary of the 2002 TOC Refrigeration, Air

Conditioning and Heat Pumps Assessment Report

Current status

In the last decade, the refrigeration, air conditioning and heat pump industry made

tremendous technical progress and complied with the Montreal Protocol through phasing out

CFCs and, in several applications, HCFCs as well. The mobile air conditioning and the

domestic refrigeration industries have shifted rapidly from CFC-12 to non-ODS refrigerants.

Other applications, such as chillers and commercial refrigeration, have shifted from CFCs to

HCFCs and HFCs or other fluids.

The requirement to phase out CFCs and eventually other ODS, along with considerations to

reduce global warming impacts, has spurred unprecedented transitions. Differences in timing

and in choosing options between countries have been influenced by regional and national

regulations. The primary solutions for new equipment are summarised below by application:

• domestic refrigeration: HFC-134a and isobutane (HC-600a),

• commercial refrigeration: HCFC-22 and mainly R-404A in supermarket systems, HCs in

some self-contained units as well as in a few indirect systems and, to a small extent,

carbon dioxide (R-744),

• industrial refrigeration: ammonia (R-717), HCFCs, HFCs and to some extent carbon

dioxide for low temperature,

• transport refrigeration: HFCs for the majority of applications,

• stationary air conditioning equipment: HCFC-22 (in about 90% of the equipment), with

the remainder using the currently produced HFCs and HFC blends and, to a lesser extent,

HCs,

• chillers: HCFCs (primarily HCFC-22 in small and HCFC-123 in centrifugal chillers),

HFCs (primarily HFC-134a and, in smaller equipment, also blends) and much less

commonly ammonia and HCs,

• heat pump water heaters: HCFC-22, HFC-134a, propane (HC-290), R-410A and, to

some extent, carbon dioxide,

• mobile air conditioning: HFC-134a for virtually all new vehicles (being the global

choice).

The above solutions are also being applied in Article 5(1) countries, where in several sectors

the conversion is not complete, however, the number of conversions is steadily increasing.

There still is a certain amount of new equipment manufactured with CFCs, also in domestic,

but particularly in commercial and transport refrigeration.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 2

What is left to be achieved

Worldwide, a significant amount of installed refrigeration equipment still uses CFCs and

HCFCs. As a consequence, service demand for CFCs and HCFCs remains high. The

refrigerant demand for these service needs is best minimised by preventive service,

containment, retrofit, recovery and recycling. Recovery at decommissioning or scrapping of

equipment, not only in the case of refrigerators, is an important topic, which receives

increasing attention now that the non-Article 5(1) ODS consumption has been restricted to

essential uses. The first step in addressing the refrigerant conservation topics cited above is

through training of installers and service technicians, together with certification and

regulations. Countries where programs have been successful have had comprehensive

regulations requiring recovery and recycling.

The way forward

Current developments concentrate on increasing use of HFCs as well the non-fluorocarbon

options mentioned above in most sectors, with emphasis on optimising system efficiency

(COP) and reducing emissions of high-GWP refrigerants. A high degree of containment, in

fact, applies to all future refrigerant applications, either for decreasing climate impact or for

safety reasons. Additional research and development is ongoing all over the world (i) to

enhance the development status and the quality of the equipment using the current

alternatives and, (ii) to investigate the potential of other long term in-kind and not-in-kind

solutions, seeking both lower environmental impact including higher energy efficiency and

improved safety characteristics.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 3

Executive Summaries of all Chapters

Refrigerants

This chapter summarises data for refrigerants and specifically those addressed in other

sections. It discusses thermophysical (both thermodynamic and transport) properties as well

as heat transfer, compatibility and safety data. The chapter also provides similar information

for heat transfer fluids (sometimes referred to as “secondary refrigerants”) for airconditioning, heat pump and refrigeration systems.

The tabular data summaries are updated from prior assessments to reflect current data, from

consensus assessments and published scientific and engineering literature where possible.

The summaries address:

• refrigerant designations

• chemical formulae

• molecular mass

• normal boiling point (NBP)

• critical temperature (Tc)

• critical pressure (Pc)

• occupational exposure limits

• lower flammability limit (LFL)

• heat of combustion (HOC)

• safety classification

• atmospheric lifetime (τatm)

• ozone depletion potential (ODP)

• global warming potential (GWP)

• control status

The summary tables also add new blends introduced since the 1998 assessment report. The

new chapter clarifies the significance of between modelled, semi-empirical, time-dependent

and regulatory bases for Ozone Depletion Potentials (ODPs) and tabulates comparative

modelled and regulatory values for controlled, single-compound refrigerants. The updated

chapter adds guidance for ODPs and GWPs for regulatory reporting.

This chapter does not address the suitability, advantages and drawbacks of individual

refrigerants or refrigerant groups for specific applications; such discussion is addressed for

specific applications where relevant in subsequent chapters.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 4

Status of Refrigerant Data

The status of data for the thermophysical properties of refrigerants, which include both

thermodynamic properties (such as density, pressure, enthalpy, entropy and heat capacity)

and transport properties (such as viscosity and thermal conductivity), is generally good and

excellent for the most common alternative HFCs. Data gaps exist, however, for the

thermodynamic and transport properties of blends and less-common fluids as well as the

transport properties of many fluids (but especially so for blends). The data situation for the

less-common fluids is more variable; there is a need to collect and evaluate the data for such

candidates.

A major uncertainty for all of the refrigerants is the influence of lubricants on properties.

The working fluid in most systems is actually a mixture of the refrigerant and the lubricant

carried over from the compressor(s). Concerted research on the refrigerant-lubricant

mixtures is in the early stages. It is complicated by the great variety of lubricants in use and

by the often highly proprietary nature of the chemical structure of the lubricant and/or

additives.

The updated chapter reviews the status heat transfer and compatibility data for refrigerants.

It recommends further research of:

• further test data for shell-side boiling and condensation of zeotropic mixtures

• local heat transfer data determined at specific values of vapour quality

• microchannel heat exchanger refrigerant-side heat transfer data including flow distribution

effects

• effects of lubricants on heat transfer, especially for hydrocarbons, ammonia, and carbon

dioxide

• accurate plain tube and microfin tube evaporation and condensation data for hydrocarbons

• inside-tube condensation heat transfer data for carbon dioxide at low temperatures such as –

20 °C

• heat transfer correlations for carbon dioxide supercritical heat rejection and two-phase

evaporation

The chapter similarly outlines current understanding of materials compatibility data for

refrigerant systems as well as safety data and classifications. It notes that efforts are

underway to develop recommended refrigerant concentration limits for unplanned exposures

and to improve flammability test methods and data.

Heat Transfer Fluids (“Secondary Refrigerants”) for Indirect Systems

The expanded update adds information on heat transfer fluids (HTFs) — also referred to as

secondary refrigerants — for indirect systems. Although HTFs have been used for many

years in industrial applications, they have recently become more popular in commercial

applications for the purposes of reducing the primary refrigerant charge and/or mitigating

emissions of refrigerants that have notable environmental warming impact or when

regulatory or safety constrains apply. HTFs are divided into two categories, namely single

phase and phase-change fluids.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 5

Single phase fluids are in common use and include the following chemical groups:

• Glycol solutions

• Salt solutions

• Synthetic oils

• Hydrofluoroethers

The use of phase-change fluids in indirect systems is becoming more popular due to

favourable thermal and transport properties leading toward energetic benefits. The most

common phase change fluids are carbon-dioxide and ice-slurries, although other suspensions

such as water/ice-filled capsules, hydrophilic material slurries, and frozen emulsions have

been considered, but these are largely in developmental stages. With the benefit of much

greater heat capacities, and generally improved heat transfer coefficient associated with

change of phase, they offer systems potential benefits from lower flow rates and pumping

costs, smaller pipe sizes and heat exchangers.

Domestic Refrigeration

The transition from CFC refrigerants in new equipment is complete in non-Article 5(1)

countries and is accelerating in Article 5(1) countries. The 15 to 25 year typical life span for

domestic refrigerators results in older product manufactured using CFC-12 refrigerant still

comprising the majority of units in the installed base. This in-turn significantly retards the

rate of reduction in the demand for CFC-12 refrigerant in the servicing sector.

HC-600a and HFC-134a continue to be the dominant alternative refrigerant candidates to

replace CFC-12 in new domestic refrigeration equipment. Both of these have demonstrated

mass production capability for safe, efficient, reliable and economic use. In practice, similar

product efficiencies result from the use of either refrigerant. Independent studies have

concluded that other design parameters introduce more efficiency variation opportunities than

is presented by the refrigerant choice. Comprehensive refrigerant selection criteria include

safety, environmental, functional and performance requirements. A grossly simplified

summary of relative considerations for these two refrigerants is:

• HC-600a is compatible with historically accepted mineral oils as a lubricant. Designs

must take care to properly deal with the flammable nature of the refrigerant.

• HFC-134a uses moisture-sensitive polyolester oils. Manufacturing processes must take

care to properly maintain low moisture levels. Long-term reliability requires more

careful avoidance of contaminants during production or servicing compared to previous

CFC-12 based designs.

No significant new technology options are expected to emerge which will significantly alter

options for conversion to ozone-safe refrigerants in the remaining Article 5(1) countries still

using CFC-12 in new equipment. All required technologies are mature and readily available;

availability and prioritisation of capital resources are dictating conversion timing. Current

technology designs typically use less than one-half the electrical energy required by the units

they replace. This reliable performance is provided without resorting to higher cost or more

complex designs. Anticipated enhancements with leading edge technologies will provide

further incremental improvements in unit performance and/or energy efficiency. In some

cases this efficiency will be provided at the cost of increased complexity or reduced tolerance
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 6

to abnormal conditions. Government regulations and voluntary agreements on energy

efficiency and labelling programs have demonstrated effectiveness in modifying product

offerings in several countries.

Commercial Refrigeration

Commercial refrigeration types of equipment are very different in term of size, mainly

depending on the country and the kind of shops. Commercial refrigeration equipment

consists of 3 main different system types.

• Stand-alone equipment includes integrated display cases, ice machines, vending

machines, and an array of small equipment installed in stores or public areas in developed

countries as well as in many Article 5(1) countries. It is estimated that there are 44.7

million units in this category world-wide. Refrigerant charges range between 0.2 and 1

kg. HFC-134a is the usual refrigerant replacing CFC-12. HCs (HC-600a and HC-290)

are now being used in some European countries. Beverage and ice cream vending

machines are estimated at 14.7 million units. Several large food and beverage companies

have indicated that they will refrain from using HFCs within a few years where suitable

alternatives are available. HFC-134a is clearly the dominant option at present.

• Condensing units are typically installed in specialised shops. The refrigerant charge

varies between 1 and 5 kg, and the estimated global number is on the order of 32.5

million. The refrigerant of choice depends on the temperature range required. Both

HFC-134a and the HFC blend R-404A are the preferred options for medium

temperatures, and R-404A for low temperatures. Due to safety concerns, HCs are not a

common option for the charge amount normally present in condensing units.

• Centralised systems are installed in super- and hyper-markets. The estimated number of

supermarkets where a wide range of refrigerating capacities is installed is estimated as

340,000; this number includes 18,000 hyper-markets, i.e., very large supermarkets. In

centralised systems, the refrigerant charge varies from 100 kg up to 2,000 kg. The

refrigerating system is installed in a machinery room and the refrigerant circulates

between this machinery room and the display cases installed in the sales area. The choice

of refrigerants largely depends on national regulations.

• CFC-12 is still being used in Article 5(1) countries, but new supermarkets in these

countries use the same refrigerant as is used in non-Article 5(1) countries. HCFC-22 is

still widely used in the United States, but R-404A is gaining market share in the USA. In

Europe, the use of HCFC-22 in new equipment has been banned since 1 January 2001.

R-404A is the preferred choice there. In Japan CFC-12 has been replaced by HFC-134a

and sometimes by R-407C.

• In Europe, indirect systems are receiving more and more attention in order to limit the

refrigerant charge (whatever the type of refrigerant) or to allow the use of ammonia or

hydrocarbons. CO2 is being evaluated as a heat transfer fluid or as a low temperature

refrigerant. Several hundred of indirect systems have been installed in the last four years,

especially in Northern Europe.

• The energy consumption of both direct and indirect systems is being evaluated.

However, the reference base varies widely as there are many variables such as the size of

sales areas, the type of display cases (with or without doors), the control system, and the

climatic zones, etc. Particularly at the medium temperature level, well-designed indirect
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 7

systems may show equal or even slightly better energy consumption compared to the

usual, centralised direct systems.

• It should be mentioned that indirect systems need a more complex and a more expensive

design. The initial costs are higher, whereas currently the operating costs and the

maintenance costs are still being evaluated. For large store companies, the initial costs

still form the main driver; it is for this reason that centralised direct expansion systems

form the most common technology for supermarkets.

Large Size Refrigeration (Industrial, Cold Storage and Food Processing)

The applications covered in this chapter are industrial refrigeration, cold storage, food

processing and large industrial heat pumps. The major concern for the systems, which are

described in this chapter, is the reduction of energy consumption. The systems are mainly

custom made and often erected on site. As a refrigerant, ammonia (NH3) is used in

approximately 75-85% of the current installations followed by HCFC-22, CFCs and HFCs.

Industrial Refrigeration covers a wide range of cooling and freezing applications, including

chemical and pharmaceutical industries, petrochemical, oil and gas industries, metallurgical

industry, plastic moulding, civil engineering, sports and leisure facilities, industrial ice

making, air liquefaction and others.

Food Processing is one of the fastest developing industries in the world. Food processing

covers a wide range of cooling and freezing applications, including the processing and

storage of meat, fish, cheese, beer, eggs, fruits and vegetables. Refrigeration is used to

preserve food from harvest, catch or slaughter, through processing, transport, storage and

distribution to retail sales and markets.

Cold Storage is related to both raw materials and finished products in a food processing

factory. Modern cold storage warehousing typically consist of a one level building with

elevated loading banks for the rational handling of full pallets.

In 2000, the world-wide consumption of frozen food was 30 million tonnes. The United

States accounts for more than half of this, with more than 63 kg per capita. The average

figure for the European Union (EU) is 25 kg and for Japan 16 kg. Chilled foods form 10 -15

times the frozen product quantity. Total quantity of temperature controlled products is

estimated at 350 million tonnes (1995), where the annual growth is estimated as 5%.

Most systems use NH3 with a tendency emerging to reduce the charge through indirect

systems using brines or cascade systems using refrigerants. Beside traditional brines “ice

slurries” have been introduced as a new option (in breweries first). It is expected that the

market share will increase for such systems where a reduction of refrigerant charge is

required. At low temperatures (below –40 to –45 °C) a clear global trend can be observed

towards cascade systems, where CO2 is used in the low temperature stage of the system.

Particularly in Europe, large cascade systems with cooling capacities of several MW have

been built utilising NH3/CO2 cascade systems. For new systems no CFCs or HCFCs have

been used. In applications, where, for various reasons, NH3 cannot be utilised, HFCs are

used.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 8

The retrofit of industrial refrigeration plants is difficult due to the fact that these are custommade installations. Most existing systems that use CFCs and HCFC-22 are still in operation,

although in some special cases end-users have already converted HCFC-22 systems to

operate on CO2 or NH3.

In Article 5(1) countries the use of NH3 is not so common as in the developed countries, but

there is a significant number of –mostly old- systems still in operation. Systems based on

HCFC-22 have been installed there more often, with CFC units to a much lesser extent.

Transport Refrigeration

Transport refrigeration includes refrigeration in ships, fishing vessels, containers, road

transport equipment and railcars. For transport air conditioning only merchant ships and

railcars are covered.

Most systems which still used CFCs in 1998 have been retrofitted or scrapped and the

remaining uses are concentrated on old refrigerated containers and trucks with a short

remaining operational lifetime, yet the existing CFC fleet remains still significant.

In ships, most existing systems use HCFC-22, though R-407C and R-404A/R-507 are options

already used today in Europe for new systems. For the future, R-410A is expected to play an

important role.

On merchant ships most systems use HCFC-22, and CFC use is reducing significantly since

1998. R-404A/R-507 is dominating new systems, and fishing fleets and naval vessels form a

significant part of this sector.

Out of the about 550,000 refrigerated containers fleet, only a small portion still uses CFC-12,

and some may be in use beyond the year 2003. They could be retrofitted with an interim

solution to cope with their remaining lifetime. For new units HFC-134a and R-404A

predominate the market. Beside, some development of carbon dioxide based units has started.

There are about 1,200,000 refrigerated road vehicles in use. Half of these still use CFC-12 or

R-502. Current production uses HFC-134a, R-404A, or HCFC-22 (to a lesser extent) and

some units with R-410A are available. Research and tests of hydrocarbon, solar and

cryogenic systems with liquid air or liquid carbon dioxide are in progress.

Numbers of refrigerated railcars and swap-bodies remain relatively small.

Railcar air conditioning is moving from HCFC-22 with relatively high leakage rates to R134a or R-407C, which require specific attention for system containment. Railcar air

conditioning exhibits increasing market penetration.

Generally, HFCs offer today the preferred future options for new systems, though there is

development work on alternatives including hydrocarbons, ammonia, air cycle and CO2.

HFC and HC retrofit options exist for systems in use. Application of some of these could be

restricted by local legislation in some countries.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 9

There is a need to concentrate on containment, training and efficiency issues, and to accept

the imminent restrictions on HCFC use in some countries.

Air Conditioning & Heat Pumps (Refrigerant-To-Air)

Globally, air-cooled air conditioners (including heat pumps) comprise a vast majority of the air

conditioning market. Air-cooled air conditioners fall into four categories: window-mounted,

non-ducted split residential and commercial, ducted split residential, and ducted commercial air

conditioners. Nearly all air-cooled air conditioners manufactured prior to 2000 used HCFC-22

as a working fluid.

It is estimated that 131 million window-mounted and through-the-wall air conditioners are in

operation globally—containing an installed HCFC-22 bank of approximately 85,000 tonnes.

During this assessment period, there has been a significant shift away from the use of windowmounted air conditioners to non-ducted split residential air conditioners as the entry-level air

conditioning product in Article 5(1) countries--particularly in Asia. An estimated 158 million

non-ducted or duct-free Split air conditioners are installed worldwide—containing a refrigerant

bank of 199,000 tonnes. An estimated 60 million ducted split residential air conditioners are

currently in service worldwide. The total estimated inventory of HCFC-22 in the installed

population of ducted systems has been estimated to be 164,000 tonnes. Approximately 19

million air-cooled Ducted Commercial Split and Packaged air conditioners and heat pumps are

installed worldwide containing and estimated refrigerant bank of 101,000 tonnes.

Since the last assessment, the primary non-ODS refrigerants used in these products have been R407C, R-410A and to a lesser extent HC-290. A significant shift to non-ODS alternatives has

been observed in Europe and Japan. A shift of approximately 5% has been observed in the US.

In the remainder of the world there has been minimal conversion to non-ODS alternatives in air

conditioning applications. A rough estimate would indicate that globally 85 to 90% of the aircooled air conditioners and heat pumps currently produced globally still use HCFC-22 as the

refrigerant. HFC refrigerants and hydrocarbon refrigerants, to a lesser extent, will have the

greatest impact on the industry transition for the next 10-15 years.

The primary retrofit refrigerant is the zeotropic blend, R-407C. Hydrocarbon refrigerants are

viewed as unlikely retrofit options because of high cost and complexity of safely retrofitting

existing HCFC-22 systems.

Demand for HCFC-22 may continue to increase until approximately 2005 and gradually decline

as developed countries expand their usage of non-ODS alternatives to meet regional and

Montreal Protocol phase-out dates.

Most of the technology required to phase-out ODS substances in Article 5(1) countries has

been developed and is slowly being transferred to the Article 5(1) countries. As the

penetration of these technologies increases, costs will fall, resulting in increased conversion

to non-ODS refrigerants in the Article 5(1) countries.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 10

Chillers and Heat-Pump Water Heaters

Chillers, also known as water chillers, cool water or heat transfer fluids for air conditioning

and process cooling. The heat removed is rejected to ambient air in air-cooled chillers or to

water in water-cooled chillers.

Heat pump water heaters are reversible chillers capable of drawing heat from an air or water

source and using it for service (sometimes indicated as sanitary) supply or for hydronic

heating systems employing convectors, fan coils, or other heat exchangers.

New Equipment since 1998

In, general, the types of available equipment have not changed since 1998, but there have

been subtle changes in the relative importance of various refrigerants. CFCs are decreasing in

importance as the older machines are phased out in the developed countries and are being

replaced largely by HCFCs and HFCs. There is some growth of machinery using non-ODS

refrigerants, primarily ammonia, hydrocarbons in small machines, and CO2 in some heat

pump water heaters. In chillers employing positive displacement compressors, reciprocating

compressors are being displaced by screw compressors (above 140 kW) or scroll

compressors (below 140kW).

Options to Replace Current Systems

The technological options available to the systems designer or machine purchaser have not

changed substantially since 1998. The most significant changes have been:

1. Increases in efficiency,

2. Elimination of production of HCFC-22 centrifugal machines,

3. Migration from HCFC-22 towards HFCs in screw and large scroll chillers,

4. Softening of the absorption chiller market,

5. Growing chiller industry in some Article 5(1) countries (especially China and Korea),

6. Decreased optimism for the prospects for CO2 except in water-heating applications,

and

7. Less optimism for the commercial viability of new low pressure refrigerants R-236fa

and R-245fa.

Market Characteristics

The market for centrifugal and large screw chillers is divided among the USA (40%), Asia

(25%-30%), and smaller percentages in Europe and the Middle East. The market for smaller

positive displacement chillers is much larger in numbers and in market revenues world-wide

than for the other chiller types. The market for absorption chillers is concentrated in Japan,

China, and Korea. The market for heat-pump water heaters is growing and is found primarily

in Western Europe and Japan.

Article 5(1) Countries / Technology Transfer

Chillers are technologically sophisticated machines. In Article 5(1) countries, they are

normally first seen in large hotels, resorts, well-funded industries, commercial buildings, and

hospitals. As the economy grows, so does the use of chillers.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 11

Some Article 5(1) countries have developed domestic production capacity for chillers, largely

as a result of joint venture technology transfer. This is perhaps most noticeable in China, but

also in India and some Latin American countries. The joint venture partner companies are

typically Japanese, Korean, or American.

Vehicle Air Conditioning

Vehicles (cars, trucks, and buses) built before the mid-1990’s used CFC-12 as the refrigerant.

Since then, in accord with the Montreal Protocol, new vehicles with A/C have been equipped

with HFC-134a, a zero ODP chemical, as the refrigerant. As a result, HFC-134a has now

replaced CFC-12 as the globally accepted mobile A/C (MAC) refrigerant and the industry is

busy expanding global production to meet the increasing demand. By 2008, almost all

vehicles on the road are expected to be using HFC-134a and the transition from CFC-12 will

be complete.

HFC-134a is considered a potent greenhouse gas and, due to concerns about emissions of

HFC-134a from MAC systems, vehicle makers and their suppliers are reducing their system

leakage and improving energy efficiency, and are searching for a replacement refrigerant. In

the timeframe 1998-2002, the leading potential replacement refrigerant has been carbon

dioxide (R-744) for which many global vehicle manufacturers and suppliers have

demonstrated prototype cars. Recently, the use of HFC-152a (with a global warming

potential less than one-tenth that of HFC-134a) has been proposed and publicly demonstrated

in two prototype car systems.

On-site recycling of refrigerant at service shops has been proven to be quite effective for

HFC-134a systems; a full 60% of the original charge can be recycled and reused during

service. Combining this with service frequency scenarios allows an estimation of the current

and future refrigerant emissions from MAC systems. Such emission estimates can be useful

when calculating the cost benefit analysis of proposed changes.

Refrigerant Conservation

Refrigeration conservation is an effort to extend the life span of used refrigerant by

establishing efforts to recover, recycle, and reuse refrigerants. Refrigerant conservation is

now a major consideration in refrigerating system design, installation, and service. The

benefits of refrigerant conservation include not only environmental protection, but they also

include a decrease on the dependency on newly manufactured refrigerant. Refrigerant

conservation has several basic elements:

1. proper design and installation of new refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment so

as to minimise actual or potential leaks;

2. leak-tighten existing refrigeration and air-conditioning systems so as to reduce

emissions;

3. improve service practices, including use of refrigerant recovery equipment and

technician training; and

4. safe disposal techniques that provide for refrigerant recovery for systems at the point

of final disposal.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 12

There has been a great deal of success in the creation and implementation of conservation

programs since the 1994-1998 assessment, most visibly in the creation of governmental

regulations to restrict the use or reuse of CFCs and mandate training for service technicians.

Developed countries have begun to see the results and consequences of conservation

programs. The Japan End-Of-Life Appliance Recycling And Destruction Technologies

Program has been established to reduce emissions of ozone-depleting refrigerants. European

Union countries have established programs mandating recovery, mandating service

technician training, forbidding CFC top-off, forbidding reuse of CFCs, and mandating the use

of non-HCFC refrigerants in new equipment. The United States has seen an increase in the

number of service technicians certified and the amounts of refrigerant reclaimed and placed

back into commerce.

Article 5(1) countries have the opportunity to leverage the knowledge gained from developed

countries during their implementation of conservation programs. If a government plans to

create a program to recover, recycle, and reclaim refrigerant or phase-out the use of CFCs,

the government must establish economic assessments that make owners of systems take

conservation efforts or enforce government requirements by means of financial or other

penalties. Article 5(1) countries have also seen increases in the number of certified

technicians and establishment of conservation programs. For example, Brazil is

implementing several reclaim centres capable of handling recovered refrigerant. Several

African countries have seen an increase in the use of portable recovery equipment in their

efforts to reduce emissions of ozone-depleting refrigerants.

When establishing refrigerant conservation controls, governments must also establish

disposal means for systems. The government should include means of properly disposal of

refrigeration and air-conditioning systems. Refrigerant containers pose a problem, in that

efforts must be implemented to recover remaining refrigerant (commonly called the can heel)

at the point of container disposal.

Governments should also be proactive in combating illegal imports and the establishment of

illegal markets for CFCs that can be a by-product of conservation efforts. Governments

should include training of customs officials as a part of their conservation efforts.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 13

1. Introduction

1.1 Montreal Protocol Developments

In 1981, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) began negotiations to develop

multilateral protection of the ozone layer. These negotiations resulted in the Vienna

Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, adopted in March 1985. In September

1987, 24 nations, amongst which the United States, Japan, the Soviet Union, certain country

members of the European Community, the developing countries Egypt, Ghana, Kenya,

Mexico, Panama, Senegal, Togo and Venezuela, as well as the European Community, signed

the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. The Protocol was open

for signature during one year; 21 more countries signed it during this period, including 9

developing countries. The Montreal Protocol entered into force on January 1, 1989. This

international environmental agreement originally limited production of specified CFCs to

50% of the 1986 levels by the year 1998 and called for a freeze in production of specified

halons at 1986 levels starting in 1992. By April 1991, 68 nations had already ratified the

Protocol: these countries represented over 90% of the 1991 world production of CFCs and

halons.

Shortly after the 1987 Protocol was negotiated, new scientific evidence conclusively linked

CFCs to depletion of the ozone layer and indicated that depletion had already occurred.

Consequently, many countries called for further actions to protect the ozone layer by

expanding and strengthening the original control provisions of the Montreal Protocol, and

they decided that an assessment should be carried out in the year 1989.

In June 1990, the Parties to the Montreal Protocol met in London, considered the data from

the assessment reports, and agreed to Protocol adjustments requiring more stringent controls

on the CFCs and halons specified in the original agreement. They also agreed to

amendments placing controls on other ozone depleting substances, including carbon

tetrachloride and 1,1,1-trichloroethane. In London, a new assessment was again decided,

which was carried out in 1991 for consideration in 1992. The London Amendment

acknowledged the need for financial and technical assistance of the developing countries, and

established an Interim Multilateral Fund (the magnitude of which would depend on the fact

whether China and/or India would accede to the Protocol).

At their 4th Meeting in Copenhagen, Denmark, the Parties considered the assessment reports

and took decisions that again advanced the phase-out schedules in non-Article 5(1) countries

for most ozone depleting substances, including methyl bromide. They continued the

financial mechanism and decided a new assessment to be carried out in 1994 (IV/13), for

decisions by the Parties in their 1995 Meeting.

At the 7th Meeting in Vienna (November 1995) the Parties focused on the progress made in

phasing out ozone depleting chemicals, and extensively dealt with the difficulties

experienced by Countries with Economies in Transition (CEITs), in particular several

successor states to the former Soviet Union. A reduction in the maximum permissible annual

consumption of HCFCs (the “cap”) for the developed countries was decided (2.8% instead of

3.1%, as decided in Copenhagen). A control schedule for HCFCs for the Article 5(1)

countries was agreed upon (a freeze by the year 2016 and a phase-out by the year 2040).
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 14

Article 5(1) countries also agreed to freeze their methyl bromide consumption by the year

2005. The Parties, in Decision VII/34, requested a new assessment to be carried out by the

Assessment Panels in the year 1998; they also requested a new study for the replenishment of

the Multilateral Fund.

Updated and more detailed Terms of Reference for the Technology and Economic

Assessment Panel and its Technical Options Committees (compared to the original 1989

ones) were decided and were given in the 1996 Report of the Technology and Economic

Assessment Panel.

The 11th Meeting of the Parties, held in Beijing in December 1999, considered the 1998

assessment reports, next to a number of other issues, including quarantine and preshipment

uses of methyl bromide, the use of process agents and the replenishment of the Multilateral

Fund. Noting with appreciation the excellent and highly successful work done by the three

Panels, the Parties decided “to request the three Assessment Panels to update their reports of

October1998 and submit them to the Secretariat by 31 December 2002 for consideration by

the Open-ended Working Group and by the Fifteenth Meeting of the Parties to the Protocol

in 2003.”. Together with the Science and Environmental Effects Assessment reports, the

2002 TEAP assessment report -together with the 2002 TOC assessment reports- forms the

direct response to the above-mentioned decision.

The present status (early 2003) is that the Montreal Protocol has been ratified by 184

countries, Parties to the Protocol (the Vienna Convention has been ratified by 185 countries,

Equatorial Guinea has only ratified the Convention). The London Amendment has been

ratified by 164 Parties and the Copenhagen Amendment by 145 Parties. The Montreal

Amendment has been ratified by 91 countries, and the Beijing Amendment has been ratified

by 47 Parties.

1.2 The UNEP Technology and Economic Assessment Panel

Four Assessment Panels were defined in the original Montreal Protocol as signed 1987, i.e.

Assessment Panels on (1) Science, and on (2) Environmental Effects, (3) a Technical

Assessment and (4) an Economics Assessment Panel. The Panels were established in 1988-

89; their Terms of Reference can be found in the Meeting Report of the 1st Meeting of the

Parties, held in Helsinki in 1989. Under the Technical Assessment Panel five Subsidiary

Bodies, the so called Technical Options Committees were defined (see Meeting Report

Meeting of the Parties Helsinki). The Technical and Economics Assessment Panels were

merged after the Meeting in London in 1990 to the Technology and Economic Assessment

Panel. At the Meeting in Copenhagen, it was decided that each Assessment Panel should

have up to three co-chairs, with at least one from an Article 5(1) country. After the

discussions on methyl bromide held at the meeting in Copenhagen, the Methyl Bromide

Technical Options Committee was founded at The Hague in early 1993. From 1993 until

2001, the UNEP Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) had 7 standing

Technical Options Committees (TOCs). In 2001, the Economics Options Committee was

disbanded, which resulted in a number of 6 Committees:

(1) Aerosols, Sterilants, and Miscellaneous Uses Technical Options Committee

(2) Rigid and Flexible Foams Technical Options Committee

(3) Halons Technical Options Committee
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 15

(4) Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee

(5) Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee

(6) Solvents, Coatings and Adhesives Technical Options Committee.

Where, originally the Panels were considered as the bodies that should carry out assessments

pursuant to Article 6 under the Montreal Protocol (at least every four years), it is particularly

the TEAP that has become a “standing advisory group” to the Parties on a large number of

Protocol issues. The evolving role of the TEAP -and its Technical Options Committees and

other temporary Subsidiary Bodies- can be explained by the fact that the focus of the

Montreal Protocol has shifted from introducing and strengthening control schedules (based

upon assessment reports) to the control of the use of controlled chemicals and to compliance

with the Protocol. This implies the study of equipment, of use patterns, of trade, imports and

exports etc.

The Parties in Copenhagen took a number of decisions, which concern the work of the

Technology and Economic Assessment Panel and its Committees. A decision (IV/13) on

"Progress" requested the TEAP and its TOCs to annually report on progress in the

development of technology and chemical substitutes. This decision was re-evaluated and

restated in the meeting in Vienna, in 1995 (VII/34). As a result, progress reports have been

conceived annually by the TEAP and its Committees; they were submitted to the Parties in

the years 1993 – 2002 as part of the annual report of the TEAP (next to the progress reports,

the annual reports deal with a large variety of issues on the basis of which Parties have taken

certain decisions in the 1993-2002 period).

In Vienna, the Parties also requested “to offer the assistance of the Scientific, Environmental

Effects and Technology and Economic Assessment Panels to the SBSTA, the Subsidiary

Body on Science and Technology under the UNFCCC, as necessary” (VII/34). The SBSTA

encouraged the Secretariat to continue its close collaboration with other relevant bodies such

as the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel of the Montreal Protocol on Substances

that Deplete the Ozone Layer, on technical and methodological issues.” Parties to the

UNFCCC (Buenos Aires) and to the Montreal Protocol took mirror decisions in 1998, in

Buenos Aires and Cairo, on the use of HFCs, the interaction between the Montreal and the

Kyoto Protocol, etc. In order to assess the status of the use of fluorochemicals, the IPCC and

the TEAP organised a workshop in Petten, the Netherlands, in mid-1999. Output from this

workshop was reported to the SBSTA in October 1999, before the COP-5. Output was also

used in the drafting of a TEAP report on HFCs and PFCs, which became available in October

1999.

A new decision on a study on the status of HFCs and alternatives to HFCs, to be performed in

2003-2004, was decided by the Parties to the UNFCCC in Delhi (COP-8) in 2002 and by the

Parties to the Montreal Protocol in 2002 (MOP-14, Rome). It asks for a joint undertaking by

the IPCC and TEAP in order to prepare a report on “Safeguarding the climate system and

protecting the ozone layer; issues related to hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons”. A

Steering Committee, consisting of six members (three IPCC and the three TEAP co-chairs)

oversees the study. The Steering committee started its work in November 2002. It is

expected that many members of the 2002 TOC Refrigeration will be part of the membership

for the drafting group of this IPCC/TEAP Report.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 16

The 2002 Technical and Economic Assessment study has been carried out by the Technology

and Economic Assessment Panel and its six Technical Options Committees. The six

Committees consisted of more than 200 experts from a large number of countries (for a list

see the annex to the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel Report 2002).

The 2002 Technical Options Committees consist of several members of the 1994 and 1998

Committees and additional new experts, to provide the widest possible international

participation in the review. Much attention was paid to adequate participation by technical

experts from Article 5(1) and CEIT countries, dependent upon budgetary constraints. The

Technical Options Committee reports have been subject to a peer review before final release.

The final version of the reports will be distributed internationally by UNEP and will also be

available on the Internet (http://www.unep.org/ozone and http://www.teap.org)

1.3 The Technical Options Committee Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps

This Technical Options Committee Assessment Report on Refrigeration, A/C and Heat

Pumps also forms part of the UNEP review pursuant to Article 6 of the Montreal Protocol.

It is part of the 2002 assessment work of the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel

(requested by the Parties in Beijing (XI/17)). The information collected (particularly in the

form of the Abstract Executive Summary and the Executive Summaries) will also be part of

the Technology and Economic Assessment Report 2002, as well as the overall Synthesis

Report by the three Assessment Panels.

The Technical Options Report on Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps has been drafted in the

form of a number of chapters. There are chapters on application areas and on refrigerants,

one chapter on refrigerant conservation, and an annex, which gives historic data for

refrigerant production and consumption. The structure of the report was chosen more or less

similar to the structure of the 1998 Technical Options Committee Assessment Report.

Table 1-3 "Member countries" of UNEP's Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps

Technical Options Committee

Brazil

France

Germany

Japan

Kenya

Netherlands

Norway

Thailand

Tunisia

Uganda

Hungary

India

Indonesia

Poland

Russian Federation

Slovakia

United Kingdom

United States

Vietnam

Each of the chapters was developed by 2-6 experts in the specific sector, and the chapter was

chaired by one (or two) experts who did the larger part of the drafting and the co-ordination.

The 2002 Technical Options Committee included 39 representatives from African, Asian,

European, Latin and North American governments, universities and companies, as well as

independent experts (see Table 1-3). These representatives have been acting as Reporting

Members; as resource persons the Technical Options Committee Refrigeration, AC and Heat

Pumps also has 22 Consulting Members.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 17

Affiliations of the Reporting Committee members are listed in Table 1-5 (39 organisations

were involved in the drafting of the report). The names and contact details are given as an

appendix to this Technical Options Committee Assessment Report.

Several drafts of the report were made, reviewed by the separate chapters and discussed in six

Options Committee meetings (preliminary draft mid 2000, draft end 2000, draft March 2001,

draft September 2001, peer review draft July/September 2002 and final report December

2002). A preliminary committee meeting was held in W-Lafayette, Purdue University, July

2000. Drafting and reviewing meetings were held in Hungary (Budapest), April 2001,

Germany (Hannover), October 2001, USA (W-Lafayette, Purdue), July 2002 and France

(Paris), December 2002.

As stated, the structure of the Refrigeration Technical Options Committee Report is more or

less similar to the Assessment Report of the Refrigeration Technical Options Committee in

1998, except for the fact that the report does not contain separate chapters on industrial

refrigeration and cold storage. With technology proceeding rapidly, the report is not a simple

update of the 1998 report, but all options described in 1998 are re-examined taking into

account the present scale of technological developments.

The report has been peer reviewed by a number of institutions and associations, each of them

reviewing the different chapters sections in a co-ordinated effort in a tight timeframe, i.e.,

between the beginning of October and 20 November 2002 (see Table 1-4 for the

organisations involved). All peer review comments were dealt with by the Technical Options

Committee (on a case-by-case basis) in plenary during its meeting in Paris, December 2002.

The Technical Options Committee greatly acknowledges the voluntary support given by the

peer review institutions.

Table 1-4 Organisations involved in the peer review of the UNEP TOC 

Refrigeration Report

ARI Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute

BIR British Institute of Refrigeration

CCSEE Brazilian Manufacturers

DKV German Refrigeration Society

Greenchill Aus Greenchill Australia

IIR International Institute of Refrigeration

ISHRAE Indian Society of Heating, Refrigeration and AC Engineers

JRAIA Japanese Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Industry Association

U of Illinois U of Illinois, Refrigeration Department (Pedrag Hrnjak)
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 18

Table 1-5 Affiliations of the members of UNEP's Technical Options Committee on

Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps

ARI, Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute U.S.A.

Atofina France

Axima Refrigeration Germany

Bandung Institute of Technology Indonesia

Braunschweig University Germany

Calm (Consultant) U.S.A.

Calor Gas Limited UK

Carrier Corporation U.S.A.

CPPI Projects, ODS Phase-out Russia

Daikin Industries Ltd. Japan

Dehon Service SA France

Delphi Automotive Systems U.S.A.

Ecole des Mines Paris France

FKW Hannover Germany

General Electric, Appliance Division U.S.A.

Hickman (Consultant) U.S.A.

Honeywell International U.S.A.

Hungarian Refrigeration and AC Association Hungary

IEA Heat Pump Centre Netherlands

Indian Inst. Technology IIT New Delhi India

Inst. Fluid Flow Machinery Gdansk Poland

Karlsruhe University Germany

Makerere University, Kampala Uganda

Matsushita Electric Ind. Corporation Ltd. Japan

Maua Institute of Technology Brazil

Ministry of Fisheries, Hanoi Vietnam

Ministry of Industrial Development Kenya

Multibrás SA Eletrodomésticos Brazil

Nat. Chemical Laboratory Pune India

Re/genT Co Netherlands

Siccon Consultancy (Sicars) Germany

SINTEF Energy Research, Trondheim Norway

Slovak Union for Cooling and AC Technology Slovakia

Sofrifac, Tunis Tunisia

Sun Test Engineering U.S.A.

Technical University Eindhoven Netherlands

Thai Compressor Manufacturing Co. Ltd. Thailand

The Trane Company U.S.A.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency U.S.A.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 19

1.4 Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps

1.4.1 General Remarks

Refrigeration, air conditioning and heat pump applications represent the sector which is the

largest consumer of refrigerant chemicals; it is also one of the most important energy using

sectors in the present day society. Estimates are difficult to give but as an average for the

developed countries, its share in electricity use is thought to be between 10-20%.

The economic impact of refrigeration technology is much more significant than generally

believed; 300 million tonnes of goods are continuously refrigerated. While the yearly

consumption of electricity may be huge, and where the investment in machinery and

equipment may approach US$100,000 million, the value of the products treated by

refrigeration either alone will be four times this amount. This is one of the reasons that

economic impacts of the phase-out of refrigerant chemicals (such as CFCs in the past, and

HCFCs in the foreseeable future) have been and still are difficult to estimate.

Refrigeration and air conditioning applications vary enormously in size and temperature

level. A domestic refrigerator has an electrical input between 50-250 W and contains less

than 30-150 g of refrigerant (dependent on the type of refrigerant), whereas industrial

refrigeration and cold storage is characterised by temperatures between ±10 °C and -40 °C,

with electrical inputs up to several MW and refrigerant contents of many hundred kilograms.

Air conditioning and heat pumps may show evaporation temperatures between 0 °C and +10

°C, significantly different from refrigeration applications, and vary enormously in size and

input.

In principle one can therefore discriminate between four main areas which each have

subsectors: (i) the food chain in all its aspects, from cold storage via transport to domestic

refrigeration, (ii) industrial refrigeration, (iii) comfort air conditioning, from air cooled

equipment to water chillers, including heat pumps, and (iv) mobile air conditioning, with

very specific, different aspects. This is one of the reasons that all the equipment is

considered in this report in a large number of separate chapters or sections.

Options and aspects for the refrigeration vapour compression cycle deserve most attention,

since it is unlikely that during the next 10-20 years other principles will take over a

substantial part of the market. In all application sectors described in the separate chapters in

this report, most of the attention is focused on the vapour compression cycle. As stated, this

cycle has so far provided the most simple, economic, efficient and reliable way for

refrigeration (this includes cycles for ammonia, fluorochemicals and hydrocarbons).

The process of selecting a refrigerant for the vapour compression cycle is rather complex,

since a large number of parameters need to be investigated concerning their suitability for

certain designs, including:

- thermodynamic and transport properties (performance);

- temperature ranges;

- pressures and pressure ratios;

- compressor requirements;

- material and oil compatibility;

- health, safety and flammability aspects;
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 20

- environmental parameters such as ODP, GWP and atmospheric lifetime.

These selection criteria were elaborated upon in various chapters of various UNEP TOC

Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps reports, and these selection criteria have not changed

during the last years. Since then, it is the emphasis on the emissions of greenhouse gases that

has increased; this can be directly translated to thermodynamic efficiency and quality of the

equipment (leakage).

The future of mankind, and his food supply in particular, depends on the availability of

sufficient energy and on the availability of efficient refrigeration methods. Of course, this

aspect must be more than balanced by a concern for the conservation of the biosphere,

including in particular the global warming effect. Energy efficiency, therefore, is one of the

most important aspects.

1.4.2 Long Term Options and Energy Efficiency

CFC production has been phased out in the developed countries, and the CFC phase-out is

underway in the developing countries. In both developed and developing countries, HCFCs

and HFCs have been the primary substitutes for CFCs. In many applications, alternatives to

HCFCs have become commercially available, as blends of HFCs or as non-HFC alternatives.

Nevertheless, HFCs have currently gained a large share of the replacement market. In

particular the necessary incentives remain to be provided to Article 5(1) countries to

transition as soon as possible from CFCs to non-CFC refrigerants, which will include both

HFC and non-fluorocarbon alternatives.

This aspect is in particular valid for chillers, as mentioned above (and already in the 1998

TOC Refrigeration assessment report). The larger part of the centrifugal chillers in the world

(the majority being on CFC-11) has so far not been retrofitted from CFCs to substitutes. The

only alternative available for CFC-11 chillers available to date is HCFC-123; blends cannot

be used due to the frequently applied flooded evaporator systems. It is clear that there are not

only technical but certainly also important economic considerations at stake in the conversion

process.

An early HCFC phase-out date (as e.g. decided in the EU) has given clear signals to the user

of HCFC chemicals, however, it cannot be anticipated which consequences it will have for

the global and national trade markets if very significant differences in regimes exist in

different parts of the world. However, early national phase-out dates will have a significant

effect on global trends if the country is an important consumer of HCFCs. These kinds of

political decisions cannot and will not be dealt with in the chapters of this report.

One should state here that it is not the changing refrigerant options that form the driving force

for innovations in refrigeration and A/C equipment. Innovation is an ongoing independent

process, that currently has to take into account all the environmental issues involved.

In the long term, the role of non-vapour compression methods such as absorption, adsorption,

Stirling and air cycles etc. may become more important; however, vapour compression cycles

are thought to remain the most important candidates.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 21

For the long term, there remain, in fact, only five important different refrigerant options for

the vapour compression cycle in all refrigeration and A/C sectors, listed alphabetically:

1. ammonia (R-717);

2. carbon dioxide (R-744);

3. hydrocarbons and blends (HCs, e.g. HC-290, HC-600, HC-600a etc.);

4. hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs, HFC-blends with 400 and 500 number designation);

5. water (R-718).

None of the above mentioned refrigerants is perfect; all have both advantages and

disadvantages that should be considered by governments, equipment manufacturers and

equipment users. For instance, HFCs have relatively high global warming potentials,

ammonia is more toxic than the other options, and ammonia and hydrocarbons are flammable

to certain extents. Appropriate equipment design, maintenance and use can address these

concerns, though sometimes at the cost of greater capital investment or lower energy

efficiency.

The five refrigerant options above are in different stages of development or

commercialisation; HFCs are widely applied in many sectors, ammonia and hydrocarbons

enjoy growth in sectors where they can be easily accommodated, and for certain applications,

CO2 equipment is under development and the first demonstration components have reached

the market. Water is used and may see some increase in use in limited applications. Work is

being done by several committees in developing standards to permit the application of new

refrigerants, and it is the intent of companies to reach world-wide accepted limits in those

different standards.

Similarly, energy efficiency research is partly spurred by the role of energy production in

carbon dioxide emissions. Options for energy efficient operation of equipment form an

important issue in each of the chapters of this 2002 TOC Refrigeration Assessment report.

The Framework Convention on Climate Change via its Kyoto Protocol as adopted in 1997

considers six important global warming gases in one basket (CO2, CH4, N2O, and the

industrial gases HFCs, PFCs and SF6) using their respective Global Warming Potentials

(GWP). The control process is based upon the control of equivalent global warming

emissions via reductions. Of course, under the Kyoto Protocol, any national government is

free to prioritise emission reductions, which in principle could also be done via a phase-out of

HFC chemicals at a certain stage. On the contrary, it could also involve a certain growth in

certain sectors in certain countries (e.g., the HFCs) which would have to be balanced by

larger than average reductions in other greenhouse gas emissions.

A study on the status of HFCs and alternatives to HFCs, to be performed in 2003-2004, was

decided by the Parties to the UNFCCC in Delhi (COP-8) in 2002 and by the Parties to the

Montreal Protocol in 2002 (MOP-14, Rome). It asks for a joint undertaking by the IPCC and

TEAP in order to prepare a report on “Safeguarding the climate system and protecting the

ozone layer; issues related to HFCs and PFCs”. A Steering Committee, consisting of six

members (three IPCC and the three TEAP co-chairs) oversees the study. The Steering

committee started its work in November 2002. Next to members from other TOCs, it is

expected that many members of the 2002 TOC Refrigeration will be part of the membership

for the drafting group of this IPCC/TEAP Report.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 22

1.4.3 Set Up of the 2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Report

Chapter 2 presents refrigerants and all their aspects. It elaborates on Ozone Depleting

Potentials, and on ODP and GWP data for reporting purposes. It also investigates the status

and research needs for data, i.e., thermophysical, heat transfer, compatibility and safety data.

Chapters 3, 4, 5 and 6 deal with the food chain and investigate the technical feasibility of

options. They all consider non-ODP options and deal with aspects such as the use of nonfluorochemicals, the reduction of charges, energy efficiency improvements etc. Particularly

the energy efficiency aspect plays an important role in chapter 3 on domestic refrigeration.

Chapter 5 deals with industrial refrigeration and cold storage, chapter 6 with transport

refrigeration. Chapters 7 and 8 deal with air conditioning and heat pumps, in particular with

the dependence or independence of each of these sectors on HCFCs and the introduction of

non-ODP options now and/or in the near future. Chapter 9 describes the options for mobile

air conditioning; in a first instance, it deals extensively with HFC-134a, but it also evaluates

the potential the options carbon dioxide and hydrocarbons will have. Chapter 10 deals with

refrigerant conservation in the broadest sense; via adequate practices one can reduce the

emission of ODP refrigerants to the atmosphere (recover and recycle, containment) but the

same approaches are also valid to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases (HFC based

refrigerants) to the atmosphere.

All chapters have conceived an executive summary; these summaries were put together and

are presented in the first part of the report. The executive summaries are preceded by a

shortened executive summary (e.g. for policy makers) which has been abstracted from the

separate executive summaries.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 23

2 Refrigerants

2.1 Introduction

This chapter summarises data for refrigerants and specifically those addressed in other

sections. It discusses thermophysical (both thermodynamic and transport) properties as well

as heat transfer, compatibility, and safety data. The chapter also provides similar information

for heat transfer fluids (sometimes referred to as “secondary refrigerants”) for airconditioning, heat pump, and refrigeration systems. The tabular data summaries are updated

from prior assessments to reflect current data, from consensus assessments and published

scientific and engineering literature where possible. The summary tables also add new

blends introduced since the 1998 assessment report.

This chapter does not address the suitability, advantages, and drawbacks of individual

refrigerants or refrigerant groups for specific applications; such discussion is addressed for

specific applications where relevant in subsequent chapters.

2.2 Data Summary

The table in Annex IV (located at the end of this report) provides summary data for

refrigerants, both single compounds and blends, addressed in this report as well as those used

historically or under consideration as candidates for future use. The table excludes

proprietary blends for which the composition (components) and/or formulation (their

proportions) have not been disclosed.

The data in this table were extracted from a summary by Calm and Hourahan /Cal01b/ and

the ARTI Refrigerant Database /Cal01a/; those references provide further information on the

refrigerants included and address additional refrigerants. Some of the data have been updated

with further revisions (later editions) of the cited sources, notably including REFPROP 7.0

/Lem02/ for thermophysical properties and new flammability test data /Alp01, Wil02/. The

database also identifies the sources for the data presented in the table as well as, for some

refrigerants, additional data where conflicting values reported by different investigators. The

data and their limitations should be verified in the referenced source documents, particularly

where use of the data would risk loss to life or property. REFPROP /Lem02/ can be used to

calculate additional properties for many of the refrigerants and additional blends.

The data presented, from left to right in the table are:

• refrigerant number, if assigned, in accordance with ASHRAE Standard 34 /ASH01a and

ASH02a/

• chemical formula, in accordance with the IUPAC convention /IUP79/ or, for blends, the

blend composition in accordance with ASHRAE Standard 34 /ASH01a and ASH02a/

• molecular mass

• normal boiling point (NBP) or, for blends, the bubble point temperature at 101.325 kPa

• critical temperature (Tc) in °C or, for blends, the calculated pseudo-critical temperature

• critical pressure (Pc) in kPa or, for blends, the calculated pseudo-critical pressure

• Threshold Limit Value - Time Weighted Average (TLV-TWA) in ppm v/v assigned by the

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) or a consistent

measure
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 24

• lower flammability limit (LFL) in % concentration ambient air, determined in accordance

with ASHRAE Standard 34 /ASH01a and ASH02a/. The LFLs indicated for blends are for

the nominal formulations and do not reflect potential fractionation, which is considered in

safety classifications.

• heat of combustion (HOC) in MJ/kg calculated assuming complete reaction to the most

stable products in their vapour state (for example C, N, and S react to CO2, N2, and SO3, respectively; F and Cl form HF and HCl if there is sufficient H in the molecule or F2 and Cl2

otherwise; and excess H is converted to H2O): This conservative definition is used for

refrigerant safety classifications /ASH01a/, but typical heat releases will be lower depending

on the refrigerant and combustion conditions. Negative values indicate endothermic

reactions while positive values indicate exothermic reactions

• safety classification, if assigned, in accordance with ASHRAE Standard 34 /ASH01a and

ASH02a/ or pending addenda thereto: Some of the classifications are followed by lower

case letters, which indicate:

d signifies that the project committee responsible for ASHRAE Standard 34, SSPC 34,

has recommended deletion of the classification, but final approval and/or publication is

still pending ("d" alone indicates that a prior classification was deleted and that the

refrigerant no longer has a safety classification).

p indicates that the classification was assigned on a provisional basis

r signifies that SSPC 34 has recommended revision or addition of the classification as

shown, but final approval and/or publication is still pending

• atmospheric lifetime (τatm) in years: Note that τatm normally is not indicated for blends since

it is ambiguous whether the time indicated pertains to the blend as formulated, a modified

formulation as some components decompose more rapidly than others, or the most enduring

component.

• ozone depletion potential (ODP) relative to R-11 based on the values adopted in the

Scientific Assessment /WMO99/ or, for blends, the mass-weighted averages /Cal01a,b/ based

on the IUPAC atomic weights /Cop97/ of the component ODPs: The ODP indicates the

relative ability of refrigerants (and other chemicals) to destroy stratospheric ozone.

• global warming potential (GWP) relative to CO2 for 100-year integration based on the values

adopted in the IPCC Assessment /IPC01/ or, for blends, the mass-weighted average based on

the IUPAC atomic weights /Cop97/ of the component GWPs

• status: Refrigerants restricted (production limitations, phase-out, or measures to reduce

releases) for environmental reasons are noted as follows:

M controlled (or for blends one or more components is controlled) under the Montreal

Protocol

K controlled (or for blends one or more components is controlled) under the Kyoto

Protocol

2.2.1 Ozone Depletion Potentials

The ODPs indicated in the Table are modelled values, the most indicative of environmental

impacts. There are other ODP indices, among them semi-empirical, time-dependent, and

regulatory variations /Cal01b/. Semi-empirical ODPs are calculated values that incorporate

adjustments for observed atmospheric measurements. This approach is conceptually more

accurate, but the data needed are difficult to measure precisely. Time-dependent ODPs use

chemicals other than R-11 as the reference to emphasise impacts for other, typically shorter,

timeframes. Normalising values to short-lived compounds accentuates near-term impacts,

but discounts long-term effects. Time-dependent ODPs are not cited often, particularly since

the release of ozone-depleting substances already has peaked and recovery of the

stratospheric ozone layer is underway. Regulatory ODPs generally are old data used to set

phase-out steps, determine compliance with the Montreal Protocol, and allocate production
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 25

quotas in national regulations. Because of the political and competitive complexities in

changing consumption targets and production allocations, these values commonly are left

unchanged even when newer scientific findings improve the quantification precision. The

ODP values listed in the annexes to the Montreal Protocol, for example, have not been

updated since 1987 for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and 1992 for hydrochlorofluorocarbons

(HCFCs). A note in the Protocol indicates that the values “are estimates based on existing

knowledge and will be reviewed and revised periodically,” but that has not happened yet

/UNE00/. Table 2-1 contrasts modelled (the most indicative of environmental impacts) and

regulatory (as used in the Montreal Protocol, but generally based on old data) ODPs.

Table 2-1 Modelled and Regulatory ODPs

for BFC, CFC, and HCFC Refrigerants

ODP

refrigerant Modelled regulatory

 11 1.000 1.0 

 12 0.820 1.0 

 12B1 5.100 3.0 

 13 1.000 1.0 

 13B1 12.000 10.0 

 21 0.010 0.04 

 22 0.034 0.055

113 0.900 0.8 

114 0.850 1.0 

115 0.400 0.6 

123 0.012 0.02 

124 0.026 0.022

142b 0.043 0.065

2.2.2 ODP and GWP Data for Regulatory Reporting

The data presented in the Table in Annex IV are based on international scientific assessments

and reflect the latest consensus determinations on potential impacts. However, the reduction

requirements and allocations under the Montreal Protocol and many national regulations

pursuant to it use older, adopted values. Similarly, emission reporting pursuant to the Kyoto

Protocol are based on data from the 1995 IPCC assessment /IPC96/ rather than the updated

2001 assessment /IPC01/.

THE ODP AND GWP DATA IN THE TABLE IN ANNEX IV SHOULD NOT BE USED

FOR REGULATORY REPORTING THAT REQUIRES USE OF SPECIFIED

(TYPICALLY OLDER) DATA ADOPTED IN THE CONTROLLING REGULATIONS.

Table 2-1 provides the “regulatory” ODPs for the Montreal Protocol. Table 1 of the 1998

TOC assessment provides the GWPs from the 1995 IPCC Assessment including derived

values calculated for blends /UNE98/.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 26

2.3 Status and Research Needs for Data

2.3.1 Thermophysical Properties

The status of data for the thermophysical properties of refrigerants, which include both

thermodynamic properties (such as density, pressure, enthalpy, entropy, and heat capacity)

and transport properties (such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, and surface tension), is

generally good. The data are sufficient to permit evaluation and testing of virtually all

candidate refrigerants. Data gaps do exist, however, for the thermodynamic and transport

properties of blends and less-common fluids as well as the transport properties of many fluids

(but especially so for blends). Complete data are desirable for any refrigerant in commercial

use.

The thermodynamic data and models for the most-common HFCs (R-32, R-125, and R-134a)

and HFC blends (R-404A, R-407C, R-410A, and R-507A) are generally excellent. The data

are often limited for the new blends that are being introduced continually. The transport data

for these fluids are good for the single-compound refrigerants, but additional data and

improved models are needed for the HFC blends. The thermodynamic data for R-290

(propane), R-600 (n-butane), and R-600a (isobutane) are good, but they are not known as

well as is commonly assumed and not as well as for the HFCs. Observed inconsistencies

should be resolved. A review of the current models should be carried out in light of recent

data. The status of data for R-717 (ammonia) is similar to that for the cited hydrocarbons,

namely much of the data are old, and sometimes inconsistent and/or limited in coverage. The

property data for R-744 (carbon dioxide) are excellent.

The commonly used thermodynamic property models are summarised by McLinden et al.

/McL98b/; this paper also contains recommended formulations for the most common HCFCs,

HFCs, hydrocarbons, ammonia, and CO2. McLinden et al. /McL98b/ and Lemmon and

McLinden /Lem01/ provide a summary of the available data for blends. An International

Standards Organization working group (ISO TC86/SC8/WG7) presently is working towards

an international standard for the thermodynamic properties of ten single-compound

refrigerants and four blends; the standard is expected to be complete in late 2002 or 2003.

Assael et al. /Ass99/ and McLinden et al. /McL00/ provide references to transport property

data for 31 and 14 refrigerants, respectively.

The data situation for the less-common fluids is more variable. There is interest in the ethers

and particularly the hydrofluoroethers (R-E series refrigerants as in, for example, RE245cb1). The available data for them are often scattered among obscure sources. There is a

need to collect and evaluate the data for such candidates.

A major uncertainty for all of the refrigerants is the influence of lubricants on properties.

The working fluid in most systems is actually a mixture of the refrigerant and the lubricant

carried over from the compressor(s). Concerted research on the refrigerant-lubricant

mixtures is in the early stages. It is complicated by the great variety of lubricants in use and

by the often highly proprietary nature of the chemical structure or compositions of the

lubricant and/or additives.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 27

2.3.2 Heat Transfer and Compatibility Data

Refrigerant heat transfer technology has been extensively studied and documented by

researchers in many countries. Two reports by Thome /Tho98a and Tho98b/ provide

comprehensive, state-of-the-art reviews of evaporation and condensation heat transfer for

many refrigerants including fluorochemicals, hydrocarbons, ammonia, and carbon dioxide.

The reports cover in-tube and shell-side boiling and condensing of single-compound

refrigerants, azeotropic and zeotropic blends, and refrigerant-lubricant mixtures. They

address plain tubes, internally finned tubes with conventional and cross-grooved fins, and

both conventional low fin and enhanced externally finned-tubes plus falling-film evaporation.

Mention should be made of other representative reports on refrigerant heat transfer

technology including Ohada et al. /Oha96/ for ammonia, Pais and Webb /Pai91/ for pool

boiling on enhanced surfaces, Cavallini et al. /Cav95/ for condensation models of refrigerants

inside smooth and enhanced tubes, Darabi et al. /Dar95/ for flow boiling correlations in

smooth and augmented tubes, Singh et al. /Sin95/ on electrohydrodynamic enhancement of

heat transfer, and a series of articles on heat transfer of carbon dioxide, ammonia, and

hydrocarbons /IIR97/.

Many types of refrigeration and air conditioning systems are operating with fluorochemical,

hydrocarbon, ammonia, and carbon dioxide refrigerants, suggesting reasonably adequate

refrigerant heat transfer data. The best heat transfer data availability are for fluorocarbon

(now mainly HFCs) and ammonia refrigerants. From the above-mentioned reports, plus input

from other researchers, the following research needs were determined:

further test data for shell-side boiling and condensation of zeotropic mixtures

local heat transfer data determined at specific values of vapour quality

microchannel heat exchanger refrigerant-side heat transfer data including flow distribution

effects

effects of lubricants on heat transfer, especially for hydrocarbons, ammonia, and carbon dioxide

accurate plain tube and microfin tube evaporation and condensation data for hydrocarbons

inside-tube condensation heat transfer data for carbon dioxide at low temperatures such as –20 °C

heat transfer correlations for carbon dioxide supercritical heat rejection and two-phase

evaporation

Materials compatibility data are available from many sources such as manufacturers’

literature (refrigerant, plastics, and elastomer manufacturers), materials chemical resistance

publications, plus a series of studies performed for the Materials Compatibility and

Lubricants Research (MCLR) Program of the Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration

Technology Institute (ARTI). The MCLR reports include compatibility of refrigerants and

lubricants with metals, hermetic motor materials, elastomers, engineering plastics, desiccants,

and lubricant additives /Cav93, Cav97, Doe93, Doe96, Fie95, Ham94, and Hut92/.

Essentially all of the MCLR studies were made with fluorochemical refrigerants, especially

the major commercialised HFC refrigerants. It was found that HFCs were less reactive than

HCFCs such as R-22 or R-123, with the result that most materials compatible with HCFCs

were also compatible with HFCs.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 28

A major source of materials compatibility data for carbon dioxide, ammonia, and

hydrocarbons are three chemical resistance guides by Pruett covering metals, elastomeric

compounds, and engineering plastics /Pru95, Pru94, and Pru83/. Since plastics and

elastomers contain many types of additives (many being proprietary), specific materials

should be tested to insure reliability.

Citing representative problem areas and development needs, ammonia is not compatible with

most types of electrical wiring insulation, converting polyester compounds to amides. Metals

of construction inside ammonia systems normally are limited to carbon and stainless steel,

but two publications from Germany /Kna97 and Lip97/ report good compatibility of

ammonia with copper and copper alloys in systems with careful moisture control, as water

intrusion can result in severe copper corrosion. Aluminium is compatible with ammonia, but

it is sensitive to corrosion in water circuits due to the presence of chlorides.

A materials issue with carbon dioxide is explosive decompression with elastomers, especially

in systems with pressure cycling. Carbon dioxide is very soluble in many types of

elastomers, and if it cannot diffuse out of the elastomer quickly enough, bubbles of gas may

grow and cause rupture of the elastomer shapes, such as o-ring seals. Explosive

decompression can be minimised by selecting elastomers with appropriate mechanical

properties and tear strength, a low carbon dioxide solubility coefficient, and a high carbon

dioxide diffusion coefficient /Har99/. A photograph of an o-ring shattered by carbon dioxide

explosive decompression can be found in /Har99/.

As reported by Kruse and Tiedemann /Kru97/, the thermal stability of R-170 (ethane), R-290

(propane), R-600a (isobutane), and R-1270 (propylene) in the presence of lubricants is being

investigated. The tolerable amount of impurities in hydrocarbons based on performance and

materials compatibility also is being studied. Sealed tube tests containing R-290 and R-600a

with various oils, materials, and air show negligible degradation /San96/.

2.3.3 Safety Data

The primary hazards from refrigerant handling and use arise from pressure explosions,

toxicity, flammability, and air displacement, the last of which may lead to oxygen deprivation

and asphyxiation /Cal94/.

Pressure data are generally well characterised as necessary for component and system design.

Safety standards such as ANSI/ASHRAE 15, Safety Standard for Mechanical Refrigeration

/ASH01b/, which is the basis of many national and international standards and regulations,

provide guidance on vessel requirements, pressure relief devices, and testing.

Toxicity concerns arise from both accidental releases and occupational handling, for example

to install, service, and remove equipment /Cal94 and Cal96/. The data are divided into acute

(short-term, single exposure) and chronic (long-term, possibly repeated exposure). Key acute

effects include lethality, cardiac sensitisation, central nervous system (CNS) or anesthetic

effects, and others that may impair the ability to escape or cause permanent injury. Most of

these effects arise from inhalation rather than contact or ingestion, since a desirable attribute

of refrigerants is that they be volatile compounds and, as a result, either are vapours at typical

conditions or vaporise quickly in contact with body temperatures. Accordingly, it is hard to
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 29

have extended contact or to ingest sufficient quantities before inhalation effects come into

play. Exceptions are refrigerants that irritate or corrode the skin.

Safety data and resulting recommendations for refrigerant concentration limits and

occupational exposure limits generally are available for fluorochemical refrigerants /Cal00,

Cal01a, and Cal01b/. The data typically are developed, primarily through animal testing, by

manufacturers in the course of qualifying new candidates. A collaborative effort among

manufacturers, the Programme for Alternative Fluorocarbon Toxicity Testing (PAFT),

developed extensive data for new fluorochemical replacements for CFCs /PAF95 and

PAF96/.

Data are less readily available for hydrocarbons and generally are sparse for exposures above

fire hazard concentrations, though toxic effects from hydrocarbons generally are not manifest

below them /Kir76/. The risks inherent to testing flammable mixtures and historical

presumption that application exposures will be kept below the LFL both mitigate against

testing higher concentrations.

Extensive data are available for ammonia /Cle90 and Syr90/ and carbon dioxide /NIO76/,

though much of it predates currently accepted toxicity test criteria and results in conflicts

from early tests with primitive laboratory methods and contaminated samples.

Further data are needed for fluoroether and hydrofluoroether candidates /Biv97, Cal01a, and

Sek00/.

Flammability data generally are available /Ric92 and Cal01a/, though data dispersion from

different test methods and laboratories leads to a degree of uncertainty in some cases.

Efforts are underway to develop recommended refrigerant concentration limits for unplanned

exposures and to improve flammability test methods and data /ASH00c and ASH00d/.

2.4 Status and Research Needs for Heat Transfer Fluids (“Secondary

Refrigerants”) for Indirect Systems

Heat transfer fluids (HTFs) — also referred to as secondary refrigerants — for indirect

systems are employed as a medium for removing heat from a cooling application (e.g. cold

storage warehouses) to be discharged to the evaporator of a direct refrigerating system.

HTFs have been used for many years in industrial applications. Recently, they have become

more popular in commercial applications for the purposes of reducing the primary refrigerant

charge and/or mitigating emissions of refrigerants that have notable environmental warming

impact or when regulatory or safety constraints apply. HTFs are divided into two categories,

namely single phase and phase-change fluids.

Single-phase fluids are in common use and include the following chemical groups:

 Glycol solutions (e.g., propylene glycol, ethylene glycol)

 Salt solutions (e.g., calcium chloride, sodium chloride, potassium formate, potassium

acetate, calcium carbonate)

 Synthetic oils (e.g., dimethylsiloxanes)

 Hydrofluoroethers (e.g. R-E4-49 (methoxy-nonafluorobutane), R-E5-69mccc (1-
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 30

(ethoxy)-1,1,2,2,3,3,4,4,4-nonafluorobutane))

The following fluids also are used, but not commonly because of their flammability.

 Alcohol solutions (e.g., ethanol, methanol, propanol)

 Aliphatic Hydrocarbon (e.g., pentanes, hexanes)

 Aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g., benzyltoluenes)

As with conventional refrigerants, selection and application of HTFs depends largely on

compatibility and energetic performance at the given operating conditions. The latter two

hydrocarbon groups are rarely used in refrigeration or air conditioning applications

because of flammability issues.

The use of phase-change fluids in indirect systems is becoming more popular due to

favourable thermal and transport properties leading toward energetic benefits. The most

common phase change fluids are carbon dioxide and ice slurries, although other suspensions

such as water/ice-filled capsules, hydrophilic material slurries, and frozen emulsions have

been considered, but these are largely in developmental stages. With the benefit of much

greater heat capacities, and generally improved heat transfer coefficient associated with

change of phase, they offer systems potential benefits from lower flow rates and pumping

costs, smaller pipe sizes and heat exchangers.

The important aspects associated with the use of HTFs are detailed below.

Material compatibility: Most HTFs can corrode metals in the presence of air

(oxygen) and moisture contamination in the case of oils, fluoroethers and singlecomponent hydrocarbons, and may cause deterioration in certain non-metallic

materials. Some HTFs, such as brines, are more corrosive than others. In most cases

inhibitors are required as well as methods for removing absorbed air.

Costs: The cost of most HTFs is relatively low compared to that of most primary

refrigerants. However, the synthetic oils and fluoroethers can be significantly more

expensive, approaching that of conventional refrigerants. The use of additive can

sometimes impact on the cost of the HTF, and similarly, there can be a major

additional costs associated with the heat exchangers to produce ice slurries.

Thermodynamic and transport properties: Viscosity, density, specific heat, and

thermal conductivity are important properties. Energy consumption and component

cost are reduced with low viscosity, high density, high specific heat, and high thermal

conductivity. HTFs generally become significantly more difficult to implement in

low-temperature applications since viscosity increases and pumping power

requirements escalate. Some recently developed salt mixtures have shown properties

that are more favourable at these conditions, but phase change fluids such as carbon

dioxide demonstrate properties most favourable for energetic performance.

Environmental impacts: Most HTFs have high normal (atmospheric) boiling points

(NBP), with corresponding low volatility resulting in only limited releases to the

atmosphere. However, virtually all fluids will result in some impact if discarded into

drainage systems or the environment in general. Safety data sheets will provide

environmental impact information and methods of appropriate disposal.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 31

Safety issues: Safety requirements are normally determined by the application,

although normally non-toxic, non-flammable fluids are preferred, or required by

codes and regulations. In situations where food is involved, ‘food-safe’ grade

products are required.

Research needs: The research aspects can be broken down into three key areas:

Properties of single phase HTFs: Recent work by Melinder /Mel97/ has

characterised the properties of many HTFs in use. Melinder /Mel98/ shows

that there is considerable discrepancies between the published data for HTFs,

particularly at low temperature. Similar disagreement is found in freezing

point measurements, which is important for establishing ice concentrations in

slurries.

Properties of phase-change HTFs: There is significant progress on properties

for ice slurries using a broad range of different brines, glycols and alcohol

solutions (e.g., /Lot00 and Mee00/). There is an Ice Slurry Centre (ISC) based

in Denmark that is progressing the majority of work in this field. Significant

work is also being done on carbon dioxide, although the earlier section on

primary refrigerants should be referred to for property aspects.

Compatibility: The most significant problems encountered by industry are

compatibility issues. Generally inhibitors are provided with the product, but

these vary between manufacturers and dissemination of information is limited.

Since absorbed air is difficult to remove and spillage frequently occur, further

work is required in this field.

Although not directly related to the HTF itself, the literature shows that relatively little work

has been produced on the issue of systems, rather than the fluids itself. Particular aspects are

effective design schemes, defrost methods, and improving energy efficiency.

2.4 References

/Alp01/ J. E. Alpert, “Determination of Refrigerant Lower Flammability Limits (LFLs) in

Compliance with Proposed Addendum 34p to ANSI/ASHRAE 34-1992,” report

89NK19836, NC3812 for project 1073-RP of the American Society of Heating,

Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), Underwriters Laboratories

Incorporated (UL), 3 October 2001

/ASH00a/ “Designation and Safety Classification of Refrigerants, Third Public Review

(Independent Changes to the Second Public Review),” BSR/ASHRAE Addendum p to

ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-1992, ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA, USA, June 2000

/ASH00b/ “Designation and Safety Classification of Refrigerants, Third Public Review

(Independent Changes to the Second Public Review),” BSR/ASHRAE Addendum u to

ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-1997, ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA, USA, November 2000

/ASH01a/ Designation and Safety Classification of Refrigerants, ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-

2001, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers

(ASHRAE), Atlanta, GA, USA, 2001

/ASH01b/ “Safety Standard for Refrigeration Systems,” ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 15-2001,

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers

(ASHRAE), Atlanta, GA, USA, 2001
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 32

/ASH02a/ “Designation and Safety Classifications (sic) of Refrigerants,” ANSI/ASHRAE

Addendum 34a to ANSI/ASHRAE 34-2001), ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA, USA, 2002

/Ass99/ M. J. Assael,. N. K. Dalaouti, A. A. Griva, and J. H. Dymond, “Viscosity and Thermal

Conductivity of Halogenated Methane and Ethane Refrigerants,” International Journal

of Refrigeration, 22(7):525-535, November 1999

/Biv97/ D. B. Bivens and B. H. Minor, “Fluoroethers and Other Next-Generation Fluids,”

Refrigerants for the 21st Century (proceedings of the ASHRAE/NIST Refrigerants

Conference, Gaithersburg, MD, 6-7 October 1997), American Society of Heating,

Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), Atlanta, GA, USA, 122-134,

1997

/Cal94/ J. M. Calm, “Refrigerant Safety,” ASHRAE Journal, American Society of Heating,

Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), Atlanta, GA, USA, USA,

36(7):17-26, July 1994

/Cal96/ J. M. Calm, “The Toxicity of Refrigerants,” Proceedings of the 1996 International

Refrigeration Conference at Purdue (23-26 July 1996), Purdue University, West

Lafayette, IN, USA, 157-162, July 1996

/Cal98/ J. M. Calm, “Refrigerant Database,” Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology

Institute (ARTI), Arlington, VA, USA, August 1998

/Cal00/ J. M. Calm, “Toxicity Data to Determine Refrigerant Concentration Limits,” report

DOE/CE/23810-110, Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute (ARTI),

Arlington, VA, USA, September 2000

/Cal01a/ J. M. Calm, “Refrigerant Database,” Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology

Institute (ARTI), Arlington, VA, USA, July 2001

/Cal01b/ J. M. Calm and G. C. Hourahan, “Refrigerant Data Summary,” Engineered Systems, 18(11):74-88, November 2001

/Cav93/ R. C. Cavestri, “Compatibility of Refrigerant and Lubricants with Engineering Plastics,”

report DOE/CE/23810-15, Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute,

Arlington, VA, USA, September 1993, revised December 1993

/Cav95/ A. Cavallini, L. Doretti, M. Klammsteiner, G. A.Longo, and L. Rosetto, “Condensation

of New Refrigerants Inside Smooth and Enhanced Tubes,” Proceedings of the 19th

International Congress of Refrigeration (The Hague, The Netherlands, 20-25 August

1995), International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR), Paris, France, IVa:105-114, 1995

/Cav97/ R. C. Cavestri, “Compatibility of Lubricant Additives with HFC Refrigerants and

Synthetic Lubricants (Final Report, Part 1),” report DOE/CE/23810-76, AirConditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute, Arlington, VA, USA, July 1997

/Cle90/ Clement Associates, Incorporated, “Health Effects Assessment for Ammonia,” The

Fertilizer Institute, Washington, DC, USA, February 1990

/Cop97/ T. B. Coplen and H. S. Peiser for the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

(IUPAC) Commission on Atomic Weights and Isotopic Abundances, “History of the

Recommended Atomic Weight Values from 1882 to 1997: A Comparison of Differences

from Current Values to the Estimated Uncertainties of Earlier Values,” Pure and Applied

Chemistry, 70(1):237-257, 1998

/Dar95/ J. Darabi, M. Salehi, M.H. Saeedi and M. M. Ohadi, “Review of Available Correlations

for Prediction of Flow Boiling Heat Transfer in Smooth and Augmented Tubes,” paper

CH-95-12-2, Transactions (Winter Meeting, Chicago, IL, USA, 28 January – 1 February

1995), American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers,

Atlanta, GA, USA, 101(1):965-975, 1995

/Doe93/ R. G. Doerr and S. A. Kujak, “Compatibility of Refrigerants and Lubricants with Motor

Materials,” Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute, Arlington, VA,

DOE/CE/23810-13, May 1993

/Doe96/ R. G. Doerr and T. D. Waite, “Compatibility of Refrigerants and Lubricants with Motor

Materials under Retrofit Conditions,” report DOE/CE/23810-63, Air-Conditioning and

Refrigeration Technology Institute, Arlington, VA, USA, October 1996
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 33

/Fie95/ J. E. Field, “Sealed Tube Comparisons of the Compatibility of Desiccants with

Refrigerants and Lubricants,” report DOE/CE/23810-54, Air-Conditioning and

Refrigeration Technology Institute, Arlington, VA, USA, May 1995

/Ham94/ G. R. Hamed, R. H. Seiple, and O. Taikum, “Compatibility of Refrigerant and Lubricants

with Elastomers,” report DOE/CE/23810-14, Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration

Technology Institute, Arlington, VA, USA, January 1994

/Har99/ C. Harrison, “Keeping CO2 Where It Belongs. Requirements for Sealing Future

Automotive Climate Control Systems,” Meeting Results and Presentations, SAE

International Automotive Alternate Refrigerant Systems Symposium, Scottsdale, AZ,

USA, 28 June – 1 July 1999

/Hut92/ D. F. Huttenlocher, “Chemical and Thermal Stability of Refrigerant-Lubricant Mixtures

with Metals,” report DOE/CE/23810-5, Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology

Institute, Arlington, VA, USA, 9 October 1992

/Kna97/ M. Knabe, S. Reinhold, and J. Schenk, “Ammoniakanlagen und Kupfer-Werkstoffe?”

[Ammonia Systems and Cuprous Materials?], Ki Luft und Kältetechnik, 33(9):394-397,

1997

/IIR97/ Heat Transfer Issues in Natural Refrigerants (proceedings of the IIR Conference –

meeting of Commissions B1, E1, and E2, University of Maryland, College Park, MD,

USA, 6-7 November 1997), publication 1997/5, International Institute of Refrigeration,

Paris, France, 1997

/IPC96/ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) of the World Meteorological

Organisation (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),

“Climate Change 1995 — Contribution of Working Group I to the Second Assessment

Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,” edited by J. T. Houghton, L.

G. Meira Filho, B. A. Callander, N. Harris, A. Kattenberg, and K. Maskell, Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1996

/IPC01/ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) of the World Meteorological

Organisation (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),

“Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis — Contribution of Working Group I to the

IPCC Third Assessment Report,” edited by J. T. Houghton, Y. Ding, D. J. Griggs, M.

Noguer, P. J. van der Linden, X. Dai, K. Maskell, and C. A. Johnson, Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2001

/IUP79/ International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), “Nomenclature of Organic

Chemistry, Sections A, B, C, D, E, F, and H,” prepared by J. Rigaudy and S. P. Klesney,

Pergamon Press Incorporated, New York, NY, USA, 1979

/Kir76/ C. J. Kirwin, “Toxicological Review of Propane, Butane, Isobutane, Pentane, and

Isopentane,” Phillips Petroleum Company, Bartlesville, OK, USA, November 1976

/Kru97/ H. H. Kruse and T. Tiedemann, “Experience with HC Refrigerants and Projections for

Future Applications,” Refrigerants for the 21st Century (proceedings of the

ASHRAE/NIST refrigerants conference, Gaithersburg, MD, USA, 6-7 October 1997)

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta,

GA, USA, 44-56, 1997

/Lem01/ E. W. Lemmon and M. O. McLinden, “Method for Estimating Mixture Equation of State

Parameters,” Thermophysical Properties and Transfer Processes of New Refrigerants

(Paderborn, Germany, October 2001), International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR), Paris,

France, 2001

/Lem02/ E. W. Lemmon, M. O. McLinden, and M. L. Huber, “NIST Standard Reference Database

23, NIST Reference Fluid Thermodynamic and Transport Properties –REFPROP”

(version 7.0), Standard Reference Data Program, National Institute of Standards and

Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, MD, USA, 2002

/Lip97/ H. Lippold, “Kupferwerkstoffe in Ammoniakanlagen” [Cuprous Materials in Ammonia

Systems], KK Die Kälte- und Klimatechnik, 50(10):730-735, October 1997
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 34

/Lot00/ C. Lottin and C. Epiard, “Properties of Some Currently Used Water-Antifreeze Mixtures

when Used as Ice-Slurries,” Proceedings of the 2000 International Refrigeration

Conference at Purdue (25-28 July 2000), edited by D. R. Tree, Purdue University, West

Lafayette, IN, USA, 2000

/McL98/ M. O. McLinden, E. W. Lemmon, and R. T. Jacobsen, “Thermodynamic Properties for

the Alternative Refrigerants, International Journal of Refrigeration, 21:322-338, 1998

/McL00/ M. O. McLinden, S. A. Klein, and R. A. Perkins, “An Extended Corresponding States

Model for the Thermal Conductivity of Refrigerants and Refrigerant Mixtures,”

International Journal of Refrigeration, 23(1):43-63, 2000

/Mee00/ J. W. Meewisse and C. A. I. Ferreira, “Optimal Properties of Ice Slurries in Secondary

Cooling Systems,” Proceedings of the 2000 International Refrigeration Conference at

Purdue (25-28 July 2000), edited by D. R. Tree, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN,

USA, July 2000

/Mel97/ Å. Melinder, “Thermophysical Properties of Liquid Secondary Refrigerants,”

International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR), Paris, France, 1997

/Mel98/ Å. Melinder, “A Critical Review on Thermophysical Properties of Liquid Secondary

Refrigerants,” Natural Working Fluids '98 (proceedings of the IIR - Gustav Lorentzen

Conference — meeting of Commissions B1, B2, E1, and E2, Oslo, Norway, 2-5 June

1998), publication 1998-4, International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR), Paris, France,

505-518, 1998

/NIO76/ “Criteria for a Recommended Standard — Occupational Exposure to Carbon Dioxide,”

publication 76-194, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services, Cincinnati, OH, USA, August 1976

/Oha96/ M. M. Ohadi, S. S. Li, R. K. Radermacher, and S. V. Dessiatoun, “Critical Review of

Available Correlations for Two-Phase Flow Heat Transfer of Ammonia,” International

Journal of Refrigeration, 19(4):272-284, May 1996

/PAF95/ “Programme for Alternative Fluorocarbon Toxicity Testing (PAFT) Toxicology

Summaries,” PAFT, Washington, DC, USA, September 1995

/PAF96/ “Testing to Extremes — Industry's Cooperative Effort to Test the Health and Safety of

Selected Fluorocarbon Alternatives to CFCs,” Programme for Alternative Fluorocarbon

Toxicity Testing (PAFT), Washington, DC, USA, circa 1996

/Pai91/ C. Pais and R. L. Webb, “Literature Survey of Pool Boiling on Enhanced Surfaces,”

technical paper 3444 (392-RP), Transactions (Winter Meeting, New York, NY, USA,

19-23 January 1991), American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning

Engineers, Atlanta, GA, USA, 97(1):79-89, 1991

/Pru83/ K. M. Pruett, “Compass Corrosion Guide (Guide to Chemical Resistance of Metals and

Engineering Plastics),” Compass Publications, La Jolla, CA, USA, 1983

/Pru94/ K. M. Pruett, “Chemical Resistance Guide for Elastomers II,” Compass Publications, La

Mesa, CA, USA, 1994

/Pru95/ K. M. Pruett, “Chemical Resistance Guide for Metals and Alloys,” Compass

Publications, La Mesa, CA, USA, 1995

/Ric92/ R. G. Richard and I. R. Shankland, “Flammability of Alternative Refrigerants,” ASHRAE

Journal, 34(4):20,22-24, April 1992

/San96/ P. Sansalvadore, M. Zgliczynski, and F. Agricola, “Chemical-Physical Aspects in

Refrigeration with Isobutane,” Applications for Natural Refrigerants (proceedings of the

IIR Conference — meeting of Commissions B1, B2, E1, and E2, Aarhus, Denmark, 3-6

September 1996), publication 1996-3, International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR), Paris,

France, 615-622, 1996

/Sek00/ A. Sekiya and S. Misaki, “Hydrofluoroethers as Alternatives to CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs,

and PFCs,” Conference Proceedings of the Earth Technologies Forum (Conference on

Climate Change and Ozone Protection, Washington, DC, 30 October - 1 November

2000), International Climate Change Partnership and the Alliance for Responsible

Atmospheric Policy, Arlington, VA, USA, 259-265, October 2000
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 35

/Sin95/ A. Singh, M. M. Ohadi, S. Dessiatoun, and W. Chu, “In-Tube Boiling Heat Transfer

Coefficients of R-123 and their Enhancement Using the EHD Technique,” Journal of

Enhanced Heat Transfer, 2(3):209-217, 1995

/Syr90/ Syracuse Research Corporation, “Toxicological Profile for Ammonia,” report TP-90-03,

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), Public Health Service,

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, DC, USA, December 1990

/Tho98a/ J. R. Thome, “Boiling and Evaporation of Fluorocarbon and Other Refrigerants: A

State-of-the-Art Review,” Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, Arlington, VA,

USA, October 1998

/Tho98b/ J. R. Thome, “Condensation of Fluorocarbon and Other Refrigerants: A State-of-the-Art

Review,” Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, Arlington, VA, USA, October

1998

/UNE98/ “Refrigerant Data”, annex III of 1998 Report of the Refrigeration, Air-Conditioning and

Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee, United Nations Environment Programme

(UNEP), Nairobi, Kenya, December 1998

/UNE00/ United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), “Handbook for the International

Treaties for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (Fifth Edition),” UNEP Ozone Secretariat,

Nairobi, Kenya, 2000

/Wil02/ D. P. Wilson and R. G. Richard, “Determination of Refrigerant Lower Flammability

Limits in Compliance with Proposed Addendum p to Standard 34,” Transactions

(Annual Meeting, Honolulu, HI, 22-26 June 2002), American Society of Heating,

Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), Atlanta, GA, 108(2):, 2002

/WMO95/ “Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1994,” chaired by D. L. Albritton, R. T.

Watson, and P. J. Aucamp, report 37, World Meteorological Organisation (WMO),

Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project, Geneva, Switzerland; United Nations

Environment Program (UNEP), Nairobi, Kenya; National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA), Washington, DC, USA; National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA), Washington, DC, USA; February 1995

/WMO99/ “Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1998,” chaired by D. L. Albritton, P. J.

Aucamp, G. Mégie, and R. T. Watson, report 44, World Meteorological Organisation

(WMO), Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project, Geneva, Switzerland; United

Nations Environment Program (UNEP), Nairobi, Kenya; National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Washington, DC, USA; National Aeronautics and

Space Administration (NASA), Washington, DC, USA; and the European Commission,

Directorate General XII — Science, Research and Development, Brussels, Belgium;

February 1999

2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 37

3 Domestic Refrigeration

3.1 Introduction

Domestic refrigerators and freezers are used for food storage in individual dwelling units and

in non-commercial areas such as offices throughout the world. More than 80,000,000 units

are produced annually. Models available include: fresh food storage only, generally

maintained at +1 to +5 oC; frozen food storage only, generally maintained at -6 to –24 oC; or

products having multiple chambers maintained at each of these temperatures. Internal storage

capacities range from 20 litres to greater than 850 litres. Added features commonly available

include multiple access doors, ice-makers, dispensers, various types of defrosting

mechanisms and specialty storage chambers with different temperature control points. Life

style and food supply infrastructures are strong determinants for consumer selected storage

capacities and features. As a consequence, consumer preferences for product configuration

vary widely among different global regions. Typical products are totally factory assembled

and apply reciprocating compressor mechanisms driven by 50 to 250 watt induction motors

integrated within a hermetically sealed refrigeration system. Rotary compressor mechanisms

are also used in a small fraction of global production. Polyurethane closed cell foam is

typically used for thermal insulation.

Conversion of the historic universal application of CFC-12 refrigerant in these units to

ozone-safe alternatives continues to occur in advance of the Montreal Protocol requirements.

As reported in 1998 /UNE98/, national transition schedules in remaining Article 5(1) and

CEIT countries continue to be influenced by national regulatory initiatives and the

availability of capital resources, including those obtained through the Multilateral Fund and

the Global Environment Facility (GEF). Notable among interactive regulatory initiatives are

efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in compliance with the Kyoto Protocol /Kyo97/.

Amongst other drivers, such as energy price and shortage of supply, this leads to energy

efficiency regulations to control the secondary effects of greenhouse emissions from power

generation and distribution as well as direct product emission prescriptive regulations.

3.2 New Equipment Alternative Refrigerants

HC-600a and HFC-134a continue to be the dominant alternative refrigerant candidates to

replace CFC-12 in domestic refrigeration new equipment. Other alternative candidates have

regional appeal, primarily driven by availability of suitable compressors or refrigerants.

Example regional candidates include mixtures of HC-600a and HFC-152a in Russia1,

mixtures of HC-600a and HC-290 in India, and mixtures of HCFC-22 and HFC-152a in

China. With passing of time and expansion of international trade of both domestic

refrigerators and their components, new equipment options may be limited to HC-600a and

HFC-134a. The use of an HC-600a / HC-290 hydrocarbon blend allows retention of

volumetric capacity to avoid capital expense for retooling compressors. This blend may be

significantly less energy efficient than either HC-600a or HFC-134a and requires use of

charging techniques suitable for use with a blend of two fluids having different boiling

points. Applications of HC-600a/HC-290 blends in Europe during the 1990’s was an interim

step toward a final transition to HC-600a using retooled compressors.

 

1

 A 30% HC-600a/ 70% HFC-152a mixture is identified C1. Russia also has commercial capacity for mixtures of HCFC22/ HCFC-21/ HFC-134a (S10-M2) and HCFC-22/ HCFC-142b/ HCFC-21 (S10). Animal studies with HCFC-21 indicate

possible reproductive effects as well as kidney and liver effects. Allowable chronic exposure limits may be as low as 10

ppm .
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 38

Both HC-600a and HFC-134a have demonstrated mass production capability for safe,

efficient, reliable and economic use. In practice, similar product efficiencies result from the

use of either refrigerant. Independent studies have concluded that other design parameters

introduce more efficiency variation opportunities than is presented by the refrigerant choice

/AFE97, Fis94, Del96, Wen96/. Additional discussion of this topic is included in section 3.3

below.

Refrigerant selection is truly a strategic decision. It is not a short-term tactical option

decision. Comprehensive refrigerant selection criteria include safety, environmental,

functional and performance requirements. These requirements were discussed in detail in the

1998 report of this committee. Discussions were framed within the context of general

refrigerator-freezer construction type – combined refrigerator-freezer, fresh food only, freezer

only, manual defrost, cycle defrost, auto-defrost -- and, within a general type, the specific

evaporator construction used. These limited design parameters, coupled with an awareness

of construction types prevalent in various global regions, provide the reader insight to the

underlying reasons for different preferred refrigerant selections in different global regions.

Further, considering general differences in climate, consumer lifestyles and living

environments provides insight regarding why various global regions historically evolved

toward particular construction types.

Design trade studies of these requirements lead to economic trade studies which are unique to

regional needs. Commercial realities such as cost, availability of appropriate materials and

components, access to technical assistance if needed, and available service support and

training infrastructures must be integrated with the technical facts to achieve a

comprehensive assessment. Either alternative refrigerant may be the “right answer” for a

specific set of conditions. A grossly simplified summary of relative considerations for these

two refrigerants is:

• HC-600a uses historically accepted mineral oils. Designs must take care to properly deal

with the flammable nature of the refrigerant.

• HFC-134a uses moisture sensitive polyolester oils. Manufacturing processes must take

care to properly maintain low moisture levels. Long-term reliability requires more

careful avoidance of contaminants compared to previous CFC-12 based production or

servicing.

The refrigerant conversion status and pattern of use for new equipment domestic refrigeration

is summarised in Table 3-1, Estimated 1992, 1996 and 2000 World Production of Domestic

Refrigerators and Freezers with Corresponding Refrigerant Type2.

 

2

 2000 OEM Production Data from Euromonitor database /Eur01/. Refrigerant conversion data estimated from

published worldwide refrigerator fleet estimate /Clo02/ and inputs from members of this committee and

compressor manufacturers. 1992 and 1996 data from 1995 and 1998 Refrigerants TOC reports respectively

/UNE95, UNE98/. 1996 OEM Production volumes were adjusted to be consistent with the Euromonitor

database 1996 values to provide internally consistent consumption data for trend analysis.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 39

This Table clearly demonstrates that conversion from CFC-12 to ozone-safe alternatives is

occurring in advance of the Montreal Protocol requirements. By 2000, 76% of new unit

production had been converted: 53% to HFC-134a, 21% to HC-600a and 2% all other. This

trend has continued since 2000, examples include accelerating conversion in China and India.

Another development was the introduction in 2002 of a few domestic Japanese production

units containing HC-600a refrigerant rather than the HFC-134a used in the majority of

Japanese refrigerators.

3.3 Energy Efficiency Considerations

No significant new technology options are expected to emerge which will significantly alter

options for conversion to ozone safe refrigerants in the remaining Article 5(1) countries still

using CFC-12 in new equipment. All required technologies are mature and readily available;

availability and prioritisation of capital resources are dictating conversion timing.

Prioritisation may be influenced by uncertainty introduced from conflicting points of view

regarding the interaction of the alternative options with other desired national initiatives, such

as reduced greenhouse gas emissions and power grid enhancements. The energy efficiency

of domestic refrigeration products directly influences these two alternative initiatives with a

national leverage equal to the percentage of generated power consumed by domestic

refrigeration products.

Anticipated technology enhancements include incremental improvements in component

hardware, modified control and defrost algorithms, and modified refrigeration system

configurations. All of these have objectives of improved unit performance and/or energy

efficiency. In many cases this efficiency is provided at the cost of increased complexity or

reduced tolerance to abnormal conditions. The immediately following text addresses high

potential areas to help realise efficiency enhancements.

Table 3.1 Estimated 1992, 1996 and 2000 Production of Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers by Refrigerant Type

Global Region Year New Unit Production, MM Units New Unit Refrigerant Use, Tons

CFC12 HFC134a HC600a Other(a) Total CFC12 HFC134a HC600a Other(a) Total

Western Europe 1992 16.3 16.3 2280 2280

1996 11.2 6.1 17.3 1220 410 1630

2000 8.3 11.4 19.7 900 770 1670

Eastern Europe 1992 7.5 7.5 1500 1500

1996 2.8 3.2 6.0 320 370 690

2000 1.1 3.4 0.5 0.2 5.2 230 420 40 30 720

North America 1992 11.6 11.6 1750 1750

1996 12.5 12.5 2290 2290

2000 13.4 13.4 2460 2460

Central & South America 1992 4.0 4.0 600 600

1996 8.2 8.2 1280 1280

2000 1.2 5.4 6.6 200 1200 1400

Asia and Oceania 1992 18.7 0.5 19.2 3160 80 3240

1996 14.0 9.5 0.2 1.6 25.1 2270 1520 20 200 4010

2000 12.5 11.9 5.7 1.6 31.7 2030 1900 570 200 4700

Africa and Mid-East 1992 5.2 5.2 840 840

1996 3.4 0.7 4.1 590 120 710

2000 5.0 1.6 6.6 870 270 1140

.

World Totals 1992 63.3 0.5 63.8 10130 80 10210

1996 28.4 37.1 6.3 1.6 73.4 4460 5520 430 200 10610

2000 19.8 44.0 17.6 1.8 83.2 3330 7150 1380 230 12090

Footnote: a. HCFC-22 and HFC-152a
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 40

3.3.1 Compressors:

• Run capacitors and improved efficiency compressor configurations are

broadly available with modest product cost penalties.

• Use of lower viscosity oil reduces compressor drag losses but may require

improved fabrication process cleanliness and tightened machining tolerances.

• Reduction of losses during the compression process (valves, dampers, etc.)

and further reduction of temperature levels inside the compressor (direct or

semi-direct suction) will continue to improve compressor efficiencies.

Enhancements in conventional electric motor efficiencies will also improve

efficiency.

• Increased use of electronically commutated variable speed motors will reduce

inertial and cycle losses. Their application will result in higher product cost

and more complex control systems.

• Use of high efficiency linear motors with variable capacity to improve run

efficiency and reduce cycle losses at the expense of higher product cost and

unproven mechanism and lubrication concerns. Linear motor driven

compressors are new developments, which have not yet achieved high volume

production usage.

3.3.2 Improved Efficiency Evaporator and Condenser Fan Motors:

ECM evaporator and condenser fan motors are available with significant energy efficiency

improvements versus the shaded pole motors historically used in these applications. The

subset of product configurations using forced convection heat transfer for the evaporator

and/or condenser heat exchange can realise significant energy efficiency benefit with

associated increased product cost.

3.3.3 Modified Control Technology and Defrost Algorithms:

Application of electronic sensors and controls permits adaptive defrost control versus fixed

cycle-time control set for worst case conditions. Automatic defrost model benefits include

improved energy efficiency and more precise thermal control at the expense of higher

variable cost and design complexity.

3.3.4 Modified Refrigeration System Configurations:

Research continues on efficiency improvements from dual evaporator inter-cooled systems

for two-compartment refrigerator-freezers. The Lorenz and Meutzner cycle, possibly the best

known of these, requires a zeotropic blend of refrigerants with different boiling points.

Efficiency improvement greater than 20% has been reported /Fin97/ but this is still an

experimental system. No attempts to commercialise it have been rumoured. It is believed

that there are significant challenges in achieving control stability under varying application

environment and usage patterns.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 41

3.3.5 Realisable Efficiency Improvements in Article 5(1) and CEIT Countries:

Domestic refrigeration technology has grown tremendously over the 10 to 30 year life span

of the units currently in use. Compressor efficiency, heat exchange efficiency, insulation

efficiency and construction techniques are example core enhancements. Current technology

units, in many circumstances, use less than one-half of the electrical energy required by the

units they replace. Proven, reliable equipment can yield significant improvements without

resorting to higher cost and more complex designs practising leading edge technologies.

Several leading edge technologies are not generally applicable to typical units of interest.

For example, modified defrost algorithms are not applicable to manual defrost units.

Similarly, modified system configurations are not applicable to single door units.

Successful producers respond to consumer preferences, which are most accurately

communicated by consumer purchase decisions. The limited number of high efficiency

models in producer offerings suggests that cost savings from reduced energy consumption

have not generally been sufficient to justify higher product costs and consequent higher

product selling prices. Alternatively, government regulations and voluntary agreements on

energy efficiency and labelling programs have demonstrated effectiveness in modifying

product offerings in several countries. Energy regulations have taken different forms in

various countries, suggesting customisation to address regional needs is important. The

Collaborative Labeling and Appliance Standards Program(CLASP) maintains a web site

with substantive information including links to various national programs (URL:

www.CLASPonline.org). The interested reader is referred to regulating agencies in various

global regions for insight regarding regulation drivers, effectiveness and opportunities for

improvement.

Multiple options exist to influence consumer demand. Purchase rebate incentives have been

effective in altering consumer purchase decisions toward higher efficiency models, but have

not always accomplished their intent of reducing the power grid load. When not

accompanied by a replaced unit retirement requirement, the replaced unit has frequently

stayed in service, thereby increasing the power grid load. The U.S. Congress recently

introduced a producer rebate incentive as an alternative technique for promoting improved

energy efficiency /HR402/. Details of several examples of rebate incentive programs and

their effectiveness are available from power generation and government regulatory and

management organisations. Several studies have been conducted assessing early retirement

incentives. Some proponents advocate these as providing greater leverage than high

efficiency model rebates based on assumed modest rebate levels and mandatory replaced unit

disposal. A properly constituted administrative process is essential to ensure old appliances

are removed from service and the intended energy consumption benefits are realised.

3.3.6 Closed Cell Foam Thermal Insulation:

Closed cell foam insulation technology is vital for improved refrigeratorenergy efficiency. A

discussion of available options to CFC–11 was included as an Annex to this chapter in the

1998 report of this committee /UNE98/. Continuing developments have been evolutionary

with no significant new alternatives introduced. The Foam Technical Options Committee

Report does not address refrigeration insulating foam performance in their 2002 status report.

Technological improvements do not justify extended discussion, but brief status comments

are included below.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 42

Polyurethane foam insulation is a key contributor to refrigerator cabinet structural integrity.

Foam integration within the steel and plastic skinned laminate structure improves cabinet

thermal efficiency by minimising thermal losses through avoidance of high conductivity

thermal shunts from metal brackets and braces. In addition, the foam provides the basic

thermal insulation performance that is vital to energy efficiency. The limited residual use of

fibreglass as insulation for refrigerators referenced in the 1998 report of this committed has

now ceased.

The 1998 report referenced 5 low conductivity gas options competing to be the selected

closed cell foam blowing agent. One of these, HCFC-141b, is being regulated from existence

by 2020 by the Montreal Protocol or as early as 2003 in Europe, Japan and the United States.

New applications should assess material availability when selecting a blowing agent. There

are multiple commercial plants for cyclopentane and HFC-134a. A commercial HFC-245fa

plant is operational in the United States. Commercial production of HFC-365mfc will begin

in 2003 in France. Table 3-2 shows relative thermal performance for these candidates. Data

from the 1998 report of this committee /UNE98/ have been updated to better reflect current

understanding and global material variations.

With secondary global warming effects being a significant contributor to global warming for

domestic refrigeration products, there is no clear choice on an integrated assessment basis.

Table 3-2 Blowing Agent Comparisons3

/Alb97, Bro97, Dee98, Doe97, Haw99, Mil01, Zip97/

Environmental impact analyses to date have assumed that all blowing agent contained within

polyurethane foam is vented to the atmosphere during useful life or upon disposal of the

refrigerator. Investigations of the fugitive nature of CFC-11, HCFC-141b, HFC-134a and

HFC-245fa blowing agents during shredding and landfill operations are in progress at

Denmark Technical University /Kje01/. Results to date show less than 40% of the blowing

agent is released through shredding operations and an additional six weeks of ageing in

ambient air. Additional studies are being initiated to assess the retention of the blowing

agents in the shredder fluff when buried in a landfill /Kje02/. Previous work by these

investigators indicates that, under conditions found in many landfills, much of the blowing

agent in foam may be broken down by enzymes and bacteria in the soil and that very little

 

3

 Data listed are for commercial grade cyclopentane. The generic term “cyclopentane foam: includes

isopentane/cyclopentane blends and may include various other blends such as butane/pentane.

Characteristic HCFC-141b HFC-134a HFC-245fa HFC-365mfc Cyclopentane

Ozone Depletion Potential 0.11 0 0 0 0

Global Warming Potential (100 year) 630 1300 820 840 11

Relative Foam Thermal Conductivity 100 120 - 123 108-109 102 110 - 113

Index @ 23.9 C Mean Temperature 

Relative Refrigerator Energy Use Index 100 108 - 112 100 - 102 Not Available 106 - 110

Relative Foam Aging Rate Base Worse Better Not Available Worse

Relative Density Index 100 108 - 110 98 - 100 Not Available 102 - 112
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 43

may ever be released to the atmosphere /AHA01/. If initial results are confirmed, alternative

assumptions regarding emission of blowing agents to the atmosphere and subsequent GWP

impact may be more meaningful.

3.4 Existing Equipment Retrofits and Field Service

Field conversion options and any associated unique field repair issues were thoroughly

discussed in the 1998 report of this committee /UNE98/. There have been no significant

developments which alter that discussion.

3.4.1 Refrigeration Sealed System Failure Frequencies

The disperse and uncoordinated nature of the service infrastructure for domestic refrigerators

and freezers hampers quantification of sealed system failure frequencies. Estimates of these

failure rates and their use in estimating service refrigerant demand were discussed in the 1998

report of this committee /UNE98/. Following review, this committee concluded the estimates

listed below, expressed as annual percentage of installed base, are still reasonable and should

be used to estimate refrigerant demand for service in 2000.

• Non-Article 5(1) countries: 2% to 3% estimate range 2% most likely

• Article 5(1) countries: 5% to 10% estimate range 10% most likely

Rationales offered for the significantly higher failure rates in Article 5(1) countries include:

frequent sub-tropic use environment, extended service life, uncertain power service, more

aggressive transport conditions; frequently more aggressive humidity-related corrosion, and

deficient service technician training resulting in misdiagnosis. Additionally, the premium

value of capital goods results in compressors typically being rebuilt versus replaced. This

cottage industry rebuilding, with its inherent variable quality, will also contribute to high

failure rates. In Non-Article 5(1) countries the rate of sealed system failures is estimated to

be a cumulative 1% during the first five years, primarily driven by manufacturing quality

defects, and an additional cumulative 1% during the typically remaining 10 to 15 year

product life. In Article 5(1) countries these failure rates are estimated to be 3% and 7%

respectively /UNE98/.

3.4.2 Service Refrigerant Demand and Availability

Table 3-3 tabulates estimates of refrigerant demand for service. These estimates integrate

estimates of the size of the installed base, the failure frequency estimates discussed above,

information regarding transition from CFC-12 usage, and committee members’ estimates of

the refrigerant usage efficiency during service in the various global regions. The estimates

are crude, but believed to be directionally correct. Total service demand is estimated to be

approximately one-half of the original equipment production demand. CFC-12 demand

represents nearly 90% of the total service demand. This disquieting number is greatly overstated since it includes non-CFC refrigerants used during retrofit or conversion service

procedures in addition to conventional CFC-12 service procedures. Significant residual

service demand for CFC-12 following original equipment production phase-out is evident.

This results from the large number of refrigerators in the installed base, their long service

life, and their significant average failure rate, particularly in Article 5(1) countries. The 1998

report of this committee included detailed discussion of field repair alternatives /UNE98/.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 44

Interested readers are referred to that report or to various regional service organisations for

information on the topic.

Routine CFC-12 service procedures continue to dominate the demand. In Article 5(1)

countries, CFC-12 is readily available and likely to be the lowest cost alternative. CFC-12

supply constraints in Non-Article 5(1) countries limit availability. This drives price inflation

and costs 50-times historic levels are not uncommon. As a consequence, alternative

procedures become cost competitive and reduce the CFC-12 service demand. Popular

alternatives include conversion for use of a conventional new equipment refrigerant or

retrofitting for use of one of several competing commercial blend refrigerants targeted at

after-market service. Professional service technicians should be consulted for benefits and

concerns with various alternatives.

3.4.3 Special Field Repair Issues

The potential for multiple refrigerant management introduces new issues to the service sector.

The heightened cleanliness dictated by reduced clearances with high efficiency compressors

and the refrigerant purity demands introduced by some new refrigerants elevates cleanliness

needs to unprecedented levels. Dealing with multiple refrigerants complicates this task. The

moisture sensitivity of polyolester oils requires careful control of moisture levels when using

HFC-134a refrigerant. The flammable nature of hydrocarbons requires careful control of

potential ignition sources when using HC-600a refrigerant. The simple presence of multiple

refrigerants in the service sector increases the potential for system charging errors, both

amount and type. Most, if not all, after-market refrigerant blends are zeotropes with multiple

Table 3.3 Estimated 1992, 1996 and 2000 Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers Service Refrigerant Demand

Global Region Year Service Refrigerant Demand, Tons

CFC12 HFC134a HC600a Total

Western Europe 1992 68 68

1996 52 10 4 66

2000 34 14 12 60

Eastern Europe 1992 220 220

1996 220 13 233

2000 180 17 4 201

North America 1992 130 130

1996 110 16 126

2000 60 60 120

Central & South America 1992 780 780

1996 1080 1080

2000 990 20 1010

Asia and Oceania 1992 2390 2390

1996 2670 190 0.1 2860

2000 2420 230 130 2780

Africa and Mid-East 1992 870 870

1996 870 120 990

2000 800 50 850

World Totals 1992 4458 4458

1996 5002 349 4 5355

2000 4484 391 146 5021

Notes: 1. Demand estimates prepared for three primary refrigerants only.

 2. Multiple refrigerants compete to substitute for CFC-12 service demand.

 Market share information is not available. There is a general discussion

 of alternatives in the body of the text.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 45

boiling points. This may dictate the need for liquid charging techniques to avoid refrigerant

composition variation from fractionation during charging. Each of these issues is

manageable. However, the number of incremental issues complicates service management

requirements.

3.5 Unique Domestic Refrigeration Conservation and Containment Concern

3.5.1 Refrigerant Recovery During Service and End-Of-Life Disposal

CFC-12 refrigerant is the refrigerant in a large number of domestic refrigerators and freezers

currently in service. Appropriate measures to deal with this legacy issue and the related

issues of substitute refrigerants are topics of considerable debate. Factors influencing debates

include differences in environmental effects of various refrigerants, complications introduced

when dealing with multiple refrigerants, and limited financial benefit versus high cost of

recovery and reclamation. The small charge quantities present in domestic refrigeration

systems, combined with the geographically disperse service needs, minimises commercial

incentives for recovery and recycling.

Equipment and techniques are readily available with active mandatory recovery programs in

several countries. Existing refrigerant recovery programs are regulatory driven. Problems

are encountered when dealing with multiple refrigerants. Equipment contamination occurs

despite having duplicate recovery equipment to avoid cross contamination. When cross

contamination occurs, the fluids have negative value; they have no useful purpose and they

are difficult to properly dispose of with an associated high disposal cost.

3.5.2 Blowing Agent Recovery During End-Of-Life Disposal

Closed cell insulating foams are never serviced in the field, but similar debates are held

concerning proper handling of insulation at end-of-life disposal. CFC-11, for years the

accepted standard choice for insulating foam blowing agent, is contained in a large number of

existing domestic refrigerators and freezer. Analogous to the CFC-12 refrigerant concerns,

appropriate measures to deal with this legacy blowing agent issue and the related issues of

substitute blowing agents are topics of considerable debate. Technology for blowing agent

recovery is constrained by the blowing agent being contained within very small closed cells

and being in solution within polymeric cell walls. Incineration is a practicable disposal

method which requires special incineration equipment to withstand corrosive combustion

products and effective scrubbing equipment to prevent acid rain pollution.

3.6 Summary Comments

Transition of domestic refrigerators and freezers to use ozone safe alternatives has been

completed in Non-Article 5(1) countries. The transition in Article 5(1) countries is

proceeding in advance of Montreal Protocol requirements. HC-600a and HFC-134a both

have received widespread support as the preferred alternative to replace CFC-12. The large

number of units in the installed base and the extended unit life cycle result in significant

residual demand for CFC-12 to service the installed base. Experience to date indicates

service alternatives have not been generally accepted while CFC-12 is economically

available.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 46

3.7 References

/AFE97/ Alternative Fluorocarbons Environmental Acceptability Study, 1997 Update,

AFEAS Administrative Organisation: Science & Policy Services, Inc. (USA).

/AHA01/ AHAM (Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers) Appliance Research

Consortium Press Release, Washington, DC (October 29, 2001).

/Alb97/ Albouy, A., J.D. Roux, D. Mouton and J. Wu, “A status report on the

development of HFC blowing agent for rigid polyurethane foams,” presented at

Polyurethane World Congress, Amsterdam (1997).

/Bro97/ Brown, L.J., R.E. Morgan, G.J. Haworth and A. Beerwart, “Comparative

Evaluations of Alternative Blowing Agent Systems in Appliance Foams and

Cabinets,” presented at Polyurethane world Congress, Amsterdam (1997).

/Clo02/ Colic, D., L. Planner, A. Zoughaib and L. Kuijpers, “Estimates of the WorldWide Fleets of R/AC Equipment to Determine Refrigerant Emissions, First

Results for Domestic Refrigerators,” presented at The Earth Technology Forum,

Washington, D.C. (March 2002).

/Dee98/ Deeg, W., R. Johnson and K. Horton, “Influence of Blowing Agent Selection on

Foam Aging and Energy Consumption of Refrigerators,” Proceedings, 48th

International Appliance Technical Conference (1998).

/Del96/ Deloitte & Touche, “Assessment of the Prospects for Hydrocarbon Technology in

the Global Domestic Refrigeration Market,” Deloitte & Touche Consulting

Group, London, England (September 1996).

/Doe97/ Doerge, H.P., “New Development in HFC-245fa Appliance Foam,” presented at

Polyurethane World Congress, Amsterdam (1997).

/Eur01/ Euromonitor International Inc., “Global Appliance Information System,” August

2001, http://www.euromonitor.com..

/Fin97/ Fine, H.A., L. Xiaozhuang, R. Rademacher, I. Haider, S.M. Nadel, D.G. Fridley,

R. Phillips, and J. Briskin, “Draft 6: The Sino - U.S. CFC-Free Super-Efficient

Refrigerator Project Progress Report: Development and Testing, US-EPA 430-R97-032 (October, 1997).

/Fis94/ Fischer, S., P. Hughes, and J. Tonlinson, “Energy and Global Warming Impacts

of Not-In-Kind and Next Generation CFC and HCFC Alternatives,” AFEAS and

DOE (December 1994).

/Haw96/ Haworth, G.J., “Next Generation Insulation Foam Blowing Agents for

Refrigerators/Freezers,” Proceedings, 47th International Appliance Technical

Conference (1996).

/Haw99/ Haworth, G.J., Sinaga, J., Irwin, P., Latham, D., Morgan, R., "New Developments

with Appliance Rigid Foam Systems Utilizing Liquid and Gaseous Blowing

Agents to Achieve Optimum Density, Flowability, Cabinet Energy and Product

Appearance", presented at Polyurethanes International Technical Conference and

Exposition, Orlando, FL (1999).

/HR402/ House Resolution 4, U.S. Congress proposed energy bill (2002).

/Kyo97/ Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1997).
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 47

/Kje01/ Kjeldsen, P., and C. Scheutz, Denmark Technical University, “Determination of

the Fraction of Blowing Agent Released from Refrigerator Foam After

Decommissioning,” presented at The Third International Symposium on NonCO2 Greenhouse Gases, Netherlands, and at The Earth Technologies Forum,

Washington, DC, (March 2002).

/Kje02/ Kjeldsen, P., and C. Scheutz, Denmark Technical University, “Attenuation of

alternative Foam Blowing Agents in Landfills,” research project initiated April

2002.

/Mar01/ Martin, C., King, J., Latham, I., "HFC-134a: The Other HFC", presented at

Polyurethanes International Technical Conference and Exposition, Columbus,

OH (2001).

/UNE95/ UNEP 1995 Report of the Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps

Technical Options Committee, Chapter 3, Domestic Refrigeration (1995

Assessment).

/UNE98/ UNEP 1998 Report of the Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps

Technical Options Committee, Chapter 3, Domestic Refrigeration (1998

Assessment).

/Wen96/ Wenning, U., “Three Years Experience with Hydrocarbon Technology in

Domestic Refrigeration,” Proceedings of the 1996 International conference on

Ozone Protection Technologies, Washington (October 21-23, 1996).

/Zip97/ Zipfel, L., W. Krucke, K. Bornere, P. Barthelemy and P. Dournel, “HFC-365mfc

and HFC-245fa Progress in Application of New HFC Blowing Agents,”

presented at Polyurethane World Congress, Amsterdam (1997).

2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 49

4 Commercial Refrigeration

Commercial Refrigeration is a part of the cold chain, making available for customers frozen

and fresh food at the desirable levels of temperatures.

4.1 Introduction

Commercial refrigeration comprises 3 main types of equipment: stand-alone equipment,

condensing units and centralised systems.

Stand-Alone Equipment

Stand-alone equipment consists of systems where all the components are integrated: wine

coolers, beer machines, ice cream machines, beverage vending machines, and all kind of

stand-alone display cases. This equipment is installed in metro and train platforms, small

shops, schools, company buildings and their annual growth is significant. Vending machines

can be either bought or rented and no special attention is paid to the refrigeration system by

the end-user. Companies who install and maintain this equipment have the knowledge on the

refrigerant used. Stand-alone equipment, freezers and all kind of small equipment are used

intensively in non-Article 5(1) countries and are also installed in many Article 5(1) countries.

Small Commercial Equipment With Condensing Unit

This type of small commercial equipment comprises :

- one (or two) compressor(s), a condenser and a receiver constituting the condensing unit

which is located external to the sales area;

- the cooling equipment includes one or more display case(s) in the sales area and/or a

small cold room for food conservation.

These condensing units are installed in specialised shops as bakeries, butchers and

convenience stores. In a number of small supermarkets (typically cash & carry type), one can

find a large number of these condensing units (up to 20) installed side-by-side in a small

machinery room. Similarly to stand-alone equipment, condensing units are installed in many

Article 5(1) countries.

Centralised Systems

Centralised systems consist of systems with compressors located in a machinery room. Two

options are met, direct and indirect systems:

• Direct Systems

Are widespread and simple. The refrigerant circulates from the machinery room to the sales

area, where it evaporates in display cases and then returns in vapour phase to the suction port

of compressors. Cold rooms are also cooled in the same way. In the machinery room, racks

of multiple compressors are installed, each rack is usually associated with an air condenser.

Specific racks are dedicated to low temperature and others to medium temperature with

common connection for each level of temperature.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 50

• Indirect Systems

Are composed of a primary heat exchanger where a Heat Transfer Fluid (also called

secondary refrigerant) is cooled down by the refrigerating system, then pumped towards the

display cases where it absorbs heat, and then comes back in the primary heat exchanger.

Indirect systems permit:

- to lower the refrigerant charge whatever the refrigerant,

- to use flammable or toxic refrigerants when located in a machinery room separated from

the sales area.

Indirect systems receive a lot of attention, especially in Europe because of regulatory

constraints on HCFCs and, for some EU countries, on HFCs.

Distributed Systems

These systems could be seen as a 4th technology, and have recently been developed for large

and medium size supermarkets in order to limit the refrigerant charge by shortening the

refrigerant circuit length and using water condensers. The water condensing circuit rejects

heat on a wet or dry cooling tower. Compressors are installed in sound-proof boxes near the

display cases, inside or above the sales area. This concept developed 5 years ago, has not

taken a significant market share.

Temperature Levels and Refrigerant Choice

For all these systems, two levels of temperature (medium temperature for preservation of

fresh food and low temperature for frozen products) may imply the use of different

refrigerants. Chilled food is maintained in the range of 1 °C to 14 °C but the evaporating

temperature for the equipment varies between –15 °C and –6 °C dependent upon a lot of

factors: the type of product, the type of display case (closed or open), the type of system

(direct or indirect), the distance between the display cases and the machinery room. Frozen

products are kept at different temperatures (from –12 °C to –18 °C) depending on the

country. Ice creams are kept at –20 °C. Usual evaporating temperatures are in the range of -

35 to –40 °C.

4.2 Data on Systems and Refrigerant Charges

Commercial refrigeration stores are very different, even in neighbouring countries, because

of very different consumption habits, regulation of opening hours, leadership of brand names

and wealth of people.

A number of leading US and European companies are expanding world wide specially in

Eastern European countries such as Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic and in emerging

countries such as: Argentina, Brazil, China, Indonesia, Mexico, Taiwan, Thailand and

Tunisia. The growth of all types of commercial refrigerating systems in China is one of the

most significant developments in the last four years. To take an example, the number of

small supermarkets, where the average surface is about 380 m2

, has been multiplied by 6 in

the last 4 years in China /Eur01/.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 51

Table 4-1 Typical surfaces of supermarkets in different countries

Brazil China France Japan USA

Average surface of

supermarkets (m2

) 680 510 1500 1120 4000

Average surface of

hypermarkets (m2) 3500 6800 6000 8250 11500

As indicated in Table 4-1, the average surface of supermarkets is significantly different

depending on the country. Moreover, the "hypermarket" concept selling food, clothing, and

all types of household goods, is expanding world-wide.

Based on a report /Gge02/ and detailed marketing studies /Eur01/, statistics on supermarket

numbers, stand-alone equipment, and vending machines have been deeply modified

compared to the 1999 TOC report. Table 4-2 shows the impact of the rapid economic growth

of China: Chinese supermarkets represent more than 30% of the total global number of

supermarkets.

Table 4-2 Number of supermarkets and hypermarkets /Eur01/ and /Gge02/

Number of

Supermarkets

Number of Hypermarkets

EU 58 134 5 410

Other Europe 8 954 492

USA 40 203 2 470

Other America 75 441 7 287

China 101 200 100

Japan 14 663 1 603

Other Asia 18 826 620

Africa, Oceania 4 538 39

Total 321 959 18 021

The refrigerant quantities that are charged in supermarket refrigerating systems cannot be

derived from the sole number of supermarkets. Additional data are necessary and are not

currently available.

Based on the same two reports, the numbers concerning condensing units, all types of standalone equipment and vending machines have dramatically changed because of better

available data (see Table 4-3).
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 52

Table 4-3 Evaluation of the Number of Commercial Equipment /Eur01/ and /Gge02/

Condensing units Hermetic groups

in stand-alone

equipment

Vending

machines

EU 6 330 500 6 400 700 1 189 000

Other Europe 862 000 754 700 113 900

USA 247 500 217 400 8 807 900

Other America 3 321 300 2 430 600 411 800

China 13 000 000 12 316 600 385 000

Japan 2 216 000 2 470 600 2 954 500

Other Asia 5 750 400 5 750 600 758 200

Africa, Oceania 843 700 831 400 87 000

Total 32 571 400 31 172 600 14 707 300

For small commercial surfaces, China represents about 40% of the total global numbers,

except for vending machines. The market growth of vending machines is still very

significant, in particular in Europe.

Energy Consumption of Supermarkets

Depending on the supermarket size, the refrigeration equipment energy consumption

represents between 35 to 50% of the total energy consumption of the store. This ratio

depends on a number of factors, specially lighting, which represents for a number of

developed countries the highest energy consumption of use. However, for typical small

supermarkets, refrigeration represents between 40 to 50% of the total energy consumption;

for small supermarkets it could be up to 65%. The European standard EN 441 is the first

attempt to define a reference level of energy consumption. However, its scope is limited to

stand-alone equipment, i.e. including the refrigerating equipment in the display case itself.

More generally, there is no reference line for energy consumption of commercial centralised

refrigerating systems.

Some new high-efficiency commercial supermarkets have been designed in some European

countries and in the U.S., using a number of efficient technologies. These references can be

seen as prototypes; some of them present energy consumption that is lower by more than “a

factor of 5” compared to usual stores /Wor00/. However, investment costs could be higher

than 10 times the usual investment costs.

Energy Efficiency of Refrigerating Systems

Energy efficiency of refrigerating systems depends first on the temperature levels and of the

global design of the system. A number of measurements performed on site /Clo01/ show:

- COP ranging between 1 and 1.8 for low temperature applications, with evaporating

temperature of –40 °C and condensing temperature of +40 °C;

- COP varying between 2.4 and 3.2 for medium temperature applications with evaporating

temperature varying between –6 °C and –15 °C and condensing temperature fixed at

+40 °C.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 53

The overall energy efficiency of the system depends on a number of parameters: pressure

losses related to the circuit length, system control and outside temperature. For a number of

global companies, the energy consumption and so the energy efficiency of refrigerating

systems has become an important issue, especially in countries where electricity prices are

high. The issue of climate change and desire to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, chiefly

CO2, has heightened concerns to increase energy efficiency.

4.3 Refrigerant Options for New Equipment

Refrigerant choices for new equipment are different in Europe, US and Japan.

Since 1 January 2001, the use of HCFC-22 and HCFC-22 blends in new systems in Europe is

forbidden by the European regulation 2037/00 /Eur00/ for all types of refrigerating

equipment and the use of CFC is forbidden, i.e. no additional CFC shall be added for

servicing. If refrigerant is needed, the installation shall be retrofitted in order not to use any

CFC. For large capacity systems, R-404A (and R-507A) is the preferred choice for low

temperature but also for medium temperature level. HFC-134a is chosen for medium

temperature low capacity systems. A number of HCs, ammonia and CO2 systems of different

refrigerating capacities have been installed in various EU countries in the last 5 years.

In Japan, voluntary policy is undertaken by OEMs and more than one third of brand new

equipment is charged with HFCs. R-407C is used for medium temperature and R-404A for

low temperature.

In the U.S., HCFC-22 is still in use even for new equipment but, more and more R-404A is

the refrigerant of choice for supermarkets.

In Russia, HCFC-22 continues to be used in new equipment, but after the CFC-12 phase- out

HFC-134a and HCFC-22 blends, as well as R-404A come into use.

4.4 Stand-Alone Equipment and Condensing Unit Systems

The majority of stand-alone equipment is based upon HFC technology. However, some wellestablished beverage companies and ice cream manufacturers have recently stated (2001) that

by 2004 they will no longer use HFCs in their refrigerating systems, provided that alternative

refrigerants or technologies (such as Stirling cycle) will be available at acceptable cost.

Equipment used by these companies are mainly vending machines, specialised freezers and

so-called walk-in coolers, which are glass-door display cabinets.

• HFCs

Display cases for medium temperature and stand-alone equipment are in general designed to

work with HFC-134a. For low and medium temperature applications, R-404A (or sometimes

R-507A) is the major option for new equipment in developed countries and also in some

Article 5(1) countries.

• HCs

Vending machines and small commercial equipment have been developed in the UK,

Sweden, Denmark, Germany and Austria, but also in Australia. The above mentioned
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 54

equipment uses HCs such as HC-600a or HC-290, or HC-based blends. Developments tend

to lower the refrigerant charge to follow the limits required by European safety standard EN

378.

• CO2

CO2 is evaluated by a European company to develop a stand-alone equipment with direct

expansion CO2 system /Chr99/.

• HCFCs

HCFC-22 is used in some Article 5(1) countries (that manufacture equipment) for condensing

units.

4.5 Centralised Systems

The size of centralised systems depends on the refrigerating capacity which can vary from

about 20 kW to more than 1 MW. The quantity of refrigerant is related to the refrigerating

capacity; depending on the quantity, the refrigerant choice can be quite different.

4.5.1 Direct Systems

• HFCs

The use of R-404A is the major option in Europe in low temperature and in medium range

temperature refrigeration systems. The use of POE lubricant has not raised difficult handling,

and brand new systems using R-404A show equal easiness of servicing compared to HCFC22 or R-502 systems. For countries where high condensing temperatures are met (above 50

°C), a new concept with an additional small refrigerating system dedicated to liquid subcooling has been developed and is installed in the field. Energy efficiency gains are

significant. For medium temperature, HFC-134a is also used. No major problems have been

encountered in the field. R-407C has been tested in a number of cases, but is not considered

a major option except in Japan where a specific market is raising for medium temperature

applications, which are the most usual, due to the large extent of chilled food.

• CO2

Two types of refrigerating CO2 systems are on the market:

- direct systems using only CO2 with a transcritical cycle both for low and medium

temperatures /Gir02/

- cascade systems, with CO2 at the low temperature stage associated with ammonia or other

refrigerant (for example R-404A) at the medium temperature stage. Ten of these

prototypes have been installed in the field and are under evaluation in different European

countries. It shall be underlined that this technology can gain a certain interest because it

can also be developed for food industry /Rol99/.

4.5.2 Indirect Systems: HFCs, Ammonia, CO2 and HCs

Indirect systems have gained considerable attention for a number of supermarket chains, due

to the fact that these systems permit to lower the refrigerant charge whatever the refrigerant.

Depending on the country, HFCs, ammonia, HCs, and CO2 are used as refrigerant in the
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 55

refrigerating system entirely installed in the machinery room and/or outside /Rac01/,

/Wor00/. The quantity of HFCs can be reduced by 50 to 75% compared to usual direct

systems. The quantity of ammonia can be 1/10 of the usual HFC refrigerant charge, due to

thermodynamic properties (latent heat vaporisation and liquid density). For HCs, the

refrigerant charge is typically 25% of the HFC direct system charge. Medium temperature

and low temperature circuits are independent. Medium temperature technologies are mature

whereas for low temperature applications new concepts shall be designed to meet ease of

handling and acceptable energy consumption and efficiency.

Medium Temperature Applications

For this level of temperature, the Heat Transfer Fluid used is mainly MPG

(MonoPropyleneGlycol), which is still dominant. Potassium acetate and some other type of

brines have gained interest. More information on HTF can be found in chapter 2.

Ice slurries may contain up to 20% of ice in weight. The solid/liquid phase change permits

the system to run at a quasi-constant temperature. They can be used preferably at medium

temperature level and scarcely at low temperature level. Even if a number of studies are still

performed in different laboratories, the cost of the primary heat exchanger producing the ice

slurry, and also the level of the evaporating temperature needed to produce the ice, make the

process always difficult and non-attractive for cost reasons. Some field experiments are

ongoing.

Low Temperature Applications

MPG cannot be an option any longer because of very high viscosity and so only potassium

acetate, low viscosity brines or CO2 can be used. Taking into account viscosity constraint

and good heat transfer properties, more consideration has been paid to the use of CO2 as low

temperature HTF. Specially when CO2 is used with evaporating option, the diameter of the

tubes is smaller by nearly a factor 5 to 10, and heat transfer efficiency in the display case heat

exchanger is much more attractive. The major difficulty for CO2 handling is to keep it at the

level of temperature (typically –12 °C) permitting to use classical technologies, i.e. tubes and

heat exchanger designed for maximum operating pressure of 2500 kPa.

Refrigerant Choices

• HFCs

In a number of countries (France, Germany, UK, Brazil), hundreds of indirect refrigeration

systems have been installed using HFCs as primary refrigerant (R-404A and R-507A).

• Ammonia and HCs /Pow98/, /Pre01/

In Northern Europe, ammonia or HCs have been used as refrigerants for the same type of

indirect systems. HC-1270 (propylene) has been chosen by some European companies

because its volumetric refrigerant capacity is nearly identical to the one of HCFC-22, and so

permits the use of a compressor designed for HCFC-22. Changes shall be made for the

lubricant, generally higher viscosity grade is chosen, due to high solubility of HCs in

lubricants. For safety purposes, the refrigerant circuits in the machinery rooms are separated

in a number of independent circuits to limit the charge of each system.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 56

• CO2

CO2 can be used either as usual Heat Transfer Fluid without phase change or it can evaporate

partially in the display case evaporators, then condense in the primary heat exchanger, and so

CO2 is used as a vapour-liquid Heat Transfer Fluid.

Energy Consumption

The evaluation of additional energy consumption related to indirect systems is ongoing.

The reference line is complex for direct systems because very different energy efficiencies

can be met. The direct field comparisons between direct and indirect systems are difficult.

Moreover, the main driver for centralised systems is initial cost and not total cost. Due to the

actual design of heat exchangers of display cases, and specially open-type ones,

performances of some indirect systems can be equal or even slightly better compared to

direct systems. For low temperature level, energy penalty can be substantial depending on

the design.

On the other hand, indirect systems, especially for small stores, can show an additional

consumption of 10 to 15% compared to usual direct systems. To draw conclusion, it is

necessary to create reference lines for energy consumption of centralised systems, making

also clear the origin of energy inefficiencies.

It shall be underlined that the initial cost is about 15% higher than usual direct systems.

Companies promoting indirect systems insist on ease of servicing, which is not fully

demonstrated. Some of the supermarket chains went back from indirect system preference to

usual direct systems, mainly for initial cost purposes.

Defrosting Issue

The secondary loop requests special attention for defrosting due to the fact that all the HTF

will be heated up from a typical temperature of –15 °C to above 2 or 3 °C. For large-scale

supermarkets, the quantity of HTF as MPG or potassium acetate is varying between 1.5 to

nearly 4 metric tonnes and so the energy consumption associated with defrosting is

significant. An interesting option is to cool down the condenser of the low temperature

system by the medium temperature secondary loop. This design also permits to defrost the

medium temperature heat exchangers by releasing the heat of the low temperature system.

More recently, companies are employing a thermostatically controlled 3-pipe defrosting

scheme where the HTF is warmed independently, avoiding the heating up of all the HTF and

therefore avoiding large energy losses. For CO2 electrical defrosting is usual.

4.6 Options for Existing Systems

4.6.1 Stand-Alone Equipment and Condensing Units

Three options are available depending on projected remaining lifetime and costs:

- disposal of the old equipment and buy a new one with a non-ODS refrigerant;

- repair and recharge with the same refrigerant, and

- repair and charge with a low ODP refrigerant or a non ODS refrigerant.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 57

Until 2010, it is permitted in Article 5(1) countries to use CFC to repair and recharge the

equipment not with the same refrigerant but with virgin CFC refrigerant. In any case CFC or

HCFC refrigerants will be recovered and, in Europe, regulation 2037/2000 /Eu00/ makes

destruction mandatory for CFCs. Refrigerants can be recycled before recharge. When

changing from CFC to HCFCs or HFCs in case of retrofit, the lubricant shall also be changed

and shall be compatible with the new refrigerant or refrigerant blends.

4.6.2 Centralised Systems

In developed countries, supermarket equipment is partially or totally renewed every 7 or 10

years, depending on countries. In Article 5(1) countries, the lifetime can be longer, typically

15 years.

CFC-12 Retrofit

The conversion from CFC-12 to HFC-134a involves several steps, including change of

mineral oil to synthetic oil, the evaluation of the expansion device and adjustment of the

superheat in case of thermostatic expansion valve and the replacement of the filter dryer.

R-502 Retrofit

Due to lubricants, retrofits are mainly from R-502 to HCFC-22 based blends. Studies

performed on energy consumption show that energy efficiency is at least as good with these

blends as with R-502 and no major problem nor breakdown has been recorded. It can be seen

as a straightforward and reliable procedure. In some cases, a distinction may have to be

made between R-502 retrofit in low temperature systems and medium temperature systems.

Based on the refrigerant cost, for medium temperature systems it may be worth using HCFC22 and changing the expansion valve. This option is not typical.

HCFC-22 Retrofit

It is technically feasible to change from HCFC-22 to R-404A or R-407C. Oil has to be

changed and the system has to be flushed. These technical issues are established from CFC12 to HFC-134a retrofit experience. It is essentially a political decision to make this kind of

retrofit due to the cost. Energy efficiency losses associated with this kind of retrofit are

typically in the range of 5 to 10%. New designs adapted to R-404A or R-407C must be

undertaken. New HFC blends with small amount of HCs (typically 3%) have been developed

in order to make easy retrofit from HCFC-22 to HFCs without change of the lubricant type,

but attention must be paid on eventual refrigerating capacity losses, and also on oil return

effectiveness /Spa02/.

4.7 Refrigerant Containment

The new European regulation 2037/2000 requires annual leak tightness control for CFC and

HCFC refrigerating systems with a refrigerant charge of more than 3 kg. The European

Climate Change Program (ECCP) recommends in its final conclusion that the EC issues a

new directive for HFC use, with a high level of containment, annual leak tightness control

and mandatory recovery of HFCs. The refrigerant management in commercial refrigeration
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 58

will deeply change within the next years in Europe and the annual emission level will be

reduced significantly.

The experience of The Netherlands, performed under the STEK organisation, where

contractors are certified, has led to significant reduction of the emission level. Even in

commercial refrigeration, emissions have been reduced down to 5% in The Netherlands.

Regulation and regulation enforcement play a key role for making refrigerant containment

more effective and make changes in servicing habits.

More generally, it is seen as economically feasible to reduce annual emissions from former

30% (referred to initial refrigerant charge) down to 10 to 15%. In Article 5(1) countries,

emission level can be much higher than the typical 30% level.

4.8 Article 5(1) Country Aspects

• In the least developed Article 5(1) countries, commercial refrigeration is found in small

shops, supermarkets do not exist. Refrigerating equipment can be domestic refrigerators

and freezers used for commercial purposes.

• For more developed countries stand-alone equipment or small cold rooms with a

condensing unit are the first type of equipment which are easily available on the market.

The refrigerants in use in such equipment are either HFC-134a or HCFC-22, sometimes

R-404A.

• In Article 5(1) countries such as Brazil, Mexico, Tunisia and Indonesia, a number of

global companies are developing supermarkets using basically the same type of

technology and refrigerant as they use in developed countries. A supermarket in those

countries is certainly not different from another one located in the U.S. or in Europe, in

terms of refrigeration systems.

• For new compressors bought for replacement purposes, CFC and HCFC compressors

become less available on the international market pushing commercial companies in some

Article 5(1) countries, which do not manufacture compressors, to evaluate the interest to

shift from CFC or HCFC to HFCs.

• On the contrary, due to the possible use of HCFC-22 for a longer period of time, the

second hand HCFC-22 compressors (and some other components) become an attractive

business for exports towards Article 5(1) countries with no local compressor production.

• Due to cost issues, the lifetime of equipment is much longer in Article 5(1) countries

compared to developed countries and so the repair takes higher importance which makes

refrigerant recovery even more necessary than in developed countries. Regulation has to

be issued, training programs have to be established and economical incentives have to be

found in order to make recovery an efficient and effective activity integrated in the usual

servicing procedures (see chapter 10 on containment and recovery).

• The date of phase out of CFCs, especially CFC-12 and in a less important way R-502,

will become more and more important in the next few years. So the conservation,

through recovery and recycling and the shift to drop-in refrigerants shall be taken into

account.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 59

4.9 References

/Chr99/ K.G. Christensen, "Use of CO2 as primary and secondary refrigerant in

supermarket applications". Proceedings 20th Int. Congress of Refrigeration,

IIR/IIF, Sydney, 1999. Vol III (paper 375).

/Clo01/ D. Clodic, "Comparison between direct and indirect refrigeration systems for

supermarkets." Proceedings Refrigeration Int. Congress "Evolution of

Refrigeration Systems". Milano, February 13, 2001.

/Eur02/ EUROMONITOR, Retail trade international 2001 – Marketing Handbook.

/Eu00/ Regulation (EC) no. 2037/2000 the European Parliament and of the Council of 29

June 2000 on substances that deplete the ozone layer.

/Eur97/ Retailing in the European Economic Area 1996. European Commission.

Statistical Office of the European Communities. DG XXIII. Eurostat 1997.

/Gir02/ S. Girotto, P. Neksa, "Commercial refrigeration systems with CO2 as refrigerant,

theoretical considerations and experimental results". In New Technologies in

commercial refrigeration July 22-23 University of Illinois

/Gge02/ GGEEC report "Global inventories of refrigerants and emission previsions" D.

Clodic, L. Palandre, A. Zoughaib, L. Kuijpers. December 2002

/Nag97/ T. Nagai, Sanyo Electric Co., Ltd, Personal Communication.

/Pow98/ L. Powell, P. Blacklock, "Experience of using hydrocarbons in refrigeration and

air conditioning applications in Europe". AIRAH Journal July 1998. p. 24-28.

/Pre01/ A. Presotto Jr. and C.G. Süffert, "Ammonia Refrigeration In Supermarkets".

ASHRAE Journal, October 2001. p. 25-31.

/Rac01/ "Why a secondary system should be considered first". Refrigeration and Air

Conditioning. December 2001. p. 26-27.

/Rol99/ L. Rolfsman, "Plant Design Considerations For Cascade Systems Using CO2".

Proceedings 20th Int. Congress of Refrigeration, IIR/IIF, Sydney, 1999. Vol III

(paper 649).

/Spa02/ M.W. Spatz, R.G. Richard, "Performance and oil return characteristics of

HFC.HC blends". Proceedings 9th Int. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Conference at Purdue. 2002.

/Wor00/ Annex 26 Workshop – Stockholm October 3, 2000

2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 61

5 Large Refrigerating Systems (Industrial refrigeration, Cold

Storage and Food Processing)

5.1 Introduction

Industrial refrigeration, cold storage, food processing and district heating and cooling are

important applications. Large refrigerating systems are commonly used in this sub-sector.

The cooling/heating capacity of such units varies from 25 kW to 30 MW or even higher shaft

power. These refrigeration systems are based on reciprocating, screw and centrifugal

compressors depending on capacity and application. Systems described in this chapter are

custom made and often erected on site.

Refrigerants used are preferably single refrigerants, because most of the systems are using

flooded type of evaporators. Industrial refrigeration systems are normally located in industrial

areas with very limited public access. For this reason ammonia is commonly used in many

applications where the hazards of toxicity and flammability are clearly evident, well-defined,

well understood and easily handled by competent personnel. Hydrocarbons may be used as

an alternative to ammonia within sectors handling flammable fluids such as chemical

processing.

There are clear differences how different countries have developed the technology for

industrial refrigeration based on national legal regulation. In Europe, the use of HCFC-22 and

HCFC-22 blends in new systems is forbidden by the European regulation 2037/00 Eur01

since 1 January 2001 for all type of refrigerating equipment and the use of CFC is forbidden,

i.e. no additional CFC shall be added for servicing. HFCs are occasionally used where

ammonia or hydrocarbons are not acceptable, however they are often not preferred because

specifiers expect regulations limiting the use of greenhouse gases to be introduced in future

/Exp02, Sp02/.

The annual consumption of frozen food world-wide is 30 million tonnes per year. The United

States accounts for more than half of the consumption, with more than 63 kg per capita. The

average figure for the European Union (EU) is 25 kg and for Japan 16 kg. Chilled food is 10

– 15 times the frozen product quantity. The total quantity of temperature controlled products

is estimated at 350 million tonnes (1995), and the annual growth is estimated to be 5%

/IIR96/. The estimated annual growth rate between 1996 and 2002 in the developed countries

amounts to 4% and in developing countries to 7%.

Energy conservation is one of the main strategies to alleviate the environmental problems

arising from the ever-increasing global energy demand. Industrial heat pumps utilise

renewable and waste heat and consequently reduce the demand for fossil fuels for heating,

cooling and dehumidification.

The present section is an updated and combined version of three sections of the earlier

Technical Options Report from 1998 /TOR98/, namely Industrial Refrigeration, Cold Storage

and Food Processing and Large Heat Pumps. Attempts have been made to update the

information on technical options and the data on consumption of refrigerants.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 62

5.2 Applications

Chilling is the process to cool a product to a temperature above the freezing point, Freezing

is to lower the temperature below the freezing point. The freezing of food products requires

product temperatures of –18 °C or lower.

The majority of refrigerating systems for cold storage and food processing are of direct type,

with the refrigerant distributed to heat exchangers in the space or apparatus to be refrigerated.

Indirect systems with liquid chillers or ice banks are used to a lesser extent, primarily for

chilling purposes, such as fruit packaging.

System size varies from cold stores of 50 kW cooling capacity at –25 °C air temperature in

Article 5(1) countries to large processing plants requiring several MW of cooling. In the

lower capacity range, reciprocating compressors are most frequently used, while screw

compressors are common in larger systems, in particular those with NH3, in single stage

economised or two-stage arrangements.

5.2.1 Cold Storage

Cold Storage, with storage temperatures of approximately –25 °C is split into private storage

and public cold storage. Private storage is often related to raw materials and finished products

in a food processing factory.

In fruit and vegetable cold stores, it is possible to prolong storage life from few months to

almost a year if the constituents of cold room atmosphere such as CO2, O2 and ethylene are

controlled. The most common fruits stored under this condition are apple, pears and

vegetables.

The refrigeration in cold and chill stores is generally direct cooling with NH3 in evaporators

placed at high levels in these buildings or in special “penthouses”. Where direct cooling with

NH3 is not acceptable, an indirect system is likely to be used rather than a HCFC-22 system.

In a few cases, CO2 in cascade systems with NH3 or as secondary refrigerant have been built

recently /Axi02/. In Japan, several food storage systems exist with ice slurry produced by

NH3 refrigeration plants.

Electrical defrost is avoided for refrigerants such as NH3 or CO2 because it is extremely

inefficient in large coolers. Most systems use pumped recirculation of the refrigerant through

the evaporators and defrost is achieved by supplying high pressure gas to individual coolers

or small groups. In some special cases, where the climate, the evaporator design or the

process requirements are suitable, it is possible to defrost evaporators with ambient air or

water.

5.2.2 Food Processing

Food Processing is one of the fastest developing industries in the world. Refrigeration for

food processing (including the beverage industry) is a subset of industrial refrigeration

including: dairy products, ice cream, meat processing, poultry processing, fish processing,

abattoirs, fruit & vegetable processing, coffee, cocoa, chocolate & sugar confectionery, grain,

bread & flour confectionery and biscuits, vegetable and animal oils and fats, miscellaneous
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 63

foods, breweries, soft drinks /Mar92/. The major concern of operators is the reliability of the

system. Energy efficiency is often given lower priority than capital cost, reliability and cost

of maintenance. According to the large variety of products, the chilling or freezing procedure

has to be adopted to each product behaviour as far as temperatures, humidity and chilling or

freezing rates are concerned.

In Article 5(1) countries most of the food processing industry use HCFC-22 and few still use

CFC-12. The use of pumped NH3 is not common, many systems use flooded systems with

gravity fed evaporators.

5.2.3 Industrial Refrigeration

Industrial refrigeration covers a very wide range of cooling and freezing applications,

including the chemical and pharmaceutical industries, the petrochemical and the oil and gas

industries, the metallurgical industry, plastic moulding, civil engineering, sports and leisure

facilities, industrial ice making, air liquefying and other miscellaneous uses. A large portion

of the refrigeration applications is used to preserve food from harvest, catch or slaughter,

processing, transport, storage and distribution to retail sales and supermarkets.

The majority of industrial refrigeration covers temperatures from +10 °C for chilling and air

conditioning, down to –40 °C for food freezing and storage. Recently a tendency for lower

product freezing temperatures down to –60 °C has been realised to improve product quality

and to increase factory production capability. Lower temperatures are used for some special

applications in food preservation and more common for other chemical processes. There are

some minor applications for medical use in the range -90 to –130 °C. For lower temperature

needs cryogenics gases such as liquid nitrogen and synthetic liquefied air (SLA) are used.

5.2.4 Liquefaction of Gases

The vapour compression process is used for the liquefaction of gases such as CO2, Cl2, HC

and liquid natural gases down to temperatures of –170 °C. Liquefaction of cryogenic gases

such as air (N2, O2, Ar, etc.), hydrogen, helium is performed by another technology such as

gas processes. In the process of air liquefaction, the cooling and drying of the product (air)

often is achieved with vapour compression using NH3 or HCFC or HFC blend.

5.2.5 Industrial Heat Pumps and Heat Recovery

Another important application of industrial refrigeration is heat pumps for heating and heat

recovery. Especially large industrial heat pumps which today are a proven, reliable and

energy saving technology, utilise renewable and waste heat and consequently reduce the

demand for fossil fuels for heating, cooling and dehumidification industrial applications. The

vast majority of heat pumps currently in operation are electrically driven closed cycle vapour

compression type systems similar to the systems used for industrial refrigeration.

Industrial heat pumps are used for heating of process streams, heat recovery and hot

water/steam production. They are often an integrated part of industrial processes, such as

drying, evaporative concentration and distillation. The majority of industrial heat pumps

operate in the chemical industry, food processing industries and fish farming. Heat pumps are

also used for drying of products such as ceramics, timber, textiles and different kind of food.

Energy efficiency and quality of the products, gained by better temperature control of the
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 64

drying process, make heat pump dryers very competitive compared to conventional dryers,

though they often have less annual operating hours than other industrial heat pumps.

Industrial heat pumps are generally large in thermal capacity ranging from about 100 kW to

several MWs, and the systems are usually custom designed. Evaporation temperatures are

generally higher than with residential and commercial/institutional applications and condensation temperatures are typically up to 80 °C, in some special cases up to 120 °C.

The vast majority of heat pumps currently in operation are electrically driven closed-cycle

compression type systems. Systems driven by gas engines, or absorption cycle heat pumps

which are directly fired or employ waste heat, have found niche markets. The type of heat

pump applied depends heavily on the process, the heat source and the operating temperatures.

The most common types of industrial heat pumps on the market are:

- Mechanical (closed) vapour compression heat pumps

- Mechanical (open) vapour recompression (MVR)

- Absorption heat pumps

- Heat transformers

Mechanical (closed) vapour compression heat pumps: Traditionally, industrial heat pumps

have been using CFCs, HCFCs, and NH3 as working fluid. Hydrocarbons have also a small

niche market, in petrochemical industry. HFC-134a, R-404A and R-407C are identified as the

most used retrofit refrigerants for units with CFC-12, R-502 and HCFC-22. HCFC-22 is still

used as one of the main refrigerants in heat pumps. Most developed country manufacturers

have introduced HFC alternatives to replace their HCFC heat pump models. HFC-134a and

R-404A have been on the market for several years. For heat pumps working with higher

condensing temperatures up to 80 °C, HFC-134a is the preferred refrigerant, especially large

capacity units. NH3 with 40 bar – compressors is applied in medium/large capacity heat

pumps, especially in Scandinavian countries.

Refrigerant charges in industrial closed cycle heat pumps range from 0.1 to 2.5 kg per kW

thermal output, with an estimated average roughly the same as for residential and

commercial/institutional heat pumps, i.e. 1.0 and 0.5 kg/kW for units produced before and

after 1994 /UNE91, Ste98/.

In Europe large industrial heat pumps for hot water distribution systems have capacities of

approximately 1200 MW. New Systems are realised with HFC-134a, the charge per kW

heating capacities amounts to 0.6 kg of HFC-134a / kW. This figures results in 684 tonnes of

HFC-134a in this type of heat pumps /JAR99, Bai02/.

Mechanical (open) vapour recompression: MVR systems, or open (semi-open) heat pumps,

are extensively used in industrial processes for evaporation or distillation. Most systems

operate with water vapour as the process fluid. In chemical industry other process vapours

are used in MVRs (e.g. ethanol, methanol, propane).

Absorption heat pumps: are in most cases driven by steam or industrial waste heat, and are

mostly used in countries with thermal power based electricity production and high electricity

prices. Absorption heat pumps are still only to a small extent installed in industrial

applications. In Sweden and Denmark a number of units are installed in refuse incineration
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 65

plants to recover heat from the flue gas cleaning process, to supply heat to district heating

networks. Most absorption heat pumps use water and lithium bromide as the working pair,

and are capable of delivering heat up to 100 oC. Industrial absorption heat pumps are, for

economic reasons, mainly used in large sizes (MW).

Absorption heat pumps with a typical primary energy ratio (PER) in the range of 1.2 to 1.5

have higher system energy efficiency than vapour compression systems driven by electricity

produced in conventional power plants. Research is concentrating on the development of

systems with high efficiency, high temperature lifts, high output temperatures, a wider range

of application and lower cost. This includes the development of double-lift, double-effect and

triple-effect units, generator/absorber heat exchanger systems (GAX) and new working

fluids.

Heat transformers: which are producing high-temperature heat from medium-temperature

industrial waste heat operate on a similar process as absorption heat pumps. Current systems

have a maximum delivery temperature and temperature lift of 145-150 °C and 50 °C,

respectively. Also heat transformers use water and lithium bromide as the working pair. Heat

transformers typically achieve PERs in the range 0.45 to 0.48. Only a few systems are in

operation world wide, the majority of them in Japan /HPC94a/.

5.3 Current Status and Trends

In comparison to the TOC Report 1998, this section describes new technologies and general

trends.

CFC systems are still in operation and CFCs are available for servicing, except for the

European Union where regulations are in force and servicing with CFCs is forbidden since

January 2001 /Eur01/. Globally, many larger industrial CFC systems keep running until their

expected time of retirement (year 2010-2015).

Significant amounts of CFCs are still available from stockpiled reserves, recovered fluid and,

to some extent, illegal imports. In addition, service demands have gone down significantly

due to improved routines and better leak tightness.

In Industrial Refrigeration a clear trend can be observed towards CO2 as refrigerant at

temperatures lower than –45 °C and as brine for higher cooling temperatures /Pir02/. It is

likely that cascade CO2 systems will be used for higher evaporating temperatures, probably

up to –30 °C, in the near future. The lower limit of evaporating temperature for CO2 is –54

°C, owing to the triple point of –56 °C. Comparison to other refrigerants has been done, cost

benefits for CO2/NH3 cascade systems with low NH3 charge have been achieved /Rot02/.

Several systems with total cooling capacities of more than 16 MW at different temperatures

are already in operation /Koe02/.

Industrial chiller units using water (H2O) as refrigerant are in operation directly connected to

the hydraulic H2O system /Aqu00, Bur01/. Studies have been investigated on theoretical

basis to estimate the potential of H2O /ARI00/. The potential of H2O in industrial

refrigeration is limited to temperatures of approximately +4 °C. Costs for H2O systems are

twice as high as for conventional units using HFC-134a at the moment.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 66

Ice slurry is proposed as option as secondary fluid to reduce refrigerant charge, especially to

reduce NH3 charge to comply with regulations. Through an additional heat exchanger, ice

slurry is produced by evaporating the refrigerant in the vapour cycle and then pumped

directly to the consumers. Direct use of ice slurry is known from several cold storage

facilities. At least 20 systems are running where ice slurry is used both as thermal storage but

also in the distribution system. The types of applications vary from dairies, slaughterhouses,

bakeries, breweries to fish processing factories on shore /DTI02/.

5.3.1 Developed Countries

The process of phasing out CFCs in existing systems has moved much slower than previously

anticipated. Estimations of banked refrigerants resulted in 70,000 tonnes of CFCs in these

systems /TOC98/.

No additional refrigerant options for industrial refrigeration have emerged since 1994/95.

Refrigerants for new systems for industrial refrigeration, cold storage and food processing are

selected among fluids including NH3, HFC-134a, R-507, R-404A and R-410A and also

hydrocarbons. The use of HCFC-22 as refrigerant in new industrial refrigeration systems is

reduced, except in the European Union where HCFC-22 is already forbidden.

NH3 has further strengthened its position as the leading refrigerant for cold storage and food

processing and other industrial applications in many countries, especially in the European

countries. A clear trend can be observed in all new systems, i.e., the reduction of the

refrigerant charge in the system regardless the refrigerant choice. As a consequence a second

clear trend can be observed, the use of CO2 as brine and refrigerant. The low charge

technology for NH3 has achieved a particularly strong position in Europe and even led to

expansion into less traditional use areas for NH3 such as centralised systems for cooling

and/or heating. CO2 is commercialised in Europe and will enter into the market in the USA

and other countries.

In other regions, the halocarbons have more or less kept their dominant market position, even

though a growing interest in NH3 can be observed. HFC use is moderate but expanding,

mainly at the expense of HCFC-22. Except in the European Union, HCFC-22 is still the

leading halocarbon refrigerant.

Unit systems with hydrocarbons are commercialised, also these with the low charge designs.

5.3.2 Article 5(1) Countries

In most of the Article 5(1) countries including large countries such as India, China, Brazil,

etc the food processing industry is still developing. There are food-processing plants of

medium to large capacity. The capacity may vary from 50 kW to 1000 kW of cooling. Mostly

small capacity plants use CFC-12 as refrigerant while the majority of larger capacity plants

are based on either NH3 or HCFC-22. There are some low temperature plants which use

CFC-502, but such plants are smaller in number.

Many Article 5(1) countries have vast coastal area where fishing and its processing is a

medium scale industry. There are fish processing and ice-making plants. The fish-processing

unit uses CFC-12 as refrigerant while majority of ice-making plants are either based on NH3
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 67

or HCFC-22. Alternative refrigerants such as HCs or HFC- blends have not yet started

penetration in this sub-sector due to availability of CFCs, HCFCs and NH3.

In most of the Article 5(1) countries, the use of HCFC-22 is growing.

NH3 systems are gaining popularity because of low operation cost. But in some cases the

installation cost could be very high. One of the hindrances to the NH3 system is that there is a

very limited training opportunity in NH3 systems. Most of the technologies are imported from

developed countries. Some of the major compressor manufacturers have subsidiary

companies in Article 5(1) countries with skilled labour.

5.4 Refrigerant Options for New Equipment

The current situation regarding alternatives for new systems is described as follows:

• NH3 is technically feasible in all types of systems;

• CO2 - technology is readily available for low temperature applications, technology for

general purposes is commercialised;

• HFC technology is considered to be fully mature (with regard to HFC-134a, R-404A and

R-507A);

• system components for R-410A are available;

• hydrocarbons are technically feasible for all types of systems but practical application is

restricted by safety codes and national regulations.

Therefore, it is technically possible to build new industrial refrigeration systems without

HCFCs.

Most of the manufacturers of refrigeration equipment and refrigerants are from developed

countries. These companies often have their subsidiaries in Article 5(1) countries with skilled

labour and market for the equipment. The use of HCFC-22 will be the most favourable

refrigerant in the Article 5(1) countries. The use of R-502 and CFC-12 in the industrial

refrigeration outside Europe is on decline. There are no new equipment imported. The use of

NH3 is peaking slowly in large refrigeration plants such as breweries. Vapour compression is

most common, screw compressors are gaining ground in high capacity refrigeration.

5.4.1 Ammonia (NH3)

Modern refrigeration using NH3 has improved in quality regarding design, use of low

temperature materials, better welding procedures and non-destructive control of the

manufacture. Education and understanding of NH3 is improving the safe operation.

Low charge is another positive development but more important is that these factory-made

units or systems represent a new level of quality improvement. These systems are not likely

to break or in another way release their charge unless there is a human error or direct physical

damage.

Charge reduction has been achieved through the use of plate type heat exchangers or direct

expansion tube and shell evaporators. Compared to conventional chillers with pool boiling

evaporators, refrigerant charge has been reduced by up to 90%. Low charge NH3 technology
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 68

was regarded as being fully mature but strong market penetration has not been realised since

its introduction because of price competition to HFC-based units.

5.4.2 HCFC-22

The use of HCFC-22 is declining in food processing, industrial refrigeration and cold storage

and heat pump applications in most countries. In Europe, the use of HCFC-22 in new systems

is forbidden by regulations. Some of the end users therefore prefer NH3 and CO2.

In the Article 5(1) countries, HCFC-22 is an important replacement fluid for CFCs in new

industrial systems, where this fluid will be available for service for full system lifetime.

There are various reasons for choosing HCFC-22. It is technically well proven, applicable

for a wide temperature range, fairly efficient and gives the lowest initial costs (except for

large, distributed systems). In addition, NH3 may not be a candidate for all types of

applications, dependent on national regulations.

From a technical point of view, HCFC-22 could replace CFC-12 and CFC-502 in new

systems. To replace R-502 for freezing, two-stage compression has to be applied, resulting in

improvements in energy efficiency, but at the expense of greatly increased capital cost.

HCFC-22 has become the most common refrigerant to replace CFCs in cold storage and food

processing in the USA.

5.4.3 HFCs

HFCs and HFC-blends with azeotropic or near azeotropic behaviour are proven for industrial

applications, their penetration into the industrial market has been realised. Today, systems are

in operation in industrial refrigeration with HFCs, consumption is increasing mainly at the

expense of HCFC-22. However, HFCs tend only to be used in small systems, mainly because

of the high costs of the refrigerants.

In Europe, many industrial end users expressed uncertainty regarding the future use of HFCs,

especially in response to realised phase out of HFCs by Denmark by 2007 /KK02/. In

Denmark since 2001 and Norway from 2003 a TAX-System is already in force (examples

(Euro/kg): Denmark HFC-134a: 18, R-404A: 44, Norway HFC-134a: 32, R-404A: 80).

HFC-134a has completely replaced CFC-12 in high capacity centrifugal liquid chillers. Units

with HFC-134a as refrigerant are in operation, with medium and large size capacities from 1

MW to 30 MW @ 6/12 °C and in heat pump applications. HFC-134a is used in a growing

sector of distributed cold and hot water supply systems, new systems with capacities of 52

MW have been realised recently in Europe (Sweden, France) /Cli02/. HFC-134a is not

considered for freezing applications.

As R-404A and R-507A are very similar in composition and refrigeration properties, both

have become the main HFCs for industrial applications, cold storage and food processing. In

spite of minor temperature glides, R-404A and R-507A have proven to be applicable even in

flooded systems /Bar96/. Cycle efficiencies (COP) are comparable to R-502 but significantly

lower compared to those of NH3 and HCFC-22, especially at high condensing temperatures.

Air-cooled condensers should be avoided as far as possible. To achieve best efficiencies and
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 69

high cost-effectiveness for systems with R-404A and R-507A the liquid should be subcooled. In chill applications it may also be necessary to add significant superheat to the

suction gas in order to avoid refrigerant condensation in the oil separator.

R-410A is well suited for industrial applications, COPs are comparable to NH3 and HCFC22, slightly higher compared to R-404A, R-507A for evaporation temperatures down to –40

°C. Below –40 °C to the normal boiling point at -51,6 °C, COPs are slightly higher for R410A compared to other refrigerants. Since R-410A is a so-called high pressure refrigerant,

moderate condensing temperature below +35 °C is required for system design pressure of 25

bar. Due to high volumetric capacity (40% above that of HCFC-22), compressor efficiency

has been reported to be higher than with HCFC-22 /IEA99/. So far, experiences from realised

systems in the industrial sector are limited /Gti02/.

In the future, the high capacity refrigerant R-410A is expected to gain market shares and is

one of the leading HFCs as replacement for HCFC-22 for industrial applications with low

evaporating temperatures. Compressor size will be less compared to other refrigerants except

CO2, and compressor efficiencies, pressure drop in suction lines and heat transfer efficiency

will benefit from high system pressure.

Refrigerants with significant temperature glide such as R-407C has not been used in

industrial applications. No reports have been published describing the use of R-407C in

industrial applications.

5.4.4 Hydrocarbons (HC)

HC may fit into any temperature range from evaporating temperature down to –170 °C.

Historically, their uses as working fluids have been restricted to large refrigeration plants

within the oil and gas industry. A certain increase in hydrocarbon consumption, which has

been registered, has appeared mainly in these sectors.

Commercialised products used in industrial refrigeration equipment include HC-290, HC1270 and HC-290/600a blends, although pure substances will be preferred in flooded

systems. All of these refrigerants possess vapour pressures very similar to those of HCFC-22

and CFC-502. System performance with regard to system efficiency is comparable to and, in

some cases even superior to, that of the halocarbons. Hydrocarbons are soluble with all

lubricants and compatible with materials such as metals and elastomers that are traditionally

used in refrigeration equipment. Beside safety aspects, standard refrigeration practice as for

HCFCs and CFCs can be used without major system detriment to system integrity.

Given the flammability concerns, design considerations as detailed in the relevant safety

standards should be adhered to. Additional safety measures should be considered for

repairing and servicing. Several national and European standards permit the use of HCs in

industrial applications and lay down specific safety requirements.

5.4.5 Carbon Dioxide (CO2/R-744)

Besides being non-ODP and non-GWP, carbon dioxide (CO2) offers a number of advantages:

- excellent thermophysical properties, leading to high heat transfer;

- efficient compression and compact system design due to high volumetric capacity;
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 70

- non-flammable and low toxicity;

- low system costs at evaporation temperatures below –45 °C (depending on system

design).

However there is a lower limit on evaporating temperature of –54 °C, owing to the triple

point (the pressure at which CO2 liquid solidifies). In the industrial sector the transcritical

cycle with CO2 is so far not considered because of high pressure (120 bar) components are

not available. However, the use of CO2 in low stage of cascade systems is growing for

industrial refrigeration. CO2 is also commonly used as a secondary refrigerant. Design

requires pressure of 40 bar for secondary refrigerant systems, and 25 bar for CO2 used as

refrigerant. Defrosting is still an open issue, therefore parts of the systems are designed for 40

bar. If hot gas defrost is required it is necessary to design parts of the system for higher

pressures, typically 50 bar.

CO2 technology has been realised for industrial refrigeration and cold storage, both as a

conventional refrigerant and as secondary refrigerant.

A comparisons-study for low temperatures has been carried out with typical systems design

with cooling capacities of 600 kW @ -54 °C for R-410A, R-507 and NH3 used as single fluid

in two stage systems and for NH3/CO2 and HFC-134a/R-410A as refrigerants in high/low

stage cascade systems. The volumetric refrigerating capacity of CO2 is five times higher than

HFC-410A and eight times higher than for NH3 and other refrigerants, consequently reducing

the size of most components in the system. The study found the lowest cost for NH3/CO2

/Rot01/. In case of using CO2 as refrigerant the cost break-even point for industrial

refrigeration compared to NH3 and R-410A exists approximately at an evaporating

temperature of –40 to –45 °C. Below this temperature lower costs for CO2/NH3 cascade

systems have been archived. It is expected that costs for screw or reciprocating units,

including compressors and oil separation circuit will be further reduced /Rot01/. Efficiency

of CO2 systems in this temperature range is comparable to other refrigerants such as R-410A

or NH3. CO2 shows strong cost benefits if the system size is increasing, especially in cases

where evaporators or heat exchangers are distributed and long piping systems are required. In

this application cost benefits have been achieved with total pipe runs of more than 2500 m

/Axi02/.

In USA, the first large CO2 Systems will be realised with cooling capacities of 6 MW in

2002/03. In Europe more than 10 large systems with CO2 as secondary refrigerant and as

refrigerant have been installed since 1998 and are in operation with total cooling capacities of

2.7 MW@ -5 to –10 °C, 2.2 MW@ -25 to –35 °C and 4.1 MW @ -45 °C or lower /Koe02/.

In industrial refrigeration a clear trend can be observed towards CO2 as refrigerant at

temperatures lower than –45 °C and as brine for higher cooling temperatures /PIR02/.

CO2 as brine is today a reliable technology and well accepted. CO2 has been used as retrofit

refrigerant for HCFC-22 systems (Supermarket, Cold Storage), the market interest is strongly

increasing in Europe. At least 2 large systems have been retrofitted from HCFC-22 (1.5 MW

@ -45- -55 °C) and from CFC-13B1 (2.4 MW @ -35 °C) to NH3/CO2 cascade systems

/Geb01, Koe02/.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 71

It is expected that the CO2 market share will increase. Through cascading with CO2, the

amount of NH3 may be reduced from several kilograms per kW cooling effect (pump

circulation) to 50-200 grams/kW (liquid chillers, water cooled and air cooled/evaporative

condensers respectively).

5.4.6 Water

Water can be used as refrigerant for high-temperature industrial heat pumps. It has favourable

thermodynamic and environmental properties and is neither flammable nor toxic. For cooling

application a detailed thermodynamic study has been carried out by ARI /ARI01/.

Water systems based on centrifugal compressors have been installed in Germany. Eight H2O

industrial process cooling units are running with cooling capacities of 500 kW to 1 MW @

6/12 °C /Aqu01, Bur01/. Costs for H2O chillers are at the moment twice as high as for

conventional units using HFC-134a.

Water has been applied as a working fluid in open and semi-open MVR systems in industrial

evaporation processes. Operating temperatures are in the range 80 °C to 150 °C. The major

disadvantages using water as refrigerant are the low volumetric refrigeration capacity and the

relatively high pressure ratio, especially at evaporating temperatures below 100 °C.

5.5 New Technologies

5.5.1 CO2 in the Transcritical Cycle

By utilising the transcritical CO2-cycle, combined needs for cooling and heating, which are

commonly found in industry, could be met in a very efficient way. A CO2 heat pump may

produce hot water with temperatures up to 100 °C without any operational problems, while

traditional heat pump systems are often restricted to hot water temperatures lower than 55 °C.

5.5.2 Absorption / Compression Cycle

Absorption / Compression cycle has been developed by combining the features of the vapourcompression and vapour-absorption cycles. About 20 compression-absorption systems --both

on laboratory and full-scale-- have been developed and tested successfully so far. Various

analytical and experimental studies have shown that the COP of compression-absorption

systems is comparable to vapour compression systems. However, this system suffers from an

inherent disadvantage of being capital intensive in nature. The technology is still at

developmental stage /Fer02/.

5.6 Retrofit Options for Existing Systems

HCFCs and some HFCs are main refrigerant options for retrofitting industrial refrigeration

units, cold storage and food processing systems.

Refrigerant blends with significant temperature glide are applicable only with dry expansion,

which is common only in the smaller systems. Due to low cost and simple retrofit procedures,

60-70% of retrofits have involved HCFCs, including blends with HCFCs. Since HCFCs

contain chlorine, no oil change is required in most cases.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 72

Hydrocarbons may be used but flammability aspects need to be addressed.

CO2 has been used as refrigerant for existing HCFC-22 systems, the market interest is

strongly increasing in Europe.

Two large systems have been retrofitted from HCFC-22 (1.5 MW @ -45- -55 °C) and from

CFC-13B1 (2.4 MW @ -35 °C) to NH3/CO2 cascade systems /Geb01, Koe02, Gti02/.

In Europe HCFC-124 is no longer allowed in new equipment, therefore HFC-236fa has been

tested and commercially used in new equipment such as high temperature crane carbin A/C

units in iron melting factories /Mis01/. In addition HFC-227ea is used in new systems. Both

refrigerants, HFC-227ea and HFC-236fa have the disadvantage of low volumetric efficiency

compared to CFC-114 and HCFC-124, therefore system costs are greater.

The details for the special retrofit options are described in the Technical Options Report 1998

for refrigerants CFC-12, R-502, CFC-13, R-503, R-13B1, HCFC-22, CFC-114,

HCFC-124 /TOC98/.

5.7 Service Requirements

As a world wide average, current CFC and HCFC annual emission rates have gone down and

may be 7-10% on average in industrial refrigeration systems today /Bir00, Bir02/.

Technical Requirements for HCFC for service:

It will be technically possible to manage without HCFCs in new industrial systems as

described in sub-section 5.5. Reasons for continued use of HCFCs are costs and energy

efficiency. Furthermore, contractors and end users are reluctant to change since HCFC

technology is well known. Also, concern over the long-term future of HFCs has been

identified as a barrier to changeover /Mar96, Eur01/.

Lower price, better efficiency and probably greater margins with respect to failure, make

HCFCs (and, unfortunately, CFCs) attractive compared to HFCs in many Article 5(1)

countries. In comparison to NH3, differences in initial costs may be even more significant

than in industrialised countries, since systems are generally smaller in size. Since cost is a

limiting factor in the CFC phase-out, availability of HCFCs may reduce the CFC problem in

these countries, while lack of HCFCs may prolong dependency of CFCs.

Except in Europe, HCFC-22 is still used in new industrial systems because “all problems are

known” and due to the fact that it is competitive with respect to cost and efficiency, the latter

relative to currently available HFCs.

There is no "ideal" refrigerant to replace HCFC-22 in existing systems with flooded

evaporators. Technically, R-404A or R-507A could be used but at the expense of a

significant increase in energy consumption and with a possible reduction in system reliability

if the oil change is not done sufficiently thoroughly. With respect to HCFC-123, no retrofit

option is commercially available. For these reasons, HCFCs have to be available for service

throughout system lifetimes.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 73

As a conclusion, HCFCs have to be available especially for systems in Article 5(1) countries

in the short to mid-term and for service purposes. Provided that current CFC practices with

respect to refrigerant conservation (reduced leakages, extensive recovery and recycling,

reference next section) are transferred to HCFCs, only small amounts of virgin refrigerant

should be required for future service.

Service:

Except in Europe where CFCs have been phased out, CFC service demands have gone down

due to improved routines, better leak tightness and better organised arrangements for CFC

recycling. However, considerable amounts of CFCs are still required for replenishment. CFC

prices have risen very considerably, making improved maintenance and sound conservation

practices economic. It is estimated that a similar figure also applies for HCFC-22. Emissions

from HFC systems are probably even lower, due to more leak-proof designs.

To meet service needs after CFC phase out, facilities and procedures for refrigerant recycling

(and destruction) have been established in most countries. Equipment for refrigerant recovery

and purification has been on the market for several years.

In the past, the major proportion of refrigerant consumption (60-80%) concerned

replenishment after leakage and release during service and repair. According to a survey

conducted by SINTEF in 1991, covering CFC and HCFC systems in the Norwegian fish

industry, on average 15% of the charge had to be replenished each year due to emissions

/SIN91/. With reference to the experience from Sweden, annual emissions of 8% of the

charge have been assumed for existing systems (CFC and HCFC) in forecasting demands

beyond 2000 and 6% for new systems (HCFC and HFC).

5.8 Available Data on Consumption

Since information on the number of systems, amounts of refrigerant per system and other

specific technical data is virtually impossible to obtain, given estimates have to be

characterised as "qualified guesses", indicating only very rough orders of magnitude.

5.8.1 Refrigerant Consumption

CFC and HCFC inventory and consumption have been estimated for the entire industrial

refrigeration sector as a whole, using a top-down approach. To indicate separate figures for

the sectors covered by this chapter, it is assumed that cold storage and food processing

accounts for 75%, leaving 25% left for other industrial applications. Compared to the 1998

TOC report /TOC98/ annual growth rates of 10% for China and India, 7% for other Article

5(1) countries and 4% for developed countries have been assumed.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 74

Table 5-1 Estimated consumption of halocarbon refrigerants for industrial refrigeration systems,

cold storage and food processing (2002)

Consumption, tonnes/year Refrigerant inventory, tonnes

CFCs HCFCs HFCs CFCs HCFCs HFCs

Non-A 5(1) countries 10 000 25000 4600 100000 154000 9300

Article 5(1) countries 2300 2700 0 9500 11100 0

Total 12300 27600 4600 110000 165000 9300

5.8.2 Forecast of Use

Table 5-2 Forecast of demand of halocarbon refrigerants for industrial refrigeration systems, cold

storage and food processing

Refrigerant 2002 2005 2008

Non-Article

5(1) countries

CFCs, tonnes 10000 6000 4000

HCFCs, tonnes 25000 22000 19500

HFCs, tonnes 4600 14000 23000

Total, tonnes 39600 42000 46500

Article 5(1)

Countries

CFCs, tonnes 2300 2350 2200

HCFCs, tonnes 2700 3800 4100

HFCs, tonnes 0 750 1600

Total, tonnes 5000 6900 7900

5.9 References

/Aqu01/ Company Report, Aqua Super Sonic GmbH, Sonneberg, Germany 2001

/ARI01/ ARI, H2O Report, www.ari.org

/Axi02/ Company Information; “Fish Processing Factory with CO2 as Brine and NH3

as Refrigerant”, Axima Refrigeration GmbH, Lindau, Germany, 2002

/Bai02/ Bailer, P.: “Reference List for UNITOP-Centrifugal Chiller with R134a”,

Axima Refrigeration, Winterthur, 2002
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 75

/Bar96/ Marc Barreau, Sylvie Macaudiere, Pierre Weiss, M. Joubert, "R-404A in

Industrial Refrigeration Application for R-502 and HCFC-22 Replacement.

System with Recirculation-type Evaporator" International Conference on

Ozone Protection Technologies, October 21-23, 1996, Washington D.C.

/Bir00/ Birndt, R.: “Dichtheit von Kälteanlagen”, ILK Dresden, in German, German

Research Council, Frankfurt, April 2000

/Bir02/ Birndt, R.: “Verbesserung der Dichtheit kältetechnischer Erzeugnisse”, ILK

Dresden, in German, German Research Council, Frankfurt, April 2002

/Bur01/ Burandt, B., et.al.: “Betriebserfahrungen mit Kompressionskälteanlagen mit

Wasser als Kältemittel”, Annual Conference DKV Ulm, 2001

/Cli02/ Press Release “Cooling Paris, Large Size Cold Water Distribution System

with 52MW Realised”, Climespace/Suez/Axima Refrigeration Press release,

Paris, May, 29th 2002

/DTI02/ Danish Technologies Institute, “ISC-Report on Ice Slurry Application”,

Aarhus, July, 2002

/Eur01/ European Regulation EN 2037/2000, 2001

/Exp02/ Industriellenvereinigung, “Expert Meeting to Austrian Regulation for HFC,

PFC and SF6”, Wien, July 25th, 2002

/Fer02/ Ferreira, I.C.A., et.al.: “Experimental Compression-Resorption Heat Pump for

industrial applications”, Purdue Compressor Conference 2002

/Geb01/ Gebhardt, H.: “HCFC Phase Out, Retrofit of Industrial Low Temperature

Refrigeration System from HCFC-22 to CO2/NH3 Cascade System”, DKV

Annual Conference Ulm, 2001

/Gti02/ Company Report, “New Large Cold Storage System with R-410A and CO2 in

Operation”, GTI Koudetechniek, The Netherlands, Zoetermeer, 2002

/IIR96/ International Institute of Refrigeration, "The Role of Refrigeration in World

Wide Nutrition". Informatory Note on Refrigeration and Food, Paris,

November 1996

/IEA99/ Meurer, C.; König, H.: “Effects of Accelerated HCFC Phase-Out Scenarios on

Options to Replace R22 in Heat Pumps”, 6th Int. Energy Agency Heat Pump

Conf. at Berlin, Germany, 31.5.-2.6.1999

/KK02/ Die Kälte und Klimatechnik, “Phase-out of HFC in Denmark in Force”, KK 8-

2002, Page 12

/Koe02/ König, H.: “Overview of Applications with CO2 as Brine and as Refrigerant”,

Guentner Symposium Mai 2002, Königsdorf, Germany

/Lux02/ Axima Refrigeration Luxembourg, CO2 supermarket system, Company

Information 2002

/Mar96/ March Consulting Group, "UK Use and Emissions of Selected Halocarbons”

A study for the Department of the Environment, August 1996

/Mis01/ Company Report, Axima Refrigeration GmbH, Retrofit of HCFC-124 with

HFC-236fa in crane carbine A/C units, Lindau, Germany, 2001
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 76

/Pag00/ Page, A.O.: “Case Study A – New Industrial Installation”, 9th Annual

Conference of Inst. of Refrigeration, London, November 16th 2000

/Pir02/ Pirard, M.: “CO2/NH3 Refrigeration in Food Processing”, Guentner

Symposium Mai 2002, Königsdorf, Germany

/Pre02/ Preisegger, E.: Personal Communications, Solvay Fluor und Derivate GmbH,

May 2002

/Rol00/ Rolfsman, L.: “Conversion of large system using HCFC-22”, 9th Annual

Conference of Inst. of Refrigeration, London, November 16th 2000

/Rot01/ Roth, R.; König, H.: “Experimental Investigation and Experiences with CO2

as Refrigerant in Cascade System”, DKV Annual Conference Ulm, 2001

/SIN91/ SINTEF, ”Utslipp av klimagasser fra fiskerinæringen”, Report STF11

A91074, N-7034 Trondheim, 1991 (Emissions of gases with climatic effects

from the fish industry, in Norwegian)

/Sp02/ Swiss Proposal No. 2002/9503/CH „Ozone Depleting Substances and

Synthetic Greenhouse Gases“

/TOR98/ 1998 Report of the Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps Technical

Options Committee, UNEP, 1998

/Tyc96/ Holger Tychsen, ”Super-efficient Low Charge NH3 Chiller”, Proceedings of

the IIR Conference on Natural Refrigerants, Aarhus, 1996
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 77

6 Transport Refrigeration

6.1 Introduction

Transport Refrigeration includes transport of refrigerated products with reefer ships,

intermodal refrigerated containers, refrigerated railcars, and road transport including trailers,

diesel trucks and small trucks.

It also includes the use of refrigeration and air conditioning on merchant ships above 300

gross tonnes, and air conditioning in railcars.

Since the 1998 Assessment, qualitative and quantitative changes have resulted in a global

acceptance of HFCs either as single fluids or as blends in containers, railcars and road

transport as CFCs ceased to be used for new equipment and as use of HCFCs decreases as

well.

Transport of refrigerant cargo on ships shows a modest growth in the last years, but is

dominated by Intermodal Refrigerated Containers. Transport with conventional refrigerated

ships has decreased and most systems are using HCFC-22 in an ageing fleet.

Most systems on reefer ships, however, continue to use HCFC-22, even though a few systems

were introduced 8 years ago with the non-fluorocarbon option ammonia. However, the

transport volume of reefer ships has decreased in recent years compared to intermodal

refrigerated containers, whose share of the total volume is estimated to reach 60% within the

next few years.

6.2 Current Status

Since the working environment in all sub-sections of transport refrigeration is under rough

conditions, the emissions on average are higher than in other areas. To reduce leakages,

better quality systems are now already on the market, meaning higher costs to the user, but

also an increase in quality of the product transported.

Most systems which used CFCs in 1998 have been retrofitted or scrapped to meet

environmental legislation, but some intermodal refrigerated containers and trucks older than

10 years will continue to use CFC-12 until they are scrapped in the near future, or retrofitted

to a drop-in interim solution. The existing fleet using CFCs is still large. However, the

European Regulation 2037/2000 /Eur00/ on ODS, which entered into force in Europe on 1

October 2000, has already had a significant impact on this remaining CFC fleet, which

should be retrofitted if operation in the European Union is foreseen. By 2006 it is estimated

that the transport section will be CFC free in the developed world.

Since all sub-sectors included in transport refrigeration are very dependent on the refrigerant

availability, it has taken a longer time to choose alternatives, which meet the criteria for long

term solutions.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 78

6.2.1 Reefer Ships

The conventional reefer fleet capacity shows a moderate growth and will also continue in the

future as the cargo with reefer ships represents: 2000 - 28.6 million tonnes, to 2005 – 32.2

million tonnes, to 2010 – 37.4 million tonnes /Dyn02/, while the container fleet continues to

expand at a much greater rate than the conventional reefer sector. Today there are nearly

1100 full reefer ships larger than 250,000 cb.ft. in operation with an average size of 280,000

cb.ft.

Current refrigerants in use today are mainly HCFC-22 with vapour compression refrigeration.

A few ships operate on CFC-12, but they are old and will be scrapped within a few years.

Approximately 70% of all refrigeration systems on fully reefer ships are direct systems,

containing a charge from 3 to 5 tonnes of refrigerant. The annual leakage rate is estimated to

be on average 10-15% (550 tonnes) of the initial charge. The high emission rate in the

transport section occurs because most refrigeration systems operate under adverse conditions

as a natural consequence of vibration, tension, saline and humid air.

Ships with indirect systems using brine as a secondary fluid have a more limited refrigerant

charge and lower leakage rates than direct systems, from 500 to 1500 kg. The emission from

that category is therefore less than 100 tonnes. Most systems built since 1990 are based on

compact brine chillers. Ships on order for delivery within the next few years are supplied

with alternatives to HCFC-22 because the European Union has banned HCFC-22 in new

installations. To reduce the initial charge and improve the possibility for reduced leakage

rate, some producers are considering systems be delivered with indirect systems and a

secondary refrigerant.

Alternative fluorocarbon candidates today are R-404A and R-407C, but R-410A is gaining

importance in the marine market as a replacement for HCFC-22 in new systems. Because of

increased refrigeration capacity of R410A, systems can be made more compact and with a

reduced initial refrigerant charge on each ship.

Most classification societies have made it mandatory to have fixed leak detectors installed in

marine installations to reduce the emission of refrigerants, to protect the environment and for

safety concerns.

Non-fluorocarbon alternative systems with ammonia or CO2 have a good potential on new

ships in the future, if the cost associated with such systems could be competitive with

systems made for fluorocarbons. A few ships built in 1993 used ammonia for the first time in

many years, and this is only possible for indirect systems with a limited charge in a protected

space to meet the safety codes. There are costs related to necessary protective equipment,

which preclude its use in smaller systems. Ammonia was introduced to be the refrigerant for

reefers in the future, but since the construction of five ships in 1993, shipyards and operators

have switched back to HCFC-22 as their preferred refrigerant. Recently refrigerated vessels

with ammonia were delivered in Europe. The introduction of R-407C, R-404A and R-410A

systems and a competitive price on non-fluorocarbon alternatives with indirect refrigeration

will dominate the future of new reefer-ships. HCFC-22 has vanished from new systems in

Non-Article 5(1) countries.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 79

6.2.2 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning on Merchant Marine, Naval and Fishing

Vessels

There are more than 30,000 ships of all types in excess of 300 gross tonnes. They all have

refrigeration systems for their provision rooms and air conditioning. 85% of the fleet still use

HCFC-22 as a refrigerant, the rest are mainly using HFCs; CFCs are insignificant. In the

fishing fleet, ammonia is used in several types of systems.

It is estimated that the installed CFC in use pool has been reduced to 500 tonnes, mainly

because of retrofitting to more environmentally accepted refrigerants and scrapping of old

ships. Annual emissions may be around 50 tonnes, and have been reduced dramatically since

1998.

The total HCFC pool may be around 20,000 tonnes including the fishing fleet and each

country’s Navy. The emission rate is high on naval vessels due to the special operating

conditions, but it is estimated that the leakage amount has been reduced to 7,000 tonnes

annually because of better maintenance and quality of the systems.

In fishing vessels NH3 is a commonly used refrigerant in many countries, such as Russia and

Chile. There is a clear trend towards use of NH3 in fishing vessels in the Scandinavian

countries /Nor00/ as an alternative to HCFC-22 which is now phased out. One of the larger

manufacturers of equipment to this sector has recently introduced cascade systems with NH3

and CO2 in fishing vessels. CO2 is used in direct expansion in all the freezing equipment

onboard /Chr02/.

Approximately 1000 new ships in all categories are delivered annually. Since HCFC-22 is

regulated and will be phased out, HFC-134a, R-404A and R-507 are ship owners’ and

shipyards’ first choice and the requests for these fluids, as well as R-407C for A/C systems,

are increasing. These fluids are also available world-wide and may dominate the market until

R-410A equipment will be available. Indeed, the European Union regulation prevents from

building any new HCFC refrigeration or A/C systems (cooling capacity over 100 kW) since

the 1 January 2001.

6.2.3 Intermodal Refrigerated Containers

The rate of container fleet increase will far outstrip that of reefer ships in the transport of

refrigerated cargo. For the container operators, reefer slot capacity is relatively easily and

cheaply installed, and ships in the current fleet have an average capacity of 136 TEU. TEU

“Twenty foot equivalent unit" refers to a unit of volume corresponding to a twenty foot ISO

container. As many units are of a volume of 2 TEU, there can be confusion between TEU

numbers and actual container numbers.

The number of units in operation today is approximately 550,000 units, a portion of them

delivered before 1993, still use CFC-12 as a refrigerant. The refrigeration units contain

around 5 kg of refrigerants each.

Average lifetime of a container is estimated to be 15 years and a portion of the units in

operation today with CFC-12 are expected to operate to the year 2003 and after. There is
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 80

therefore still potential to retrofit to more environmentally friendly alternatives. Retrofits will

accelerate due to EU regulation on CFCs already in force today.

Units made in recent years use HFC-134a (390,000), R-404A (20,000) and 60,000 units use

HCFC-22 /And/. The remaining 80,000 units use CFC-12 or transitional blends. The total

pool of refrigerants is estimated to be 400 tonnes of CFC-12 and transitional blends, 2000

tonnes of HFC-134a, 100 tonnes of R-404A, and 300 tonnes of HCFC-22. Production on new

ocean going containers is estimated to 50,000 annually, and most of them in the future will

use HFC refrigerants. However, there is a potential for non-fluorocarbon refrigerant such as

CO2 with a transcritical vapour compression cycle with internal heat exchange. Containers

are being tested out today and these could have a high tonnage in the next five to ten years if

the technological aspects meet the requirements of the users. Other non-fluorocarbon

refrigerants such as hydrocarbons and ammonia will not be allowed as refrigerants in

containers because of their flammability with reference to IMO (International Maritime

Organization) legislation.

Most refrigeration compressors for intermodal refrigerated containers on the vapour

compression cycle are semi-hermetic or also now increasingly hermetic compressors with aircooled condensers. Existing systems are therefore dependent on a refrigerant with a relatively

high critical temperature to match tropical areas.

Emission rate for annual refrigeration use is estimated to 40 tonnes of CFC-12, 200 tonnes of

HFC-134a/R-404A and 30 tonnes of HCFC-22.

6.2.4 Road Transport (Trailers, Diesel Trucks and Small Trucks)

In this sub-section, mechanically refrigerated vehicles dominate. They are classified as

insulated vehicles, refrigerated by a machine. It is estimated that approximately 80% in road

transport are within this category. The total world fleet is estimated to around 1,200,000

vehicles, of which about 30% are trailer units, 40% are independent truck units and the total

remainder are smaller units driven by the truck engine.

Refrigerants CFC-12 and R-502 have been traditionally used and they still account for

around 20% of the total today, making the CFC-12 and R-502 pool 1,200 tonnes. Due to EU

regulation on ODS in force, European Union CFC fleet has almost disappeared today.

Current production uses HFC-134a (400,000 units), R-404A (450,000 units) and HCFC-22

(150,000 units). These make a pool of 1000 tonnes of HCFC-22, and nearly 3000 tonnes of

HFCs.

The final development of HFCs is that a number of units using R-410A are now available.

Due to the onerous operating condition, the after service requirement is 20 to 25% of the pool

per year.

There have been developments in Australia, Germany and other European countries testing

with R-290 (propane) which is now completed and offered as an off-the-shelf product. With

the flammability risk of the product, all safety precautions should be taken care of, inclusion

of a refrigerant leak detector within the trailer and adequate training for the drivers. There

have been several quantitative risk assessments. Still, due to flammability concerns,

regulation in some countries must be taken into account (inherent to the application, i.e.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 81

mobile systems, herein described) that can limit these developments. The European Standard

EN 378 (2000) also covers road transport and can be used for safe design of transport

refrigeration systems, but does not solve the problem for the manufactures of product

liability.

A system using synthetic liquid air (SLA) has been developed, and could be used combined

with a mechanical system. This technology has not been taken up to any extent.

The use of cryogenic liquid gas in distribution applications is well established. More than

1,000 vehicles in the UK alone currently run using liquid nitrogen as the only means of

refrigeration. This technology has been used since the early 1970s. Since the safety

precautions which are necessary when using liquid nitrogen gave it limited use, liquid air has

been developed, which has the same power capabilities and overcomes the potential

asphyxiation hazard with liquid nitrogen.

Another development presented in early 2002 in Great Britain is using liquid carbon dioxide

from a bottle to be expanded driving a fan and evaporated in a heat exchanger to cool the

cargo. This technology is offered in Sweden where some 50 trucks are already refrigerated

with CO2 and in Belgium for a one-year trial in four trailers.

6.2.5 Refrigerated Railcars

There were approximately 80,000 refrigerated railcars in use world wide in 1997, of which

60% were in the former Soviet Union. The majority of those units use CFC-12 as refrigerant

and with two refrigeration units per railcar, each containing approximately 15 kg of

refrigerant, the total pool is 2,400 tonnes. Out of this 1,500 tonnes are CFC-12, while the rest

are mainly HFCs. In North America it is estimated that 500 railcars are in service with R404A, but it is reported that there are no such railcars in production today.

Total annual emission is estimated to 10 tonnes where the majority is CFC-12. In Northern

Europe many CFC-12 systems are retrofitted to interim blends, depending on how many

years are left of their operational life. No report has been received at this stage about the use

of non-fluorocarbon refrigerants systems in railcars.

6.2.6 Air Conditioning in Railcars

More than 75,000 systems are installed, of which at least 50% being in Asia and mainly in

Japan (35,000). These systems mainly operate on HCFC-22, with a pool of about 1,500

tonnes and an annual use for maintenance of 300 tonnes.

In Germany the newest high-speed trains (approximately 400 railcars) use air cycle systems

for their air conditioning. The energy consumption of the air cycle is higher than of the one of

the vapour compression-cycle. This leads to the fact that the total energy consumption for

air-conditioning of a railcar including heating and ventilating will be 20% higher for railcars

with air cycle systems, compared to HFC-134a equipped systems. In the above-mentioned

case, it is mainly maintenance and leakage aspects that have led to the decision to apply the

air cycle.

New trains in France and Spain use R-407C and HFC-134a.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 82

6.3 Options

Nearly all systems for transport refrigeration operate under the vapour compression cycle and

it is estimated that no other technologies will be preferred in the years to come. On

refrigerated ships current refrigerants are mainly HCFC-22, but a tendency to move to nonozone depleting substances has been noticed lately for new ships (mandatory in EU).

Merchant ships and, in particular, air conditioning systems in cruise ships have in the

majority of cases moved to HFCs as single fluid (HFC-134a) or as mixtures. Types preferred

as mixtures are R-404A, R-407C and R-507 (usable in HCFC-22 type of technology).

However, R-410A will be the leading HCFC-22 long-term replacement fluid in the marine

sector. Cruise business shows percentages of 40% R-134a, 50% R-410A, 10% other.

Since the refrigeration capacity is superior to HCFC-22 and also the energy efficiency in

some conditions it is an interesting product. The majority of refrigerant manufacturers are

able to produce R-410A, hence making it easily available. Since 1995 big chillers have been

produced for R-410A.

Since 1994 only four new reefer ships have been produced to use ammonia with indirect

brine systems.

Another option for refrigerated ships however is the potential comeback of carbon dioxide

(CO2) as the refrigerant, which was used in more than 50% of all ships as late as the 1960s.

It is also tested out in refrigerated containers and might become an important factor of the

development in this sector. Still, due to very high operating pressures, work on systems must

be pursued.

Hydrocarbons are investigated for several applications within transport refrigeration, but

specific attention has to be paid to these refrigerants due to flammability issues. It is unlikely

that hydrocarbon will be accepted in larger refrigeration systems, e.g. refrigerated ships.

6.4 Retrofits

Fluids used for transport equipment retrofits include the following:

HCFC-22 is used mainly for merchant ships when converting from CFC-12 in provision and

air conditioning plant with open drive compressors. It is also necessary to ensure that the

system can cope with the higher pressure of HCFC-22. It is also possible to convert to R401A/B or R-409A, which have similar pressure and capacity as CFC-12. These are interim

solutions because they contain HCFCs, but in most cases they will be allowed taking into

account the expected lifetime of systems and the time schedules in regulations for HCFCs in

force all over the world.

HFC-134a demands a cleanliness of the system, which might be difficult and/or expensive to

obtain on an old system operating with CFC-12. It is therefore not recommended since also

the capacity and performance on low temperature does not cope with those of CFC-12.

Interim solutions are therefore used when the equipment has few years left of operational

service, and it is also a cheaper solution since the HCFCs are near to being true drop-in

alternatives.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 83

Longer term solutions to retrofit from CFC-12 are available today and this is the best

environmental solution. In transport, sub-sections such as containers and trucks with more

than five years left of their operational service will have environmental advantages if they

retrofit to R-407D or R-413A. It should be noted that the latter is classed an A2 product by

ASHRAE.

Systems with HCFC-22 should not preferably be retrofitted, but maintain their systems to be

as leak tight as possible and with increased energy efficiency.

One of the World’s major LPG/LPN gas carriers has decided to retrofit their HCFC-22

systems to HC-290 and HC-1270. However, here a crew, who are working with hydrocarbons

takes daily care of the safety considerations; furthermore all the equipment required is

intrinsically safe. From a thermodynamic term the ships retrofitted so far have shown

equivalent performance if one compares HCFC-22 to HC-290.

Remark: When ships are scrapped it is mainly done in Article 5(1) countries. The total of

refrigerants available could be useful for local markets, if it is recovered and recycled to

acceptable standards.

6.5 Environmental Aspects

Major environmental regulations such as the Montreal Protocol, Clean Air Act and the EU

legislation on ODS, will make manufacturers and users choose the best solution, including

environmental, safety, energy efficiency, costs and other factors.

The EU 2037/2000 regulation regarding ODS, in force from 1 January 2001, has introduced a

ban on the sales and use of CFCs for servicing and maintenance of all refrigeration and airconditioning equipment within the EU. Also important restrictions apply there on HCFCs.

6.6 Conclusion

Probably options in the transport section will focus on a solution for all sub-sections involved

with reference to refrigerants as follows:

• Refrigerants in use should not contain any chlorine, i.e. zero ODP;

• Minimum TEWI for the application consistent with technical, safety and cost

considerations;

• Requirements for competence tests and refrigerants handling will become mandatory;

• Annual preventive maintenance highlighting on leakages and energy efficiency of

systems should become routinely;

• Update and recording of recycled refrigerants and refrigerant recovery will be mandatory.

The Kyoto Protocol (1997) includes fluorocarbons. However, this Protocol considers a sixgas basket and since HFCs are in the fluorocarbon family, it will be necessary to avoid

emissions of fluids with a high global warming potential and to be selective when it comes to

energy efficiency of the refrigerants and the system. Alternative refrigerants such as CO2,
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 84

ammonia, hydrocarbons and air are evaluated within several sectors.

In most European countries HCFC-22 is not allowed in most of new systems since 1 January

2001. More environmental and efficient fluids are available and can replace HCFC-22 in new

systems. Also for maintenance of existing equipment restrictions exist on use and commercial

availability for HCFC-22 in the EU.

As mentioned previously the CFCs cannot be commercialised anymore in the European

community and their use is strictly restricted (service of existing machines forbidden),

resulting in a total phase out of CFCs within a few years to come all over Western Europe.

6.7 References

/And/ Data, submitted by Andrew Foxcroft

/Chr02/ Christensen, O. 2002, Private Communication

/Dyn02/ Dyna Liners Trades Review, January 2002 “Trade on 

conventional reefer ships”.

/Eur00/ European Regulation 2037/2000

/Nor00/ Nordic Council of Ministers, Alternatives to HCFC as refrigerant in

Shipping Vessels, Tema Nord report 2000:573, Copenhagen, 2000
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 85

7 Air Conditioning & Heat Pumps (Refrigerant-to-Air)

7.1 Introduction

On a global basis, air-cooled air conditioners and heat pumps (generally defined as "reversible

heat pumps") ranging in size from 2.0 kW to 420 kW comprise a vast majority of the air

conditioning market. In the remainder of this chapter the term air conditioning will be used to

apply to both air conditioners and heat pumps that directly heat air. This broad category is

sometimes referred to as air-cooled equipment /ASHF01/. These systems cool, dehumidify

and/or heat everything from single rooms to large exhibition halls. Essentially, most are

electrically driven vapour-compression systems using hermetic rotary, reciprocating or scroll

compressors for units with capacities up to about 100 kW, and single or multiple semi-hermetic

reciprocating or screw compressors for units with capacities up to 420 kW. Air in the space to be

cooled, or dehumidified, is drawn over a coil containing evaporating refrigerant. Heat transfer

occurs between the air and the circulating refrigerant. In heat pumps, the refrigerant circulation

is reversible. In the heating mode, air from the conditioned space passes over the same coil that

now contains gaseous refrigerant in the process of condensing to a liquid. In the process, the

condensing gas transfers heat to the air.

An estimated 2221x106 kW (cooling) of air-cooled air conditioners and heat pumps are installed

worldwide. Refrigerant charge quantities vary proportional to capacity. Assuming an average

charge of 0.25 kg per kW of capacity, those 2221 million kW (cooling) of installed capacity

represent an installed bank of approximately 548,000 metric-tonnes (1000 kg) of HCFC-22 in the

total world population of the air conditioning equipment covered by this chapter.

Nearly all air-cooled air conditioners and heat pumps manufactured prior to 2000 used HCFC-22

as their working fluid. There are no publicly available statistics on the percentage of air-cooled

air conditioners and heat pumps being manufactured with non-ODS refrigerants. However, a

rough estimate would indicate that globally 85 to 90% of the air-cooled air conditioners and heat

pumps currently being produced still use HCFC-22 as the refrigerant.

7.2 Applications

Air-cooled air conditioners and heat pumps generally fall into four distinct categories, based

primarily on capacity or application: window-mounted and through-the-wall air conditioners;

non-ducted or duct-free split residential and commercial air conditioners; ducted split residential

air conditioner; ducted commercial split and packaged air conditioner (commercial air cooled).

In each of these categories, the term “air conditioner” is assumed to include both heating-only

heat pumps and reversible air conditioners.

7.2.1 Window-mounted and Through-the-Wall Air Conditioners

Window-mounted and through-the-wall Air Conditioners are self-contained units designed to

cool a single space—such as a bedroom or small office. Because of their size and relatively low

cost, window-mounted air conditioners (used in small shops and offices as well as residences)

have often been the first individual comfort mechanical refrigeration cooling products to appear
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 86

in Article 5(1) countries. Window-mounted, through-the-wall, and portable air conditioners4

range in capacity from less than 2.0 kW to 10.5 kW (having an average size of 2.7 kW).

Window-mounted and through-the-wall Air Conditioners have average refrigerant charges of

0.63 kg/unit. All use hermetic rotary, reciprocating or scroll compressors.

7.2.2 Non-ducted (or duct-free) Split Air Conditioners

In many parts of the world most residential and light commercial air-conditioning is done with

non-ducted (or duct-free) Split air conditioners. Non-ducted Split air conditioners include a

compressor/heat exchanger unit installed outside the space to be cooled or heated. The outdoor

unit is connected via refrigerant piping to one or more fan coils located inside the conditioned

space. There is generally one fan coil unit for each conditioned room. Small (less than 7 kW)

non-ducted or duct-free split air conditioners with a single indoor fan coil are sometimes

categorised as split type room air conditioners.

Non-ducted or duct-free split air conditioners use hermetic rotary, scroll or reciprocating

compressors. They have average HCFC-22 charge levels of approximately 0.25 to 0.40 kg per

kilowatt of cooling capacity. Non-ducted or duct-free Split air conditioners can be applied to

commercial buildings, schools, apartments and free-standing residences.

7.2.3 Ducted Split Residential Air Conditioners

Ducted Split Residential Air Conditioners dominate the North American market where central

forced-air heating systems necessitate the installation of a duct system that supplies air to each

room of a residence or small zones within commercial or institutional buildings. A condensing

unit (compressor/heat exchanger), outside the conditioned space, supplies refrigerant to a single

indoor coil (heat exchanger) installed within the duct system or air handler. Air in the living

space is cooled or heated by passing over the coil and is distributed throughout the building by

the duct system. Capacities range from 5 kW to 17.5 kW (average size 10.9 kW) and each has

an average HCFC-22 charge of 0.26 kg per kilowatt of capacity or 2.7 kg/unit.

7.2.4 Ducted Commercial Split and Packaged Air Conditioner

Ducted Commercial Split and Packaged Air Conditioners are manufactured in two forms. Split

System units which must be matched with an indoor air handlers and heat exchanger and Single

Packaged units which contain and integral blower and heat exchanger section which is connected

to the air distribution system of the commercial structure.

The majority of Ducted Commercial Split and Single Packaged air conditioners and heat pumps

are mounted on the roof of individual offices, shops or restaurants or outside the structure on the

ground. Multiple units containing one or more compressors are often used to cool entire low-rise

shopping centres, shops, schools or other moderate size commercial structures.

Large commercial structures such as hospitals, exhibition halls or high-rise structures are

generally cooled with liquid chillers (Chapter 8). Other commercial products include indoor

 

4

 Portable air conditioners are a special class of room air conditioners that are designed to be rolled from room

to room. They exhaust their condenser air through a small flexible conduit, which can be placed in an open

window.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 87

packaged units as well as split systems in which an outdoor compressor heat exchanger unit is

connected by refrigerant piping to one or more ducted indoor fan coils.

7.3 Current Use

Estimates of the installed base (number of units) and refrigerant inventory were made using a

computer model which predicts the number units and refrigerant in the installed population

using, production data and product longevity models /Kel97i/, /DRI01/.

7.3.1 Window-mounted and Through-the-Wall Air Conditioners

On a worldwide basis, an estimated 13.4 million window-mounted5 and through-the-wall

(packaged terminal) air conditioners were sold in 2001; each one containing an average of 0.64

kg of HCFC-22. With service lives of up to 20 years, it is estimated that more than 131 million

window-mounted and through-the-wall air conditioners remain in operation. The total 2001

worldwide inventory of HCFC-22 in the installed population of window-mounted and

through-the-wall air conditioners (including portable air conditioners) has been estimated to

be 84,000 metric-tonnes.

During this assessment period, there has been a significant shift toward the use of non-ducted (or

duct-free) split residential air conditioners as the entry-level air conditioning product in

developing countries—particularly in Asia. This trend can be observed in Table 7-1 which

shows that the annual production of Window-mounted and through-the-wall air conditioners

increased modestly from 1996 to 2001 while the annual production of non-ducted (or duct-free)

split residential and commercial air conditioners increased dramatically during the same between

1996 and 2001.

The majority of this growth has occurred in the developing countries of Asia. The high growth

rates in the developing countries of Asia are understandable since the markets in the developing

countries are in their infancy while the markets in the developed countries are more mature and

have reached relatively stable equipment populations.

 

5

 Window mounted air conditioners are also sometimes installed through a penetration of the outside wall.

Packaged Terminal Air Conditioners, PTAC, are similar to Window mounted air conditioners but typically

contain some form of electric heat. PTACs are typically installed in hotel and motel rooms.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 88

Table 7-1 Comparison of Units Manufactured 1998 and 2001

Product Category Units

Manufactured

2001

Units

Manufactured

1998

Increase 2001

versus 1998

Window-mounted and Through-the Wall

(Packaged Terminal) Air Conditioners 13.6 million 12.1 million 12 %

Non-ducted or duct-free Split Residential

and Commercial Air Conditioners 24.2 million 16.3 million 48.5 %

Ducted Split Residential Air conditioner

5.9 million 5.7 million 3.6 %

Ducted Commercial Split and Packaged

Air Conditioners 1.7 million 1.7 million 0 %6

Source: /ARI02/, /Jarn02/, /DRI01/

7.3.2 Non-ducted (or duct-free) Split Air Conditioners

An estimated 158 million non-ducted or duct-free Split air conditioners are installed worldwide.

Non-ducted or duct-free Split air conditioners, ranging in capacity from 2.0 kW to 20 kW

(average size of 3.8kW), have gained greatest acceptance outside of North America due to

different construction methods and a preponderance of hydronic or non-central heating systems

in these areas. The average charge per kilowatt increases slightly as the operating efficiency of

these systems increases. In 2001 the total inventory of HCFC-22 in the installed population of

duct-free split systems world-wide has been estimated to be 199,000 metric-tonnes.

7.3.3 Ducted Split Residential Air Conditioners

An estimated 60 million ducted split residential air conditioners are currently in service

worldwide - the majority within North America. The total estimated inventory of HCFC-22 in

the installed population of ducted systems (< 17.5 kW) has been estimated to be 164,000 metrictonnes. Approximately 5% of Ducted Split Residential Air Conditioners manufactured globally

in 2001 utilised non-ODS refrigerants.

7.3.4 Ducted Commercial Split and Packaged Air conditioner

An estimated 19 million air-cooled Ducted Commercial Split and Packaged air conditioners and

heat pumps are installed worldwide. They range in capacity from about 5 kW to as large as 420

kW (sales weighted size of 23.0 kW). Commercial Ducted Commercial Split and Packaged

equipment have an average HCFC-22 charge of about 0.31 kg per kilowatt of capacity or 5.3

 

6

 The low growth-rate reflects the impact of the economic downturn on the Commercial market.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 89

kg/unit. The estimated total worldwide inventory of HCFC-22 in these systems has been

estimated to be 101,000 metric-tonnes. This estimate does not include commercial water chillers

(Chapter 8).

7.3.5 Heat Pumps

The vast majority of heat pumps currently in operation are electrically driven closed-cycle

compression type systems. However, systems driven by gas engines are available in some

markets. The majority of commercially (on a units produced basis) manufactured heat pumps

use HCFC refrigerants. However, there is an increasing trend toward the production of heat

pumps with non-ODS refrigerants.

Heating-only heat pumps are used for space heating in residential, commercial/institutional

and industrial buildings. Space heating heat pumps in residential and commercial/institutional

buildings typically operate between 1,000 to 5,000 hours a year, depending on the climatic

conditions, type and purpose of the building.

A majority of heat pumps sold in the North American and Japanese markets are reversible air

or water source units. In Northern Europe, heat pumps are mainly sold for heating purposes.

In North America, the Southern regions of Europe and Japan heat pumps are sized to provide

space cooling.

In North America the primary markets for air source heat pumps are in the Midwest and the

South and regions not having access to Natural gas. Heat sources include ambient and

ventilation air, water (sea water, lake water, industrial wastewater and ground water), and

ground coupled heat exchangers. Air source heat pumps dominate the global market.

Heat pumps are manufactured in all sizes ranging from 1 kW heating capacity for single

room units, to 50-1,000 kW for commercial/institutional applications, and tens of MWs for

district heating plants. Most of the commercial and institutional heat pumps are water –towater systems that are covered in Chapter 8. Most small to medium size water to air heat

pumps are factory made units.

The most common refrigerant used in Ground and Water source heat pumps has been HCFC22. However a number of different CFC and HCFC refrigerants have been used in heat pump

systems to address the requirements of various unique applications.

Recently heat pump systems are being produced in commercial quantities with a number of

non-ODS refrigerants; including R-410A, R-407C and, HFC-134a.

7.3.6 Summary of Unit Population and Refrigerant Inventory

Common attributes of these equipment categories have been their nearly universal use of HCFC22 as a working fluid. On a mass basis, HCFC-22 accounted for nearly all of the refrigerant fluid

used in these product categories. Table 7-2 summarises the total estimated inventory of HCFC22 used in these product categories.

Since the last assessment, there has been an increase in the number of new products in these

categories, which utilise non-ODS refrigerants. In North America there has been a modest shift
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 90

to non-ODS refrigerants (less than 5% of new production) while in Europe and Japan there has

been a more significant shift to the use of non-ODS refrigerants - predominately HFC blends.

The majority of Article 5(1) countries are still utilising HCFC-22 in these categories of products.

Table 7-2 Estimated 2001 Unit Population and HCFC-22 Inventories

Product Category

Estimated

Unit

Population

(2001)7

Estimated

HCFC-22

Inventory8

(metric-tonnes)

Window-mounted and Through-the

Wall (Packaged Terminal) Air

Conditioners

131 million 84,000

Non-ducted or duct-free Split

Residential and Commercial Air

Conditioners

158 million 199,000

Ducted Split Residential Air

conditioners and Heat Pumps

60 million 164,000

Ducted Commercial Split and

Packaged Air Conditioners

19 million 101,000

Total 368 million 548,000

7.4 Alternative Refrigerant Options

The equipment designer must consider many factors when designing an air conditioning product

with a new refrigerant. These include:

1. Performance

2. Reliability

3. Safety

4. Market Acceptance

5. Environmental Impact

The results of current research programs and recent new product introductions indicate that in

addition to single-component refrigerants such as HFC-134a, CO2 and HC-290, several

refrigerant blends have now been commercialised or demonstrated as HCFC-22

replacements. Following is a brief summary of some of the refrigerants being used or

proposed as HCFC-22 replacements in air-conditioning (and Heat Pump) systems. Of the

pure component refrigerants investigated, only HFC-134a and HC-290 are still considered

viable single component refrigerant options.

 

7

 Unit population estimates do not include units manufactured with non-ODS refrigerants.

8

 HCFC-22 Inventory does not include non-ODS refrigerants.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 91

7.4.1 Single Component HFC Refrigerants and HFC Blends

Several single component HFC refrigerants have been investigated as replacements for CFCs

and HCFCs currently used in air-cooled air conditioners and heat pumps.

7.4.1.1 HFC-134a

HFC-134a is not a drop-in replacement for HCFC-22 in air-cooled equipment. To achieve the

same capacity, as an HCFC-22 system the compressor displacement must be increased

approximately 40% to compensate for the lower density of HFC-134a. The efficiency of such a

system has been shown to be approximately 5% less than the HCFC-22 system because of the

higher pressure-drop, which is a result of its lower density. It is possible to design air-cooled

equipment using HFC-134a that will have the same system efficiency and capacity as HCFC.

However, significant equipment redesign is necessary to achieve equivalent efficiency and

capacity. These design changes include enlarged heat exchangers and refrigerant tubing, larger

volumetric displacement compressors, and re-sized compressor motors.

While HFC-134a is a viable HCFC replacement in air-cooled applications, there have been

very few air-cooled air conditioning products commercialised that use HFC-134a refrigerant.

This is because manufacturers have been able to develop more commercially viable aircooled air conditioning systems using other non-ODS refrigerants. It is anticipated that HFC134a will see some usage in higher capacity (greater than 70 kW) systems.

A number of HFC blends have emerged as replacements for HCFC-22 in air conditioning

applications. Various compositions of HFC-32, HFC-125, HFC-134a, and HFC-143a are

being manufactured as non-ODS replacements for HCFC-22.

Two of the most widely used HFC blends are R-410A and R-407C /Biv00/.

7.4.1.2 HFC-32/125/134a (R-407C)

R-407C has a temperature glide of 5 to 7 °C, while the saturation temperature and volumetric

heating and cooling capacity are about the same as HCFC-22. Performance tests with R407C indicate that in properly designed air conditioners, this refrigerant will have capacities

and efficiencies within ± 5% of equivalent HCFC-22 systems /Lin00/. Devotta et al. has

reported that the deviation from HCFC-22, under retrofit conditions, increases above these

nominal values as the outdoor ambient increases /Dev02/.

There are currently R-407C air conditioning products widely available in Europe, the US, Japan

and other parts of Asia.

Since R-407C refrigerant requires only modest modifications to existing HCFC-22 systems it

has been used as a replacement for HCFC-22 where phase-outs of HCFC-22 are occurring on

a schedule faster than dictated by the protocol. It may also be an attractive alternative for

large capacity (greater than 52 kW) unitary products that would require extensive design

modification and high capital equipment investments to be converted to higher pressure

refrigerant such as R-410A.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 92

R-407C has seen broad use in both Europe and Japan. In Europe, R-407C has been used as

the dominant replacement for HCFC-22 in air-to-air air conditioning applications. In Japan,

R-407C has been used primarily in the larger capacity duct-free and multi-split products.

7.4.1.3 HFC-32/125 (R-410A)

R-410A is a binary blend that can replace HCFC-22. The blend consists of HFC-125 and

HFC-32, with the composition 50/50%. This blend has a very low temperature glide (near

azeotropic). The normal boiling points are approximately 10 °C lower than HCFC-22,

causing condensing pressures rise of up to 14 bar. The volumetric heating capacity is 3-4%

higher than for HCFC-22.

R-410A air conditioners (up to 17.5 kW) are currently commercially available in the US, Asia

and Europe. A significant portion of the duct-free products sold in Japan use R-410A as the

preferred refrigerant. Approximately 5% of the US Ducted Residential Market is using R-410A

as the refrigerant. It is likely the US Ducted Residential market will predominately utilise R410A as the HCFC-22 replacement.

System pressures with this blend are approximately 50% higher than with HCFC-22. System

designers have addressed the higher operating pressures of R-410A through design changes such

as: heavier wall compressor shells, heat exchangers and refrigerant tubing. The low critical

temperature of R-410A may require design changes to address operation at ambient temperatures

above the critical point. A recent study has shown the capacity of an R-410A system will

degrade linearly with the outdoor ambient, but at a faster rate than an equivalent HCFC-22

system. The two systems that were evaluated were nearly equal in capacity at 35 °C. At an

outdoor ambient of 55 °C the R-410A system had a 9% lower capacity than HCFC-22 system. A

similar trend was observed for the COP /Dom02/. In this same investigation the system was

operated in the transcritical region without exhibiting any abnormal behaviour.

7.4.1.4 HFC-125/ HFC-134a/ HC-600 (R-417A)

This refrigerant is somewhat unique in that it combines two HFC refrigerants with a small

amount of hydrocarbon refrigerant. The hydrocarbon refrigerant, HC-600 was added to the

blend to allow this refrigerant to work with standard mineral oil lubricants. There is very

limited performance data (other than the refrigerant producers data) on this refrigerant in the

literature. The refrigerant producers data suggests that this refrigerant is a near drop-in

replacement for HCFC-22 with moderate capacity and efficiency losses (less than 10%). A

study of this refrigerant conducted under low temperature refrigeration conditions (-30 °C)

showed a 12% loss in COP and a 24% loss in Capacity when compared to HCFC-22 under

the same conditions /Fur00/. Systems, which use this refrigerant, require approximately 5-

10% more refrigerant mass than HCFC-22 systems. /Voi00/.

7.4.2 Non-Fluorocarbon Refrigerants

7.4.2.1 Hydrocarbon Refrigerants

There have been a number of performance comparisons made between HC-290 and HCFC-22

/Colb00i/. The results of these comparisons suggest that the HC-290 systems had 8-9% higher

efficiency than the HCFC-22 baseline systems during drop-in comparisons (without fire-safety
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 93

related design changes applied to the HC-290 systems).

Compared to HFCs, hydrocarbon refrigerants offer reduced charge levels (approximately

0.15kg/kW of cooling capacity /Colb99ii/), miscibility with mineral oils (synthetic lubricants are

not required), reduced compressor discharge temperatures, and improved heat transfer due to

more favourable thermo-physical properties.

The factors that work against application of the hydrocarbon refrigerants in air conditioning

systems are the safety concerns in handling relatively large HC charge levels, installation

practices and field service skills and practices.

The use of hydrocarbons in air-cooled air conditioning products having refrigerant charge levels

greater than 1 kg has been the focus of significant risk analysis and safety standards development

activities. A number of organisations have conducted analytical risk assessments of air

conditioners using hydrocarbon refrigerants /Rit96/, /Wolf99/, /Rit02/. Most of these

assessments conclude that the risk of fire or explosion is reasonably low and is proportional to

the quantity of refrigerant in the system. These studies show a wide range of probabilities of fire

or explosion. However, the most significant issue that will confront a manufacturer when

considering applying hydrocarbon refrigerants is the determination of an acceptable level of risk

and the associated liability.

In addition, a joint working group, IEC/SC 61D & ISO/TC86 SC61D, was established to

develop amendments to address flammable refrigerants (to be incorporated in ISO 5149 and

Amendment 3 to IEC 60335-2-40 Third Edition –1995: Part 2-40: Particular Requirements for

electrical heat pumps, air conditioners and dehumidifiers containing flammable refrigerants)

/Colb99i/. The ISO/IEC Joint Working Group has completed its work, and has been dissolved.

The recommended changes have not yet been approved for inclusion in the standard.

When designing new heat pump systems with propane, HC-290 or other flammable

refrigerants, adequate safety precautions should be taken to ensure safe operation and

maintenance. Another factor that will need to be considered with flammable refrigerants will be

refrigerant recovery requirements. Even though hydrocarbon refrigerants have minimal global

warming impact, there will still be a need to require recovery during servicing and at the end of

the product’s life in order to protect those servicing or recycling the product. The ultimate

decision on whether hydrocarbon refrigerants are practical in air cooled air conditioning products

will become a financially based decision.

7.4.2.2 Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide (CO2) offers a number of desirable properties as a refrigerant: readily

available, low-toxicity, low Global Warming Potential and low cost. CO2 systems are also

likely to be very compact /Nek01/.

These are offset by the fact that CO2 in air conditioning applications has low operating

efficiencies and high operating pressures. A cycle analysis of a window-mounted room air

conditioner has shown that a CO2 based system will have a COP 60% lower than an HCFC22 system /Dev00/. Another barrier to the commercialisation of CO2-based air conditioners

is the limited availability of compatible components such as compressors, heat exchangers

and refrigerant controls.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 94

The performance penalty can be reduced through optimised system designs, using refrigerant

expanders (not yet available), and cross-counter-flow heat exchangers, which take advantage

of the favourable thermo physical properties of CO2. Operation of the transcritical process

introduces the need to control the high-side pressure of the system /Nek01/. Actual system

tests of non-optimised air conditioning systems have demonstrated COPs in the range of 2.00

to 3.00 /LiD00/.

7.4.3 Lubricant Requirements

7.4.3.1 HFC Refrigerant Lubricants

The mineral-oil-based lubricants commonly used in HCFC-22 systems are not miscible with

HFC refrigerants. Considerable research has been conducted to determine the optimum

lubricant combinations for HFC systems. Four approaches have been pursued by the

industry.

1. Polyolester (POE) Lubricants (Synthetic)

2. Polyvinylether Lubricants (PVE) (Synthetic)

3. Polyalphaolefin Lubricants (PAO) (Synthetic)

4. Hydrolytically stable Polyoester (HSPOE) Lubricants

5. System designs that can utilise non-miscible mineral oil lubricants.

Of these, POE is the most widely used lubricant in HFC refrigerant applications. PVE

lubricants have been used as alternative to POEs. There has also been some interest in the

use of PAO lubricants as alternatives to POE lubricants. Interest in options 4 and 5 has

declined since the last assessment.

7.4.3.2 Hydrocarbon Refrigerant Lubricants

A number of researchers and practical experience with hydrocarbon refrigerators confirm that

Hydrocarbon refrigerants can utilise mineral oil based lubricants /Colb99ii/.

7.4.3.3 CO2 Refrigerant Lubricants

There is very limited quantitative information in the literature studying lubricant requirements for

CO2 compressors. Finding an ideal lubricant for CO2-based systems is complicated by the fact

that at transcritical conditions, CO2 can be a very effective solvent for all types of hydrocarbon

lubricants. However, Li also presented data indicating that mineral-oil-based lubricants are nonmiscible with CO2 /Li00/. The results of this work also raised concerns about the compatibility

of CO2 and POE lubricants. Another study indicates that polyglycols and polyoesters appear to

have the required properties to lubricate CO2 refrigeration systems /Wat98/, /Lee02/, /Li02/. The

results of all of these studies provide a high degree of optimism that suitable lubricants will be

commercially available by the time CO2 air conditioning systems are commercialised.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 95

7.4.4 Summary

Of the options presented in section 7.4, the introduction of HFC refrigerants and hydrocarbon

refrigerants into the market will have the greatest impact on the industry transition from HCFC22 during the next 10-15 years. Results so far indicate that HFC blends are the most likely near –

term refrigerants to replace HCFC-22 in air-cooled systems. Air-cooled air conditioning

equipment using HFC refrigerants is already commercially available in many regions of the

world. Widespread commercial availability of systems using HFC refrigerants is occurring in

most developed countries and in some Article 5(1) countries.

Hydrocarbon refrigerants may also be suitable replacements for HCFC-22 in some categories of

products—particularly low charge level applications; assuming International safety standards are

developed to define the specific design and application requirements.

The role of hydrocarbon refrigerants may ultimately be determined by the costs necessary to

mitigate all safety concerns. If hydrocarbon systems can be developed which are as safe and

efficient as their HFC counterparts the ultimate decision on their commercial viability will be

driven by economic factors and consumer acceptance.

7.5 New Technology (Alternative Refrigerant Cycles)

In the past assessments a number of potential new technologies were presented as options that

could have a positive impact on the phase-out of ODS. Some of the new technologies presented

in prior assessments were: absorption, desiccant cooling systems, Stirling Cycle systems,

thermoelectric and number of other more exotic systems. However, a search of the literature

published since the prior assessments has confirmed that none of these technologies have

progressed much closer to commercial viability than they were at the time of the prior

assessments. While these alternative cycles are theoretically feasible, it is unlikely that they will

significantly penetrate these markets in the next several decades. Alternate cycle technologies

will therefore have a minimal impact on the HCFC phase-out.

7.6 Retrofit

Retrofitting is the process of replacing the refrigerant in a previously installed system with a

different refrigerant. Retrofitting is an important issue for Article 5(1) countries where

systems are usually repaired a number of times to extend their useful life beyond that

observed in developed countries. Retrofitting of existing air conditioners may be possible using

a number of the refrigerant options currently being investigated as retrofit replacements for

HCFC-22.

7.6.1 Retrofit Issues

The suitability of a specific retrofit refrigerant will be determined by its attributes in relation to

performance, need for system modifications, and potential impact on system reliability and safety

issues. The performance characteristics of any retrofit refrigerant will be a key factor in its

suitability for retrofit applications. To be acceptable, a retrofit refrigerant should exhibit similar

capacity and efficiency to HCFC-22 (±10%). A retrofit refrigerant should require only minor

system modifications and, at a minimum, should not require the replacement of the compressor

or system heat exchangers. Retrofit options should only include refrigerants, which provide
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 96

system reliability similar to HCFC-22 systems. A significant drop in system reliability would be

unacceptable.

The reliability of the system with a retrofit refrigerant will be highly dependent on the

compatibility of the new refrigerant and lubricant with the entire spectrum of materials used in

system. Any incompatibility between the retrofit refrigerant/lubricant and the materials used in

the system can result in high failure rates of the retrofit system. Safety will be one of the primary

characteristics required of any retrofit refrigerant. Toxicity, flammability, handling requirements

and operating pressure differences may rule out or limit many potential retrofit candidates.

Considerable research and development is still required to locate a refrigerant capable of meeting

all of these requirements.

7.6.2 Potential Candidates

At least one promising retrofit candidate is commercially available. The HFC-32/125/134a

zeotropic blend, R-407C, may be an acceptable retrofit refrigerant. Several retrofit field tests

have been conducted with promising results. In addition, R-417A refrigerant has been

suggested, by the producer, as a potential retrofit refrigerant for HCFC-22 /Voi00/.

7.6.3 Anticipated Market Impact of Retrofit Refrigerants

The need for and market impact of, retrofit refrigerants will largely be determined by the HCFC

phase-out schedule and allowed service tail. It is anticipated that retrofit refrigerants will be

important for Article 5(1) countries, because of the limited capital available to manufacture new

non-ODS systems. An accelerated phase-out of HCFCs would increase the need for retrofit

refrigerants. A phase-out schedule with a long service tail could reduce the need for retrofit

refrigerants.

Most of the installed population of air conditioners and heat pumps has an average service life of

15 to 20 years. Therefore, a longer service tail would reduce the need for retrofit refrigerants.

Commercialisation of suitable retrofit refrigerants should continue because they will provide

high value to Article 5(1) countries and those that purchase HCFC-22 air-conditioning products

prior to the transition to the new refrigerants.

7.6.4 HC-290 as a Retrofit Refrigerant

It has been reported that HC-290, propane, has been used as a retrofit refrigerant for HCFC-22 in

several countries, including Australia and Indonesia. While HC-290 provides nearly equal

performance (capacity and efficiency) to HCFC-22, the flammable nature of this refrigerant

creates a significant safety concern with this practice. If retrofitting is being considered; all

relevant safety standards and codes-of-practice should be strictly adhered to. In most cases the

cost of meeting safety standards and codes-of-practice has been found to be too costly to justify.

The one exception would be large industrial plants where the economics might justify the

necessary expense.

7.7 HCFC Usage Forecast

After more than 60 years of experience, HCFC-22 has generally been accepted as the most viable

refrigerant for air-cooled air conditioners and heat pumps. Significant progress has been made in
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 97

developing qualified substitutes for HCFC-22. However, significant quantities of HCFC-22 will

be required to service new and existing equipment through at least the second decade of the 21st

century.

Four factors must be considered when estimating future HCFC-22 requirements:

1. Anticipated demand in the world market for air-cooled air conditioning equipment,

2. Impact of recycling on the available supplies of HCFC-22,

3. Implementation rate of HFC refrigerants and other technologies into air cooled air

conditioning equipment and,

4. Changes in system design and servicing practices, which will reduce the refrigerant

charge quantities and refrigerant make-up requirements for air-cooled air conditioning

equipment.

Section 7.8 presents HCFC-22 usage forecasts based on three scenarios of conversion. The three

scenarios were designed to bracket future HCFC-22 requirements for air-cooled air conditioners

and heat pumps.

Worldwide use of HCFC-22 in 2000 was estimated by AFEAS to have been 244,000 metrictonnes for all types of refrigeration applications.

The projection of future HCFC-22 demand was predicted using a life-mortgaging model. The

model requires that assumptions of a number of key parameters.

1. Market Growth Rates

2. Unit Life

3. Leak Rates

4. Rates of Conversion to Non-ODS Refrigerants

5. Re-claim and Recycling Rates.

The various assumptions used by the model are described in the Annex to this chapter.

Table 7-3 presents the predicted HCFC-22 demand for the period 2005-2015.

Table 7-3 HCFC-22 requirements (2000-2015)

Year Total HCFC-22 Requirement

(metric-tonnes)

Amount from Reclamation

(metric-tonnes)

New HCFC-22 Required

(metric-tonnes)

Pessimistic Most

Likely

Optimistic Pessimistic Most

Likely

Optimistic Pessimistic Most

Likely

Optimistic

2000 111,543 109,270 105,838 1,759 2,344 2,577 109,785 106,926 103,262

2005 129,576 115,325 99,303 5,788 7,650 8,317 123,788 107,674 90,986

2010 111,818 89,823 67,700 11,231 14,362 15,005 100,587 75,461 52,695

2015 95,551 70,307 44,349 16,222 19,535 18,961 79,329 50,772 29,688
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 98

In 2000 roughly 110,000 metric-tonnes of HCFC-22 were used globally to manufacture and

service the air-cooled air conditioners and heat pumps covered in this section.

Approximately 50% of these 110,000 metric-tonnes of HCFC-22 were used to service the

installed population of air conditioners and heat pumps. Of the total, 62,000 metric-tonnes of

HCFC-22 were used in new equipment--leaving the remainder to service existing products. The

high servicing requirement can be attributed to two factors: the large installed population of air

cooled air conditioning products (see Table 7-2) and servicing practices, which include limited

reclamation.

In attempting to project HCFC-22 usage for the period 2000 through 2015 the various

assumptions were adjusted to create three scenarios: pessimistic, most likely and optimistic

cases. The Annex to this chapter shows the detailed assumptions for each case.

Comparison of the impact of each of these cases demonstrates the impressive impact that an

early phase-in of HFC or HC alternatives will have on the demand for HCFC-22. The

scenarios do not assume a specific HFC or HC compound nor do they assume that HFC and

HC are the only compounds, which could replace HCFC-22 in these applications. The only

assumption is that some environmentally safe refrigerant will replace HCFC-22. The

following table shows the three HCFC-22 replacement scenarios assumed for this analysis.

The following table shows the amount of HCFC refrigerant required to support the growing

needs of Article 5(1) countries for each of the three scenarios.

Table 7-4 HCFC-22 Requirements for Article 5(1) Countries (2000-2015)

Year Total HCFC-22 Requirement

(metric-tonnes)

Pessimistic Most Likely Optimistic

2000 25,102 23,681 22,260

2005 41,699 36,463 31,228

2010 60,024 47,610 35,196

2015 74,677 52,183 29,688

Several conclusions can be drawn from these data. The Most Likely HCFC-22 predicted

usage in this assessment is tracking higher than the Pessimistic estimate from the 1998 TOC

Report. This large shift in the projected requirements is being driven by the dramatic market

growth for window room air conditioners and duct-free product in the developing markets of

Asia.

If the analysis were carried forward to the 2030 timeframe it is likely that the demand for

HCFC-22 will peak and then begin to decrease after 2015. The peak after 2015 could be a

significant concern if the level exceeds the developing country cap at 2015 levels. Improved

models will be needed to determine if the 2015 cap will result in sufficient HCFC-22 to

service the needs of the Article 5(1) countries.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 99

7.8 Article 5(1) Country Considerations

Historically, the first air conditioning products to enter Article 5(1) countries are large water or

air-cooled chillers, intended for industrial or institutional use, and window room air conditioners.

These products will probably utilise HCFCs as the refrigerant of choice if they are purchased

prior to the phase-out date for HCFCs. The primary technical concerns of the Article 5(1)

countries are: adequate supplies of HCFCs to service existing equipment and equipment

manufactured before the HCFC phase-out date dictated by the protocol, adequate supplies of

alternative substances and technologies and concerns over the cost and safety of the alternative

refrigerants and technologies.

The average life expectancy of most air-cooled air conditioning equipment is approximately 15

years. The Article 5(1) country concern over the availability of HCFCs to service existing

equipment can be handled by allowing a sufficient service tail or through an accelerated phaseout of HCFCs in the fastest growing developing country markets.

The previous sections of this chapter provide an overview of the alternative refrigerants and

technologies, which are applicable to products in both developed and developing countries.

Commercialised products using most many of these refrigerants are available in most developed

countries. The widespread availability of these technologies in developed countries should

provide some optimism that the technologies will be cost effective and readily available in

Article 5(1) countries within the next decade.

Co-operative research programs, workshops and technical conferences provide a broad spectrum

of technical information which addresses the cost, safety and performance issues associated with

the transition to non-ODP refrigerants. The published information from these conferences and

programs should be a valuable resource of technical information that that should assist

researchers and designers in Article 5(1) countries. In addition, product and refrigerant

manufactures are a source on technical information on the application of the non-ODS

technologies.

As the state of development progresses the alternative refrigerants and technologies available

today in developed countries should become readily available in most developed countries.

7.9 References

/ARI02/ Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute; ARI Industry Shipment Statistics for

Small and Large Unitary Products, Arlington, VA June 2002.

/ASHF01/ ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, 2001

/Biv97/ Bivens, Donald B., Minor, Barbra H., Fluorethers and Other Next-Generation

Fluids,, Proceedings of the Refrigerants for the 21st Century, Gaithersburg,

Maryland, October 6th and 7th, 1997.

/Biv00/ Bivens, Donald, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning with Reduced Environmental

Impact, Eighth International Refrigeration Conference, Purdue, West Lafayette, IN

USA, 25-28 July 2000.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 100

/Colb99i/ Colbourne, Daniel, Current and Upcoming Standards and Regulations Concerning

Natural Refrigerants, Natural Working Fluids-a challenge for the future, IEA Heat

Pump Centre, Paris, France 9 November 1999.

/Colb99ii/ Colbourne, Daniel, Practical Application of Hydrocarbon Refrigerants: Production

Cost and Operational Performance, 20th IIR Congress of Refrigeration, IIR/IIF,

Sydney, 1999.

/Colb00i/ Colbourne, Daniel, Assessment of the Performance of Hydrocarbon Refrigerants,

IIF-IIR Commission B1, B2, E1 and E2, Purdue, West Lafayette, IN USA, 2000.

/Colb00ii/ Colbourne, Daniel, Dispersion of Flammable Refrigerants from Split Air

Conditioners, IIF-IIR Commission B1, B2, E1 and E2, Purdue, West Lafayette, IN

USA, 2000.

/Colb00iii/ Colbourne, Daniel, Compatibility of Non-Metallic Materials with Hydrocarbon

Refrigerant and Lubricant Mixtures, IIF-IIR Commission B1, B2, E1 and E2,

Purdue, West Lafayette, IN USA, 2000.

/Colb02i/ Colbournne, Daniel; Quantitative Risk Assessment of Flammable Refrigerants in

Room Air Conditioners; Ninth International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Conference at Purdue, July 2002.

/Dev00/ Devotta, Sukumar, Comparative Assessment of CO2 For Window Air

Conditioners, IIF-IIR Commission B1, B2, E1 and E2, Purdue University, West

Lafayette, IN USA, 2000.

/Dev02/ Devotta, Sukumar et al; Experimental Performance Assessment of a Retrofitted

Window Air Conditioner with R-407C; Ninth International Refrigeration and Air

Conditioning Conference at Purdue, July 2002.

/Dom02/ Domanski, P. et al, A Comparison of an R22 and an R-410A Air Conditioner

Operating at High Ambient Temperatures, Ninth International Refrigeration and

Air Conditioning Conference at Purdue, July 2002.

/DRI01/ Data Resource International, HVAC Industry Statistics, 2001

/Fur00/ Furuyama, M et al, Drop-in Refrigerant in a Large-Scale Refrigeration Cycle

System to Reach –30 °C, Earth Technologies Forum, Washington, DC, 30 October

– 1 November, 2000.

/Gerw99/ RJM van Gerwin, M. Verwoerd, Working Fluids: Past, Present and Future, IEA

HP Centre, Paris, France, 9 November 1999.

/Jarn02/ Japanese Air Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration News; World Air

Conditioning Market, 2001; August 25, 2002.

/Kel97i/ F. Keller, Unit Population and Refrigerant Inventory Predictions Using Product

Life Models, Special Report to TOC, November 1997.

/Kui98/ Kuijpers, Lambert, The Impact of the Montreal Protocol and the Kyoto Protocol

on New Developments in Refrigeration and A/C, IIF-IIR Commissions B1, B2,

E1 and E2, New Delhi, India 1998.

/Lee02/ Lee, J. P. et al; An Experimental Investigation of Oil Retention Characteristics in

CO2 Air-Conditioning Systems; Ninth International Refrigeration and Air

Conditioning Conference at Purdue, July 2002.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 101

/Li00/ Li, H., Rajewski, E., Experimental Study of Lubricant Candidates for the CO2

Refrigeration System, Eighth International Refrigeration Conference, Purdue,

West Lafayette, IN USA, 25-28 July 2000.

/Li02/ Li, H, et al; Field and Laboratory Evaluations of Lubricants for CO2

Refrigeration; Ninth International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Conference at Purdue, July 2002.

/LiD00/ Li, D et al; Performance of a Carbon Dioxide-Based Environmental Control

Unit (ECU) for the US Army; Eighth International Refrigeration Conference,

Purdue, West Lafayette, IN USA, 25-28 July 2000.

/Lin00/ Linton, J. W., Performance of R22, R-407C and R-410A at Constant Cooling

Capacity in a 10 SEER 10.5 kW Residential Central Heat Pump, Eighth

International Refrigeration Conference, Purdue, West Lafayette, IN USA, 25-28

July 2000.

/Nek01/ Neksa, Peter, Prospective for the Use of CO2 in Refrigeration and Heat Pump

Systems, Trondheim, 23-25 March 2001.

/Rit96/ Ritter, Terence J., Experience with Hydrocarbon Blends in the U.K. Market, IIR

Gustav Lorentzen Conference, Oslo, Norway, 2-5 June 1998.

/Rob00/ Roberts, N.A., Investigation of the Vapour Liquid Equilibrium Behaviour of

Blends Comprising R125, R134a and R600, Eighth International Refrigeration

Conference, Purdue, West Lafayette, IN USA, 25-28 July 2000.

/Seet00/ Seeton, Chris, Fahl, J. et al, Solubility, Viscosity, Boundary Lubrication and

Miscibility of CO2 and Synthetic Lubricants, Eighth International Refrigeration

Conference, Purdue, West Lafayette, IN USA, 25-28 July 2000.

/Shim00/ Shimomura, Yuji, Takigawa, Kasuya, et al, New Ester-Type Refrigeration

Lubricants Primarily for Household Refrigerators, Eighth International

Refrigeration Conference, Purdue, West Lafayette, IN USA, 25-28 July 2000

/Voi00/ Voigt, Andrea, Zero ODS Drop-In Replacements for CFCs & HFCs, Rhodia

Marketing Presentation, September 2000.

/Yin00i/ Yin, J.M., Bullard, C.W. et al, Performance of Transcritical and Subcritical R410A Residential A/C and H/P Systems, Eighth International Refrigeration

Conference, Purdue, West Lafayette, IN USA, 25-28 July 2000.

/Yin00ii/ Yin, J.M., Bullard, C.W. et al, Transcritical CO2 Heat Pump for Residential

Applications, Eighth International Refrigeration Conference, Purdue, West

Lafayette, IN USA, 25-28 July 2000.

/Wat98/ Watson, Mark C., Lubricants for Natural Working Fluids, IIF-IIR Commission B2,

with B1, E1 and E2, Oslo, Norway, 1998.

/Wolf99/ Wolfer, Martin, Risk Assessment of Natural Working Fluids, IEA HP Centre, Paris,

France 9 November 1999.

2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 103

Annex to Chapter 7

The following tables summarise the assumptions used to develop the HCFC-22 usage

forecast.

Table 7A-1 Assumptions for OEM refrigerant usage in new products (Developed Countries)

Year

Pessimistic Most Likely Optimistic

HCFC-22

%

Alternates

%

HCFC-22

%

Alternates

%

HCFC-22

%

Alternates

%

1994 100 0 100 0 100 0

2000 99.6 0.4 98.2 1.8 94.9 5.1

2005 89.2 10.8 75.9 24.1 60.3 39.7

2010 30.2 69.8 27.3 72.7 13.8 86.2

2015 17.4 82.6 14.8 85.2 4.5 95.5

Table 7A-2 Recycled Refrigerant Assumptions (worldwide average)

Year

Worldwide

Recycling Rate

(%)

1994 – 2000 20

2001 – 2005 35

2006 – 2010 50

2011 – 2015 60

The analysis assumes a reasonably aggressive refrigerant reclamation effort by the world

community. The assumptions on the percentage of refrigerant reclaimed during servicing and

unit decommissioning are shown in Table 7A-2.

The analysis predicts current and future populations of air cooled air conditioning products by

using yearly unit shipment data (1964-2001) and assumed market growth rates to predict unit

production for subsequent years. The product market growth rate assumptions are shown in

Table 7A-3.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 104

Table 7A-3 Average Market Growth-Rate by Product Category (1997-2015)

Product Category Assumed Annual World Market Growth Rate

(%/Year)

Window Room Air Conditioners 4.7

Duct-Free Packaged and Split Systems 7.0

Ducted Systems 3.7

Commercial Systems 3.0

Once the annual production quantities were combined with assumptions of average product life

(Gaussian distribution) they were used to predict the size of the current and future unit

population. The amount of refrigerant in the unit population was calculated using the average

charge quantities presented in section 7.2.

Table 7A-4 Product life assumptions

Product Category Average Life

(years)

Room Air Conditioners 15

Duct-Free Packaged and Split Systems 15

Ducted Systems 15

Commercial Systems 15

The product life assumptions are shown in Table 7A-4. The Average Life is the average life of a

given product type. A Weibull distribution was used to determine the units that fail during each

year of the analysis. Using these assumptions the model was able to predict the number of units

of each category operating each year and the amount of refrigerant contained in the entire

installed population. In addition the model utilised the three HCFC-22 replacement scenarios to

predict total annual HCFC-22 requirements, amount of HCFC-22 obtained through reclamation

and the net requirement for new HCFC-22.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 105

8 Chillers

8.1 Introduction

8.1.1 Role of Water Chillers in Air Conditioning

Comfort air conditioning in commercial buildings commonly is provided either by unitary air

conditioners (addressed in Chapter 7) or by water chillers coupled with an air handling and

distribution system. Unitary air conditioners cool and dehumidify by having the air pass

directly over a coil containing an evaporating refrigerant. Chillers cool water or a

water/antifreeze mixture (often referred to as a “brine”), which is then pumped through a heat

exchanger in an air handler or fan-coil unit for cooling and dehumidifying.

8.1.2 Types of Water Chillers

Water chillers using the vapour-compression cycle are manufactured in capacities from

approximately 7.0 kW to over 30,000 kW. Two generic types of compressors are used:

positive displacement and dynamic (also referred to as turbo), which includes both axial and

the much more common centrifugal types. Positive displacement scroll and reciprocating

compressors are typically used from 7.0 kW up to 1600 kW. Positive displacement screw

compressors are used from 140 kW to 6000 kW. Centrifugal compressors are used from 350

kW to over 30,000 kW. Absorption chillers are available as alternatives to electrical chillers

in the range from less than 175 kW to 17,500 kW.

Water chillers are offered in both air- and water-cooled versions up through about 1500 kW

in single units. Water-cooled systems are customary in larger capacities because air-cooled

units become too large for convenient shipment as factory-assembled systems.

8.1.3 Measures of Chiller Efficiency

Full-load coefficient of performance (COP) was accepted for many years as a simple measure

of chiller efficiency. Beginning in 1990 interest has grown in an additional measure called

Integrated Part Load Value (IPLV). The IPLV metric is a weighted average of a chiller's

efficiency over four operating conditions dominantly reflecting part-load energy

consumption. The accepted method for determining IPLV for a chiller is given in AirConditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI) Standard 550/590 /ARI98/. In some markets

purchasers of new chillers are beginning to use IPLV as an important factor in equipment

selection and evaluation of first-cost vs. operating cost tradeoffs. Efficiency measures in this

chapter are given in terms of full-load COP values.

8.1.4 World Market Characteristics

There are no comprehensive statistics on the world market for chillers. ARI compiles

statistics for several types of chillers in the USA for both the domestic and export markets.

The Japan Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration News (JARN) compiles similar

statistics for Japan and estimates for other countries and/or regions.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 106

JARN /JAR01/ estimates that:

• The market for centrifugal and large screw chillers is divided between 40% in the

USA and Canada, 25-30% in Asia, and smaller percentages in Europe, the Middle

East, and elsewhere.

• The market for large absorption chillers is concentrated in Japan, China, and Korea

with the USA and Europe as the remaining significant markets.

• The world market for smaller, positive displacement chillers (with hermetic

reciprocating, screw, and scroll compressors) is much larger in quantities than for the

other chiller types.

8.1.4.1 U.S. Market Characteristics

ARI /ARI01/ reports that the U.S. domestic market for water-cooled centrifugal and screw

chillers under 1400 kW was 2500-2700 chillers per year. U.S. exports of such chillers were

1200-1300 chillers per year. In this range, screw compressors are increasing their market

share and HFC-134a is replacing HCFC-22. For chillers above 1400 kW, the U.S. domestic

market was 1800-2200 chillers per year with 1200-1600 units exported, primarily centrifugal

chillers employing HCFC-123 or HFC-134a.

The market for absorption chillers in the USA primarily entails units of 350 kW or larger.

Most use water/lithium bromide as working fluids. In the 1998-2000 period the domestic

market declined from 276 units to 179 units /ARI01/. Exports were about two thirds of this

number. Roughly half of the units were double-effect (steam or direct-fired) and half were

single-effect (steam or hot-water heated). Exports mostly were single-effect chillers.

An estimated 4000-6000 small absorption chillers, using ammonia/water as

refrigerant/absorbent, are sold for residential and light commercial air conditioning.

Smaller chillers employ scroll, screw, or reciprocating compressors. In the 1998-2000 period

the domestic U.S. market for air-cooled chillers grew from about 8500 to more than 10,000

chillers /ARI01/. The domestic water-cooled chiller market was about 1500 chillers, and

remote condensing units (with compressor and evaporator located indoors, connected by

refrigerant lines to an outdoor air-cooled condenser) were about 650 units. Exports mostly

were air-cooled chillers at about 3000 chillers/year /ARI01/. In the domestic market, about

20% of the air-cooled chillers are below 175 kW, 35% between 175 kW and 350 kW, and

30% between 350 kW and 700 kW. The remaining 15% are larger units. Most of these

positive displacement chillers still employ HCFC-22, but HFC-134a, R-407C, and -- to a

limited extent so far -- R-410A are being introduced.

8.1.4.2 Asian Market Characteristics /JAR00, JAR01, JAR02/

Absorption chillers are favoured in a number of Asian markets. The market for absorption

chillers larger than 350 kW is of the order of 8600 units per year, with 30% in Japan, 35% in

China, and 20% in Korea /JARN01, JARN02/.

Japan manufactures about 3250 large (over 175 kW) absorption chillers as well as 1600

absorption chillers smaller than 175 kW each year. About 300 centrifugal chillers are

produced per year. Of these, 40% use HCFC-123 and the remainder use HFC-134a. In

addition, over 100 centrifugal chillers were imported in 2000. Japanese manufacturers make
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 107

about 10,000 smaller-tonnage positive-displacement chillers annually. Screw and

reciprocating chiller product lines include units capable of supplying chilled and hot water

simultaneously and units for ice thermal storage systems.

China made about 2600 absorption chillers in 2000. Very few were single-effect, 50% were

steam double effect, and 50% were direct-fired with oil and gas about equally specified as

fuels. Sales of electric centrifugal chillers in 1999 and 2000 were about 850 chillers per year.

Of these, 70% used HFC-134a refrigerant. Approximately half of these chillers were

imported. The market for screw chillers in the 175-1400 kW range is 3000-4000 units per

year. Most have been charged with HCFC-22 refrigerant but the use of HFC-134a is

increasing. Air-cooled chillers account for 76% of the market, a major shift since 1997 when

water-cooled units represented 67% of the market. Chiller sales are expected to grow 8.5%

annually with the main market in Eastern China /ASH02/. More than half of all chiller sales

(34,000 units in 2001) were heat pumps, with trends toward installing several small chillers

instead of one large chiller. Screw and scroll chiller sales are increasing while demand for

absorption chillers is slowing. Reciprocating chillers now are only 15% of the market.

Unique to China is a major residential market for chillers and fan coil units for use in

apartments. About 20,000 scroll chillers were sold in China in 2000. The bulk of these were

in the 5-35 kW range.

In Korea, direct fired absorption chillers in the 350-1050 kW range have a large share of the

market. Shipments in 2000 were estimated to be 1200 absorption chillers (80% direct fired).

The centrifugal chiller market in Korea fluctuates between 200 and 430 units, peaking in

1997. Imported centrifugal chillers in 2000 amounted to 100 units. The market for

reciprocating, screw, and scroll chillers fluctuates between 500 and 1800 units, peaking in

1990.

Taiwan has a market for 7000-8000 small reciprocating, scroll, and screw chillers per year.

The absorption chiller market is small. Taiwan imports centrifugal chillers with a market

fluctuating from 400 to 600 units per year.

8.1.4.3 European Market Characteristics /JAR00, JAR01, JAR02, DKV02/

In Germany, chillers with screw and scroll compressors increased their market share from

35% in 1997 to 49% in 1999. Of 4600 units sold in 1999, 60% were less than 100 kW and

80% were less than 400 kW. The 1999 market required 80 centrifugal chillers, 90 absorption

chillers, and 10 direct-fired absorption chillers. Total chiller sales in 2001 are estimated to be

USD ($) 150M. Screw chillers are used mainly in the 100-1000 kW range with the greatest

concentration of sales in the 200-600 kW range. Roughly half use air-cooled condensers. In

2000/2001, less than 20% of chiller sales were for ratings below 100 kW. Over 50% of sales

were in the 100 to 800 kW range. Reciprocating chiller sales value fell from 31% in 1999 to

27% in 2000 and are forecast at 22% for 2001. In terms of units the corresponding figures are

48%, 40%, and 34%.

France required 9000 chillers in 1999. Of these, 80% were less than 100 kW, 13% were

between 100 and 400 kW, and 7% were larger than 400 kW. Reciprocating chillers accounted

for 2/3 of those sold, but the market share of scroll and screw compressors is growing. In

2000, reciprocating chillers accounted for 40% of sales in terms of value and 60% in terms of

numbers of units. Over 75% of chillers installed in 2000 used air-cooled condensers.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 108

In Italy 23,000 chillers were sold in 1999. Of these, 80% were less than 100 kW and 10%

were larger than 400 kW. Scroll and screw compressors were used in 75% of these chillers in

2000. Air-cooled condensers are used in most small and medium range units. Water-cooled

condensers are more common in units over 1 MW in capacity. In 2000, 53 large absorption

chillers (over 300 kW) were imported. Of these, 18 were double-effect and the remainder

single-effect. No large absorption chillers were manufactured in Italy.

In the United Kingdom, 2900 chillers were sold in 1999. Of these, 50% had reciprocating

compressors, 19% had screws, and 26% had scroll compressors. Around 60 centrifugal

chillers are purchased each year in the U.K. About half of the chiller market in terms of value

and number of units is in the range from 100 to 600 kW. Of the total number sold, over twothirds use screw or scroll compressors. Scrolls fill in the capacity band below 200 kW with

nearly 60% of sales concentrated in the 20-100 kW band. Over 85% of chillers sold in 2000

used air-cooled condensers.

The market in Spain was about $48M USD in 1999 and $69M USD in 2000. The chillers

typically are small, with 40% of the units between 20 and 100 kW and 33% less than 20 kW.

Of the total 7000 units sold in 2000, nearly 4000 were reciprocating chillers. Scroll

compressors were used in about one-third of all chillers sold in 2000. Air-cooled condensers

are the norm in Spain.

Total sales of centrifugal machines in Germany, France, the U.K., Italy, and Spain were

around $34M USD in 2000, corresponding to over 300 machines. Germany was the largest

user, followed by Italy.

8.1.4.4 India Market Characteristics

India is a manufacturer of large capacity centrifugal, screw, and reciprocating compressor

based chillers. Most of the new chillers of 350 kW capacity and above are non-CFC chillers

/JAR01/. The centrifugal chillers employ HCFC-123 and HFC-134a. Screw chillers use

HCFC-22 and HFC-134a. The majority of reciprocating chillers employ HCFC-22. India is

estimated by one source to require 150 large tonnage chillers (over 700kW) per year.

Absorption chillers are estimated by the source to be about 30% of this number /Aga01/.

8.1.5 Inventories of Equipment and Refrigerants in Service

Accurate inventories of equipment in service around the world, and the types and amounts of

refrigerants used in these chillers, are not available. Records of production and sales have

been kept in a few countries (the United States and Japan, for example) and estimates are

available for a few other countries, but most of the information needed does not exist. The

information below addresses CFC chillers still operating in the U.S., Canada, and India.

Perhaps this accounts for 25-40% of the CFC chillers in service around the world.

8.1.5.1 United States

A survey of chiller manufacturers, conducted by the Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration

Institute (ARI) /Doo01/, revealed that by the end of 2001 approximately 41,000 of the

estimated 80,000 CFC chillers in service in the early 1990s still use CFCs. Some estimates
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 109

suggest a higher initial inventory of 92,000-94,000 chillers, implying a higher number of

CFC units still in use. During 2000, there were 3,235 chiller replacements and 913

conversions to non-CFC refrigerants to bring the year-end total to 35,664 chillers (45%) that

no longer use CFCs. The prediction for future conversions is given in Table 8-1.

Table 8-1 CFC Chiller Conversions and Replacements /Doo01/

Conversions Replacements Total % of 80,000

Prior to 1/1/01 7,937 27,727 35,664 45

1/01 to 1/1/02 452 3,324 39,440 49

1/02 to 1/1/03 372 3,433 43,245 54

1/03 to 1/1/04 312 3,558 47,115 59

8.1.5.2 Canada /HRAI00/

An assessment of CFC chillers in Canada was undertaken in 2000 by the Heating,

Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Institute (HRAI). The conclusion reached was that there

were 4707 CFC chillers in operation in Canada in 2000. The capacities ranged from 350 kW

(100 tonnes) to 4200 kW (1200 tonnes). In 1995 there were 5486 CFC chillers in service.

During the 1996-1999 period 179 of these were replaced by non-CFC chillers and 600 were

converted to operate with non-CFCs. Most of the CFC chillers use CFC-11. The average

capacity of these CFC chillers is approximately 1400 kW (400 tonnes).

8.1.5.3 India /Aga01/

Large capacity CFC-based chillers of varying capacities and for different applications have

been installed in the country. Table 8-2 shows the type of chillers and the refrigerant used.

Table 8-2 CFC-based Large Capacity Chillers in India /Aga01/

Type of

Chiller

Capacity Refrigerant

Centrifugal 700 kW to 3000 kW CFC-11, CFC-12, HCFC-123, HFC134a

Screw Chiller 350 kW to 3000 kW HCFC-22, HFC-134a, R-717

(ammonia)

Reciprocating 35 kW to 400 kW CFC-12, HCFC-22, R-717 (ammonia)

One source /Aga01/ estimates that about 1500 chillers of capacity 350 kW (100 tonnes) and

above are installed in India. The total installed capacity may be about 3 million kW. About

1000 metric tonnes of CFC may be installed in these chillers, most of which is CFC-11.

These chillers have an expected operating life of 15 to 20 years beyond 2001 and will require

CFCs for servicing until and unless these are retrofitted or replaced by non-CFC

technologies.

There are a large number of medium and small capacity chillers (less than 350 kW) which

operate on CFCs, primarily CFC-12. The capacities of these chillers range from 15 kW to

350 kW. These chillers are not included in the estimates above.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 110

8.2 Introduction – Heat Pump Water Heaters

8.2.1 Heat Pumps for Water Heating

In water heating, the heat exchange process can benefit from a temperature glide on the

refrigerant side to better match the temperature profile of the water side and thus minimise

the heat exchanger losses. One example is heating of tap water, which normally is from 5-10

°C and to 60-80 °C. Another application which can benefit from a temperature glide is

heating of process water in industrial processes and in hydronic heat distribution systems.

Most heat pumps currently in operation are electrically-driven closed-cycle compression type

systems. Systems driven by gas engines, or absorption cycle heat pumps which are directly

fired or employ waste heat, have found niche markets.

This chapter includes discussion of working fluids for heating-only and heat-recovery heat

pumps. Reversible air-conditioners, which comprise a large share of residential heat pump

installations in the USA, Japan, and other countries with a considerable cooling demand, are

presented in Chapter 7. Heat pumps for industrial applications are discussed in Chapter 5.

8.2.2 Types and Volume of Equipment - Residential and Commercial/Institutional

Applications

Heating-only heat pumps are used for space and water heating in residential,

commercial/institutional buildings, industrial buildings, and in district heating and cooling

plants. It is estimated that the total heating-only heat pump stock in residential and

commercial sectors, including district heating, is roughly 1.7 million units with a total heating

capacity of about 13,300 MW /HPC94a/, /Gil93/, /HPC98/.

Heating-only heat pumps in buildings are manufactured in all sizes ranging from 1 kW

heating capacity for single room units, to 50-1000 kW for commercial/institutional

applications, and tens of MW for district heating plants. Most small to medium capacity heat

pumps in buildings are standardised factory-made units. Large heat pump installations

usually are custom-made and are assembled at the site. Refrigerant charges range between 0.1

and 1.5 kg/kW thermal output, with 1.0 and 0.5 kg/kW as estimated averages for the heat

pump stock produced before and after 1994, respectively /UNE91, Ste98/. Heat pumps are

becoming more compact with smaller refrigerant charge.

Heat pump water heaters, which heat tap water for sanitary purposes, are capturing a growing

fraction of water heater sales in OECD countries. Commercial building applications have

been more competitive than residential applications, though the residential systems are

becoming more popular. By 1998, approximately 570,000 units had been installed in Europe

/HPC93a, HPC98/.

Integrated units for space heating, space cooling, and tap water heating for commercial

buildings also are becoming popular due to an increasing demand for cooling in modern

office buildings in northern climates that originally did not require cooling. Integrated heat

pumps have dual functions, delivering heat and cooling simultaneously. They supply heat to

the distribution system by using recovered waste heat from other parts of the building (the

cooling distribution system) as a heat source. In most cases both the heat and the cooling
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 111

distribution systems are hydronic. There always is an additional heat source installed, e.g.,

seawater, which is used as a heat source when the heating demand is dominant, and heat sink

when cooling demand is dominant. Integrated units are installed in larger commercial

buildings and in district heating and cooling systems /HPC94b/.

Evaporation temperatures typically range from -10 °C to +10 °C, with condensation between

40 °C up to close to 80 °C depending on the heat source and the type of heat distribution

systems in the buildings.

In the European countries and in the North-eastern part of the USA, hydronic heat

distribution systems are used both in homes and in larger buildings. The use of hydronic

systems decreased in the US during the past 20 years. However, the trend in Europe is toward

the increased use of hydronic systems in new buildings, especially in the commercial sector.

Low temperature radiant heating systems permitting distribution temperatures of 30-60 °C

are common, giving the heat pump a low temperature lift and better efficiencies than

traditional radiant heating systems. In smaller residential heat pumps (1-10 kW heating

capacity) air is the most common heat distribution medium.

Heat sources include ambient and ventilation air, sea and lake water, sewage water, ground

water, ground, rock, and industrial wastewater and effluent. Air, seawater, and ground source

heat pumps dominate the market. Ground-source heat pumps, or "geothermal heat pumps",

using ground/rock as a heat source have become more popular in recent years. It is the fastest

growing heat pump application in both the US market and the Northern European market,

and the trend is expected to continue /HPC98/. Decreasing investment costs, high reliability,

low maintenance costs, stable operating conditions, and direct expansion concepts providing

high efficiencies have made ground source heat pumps competitive compared to other

sources.

8.2.3 Market Characteristics

Due to climate, standard of living, and other reasons, the majority of heating-only heat pumps

in buildings are located in the northern part of Western Europe. Though most heat pump

installations in Japan, USA, and Canada are reversible air-conditioners, there are a number of

heating-only heat pumps in those countries. Heat pumps for heating only and heat recovery

seldom are used in Article 5(1) countries. Most of the Article 5(1) countries are located near

the Equator so they do not have a significant space heating demand.

The Russian Federation, China, and most of Eastern Europe have household energy

consumption which, on average, is well below that of the Western world. The application of

heat pumps in China is increasing quickly. They mostly are heat pumps units that supply hot

water in the winter and cold water in the summer /HPC98/. Economic reforms and emerging

democracies eventually may lead to a higher standard of living which, in turn, will result in

higher domestic energy consumption. A significant problem in these regions is environmental

pollution. Therefore, higher energy consumption for heating preferably should not be based

on direct combustion of oil or coal. This may spur the demand for heat pump systems,

resulting in a growing world market.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 112

8.3 Refrigerant Choices

8.3.1 Positive Displacement Compressors and Water Chillers

Positive displacement compressors are used in the lower range of capacities for the water

chiller spectrum. (Centrifugal compressors are more cost-effective at higher capacities.) To

take maximum advantage of a compressor’s displacement, positive displacement chillers

employ refrigerants with lower volumetric flow rates per unit of cooling capacity and higher

pressure levels than centrifugal chillers. Traditionally, HCFC-22 has been used widely as a

working fluid for high pressure positive displacement chillers. CFC-12 was used prior to the

1990’s as the working fluid for intermediate pressure positive displacement chillers.

Significant changes in positive displacement chiller refrigerant selections and chiller designs

are occurring as a result of stratospheric ozone depletion concerns. CFC-12 was phased out in

developed countries in 1996 and HCFC-22 is being phased out now in many European

countries. Under the Montreal Protocol, as amended, HCFC production will phase down in

the developed countries leading to a complete phase-out of production in 2030. Each country

is at liberty to set its own phase-out schedule to meet its obligations under the Protocol. In the

United States, HCFC-22 production for new equipment will cease in 2010. Production of

HCFC-22 for service of units built before 2010 will continue until 2020. Phase-out dates for

HCFC-22 are earlier in several countries. Some members of the EU, in particular, have

accelerated their phase-out schedules since the 1998 report.

HFCs, HFC blends (including R-407C and R-410A) and to a much lesser extent ammonia

and hydrocarbons have displaced HCFC-22 unit sales in positive displacement chillers.

8.3.2 Centrifugal Compressors and Water Chillers

Centrifugal compressors have inherently higher volumetric flow rates for a given physical

size than positive displacement compressors. They are used in the higher range of capacities

in the water chiller spectrum where they are more cost effective.

Prior to the CFC phase-out under the Montreal Protocol, CFC-11 was the most common

choice in large centrifugal compressors followed by CFC-12. A smaller number of chillers

used HCFC-22, CFC-113, CFC-114, and R-500.

Due to the CFC phase-out in developed countries, HCFC-123 and HFC-134a replaced CFC11 and CFC-12, respectively, in new equipment.

8.3.3 Average Refrigerant Charge Levels in Water Chillers

Table 8-3 indicates the average amount of refrigerant per unit of cooling capacity of U.S. and

Japanese manufacturers for chillers built in the 1990-95 period. Since this was a period when

refrigerant conservation was receiving increased attention, little change is felt to have

occurred since 1995. The average charge in the rest of the world is assumed to be similar to

the weighted average of the average charge in the U.S. and Japan.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 113

Table 8-3 Average Refrigerant Charge in Air Conditioning Chillers in Service as a Function of

Capacity and Type of Refrigerant

Refrigerant kg/kW

CFC-11 0.25

CFC-12 0.35

HCFC-22 Reciprocating-piston 0.34

HCFC-22 Screw and Centrifugal 0.35

HCFC-123 0.22

HFC-134a 0.35

R-500 0.33

R-717 (ammonia) direct expansion (DX) systems

R-717 (ammonia) flooded evaporator systems

0.04-0.20

0.20-0.25

Hydrocarbons 0.14

The original version of Table 8-3 is found in /Cal91/. The data in the original table was

reviewed in May 1996 by the U.S. Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI). Some

of the data was adjusted to reflect charge data for chillers of average efficiencies at the time,

and to add data for R-500, ammonia, and hydrocarbons from best estimates of industry

members.

8.3.4 Heat Pumps

In the past, the most common refrigerants for vapour compression heat pumps have been

CFC-12, R-502, CFC-11 (heat recovery from centrifugal chillers), CFC-114, HCFC-22, and

R-500. In developed countries HCFC-22 still is used as one of the main refrigerants in heat

pumps. In Article 5(1) countries such as China, CFC-12 and HCFC-22 are commonly used.

8.4 Options for New Equipment

Except for a few "essential use exemptions", the Montreal Protocol and subsequent

amendments have resulted in phase-out of production of CFCs for domestic use in developed

countries and in a high level of activity in the industry seeking alternatives for the HCFCs.

The search for alternatives resulted in a renewed understanding that ideal refrigerants do not

exist /Cal97/, /Cal00/.

The selection of alternative refrigerants requires a balance between suitability including

thermophysical properties and chemical and thermal stability, global environment issues of

stratospheric ozone depletion and global warming, local safety issues such as toxicity and

flammability, performance, and cost /Cal97/. Even within the single issue of global warming,

there is need to account for the direct effects of refrigerant releases to the atmosphere and the

energy-related (sometimes referred to as indirect) effect. The energy-related effect stems

from the emission of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases from generation of power to

operate the chillers. The energy-related component depends on the system efficiency, hours

of operation, fuel mix, and transmission losses. For chillers, the energy-related effect

dominates over the direct effect. The interplay of the effects, refrigerant release and energyrelated, and combined measures such as of Total Equivalent Warming Impact (TEWI), Life-
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 114

Cycle Warming Impact (LCWI), or Life-Cycle Climate Performance (LCCP) are discussed in

a number of references. /Cal93a, Cal93b, Cal98, Fis91, Kui00 and San97/.

Improved design and maintenance of systems to reduce leakage, design to minimise

refrigerant charge quantities in systems, improved service practices, and reclaiming of

refrigerant during servicing are practical and reasonable ways to reduce the emissions of all

refrigerants to the atmosphere, thus minimising adverse environmental effects. To varying

degrees in different countries, each of these practices is being implemented. Life cycle

refrigerant needs of chillers have been reduced more than tenfold in the last 30 years /Cal99/.

Both the risk and capital investment necessary for redesign; retooling; training in operation,

maintenance and service; marketing; etc. are particularly significant in equipment as large as

water chillers and in a world where the customer expects an equipment life of 25 years or

more. Based on such practical considerations, it seems that the "alternative technologies"

which are most feasible for the current timetable are those which already exist in production,

in particular vapour-compression with HFCs and HCFC-123. Other technologies which are

suitable for water chilling are (1) the vapour-compression cycle using ammonia as a working

fluid, (2) the absorption cycle, (3) zeotropic refrigerant mixtures, and (4) for small chillers,

the vapour-compression cycle using hydrocarbon refrigerants.

8.4.1 Options for New Positive Displacement Compressor Chillers

8.4.1.1 HCFC-22

Due to its low ozone depletion potential (ODP), HCFC-22 was viewed as a part of the

solution to the problems posed by phase-out of CFC-12 and other CFCs. However, the

Copenhagen Amendment to the Montreal Protocol call for the phase-down of HCFCs starting

in 2004 in developed countries leading to phase-out for new equipment in 2020. Production is

allowed for service use until 2030. Installed refrigerants, stocked inventories, and amounts

recovered from retired equipment may be used to service existing equipment indefinitely.

There is a freeze in HCFC production in Article 5(1) countries starting in 2016. The phaseout of individual HCFCs is being managed differently in various countries. The European

Union member state countries mandated the phase-out of HCFC-22 beginning in 2001.

The planned HCFC-22 phase-out led to intense activity to find and characterise appropriate

alternates. Much of this work was under the auspices of the Alternative Refrigerants

Evaluation Program (AREP) of the Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI) in the

USA, with international participation. The refrigerants that were considered include various

HFCs, zeotropic and azeotropic blends of these HFCs, ammonia, and HCs.

The refrigerants that were found to be most promising for positive displacement chillers, in

terms of their ability to satisfy the performance and safety criteria, were HFC-134a and HFC

blends. For systems with flooded evaporators, common in chillers larger than 700 kW, HFC134a was chosen as a successor to HCFC-22. Blends considered for use in flooded

evaporators are those which are azeotropes or near azeotropes such as R-410A which has a

much higher pressure than HCFC-22. The higher pressure level requires substantial redesign

of system components to meet pressure safety codes. As a result, HFC-134a systems are more

common successors to HCFC-22 chillers than R-410A chillers.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 115

8.4.1.2 HFC-134a

HFC-134a is used in positive displacement water chillers as a replacement for CFC-12 and a

successor to HCFC-22. The volumetric flow characteristics of HFC-134a are similar to those

for CFC-12, so the compressor and equipment sizes are similar. Thus, chiller costs are not

significantly affected by the change from CFC-12 to HFC-134a, except for the increase in

refrigerant and lubricant costs. However, compressors for HFC-134a require 50% larger

displacement than for HCFC-22, so larger compressors and increased cost are encountered in

a change from HCFC-22 to HFC-134a.

The direct global warming effect of HFC-134a is about 12% of that of CFC-12. The

theoretical cycle efficiency is about 2% lower than for CFC-12. However, the excellent heat

transfer characteristics of HFC-134a and design advances often offset the lower cycle

efficiency. Thus, the TEWI due to HFC-134a is less than that for CFC-12 in new equipment.

The direct global warming effect of HFC-134a is about 76% of that of HCFC-22. The cycle

efficiency is similar for the two refrigerants.

Recently-developed HFC-134a chillers are being marketed with flooded evaporators and

economiser sub-cooling for better COP and reduced volumetric flow rate (i.e., reduced

compressor size). Increases in compressor efficiency and cycle improvements are being

implemented to improve the performance of HFC-134a chillers.

8.4.1.3 R-407C

Zeotropic mixtures offer the greatest flexibility in blending refrigerants to approximate the

physical and thermodynamic properties of HCFC-22, particularly the general trend of the

pressure/temperature relationships. The zeotropic mixture R-407C is being used as a

replacement for HCFC-22 in direct expansion (DX) systems. However, unfavourable changes

in heat transfer necessitate larger, more expensive heat exchangers to maintain performance..

In DX evaporators some of this difficulty is offset by using the glide characteristic of R-407C

to advantage in counter-flow heat exchange. The glide also can be accommodated in the

traditional cross-flow air-side heat exchangers of air-cooled chillers.

R-407C with its appreciable temperature glide (4-5 °C) is not suitable for use in flooded

evaporators that predominate in larger chillers. A flooded evaporator is essentially

isothermal and isobaric, so the "glide" tendency is exhibited as a composition change

between the liquid and vapour phases in the evaporator (instead of the temperature glide

observed in a DX heat exchanger). These tube-in-shell evaporators keep the refrigerant on

the shell side so that the water can be confined to the inside of the tubes, thus facilitating

periodic cleaning of the water tubes to eliminate efficiency-destroying mineral build-up.

8.4.1.4 Other refrigerants: R-404A, R-507A, R-410A, other HFC blends, HFC-32

Azeotropic and near-azeotropic mixtures such as R-404A, R-507, and R-410A have been

considered as possible HCFC-22 replacements. However, no non-flammable azeotrope has

been found that matches the pressure-temperature relationships of HCFC-22. Blends of

HFC-32 and HFC-125 (e.g., R-410A) have COPs similar to HCFC-22 in a DX system but at

a significantly higher pressure. Substantial product redesign and retooling, with associated
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 116

major financial investments, is required to use R-410A in chillers. In time, R-410A may

displace the use of R-407C in smaller chillers where sales volumes justify the development of

new compressors with the capability to handle the high pressure levels of R-410A.

Other HFC blends have been proposed by chemical manufacturers. Most of these blends have

significant temperature glides (2 °C or larger) and do not appear to offer significant

performance benefits compared to R-407C. Their market penetration has been very small.

Barriers to entry of new blends that do not offer significant performance or cost benefits

include the challenges of Article 5(1) supply sources for long-term world-wide availability,

and the reluctance of chiller manufacturers to warrant their equipment with refrigerants they

have not tested thoroughly (a costly process).

The refrigerant HFC-32 is used as a component in blends such as R-410A. It has been

proposed for use as a refrigerant by itself (and in azeotropes with n-butane and isobutane)

because it has a comparatively low direct global warming potential and good energy

efficiency in the vapour-compression cycle. Disadvantages include operating pressure levels

higher than for HCFC-22 and flammability. It is classed as an A2 refrigerant under ASHRAE

Standard 34. Systems using HFC-32 have not been commercialised yet.

8.4.1.5 Carbon Dioxide in the Transcritical Cycle

CO2 is being investigated by several researchers for a wide range of potential applications

using a transcritical cycle. In this cycle the pressure from the compressor discharge to the

expansion device inlet is maintained above the critical pressure of CO2 (7.38 MPa or 72 bar at

31 °C), compared to HCFC-22 which has a condensing pressure of 1.2 MPa or 12 bar at

30 °C. However, carbon dioxide does not offer competitive cycle energy efficiencies for

typical water chilling applications. Therefore, there is not an environmental incentive to use

carbon dioxide as a chiller refrigerant.

There has been no commercial application in chillers to date. The high pressure is a

particular challenge for larger compressors due to the need for safety margins that are a

significant multiple of the design working pressure (a multiple of 5 between maximum

operating pressure and burst pressure is common).

8.4.1.6 Ammonia

Ammonia (R-717) is an excellent refrigerant in terms of thermodynamic cycle efficiency.

Ammonia has been in continuous use in a variety of applications longer than CFCs so there is

a wealth of practical experience in the manufacture, operation, and maintenance of ammonia

machinery systems. The number of compression stages required to use ammonia effectively

in centrifugal chillers limits the practical application to machines with positive displacement

compressors.

In the last ten years approximately 10 manufacturers in Europe have supplied chillers using

ammonia as the refrigerant. These chillers are in the capacity range from 200 to 2000 kW

with a few larger. One supplier offers screw chillers from 200 kW to 5800 kW and open or

hermetic reciprocating units from 70 kW to 2200 kW. In Southeast Asia production is

reaching 100 to 150 units per year. Ammonia chillers are being used in airports,

supermarkets, hospitals, offices, and industrial buildings.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 117

Application considerations with ammonia are more complex than for many other refrigerants

because ammonia is a strong irritant gas that is slightly toxic, corrosive to skin and other

membranes, and flammable. However, guidelines are readily available for safe design and

application of ammonia systems /IEA98/. Wider acceptance requires that public officials

become satisfied that the ammonia systems are safe under emergency conditions such as

building fires or earthquakes, either of which might rupture refrigerant piping and pressure

vessels. Most important is the establishment of building codes that are acceptable to the

safety officials (e.g. fire marshals) and those concerned with costs (e.g. architects).

Current applications are primarily limited to systems that are isolated from the general public.

Recommended practice (ASHRAE Std. 15 and ISO/DIS 5149) limits the use of large

ammonia systems in public buildings to those systems which utilise a secondary heat transfer

fluid (which is intrinsic in chillers), confining the ammonia to the machine room where

alarms, venting devices, and scrubbers can ensure safety. Comprehensive safety guidelines

are available for chillers using ammonia so that releases are dispersed safely /BRE00/,

/IIA99/. Modern, compact factory-built units contain the ammonia much more effectively

than old ammonia plants.

Ammonia's chemical reactivity with copper in the presence of water prevents its use in

hermetic compressor systems with copper-wound motors but motors with aluminium motor

windings are now commercially available. There is a potential loss of energy efficiency with

the change in material due to the higher electrical resistivity of aluminium compared to

copper.

8.4.1.7 Hydrocarbons

Although hydrocarbon refrigerants have a long history of application in industrial chillers in

petrochemical plants, before 1997/98 they were not used in comfort air conditioning chiller

applications due to reservations about systems safety.

Several European manufacturers offer a range of hydrocarbon chillers. Air-cooled and watercooled chillers for high and medium temperature applications are charged with HC-1270

(propylene), HC-290 (propane), and an HC-290/HC-170 (propane/ethane) blend. Cooling

capacities range from 20 kW to 300 kW for the high temperature units and 30 kW to 150 kW

for the medium temperature units. The refrigerant charge varies from 3 to 34 kg. Water

cooled and air cooled chillers for low-temperature applications also are offered in capacities

up to 45 kW. Reversible heat pump chillers using HC-290 as the refrigerant are available in

capacities up to 173 kW with a maximum propane charge of 15 kg. The products use

reciprocating compressors but introduction of screw compressors is planned. Efficiency is

similar to that of equivalent HFC-134a products. Unit sales of hydrocarbon chillers are about

100 to 150 annually. The major markets have been office buildings, process cooling, and

supermarkets. The chillers may be installed in a machine room with an explosion proof (nonsparking) fan for constant ventilation on the exterior of the chiller. An alternative is outdoor

installation.

The cost of HC chillers may be higher than that of HCFC or HFC equivalents, partly due to

the fact that hydrocarbon chillers still are a niche product market.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 118

Hydrocarbons as HCFC-22 replacements exhibit favourable materials compatibility, oil

solubility, and comparable thermodynamic efficiency. The most significant problem with

hydrocarbons is their flammability which deters consideration for use in many applications.

Refrigeration safety standards have been developed for hydrocarbon systems. European

Standard EN 378 permits in indirect systems up to 5 kg in public areas, 10 kg in

private/commercial areas, and the quantity is not limited in restricted/authorised access only

areas. Detailed information on HC equipment design is provided in /ACR00/ and a UK Code

of Practice for the design of refrigeration systems using A3 refrigerants is available /IR00/. It

is reported that advances in refrigeration component design and the low density of

hydrocarbon refrigerants permit charge sizes as low as 0.05 kg/kW per circuit /Col98/.

Several international standards committees and working groups (e.g. IEC61D and

ISO/TC86/SC-1/WG-1) are discussing safety requirements for use of flammable refrigerants

in a wide range of applications including chillers.

The engineers and technicians involved in development, manufacture, design, installation,

operation, service, and removal of equipment employing flammable refrigerants require

guidance and training on the additional hazards and precautions associated with their use.

8.4.2 Options for New Centrifugal Compressor Chillers

Centrifugal compressors are the most efficient technology in large units, namely those

exceeding 1700 kW capacity. Water chillers employing these compressors are designed for

specific refrigerants.

8.4.2.1 CFCs and Blends Containing CFCs: CFC-11, CFC-12, CFC-113, CFC-114, and

R-500

The traditional centrifugal chiller refrigerants were CFC-11, CFC-12, HCFC-22 and R-500.

CFC-113 was used in a limited number of chillers produced years ago. CFC-114 was used in

some commercial chillers, but found wide use in Naval surface vessels and submarines.

Production of CFCs phased out in developed countries by the end of 1995 in response to the

Montreal Protocol.

CFC-11 and CFC-12 have been replaced by HCFC-123 and HFC-134a, respectively. The

relative condensing pressures at 38 °C are 0.145 MPa for HCFC-123, and 0.963 MPa for

HFC-134a. The lower pressure refrigerant (HCFC-123) is usable in centrifugal chillers from

350 to 15,000 kW; while the higher pressure refrigerant (HFC-134a) is usable in the chillers

up to 30,000 kW. Chillers employing these refrigerants are available with coefficients of

performance in 2001 ranging from 6.1 (0.58 kW/ton) for HFC-134a to 7.3 (0.48 kW/ton) for

HCFC-123. Product announcements indicate that chillers will be offered in 2002 or 2003

with COPs of 6.6 (0.53 kW/ton) for HFC-134a and 7.8 (0.45 kW/ton) for HCFC-123.

8.4.2.2 HCFC-22 and HCFC-123

HCFC-22 has been used in centrifugal chillers in capacities up to 32,000 kW. This refrigerant

is subject to phase-out in new chillers in the United States under the Clean Air Act in 2010

and refrigerant for service will be produced until 2020. Different schedules exist in other

countries.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 119

Manufacturers found it relatively easy to convert their centrifugal compressor and chiller

product lines to switch from HCFC-22 to HFC-134a. Centrifugal chillers have long operating

lives, so purchasers of HCFC-22 chillers have tended to change their specifications to call for

HFC-134a. As a result, the production of centrifugal chillers using HCFC-22 has essentially

ended.

HCFC-123 is used in centrifugal chillers from 350 to 15,000 kW. HCFC-123 combines a

low environmental impact with the ability to replace CFC-11 in existing chillers of recent

manufacture after suitable modifications are made. HCFC-123 currently is scheduled under

the US Clean Air Act to be phased out as a refrigerant for new chillers in 2020 with

production for equipment service until 2030. Installed, recovered, and stocked quantities may

be used indefinitely.

Different schedules exist in other countries, but the Montreal Protocol currently calls for

HCFC production for use in new equipment to cease in 2020, with continuing production for

a small "service tail" until 2030. HCFC production in Article 5(1) countries is scheduled to

be frozen in 2016 at 2015 levels and phased out in 2040.

8.4.2.3 HFC-134a

HFC-134a refrigerant is used in centrifugal chillers from approximately 350 kW to 30,000

kW capacity. HFC-134a systems operate at higher pressure than HCFC-123 systems and

must meet pressure vessel code requirements. Pressures are above atmospheric throughout

the system, so purge units and pressurising devices are not typically used.

8.4.2.4 HFC-236fa

Naval centrifugal chillers are built in the range from 440 kW to 2800 kW. Traditionally,

CFC-114 has been used in ship-board centrifugal chillers where it is desirable to have the

refrigerant pressure in the evaporator above atmospheric pressure to prevent inward leakage

of moisture-laden air and subsequent corrosion problems. These applications are steadily

being converted to HFC-236fa or are being replaced by HFC-134a chillers. Some work was

done with HCFC-124 on an experimental basis.

HFC-236fa is in commercial production for use as a refrigerant, a fire suppressant, and as a

specialty gas for semiconductor manufacturing. It has an ASHRAE-34 classification of

group A1, the least hazardous group. HFC-236fa has been well qualified for materials

compatibility by the U.S. Navy and is being used for long-service-life retrofits.

In the USA and most other countries, new shipboard chillers for the Navy are being designed

for HFC-134a.

8.4.2.5 HFC-245fa and Other Refrigerants

HFC-245fa is a chemical developed for use in appliance insulation foam blowing. It will go

into commercial production in 2003. This chemical can be used as a centrifugal chiller

refrigerant with operating pressures higher than for HCFC-123 and CFC-11 but lower than

for HFC-134a. Its use requires redesign of compressors to match its properties, a common
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 120

requirement for this type of compressor. In addition, the heat exchangers in an HFC-245fa

chiller must be designed to meet pressure vessel codes, unlike those for CFC-11 and HCFC123. No chiller manufacturer has announced plans to use HFC-245fa as a refrigerant.

Several refrigerant blends are offered for use in centrifugal chillers designed for CFC-22 or

CFC-12.

It is difficult for a new refrigerant such as HFC-245fa or one of the blends to become

accepted as a centrifugal chiller refrigerant. Such refrigerants must be available on a

worldwide basis, must be assured to be available for the life of the equipment, and must pass

manufacturers’ tests to assure equipment reliability. The design of centrifugal chillers for

new refrigerants and the cost of testing to assure reliability is difficult for manufacturers to

justify unless present alternatives no longer are acceptable.

8.4.2.6 Design Issues with Zeotropes, Hydrocarbons, and Ammonia for Centrifugal

Chillers

Zeotropic refrigerants are not suitable for use in the flooded evaporators that are used in all

centrifugal chillers. The temperature glide observed with zeotropes in flooded evaporators

manifests itself as a composition change between the liquid and vapour phases in the

refrigerant on the shell side of the evaporator. The composition change results in poor

performance of the chiller.

Hydrocarbon refrigerants are used in centrifugal chillers in petrochemical plants where a

variety of very hazardous materials are routinely used and the staff is highly trained in safety

measures and emergency response. Hydrocarbon refrigerants have not been used in

centrifugal chillers for air conditioning due to concerns about system safety with large

charges of flammable refrigerants. Hydrocarbons HC-601 (pentane) and HC-601a

(isopentane) have been proposed as alternatives for centrifugal chillers. These refrigerants

have been shown to give good performance provided that rotor speed is increased to

compensate for low molecular weight /Mac99/. The high boiling point of these hydrocarbons,

which are liquid at normal atmospheric conditions, reduces some flammability concerns

because leakage does not result in large vapour clouds. However, it also results in their

operation at sub-atmospheric pressure, opening the possibility of air leakage into chillers.

Subsequent compression of the hydrocarbon-air mixture poses a severe safety risk,

particularly with quantities required for centrifugal chillers /Cal00/.

Ammonia is not a suitable refrigerant for centrifugal chillers because of the large number of

compressor stages required to produce the pressure rise (“head”) required for the ammonia

chiller cycle.

8.4.2.7 Environmental Evaluation for Retention of HCFC-123 as a Refrigerant for

Centrifugal Chillers

Refrigerant HCFC-123 has a favourable overall impact on the environment that is attributable

to five factors: (1) a low ODP, (2) a very low GWP, (3) a very short atmospheric lifetime, (4)

the extremely low emissions of current designs for HCFC-123 chillers and (5) the highest

efficiency of all current options /Cal98/, /Cal00/. HCFC-123 became a key replacement for

CFC-11 due to its similar properties to CFC-11, which permitted it to replace CFC-11 in new

and existing chillers without extensive modification of equipment or equipment rooms. There
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 121

was no other replacement with these characteristics, so HCFC-123 was critical to the

transition away from CFCs in the chiller sector.

Although subject to production phase-out by 2020 for use in new equipment under the US

Clean Air Act, HCFC-123 remains the most efficient refrigerant for water chillers. Published

studies /Cal97, Cal98/ have shown that continued use of HCFC-123 in chillers would have

imperceptible impact on stratospheric ozone while offering significant advantages in

efficiency, thereby lowering greenhouse gas emissions from associated energy use. Based on

integrated assessments, considering the tradeoffs between negligible impacts on stratospheric

ozone and important benefits in addressing global warming, these studies recommend

consideration of a phase-out exemption for HCFC-123.

8.4.3 Options for New Heat Pumps

Developed country manufacturers have introduced HFC alternatives to replace their HCFC

heat pump models. HFC-134a and R-404A have been on the market for a number of years.

The first models with R-407C as refrigerant entered the market in 1996/7. For heat pumps

operating with higher temperatures (more than 55 °C), HFC-134a is the preferred refrigerant,

especially in medium and large capacity units.

Non-ODP and low-GWP refrigerants are used for their environmental benefits as alternatives

to CFCs and HCFCs in heat pump systems. The most commonly considered refrigerants in

this group are ammonia, hydrocarbons (e.g., propane, propylene, and blends of

hydrocarbons), and carbon dioxide. Annex 22, “Compression Systems with Natural Working

Fluids” under the IEA Implementing Agreement on Heat Pumping Technologies (1995-98),

among others, provides state-of-the-art information on compression heat pumps with

ammonia, hydrocarbons, CO2, and water, and establishes guidelines for design and safety

recommendations for new heat pump installations.

Several northern European manufacturers (in Denmark, Germany, Sweden, Austria, and the

United Kingdom) are producing small air/water or water/water units for residential and

commercial applications using hydrocarbons as refrigerants. The units are limited in size and

designed for low refrigerant charge.

Particularly in northern European countries, ammonia is applied in medium/large heat pump

units in commercial buildings and district heating systems, with capacities ranging from

about 200 kW to more than 1 MW.

8.4.3.1 HFC-134a

HFC-134a is similar to CFC-12 and R-500 in terms of thermodynamic and physical

properties, and is the main successor to CFC-12 in medium temperature heat pump systems.

HFC-134a is used in many new heat pump installations.

Above –10 °C evaporation temperature, the compressor efficiency and COP of a heat pump

system is close to that of CFC-12 /HAU93/. Extensive liquid subcooling is recommended to

improve system energy efficiency. The volumetric refrigeration capacity of HFC-134a

typically is 2-3% lower than with CFC-12 at 0 °C evaporation temperature so a slightly

higher compressor capacity is needed.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 122

8.4.3.2 Other Pure HFC and HFE Alternatives

HFC-152a was considered a promising alternative refrigerant to CFCs due to its favourable

thermodynamic and physical properties and low GWP factor. There are many examples of

successful small heat pumps with HFC-152a in Scandinavia and China /Nil91/, UNE91/,

UNE94/. Adequate safety precautions must be taken when designing and maintaining new

heat pump plants with HFC-152a because it is flammable.

Several pure HFC and HFE alternatives have been investigated to replace CFC-114 in hightemperature heat pumps. In the USA and Japan a number of partially-fluorinated propanes

plus two- and three-carbon ethers have been synthesised. Their properties suggest that as pure

fluids and blends they could be considered for heat pump applications. However, these

alternatives have not been commercialised yet and the cost of manufacturing them may be too

high for them to become practical alternatives /Biv97/.

8.4.3.3 HFC Blends

R-404A, R-407C, and R-410A are the preferred HFC blends to replace R-22 in heat pump

applications. The blends are less efficient than the HCFC-22 they replace. Systems have to

be optimised in order to bring the performance in line with HCFC systems through enhanced

surface heat exchangers, effective control systems, and improved compressor design.

R-404A is one of the most used HFC blends to replace R-502. It is a near-azeotrope with a

temperature glide of less than 1 K and a volumetric heating capacity that is about 15% higher

than that of R-502.

R-407C is a replacement for HCFC-22. R-407C has a temperature glide of 7.2 K at 1 bar,

while the saturation pressure and volumetric heating capacity are about the same as for

HCFC-22. The discharge temperature is somewhat lower than that for HCFC-22, as is the

Carnot efficiency.

R-410A is a binary blend that has near-zero temperature glide. Its normal boiling point is

approximately 10 °C lower than that for HCFC-22, resulting in a 50% higher pressure level.

The volumetric heating capacity is approximately 50% higher than for HCFC-22.

8.4.3.4 Ammonia

Ammonia heat pumps typically achieve a 3-5% higher energy efficiency than systems using

CFC-12, HCFC-22, or HFC-134a /UNE94/. The volumetric refrigeration capacity is

approximately the same as for HCFC-22 and about 40% higher than for CFC-12 and HFC134a. High pressure (40 bars) reciprocating compressors are commercially available, raising

the maximum condensing temperature from 55 °C(25 bar) to about 78 °C.

Ammonia yields high compressor discharge temperatures, and at high temperature lifts twostage compression is necessary to avoid operational problems. Consequently, initial costs will

increase by 15-20% and energy efficiency will increase 30-35% /UNE94/, /Ste98/. Semihermetic ammonia compressors of large swept volumes (power input up to 100 kW) as well

as soluble lubricants (polyglycols) have been introduced /Tie96/.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 123

Ammonia is popular in northern Europe and has been applied in a number of medium-size

and large capacity heat pumps, mainly in Scandinavia, Germany, Switzerland, and the

Netherlands /HPC93b/, /HPC94b/, /Kru93/, /Tok98/. In Norway, 10-20 ammonia heat pumps

with heating capacities ranging from 200 to 2000 kW are installed yearly. This is only 2% of

all new installations, but due to the large capacity of the ammonia heat pumps, the heat

delivery from these few heat pumps is close to 40% of the total heat delivery from all new

installations regardless of refrigerant. An increasing number of ammonia heat pumps are

integrated systems, simultaneously heating and cooling, installed in commercial buildings,

district heating and cooling systems, and industry.

System safety requirements for ammonia heat pumps are similar to those for ammonia

chillers which were discussed in Section 8.4.1.5 above.

8.4.3.5 Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are emerging as a viable option for replacement of CFCs and HCFCs in small,

low-charge residential heat pumps. The most important hydrocarbons for mediumtemperature heat pump applications are propane (HC-290), propylene (HC-1270), and blends

of ethane/propane. Several northern European manufacturers are using HC-290 or HC-1270

as refrigerants in small residential and commercial water-to-water and air-to-water heat

pumps.

The volumetric refrigerating capacity of HC-290 is approximately the same as for HCFC-22

and in a practical application HC-290 will yield about the same energy efficiency as HCFC22. Maximum condensing temperature with standard 25-bar equipment is about 68 °C. Heat

pump performance evaluations for hydrocarbons and comparisons vs. HCFC or HFC

refrigerants are the subject of continuing research.

When designing new heat pump systems with propane or other flammable refrigerants,

adequate safety precautions must be taken to ensure safe operation and maintenance. Typical

safety measures include addition of tracer gases, proper placement and/or gas tight enclosure

of the heat pump, application of low-charge system design, fail-safe ventilation systems, and

gas detector alarm activating systems. Several standards that regulate the use of

hydrocarbons in heat pumps exist or are being developed in Europe, Australia, and New

Zealand (KYS96, DIN 7003, UVV-VBG 20, BS 4434, prEN 378).

8.4.3.6 Carbon Dioxide Used in the Transcritical Process

Carbon dioxide was used as a refrigerant before CFCs entered the market 70 years ago. It

has no ODP or GWP, is non-flammable, low toxicity, and is compatible with normal

lubricants and common system construction materials. At 0 °C the volumetric refrigerating

capacity of CO2 is between five and eight times higher than for other refrigerants,

subsequently reducing the required compressor displacement. The pressure ratio also is

greatly reduced compared to conventional refrigerants, contributing to increased compressor

efficiencies. However, systems must be designed to withstand the high pressure (above 100

bar) required for CO2.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 124

The transcritical CO2 cycle exhibits a significant temperature glide on the high temperature

side. Such a glide can be of benefit in a counter-flow heat exchanger. A heat pump water

heater benefiting from temperature glide entered the Japanese market in April 2001. It raises

the temperature of tap water from 5-10 °C up to 70-80 °C and has a heating capacity of 4.5

kW /Kus01/.

Compressors capable of handling the high pressures of CO2 in applications such as a heat

pump water heater with a heating capacity of 22 kW are reported to be available from a

European company /Zak00/. Production of compressors from 5.6 kW to 15 kW for field

testing has begun /JAR02/.

A CO2 heat pump can produce hot water at temperatures up to 100 °C without operational

problems, while traditional heat pump systems often are restricted to hot water temperatures

below 55 °C. (Ammonia heat pumps can deliver 78 o

C hot water.)

8.4.4 Alternative Technologies

8.4.4.1 Absorption Chillers

Absorption-cycle chillers are mass-produced and well supported by a cadre of experienced

technicians. Heat-activated absorption water chillers are a viable alternative to the vapourcompression cycle for some installations. Three of the four processes that comprise the

traditional refrigeration cycle are used in the absorption system. The compression process is

replaced by a solution circuit consisting of an "absorber", a "generator", and a "solution

pump" which are complemented by an evaporator, a condenser, and an expansion control

device. The most commonly used working fluids are ammonia with a water absorbent in

small sizes and water with a lithium bromide absorbent in large capacities.

Absorption chillers once dominated the large chiller market. They were replaced by vapourcompression chillers reflecting technology advances and shifts in the relative cost of gas and

electricity. Single-stage absorption chillers powered by hot water or steam still outnumber

multistage machines driven by hot water or steam or single- and two-stage direct-fired

machines. Triple effect machines have been developed but not commercialised.

Because they have low efficiency, direct-fired single-stage absorption systems generally

cannot compete with electric vapour-compression systems on an economic basis.

Applications typically are limited to sites that can utilise waste heat in the form of hot water

or steam as the energy source. Such sites include co-generation systems where waste engine

heat or steam is available. In a few localities, natural gas rate structures are particularly

favourable compared to electric rate structures, making direct-fired, single-stage absorption

viable. A key factor in the economic viability of absorption is the penalty on electric vapourcompression chillers imposed by electricity demand charges [demand is continuously

averaged over an integrating interval (typically 15 minutes), and a demand charge per kW is

applied over the full billing period, or over a longer period, up to the following 12 months].

Demand charges are common in several countries for commercial and industrial customers.

Other local peculiarities, such as a shortage of electrical generating capacity or high initial

electrical connection charges, also favour the choice of absorption.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 125

During the past fifteen years, double-effect absorption chillers have been developed and

produced with primary-energy-based efficiencies that approach 50% to 60% of those of

vapour-compression systems. For example, double-effect absorption chillers have a COP of

1.0 to 1.2 based on heat source energy input. Electrical vapour-compression systems have a

COP of the order of 6.5 which must be multiplied by the heat-source-to-electricity delivery

efficiency of the power plant and distribution system - perhaps 33%.

Triple-effect absorption systems can achieve efficiencies closer to vapour-compression

systems. However, attainment of cost and performance goals in multi-stage machines

remains a challenge.

Absorption chillers are inherently larger and considerably more expensive than vapourcompression chillers so absorption systems have had only limited market success in the

western market as indicated in Section 8.1.4. In Asia, where electricity prices are much

higher or where electricity demand exceeds supply, absorption chillers dominate the market.

A factor which limits changeovers from CFC or HCFC vapour-compression chillers to

absorption is the inability to retrofit in many existing buildings because the access ways are

not large enough to allow for the absorption chiller to be delivered to the existing machine

room.

8.4.4.2 Absorption Heat Pumps

Absorption heat pumps for space heating mostly are gas-fired. Most of the systems use water

and lithium bromide as the working pair, and can achieve about 100 °C output temperature.

Absorption heat pumps for heating of residential buildings are not common. In industry

absorption heat pumps are employed on a minor scale only. In Sweden and Denmark a

number of installations are in operation to supply heat in district heating networks. They

recover heat from flue gas cleaning systems in refuse incineration plants or use geothermal

heat as the heat source.

8.4.4.3 Water as a Refrigerant for Chillers

Water is a thermodynamically attractive refrigerant which is non-toxic, non-flammable and

has no adverse impact on the environment. However, it is a very low pressure refrigerant,

with a condensing pressure of 4.2 kPa (0.042 bar) at 30 °C and a suction pressure of 1.6 kPa

(0.016 bar) at 9 o

C. Traditionally water has been used in specialty applications with steam

aspirators, rarely with vapour compressors except in the case of mechanical vapour recompression systems. The low pressures and very high volumetric flow rates required in

water vapour-compression systems require compressor designs that are uncommon in the air

conditioning field.

Recent applications use water as a refrigerant to chill water or to produce ice slurries by

direct evaporation from a pool of water. These systems today carry a cost premium of more

than 50% above conventional systems. Some installations have been in use for a few years

for cooling air in South African gold mines, cooling a toy factory in Denmark, and space

cooling of an office building in Germany. The system installed in Denmark is reported to

have energy consumption 30% lower than comparable ammonia systems. In the South
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 126

African system, circulation of an ice slurry instead of water reduced the mass of water

circulated, leading to a significant reduction in pumping cost.

8.5 Options for Existing Equipment (Retrofits)

Table 8-1 shows that there is still a large stock of chillers, particularly centrifugal chillers,

now in service which employ CFCs. No substitute refrigerant can be used as a "drop-in" for

CFCs. After CFC production for domestic consumption ceased in developed countries, the

functions performed by these chillers had to be supported in one of the following ways:

Retain/Contain: continued operation with CFCs in conjunction with containment

procedures and equipment to reduce emissions, using refrigerant which has been

stockpiled or is available after being recovered from other units converted to nonCFCs or retired.

Retrofit: modification to allow operation with alternative refrigerants (HFCs or

HCFCs [availability depends on national regulations]).

Replace: early retirement/replacement with new chillers, most likely using HFC or

HCFC refrigerants due to installation restrictions but possibly using ammonia or HC

vapour-compression or absorption if the circumstances permit.

The retrofit options which exist for each chiller are dependent upon the specific refrigerant

for which the chiller was originally designed. When any retrofit is performed, it is

recommended that the machinery room be upgraded to the requirements of the latest edition

of ASHRAE-STD-15 or equivalent other national or international standards such as ISO/DIS

5149. It is also recommended that the manufacturers of the equipment be consulted in any

retrofit program.

8.5.1 Positive Displacement Chillers

A positive displacement compressor inherently can be applied to handle a number of different

refrigerants and cycle pressure ratios so long as its motor has adequate power, the compressor

can meet pressure codes with the refrigerants, and the compressor materials and lubricant are

compatible with the refrigerants. Despite this flexibility there remain a number of issues in

retrofitting positive displacement chillers to operate with new refrigerants.

8.5.1.1 HFC-134a as a Replacement for CFC-12

The operating pressure levels and cooling capacities of HFC-134a and CFC-12 are similar.

Thus, HFC-134a can be used as a retrofit refrigerant for CFC-12 chillers. The mineral oil

lubricant used with CFC-12 must be carefully flushed from the system and replaced with a

suitable synthetic oil that is compatible with HFC-134a (mineral oil is not miscible with

HFCs, so cannot be used in HFC systems). If mineral oil and chlorides contained in the oil

are not adequately flushed from the system, viscous deposits of contaminants may be formed

in the system and clog small passages and controls. Other materials such as gaskets,

elastomeric seals, and filter-driers must be checked for compatibility with HFC-134a and

replaced if necessary. The chiller manufacturer should be consulted about the requirements

for a successful retrofit.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 127

After conversion, the cooling capacity and energy efficiency of the system will be close to

those of the system when charged with CFC-12.

8.5.1.2 R-407C, R-417A, HFC-134a, and Hydrocarbons as Candidate Replacements for

HCFC-22

Refrigerant HCFC-22 was employed in most new positive-displacement chillers until the

latter half of the 1990’s. Based on a very extensive search of alternatives, it became clear that

there is no direct substitution for HCFC-22 in screw chillers with flooded evaporators.

For equipment using HCFC-22 in DX evaporators, zeotropic and azeotropic mixtures of

HFCs have been developed. The comments in Section 8.4.1 concerning new equipment

explain the problems with zeotropic blends, such as R-407C, which cause their use as an

alternative in many HCFC-22 chillers to be accompanied by losses in capacity and energy

efficiency.

The acceleration of the phase-out of HCFC-22 in some countries could have serious

consequences for the stock of HCFC-22 chillers in service in these countries at the time of

the phase-out. Alternative retrofit refrigerants primarily are R-407C, discussed in the

previous paragraph, or HFC-134a. A conversion of a chiller from HCFC-22 to HFC-134a

will reduce cooling capacity by approximately one-third unless the compressor is replaced

with one having about 50% increased displacement. In a conversion from HCFC-22 to either

R-407C or HFC-134a, the mineral oil lubricant in the system must be removed and replaced

with a synthetic lubricant compatible with HFCs. It is recommended that the manufacturer of

the chiller be actively involved in any retrofit program.

Several blends including R-417A have been proposed as replacements for HCFC-22. It has a

temperature glide of 4-5 °C. Laboratory test results for chillers using this refrigerant have not

been reported.

New refrigerant blends coming into the market may have limited penetration because of

concerns about long-term availability for service purposes and the reluctance of chiller

manufacturers to warrant their equipment with refrigerants (and lubricants) they have not

tested thoroughly.

Hydrocarbon refrigerants generally are not appropriate for retrofitting CFC or HCFC chillers.

Substantial expense would be incurred to incorporate safety features in the equipment and

modify the machinery room to meet the safety standards imposed for flammable refrigerants.

8.5.1.3 R-404A or R-507A as Replacements for HCFC-22

Refrigerant blends R-404A and R-507A were developed as replacements for R-502, a blend

that contains a CFC. The new blends have been successful as R-502 replacements for

refrigeration duty. However, they are not attractive as replacements for HCFC-22 in chillers.

Their energy efficiency for chiller operating conditions is lower than that of HCFC-22 and

other alternatives discussed above.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 128

8.5.2 Centrifugal Chillers

Direct refrigerant substitution in centrifugal chillers can be made only in cases where the

properties of the substitute refrigerant are nearly the same as those of the refrigerant for

which the equipment was designed. Centrifugal compressors by nature must be designed

specifically for a particular refrigerant and a particular set of operating conditions for the

refrigerant cycle in which they are used.

The replacement option is frequently chosen for older CFC centrifugal chillers.

Manufacturers have developed new HCFC and HFC chillers offering significantly improved

energy efficiency compared to most CFC chillers in service. The savings in energy costs

often justify the complete replacement of an ageing CFC chiller with a new HCFC or HFC

chiller.

8.5.2.1 HCFC-123 for CFC-11 in Centrifugal Chillers

HCFC-123 became available in 1989 to retrofit existing CFC-11 chillers. It has different

solvent properties than CFC-11. Some non-metallic materials had to be replaced with

materials that are compatible with HCFC-123. Materials used in motors of older hermetic

chillers generally are not compatible with HCFC-123, requiring motor rebuilds or

replacement. System capacity may be reduced between 0% and 20% depending on heat

exchanger effectiveness and matching of the compressor to the load. Change-out of the

compressor to a higher capacity model or purchase of additional chillers may be necessary.

With a suitable compressor, cycle efficiency will be reduced about 1-2% in theory, negligibly

in practice. An optimised conversion designed for the specific machine will minimise the

loss of capacity and efficiency and in some cases may trade one for the other. If the original

chiller was somewhat oversized, which is a frequent circumstance, then the loss of capacity

due to retrofit may not be a problem and the efficiency of CFC-11 may be essentially

matched or even increased.

8.5.2.2 HFC-134a for CFC-12 and R-500 in Centrifugal Chillers

HFC-134a became available in 1989 to retrofit existing CFC-12 and R-500 chillers. Its use

requires about 15% higher tip speeds than CFC-12, so impeller and/or gearbox replacement

may be necessary. In some cases, the heat exchangers may be able to be re-tubed to reduce

head pressure. In either case, an engineered conversion is necessary to minimise loss of

capacity and efficiency.

The mineral oils used with CFC-12 are not miscible with HFC-134a. Polyolester oils are

used instead and compatibility problems have been understood and overcome. However,

residual mineral oil concentrations in HFC-134a systems should be reduced to less than 3-5%

even with POE oils, or else heat exchanger performance will be reduced. Most desiccants

commonly used in CFC-12 systems (e.g., activated alumina) are not compatible with HFC134a.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 129

8.5.2.3 Other Candidates to Replace CFC-12

Several refrigerants have been suggested as drop-in replacements for CFC-12 in centrifugal

chillers. One is R-416A, a blend which has a small temperature glide (2-3 °C). There is a

possibility that this temperature glide, and the cycle performance of this refrigerant which

was developed for automotive air conditioning, may cause its performance to be lower than

for CFC-12 originally used in the chiller. Laboratory test results for chillers with R-416A

have not been reported.

Another refrigerant said to be a drop-in replacement for CFC-12 is a mixture of HFC-134a

and HFC-227ea. It is offered by one refrigerant manufacturer now and is said to be a nearazeotrope. Laboratory test results for chillers using this refrigerant have not been reported.

However, it has been used as a CFC-12 retrofit in chillers in Europe and is said to be

satisfactory.

8.5.2.4 Candidates to Replace HCFC-22

Centrifugal compressors are designed for specific refrigerants. Unless the properties of the

retrofit refrigerant are very close to those of the refrigerant for which the compressor was

designed, the compressor must be modified or replaced in a retrofit situation. Zeotropic

refrigerant blends are unacceptable in the flooded evaporators of centrifugal chillers. For

these reasons, there are no simple conversions of HCFC-22 centrifugal chillers to use HFC

refrigerants or blends. The primary alternatives are to replace the chiller or to replace the

compressor with a larger compressor and convert the system to use HFC-134a. The

manufacturer of the system should play an active part in the conversion to assure success.

8.5.2.5 Other Refrigerant Possibilities for Centrifugal Chillers

HFC-236fa is being used as a retrofit refrigerant to replace CFC-114 in naval chillers.

Operating pressures are higher than those with CFC-114. Energy efficiency considerations,

equipment modification needs, and materials compatibility issues must be addressed in these

conversions.

8.5.3 Heat Pumps

The retrofit options cited for chillers at the beginning of this Section 8.5 apply to heat pumps

as well.

8.5.3.1 CFC-11 Alternatives

Examples of CFC-11 heat pump retrofits are rare. The trend seems to be replacement of CFC11 equipment with new HFC-134a equipment. A few units with R-407A have been installed

where the customer preferred it, and also R-410A has been applied in new small units.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 130

8.5.3.2 CFC-12 and R-500 Alternatives

HFC-134a is a retrofit candidate for replacing CFC-12 in heat pumps. Mineral oil in the

system must be replaced with polyolester lubricant. Proper cleaning of the heat pump system

is crucial because residual mineral oil and moisture may create sludge deposits and serious

operating problems. Standardised cleaning methods have been developed and a number of

small, medium, and large capacity heat pumps have been retrofitted successfully. Experience

shows that capacities and COPs are better after a retrofit from CFC-12 to HFC-134a because

of the service and cleaning that the system undergoes during a well-done retrofit.

HCFC blends were developed as a near-term retrofit for CFC-12. These blends can use both

mineral oil and alkylbenzene lubricants which make the cleaning process less critical than for

a conversion to HFC-134a. Manufacturers in most cases recommend alkylbenzene to ensure

adequate lubrication and oil return to the compressor. The HCFC blends are near-azeotropic

so only minor system modifications are needed. Common ternary blends are R-401A, R401B, and R-409A. Volumetric refrigeration capacity and theoretical energy efficiency are

about the same as for CFC-12, but the blends have a temperature glide of 2-4 °C.

Hydrocarbons have been suggested as retrofits for CFC-12. Retrofits from CFC-12 to

hydrocarbons are more likely to be to an HC-290/600a blend than HC-290 because the blend

better matches the characteristics of CFC-12. Hydrocarbons are compatible with mineral oil

lubricants and materials commonly used in refrigeration equipment so retrofits do not require

a lubricant change. Due to flammability, retrofit to hydrocarbons may be limited by local

ordinances and safety codes. It is necessary to ensure that all retrofits conform to relevant

safety standards as discussed above in Section 8.4.3.5.

8.5.3.3 R-502 Alternatives

HFC blends for retrofitting heat pumps using R-502 have been available since 1993. The

retrofitting procedure for HFC blends is similar to HFC-134a retrofitting with a change of

lubricant from mineral oil to polyolester lubricant. The most frequently used retrofit blend in

heat pumps is R-404A, a near-azeotrope with a negligible temperature glide and a volumetric

cooling capacity that is about 15% higher than that of R-502. R-404A may result in a

capacity decrease and increase in specific energy consumption giving COPs about 10-20%

lower than R-502 depending on system design and operating temperatures.

HCFC-22 and HCFC blends can use either mineral oil or alkylbenzene lubricants which

makes the cleaning process less critical than for HFC-134a. The volumetric capacity of

HCFC-22 is slightly higher than that of R-502 and the system pressure is nearly the same.

Thus, it is not necessary to replace the compressor when retrofitting from R-502 to HCFC-22

and only minor system modifications are needed. However, high discharge temperatures

when operating at high temperature lifts may cause operational problems. A number of

HCFC blends were developed as near-term replacements for R-502. Common nearazeotropic blends are R-402A, R-402B, and R-408A. The retrofit procedure is simple and

inexpensive.

Hydrocarbons such as R-290, a blend of R-290/R-170, and R-1270 are possible retrofit

candidates for R-502 in heat pumps. The volumetric refrigeration capacity of propane is
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 131

almost the same as for R-502 so no compressor modifications are needed. Section 8.4.3.5

discussed the safety issues that arise in a conversion from R-502 to a hydrocarbon refrigerant.

8.5.3.4 HCFC-22 Alternatives

R-407C is the most common HFC blend used for replacing HCFC-22 in heat pumps. R-407C

has a large temperature glide (5-7 °C) which may lead to liquid slugging in the compressor

when a thermostatic expansion valve is used. The saturation pressure and volumetric cooling

capacity are about the same as for HCFC-22. The discharge temperatures are lower with R407C than with HCFC –22, as is the COP of systems after retrofitting. R-407C has

retrofitting procedures similar to HFC-134a which include a change of lubricant from mineral

oil to polyolester lubricant.

Hydrocarbons R-290, a blend of R-290/170, and R-1270 are possible retrofit candidates for

HCFC-22. The volumetric refrigerating capacity of propane is nearly the same as that of

HCFC-22 so no compressor modifications are needed. The maximum achievable condensing

temperature when using standard 25-bar equipment increases from about 61 °C to 68 °C,

Hydrocarbons are compatible with mineral oil and the materials commonly used in

refrigeration equipment. Section 8.4.3.5 discussed the safety issues that arise in a conversion

from R-502 to a hydrocarbon refrigerant. Heat pumps in Germany have been converted

successfully to propane /HPC93c/.

8.6 Future Need For CFCs

Production of CFCs for domestic use ceased in the developed countries by the end of 1995 in

response to adjustments to the Montreal Protocol made in London in 1990 and Copenhagen

in 1992. Major chiller manufacturers stopped production of CFC chillers in 1993. However,

much of the existing stock of installed equipment still needs CFCs for servicing. It is

difficult to know whether recycling efforts will provide a sufficient supply of CFCs to meet

the servicing needs until the remaining machines are replaced or retrofit. At some point in

the future, recovered refrigerants from chillers being retired are expected to create a surplus

of CFC refrigerants.

8.7 Article 5(1) Countries

Chillers and water-heating heat pumps are used less in the developing countries than in the

developed countries but the technologies tend to be the same, with the equipment often

imported or produced locally in a joint venture with a developed-country chiller

manufacturer. Thus, the latest technologies in equipment, refrigerants and servicing

equipment and practices are available to all countries (e.g. ARI and UNEP jointly conducted

workshops on “Chillers and Refrigerant Management” in Thailand, Kenya, Bahrain,

Indonesia and Zambia /UNE95/). Because chillers tend to be employed in large and

sophisticated cooling systems, they require, and generally have, more skilled maintenance

staffs in all countries than is true for some types of cooling equipment. Thus, there is less

difference seen in the service practices in developed and developing countries than might be

true for domestic refrigeration, for example.

While production of CFCs is permitted in the Article 5(1) countries until 2010, their use in

new equipment is decreasing to permit these countries to benefit from the latest designs and
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 132

technologies available in the world. In fact, some Article 5(1) countries are already banning

the import or manufacture of equipment using CFC refrigerants. Developing countries that

wish to export products to developed countries have a further incentive to accelerate their

transition away from CFCs.

Asia (India) /Aga01/

India is one of the large volume CFC-consuming countries similar to China. It is a producer

of CFCs and HCFCs as well as a manufacturer of large capacity centrifugal, screw, and

reciprocating compressor-based chillers. There are a number of manufacturing facilities

within the country for all types of compressors and systems. Some of these manufacturing

facilities are 100% owned by Indian companies and some are joint ventures with

multinational companies. Market information for India is given in Section 8.1.4.4. Inventory

estimates for equipment and refrigerants appear in Section 8.1.5.3.

East Asia /JAR01/

The chiller market size has been substantial in Hong Kong, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore,

Indonesia, and the Philippines. Demand fell in 1998 and 1999 because of economic

conditions but began to recover in 2000. The market for reciprocating and screw chillers in

most of these countries is on the order of several hundred units. Centrifugal chiller demand is

between several tens of units and a few hundred units per year.

Africa: /Dev98/ and /Kau98/

In general, it may be assumed that most African countries rely on imported technology and

machinery for chiller applications. Thus, the installed base will be largely HCFC-22 for

smaller machines and CFC-11 and CFC-12 for larger machines, with HCFC-123 and HFC134a beginning to appear in new centrifugal chillers.

Large machines employing water and ammonia refrigerants are known to be used in

industrial applications. In South African gold mines, large machines using CFC-11, HCFC22, and HFC-134a refrigerants are being used. One water machine producing an ice slurry

was manufactured in Israel.

Brazil: /Pei02/

Estimates based on surveys conducted for preparation of the National CFC Phase-out Project

indicate that there are about 700 CFC (60% CFC-11 and 40% CFC-12) centrifugal chillers

used in industrial process refrigeration and building air-conditioning. It is recognised that

there may be a small number of chillers, especially older ones, which have not been caught

by the survey. The survey also indicated that some 28 tonnes of CFC-11 and 60 tonnes of

CFC-12 were consumed in servicing these chillers during 2000. This includes the “top-up” of

refrigerant losses during equipment operation as well as the venting of all, or part, of the

refrigerant charge during service and repair activities. The use of CFCs for the cleaning of

systems during repair, as well as the overcharging of refrigerant, may also contribute to this

consumption.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 133

CFC chillers continued to be installed up until 1993. The majority of the existing chillers

were installed in the late 1980s and the early 1990s. While there has been replacement of

older CFC chillers with noon-CFC chillers during the past 8 years, this was because of the

age of the chillers being replaced rather than for environmental reasons. Very few CFC

chillers have been retrofitted to use non-CFC refrigerants. As the average lifetime of a chiller

in Brazil is around 25 years, a substantial number of CFC chillers installed between 1982 and

1993 will still have remaining anticipated working lifetimes of between 1 to 11 years when

CFCs are phased-out in Brazil in 2007.

8.8 References

/ACR00/ “Guidelines for the Safe Use of Hydrocarbon Refrigerants”, Air Conditioning

and Refrigeration Industry Board, London UK, 2000

/Aga01/ Summary of Indian Situation from R.S. Agarwal; September, 2001.

/ARI98/ "Water Chiller Packages Using the Vapour Compression Cycle", Standard

550/590-98, Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI), Arlington

VA, USA, 1998

/ARI01/ ARI Annual Statistics 1998, 1999, and 2000

/ASH02/ ASHRAE Journal 44(1):8, January 2002

/Biv97/ D.B. Bivens and B.H. Minor, “Fluoroethers and Other Next-Generation

Fluids”, Refrigerants for the 21st Century ASHRAE/NIST Refrigerants

Conference, Gaithersburg MD USA, October 6-7, 1997

/BRE00/ BRE Environmental Engineering Centre Report 76122, “Ammonia Refrigerant

In Buildings – Minimising the Hazards” by D.J.G. Butler and D.J. Hall, March

2000

/Cal91/ J.M. Calm, “Refrigerant Charge in Air-Conditioning Equipment with Selected

Refrigerant Alternatives”, report JMC/AFEAS-9106C, Alternative

Fluorocarbons Environmental Acceptability Study (AFEAS), Washington

D.C. USA, July 1991

/Cal93a/ J.M. Calm, “Comparative Global Warming Impacts of Electric VapourCompression and Direct Fired Absorption Equipment”, report TR-103297,

Electric Power Research Institute, Palo, Alto, CA USA, August 1993.

/Cal93b/ J.M. Calm, “Global Warming Impacts of Chillers”, Heating/Piping/Air

Conditioning Engineering, 65(2):28-39, February 1993.

/Cal97/ J.M. Calm and D.A. Didion, “Trade-Offs in Refrigerant Selections: Past,

Present and Future”, Refrigerants for the 21st Century, NIST, Gaithersburg,

MD USA, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning

Engineers (ASHRAE), Atlanta, GA, USA, 6-19, October 1997; International

Journal of Refrigeration, 21(4):308-321, June 1998.

/Cal98/ J.M. Calm, D.J. Wuebbles and A.K. Jain, “Impacts on Global Ozone and

Climate from Use and Emission of 2,2-Dichloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane (HCFC123)”, Journal of Climate Change, 42:439-474, June 1999

/Cal99/ J.M. Calm, “Emissions and Environmental Impacts from Air-Conditioning and

Refrigerating Systems”, Proceedings of the Joint IPCC-TEAP Expert Meeting
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 134

on Limiting the Emissions of HFCs and PFCs (Petten, The Netherlands, 26-28

May 1999), Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) of the World

Meteorological Organisation, Geneva, Switzerland, and Technical and

Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) of the United Nations Environmental

Programme, Nairobi, Kenya, 125-138, 1999

/Cal00/ J.M. Calm, “Options and Outlook for Chiller Refrigerants”, Proceedings of the

Earth Technologies Forum (Washington, DC, USA, 30 October – 1 November

2000), Alliance for Responsible Atmospheric Policy, Arlington, VA, USA,

239-248, October 2000; Engineered Systems, 18(5):88-99, May 2001

/Col98/ D. Colbourne, Personal Communications, TOC Meeting, Hilpoltstein,

Germany, October 1998.

/Col01/ D. Colbourne, Comments on first-order draft of TOC Report, September 21,

2001

/Dev98/ S. Devotta, anecdotal information on NH3 and H2O chillers, June 14, 1998.

/Doo01/ E. Dooley, “2001 Survey of Chiller Manufacturers”, ARI Koldfax, May 2001

/Fis91/ S.K. Fisher. P.J. Hughes, P.D. Fairchild, C.L. Cusik, J.T. Dieckmann, E.M.

McMahon, and N. Hobday, "Energy and Global Warming Impacts of CFC

Alternative Technologies", Alternative Fluorocarbons Environmental

Acceptability Study (AFEAS) and U.S. Department of Energy (DOE),

Washington, DC, USA, December 1991

/Gil93/ P.V. Gilli, “State of the Art Heat Pump Technology in the IEA Countries”.

IEA EUWP Meeting, Berlin, October 7/8, 1993. Working Party on End-Use

Technologies

/Hau93/ H.T. Haukas, “R-134a from Theory to Application”. KULDE 1/93 p.26-28.

/HPC93a/ IEA Heat Pump Centre, “Domestic Hot Water Heat Pumps in Residential and

Commercial Buildings”. Analysis Report no. HPC-AR-2, April 1993

/HPC93b/ IEA Heat Pump Centre, “Newsletter”, Vol 11, No. 4, December 1993, p.7

/HPC93c/ IEA Heat Pump Centre, “Newsletter”, Vol 11, No. 2, July 1993, p.8

/HPC94a/ IEA Heat Pump Centre, “International Heat Pump Status and Policy Review”.

Analysis Report no. HPC-AR3, September/December 1994. ISBN 90-73741-

11-4

/HPC94b/ IEA Heat Pump Centre, “Newsletter”, Vol 12 No. 1, March 1994, p.8

/HPC98/ IEA Heat Pump Centre, “National Position Papers from several countries,

which served as background material for the update of the International Heat

Pump Status and Policy Review

/HRAI00/ “Determining a Baseline Number for CFC Chillers in Canada”, B. Sormon and

HRAI Chiller Manufacturers Task Team, July 20, 2000

/IEA98/ IEA Annex 22, Compression Systems with Natural Working Fluids, Final

Report, “Guidelines for Design and Operation of Compression Heat Pump, Air

Conditioning, and Refrigerating Systems with Natural Working Fluids”, by J.

Stene, December 1998, Report No. HPP-AN22-4, Cpt. 4, “Ammonia as a

Working Fluid”
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 135

/IIA99/ "Equipment, Design, and Installation of Ammonia Mechanical Refrigerating

Systems", ANSI/IIAR Standard 2-1999, International Institute of Ammonia

Refrigeration (IIAR), Arlington, VA, USA, 1999

/IR00/ “Code of Practice for the Design of Refrigeration Systems Using A3

Refrigerants”, Institute of Refrigeration, UK, 2000

/JAR00/ Japan Air Conditioning, Heating & Refrigeration News (JARN), 25 November

2000, Serial No. 382-S

/JAR01/ Japan Air Conditioning, Heating & Refrigeration News (JARN), 25 November

2001, Serial No. 394-S

/JAR02/ Japan Air Conditioning, Heating & Refrigeration News (JARN), 25 January

2002, Serial No. 396, 34(1)

/Kau98/ M. Kauffeld, anecdotal information on NH3 and H2O chillers, June 12, 1998.

/Kru93/ H. Kruse, “European Research and Development Concerning CFC and HCFC

Substitutes”, Refrigerants Conference on R-22/R-502 Alternatives,

Gaithersburg MD, USA, August 19-20, 1993

/Kui00/ L.J.M. Kuijpers, "Aspects of Choosing Refrigerants", Proceedings of the Earth

Technologies Forum (Washington D.C., USA, 30 October - 1 November

2000), Alliance for Responsible Atmospheric Policy, Arlington, VA, USA,

227-237, October 2000

/Kus01/ K. Kusakari, H. Sakakibara, and K. Hashimoto. “Innovative Hot Water Supply

Technology Conducive to Arresting Global Warming – Development and

Significance of CO2 Heat Pump Water Heater”, 18th World Energy Council,

Buenos Aires, Argentina, October 2001

/Lin01/ A. Lindborg, Comments on First-Order Draft of TOC Report, November 2001

/Mac99/ I. Maclaine-Cross, “Replacement Refrigerants for Water Chillers”,

Proceedings of the Joint IPCC/TEAP Expert Meeting on Options for the

Limitation of Emissions of HFCs and PFCs, Petten, Netherlands,1999

/Nil91/ M. Nilson, “Experiences with Application of R-152a”, Norwegian

Refrigeration Meeting ’91, Hell Rica Hotel, 1991

/Pei02/ R. deA. Peixoto, report for TOC Chapter 8, September 9, 2002

/San97/ J.R. Sand, S.K. Fisher, and V.D. Baxter, "Energy and Global Warming

Impacts of HFC Refrigerants and Emerging Technologies", Alternative

Fluorocarbons Environmental Acceptability Study (AFEAS) and U.S>

Department of Energy (DOE), Washington, DC, USA, 1997

/Ste98/ J. Stene, Results from ongoing IEA Annex 22 “Compression System with

Natural Working Fluids”

/Tie96/ T. Tiedemann, M. Burke, H. Kruse; “Recent Developments to Extend the Use

of Ammonia”, Proceedings of the 1996 International Refrigeration Conference

at Purdue, Purdue University, West Lafayette IN, USA July 1996

/Tok98/ T. Tokle, “Ammonia Heat Pump at Oslo Airport Gardermoen”, IEA HPC

Newsletter, September 1998
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 136

/UNE91/ United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) “Report of the

Refrigeration, Air Conditioning, and Heat Pumps Technical Options

Committee”, 1994

/UNE94/ United Nations Environment Programme, IE/PAC: “Catalogue of CFC-Free

Technologies for the Refrigeration, Air Conditioning, and Heat Pump Sector”.

NTH-SINTEF Refrigeration Engineering, July 1994

/UNE95/ Training Manual on Chillers and Refrigerant Management (in English, French,

Spanish and Chinese), UNEP/ARI, 1995.

/Zak00/ G.R. Zakori, P. Neksa, H. Rekstad, K. Lang-Ree, and T. Olsen, “Results and

Experience With the First Commercial Pilot Plant CO2 Heat Pump Water

Heater”, Proceedings of the 4th IIR-Gustav Lorentzen Conference on Natural

Refrigerants, Purdue University, USA, 59, July 2000
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 137

9 Vehicle Air Conditioning

9.1 Introduction

Vehicle mobile air conditioning systems (often referred to as MACs) include all air

conditioning (A/C) of road vehicles, such as automobiles, trucks, and buses. Bus A/C has

been included for completeness even though buses account for only a small portion of the

global market.

Conventional automobile and truck A/C systems are similar in design, components, cooling

capacity, and refrigerant charge. To provide the required comfort, these systems must have

the capability of cooling down a previously parked, hot vehicle. Typical cooling capacities

for these systems are on the order of 2.5 – 10 kW. Buses do not have a cool down

requirement, as they are cooled down before passengers board and only have to maintain a

comfortable temperature. Because of their size and the greater number of passengers (up to

50), their cooling capacity is typically 5 times higher than that of automobile and truck A/C

systems and their refrigerant charge is about 10 times greater. Many of the bus system

components (e.g., heat exchangers, valves, fittings, tubes) resemble those of residential A/C

systems more than automobile A/C systems. The compressor is typically an open type 4 or 6

cylinder, reciprocating compressor with a displacement of 400 to 800 cc, driven by the

vehicle engine (pulley and belt). Fin-and-tube heat exchangers, with or without louvered fins,

are used, as are thermostatic expansion valves. A high percentage of bus A/C systems are

roof-top units. In recent years, the air conditioning of smaller, 20 to 30 passenger buses has

become increasingly important.

Vehicles built before 1995 used CFC-12 as the refrigerant. Since then, in accord with the

intent of the Montreal Protocol, essentially all new vehicles with A/C have been equipped

with HFC-134a, a zero ODP chemical, as the refrigerant.9

 As a result, HFC-134a has now

replaced CFC-12 as the globally accepted MACs refrigerant and the industry is busy

expanding global production to meet the increasing demand. As this demand grows, so will

the need to provide the servicing infrastructures (equipment and training) necessary to

properly maintain these systems throughout the world. CFC-12 vehicles will generally be

scrapped and off the road by 2008 except for those countries still producing CFC-12.

Retrofitting CFC-12 systems to use HFC-134a has been addressed in the 1998 TOC Report.

Assuming successful phase out of CFCs by 2008, essentially all vehicles on the road are

expected to be using HFC-134a, the MACs industry will stabilise, and the transition from

CFC-12 will be complete. There is a possibility that an alternative refrigerant system might

be introduced prior to 2008 to compete with HFC-134a.

Concerns about global warming associated with HFC-134a emissions have created the need

to assess the impact of the MAC industry on man-made greenhouse gas emissions. This

involves assessing industry emissions as well as emission-reduction initiatives for

environmental impact and cost-effectiveness. Such initiatives include both improving the

current system and investigating possible alternative refrigerant systems that offer lower

climate impact. Greenhouse gas emissions from MAC systems come from refrigerant leakage

 

9

Note: New vehicles manufactured in some Developing Countries continued use of CFC-12 beyond 1995.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 138

and carbon dioxide emissions from the fuel used to operate (and carry the weight of) the

MAC system. Both must be taken into account to measure the climate impact of alternatives.

Recovery and recycling (R&R) of CFC-12 was deemed so important to preventing

unnecessary emissions that many countries passed laws against intentional refrigerant venting

to the atmosphere. The Multilateral Fund of the Montreal Protocol funded technician training

and the purchase of CFC-12 R&R equipment for service facilities in Article 5(1) Countries.

Similar funds are not currently available for HFC-134a, or for any other refrigerant under

consideration as a replacement for HFC-134a. Preventing unnecessary HFC-134a emissions

via R&R is becoming increasingly widespread and represents a ‘best practice’ in

environmental protection. All countries should consider the value of requiring on site

refrigerant recovery and recycling at repair shops.

9.2 Options for Future Vehicle Air Conditioning Systems

The cost of changing from the current HFC-134a system to a new replacement refrigerant

will be significant for the entire industry, from investments in manufacturing to equipment

and training for the service industry. It is important to remember that the conversion from

CFC-12 to HFC-134a, which did not involve major system changes, cost the U.S. industry

alone an estimated $5 billion; $3.5 billion for manufacturers (for development, testing

validation, retooling and manufacturing) and $1.5 billion (for tools, equipment and training)

for the service industry /VOG96/. Changes required for the CFC-12 to HFC-134a conversion

were minor, consisting of improving compressor designs and lubrication, and developing

more efficient condensers.

Enabling the global service industry to understand and effectively repair alternative

refrigerant systems that incorporate new technologies will be an enormous challenge. With

approximately 233,000 automotive service shops and over 1 million service technicians in the

/MOT01/ United States alone, training would represent a major undertaking. Service

standards, procedures, equipment and training must be developed and implemented in

widespread fashion to provide service for such systems wherever they are sold and operated.

9.2.1 Safety Aspects of Future Vehicle Air Conditioning Systems

CFC-12 and HFC-134a systems are regarded as being safe for the intended use. Replacement

refrigerant systems must also provide a comparable level of safety, both for vehicle

occupants and service technicians. SAE J639, SAE J1739, QS 9000 and refrigerant

manufacturer’s safety data information all serve as reference documents for designing safe

systems.

9.2.2 Trans-critical Carbon Dioxide Systems (Figure 9-1)

Trans-critical carbon dioxide (CO2) systems are being developed for production by several

vehicle manufacturers in co-operation with global component and system suppliers. The

trans-critical carbon dioxide system looks similar to today’s system but operates at much

higher pressures, up to five times that of HFC-134a systems on the high pressure side of the

system, and up to ten times on the low pressure side. As a result, they require completely

redesigned components using new manufacturing processes to withstand the increased

pressure, as well as additional components and controls to allow operation at, or near,
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 139

optimum energy efficiency. Investment for capital equipment will be substantially greater

than for the changeover from CFC-12 to HFC-134a. Additional components and more

sophisticated system controls required are expected to increase consumer cost versus the

current HFC-134a systems.

Many patents have been issued for CO2 A/C and heat pump systems over the past 5 years,

attesting to the strong interest in developing CO2 systems.

9.2.3 Systems Using Flammable Refrigerants

The use of flammables (mainly HFC-152a and HC-290) has been proposed for vehicle air

conditioning. While they are excellent refrigerants, they do carry the burdens of flammability

and explosion, particularly for use in current vehicle A/C system designs. Today’s system

designs are not certified to safely use flammable refrigerants. The potential for leakage into

the passenger cabin presents a potential safety hazard for the occupants.

Future systems could continue to utilise direct expansion with designed-in safety or adopt

system designs based on secondary loop technology. For direct expansion systems, safety

enhancements might include normally closed shut-off valves in the system that are closed

when the system is off and when the air bags deploy (or an equivalent safety system). These

valves would divide the system into isolated containment zones and protect the passenger and

engine compartments in the event of a collision. A secondary loop system (Figure 9-2)

would overcome the concern of leakage into the passenger cabin by allowing the refrigerant

to be contained under hood and completely separated from the airflow that provides cooling

to the passenger compartment.

9.2.3.1 Propane (HC-290)

One noteworthy aspect of using propane, the best hydrocarbon choice for secondary loop

systems, is its availability; it is used universally for heating and cooking. As a result, its safe

handling is widely understood and practised by the general global population, whether

literate or not. This could be an advantage in the Article 5(1) countries of the world. For

systems using propane, the charge for a mid-size vehicle would be relatively small, on the

order of 300 grams, based on the molecular weight of the refrigerant and the lower refrigerant

charge required by the secondary loop system. However, due to its extreme flammability, the

use of propane would likely be restricted to secondary loop systems.

9.2.3.2 HFC-152a (Figure 9-3)

HFC-152a offers a more attractive option than propane. HFC-152a is an HFC with a very

low global warming impact (120 vs. 1300 for HFC-134a) and much lower flammability than

propane /ANSI97/.

9.3 Refrigerant Recovery and Recycling

Efforts in the early 1990’s by SAE, industry, and the US EPA led to the development of

equipment and procedures to recover and recycle refrigerant used in vehicle air conditioning

systems. Before R&R equipment was available, refrigerant was simply vented to the

atmosphere prior to, and often during, service.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 140

Real service shop experience obtained from the Mobile Air Conditioning Society-Worldwide

(MACS-W) 2000 Field Survey of member shops sheds more light on the effectiveness of

refrigerant recovery and recycling. A detailed review of their findings shows that 68% of the

313 vehicles in for service had recoverable charge that averaged 88% of the original specified

charge. The average for all vehicles serviced (including those coming in with no residual

charge) was 66% of the original charge. Assuming 6% refrigerant losses during the recycling

process, the amount of refrigerant recycled and ready for reuse averages 60% of the original

specified charge. Therefore, the average need for new refrigerant for recharging at service

would be 40% of the original charge. Exhibits 1 & 2 and Table 9-1 detail revised HFC-134a

emissions scenarios based on this new information. In addition, the average amount of

refrigerant required in current vehicles was found to be 1.05 kg for CFC-12 systems and 0.91

kg for HFC-134a systems.

MACs have been designed to use a single component refrigerant. Blends of refrigerants have

been sold internationally as direct replacements for both CFC-12 and HFC-134a MACs. In

most instances, these blends contain HCFCs. They have not been tested for use in MACs and

anecdotal reports from service shops indicate a higher rate of system failures associated with

their use. Since the components of blend refrigerants can escape from the system at different

rates, the composition of the blend continually changes. This makes on site recovery and

direct reuse impractical. Without the ability for a service facility to recover/recycle, or

properly dispose of, these blend refrigerants, technicians have little choice but to release the

remaining system charge to the atmosphere.

Recycling is currently required in the U.S. and some other nations of the world. In 1990, 50%

of the world’s population of vehicles with air conditioning was located in the U.S. As the

world vehicle population reaches the anticipated one billion by 2015, over 2/3 of these

vehicles will reside outside of the United States. Given this, refrigerant recovery/recycling in

all developed and developing countries must be considered, and, where possible, should be

made mandatory to minimise the release of refrigerant to the atmosphere.

9.4 Article 5(1) Country Issues

The situation in the developing countries (Article 5(1) countries) differs significantly from

that of developed countries. Developing countries tend to have older vehicles that are not as

well maintained. A/C service sometimes consists of simply adding refrigerant to a leaky

system without repairing the leak. Service without R&R equipment means refrigerant must

be vented into the atmosphere. Given such conditions, as much as 80% of the total CFC-12

consumed in some of these countries is used to refill MAC systems. CFC-12 is also known

to be used to refill HFC-134a systems in some countries, due to its lower price and greater

availability. Thanks to the Montreal Protocol, production of CFC-12 (and, ultimately, its

availability) will cease and be replaced by HFC-134a, which has only 16% of the global

warming potential of CFC-12. This, coupled with the significantly reduced HFC-134a

charges and improved system designs, will dramatically reduce the environmental impact of

MACs in developing countries.

Recovery and recycling of CFC’s and HFCs, a very effective service procedure to limit

emissions, is not currently practised in many developed and developing countries. The

economic attractiveness for the service sector to perform R&R is often not sufficient, given
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 141

the low cost and availability of CFC-12, particularly in Article 5(1) countries. Mandatory

programs can result in increased use of R&R, but may be difficult to enforce. It is expected in

the future that the decreasing supply of CFC-12 and the higher cost of HFC-134a, combined

with international political pressure to limit emissions, will provide added incentive not to

waste refrigerants by unnecessary venting.

9.5 Conclusions and Outlook

Different MAC systems are on the horizon as vehicles become equipped with hybrid electric

and fuel cell propulsion systems, each with its own heating and air conditioning needs.

These changes will occur first in developed countries long before they are affordable in other

parts of the world. MAC systems associated with these changes will likely include electric

hermetic systems and heat pump systems, in addition to the current non-hermetic enginedriven A/C system. The current industry emphasis appears to be focussed on improving

HFC-134a systems and developing carbon dioxide systems.

The decision of which refrigerant(s) to choose will be made based on considerations, such as

A/C system fuel usage, cost, heat pump capability, safety, servicing, and any legal concerns.

The greatest effect will be in the service sector, where more than one type of vehicle air

conditioning system technology could exist in a given country due to importation of vehicles

from different vehicle manufacturers. Providing appropriate service equipment and service

technician training for multiple types of MACs will be essential to the successful introduction

of any new technology.

A significant number of nations have country refrigerant management programs in place

(e.g., mandated refrigerant recycling and service technician training) that allow them to

handle HFC-134a in an environmentally responsible manner.

Each nation will have to determine its own approach to reducing its emissions of ozone

depleting substances and greenhouse gases. Experience from the Montreal Protocol showed

us that the ability of nations to accommodate change varies widely. These nations will

certainly be no less financially challenged as they cope with reducing their emissions of

greenhouse gases.

Deciding which type of vehicle air conditioning system should be installed in new vehicles

requires careful consideration. It is important that vehicle makers and governmental agencies

have access to factual information about current and future air conditioning technologies, and

that they work together to achieve the desired success. This will allow informed decisions

leading to future vehicle air conditioning systems that will be a benefit for the consumer and

the environment.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 142

9.6 References

/ANSI97/ ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-1997, “ Designations and Safety Classifications

of Refrigerants”, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air

Conditioning Engineers, 1791 Tullie Circle NE, Atlanta, Georgia, USA

/MOT01/ Motor Service Data, Adams Business Media 250 Wacker Drive

Suite 1150 Chicago, IL 60606

/VOG96/ Vogelsberg, F. A., “An Industry Perspective- Lessons Learned and the Cost of

CFC Phaseout”, 1996 CFC and Halons Conference, Proceedings, pages 881-

889, 1996
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 143

 Shut-off valve 

Gas Cooler

Variable Displacement Compressor

HVAC-Module in Vehicle

Blower

Incoming Air Accumulator

Heat Exchanger

 (Intercooler) )

Passenger Cabin

Safety Assurance

 System ?

Oil Separator

Expansion

Device

Transcritical Carbon Dioxide System

Figure 9-1

Condenser

Compressor

Blower Chiller

Reservoir Pump

HVAC Module

In Vehicle

Incoming Air

Accumulator

 Secondary Loop System

Figure 9-2
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 144

Figure 9-3
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 145

Exhibit 1 - Current HFC-134a Emissions Scenario

Current (2000) Emission Parameters

• 2 Recharges / 12 year lifetime

• Average system serviced contains 66% of the original specified charge

• Average system charge = 0.91 kg

• Recycling process losses = 6% of original specified charge

• Charge recoverable at scrap = 40% of OE charge (estimated)

Note: To find the system problem, refrigerant is often added to bring the system to full charge. Without R&R,

this charge is vented to the atmosphere. The estimated impact on lifetime emissions is an additional 0.50 OEM

charge.

 Lifetime Emissions = OE Charge + (2)(0.40)(OE Charge) - 0.4 (OE)

 (With Recycling)

 Initial OE Charge Service Recharges Recovery at Scrap

Emissions Estimates

 Case 1: No Recycling at Service, No Recovery at Scrap

 Lifetime Loss = 0. 91 + (2.5)(1)(0.91) - 0 = 3.19 kg HFC-134a

 Annual Emissions = 0.266 kg HFC-134a 345 kg CO2-equiv.

 Case 2: Recycling at Service, Recovery at Scrap

 Lifetime Loss = 0.91 + (2)(0.40)(0.91) - 0.4(0.91) = 1.27 kg HFC-134a

 Annual Emissions = 0.106 kg HFC-134a 138 kg CO2-equiv.

Exhibit 2 - Future HFC-134a Emissions Scenario

Future (~2008) Emission Parameters

• 1 Recharge / 12 year lifetime

• Average system serviced contains 66% of the original specified charge

• Average system charge = 0.80 kg

• Recycling process losses = 6% of original specified charge

• Charge recoverable at scrap = 40% of OE charge (estimated)

Note: To find the system problem, refrigerant is often added to bring the system to full charge. Without R&R,

this charge is vented to the atmosphere. The estimated impact on lifetime emissions is an additional 0.50 OEM

charge.

 Lifetime Emissions = OE Charge + (1)(0.40)(OE Charge) - 0.4 (OE)

 (With Recycling)

Initial OE Charge Service Recharges Recovery at Scrap

Emissions Estimates

 Case 1: No Recycling at Service, No Recovery at Scrap

 Lifetime Loss = 0.8 + (1.50)(0.80) - 0 = 2.00 kg HFC-134a

 Annual Emissions = 0.167 kg HFC-134a 217 kg CO2-equiv.

 Case 2: Recycling at Service, Recovery at Scrap

 Lifetime Loss = 0.8 + (0.40)(0.8) - 0.4(0.8) = 0.800 kg HFC-134a

 Annual Emissions = 0.067 kg HFC-134a 87 kg CO2-equiv.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 146

Table 9-1 HFC-134a and HFC-134a CO2-equivalent Emissions from Mobile Air Conditioning vs.

Refrigerant R&R

Current HFC-134a Systems (2001) *

Total industry

average HFC134a emissions

kg/vehicle/year

HFC-134a to

service vehicle

for its lifetime

% OE

charge/year

Total industry

CO2-eq

emissions

Kg/vehicle/year

(from HFC-134a

emissions only)

Lifetime

HFC-134a

emissions

kg/vehicle

Lifetime

CO2-eq

emissions

mt/vehicle

(from HFC-134a

emissions only)

No

R&R

0.267 29 345 3.19 4.15

 50%

R&R

0.187 21 242 2.23 2.90

100%

R&R

0.106 12 138 1.27 1.65

Future HFC-134a Systems (2008 +) *

No

R&R

0.167 21 217 2.00 2.60

50%

R&R

0.117 15 154 1.40 1.82

100%

R&R

0.067 8 87 0.80 1.04

Estimated global utilisation of Refrigerant Recovery and Recycling in the MACs industry is

expected to be 60% in 2002, rising to 75% by 2008-10.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 147

10 Refrigerant Conservation

10.1 Introduction

Refrigerant conservation is an effort to extend the life span of used refrigerant by establishing

efforts to recover, recycle, and reuse refrigerants. Refrigerant conservation is now a major

consideration in refrigerating system design, installation, and service. The benefits of

refrigerant conservation include not only environmental protection, but conservation

decreases the dependency on newly manufactured refrigerant. There has been a great deal of

success in the creation and implementation of conservation programs since the 1994-1998

assessment, most visibly in the creation of governmental regulations to restrict the use or

reuse of CFCs and mandate training for service technicians. Developed countries have begun

to see the results and consequences of conservation programs. Article 5(1) countries have the

opportunity to leverage the knowledge gained from developed countries during their

implementation of conservation programs.

10.2 What’s New Since the Last Assessment

Africa

Many countries, including but not limited to Benin, Chad, Egypt, Mozambique, Uganda, and

Zimbabwe, have established refrigerant recovery and recycling programs that train

technicians and make refrigerant recovery equipment and service equipment available. These

national programs are responsible for the phase-out of tonnes (ODP-weighted) of CFCs from

stationary and mobile sources.

As a specific example, Kenya has banned service on refrigeration and air-conditioning

equipment by anyone other than government certified service technicians. The government

has also established centralised refrigerant recycling stations. The government has promoted

the availability of portable refrigerant recovery units that are affordable for service

technicians. The refrigerant recovery units were donated to select workshops that have

trained technicians on staff. The government reserves the right to repossess the equipment

and ban the technicians from the trade, if it is found that good service practices are not

employed.

An impediment remains in CFC-12 remains relatively inexpensive. Increases in the illegal

smuggling of CFCs originating in Eastern Europe has occurred. Therefore, continued

training of Customs officials is necessary.

Brazil

The Brazilian government has established a refrigerant conservation program that banned the

use of disposable refrigerant cylinders. The Brazilian Association of Domestic End

Commercial Appliances has certified an estimated 1500 service shops, employing nearly

3000 service technicians. It is estimated that these certified shops recycle nearly 3.5 MT of

CFC-12 per month from the domestic refrigeration and air-conditioning sector.

Through a National CFC Phaseout Plan, approved in July 2002 by the Multilateral Fund, the

Brazilian government is planning to establish eight refrigerant reclamation centres within the

next two years. In certain regions of the country, recycling and reclamation activities have

begun in advance of the full implementation of the National CFC Phaseout Plan. The
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 148

national plan anticipates the training of 35,000 refrigeration service technicians and the

distribution of refrigerant recovery equipment to the technicians. The national plan includes

efforts to establish a CFC recovery program in conjunction with the installation of the

refrigerant reclamation centres. In addition, Brazil has a destruction facility that accepts

contaminated refrigerant for incineration by rotary kiln.

Eastern Europe

Several Eastern European countries, including Slovenia and Russia, have been successful in

implementing new refrigerant recovery programs. Mandatory recovery procedures,

distribution of refrigerant recovery units, and to a large degree service technicians have been

trained. However financing continues to be a problem, since there is no state support for

recovery programs. In addition, illegal importing from Yugoslavian states has become a

source of concern.

United States

The United States has seen an increase in the degree of community outreach and has seen the

implementation of many CFC restricting regulations. There are currently regulations

requiring technician certification, restriction on sales, mandatory recycling and servicing

requirements, and safe disposal requirements. Proper retrofit procedures from CFCs to

substitute substances have been created and distributed by chemical and equipment

manufacturers. The U.S. has recognised an impediment in its conservation efforts. While the

U.S. bans the import of virgin ODSs, the U.S. does allow used CFCs to be imported once

approved by the government. Such efforts have extended the life span of CFC equipment,

and have allowed equipment owners to hold off on retiring CFC equipment.

Japan

The recycling law concluded its first year since enforcement in April 2001, with good results

in the recovery of CFC and HCFC refrigerants from discarded residential air-conditioners

and refrigerators – 603 metric tonnes of CFC and HCFC refrigerants were extracted and

destroyed. In a move to accelerate recycling, the Japanese cabinet approved an additional

bill, requiring automobile manufacturers and importers to accept used cars to recycle

different parts including CFCs. The law becomes effective during 2003, and will add a

consumer-recycling fee to the price of each new car sold in Japan.

10.3 Introduction

Refrigerant conservation is now a major consideration in refrigerating system design,

installation, and service. Environmental impacts from refrigerant release include not only

ozone depletion, but also global warming. Safety issues come into play for refrigerants such

as hydrocarbons or ammonia. Conservation also addresses the servicing needs of existing

equipment; for as CFC and HCFC production is reduced to eventual termination, refrigerant

supplies will dwindle and recovered quantities will be necessary for both developed and

Article 5(1) countries.

While progress has been made in limiting refrigerant emissions over the last several years,

refrigerant conservation is an issue that continues to require recognition. Conservation can

be applied to all kinds of refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment and to all phases of the

equipment life cycle through (1) design and construction of leak-tight and easily serviced
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 149

systems, (2) leak detection and repair, (3) recovery during service, and (4) recovery at

disposal.

Recovery/recycling/reclaim requirements have now been implemented for a few years in

different countries and have shown results. However, many countries have yet to implement

such requirements. Few countries have developed comprehensive containment policies

including both recovery and leak tightness. Initiatives generally originate from the field

where refrigerant begins to be regarded as too expensive to be wasted.

10.3.1 Definition of Refrigeration Conservation and Nature of Emissions

Refrigerant emissions to the atmosphere are often called losses without distinguishing the

causes. However emission types are very different, and it is important to identify them in

order to limit them. Refrigerant emissions consist of the following:

• Fugitive emissions whose source cannot be precisely located;

• Tightness degradation due to temperature variations, pressure cycling, and vibrations that

can lead to unexpected and significant increases of leak flow rates;

• Component failures from poor construction or faulty assembly;

• Losses due to refrigerant handling during maintenance (e.g., charging the system), and

servicing (e.g., opening the system without previously recovering the refrigerant);

• Accidental losses (e.g., natural disasters, fires, explosions, sabotage, and theft); and

• Losses at equipment disposal are due to venting, rather than recovering refrigerant at the

end of the system’s life.

10.3.2 Reduction of Emissions Through Leak Tightness

Experience in different countries has shown that air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment

manufactured over the past few years have been designed to be tighter than air-conditioning

and refrigeration equipment manufactured earlier. Existing appliances have often been

modified with new devices, such as high-efficiency purge devices for low-pressure chillers

that have significantly lowered refrigerant emissions. Design changes have been made in

response to growing environmental, regulatory, and economic concerns associated with

refrigerant emissions.

For instance, research performed by the U.S. EPA indicates that the reduction in leak rates in

the USA has been most dramatic in comfort cooling chillers. Leak rates have been lowered

from between 10 and 15% per year, to less than 5% per year in many cases through design

changes.

In The Netherlands the results of some earlier monitoring projects have been previously

reported. Those studies involved a large sample of transport refrigeration units and

commercial refrigeration systems, and refrigerant emissions were compared over time for

units built before and after introduction of the Dutch regulatory program. In the case of

transport refrigeration, the refrigerant emission rate was reduced from an average of 6% to

3% of the charge per year. For selected commercial supermarket systems the average

emission rate was reduced from 15% of refrigerant charge to 3% on an annual basis. In

another monitoring project, large refrigerating systems (average charge of 2 metric tonnes) of

various ages up to 10 years old were inspected during 1994-1996. The average annual
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 150

leakage rate was found to be 8.6%. Information on similar but older equipment built over the

period 1986-1992 indicated an average leakage rate of 12.2%, and the report concluded that

the reductions in refrigerant losses experienced for the more recently constructed systems

was attributable to the more stringent technical requirements specified under the 1994

Regeling Lekdichtheidsvoorschriften Koelinstallaties (RLK) technical requirements for

refrigeration equipment.

More recent monitoring data has been gathered from the detailed NOKS study which was

conducted for the government to investigate the volumes of CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs being

used throughout the country for refill purposes in all application sectors (excluding auto airconditioning and marine installations). Relating these data directly to refrigerant emissions it

was concluded that the average annual leakage rate for the reference year 1999 was 4.8%

(equivalent to approximately 615 tonnes nationwide). Furthermore the NOKS study revealed

that the emissions were attributable to only 8% of the installations, and 92% had no

emissions at all that year /IEA02/.

10.3.3 Reduction of Emissions Through Recovery and Reuse

Recovery and reuse of used refrigerant greatly reduces the emissions of refrigerant resulting

from venting during maintenance, service, repair, or disposal. To recover refrigerant means

to remove refrigerant in any condition from an appliance and to store it in an external

container. The purpose of recovery is to extend the lifespan of the refrigerant and decrease

the dependency on virgin refrigerant, by placing it back into service.

Reclamation practices, which process used refrigerant back to near virgin specifications, are

necessary to protect the quality of the refrigerant stock as well as the equipment containing

the refrigerant. Likewise, reclamation also extends the lifespan of the refrigerant and

decreases the dependency on virgin refrigerant by placing it back into service and prolonging

the use of used CFCs.

For countries that have implemented mandatory reclamation requirements have found

incremental increases in the amount of refrigerant reclaimed. The case of France, where

reclaimed refrigerant totals have been gathered, shows an evolution in the efficiency of the

recovery program /SAU96/. In 1992, without any regulation, 200 metric tonnes of recovered

refrigerant (CFCs & HCFCs) were reclaimed. In 1993, after making recovery mandatory and

carrying out a deposit-refund scheme, the quantity grew to 300 tonnes and the number of

refrigeration companies concerned doubled from 200 to 400 out of 2500. In this example

government incentives were necessary to reach full development of recovery schemes. It

also shows that making recovery a habit requires some time.

An extensive survey conducted in Australia /BEN01/ traced the paths of imported

refrigerants through the sales and application chain. The survey assessed the amount and

type of product that may be placed back into service, and concluded that service contractors

are recovering approximately 400 tonnes of product (CFCs and HCFCs) annually from

systems during servicing.

Japan reported that 690 tonnes per year of CFCs are recycled or reclaimed for reuse in

refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment. This represents 56% of the total estimated

recovered quantity of 1230 tonnes/year.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 151

The United States government has mandated reclamation and certification of refrigerant

reclaimers since 1993. The U.S. has seen an increase in the reclamation of HCFC

refrigerants, but a decline in the amount of CFC refrigerants reclaimed due to the phase-out

of the manufacture of CFCs in the U.S.

10.4 Options in Encouraging Refrigerant Conservation

Countries with established markets have national programs and policies in place for the

recovery, recycling, and reclamation of refrigerants, but individual approaches to

organisation and control mechanisms, responsibility levels, regulatory legislation, financing

arrangements, and operating procedures vary considerably from one country to another.

In addition to phasing out production of ODS under the Montreal Protocol, governments

chose to reduce ozone-depletion by strongly encouraging containment through different

means. In the first years, research and development (R&D) programs were funded to identify

emission sources and develop containment measures. Other R&D programs were developed

to evaluate efficient recovery, recycling, and reclamation equipment. Governments also

worked with industry groups to develop recovery techniques, and establish standards for the

recovery and reuse of ozone-depleting refrigerants.

Information dissemination was another means used to educate the public on the

environmental health and safety issues associated with ozone-depletion. These efforts

created a general knowledge of both how and why measures should be taken to contain used

refrigerant; thus, these efforts improved containment where ignorance of environmental

issues was the primary problem.

Direct regulation also became a point of emphasis for governments. Many governments

improved containment through direct regulation. Governments have found that adoption of

industry standards and R&D results are easily incorporated into regulation as a means of

mandating refrigerant containment. While governments have found direct regulation to be a

successful means of containment, it requires a strong commitment to legal or financial

enforcement incentives in order to reach significant results.

10.4.1 Financial Incentives

Financial incentives can encourage containment by making emissions more costly for users

or by making containment efforts financially beneficial. They may include sales taxes on

refrigerants at the point of purchase or import across the country’s border; deposit-refund

schemes to discourage disposal of refrigerant containers, and tax breaks for investing in

recovery/recycling equipment or other refrigerant containment technologies.

Deposit-refund schemes involve collecting a deposit when a product is purchased and paying

a refund when the used product is returned. The refund serves as an incentive to the user to

collect and return used refrigerants. The deposit not only finances the refunds, but also

encourages more careful handling of the product by increasing the cost of new refrigerant.

Two issues that must be faced in establishing a deposit-refund system are (1) how (or

whether) refrigerants are traced back to the original manufacturer for collection of the refund

and (2) how refunds for the bank of refrigerants in existing equipment, for which no deposit
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 152

was collected, can be financed. Industry-sponsored deposit-refund schemes in Australia,

Denmark and France resolved these issues by setting up a centralised fund for deposits.

In the U.S., the manufacture or import of virgin CFCs is prohibited. In addition, the U.S.

annually increases the CFC-excise tax that has been effective in increasing containment of

CFC refrigerants and making retrofits to lower ozone-depleting substances more financially

appealing. The tax when combined with the phase-out of the manufacture of CFCs has

forced an increase in the recycling and reuse of used CFC-refrigerants. This increase in reuse

has addressed a significant source of emissions by inflating the costs of imported CFCs; thus,

making it less expensive to reuse CFCs or retrofit equipment to refrigerants with lower

ozone-depleting potentials than to buy and use imported CFCs.

Tax breaks for investing in refrigerant containment equipment and technologies are another

government means of coercing containment. Since tax breaks that are linked to specific

technologies have the potential to limit technology that enters that marketplace, they can

leave the market less flexibility than either sales taxes or deposit-refund schemes. Care

should be taken to set taxes, tax breaks, and deposit-refund amounts at levels that will

maximise conservation without being unduly burdensome. In addition, governments using

financial incentives must work to prevent the rise of a black market in untaxed, and therefore

relatively inexpensive refrigerant. Left unchecked, such a market will eventually undermine

the environmental incentives implemented by the incentive. In order to limit the extent of

black market sales, such tax efforts should not be attempted without a strong enforcement

component with the power to fine and or imprison violators.

Financial incentives may be easier than direct regulations to develop and more flexible than

direct regulation. Financial incentives allow markets to find the most cost-effective

containment measures and maintain the incentive to innovate. Moreover, governmental

financial incentives become more important as refrigerant prices drop. Such is the case for

HCFCs and HFCs in many Non-Article 5(1) countries, and for CFCs in many Article 5(1)

countries, because higher refrigerant prices tend to encourage conservation, while lower

prices tend to discourage it. However, it can be difficult to set financial incentives at a level

that encourages containment without being unduly burdensome, and financial incentives will

be undermined if a black market in illegally imported refrigerants is allowed to operate. In

Article 5(1) countries where CFC prices are so low that people use them to replace HFCs

(especially in car air conditioning), tax on CFC purchases may be useful.

10.4.2 Direct Regulation

For purposes of refrigerant containment, direct regulation may include governmental efforts

establishing the following:

- Mandatory service and disposal practices for air-conditioning and refrigerating equipment;

- Certification programs for air-conditioning and refrigerating equipment and

recovery/recycling equipment;

- Required training and/or operator certification programs for service technicians; and

possibly

- Restrictions or limitations on who can purchase or sell ODS refrigerants.

To the extent possible, standards should be performance based rather than technology based

to encourage innovation. As is the case for financial incentives, care should be taken to set
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 153

standards that maximise conservation without being unduly burdensome. Direct regulations

establish "floor" standards and practices across industry, and training and/or certification

requirements increase general knowledge of both how and why to contain. However, they

are often less flexible than financial incentives, and more difficult to develop and enforce,

given the large quantities and wide distribution of air-conditioning and refrigerating

equipment.

Non-Article 5(1) countries have taken a number of steps aimed at reducing emissions of ODS

refrigerants via direct regulation. These regulations cover a wide spectrum from restricting

the supply of refrigerants by limiting the importation and restricting the sales of refrigerants;

requiring emissions reduction practices during the service and disposal of appliances; and

mandating recovery, recycling, and reclamation of used refrigerant.

Such restrictions may also have negative impacts such as the creation of illegal markets for

refrigerants; fraudulent business practices by service companies, refrigerant distributors, and

appliance recyclers; and the financial impact of enforcing such regulations. Such regulations

should not be attempted unless the governmental body is willing to invest in the enforcement

of the regulations and strict prosecution of those who violate such regulation. As long as the

price of keeping the regulated substance is lower than the price of the substitution, the risk is

high of not seeing changes made.

10.4.3 Examples of Existing Regulation

Refrigerant emissions are already regulated in a number of countries, mostly as a component

of the implementation of the CFC phase-out. Existing regulations include service technician

certification, required equipment service and disposal practices, leak tightness requirements,

restrictions on the sales of refrigerants and certification schemes for service companies.

10.4.3.1 Required Service Practices and Leak Tightness

In the European Council (E.C.) Regulation no. 2037/2000 on substances that deplete the

ozone layer /EC00/, the E.C. requires that all precautionary measures practicable shall be

taken to prevent leakage of CFCs and HCFCs; however, the member states may define the

minimum qualification requirements for the servicing personnel involved. An annual leak

tightness inspection is made mandatory for installations containing CFCs or HCFCs. Three

national programs are summarised below but regulations also exist in other European

countries such as Denmark, Germany and Sweden.

In the Decree of December 7, 1992, /FD92/ the French government made the recovery of

CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs mandatory for equipment greater than a two kilogram (2 kg)

charge. The decree mandates that recovery be performed by experienced operators and

registered companies. This decree, updated in 1998, makes an annual leak tightness

inspection mandatory except for domestic appliances and automotive air-conditioning. It

also specifies the sensitivity requirements of detection equipment. The decree is being

updated in order to meet the new 2037/2000 regulation, which will mandate the recovery of

all types of refrigerant regardless of the equipment charge.

The Netherlands described the conditions for the leak tightness of systems in a decree of

December 18, 1994 /DR94/. This text is characterised by detailed requirements for materials
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 154

and components, design, installation, machinery rooms, tests and maintenance, inspection. It

contains requirements dealing with the maintenance rules, the leak tightness controls and the

installation inspection depending on the charge of refrigerant. The occurrence of leak

tightness is also specified: once a year for charges under 3 kilograms, once every 3 months

for more than 30 kg, once a month for more than 300 kg. Machinery rooms are mandatory

for charges of more than 300 kg, and an area monitor is required when the charge is more

than 1,000 kg. The area monitor sensitivity (100 p.p.m.), the minimum number of probes (5),

and the installation of the probes (at least one at floor level, at least one in the ventilation

exhaust duct) are specified. Certified operators who are equipped with leak detectors of five

p.p.m. sensitivity perform the leak tightness tests. Before commissioning new installations or

changing refrigerant, leak tightness test must be performed at the maximum working pressure

of the equipment.

The United Kingdom Environmental Protection Act of 1990 mandates several measures for

the conservation of CFC, HCFC, and HFC refrigerants. These include a prohibition on

venting refrigerant during service or decommissioning of systems, a prohibition on adding

refrigerant to a leaking system before thoroughly examining the system to locate and repair

the leak, a requirement to use a vacuum pump to evacuate moisture and non-condensables

from a system before adding refrigerant, a requirement to use a refrigerated purge unit (as

opposed to manual purging) to purge non-condensables from the system, and a general

requirement to limit emissions during a number of procedures for system servicing and

operation.

In the U.S., refrigerant emissions are controlled by direct regulations requiring recovery,

recycling, and reclamation. The U.S. has also created regulations mandating repairs of

equipment that leak above allowable rates. U.S. regulations require that appliance

manufacturers provide a service aperture to expedite recovery of refrigerant. As for

servicing, before repairing or disposing of air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment,

technicians must recover the refrigerant using government approved refrigerant recovery

equipment. The percentage of refrigerant that must be recovered or the level of evacuation

that must be achieved varies depending upon the type of equipment being serviced. For leak

repair, the U.S. regulations require owners of equipment containing charges of more than 50

pounds to either repair, retrofit, or replace their refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment

when they leak in excess of an applicable maximum allowable rate. These maximum annual

allowable rates are 35% of the charge for commercial and industrial refrigeration and airconditioning applications and 15% for other applications. To track leak rates, owners of air

conditioning and refrigeration equipment with more than 50 pounds of charge must keep

records of the quantity of refrigerant added to their equipment during servicing and

maintenance procedures.

10.4.3.2 Restrictions on the Sales and Imports of ODSs

The U.S. has limited the sales of refrigerant to technicians who have been certified in order to

improve the level of awareness against refrigerant emissions. In addition to this sales

restriction, the government has placed conditions on the manufacturers of substitute

refrigerants. New non-ODS refrigerants, which replace CFCs, must be authorised for

specific industry sectors and end-uses. The government also mandates that manufacturers of

new refrigerants place unique fittings on containers to prevent refrigerant mixture, and

subsequent emissions resulting from mixtures.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 155

The U.S. also restricts the amount of imported ODSs into the country. Only used class I

ODSs (primarily CFCs, halons, and methyl bromide) are allowed for U.S. import. The U.S.

has banned the import of virgin ODS, with the exception of pre-approved essential uses.

Perspective importers must petition the U.S. EPA for approval prior to transport from the

country of origin.

Restrictions are also placed on new refrigerant blends, which must be authorised by the U.S.

EPA prior to introduction into interstate commerce. Manufacturers of refrigerant blends that

are anticipated to replace ODSs are required to submit data to EPA on the health and safety

of such substitutes before they can be legally sold in the U.S.

10.4.3.3 Certification of Service Companies and Technicians

More and more governments have become aware that handling regulated products may well

mean creating certification for technicians and/or companies.

In the U.S., a technician certification program for technicians as well as companies who

perform maintenance, service, repair, or disposal that could be reasonably expected to release

refrigerants into the atmosphere is well established. The program requires different levels of

certification depending on the type of equipment that the technician intends to service or

dispose: motor vehicles; small household appliances; or low-pressure, high-pressure, and

very high-pressure appliances. The U.S. emphasises this technician certification by limiting

the sales of ODS refrigerants to certified technicians.

In France, companies will have to be registered and to prove that their staff is certified for

handling refrigerant, according to the type of system they service. There again, certified

companies alone will be allowed to buy refrigerants.

In Poland, a total 1,840 persons were trained, out of which nearly 94% passed the final

examination and received the “Green Card”. This certificate ascertains the serviceman’s

ability to repair and execute the maintenance of refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment

in accordance with all the ecological requirements. Those who successfully pass the training

and certification procedure acquire important information (the new types of ecological

refrigerants, the main international agreements aiming at protecting the ozone layer) /BU01/.

10.5 Containment

Refrigerant emissions from cooling systems must be minimised to protect the environment.

Fortunately, containment is consistent with the function and structure of air-conditioning and

refrigeration systems. Cooling systems are designed as sealed units to provide long term

operation. Containment is affected by the design, installation, and service of the refrigerating

system. Guidelines and standards are being updated with consideration to environmental

matters and improved containment.

Containment is defined by an emission rate, which can be measured and limited. Cooling

system manufacturers have defined minimum tightness requirements to guarantee permanent

operation during defined periods. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

E 479 "Standard Guide for Preparation of A Leak Testing Specification" serves as a
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 156

manufacturer's reference document. The standard determines the maximum allowable

leakage flow for a cooling system based on the period during which the system must operate

without refrigerant recharge (five years for a hermetically sealed system and three years for

other systems); the refrigerant quantity that may be lost by leakage during this period without

significantly affecting the operational efficiency of the system the refrigerant used; and the

maximum operating pressures and temperatures in the system.

10.5.1 Design

Every attempt should be made to design tight systems, which will not leak during the life

span of the equipment. The potential for leakage is first affected by the design of the system;

therefore, designs must also minimise the service requirements that lead to opening the

system. Manufacturers select the materials, the joining techniques, and service apertures.

They also design the replacement parts and provide the recommended installation and service

procedures. Manufacturers are responsible for anticipating field conditions and for providing

equipment designed for these conditions. Assuming that the equipment is installed and

maintained according to the manufacturer's recommendations, the design and proper

manufacturing of the refrigerating system determines the containment of the refrigerant over

the intended life of the equipment.

Among recommendations for containment, leak tight valves should be installed to permit

removal of replaceable components from the cooling system. The design must also provide

for future recovery, for instance by locating valves both at the low point of the installation

and at each vessel for efficient liquid refrigerant recovery.

10.5.2 Charge Minimising

Minimising the refrigerant charge will also reduce the quantity of possible emissions.

Because little attention has historically been given to the full charge of equipment, its

quantity is not often known (except for small manufactory-built equipment)

Overcharging of equipment is common, as the amount of refrigerant contained in refrigerant

receivers is not always known. Refrigerant receivers are vessels that contain useless

refrigerant stocks. Charging is often continued until the evaporator supply is considered

satisfactory. Without the check of weighing the charge, installation could be overfilled with

two harmful consequences: (1) a potential release of refrigerant, and (2) the impossibility of

transferring the entire charge into the receiver. The receiver-filling ratio, therefore, has to be

limited during nominal operation, and an inspection tool (indicator, level, etc.) must be

provided.

10.5.3 Installation

Proper installation of refrigerating systems contributes to the proper operation and

containment during the useful life of the equipment. Tight joints and proper piping materials

are required. Proper cleaning of joints and evacuation to remove air and non-condensable

will minimise the service requirements later on. Proper charging and weighing techniques

along with careful system performance and leak checks should be practised during first few

days of operation. The installer also has the opportunity to find manufacturer's defects before
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 157

the system begins operation. The installation is critical for maximum containment over the

life of the equipment.

10.5.4 Servicing

Service must be improved in order to reduce emissions. Such improvement, however,

depends in part on the price end-users agree to pay, as emission reduction has always proved

so far more expensive than topping-off cooling systems with refrigerant. It is necessary to

make end-users understand that their previous practice of paying to top-off systems must

cease, and those funds must be spent on improved maintenance. It is to be noted that such a

step has already been taken in some cases, especially in countries like the U.S. where an

escalating tax on refrigerant makes containment more cost-effective.

Technician training is essential for the proper handling and containment of refrigerants. Such

training should include information on the environmental and safety hazards of refrigerants,

the proper techniques for recovery, recycling and leak detection, and local legislation

regarding refrigerant handling (if applicable).

Refrigerating systems must be tested regularly to ensure that they are well sealed, properly

charged, and operating properly. The equipment should be checked in order to detect leaks

in time and thus to prevent loss of the entire charge. During maintenance and scrapping of

the system, refrigerant should be isolated in the system or recovered.

The technician must study the service records to determine history of leakage or malfunction.

The technician should also thoroughly check for leaks and measure performance parameters

to determine the operating condition of the cooling system. The technician will want to

determine the best location from which to recover the refrigerant and assure that proper

recovery equipment and recovery cylinders are available. The existence of a maintenance

document enables the user to monitor additions and removals of refrigerant with recovery as

well as searches for and repairs of leaks.

10.6 Leak detection

Leak detection is a basic element, both in constructing and servicing cooling equipment, as it

makes it possible to measure and improve containment of refrigerant. Leak detection must

take place at the end of construction by the manufacturers, at the end of assembly in the field,

and during regularly scheduled maintenance of equipment.

There are three general types of leak detection: 1) Global methods indicate that a leak exists

somewhere, but they do not locate the leaks. They are useful at the end of construction and

every time the system is opened up for repair or retrofit; 2) Local methods pinpoint the

location of the leak and are the usual methods used during servicing; 3) Automated

performance monitoring systems indicate that a leak exists by alerting operators to changes in

equipment performances.

10.7 Refrigerant recovery

The need to handle refrigeration containment has led the industry to develop a specific

terminology which is used in this section /ISO/:
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 158

- Recover means to remove refrigerant in any condition from a system and store it in an

external container.

- Recycle means to extract refrigerant from an appliance and clean it using oil separation and

single or multiple passes through filter-driers which reduce moisture, acidity, and particulate

matter. Recycling normally takes place at the field job site.

- Reclaim means to reprocess used refrigerant, typically by distillation, to specifications

similar to that of virgin product specifications. Reclamation removes contaminants such as

water, chloride, acidity, high boiling residue, particulates/solids, non-condensables, and

impurities including other refrigerants. Chemical analysis of the refrigerant shall be required

to determine that appropriate specifications are met. The identification of contaminants and

required chemical analysis shall be specified by reference to national or international

standards for new product specifications. Reclamation typically occurs at a reprocessing or

manufacturing facility.

 - Dispose means to destroy used refrigerant in an environmentally responsible manner.

Refrigerant recovery equipment has been developed and is available with a wide range of

features and prices. Some specific explosion proof equipment also exists for recovery of

flammable refrigerants. Testing standards have been developed to measure equipment

performance for automotive /SAE/ and non-automotive /ISO/ applications. Although liquid

recovery is the quickest, vapour recovery methods may be used alone to remove the entire

refrigerant charge as long as the time is not excessive. Excessive recovery times should be

avoided, since extended time periods may limit the practical usage of recovery equipment on

the majority of refrigeration or air-conditioning equipment that contain up to five kg of. In

order to reach the vacuum levels that are required in some countries for larger systems,

vapour recovery will be used after liquid recovery /Clo 94/. Performances of recovery

equipment and recovery methods are described below.

10.8 Recycling, Reclamation, Destruction

10.8.1 Recycling

Recycling equipment is expected to remove oil, acid, particulate, chloride, moisture, and noncondensable (air) contaminants from used refrigerants. These recycling performances can be

measured on contaminated refrigerant samples according to standardised test methods /ARI/.

Unlike reclaiming, recycling does not involve analysis of each batch of used refrigerant and

therefore does not quantify contaminants nor identify mixed refrigerants /Kau92/.

Consequently restrictions have been placed on the use of recycled refrigerant because its

quality is not proven by analysis.

A variety of recycling equipment is available over a wide price range. Right now, the

automotive air-conditioning industry is the only application that prefers the practice of

recycling and reuse without reclamation. Acceptance in other sectors depends on national

regulation, recommendation of the cooling system manufacturers, existence of another

solution such as a reclaim station, variety and type of systems and the preference of the

service contractor. Recycling with limited analysis capability may be the preference of

certain Article 5(1) countries where access to qualified laboratories is limited and shipping

costs are prohibitive. In most cases, there are no inexpensive field instruments to measure

the contaminant levels after processing.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 159

10.8.2 Refrigerant Reclamation and Separation

Reclaimed refrigerant refers to refrigerant which has been processed and verified by analysis

to meet specifications that are similar to newly manufactured product specifications, such as

those provided in ARI 700 /ARI700/. There is technically very little difference between

virgin and reclaimed refrigerant. One exception being the allowable content of specific

hazardous or toxic components that result from the manufacture or decomposition of virgin

fluorocarbons.

Reclaimed refrigerant can be used in any system without threatening it, as contamination can

lead to system failure. This has the advantage of avoiding possible system breakdowns, as a

direct result of contaminated refrigerant, which might lead to refrigerant emissions. As

reclaimed refrigerant meets new product specifications, it often has the support of equipment

manufacturers who maintain their guarantee conditions. Reclaiming has the advantage to

make it easily possible to measure amounts of refrigerant, which have actually been

recovered. However, reclamation does require a costly infrastructure, which may only prove

viable when potential for financial return of recovered refrigerant is sufficient to overcome

the initial investment of the company performing reclamation.

Mixed refrigerants are a concern because of their negative impact on systems performances,

possible equipment damage if reused in another system, and the high cost for their disposal.

This condition of mixture can be caused by chemical reactions such as in a hermetic

compressor motor burnout, but more likely by bad service practices. The following steps can

be taken to minimise the probability of mixing refrigerants:

1. Properly clean recovery units, including all hoses and cylinders in accordance with

manufacturer’s suggestions or dedicate a piece of recovery equipment to equipment

suspected to contain mixed refrigerant;

2. Test and identify suspect refrigerant (for example, by using a refrigerant identifier)

before consolidating into larger batches and before attempting to recycle or reuse the

refrigerant;

3. Keep appropriate records of refrigerant inventory;

4. Label refrigeration and equipment systems with the identity of their refrigerants,

especially upon retrofit of older systems to new refrigerant; and

5. Mark cylinders used for recovered and/or recycled refrigerants.

It is very difficult to determine the presence of mixed refrigerants without a laboratory test.

If the nature of the refrigerant is in doubt, the saturation pressure and temperature may be

checked and compared with published values. However, this method may be rendered

unreliable by inaccurate pressure gauges or contamination by non-condensables. A thorough

review of the service history, if existing, and an understanding of the current problem may

provide additional insight. Field instruments capable of identifying R-12, R-22 and R-134a

refrigerants at purity levels of 97% or better are now available.

In automotive applications where R-12 and R-134a dominate the market, standards have

required separate recycling equipment. In addition they have adopted unique vehicle service

ports and service equipment fittings to prevent inadvertent mixing. Hoses will have separate

connectors for R-12 and R-134a cooling systems and must be properly labelled /SAE/.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 160

The development and wide distribution of replacement refrigerant blends has increased the

risks of mixtures, and the complexity of separating them. Currently, the high cost of

refrigerant blends has limited the profitability of separation.

The U.S. has mandated that refrigerant reclaimers return refrigerant to the specifications

(including the purity level) specified in ARI Standard 700 and verify the specifications using

the laboratory protocol set forth in the same standard. In addition, reclaimers must release no

more than 1.5% of the refrigerant during the reclamation process and must dispose of wastes

properly. This mandate limits the number of persons allowed to reclaim refrigerant, and

reinforces the U.S. mandate that used refrigerant be reclaimed prior to resale to a new owner.

10.8.3 Refrigerant Destruction

Destruction plants exist in Europe, Japan and North America. There are no identified plants

available in low consuming Article 5 (1) or CEITs countries, which may lead to needs of

transporting dangerous wastes. Two installation types are available to destroy CFCs:

- Public or commercial installations which have the advantage of being accessible in return

for payment. They are often capable of treating several families of chemical products; and

- Private facilities that are designed for the internal needs of ODS manufacturers. These

facilities are not always adapted to the needs of outside groups.

Normal conditions where recovery, recycling, and reclamation are prevalent should lead to

fairly low request for destruction in the refrigeration industry. This is especially the case

where the demand for CFCs will remain high. A need for destruction facilities may be

created in instances where regulations forbid the use or export of CFCs.

The general method of destruction is based on incineration of refrigerants and on scrubbing

combustion products that contain particularly aggressive acids, especially hydrofluoric acid

(HF). Mainly their resistance to hydrofluoric acid limits the number of usable incinerators.

CFCs, and more particularly halons, burn very poorly. In order to be incinerated, they must

be mixed with fuels in specific proportions /DES92/.

10.9 Refrigerant Conservation in Article 5(1) Countries and CEITs

10.9.1 Introduction

Although the wide range of conditions in Article 5(1) countries make generalisation difficult,

a few characteristics emerge across the refrigeration infrastructures that distinguish Article

5(1) countries from those of developed countries. These characteristics argue for the

adoption of somewhat different strategies for containing and conserving refrigerant in Article

5(1) countries than are used in developed countries. Among these characteristics are:

- The relatively low price of CFC refrigerants. CFCs are not scheduled to be phased out until

2010 in most Article 5(1) countries; thus, they remain relatively inexpensive in most such

countries. In fact, CFC refrigerants are reportedly less expensive than ever in some Article

5(1) countries. This decreases economic incentives to conserve CFC refrigerants. Thus, in

order to succeed, conservation approaches must either make efficient use of technicians' time

and equipment or be backed by credible government incentives and/or penalties.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 161

- The relatively low cost of labour compared to recovery equipment. Low labour rates may

favour conservation approaches that are somewhat more labour-intensive than those

historically pursued in developed countries. However, technician training and awareness are

essential to the success of such approaches, especially where preventive maintenance

procedures have not been routine in the past. Moreover, significant incentives are still

necessary for refrigerant conservation because of the low cost of CFCs.

- Absence of refrigerant reclamation infrastructures. A well-developed infrastructure for

reclaiming refrigerant requires large numbers of reusable refrigerant containers, refrigerant

purification centres, a system for tracking returned refrigerant, and a means of disposing of

irretrievably contaminated refrigerant. The amount of refrigerant to be recovered in countries

using small quantities of refrigerant is not likely to justify operation of a centralised

reclamation centre. To ensure that refrigerant is adequately cleaned before being reused,

Article 5(1) countries may either devote resources to developing a reclamation infrastructure

or emphasise on-site refrigerant recycling. If they choose the latter, screening tests may be

used to target severely contaminated refrigerant for destruction. Because of the decentralised

nature of on-site recycling, its success (in terms of both the quantity and quality of the

refrigerant recycled) is more difficult to evaluate than that of reclamation. Where

reclamation facilities are not available, destruction in existing incinerators may be an

alternative.

- Lack of scheduled maintenance. In many Article 5(1) countries, routine scheduled

maintenance of air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment has been rare in the past. To

successfully implement conservation approaches, which rely heavily on regular maintenance,

countries would have to change attitudes toward and provide incentives for such routine

scheduled maintenance.

- Unreliable power, parts, and supplies. In many Article 5(1) countries, frequent voltage

fluctuations increase the incidence of compressor burnouts, which aggravate refrigerant

contamination problems and discourages refrigerant recycling. The same voltage fluctuations

may also damage electrical recovery equipment, which in combination with difficulty in

obtaining replacement parts, may make it difficult to keep such equipment operational.

Recent experience has shown the need to adapt recovery equipment to the requirements of

Article 5(1) countries (such as extreme climatic conditions, lack of spare parts, and higher

frailty of electric devices).

Together, these characteristics have certain implications for refrigerant conservation

programs in Article 5(1) countries. Because the ability to recover large amounts of

refrigerant in a relatively small amount of time increases the cost-effectiveness of recovery,

recovery programs may be most effective if focused either on equipment with large charge

sizes (e.g., chillers or large commercial refrigeration systems) or on large groups of

equipment with small charge sizes (e.g., motor vehicle air-conditioners).

For other systems, such as those with small size and widespread ownership (e.g. domestic

and small commercial refrigerators), experience indicates that retrofitting and recovery are

more difficult to implement and that the emphasis should be put on containment.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 162

In addition to imposing conservation measures on individual pieces of equipment, countries

may reduce emissions of CFC refrigerants by reducing the total stock of equipment

containing CFCs. This may be accomplished by selecting systems that use HCFCs or nonozone depleting refrigerants when installing new equipment or by retrofitting existing

systems to use HCFCs or non-ozone depleting refrigerants. The high rate of growth in

Article 5(1) countries makes the selection of new equipment especially important. Labour

intensive retrofits may be attractive in some Article 5(1) countries due to relatively low

labour rates. It is important to note that replacement or retrofit of equipment will increase

rather than decrease CFC emissions if the CFC refrigerant from the old equipment is vented

rather than recovered. This emphasises the fact that for any refrigerant, the first step to take

towards conservation is improving the leak tightness of systems.

There is no shortage of leak detection devices, conservation methods, or recovery/recycling

equipment available from developed countries /UNE94,95/. However, provision of such

equipment will not, in itself, guarantee that refrigerant conservation occurs in Article 5(1)

countries. Experience has shown that in order to be effective, containment programs must

match equipment with training and continuing incentives to use the equipment. These

incentives may be financial (e.g., deposit-refund systems similar to those used in Australia

and France), professional (building on technicians' pride in completing training and in using

the most advanced equipment and techniques), or environmental (showing technicians that

they have the power to help heal the ozone layer). The Refrigerant Management Plans

(RMPs) which focus on Article 5(1) countries consuming low volumes of ODS in critical

refrigerant sectors include these different aspects /UNE98/.

In order to meet the target of the CFC phase-out, emphasis should be placed not only on

replacing CFCs in new and existing equipment, but also on refrigerant conservation through

recovery/recycling/reclaim and leak reduction.

10.9.2 Refrigerant Conservation and Containment in Africa

The refrigeration and air-conditioning sector plays a vital role in many of Africa’s

economies. The predominant sectors in these economies are the agriculture, tourism, and

fishing industry. As a result, refrigeration is necessary to preserve perishable foodstuffs that

are both exported abroad and are necessary for local consumption. Likewise, the tourist

industry demands for air-conditioning is increasing, as tourists visiting these countries prefer

comfortable environments.

There has been a reasonable reduction in the consumption of ODS in most African countries.

Certain countries have undertaken measures to put a partial or total ban on sales of CFCs.

Others have put regulations in place to control imports of new CFCs and CFC-based

equipment. It is obvious that existing refrigeration equipment will need servicing and

maintenance for a long period of time. However, there is not enough training of refrigeration

technicians. The majority of operators of refrigeration equipment has no basic education or

training in refrigeration, but learn on the job. Examples from other countries have shown that

good-trained technicians could reduce the consumption of CFCs in the refrigeration sector by

up to 40%. The other main problem for Africa in its bid to phase-out the CFCs is the influx

of used refrigeration equipment and cheap CFCs, some of which are smuggled.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 163

Most countries have established national programs to recover and reuse refrigerants.

Although there is great potential for the recovery and recycling of CFCs in low volume

consuming African countries, the low price of virgin refrigerant has decreased the incentive

to recover refrigerant. There has also been a shortage of recovery and recycling equipment,

as the cost is considered too expensive for the majority of the common workshops. It is

expected that suitable legislation, regulations, and recovery and recycling schemes being

developed will create incentives for recycling.

10.9.3 Refrigerant Management Plans (RMPs)

The Refrigerant Management Plan is an integrated approach that includes the participation of

industry, institutions, and end users to phase out ozone depleting substances in low volume

consuming countries. Those African countries, particularly the 14 countries participating in

the RMPs implemented by GTZ in co-operation with UNDP and UNEP (i.e., Botswana,

Ethiopia, Lesotho, Kenya, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, Swaziland,

Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe) are currently implementing action plans that have

been developed within a regional perspective.

The RMP's role is essential to aid CFCs users to be able to reduce and subsequently phaseout their consumption in a co-ordinated planned and cost effective manner. It will do so

through the implementation of actions such as appropriate and adequate training of

technicians in good practices, containment of refrigerants, and retrofitting equipment;

introducing new technologies; establishing recovery and recycling programs for refrigerants;

training of customs officers to follow up on the new import regulations; and introduction of

harmonised regional standards. These activities are considered vital for implementing a

planned phase-out in the refrigeration and air conditioning sector.

All 14 countries share common problems in development of RMPs:

-Lack of clear policy and legislation on CFCs, particularly imports, recovery/recycling, and

containment;

- Ignorance of customs officials in respect to identifying CFCs and following up on the new

import regulations;

- Low level training of refrigeration and air-conditioning technicians;

- Lack of availability of alternative refrigerants and their spare parts;

- Influx of low cost second hand refrigeration equipment;

- Lack of public awareness; and

- Insufficient ODS-data base.

Phase-out strategy includes a combination of regulatory measures, development of new

policy framework, emission reduction activities, and training and public awareness

components. Most of the countries have considered the following:

- Increasing the import duties on CFC refrigerant;

- Introduction of consumption tax and/or import duty adjustments on ODS and ODS-based

equipment;

- Mandatory registration and licensing of service agents and technicians;

- Formulation of Codes of Practice for technicians;

- Encouraging the conversion of existing CFC-12 systems to non-ODS systems;

- Introduction of product labelling requirements;

- Introduction of revised harmonised tariff codes to identify ODS and ODS based equipment;
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 164

- Ban on the use of CFCs in new equipment;

- Development of a national recovery and recycling strategy;

- Installation of appropriate charging systems;

- Installation of compressor protection devices on new and existing domestic refrigerators;

- Training of technicians in conservation, retrofitting, new technologies, and recovery and

recycling;

- Training of customs officers in recognising ODS and ODS refrigeration and air

conditioning equipment.

None of the participating 14 countries produce ozone depleting substances or more

specifically Annex A CFCs; therefore, imports from abroad form the source of CFCs, either

in the form of virgin CFCs or equipment containing CFCs. The systems or equipment can be

new; however, the majority is second hand.

10.9.3.1 Implementation of RMPs

The 14 countries can be grouped according to the amount of ODS that is being managed by

the projects proposed in the RMPs. There are three countries (Lesotho, Seychelles and

Swaziland) with a consumption of less than 10 ODP tonnes; eight countries (Botswana,

Ethiopia, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Uganda, and Zambia) with a

consumption between 10 and 80 ODP tonnes; and three countries (Kenya, Tanzania and

Zimbabwe) with a consumption of over 80 ODP tonnes.

The RMPs will continue to co-ordinate, enforce and provide a framework for the successful

implementation of ODS phase-out activities in these countries:

Country ODP tonnes Remarks

Ethiopia 22.0 Recovery and recycling efforts are currently underway.

Kenya 166.9 Service garages recover 90% of the CFC in motor vehicle

air conditioners.

Commercial refrigeration companies recover most of the

CFC from installations with more than 1 kg charge.

Approximately 7.2 metric tonnes of CFC will be recovered

and recycled every year.

Malawi 12.2 Consumption of CFCs takes place within the refrigeration

and air-conditioning service sector in servicing domestic

equipment and the maintenance of refrigeration and airconditioning systems in the tourist industry.

Mauritius 30.3 The expected results are that with the consecutive training

of trainers and technicians a CFC emission reduction of

40% will be reached for servicing operations.

Mozambique 20.0 Refrigeration and air-conditioning are of vital importance

for the Mozambique economy.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 165

Namibia 13.9 The expected results are that with the consecutive training

of trainers and technicians a CFC emission reduction of

40% will be reached for servicing operations.

Seychelles 2.2 Following training of technicians in good maintenance

practices, a 30% reduction in consumption of CFC-12 is

expected.

Seychelles expects the elimination of the use of R-11.

Recovery and recycling program could enable Seychelles to

accelerate the phase-out of CFC-12.

Tanzania 89.9 In order to reduce refrigerant emissions, Tanzania is

undergoing training of refrigeration technicians on

recovery and recycling techniques, retrofitting of existing

systems, and training on new alternative technologies.

Uganda 10.01 Is in the process of implementing a recovery and recycling

project. The equipment has been delivered and training has

been completed.

Zambia 29.0 Implementation of the recovery and recycling projects

combined with the training of trainers and training of

technicians projects will ensure a reduction in the use of

virgin CFCs as well as a substantial reduction in venting of

CFCs.

Zimbabwe 354 Currently, the level of training of those working in the

refrigeration sector is very low. Training of trainers

concurrent with training of service technicians of the larger

industries and importing companies is ongoing.

10.9.3.2 Technician Training Programs

There will be several years during which ODS and non-ODS based equipment will be

operated side by side in Africa. Training will ensure that maintenance and repairs will be

done appropriately. All technicians working in the refrigeration sector will have technical

and practical knowledge in avoiding venting of CFCs. In order to achieve the aimed CFC

phase-out objectives, an integrated training program on good refrigeration practices and

improved servicing techniques like leak testing and flushing is being implemented. A total of

140 trainers from the 14 countries have been trained abroad in order to provide a pool of

qualified trainers within the region. Technician training will bring about immediate

awareness amongst the technicians, in regards to both conservation of ODS refrigerants and

alternative ozone friendly refrigerants. Most countries have established certification systems

and refrigeration associations that will ensure national and regional capacity building for

future refrigeration technicians.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 166

10.9.3.3 Training of Customs Officers

Training activities targeted at customs officers to create awareness and equip them with the

necessary tools to monitor ODS imports has also been undertaken in some countries and also

on a regional basis. A total of 420 customs officers from the 14 countries have been trained

in proper recognition of ODS and ODS containing systems. Customs officers have also been

trained in proper checking, recognition, testing, and monitoring of ODS imports. The

intensive training of customs officers is undertaken against a backdrop of emerging problem

of smuggled ODS. It is believed that implementation of ODS phase-out may rely to a large

extent on enforcing import restrictions by customs. The training of Customs officers is being

integrated with the implementation of the regulation concerning ODS imports in the specific

countries.

10.9.3.4 Recovery and Recycling

Abrupt changes in the refrigeration and air-conditioning industry will affect the ability of

these sectors to perform, in turn affecting their important roles in the economies. The

recovered CFCs will meet the demand for CFCs needed for servicing and maintenance for

along time to come. Implementation of the recovery and recycling projects combined with

the training of technicians will ensure a reduction in the use of virgin CFCs as well as a

substantial reduction in venting of CFCs. The combination of the projects will ensure the

meeting of the proposed early phase-out dates as set in most countries. Training courses,

accreditation, and certification schemes have been developed targeting technicians in order to

come to grips with the problem faced by the servicing sector where there is a large number of

small users and technicians. Most countries have accredited certain training institutions to

offer training for technicians and engineers in recovery and recycling. Most countries have

established national programs to recover and recycle refrigerant.

10.9.3.5 Public Awareness

Even though some service companies are aware of the new environmentally friendly

refrigeration technologies, the incentives to change to these new technologies might be too

low because of the high prices of the new technologies and lack of consumer awareness thus

causing low demand. Higher consumer demand for non-ozone depleting technology will

therefore assist the service companies in providing means for their customers to purchase

non-ODS systems or retrofit their refrigeration and air conditioning systems to non-ODS

systems.

10.9.3.6 Harmonisation of Standards for the Refrigeration Sector

An important tool in reducing ODS emissions in the region is harmonised standards.

Currently none of the 14 countries have official standards for non-ODS refrigeration

technology in place. RMPs will assist these countries in developing new standards for the

refrigeration sector within the region.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 167

10.9.3.7 Impact of RMPs

The successful implementation of the various components of the RMPs (e.g., training and

education, implementation of legislation and regulations, and economic instruments) will

lead to the effective phase-out of ODS well within the requirements of the Protocol.

2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 169

Annex I: Recent Global Production and Consumption Data for

Fluorochemicals

AI.1 Introduction

This section provides data on global production and consumption of CFCs during the period

1986-2000, during 1989-2000 for HCFCs and during 1990-2000 for HFC-134a. As defined

by the Montreal Protocol, consumption equals production plus imports minus exports (minus

destruction). Data sources have included those assembled from chemical manufacture

sources as overseen by the Alternative Fluorocarbon Environmental Acceptability Study

(AFEAS) and their independent accountant, Grant Thornton. These CFC, HCFC and HFC

data are from participating companies headquartered in developed countries. CFC and HCFC

data were used as contained in the report Production and Consumption of Ozone Depleting

Substances under the Montreal Protocol 1986-2000, April, 2002 /Pro02/ and in

UNEP/OzL.Pro/14/3, dated 18 October, 2002. Data has also been included from UNEP as

appearing in Production and Consumption of Ozone Depleting Substances 1986-1999

published by the Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH,

Eschborn /GTZ01/. CFC production and consumption data have also been compared to the

data in the TEAP Progress Report 2002, Volume 2, Replenishment of the Multilateral Fund

for the period 2003-2005 /TEA02/.

The accuracy of HFC data from AFEAS is excellent as virtually all HFC-134a production

takes place in contributing companies. It should be recognised that this is the only global

source of such data as there is no jurisdiction for reporting of HFCs. However, AFEAS data

accuracy for HCFCs is significantly lower reflecting the reality that most of the AFEAS

reporting is from developed countries and developing countries are assuming a growing

portion of production for these compounds. As such, UNEP is more accurate in capturing

this information than AFEAS. The data accuracy of AFEAS reporting of CFCs has low value

at this point as the majority of production is currently in Article 5(1) Parties. Developed

country production is limited to that used for essential uses or export to Article 5(1) markets.

UNEP data are the prime source of quality information for CFCs.

CFC and HCFC production and consumption has been presented as from:

• the group of Article 5(1) Parties

• certain non-Article 5(1) Parties belonging to the OECD group (defined as

OECDnA5 in this report, which are Western European countries, USA, Canada,

Japan, Australia and New Zealand; this has been done since the OECD group also

contains Article 5(1) Parties) and

• other non-Article 5(1) Parties which includes the ones in Central and Eastern

Europe.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 170

AI.2 Data Analysis

CFC Production Data (1986-2000)

Table AI-1 provides data for production for the period 1986-2000. For the non-Article 5(1)

Parties such production has dropped from 909 to 53 ODP ktonnes over these years- a

reduction of 94%. Remaining production is to meet domestic essential use exemptions and

for export to Article 5(1) Parties. This production appears to have stabilised at about 50 ODP

ktonnes however; this will likely decrease further with shut down of Russian production of

CFCs, which was 25 ktonnes in 2000. Over the time period 1986-2000, the CFC production

has increased in Article 5(1) countries from 44 to 73 ODP ktonnes representing an increase of

66%. Such production actually peaked in 1996 with minor declines over the next few years.

Again this seems to be currently decreasing as projects to shut down CFC production

facilities are being implemented. Production in China, India, Argentina and Venezuela will

decrease further in the future as CFC production is being decreased in accordance with the

Montreal Protocol schedules and in accordance with agreements with the Executive

Committee of the Multilateral Fund. CFC production in Eastern Europe has dropped some

76% during the period from 107 to 26 ODP ktonnes, which is expected to drop to zero after

2000.

Overall, the reduction to date from all sources has been from 1071 ODP ktonnes to 126

ktonnes or 88%. Some error is likely in these reported amounts, as there is no accounting for

any illegal production activity, which is suspected but not documented.

AFEAS data, once the most accurate of all sources, is no longer of value for deriving

production data for CFCs. AFEAS companies now account for ca. 27% of all global CFC

production and the UNEP data are far more reliable for any analyses of this product family.

CFC Consumption Data (1986-2000)

Data for CFC consumption have been prepared by clustering Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and

Venezuela, a second grouping of China, India and Korea and a third group of Article 5(1)

other. Data are separated for Central and Eastern Europe and then finally OECD non-Article

5(1) Parties. These data are presented in Table AI-2 along with a figure illustrating the total

annual consumption for Article 5(1) and the total consumption of all Parties.

Total consumption by all Parties has dropped during this period from 1070 ODP to 138 ODP

ktonnes. Much of this 87% decrease occurred by 1996 concurrent with the phase-out of CFC

consumption in the developed world. Since that time, the rate of decrease is slight amounting

to about 18% over the 1996-2000 period. Consumption in Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and

Venezuela has levelled at about 21 ODP ktonnes/yr (but is assumed to further decrease with

the Brazil phase-out plan in place). The consumption of China, India and Korea doubled

between 1986 and 1995 peaking in that year. It has since dropped 51% to 45 ODP ktonnes in

2000 as transitions are occurring to alternative products. Production in China and India

exceeds consumption indicating that they serve as a source of CFCs for use by other Article

5(1) Parties.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 171

CFC consumption in non-Article 5(1) countries has decreased to only 5 ODP ktonnes/yr. for

essential uses. The remaining consumption of about 26 ODP ktonnes in Central and Eastern

Europe where consumption has dropped 74% since 1986. There has been good agreement

between production and consumption numbers, which can be seen when comparing Tables

AI-1 and AI-2.

HCFC Production Data (1989-2000)

Data for HCFC production are presented in Table AI-3 and Figure AI-3. Summarised are

both AFEAS and UNEP data representing HCFC- 22, -124, -141b and -142b. Absent from

AFEAS data are any references to HCFC-123 due to AFEAS reporting criteria requiring a

minimum of three producers. Regulatory decisions in Europe ban HCFC use in new

equipment and foams etc. after 2003; they are only allowed for servicing. US regulations

concerning HCFC use as blowing agents following HCFC-141b phase-out now suggest that

HCFC-124 will not find appreciable use outside refrigeration and air conditioning

applications.

AFEAS data show an increase in production from 1989 from 12,743 ODP-tonnes levelling

out over the period 1997-2000 at about 30,000 ODP-tonnes. HCFC-141b has increased in

volume each year and has accounted for most of this increase. HCFC-22 grew from 12,075

ODP-tonnes in 1989 to a peak of 14,918 ODP-tonnes in 1996. Production then decreased

slightly to a total of 13,411 ODP-tonnes in 2000. This reduction of 10% is a reflection of

reduced demand from beginning conversions from HCFC-22 in refrigeration and air

conditioning applications to non-ODS substitutes and to improved practices in HCFC-22 use.

Production in Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and Venezuela peaked in 1997 and has since

dropped to the same level in 1999 as in 1989, and to 274 ODP-tonnes in 2000. At only 274

ODP-tonnes, production in these countries does not constitute a major global supply source

(this in contrast with their tripling of the HCFC consumption from 1130 to about 3000 ODPtonnes in the year 2000).

China, India and Korea made sharp increases in 1993 and 1994 and then again in 1999. The

total increase was from 249 ODP-tonnes in 1989 to 5,013 ODP-tonnes in 1999 and to 6713

ODP-tonnes in the year 2000 (of which about 6,000 ODP-tonnes are produced in China.

Korea did not report any production in 2000. This may be an anomaly, because of the fact

that it did report production in 1999). If one compares it to the consumption, see below, it

makes China and India exporters of HCFC chemicals at about 1,300 ODP-tonnes per year.

The almost 30-fold increase has made particularly China (and to a lesser extent, India) a

significant source of HCFCs.

The agreement of UNEP and AFEAS data has improved significantly indicating more

complete reporting by Parties to UNEP. Note that AFEAS data include production in

Argentina, Brazil and Mexico but do not account for China, India and Korea, as the AFEAS

companies do not have production facilities in these Parties.

With increased production activity in China, India and Korea of HCFCs, their production in

OECDnA5 countries has dropped from a former 94% to a 2000 level of 83%.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 172

HCFC Consumption Data (1989-2000)

HCFC consumption data are included in Table AI-4. There is generally very good agreement

between the consumption and the production data. Exceptions exist for 1994 and 1996 where

consumption is significantly lower than either production data from AFEAS or UNEP. As

the AFEAS and UNEP data are consistent, and the consumption data are created from a

bottom-up summation of Parties’ submissions to UNEP, it is likely that there was incomplete

reporting of consumption for 1994 and 1996 from Parties.

Total consumption for all Parties has increased on a fairly continuous basis (except for 1996

during which there was a dip; however, this was a year for which data reported might be

incomplete). Consumption between 1989-1999 increased from 14,184 to 37,097 ODPtonnes, and to 37,712 in 2000, which implies a total increase of about 160% for the years

1989-2000. Growth in Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and Venezuela was from 418 to 1799

ODP-tonnes, and to about 3,000 ODP tonnes, a very significant increase, i.e. almost a

doubling in one year. This suggests business growth based on alternatives to CFCs. HCFC

consumption in Central and Eastern Europe decreased during 1989-1999 by 36%; however,

significant increases during 2000 suggest transition from CFC use.

Consumption in China, India and Korea increased from 991 to 5355 ODP-tonnes or 540%

over the period 1989-2000. The increase had appeared to peak in 1995 with declines during

following years. There were dramatic increases in HCFC consumption between 1998, 1999

and 2000 going from 1756 to 5355 ODP-tonnes in just two years.

Non-Article 5(1) consumption has grown from 12,152 to 25,281 ODP-tonnes or 108% during

the period 1989-2000. It appears that after the consumption has peaked at about 27000 ODPtonnes in these countries that a decrease has started, shown by the consumption of 25,281

ODP-tonnes in the year 2000. This is likely the result of the implementation of regulations

on HCFC use in Europe, where it is or will be prohibited in all types of foams and in

charging new refrigeration and AC equipment. Also, specific end uses for certain HCFCs

have been phased out in the U.S. which may have further limited the overall demand.

Over the period 1989-1999, the portion of HCFCs consumed by OECDnA5 Parties has

averaged about 80% of the total. Most recently, this has fallen to 61% in 2000 largely due to

consumption growth in China, India and Korea and a significant reduction in such use in nonArticle 5(1) Parties in 2000. It is expected that the proportion of HCFC global consumption

in all Article 5(1) countries will increase as the HCFC use restrictions will have serious

impacts on the consumption in Europe and the U.S. These will force users to convert to nonODS alternatives to HCFCs. It is notable that AFEAS data, provided by major producers

mainly in developed countries, represents 83% of total consumption for the year 2000.

HCFC Consumption in Different Sectors

A sectoral analysis of HCFC use based on AFEAS data input is provided in Table AI-5.

These data represent about 86% of global consumption. The largest consumption of HCFCs

was in the closed cell foam application as blowing agents and represents 53% of all HCFC on

an ODP-weighted basis. This was due to the use of HCFC-141b. This application is

declining and will be phased out in Europe and will also have been phased out in the US by

the end of 2002. Therefore, total consumption in this sector should be decreasing shortly.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 173

This will be somewhat offset by growth in Article 5(1) countries.

Use in refrigerants was nearly as large on an ODP-weighted basis with 47% of the total. The

vast majority of this was from HCFC-22 with minor amounts from the use of HCFC-124 and

HCFC-142b mostly as components in refrigerant blends. It is expected that blends will grow

somewhat in the future, as these are service replacements, which can be used for CFC

installations with minor modifications.

HFC-134a Production

Data for the production of HFC-134a is available from the AFEAS database. AFEAS

companies represent nearly 100% of the commercial supply of HFC-134a with only

developmental quantities currently (year 2000) being produced in China, India and Korea.

The data appear in Table AI-6.

Production has increased rapidly and consistently to meet growing HFC-134a demand as a

replacement for what were formerly CFC applications. There was a distinct break in this

trend with the 2000 data, which were 1% lower than that for 1999. There appears to be both

a slowing of replacement growth rate as well as a significant downturn in business activity

both contributing to this change in growth pattern. Production has increased to a current

annual rate of 132 kilotonnes. Of this, about 111 ktonnes or 84% of the total is for

refrigeration.

Data are not yet available for other HFCs due to AFEAS collection criteria. There are

regulatory oversight groups collecting global HFC production and/or consumption data at

this time. It is uncertain how such information will be reported in the future as the Kyoto

Protocol addresses emissions rather than production or consumption.

Concluding Remarks

Production Summary

Tonnes 1989 1995 1999 2000

CFCs 1,032,000 265,000 146,000 138,000

HCFC 257,891 338,230 449,236 451,066

HFC-134a 73,800 133,700 132,000

ODP-tonnes

CFC 1,032,000 265,000 146,000 138,000

HCFC 2,032 4,566 9,539 11,932

Total 1,046,184 292,904 183,097 175,213

Reduction - 72% 82% 83%

(CFC ODPs=1.0, for HCFCs, 1995-2000 an average ODP of 0.082 has been applied; for 1989 the

ODP of HCFC-22 has been used)
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 174

CFC use has dropped 87% globally since 1989 largely due to the phase-out of its use in

developed countries. With the current cap in Article 5(1) countries and reductions in use

during the rest of this decade, this use will continue to drop. HCFC production has increased

but has levelled off. It is expected that this will begin a downturn, as use in developed

countries will be reducing due to current regional and national regulations that are even more

restrictive than those of the Montreal Protocol. The latter will mandate reductions in

consumption of 35% in developed countries in 2004. This will be slightly offset due to

expected Article 5(1) Party increases as HCFCs play an important role in facilitating CFC

phase-out in those countries. HFC-134a has emerged as the key agent in replacing CFC use

in many applications. Its production has levelled due to improved product stewardship in

selection of uses, minimisation of emissions during use, and, in certain regions, recovery and

recycle. The net impact of these activities is to reduce the net ozone depletion by about 83%

as compared to the levels seen in 1989.
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

Consumption and Production Data CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs: Graphs and Tables

Table AI-1

Historic Production Data of CFCs- (Sources UNEP and AFEAS) – (ktonne

1986 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1

AFEASAFEAS (ktonnes) 976 962 659 605 526 426 234 146 AFEAS (ODP-weighted) 895 859 587 544 481 405 221 136 UNEP (ODP-weighted)Argent/Braz/Mex/Venez 29 24 25 27 (17) 27 (17) 31 35 31 China/India/Korea 15 33 35 (21) 40 (26) 41 52 78 78 Total Article 5.1 (plus adj) 44 57 60 67 68 83 113 109 Eastern Europe 107 106 104 84 62 41 43 40 OECDnA5 (incl S. Africa) 920 879 613 527 461 (449) 360 186 100 Total Production (UNEP)A5.1 and Non A5.1 1071 1042 777 678 591 484 342 249 OECDnA5 group (UNEP) 909 869 607 522 457 356 184 99 OECDnA5 gr. (AFEAS) 866 835 552 517 454 374 186 105 %OECDnA5 group 85 83 78 77 77 74 54 40 Total Article 5.1 (plus adj) 44 57 60 67 68 83 113 109 Eastern Europe 107 106 104 84 62 41 43 40 OECDnA5 909 869 607 522 457 356 184 99 
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 176

CFC Production

0

100200300400500600700800900

1000

1986198919901991199219931994199519961997199819992000

ODP ktonnes
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

Table AI-2

Historic Production Data of CFCs, 1986-2000 (Source UNEP) – (ODP ktonn

1986 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 

Argentina/Brazil/Mexico/Venezuela 29 25 26 25 17 23 28 25 25 China/India/Korea 41 63 42 50 81 82 88 92 73 Other A 5.1 countries 54 53 41 40 52 49 50 51 45 Total Article 5.1 (UNEP data) 124 141 109 115 150 154 166 168 143 Central/Eastern Europe (Russian Fed) 141 (100) 136 (99) 116 (99) 50 (39) 50 (37) 40 (30) 31 (23) 27 (21) 16 (12) OECDnA5 group 788 740 497 436 352 279 149 67 8 Other non-Article 5.1 17 15 7 5 88330 Total Consumption (UNEP) Non A5.1 958 897 626 493 412 329 183 97 24 Total Consumption (UNEP) 1070 1032 729 606 560 481 349 265 168 % OECDnA5 in total 74 72 68 72 63 58 43 25 5 

1986 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 

Total Article 5.1 (UNEP data) 124 141 109 115 150 154 166 168 143 Total Consumption (UNEP) 1070 1032 729 606 560 481 349 265 168 
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 178

CFC Consumption

0

200400600800

10001200

1986

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

ODP ktonnes Total Artic

data) Total Con
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

Table AI-3

Historical Production Data of HCFCs (Sources UNEP and AFEAS) (tonne

1989 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 199

AFEASAFEAS 229825 289759 318134 359948 398430 435308 41842AFEAS (ODP-weighted) 12743 16969 20197 24618 28422 30822 2930UNEP (ODP-weighted)Argentina/Brazil/Mexico/Venezuela 353 475 461 452 421 505 52China/India/Korea 249 731 1212 1840 1877 1831 152Total Article 5.1 602 1206 1673 2292 2298 2336 265Eastern Europe 1084 267 172 198 184 74 7OECDnA5 (including S. Africa) 12181 12469 10078 20220 25335 26264 2714A5.1 & Non A5.1 13867 13942 20875 27266 30180 28674 2986OECDnA5 Group (UNEP) 12181 13232 18946 24689 27641 26264 2714OECDnA5 group (AFEAS) 12390 16494 19736 24166 28001 30317 2878% OECDnA5 (UNEP) in total 88 95 91 91 92 92 9

1989 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 199

AFEAS (ODP-weighted) 12743 16969 20197 24618 28422 30822 2930Total Article 5.1 602 1206 1673 2292 2298 2336 265
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 180

HCFC Production

0

5000

100001500020000250003000035000

1989199219931994199519961997199819992000

ODP tonnes AFEAS (O

Total Artic
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

Table AI-4

Historic Consumption of HCFCs, 1989-2000 (Source UNEP) (ODP-tonne

1989 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 

UNEPArg/Braz/Mex/Venez 418 423 642 769 971 866 1017 China/India/Korea 991 748 1407 2140 2392 2265 1516 Other Art 5.1 countries 623 591 693 616 1203 1646 3383 Total Art 5.1 (UNEP data) 2032 1762 2742 3525 4566 4777 5941 Central/Eastern Europe 564 (437) 316 (267) 258 (172) 228 (107) 259 (84) 195 (73) 345 OECDnA5 group 10605 12009 15727 21684 26780 19780 23788 Other non-Art 5.1 290 271 353 469 471 324 134 Total consumption (UNEP) non A5.1 12152 12641 16392 18214 23338 20300 24268 Total Art 5.1 (UNEP data) 2032 1762 2742 3525 4566 4777 5941 %OECDnA5 in total (UNEP) 75 83 82 84 83 79 80 Total consumption (UNEP) 14184 14403 19134 21739 27904 25077 30209 

1989 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 

Total nonA5.1 12152 12641 16392 18214 23338 20300 24268 Total Art 5.1 (UNEP data) 2032 1762 2742 3525 4566 4777 5941 Total consumption (UNEP) 14184 14403 19134 21739 27904 25077 30209 
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 182

HCFC Consumption

0

5000

10000150002000025000300003500040000

1989199219931994199519961997199819992000

ODP tonnes Total nonA

Total Art 5Total cons
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

Table AI-5

1999 use of HCFCs in different sectors

1999 Use of HCFCs

RAC

Closed cell 

foam

Solvents

Others

RACClosed cell foamSolventsOthers

HCFC-22 HCFC-141b HCFC-142b HCFC-124 Total

RAC 91.7% 2.1% 76.9% 41%Closed cell foam 3.4% 91.2% 97.4% 53%Solvents 8.8% 0.1% 4%Others 4.8% 0.3% 23.1% 2%RAC 12739 60 50 12849Closed cell foam 474 13272 2686 0 16432Solvents 1278 4 1282Others 667 9 7 15 698Totals 13880 14559 2757 65 31261

Source: AFEAS in percentages per HCFC and in ODP tonnes
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 184

Table AI-6

Historic HFC-134a production (ktonnes)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 

Total 0.2 2.2 6.4 26.5 50.4 73.8 83.7 101.9 112.2 Refrigeration/AC

0.08 2.1 6 24.5 46.1 61.3 71 90.9 96.6 

% total RAC 40% 95% 94% 92% 91% 83% 85% 89% 86% 

HFC-134a Production

0

20406080

100120140160

19901991199219931994199519961997199819992000

ktonnes Total Refrigeration/AC
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 185

Annex II: Glossary

A/C Air Conditioning

AFEAS Alternative Fluorocarbon Environmental Acceptability Study

Article 5(1) Article 5, paragraph 1 in the Montreal Protocol defines “developing

countries”, whose consumption of controlled substances is not allowed

to exceed 0.3 kg per capita

Blend A mixture of two or more pure (refrigerant) fluids:

azeotropic: with a behaviour as pure fluids

near azeotropic: similar to azeotropic blends (small temperature

glide)

non-azeotropic: blends with a considerable temperature glide

during evaporation/condensation

CEIT Country with Economy In Transition

CFC Chlorofluorocarbon

COP Coefficient of Performance

Drop-In Use of a different refrigerant without modifying the equipment

including the lubricant; it may imply changing desiccants or similar

devices

DX Direct Expansion

GWP Global Warming Potential (relative to CO2 with a GWP of 1); GWP

can be given for different time horizons, i.e. 20, 100, 500 years

Halocarbon Hydrocarbons ((un-)saturated, cyclic) with one or several of the

hydrogen atoms replaced by chlorine (Cl), fluorine (F), bromine (Br) or

Iodine (I); fully halogenated compounds are in most cases CFCs

Halon Fire extinguishant

HC Hydrocarbon

HCFC Hydrochlorofluorocarbon

HFC Hydrofluorocarbon

HTF Heat Transfer Fluid, also called “secondary refrigerant”. Fluid mainly

in liquid phase circulating to provide cold out of a machinery room.

HVAC Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 186

LCCP Life Cycle Climate Performance

Lifetime Period after which a chemical has been absorbed/decomposed in the

atmosphere by 1/e

Long-term Alternatives considered to be long-term are expected those of which

the use will pertain during several decades, they can be considered

intergenerational

Mid-term Alternatives for the mid-term which use can be considered to pertain

for one to two decades

ODP Ozone Depletion Potential

ODS Ozone Depleting Substance

OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer

PAC Packaged Air Conditioner

PFC Perfluorocarbon

RAC Room Air Conditioner

R A/C Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

reclaim processing refrigerant to meet new product specifications, which

involves processing “off-site”

recovery extracting refrigerant from equipment during service or disposal in any

condition

recycling the reduction of contaminants in recovered substances by basic

cleaning processes

refrigerant a chemical that is applied in equipment to provide the cooling effect by

the use of its phase change characteristics, usually transferring heat

from a “cold” source to a “hot” sink

retrofit adaptation of refrigeration equipment to make it suitable for the

(reliable) use of alternative refrigerants

TEAP Technology and Economic Assessment Panel

TEWI Total Equivalent Warming Impact (this combines the global warming

effect associated with energy consumption (CO2 emissions) and the

direct global warming effect (GWP) of a chemical if emitted)

TOC Technical Options Committee

VOC Volatile Organic Compound
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 187

Annex III: Reporting and Consulting Members

Reporting Members UNEP TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps,

for the Assessment 2002

Co-chair:

Dr. Radhey S. Agarwal

Mechanical Engineering Department

IIT Delhi

Hauz khas

New-Delhi 110016, India

tel: 91-11-659 1120, 686 5279 (resid.)

fax: 91- 11- 652 6645

e-mail: rsarwal@mech.iitd.ernet.in

Co-chair:

Dr. Lambert Kuijpers

Cochair UNEP TEAP

Technical University Pav. A58

PO Box 513

NL -5600 MB Eindhoven

tel: 31- 49- 247 6371 / 40- 247 4463

fax: 31- 40- 246 6627

e-mail:lambermp@wxs.nl

Mr. Ward Atkinson

Sun Test Engineering

2918 N. Scotsdale Road

USA- Scottsdale, AZ 85251

tel: 1- 602- 994 9299

fax: 1- 602- 947 0173

e-mail: wast@ix.netcom.com

Mr. James A. Baker

(Lead Author Chapter 9)

Delphi Automotive Systems

A&E Building #6, 2000 Upp M Rd

USA - Lockport, NY 14094

tel: 1- 716- 439- 3466

fax: 1- 716- 439- 3648

e-mail: james.a.baker@delphiauto.com

Mr. Julius Banks

(Lead Author Chapter 10)

US EPA

1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW

Mail Code: 6205J

USA- Washington DC 20460

tel: 1- 202 564 9870

fax: 1- 202 565 2155

e-mail: banks.julius@epa.gov

Mr. Marc Barreau

Marketing Manager, Refrig. & A/C

ATOFINA, Division Fluorés & Oxygénés

Departement Fluorés

4-8 Cours Michelet, La Défense 10

F- 92091 Paris La Défense Cedex

tel: 33- 1- 49 00 82 83

fax: 33- 1- 49 00 53 12

e-mail: marc.barreau@atofina.com
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 188

Dr. Steve Bernhardt

(Lead Author Annex I)

Honeywell International

101 Colombia Road

USA- Morristown, NJ 07962

tel: 1- 973 455 6294

e-mail:

Steven.Bernhardt@Honeywell.com

Mr. Jos Bouma

IEA Heat Pump Centre

Swentiboldstraat 21

NL - 6137 AE Sittard

tel: 31- 46- 4202 236

fax: 31- 46- 4510 389

e-mail: J. Bouma@novem.nl

Dr. Dariusz Butrymowicz

Institute of Fluid-Flow Machinery

of Polish Academy of Sciences

Gen. J. Fiszera 14

PL-80-952 Gdansk

tel: 48 58 341 12 71 ext. 299

fax: 48 58 341 61 44

e-mail: butrym@imp.gda.pl

Mr. James M. Calm

(Lead Author Chapter 2)

Engineering Consultant

10887 Woodleaf Lane

USA- Great Falls, VA 22066- 3003

tel: 1- 703- 450 4313

fax: 1- 707- 516 0552

e-mail: jmc@JamesMCalm.com

Dr. Denis Clodic

(Lead Author Chapter 4)

Centre d'Energetique

Ecole des Mines de Paris

60, Bd St.-Michel

F - 75006 Paris

tel: 33- 1- 40 51 92 49

fax: 33- 1- 46 34 24 91

e-mail: denis.clodic@ensmp.fr

Mr. Daniel Colbourne

Calor Gas Limited

Customer Support Centre

Athena Drive, Tachbrook Park

GB- Warwick, CV34 6RL

tel: 44- 1926 330 088

fax: 44- 1926 318 612

e-mail: dcolbour@calorgas.co.uk

Mr. Jim Crawford

The TRANE., Company

6200 Troup Highway,

USA - Tyler, Texas 75707

tel: 1- 903- 509 7273

fax: 1- 903- 581 3280

e-mail: jim.crawford@trane.com

Dr. Sukumar Devotta

National Chemical Laboratory

India- PUNE 411008

tel: 91- 20- 589 3359

fax: 91- 20- 589 3359

e-mail: sdevotta@pd.ncl.res.in

Mr. László Gaal

Hungarian Refrigeration and Air

Conditioning Association

Fö Utca 68

H-1027 Budapest

tel/fax: 36- 1 201 7137

e-mail: hkvsz@axelero.hu /

hraca@mgx.hu

Dr. Kenneth E. Hickman

(Lead Author Chapter 8)

Consultant

425 Meridian Lane

USA- York PA 17402

tel: 1- 717- 771 7459

fax: 1- 717- 771 7297

e-mail: kenneth.hickman@york.com
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 189

Mr. Martien Janssen

Re/genT Consultancy

Lage Dijk 22

NL – 5705 BZ Helmond

tel: 31- 492- 47 63 65

fax: 31- 492- 47 63 69

e-mail: martien.janssen@re-gent.nl

Mr. Makoto Kaibara

Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. Ltd.

2-3-1-1 Nojihigashi

Kusatsu Shiga

J- 525-8520

tel: 81- 77- 567 9800

fax: 81- 77- 561 3200

e-mail: kaibara.makoto@pas.mei.co.jp

Dr. Ftouh Kallel

SOFRIFAC

93, Avenue de la Republique

Megrine 2033

Tunis, Tunisia

tel: 216 71 425 672 / 427 342

fax: 216 71 426 672

E-mail omc.soltech@gnet.tn

Prof. Dr. -Ing. Michael Kauffeld

Mechanical Engineering

Karlsruhe (FH), University of

PO Box 24 40

D-76012 Karlsruhe

tel: 49 721 925 1842

fax: 49 721 925 1915

e-mail: michael.kauffeld@fh-karlsruhe.de

Mr. Fred J. Keller

(Lead Author Chapter 7)

CARRIER Corporation

PO Box 70, 7310 W Morris Street

USA - INDIANAPOLIS, IN 46206-0070

tel: 1- 317- 240- 5146

fax: 1- 317- 240- 5355

e-mail: fred.keller@carrier.com

Prof. Dr. Ing. Jürgen Köhler

Institut für Thermodynamik

TU Braunschweig

Hans-Sommer-Str. 5

D-38106 Braunschweig

tel: 49 531 391 2627

fax: 49 531 391 7814

e-mail: j.koehler@tu-bs.de

Dipl. Ing. Holger König

(Lead Author Chapter 5)

Senior Manager Research and

Development

Axima Refrigeration GmbH

Kemptener Str. 11-15

D – 88131 Lindau/Bodensee

tel: 49- 8382 706 258

fax: 49- 8382 706 410

e-mail: holger.koenig@axima.eu.com

Prof. Dr. Ing. H. Kruse

(Lead Author Chapter 6)

FKW GmbH

Forschungszentrum fuer Kaeltetechnik

und Waermepumpen

Weidendamm 14

D - 30167 Hannover

tel: 49- 511- 16 74 75 0

fax: 49- 511- 16 74 75 25

e-mail: e-mail@fkw-hannover.de

Mr. Edward J. McInerney

(Lead Author Chapter 3)

GE Appliance Park 35-1001

USA Louisville, KY 40225

tel: 1-502- 452 5987

fax: 1-502- 452 0784

e-mail: edward.mcinerney@appl.ge.com

Mr. Mark Menzer

VP, Engineering & Research

ARI

4301 N Fairfax Dr, Suite 425

USA- Arlington, VA 22203

tel: 1- 703 524 8800

fax: 1- 703- 524 9011

e-mail: mmenzer@ari.org
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 190

Dr. Ing. Petter Neksa

Senior Research Scientist

SINTEF Refrigeration and Air

Conditioning

Kolbj. Hejes v. 1D

Norway - 7034 Trondheim

tel: 47- 73- 59 39 23

fax: 47- 73- 59 39 50

E-mail Petter.Neksa@energy.sintef.no

Mr. Haruo Onishi

Daikin Industries Ltd.

Sinjuku-Sumitomo Building 34F

2-6-1 Nishi-Shinjuku

Shinjuku-ku

J-163-0235 Tokyo

tel: 81- 3 3344 8121

fax: 81- 3 3344 8087

e-mail: haruo.ohnishi@daikin.co.jp

Mr. Hezekiah B. Okeyo

Department of Industrial Development

Uchumi House, 13th Floor

Aga Khan Walk, Off City Hall Way

PO Box 30418 Nairobi, Kenya

tel: 254- 2- 333 555 / 217 916

fax: 254- 2- 215 815

e-mail: hbokeyo@yahoo.com

Dr. Roberto de Aguiar Peixoto

Maua Institute of Technology

Department of Mechanical Eng.

Praça Mauá 01

Sao Caetano do Sul

Sao Paulo - 09580-900 Brasil

tel: 55-11- 4239 3021

fax: 55-11- 4239 3041

e-mail: robertopeixoto@maua.br

Mrs. Frédérique Sauer

(Lead Author Chapter 10)

Dehon Service S.A.

26, Av du Petit Parc

F- 94683 Vincennes Cedex

tel: 33- 1- 43 98 75 17

fax: 33- 1- 43 98 21 51

e-mail: fsauer@dehon.com

Mr. Adam M. Sebbit

Makerere University

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

PO Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda

tel: 256- 41- 545029/541173

fax: 256- 41- 542 377

mobile: 256- 077 485 803

e-mail: amsebbit@tech.mak.ac.ug

Mr. Stephan Sicars

Siccon

Stresemannstrasse 18

D- 61462 Königstein im Taunus

tel: 49 6174 2936 36

fax: 49 6174 2937 37

mobile: 49 171 128 37 37

e-mail: Stephan.Sicars@siccon.com

Mr. Arnon Simakulthorn

Thai Compressor Manuf. Co. Ltd

33/3 Moo 21, Suwintawong Road

Saladang, Bangnumprieo

Chachoengsao 24000, Thailand

tel: 66- 38- 593 062 / 066

fax: 66- 38- 593 067

e-mail: thacom@sothorn.net

Prof. Aryadi Suwono

Director Thermodynamic Research

Laboratory

Bandung Institute of Technology

Jl. Tamansari 126

Bandung 40132

Indonesia

tel: 62 22 250 3602

fax: 62 22 250 3253

e-mail aryadi@termo.pauir.itb.ac.id

Dr. Pham van Tho

Ministry of Fisheries

10 Nguyen Cong Hoan

Ba Dinh, Hanoi,Vietnam

tel: 84- 4- 771 6270

fax: 84- 4- 771 6702

e-mail: khcn1@hn.vnn.vn
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 191

Dr. Peter Tomlein

SZ CHKT (Slovak Union for Cooling and

Air Conditioning Technology)

Hlavná 325

90041 Rovinka

Slovakia

tel/fax: 421 7 4564 6971

E-mail: zvazchkt@isternet.sk

Mr. Vassily N. Tselikov

Executive Director of ODS Phaseout

Projects, CPPI

13-2, Srednyaya Pereyaslavskaya Str.

129041 Moscow, Russian Federation

tel: 7- 095- 280- 5788 / 1189

fax: 7- 095- 971- 0423

mobile: 7- 095 795 4049

e-mail: vassily@odsgef.dol.ru

Mr. Paulo Vodianitskaia

Advisor, Environment

Multibrás SA Eletrodomésticos

Rua Dona Francisca 7200

Brazil- CEP 89219-900 Joinville SC

tel: 55- 474- 414 514

fax: 55- 474- 414 700

e-mail:

paulo_vodianitskaia@multibras.com.br
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 192

Consulting Members UNEP TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps, for the

Assessment 2002

Name Company/Affiliation Country

Mr. Kent Anderson Int Inst Ammonia Refrigeration USA

Mr. Russell Benstead EA Technology UK

Dr. S.C. Bhaduri Tecumseh India India

Mr. François Billiard International Inst. of Refrigeration (IIR) France

Dr. Don Bivens EI DuPont de Nemours USA

Mr. Ron Cole R.A. Cole and Associates, Inc. USA

Mr. Peter Cooper Adtec Services Ltd UK

Dr. Poul Erik Hansen DANFOSS Flensburg GmbH Germany

Mr. Robert Heap Cambridge Refrigeration Technology UK

Mr. Toshio Hirata Denso Corporation Japan

Mr. Glen Hourahan ARI USA

Prof. Dr. H.J. Laue IZW Germany

Mr. Anders Lindborg Ammonia Partnership A.B. Sweden

Mr. Mark McLinden NIST USA

Mr. Masaki Moto Ebara Corporation Japan

Dr. ChristophePetitjean VALEO Thermique Habitacle France

Mr. Lindsey Roke Fisher & Paykel New Zealand

Mr. Erik John Schau UNITOR ASA Norway

Mr. Rajendra Shende UNEP DTIE France

Mr. Jørn Stene SINTEF Energy Research Norway

Mr. S. Ganesan Sundaresan Copeland Corporation USA

Mr. Lennart Vamling Chalmers Univ of Technology Sweden
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

Annex IV: Physical, Safety, and Environmental Data for Historical, Current, and Candida physical data safety data   molec- TLV- refrigerant ular NBP Tc Pc TWA LFL HOC number chemical formula - common name mass (°C) (°C) (MPa) (PPM) (%) MJ/kg CFC-11 CCl3F 137.37 23.7 198.0 4.41 C1000 none 0.9 CFC-12 CCl2F2 120.91 -29.8 112.0 4.14 1000 none -0.8 BCFC-12B1 CBrClF2 - halon 1211 165.36 -4.0 154.0 4.10 none CFC-13 CClF3 104.46 -81.5 28.9 3.88 1000 none -3.0 BFC-13B1 CBrF3 - halon 1301 148.91 -58.7 67.1 3.97 1000 none FIC-13I1 CF3I 195.91 -22.0 122.2 3.88 none FC-14 CF4 - carbon tetrafluoride 88.00 -128.0 -45.6 3.75 none HCFC-21 CHCl2F 102.92 8.9 178.3 5.18 10 none HCFC-22 CHClF2 86.47 -40.8 96.1 4.99 1000 none 2.2 HFC-23 CHF3 - fluoroform 70.01 -82.0 26.1 4.83 1000 none -12.5 HCC-30 CH2Cl2 - methylene chloride 84.93 40.2 237.0 6.08 50 13 HCFC-31 CH2ClF 68.48 -9.1 0.1 HFC-32 CH2F2 - methylene fluoride 52.02 -51.7 78.1 5.80 1000 14.4 9.4 HCC-40 CH3Cl - methyl chloride 50.49 -24.2 143.1 6.67 50 8.0 HFC-41 CH3F - methyl fluoride 34.03 -78.1 44.1 5.90 HC-50 CH4 - methane 16.04 -161.5 -82.6 4.60 1000 4.8 CFC-113 CCl2FCClF2 187.37 47.6 214.1 3.39 1000 none 0.1 CFC-114 CClF2CClF2 170.92 3.6 145.7 3.26 1000 none -3.1 CFC-115 CClF2CF3 154.47 -38.9 80.0 3.12 1000 none -2.1 FC-116 CF3CF3 - perfluoroethane 138.01 -78.2 19.9 3.05 1000 none HCFC-123 CHCl2CF3 152.93 27.8 183.7 3.66 50 none 2.1 HCFC-124 CHClFCF3 136.48 -12.0 122.3 3.62 1000 none 0.9 HFC-125 CHF2CF3 120.02 -48.1 66.0 3.62 1000 none -1.5 HFE-E125 CHF2-O-CF3 136.02 -42.0 81.3 3.35 HFE-E134 CHF2-O-CHF2 118.03 6.2 160.8 4.23 none HFC-134a CH2FCF3 102.03 -26.1 101.1 4.06 1000 none 4.2 HCFC-141b CH3CCl2F 116.95 32.1 206.8 4.46 500 5.8 8.6 HCFC-142b CH3CClF2 100.49 -9.1 137.1 4.07 1000 6 9.8 HFC-143a CH3CF3 84.04 -47.2 72.7 3.76 1000 7.0 10.3 HFE-E143a CH3-O-CF3 100.04 -24.1 104.9 3.63 flam 
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 194

 physical data safety data   molec- TLV- refrigerant ular NBP Tc Pc TWA LFL HOC number chemical formula - common name mass (°C) (°C) (MPa) (PPM) (%) MJ/kg HFC-152a CH3CHF2 66.05 -24.0 113.3 4.52 1000 4.8 17.4 HCC-160 CH3CH2Cl - ethyl chloride 64.51 13.1 187.3 5.27 100 3.6 20.6 HFC-161 CH3CH2F - ethyl fluoride 48.06 -37.1 102.2 4.70 3.8 HC-170 CH3CH3 - ethane 30.07 -88.6 32.2 4.87 1000 3.1 HE-E170 CH3-O-CH3 - dimethyl ether 46.07 -24.8 127.0 5.37 1000 3.3 31.8 FC-218 CF3CF2CF3 - perfluoropropane 188.02 -36.8 72.0 2.67 1000 none HFC-227ea CF3CHFCF3 170.03 -16.4 101.7 2.93 1000 none 3.3 HFC-236fa CF3CH2CF3 152.04 -1.4 124.9 3.20 1000 none HFC-245fa CHF2CH2CF3 134.05 14.9 154.1 3.64 300 none 6.1 HFE-E245cb1 CH3-O-CF2-CF3 150.05 5.9 133.7 2.89 flam HC-C270 -CH2-CH2-CH2- - cyclopropane 42.08 -33.5 125.2 5.58 2.4 49.7 HC-290 CH3CH2CH3 - propane 44.10 -42.2 96.7 4.25 2500 2.1 50.3 FC-C318 -CF2-CF2-CF2-CF2- 200.03 -6.0 115.2 2.78 1000 none HFE-E347mmy1 CF3-CF(OCH3)-CF3 200.05 29.4 160.8 2.55 R-400(50/50) R-12/114 (50.0/50.0) 141.63 -20.8 129.1 3.94 none R-400(60/40) R-12/114 (60.0/40.0) 136.94 -23.2 125.6 4.01 none R-401A R-22/152a/124 (53.0/13.0/34.0) 94.44 -32.9 107.3 4.61 1000 none R-401B R-22/152a/124 (61.0/11.0/28.0) 92.84 -34.5 105.6 4.69 1000 none -2.7 R-401C R-22/152a/124 (33.0/15.0/52.0) 101.03 -28.3 111.7 4.37 none R-402A R-125/290/22 (60.0/2.0/38.0) 101.55 -48.9 75.8 4.22 1000 none -1.4 R-402B R-125/290/22 (38.0/2.0/60.0) 94.71 -47.0 82.9 4.52 1000 none -1.6 R-403A R-290/22/218 (5.0/75.0/20.0) 91.99 -47.8 87.0 4.70 1000 13.0 R-403B R-290/22/218 (5.0/56.0/39.0) 103.26 -49.2 79.7 4.32 1000 none R-404A R-125/143a/134a (44.0/52.0/4.0) 97.60 -46.5 72.1 3.73 1000 none -6.6 R-405A R-22/152a/142b/C318 (45.0/7.0/5.5/42.5) 111.91 -32.6 106.1 4.29 1000 none R-406A R-22/600a/142b (55.0/4.0/41.0) 89.86 -32.5 116.8 4.86 8.2 R-407A R-32/125/134a (20.0/40.0/40.0) 90.11 -45.0 82.3 4.52 1000 none -3.6 R-407B R-32/125/134a (10.0/70.0/20.0) 102.94 -46.5 75.0 4.13 1000 none -1.8 R-407C R-32/125/134a (23.0/25.0/52.0) 86.20 -43.6 86.0 4.63 1000 none -4.9 R-407D R-32/125/134a (15.0/15.0/70.0) 90.96 -39.2 91.4 4.47 1000 none -4.3 
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

 physical data safety data   molec- TLV- refrigerant ular NBP Tc Pc TWA LFL HOC number chemical formula - common name mass (°C) (°C) (MPa) (PPM) (%) MJ/kg R-407E R-32/125/134a (25.0/15.0/60.0) 83.78 -42.7 88.5 4.70 1000 none -4.8 R-408A R-125/143a/22 (7.0/46.0/47.0) 87.01 -44.6 83.1 4.29 1000 none 5.7 R-409A R-22/124/142b (60.0/25.0/15.0) 97.43 -34.4 109.3 4.70 1000 none 3.0 R-409B R-22/124/142b (65.0/25.0/10.0) 96.67 -35.6 106.9 4.74 none R-410A R-32/125 (50.0/50.0) 72.58 -51.4 72.5 4.90 1000 none -4.4 R-410B R-32/125 (45.0/55.0) 75.57 -51.3 71.0 4.81 none R-411A R-1270/22/152a (1.5/87.5/11.0) 82.36 -39.5 99.1 4.95 1000 5.5 R-411B R-1270/22/152a (3.0/94.0/3.0) 83.07 -41.6 96.0 4.95 1000 7.0 6.5  R-1270/22/152a (3.0/95.5/1.5) 83.44 -41.8 95.5 4.95 none R-412A R-22/218/142b (70.0/5.0/25.0) 92.17 -38.0 107.2 4.90 1000 8.7 R-413A R-218/134a/600a (9.0/88.0/3.0) 103.95 -30.6 98.5 4.07 8.8 R-414A R-22/124/600a/142b (51.0/28.5/4.0/16.5) 96.93 -32.9 112.7 4.68 1000 none 3.6 R-414B R-22/124/600a/142b (50.0/39.0/1.5/9.5) 101.59 -32.9 111.0 4.59 none R-415A R-22/152a (82.0/18.0) 81.91 -37.2 102.0 4.96 5.6 2.7 R-415B R-22/152a (25.0/75.0) 70.19 -26.9 111.4 4.65 1000 WCF  R-22/152a (52.0/48.0) 75.30 -32.2 108.0 4.82 1000 12.4 9.7  R-22/152a (60.0/40.0) 76.95 -33.6 106.7 4.86 1000 none 16.2 R-416A R-134a/124/600 (59.0/39.5/1.5) 111.92 -24.0 107.0 3.98 7.8 R-417A R-125/134a/600 (46.6/50.0/3.4) 106.75 -39.1 87.0 4.04 none R-418A R-290/22/152a (1.5/96.0/2.5) 84.60 -41.6 96.2 4.98 8.9 1.7 R-419A R-125/134a/E170 (77.0/19.0/4.0) 109.34 -43.8 79.2 4.00 none 10.0  R-22/124/600 (50.0/47.0/3.0) 102.64 -32.9 110.4 4.59 900 none  R-23/32/134a (4.5/21.5/74.0) 83.14 -42.2 89.0 4.90 none  R-23/125/143a (20.0/36.0/44.0) 90.16 -64.8 67.3 4.03  R-32/125/134a/600 (10.0/42.0/45.0/3.0) 96.64 -42.2 87.2 4.40  R-32/125/143a (10.0/45.0/45.0) 90.69 -48.4 72.0 4.05 none  R-32/125/143a/134a (2.0/41.0/50.0/7.0) 95.82 -46.8 72.9 3.81 none  R-32/125/143a/134a (10.0/33.0/36.0/21.0) 90.80 -49.4 77.5 4.01 none  R-32/134a (25.0/75.0) 82.26 -40.3 93.7 4.83 wff  R-32/134a (30.0/70.0) 79.19 -41.8 92.4 4.94 1000 wff 
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 196

 physical data safety data   molec- TLV- refrigerant ular NBP Tc Pc TWA LFL HOC number chemical formula - common name mass (°C) (°C) (MPa) (PPM) (%) MJ/kg  R-125/22 (70.0/30.0) 107.51 -47.4 73.7 4.04 none  R-125/134a/152a (35.0/40.0/25.0) 94.15 -35.0 95.5 4.14 1000 wff  R-125/143a/290/22 (42.0/6.0/2.0/50.0) 95.70 -47.7 81.0 4.45 1000 none  R-125/152a/227ea (40.0/5.0/55.0) 136.53 -38.6 87.2 3.58 1000 none  R-134a/142b (80.0/20.0) 101.71 -24.1 107.4 4.11 frac  R-134a/142b (80.6/19.4) 101.73 -24.2 107.2 4.11 none  R-134a/142b (88.0/12.0) 101.84 -24.9 104.8 4.09  R-161/13I1 (80.0/20.0) 56.60  R-161/218/13I1 (65.4/18.2/16.4) 64.88  R-170/290 (6.0/94.0) 42.90 -50.0 93.2 4.42 1.9  R-218/134/600 (32.7/62.8/4.5) 115.36  R-290/600a (50.0/50.0) 50.15 -32.8 114.8 4.04 2.0 49.8  R-600a/600 (50.0/50.0) 58.12 -6.5 143.6 3.73 1.6 R-500 R-12/152a (73.8/26.2) 99.30 -33.6 102.1 4.17 1000 none R-501 R-22/12 (75.0/25.0) 93.10 -40.7 95.9 4.76 none R-502 R-22/115 (48.8/51.2) 111.63 -45.2 80.2 3.92 1000 none R-503 R-23/13 (40.1/59.9) 87.25 -87.8 18.4 4.28 1000 none R-504 R-32/115 (48.2/51.8) 79.25 -57.7 61.1 4.33 none R-505 R-12/31 (78.0/22.0) 103.48 -30.0 117.8 4.73 none R-506 R-31/114 (55.1/44.9) 93.69 -12.3 142.2 5.16 none R-507A R-125/143a (50.0/50.0) 98.86 -46.7 70.9 3.71 1000 none -5.5 R-508A R-23/116 (39.0/61.0) 100.10 -87.4 10.8 3.67 1000 none R-508B R-23/116 (46.0/54.0) 95.39 -87.3 14.0 3.93 1000 none R-509A R-22/218 (44.0/56.0) 123.96 -49.8 68.6 3.61 1000 none  R-32/600 (90.0/10.0) 52.58 -51.1 84.8 6.15 flam  R-32/600 (95.0/5.0) 52.30 -51.4 81.4 5.99 flam  R-32/600a (90.0/10.0) 52.58 -53.1 74.2 5.27 flam  R-32/600a (95.0/5.0) 52.30 -52.6 75.9 5.51 flam  R-134a/600a (80.0/20.0) 88.64 -29.5 111.3 4.81 3.9  R-218/152a (83.5/16.5) 144.11 -35.2 86.8 3.44 
2002 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 

 physical data safety data   molec- TLV- refrigerant ular NBP Tc Pc TWA LFL HOC number chemical formula - common name mass (°C) (°C) (MPa) (PPM) (%) MJ/kg R-600 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 - butane 58.12 -0.6 152.0 3.80 800 1.5 49.5 R-600a CH(CH3)2-CH3 - isobutane 58.12 -11.7 134.7 3.64 800 1.7 49.4 R-601 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 - pentane 72.15 36.1 196.6 3.37 600 1.4 R-601a (CH3)2CH-CH2-CH3 - isopentane 72.15 27.8 187.2 3.40 600 1.0 R-610 CH3-CH2-O-CH2-CH3 - ethyl ether 74.12 34.6 214.0 6.00 400 1.9 R-611 HCOOCH3 - methyl formate 60.05 31.8 214.0 5.99 100 4.5 R-630 CH3(NH2) - methylamine 31.06 -6.7 156.9 7.46 5 4.9 R-631 CH3-CH2(NH2) - ethylamine 45.08 16.6 183.0 5.62 5 3.5 R-704 He - helium 4.00 -268.9 -268.0 0.23 none R-717 NH3 - ammonia 17.03 -33.3 132.3 11.33 25 15.0 22.5 R-718 H2O - water 18.02 100.0 373.9 22.06 none R-729 air 28.97 -194.2 -140.6 3.79 none R-744 CO2 - carbon dioxide 44.01 -78.4 31.0 7.38 5000 none R-764 SO2 - sulfur dioxide 64.06 -10.0 157.5 7.88 2 none HCC-1130 CHCl=CHCl - dielene 96.94 47.8 243.3 5.48 200 5.6 HC-1150 CH2=CH2 - ethylene 28.05 -109.4 9.2 5.04 1000 2.7 HC-1270 CH3CH=CH2 - propylene 42.08 -47.7 92.4 4.66 660 2.0 NBP = normal boiling point; Tc = critical temperature; Pc = critical pressure; TLV-TWA = ACGIH Threshold Limiunless preceded by "C" for Ceiling values, or consistent chronic exposure limit (e.g., OSHA Permissible Exposure bility limit (% volume in air), "wff" signifies that the worst case of fractionation may be flammable; HOC = hedepletion potential; GWP = global warming potential; STATUS codes of "K" and "M" indicate restricted by the KySuffixes to safety classifications indicate changes that are not final yet ("d" for deletion or "r" for revision assigned as provisional ("p"); "d" alone indicates that a prior classification was deleted (withdrawn).Data sources are identified in the Refrigerant Database; verify data and limitations in the source documents bef