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Surveillance for Ixodes scapularis and pathogens found 

in this tick species in the United States 

Table of Contents

Contributors and Reviewers...............................................................................................................................................4

Intended Audience and Objectives.....................................................................................................................................4

Public Health Importance of Ixodes scapularis...................................................................................................................5

Life Cycle of Ixodes scapularis.............................................................................................................................................9

Tick Surveillance Objectives..............................................................................................................................................10

Classify County Status for Ixodes scapularis.................................................................................................................11

Identify Presence and Prevalence of Human Pathogens in Ixodes scapularis Ticks.....................................................12

Estimate the Density of Host-Seeking (Infected) Ixodes scapularis Ticks.....................................................................12

Document Host-Seeking Phenology of Ixodes scapularis Ticks....................................................................................14

Document Geographic and Temporal Trends in Human-Ixodes spp. Tick Encounters ................................................14

Tick Collection Methods...................................................................................................................................................14

Drag Sampling or Flagging ............................................................................................................................................15

Background and methods.........................................................................................................................................15

Acceptable to use to address the following key surveillance objectives: ................................................................16

Walking Sampling .........................................................................................................................................................16

Background and methods.........................................................................................................................................16

Acceptable to use to address the following key surveillance objectives: ................................................................16

Carbon Dioxide–Baited Tick Traps................................................................................................................................16

Background and methods.........................................................................................................................................16

Acceptable to use to address the following key surveillance objectives: ................................................................17

Tick Collection from Deer .............................................................................................................................................17

Background and methods.........................................................................................................................................17

Acceptable to use to address the following key surveillance objectives: ................................................................17

Tick Collection from Small- or Medium-Sized Mammals, Non-Migratory Birds and Lizards........................................17

Background and methods.........................................................................................................................................17

Acceptable to use to address the following key surveillance objectives: ................................................................17

Ticks Found on People and Pets...................................................................................................................................17

Background and methods.........................................................................................................................................17

Acceptable to use to address the following key surveillance objectives: ................................................................18

Estimating the Density of Host-seeking (Infected) Ixodes scapularis Ticks......................................................................18
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Where to Sample..........................................................................................................................................................18

Size of Area to Sample..................................................................................................................................................18

When to Sample ...........................................................................................................................................................19

How Many Sites to Sample...........................................................................................................................................19

How to Estimate Infection Prevalence in Host-Seeking Ticks.......................................................................................19

How to Calculate the Density of Host-Seeking (Infected) Ticks with Confidence Intervals .........................................19

Describing Host-Seeking Phenology of Ixodes scapularis Ticks........................................................................................20

Where to Sample..........................................................................................................................................................20

How to Sample..............................................................................................................................................................20

When to Sample ...........................................................................................................................................................20

Describing State or Regional Trends in When and How Frequently Different Life Stages of I. scapularis and Other 

Ixodes Species Ticks are Biting or Infesting humans.........................................................................................................21

How to Sample..............................................................................................................................................................21

When to Sample ...........................................................................................................................................................21

Pathogen Detection..........................................................................................................................................................21

Recommended Tick Samples and Preservation for Pathogen Testing .........................................................................21

Minimum Criteria for Acceptability of Pathogen Detection Assay...............................................................................22

Important considerations for Borrelia testing..........................................................................................................23

Notes on nomenclature:...........................................................................................................................................23

Important considerations for Anaplasma phagocytophilum testing .......................................................................24

Important considerations for Ehrlichia muris eauclairensis testing .........................................................................24

Important considerations for Babesia microti testing..............................................................................................24

Important considerations for Powassan virus testing..............................................................................................25

Samples CDC will Test for Pathogens ...............................................................................................................................25

In Counties Where the Pathogen of Interest has Never Been Identified.....................................................................25

In Counties Where the Pathogen of Interest has Been Identified................................................................................25

Limitations to Tick Surveillance ........................................................................................................................................26

References........................................................................................................................................................................27

Supplemental Material.....................................................................................................................................................31

Avoiding Tick Bites............................................................................................................................................................31

While You Are Outdoors...............................................................................................................................................31

After You Come Indoors ...............................................................................................................................................31

How to Remove a Tick ......................................................................................................................................................32

How to Make Tick Drags...................................................................................................................................................33

Blanket-Style Drag ........................................................................................................................................................33
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Supplies.....................................................................................................................................................................33

Sewing instructions...................................................................................................................................................33

Sewing diagrams.......................................................................................................................................................35

Modified Drag with “Fingers” .......................................................................................................................................36

Supplies.....................................................................................................................................................................36

Sewing instructions...................................................................................................................................................36

Sewing diagrams.......................................................................................................................................................37
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Contributors and Reviewers

The following Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) staff members formed the technical 

development group that prepared or reviewed this report:

• Rebecca J. Eisen, Ph.D. (Division of Vector-Borne Diseases-Bacterial Diseases Branch)

• Lars Eisen, Ph.D. (Division of Vector-Borne Diseases-Bacterial Diseases Branch)

• Christine B. Graham, M.S. (Division of Vector-Borne Diseases-Bacterial Diseases Branch)

• Erik Foster, M.S., B.C.E. (Division of Vector-Borne Diseases-Bacterial Diseases Branch)

• Andrias Hojgaard, M.S. (Division of Vector-Borne Diseases-Bacterial Diseases Branch)

• Paul S. Mead, M.D., M.P.H. (Division of Vector-Borne Diseases-Bacterial Diseases Branch)

• Gil Kersh, Ph.D. (Division of Vector-Borne Diseases-Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch)

• Sandor Karpathy, Ph.D. (Division of Vector-Borne Diseases-Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch)

• Christopher D. Paddock, M.D., M.S. (Division of Vector-Borne Diseases-Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch)

• Harry Savage, Ph.D. (Division of Vector-Borne Diseases-Arboviral Diseases Branch)

• Barbara L. Herwaldt, M.D., M.P.H. (Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria)

• Richard Bradbury, Ph.D. (Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria)

We are grateful to the following state health partners for their thoughtful review and contributions to this 

document:

• Bryon Backenson, M.S. and Melissa Prusinski, M.S., New York Department of Health

• David Neitzel, M.S. and Jenna Bjork D.V.M, M.P.H., Minnesota Department of Health

Intended Audience and Objectives

Public health entomologists/biologists are the intended audience for this document.

The geographic distributions of Ixodes scapularis (the blacklegged tick or deer tick) and its associated pathogens 

are expanding, putting an increasing number of Americans at risk for acquiring Lyme disease, anaplasmosis, 

babesiosis, Borrelia miyamotoi disease and other, less common I. scapularis-associated illnesses. The primary 

objective of this document is to provide guidance for surveillance of I. scapularis and pathogens found in this 

tick species in order to provide health care providers and the public with current and accurate information on 

where this tick occurs, when the different life stages are most active during the year, and which human 

pathogens are of greatest local concern.

Figure 1. Active life stages of the blacklegged tick, Ixodes scapularis.
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Public Health Importance of Ixodes 

scapularis

Of the greater than 50,000 cases of locally-acquired vector-borne disease cases reported annually from states 

and the District of Columbia to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, nearly 95% are caused by 

pathogens spread by ticks ((NNDSS); Figure 2). The majority are Lyme disease cases, with approximately 35,000 

cases reported annually, which is an approximately 13-fold under-estimate of the nearly 476,000 Lyme disease 

cases diagnosed annually (Schwartz et al. 2017; Kugeler et al. 2021). Since becoming a notifiable condition in 

1991, the number of Lyme disease cases reported annually has roughly tripled and cases have been reported 

over an expanding geographical region (Kugeler et al. 2015, Mead 2015) (Figure 3). 

Figure 2. Reported vector-borne diseases, United States, 2019. 
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Figure 3. Number of Lyme disease cases reported per year.

Since 1970, when Babesia microti was first reported to be a human pathogen, six additional I. scapularis-borne 

human pathogens have been described (Eisen and Eisen 2018) (Table 1; Figure 4). Moreover, annual case 

counts have increased over time for notifiable I. scapularis-associated diseases, including Lyme disease, 

anaplasmosis and babesiosis (Eisen et al. 2017). In the northern parts of the tick’s range, I. scapularis nymphs 

are considered the primary vectors of the agents causing Lyme disease, anaplasmosis and babesiosis.

Table 1. Pathogens transmitted by Ixodes scapularis, life stages that can be infected, and the human diseases 

caused by infection with these pathogens.

Disease Pathogen(s) Life stages infected

Anaplasmosis Anaplasma phagocytophilum Nymphs, Adults

Babesiosis Babesia microti Nymphs, Adults

Borrelia miyamotoi disease Borrelia miyamotoi Larvae, Nymphs, Adults

Ehrlichiosis Ehrlichia muris eauclairensis Nymphs, Adults

Lyme disease Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, Borrelia mayonii Nymphs, Adults

Powassan virus disease Powassan virus (lineage II/deer tick lineage) Larvae, Nymphs, Adults
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Figure 4. Timeline showing when various I. scapularis-borne agents were demonstrated to be human pathogens.
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Tick surveillance is not standardized or routine. Nonetheless, available collection records indicate that the 

geographic distribution of I. scapularis has expanded markedly over the past two decades. Specifically, from 

1996 through 2015 the number of counties in which I. scapularis is considered to be established has more than 

doubled (Eisen et al. 2016) (Figure 5). Moreover, recent models indicate that potentially suitable habitat for the 

blacklegged tick is wide-spread in the eastern United States, suggesting that either the distribution of the tick is 

currently under-reported or there is potential for additional range expansion (Hahn et al. 2016, 2017) (Figure 6). 

Figure 5. Distribution of counties with reported or established populations of I. scapularis in 1996 (Dennis et al. 

1998) and 2021 (CDC Division of Vector-Borne Diseases 2016).

Figure 6. Distribution of potentially suitable habitat for I. scapularis (Hahn et al. 2016, 2017).
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Because the distributions of ticks and tick-borne pathogens change over time, human risk of exposure to ticks 

and their associated pathogens also change. Tick surveillance is intended to monitor changes in the distribution 

and abundance of ticks and the presence and prevalence of tick-borne pathogens in order to provide actionable, 

evidence-based information to clinicians, the public and public health policy makers. Key questions address 

when and where humans are at risk for exposure to ticks and tick-borne pathogens. 

Life Cycle of Ixodes scapularis

Figure 6. Generalized life cycle of Ixodes scapularis.

Ixodes scapularis is a primarily woodland-associated tick. It has a 2-3 year life cycle consisting of four life stages: 

egg, larva, nymph, and adult (Yuval and Spielman 1990). Larval and nymphal ticks each take a single bloodmeal 

before molting to the next life stage and may acquire human pathogens through blood-feeding on infectious 

hosts or by co-feeding transmission (infected and uninfected ticks feeding in close proximity; pathogen 

transmission can occur in the absence of a systemic host infection). Larvae and nymphs feed primarily on small 

and medium-sized mammals including, but not limited to, white-footed mice, chipmunks, voles, and shrews. 

However, they can also infest birds, lizards and larger mammals including deer. Female ticks take a single 

bloodmeal (most commonly from deer but also from other medium-sized and large mammals), lay a large batch 

of eggs and then die. With the exception of Powassan virus and the relapsing fever spirochete Borrelia 

miyamotoi, I. scapularis-borne human pathogens have not been demonstrated to be transmitted transovarially 

(vertical transmission from infected females to their offspring) (Costero and Grayson 1996, Rollend et al. 2013). 

The other I. scapularis-borne pathogens are maintained via horizontal transmission, where infected nymphal or 

female ticks transmit the agents to vertebrate hosts, and naïve larval or nymphal ticks then acquire pathogens 

while feeding on the infectious hosts.

Adults are active mainly in the fall and spring, but can be active also in the winter months in settings where 

daytime temperatures are above freezing and there is little to no snow cover, allowing for tick activity. Females 
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typically lay eggs in the late spring but hatched larvae do not seek hosts actively until months later, in summer. 

After blood-feeding, larvae over-winter and molt to nymphs. Nymphs begin host-seeking in the spring with peak 

activity typically observed from May through July, depending on location. After blood-feeding, nymphs molt to 

adults and seek hosts in the fall (Figure 6). In some localities, particularly in colder regions, the life cycle may be 

extended to 3-4 years (Hamer et al. 2012a). 

Tick Surveillance Objectives

Tick surveillance is intended to monitor changes in the distribution and abundance of ticks and the presence and 

prevalence of tickborne pathogens in order to provide actionable, evidence-based information to clinicians, the 

public and public health policy makers. Key questions address when and where humans are at risk for exposure 

to ticks and tickborne pathogens. 

Specifically, at the spatial scale of U.S. counties, CDC aims to: 

1) classify county status for I. scapularis: established, reported, or no data available

2) classify county status for presence of specific pathogens in I. scapularis ticks: present or no data 

available

Additional objectives include the following: (3) generate estimates for local prevalence of specific pathogens in 

relevant I. scapularis life stages and local density of host-seeking (infected) nymphs or adults, which then can be 

aggregated and displayed at county scale; (4) document host-seeking phenology of all I. scapularis life stages in 

strategic locations across the tick’s range and display this information at state or regional spatial scales; and (5) 

document geographic and temporal trends in human- Ixodes spp. tick encounters. For more details on tick 

sampling methods, please see the “Tick Collection Methods” section of this document.

Objective 1 provides the most basic information for risk assessment (i.e., is the tick known to be reported or 

established in the county of interest?). Presence of a vector tick species does not necessarily indicate presence 

of human pathogens, and therefore, Objective 2 provides additional information about potential exposure to I. 

scapularis-borne human pathogens. While documenting the presence of a human pathogen in a county is 

useful, estimates of infection prevalence in host-seeking ticks (the percentage of ticks tested that are infected) 

provides a better indication of the likelihood that ticks encountered by humans may be infected with the 

pathogen of interest. 

Tick-borne infections in humans arise following the bite of infected ticks. Therefore, a measure that captures 

the abundance of host-seeking ticks, often referred to as density of host-seeking nymphs (DON) or females 

(DOF), provides better information on the likelihood of human encounters than simple measures of tick 

presence or establishment. That is, although human behavior affects the likelihood of human-tick encounters, 

assuming similar human behavior across tick habitats, human-tick encounters are likely to increase with 

increasing DON or DOF. Overall, acarological risk measures such as pursued in Objective 3 that combine the 

density of host-seeking nymphs and local estimates of infection prevalence (often referred to as the density of 

host-seeking infected nymphs or DIN) provide better estimates of human encounters with infected host-seeking 

nymphs than simple measures of tick/pathogen presence or abundance (Mather et al. 1996, Pepin et al. 2012, 

Eisen and Eisen 2016). Similar arguments can be made for the relative value of estimating infection prevalence 

in and abundance of female ticks, particularly in areas of the eastern United States where host-seeking behavior 
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of nymphs limits human-tick contact and where human encounters with female ticks are more common than 

nymphal tick encounters (Stromdahl and Hickling 2012, Arsnoe et al. 2015, Hickling et al. 2018). 

Recognizing that acarological risk measures often differ by life stage, documenting when each life stage is 

actively host-seeking aids in identifying when humans are at greatest risk for exposure to tick bites and tickborne pathogens. Therefore, Objective 4 aims to document host-seeking phenology of larval, nymphal and adult 

I. scapularis ticks. 

Finally, although the density of host-seeking ticks should positively correlate with human-tick encounter rates, 

the fine scale geographic distribution of ticks together with human landscape use and behavior (including use of 

personal protection measures) will impact contact rates. Although density sampling provides accurate 

geographic assessments of [infected] tick abundance, it is labor-intensive and consequently limited in 

geographic scale. Monitoring tick encounters through passive surveillance of ticks recovered from people and 

pets allows for sampling over a broader geographic area. Ticks collected from people provides a more direct 

assessment of human risk for TBDs, and may be used to identify areas of tick or pathogen emergence that can 

be confirmed with active surveillance (e.g., drag or flag sampling) and pathogen testing. Passively collected data 

of Ixodes sp. ticks on people and pets may be useful in describing which Ixodes species (in addition to Ixodes 

scapularis) are biting or crawling on people and pets, providing state or regional data on seasonal, life-stage and 

species-specific information about when persons are bitten by medically important ticks. Although time-lagged, 

such data provide specificity and complement efforts to track tick phenology through tracking tick bites reported 

by emergency departments without knowledge of which tick species were encountered. 

Criteria for classifying county establishment status for I. scapularis and estimating infection prevalence, densities 

of host-seeking (infected) ticks and documenting host-seeking phenology and human-tick encounters are 

summarized below. CDC aims to collate tick surveillance data to make county-level data available to the public 

on national-scale maps that will be displayed on the CDC website. State health departments and other CDC 

public health partners may submit data through ArboNET. For additional information on ArboNET submissions, 

please see https://wwwn.cdc.gov/arbonet or contact us at ticksurveillance@cdc.gov. Additional information 

can be found in subsequent sections of this document.

Classify County Status for Ixodes scapularis

• Objective: Update the I. scapularis distribution map based on county level establishment criteria 

(Dennis et al. 1998). Data will be displayed at: https://www.cdc.gov/ticks/surveillance/

• County status classification criteria are as follows:

o Established: > 6 I. scapularis of a single life stage or > 1 life stage collected per county within a 

12-month period

o Reported: < 6 I. scapularis of a single life stage collected per county within a 12-month period

o No records

• For this objective and all others, ticks should be identified to species and life stage using published 

taxonomic keys (e.g., Keirans and Clifford 1978, Durden and Keirans 1996) or molecular assays (e.g. 

Wright et al. 2015) 

• For counties reporting new records, voucher specimens supporting the status change should be

archived.

• Because we have greater confidence in presence than absence data, after a county is classified as 

“established,” it will remain so and will not regress to “reported” or “no records” status. Counties 
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classified as “reported” may progress to “established” and counties classified as “no records” may 

progress to “reported” or “established” when criteria for those classifications have been met. After a 

county is classified as “established” surveillance efforts should focus instead on pathogen presence and 

prevalence and assessments of acarological risk of human exposure to I. scapularis-borne pathogens.

Identify Presence and Prevalence of Human Pathogens in Ixodes

scapularis Ticks

• Objective: Map the county level distribution of human pathogens in I. scapularis ticks or in natural 

hosts for this tick. Data will be displayed at: https://www.cdc.gov/ticks/surveillance/

• Data to be mapped include:

o Shading counties where the I. scapularis-borne pathogen of interest has been detected in I. 

scapularis ticks or in natural hosts of I. scapularis. This is a simple binary response (pathogen 

detected or not). Pathogen detection assays must meet minimal assay requirements described 

in “Minimum Criteria for Acceptability of Pathogen Detection Assay.” Samples from which 

potential exposure could have occurred in other counties will not be included (ticks from people 

or pets are not acceptable unless travel outside of the county within 10 days prior to detection 

of the tick can be ruled out) but infection in ticks collected from the environment (by dragging, 

flagging, walking, or trapping) or infection in ticks collected from trapped mammals (provided 

their home ranges are limited enough to infer exposure occurred in the county of interest) are 

acceptable for documenting presence of pathogens in a county.

o For counties where the pathogen of interest already has been detected in I. scapularis ticks (this 

information will be updated annually on https://www.cdc.gov/ticks/surveillance/), pathogen 

prevalence and 95% confidence intervals can be estimated per relevant tick life stage and per 

collection site in Excel using the Pooled Infection Rate Add-In. Inclusion of confidence intervals is 

recommended in addition to point estimates in order to convey the level of uncertainty in point 

estimates. Confidence intervals can be interpreted as “there is a 95% probability that the true 

infection prevalence is between [insert lower confidence limit] and [insert upper confidence 

limit].” As sample sizes increase, the width of the confidence intervals decreases. Typically, 

testing 50 nymphal or adult ticks per site gives reasonable confidence limits for most I. 

scapularis-borne pathogens. For example, when 10 of 50 tested ticks are positive, infection 

prevalence is estimated as 20% (95%CI: 11-33%). Likewise, if no ticks are infected in a sample of 

25 or 50 ticks, infection prevalence could be as high as 13% or 7%, respectively. Although 

infection prevalence can be calculated for smaller sample sizes, uncertainty in estimates is high; 

pathogen prevalence will not be displayed unless a minimum of 25 ticks have been tested within 

a given county for a given life stage. Infection prevalence and associated 95% confidence 

intervals will be calculated by CDC for data submitted to ArboNET.

Estimate the Density of Host-Seeking (Infected) Ixodes scapularis

Ticks

For each of the objectives listed below, when sufficient data have been submitted to ArboNET, CDC will post 

annual surveillance reports at https://www.cdc.gov/ticks/surveillance/. 

• Objective: Map the county level density of host-seeking I. scapularis nymphs. 

o Data display and minimal sampling requirements include:
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 Displayed in categories based on number of host-seeking nymphs collected per 1000 m2

or displayed as the inverse showing the distance covered before expected encounter 

with a nymph.

 Requires at least 750 m2 drag sampled per site for density estimate; drags should be 

inspected for ticks at least every 10-20 m; sampling should be timed to coincide with the 

peak in nymphal host-seeking activity; ideally, estimates of nymphal density should be 

based on at least 2-3 visits to the site within the perceived seasonal peak in host-seeking 

(Dobson 2013). For more information on sampling, please see: “Estimating the Density 

of Host-seeking (Infected) Ixodes scapularis ticks.”

 Requires at least 1 site sampled per county, otherwise county will be displayed as “no 

records.”

 In ecologically diverse counties, sampling at multiple sites representing the range in 

suitable habitat for the tick is recommended; when multiple sites are sampled per 

county, average and range will be accessible. 

 Although timed sampling (e.g., dragging for fixed amounts of time, rather than fixed 

distances) is a valid sampling approach, in the interest of comparability among localities, 

we will only accept distance-based assessments of DON and DIN for ArboNET.

• Objective: Map the county level density of host-seeking infected I. scapularis nymphs. 

o Data display and minimal sampling requirements include:

 Displayed in categories based on number of host-seeking infected nymphs collected per 

1000 m2 or displayed as the inverse showing the distance covered before expected 

encounter with an infected nymph. 

 Calculated by multiplying the estimated density of nymphs by infection prevalence (both 

described above).

 When multiple sites are sampled per county, average and range will be accessible.

• Objective: Map the county level density of host-seeking I. scapularis females. 

o Data display and minimal sampling requirements include:

 Displayed in categories based on number of host-seeking females collected per 1000 m2

(DOF) or displayed as the inverse showing the distance covered before expected 

encounter with a female tick.

 Requires at least 750 m2 drag sampled or flagged per site for density estimate; because 

adults drop off more readily than nymphs, drags or flags should be inspected for ticks 

every 10 m; sampling should be timed to coincide with the peak in adult host-seeking 

activity; ideally, estimates of female density should be based on at least 2-3 visits to the 

site within the perceived seasonal peak in host-seeking.

 Requires at least 1 site sampled per county, otherwise county will be displayed as “no 

records.”

 Sampling at three or more sites per county is recommended; when multiple sites are 

sampled per county, average and range will be accessible.

 In ecologically diverse counties, sampling at multiple sites representing the range in 

suitable habitat for the tick is recommended; when multiple sites are sampled per 

county, average and range will be accessible.

 Although timed sampling (e.g., dragging for fixed amounts of time, rather than fixed 

distances) is a valid sampling approach, in the interest of comparability among localities, 

we will only accept distance-based assessments of DOF and DIF for ArboNET.

• Objective: Map the county level density of infected host-seeking I. scapularis females. 

o Data display and minimal sampling requirements include:
14

 Displayed in categories based on number of host-seeking infected females collected per 

1000 m2 or displayed as the inverse showing the distance covered before expected 

encounter with an infected female tick.

 Calculated by multiplying the estimated density of females by infection prevalence in 

tested adult ticks (both described above).

 When multiple sites are sampled per county, average and range will be accessible

Document Host-Seeking Phenology of Ixodes scapularis Ticks

• Objective: Describe when I. scapularis ticks are actively host-seeking (phenology). 

• Data display and minimal sampling requirements include:

o Displayed as state (or neighboring state) records of tick activity by life stage. This will be a 

categorical response (records of the tick being active for a particular month of the year or not, 

or no records if phenology studies were not reported from a particular state or its neighbor).

o Based on weekly, bi-weekly, or monthly non-removal sampling over a 12-month period, 

excluding winter months too cold for tick activity in colder parts of the tick’s range. For more 

information, see “Describing Host-Seeking Phenology of Ixodes scapularis Ticks.”

Document Geographic and Temporal Trends in Human-Ixodes spp. 

Tick Encounters

• Objective: Describe state or regional trends in when and how frequently different life stages of I. 

scapularis and other Ixodes species ticks are biting or found crawling on humans

• Data display and minimal sampling requirements include:

o Displayed as state (or neighboring state) records of tick activity by species and life stage per 

month and year. This will be a numerical count of submissions per tick species and life stage 

weighted per human population of the coverage area. Activity is defined as a recorded human 

tick encounter (either crawling or attached) on a person with no reported travel history outside 

the county of record for 10 days prior to discovering the tick.

Tick Collection Methods

Several methods can be used to collect I. scapularis ticks, however, some are better suited than others for addressing 

specific surveillance objectives (Table 2). For example, all of the methods described below can be used to 

demonstrate the presence of I. scapularis or I. scapularis-borne pathogens in a county of interest. Demonstrating 

that both the vector and pathogen are present within a county provides fundamental data for assessing the risk of 

human encounters with infected ticks. However, for Lyme disease, which is most commonly acquired through the 

bite of infected nymphs, estimates of the density of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto (s.s.)-infected host-seeking 

nymphs are a better predictor of human Lyme disease occurrence than simple measures of the presence of the tick or 

pathogen, or quantitative measures of the density of host-seeking nymphs or the infection prevalence in the nymphs

alone (Mather et al. 1996, Stafford et al. 1998, Pepin et al. 2012, Eisen and Eisen 2016)) Drag sampling is the single 

most reliable method for quantifying the density of host-seeking (infected) I. scapularis nymphs (Falco and Fish 1992). 

Table 2. Summary of tick collection methods that are acceptable or unacceptable for each surveillance objective.
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Collection Method Objective: 

Classify county 

status

Objective: 

Presence/Prevalence of 

pathogens in ticks

Objective: DON/DIN 

or DOF/DIF

Objective: 

Phenology/

human

encounters

Dragging/Flagging Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable

for hostseeking 

phenology

Walking Acceptable Acceptable Not Acceptable Acceptable

for hostseeking 

phenology

CO2 traps Acceptable Acceptable for presence, 

but not prevalence

Not Acceptable Not 

Acceptable

Ticks collected from deer Acceptable Acceptable for presence, 

but not prevalence

Not Acceptable Not 

Acceptable

Ticks collected from smallor medium-sized mammals, 

birds, lizards

Acceptable Acceptable for presence, 

but not prevalence

Not Acceptable Acceptable

Ticks from people/pets Acceptable, if 

travel history is 

accounted for

Acceptable for presence, 

but not prevalence

Not Acceptable Acceptable, 

if travel 

history is 

accounted 

for

Drag Sampling or Flagging

Background and methods

Drag sampling and flagging are similar methods used to collect host-seeking ticks (Daniels and Fish 1990, Carroll 

and Schmidtmann 1992, Falco and Fish 1992). Both typically use a 1 m wide by 1 m long flannel, denim or other 

sturdy white fabric with sufficient texture for ticks to grip. To increase contact between the fabric and 

vegetation, weights (e.g., metal washers or chains) may be sewn into the trailing edge and/or the trailing edge 

may be cut into “fingers” or “strips” rather than using a solid cloth. Modified handles (e.g. wooden dowel or 

rope) may be used to increase maneuverability. For additional details on how to make tick drags, please see the 

“How to Make Tick Drags” supplemental information. The tick drag or flag is moved horizontally across 

vegetation or leaf litter (drag) or more vertically (flag). This method of sampling provides good spatial precision 

for documenting the occurrence and/or abundance of ticks in a county. 
16

Acceptable to use to address the following key surveillance objectives:

• Classifying county status for Ixodes scapularis

• Identifying presence and prevalence of pathogens in ticks (all active life stages)

• Estimating the density of host-seeking (infected) nymphs or females; although either dragging or 

flagging can be used, horizontal distance sampled should be reported to ArboNET

• Documenting host-seeking phenology

Walking Sampling

Background and methods

Walking sampling entails an investigator walking through tick habitat and checking his/her clothing and body for 

crawling ticks (Carey et al. 1980, Schulze et al. 1986). The distance walked and the number of ticks encountered 

per distance should be recorded. Investigators typically wear light-colored clothing to more easily detect ticks 

on clothing. Long sleeves and long pants, tucked into socks, are required to reduce the risk for tick bites. White 

“painter’s coveralls” are also a good option to protect field staff, as they cover the whole body and ticks are 

easily seen on the light-colored fabric. This method of collection may be more accurate for assessing human-tick 

encounters than drag sampling, flagging or collection from hosts or carbon dioxide baited traps, but more so in 

areas with emergent vegetation for ticks to ascend than in leaf litter where tick exposures more commonly may 

be related to human behaviors exposing legs or hands/arms directly to the substrate (e.g., when playing or 

doing yardwork). Walking sampling is similar in efficiency to flagging or dragging for adult ticks, but might yield

fewer nymphs than drag sampling or flagging (Ginsberg and Ewing 1989). This method of sampling provides 

good spatial precision for documenting the occurrence and/or abundance of ticks in a county.

Acceptable to use to address the following key surveillance objectives:

• Classifying county status for Ixodes scapularis

• Identifying presence and prevalence of pathogens in ticks (all active life stages)

• Documenting host-seeking phenology

Carbon Dioxide–Baited Tick Traps

Background and methods

Carbon dioxide traps work on the premise that ticks have well-developed chemo-receptors and are attracted to 

carbon dioxide to find a host. Traps consist of a solid base to hold dry ice (a solid form of carbon dioxide) within 

an insulating material that is surrounded by a sticky tape to capture ticks attracted to the carbon dioxide 

released as the dry ice sublimates (Wilson et al. 1972). Developed originally for collection of lone star ticks 

(Amblyomma americanum) which display a more aggressive and mobile host-seeking behavior compared with I. 

scapularis, carbon dioxide traps capture I. scapularis, but appear to be less effective than drag sampling or 

flagging (Ginsberg and Ewing 1989, Falco and Fish 1992). Carbon dioxide trapping is generally less laborintensive than several other tick collection methods, but because of its inefficiency at collecting I. scapularis, it is 

not recommended for assessments of host-seeking densities for this tick species. However, this method of 

sampling provides good spatial precision for documenting the occurrence and/or presence or prevalence of 

pathogens in a county.
17

Acceptable to use to address the following key surveillance objectives:

• Classifying county status for Ixodes scapularis

• Identifying presence and prevalence of pathogens in ticks (all active life stages)

Tick Collection from Deer

Background and methods

White-tailed deer serve as important hosts for adult I. scapularis ticks. Inspection of hunter-killed deer brought 

into check stations is a cost-effective means of detecting changes in the distribution of I. scapularis, particularly 

in areas where the tick is emerging. However, owing to the home range of deer, it is spatially non-specific and 

may not correlate well with estimates of host-seeking tick densities obtained from drag sampling (French et al. 

1992, Bouchard et al. 2013, Lee et al. 2013, Raizman et al. 2013). Because infection rates derived from bloodfed ticks is not representative of infection rates in host-seeking ticks, we do not recommend assessing infection 

prevalence in ticks collected from deer to infer infection prevalence in host-seeking ticks.

Acceptable to use to address the following key surveillance objectives:

• Classifying county status for Ixodes scapularis

• Identifying presence but not prevalence of pathogens in ticks (all active life stages)

Tick Collection from Small- or Medium-Sized Mammals, NonMigratory Birds and Lizards

Background and methods

Small- and medium-sized mammals, birds and lizards often serve as hosts of larval and nymphal I. scapularis

ticks. Trapping and inspecting these animals for ticks can provide useful information on the presence and 

abundance of ticks and presence of associated pathogens in the collected ticks, as well as data on host-seeking 

phenology of immature life stages, in a county of interest. Spatial precision of estimates is associated with the 

home-range of the target animals, with migratory birds having the greatest home-range and providing low 

spatial precision in estimating exposure sites to ticks. Host trapping is generally more labor-intensive than drag 

sampling, however, in areas where I. scapularis immatures are seldom collected on drags, host sampling may be 

an effective means of demonstrating establishment of I. scapularis populations and documenting host-seeking 

phenology.

Acceptable to use to address the following key surveillance objectives:

• Classifying county status for Ixodes scapularis (excludes ticks from migratory birds)

• Identifying presence but not prevalence of pathogens in ticks (all active life stages)

• Documenting host-seeking phenology

Ticks Found on People and Pets

Background and methods

Identification of ticks collected from people or pets can be a useful means of assessing human- or pet-tick 

encounters. However, because people and their pets often travel long distances, ticks collected from these 

hosts should only be included in assessments of county status when travel history is considered. Specifically, 
18

because ticks can remain attached to a host for 7-10 days, samples obtained from persons or pets who traveled 

outside the county of residence within 10 d of tick encounter should be excluded. Likewise, records with more 

than one possible exposure site should not be reported. CDC does not recommend testing ticks from people for 

human diagnostic purposes. 

Acceptable to use to address the following key surveillance objectives:

• Classifying county status for Ixodes scapularis (if travel history is considered)

• Identifying presence but not prevalence of pathogens in ticks (all active life stages; if travel 

history is considered)

• Documenting geographic and temporal trends in human-Ixodes spp. tick encounters

Estimating the Density of Host-seeking 

(Infected) Ixodes scapularis Ticks 

Where to Sample

Ixodes scapularis is primarily a woodland-associated tick. Therefore, sampling will typically focus on forested or 

wooded settings, including their edges. Specific sampling sites should focus on areas considered to be a public 

health concern and might include, but not limited to, the following:

• novel areas of potential human exposure to I. scapularis

• counties where I. scapularis is newly established

• counties (or counties neighboring areas) where incidence of I. scapularis-borne illnesses have changed 

over time

• heavily used recreational areas, including those bordering on neighborhoods

• areas where novel pathogens are suspected to be circulating

• representative habitat types within counties where I. scapularis-borne infections are prevalent

Size of Area to Sample

The density of host-seeking nymphal or female ticks varies spatially and temporally. To get a representative 

sample of the density of host-seeking (infected) nymphs or females, the sampling area should be expansive 

(spanning at least 750 m of linear transects, or 50 transects of 15 m dragged with a cloth measuring 1 m wide). 

Distance sampled can be assessed using several methods including: 1) setting fixed sampling grids where flags, 

stakes or other objects are used to mark the start and end points of each measured length of the transect, 2) 

using a measured rope or cable and dragging or flagging its full length, 3) measuring the collectors stride length 

and walking a fixed number of strides prior to checking the flag or drag, or 4) using calibrated global positioning 

system (GPS) units, or smart-watch technology to determine distance traveled during tick sampling. Because 

ticks can drop off from the drag or flag easily, inspecting the cloth at regular intervals is important (typically 

between 10-20 m; adults detach more readily than nymphs and therefore the drag or flag should be checked 

minimally every 10-15 m) (Diuk-Wasser et al. 2006, Diuk-Wasser et al. 2010, Diuk-Wasser et al. 2012, Johnson et 

al. 2017, Johnson et al. 2018a, Johnson et al. 2018b). Drags/Flags should be checked systematically and all parts 

of the cloth should be examined, including the leading edge, ropes, and seams. Samplers should also inspect 
19

their hands at each cloth check and include any ticks recorded on their person. Wearing white or other lightcolored clothing is recommended to more easily detect ticks on the tick collector.

When to Sample

• Sampling should be conducted during the perceived peak of nymphal or adult tick activity. This 

information could be gleaned from previous phenology studies conducted in the region, timing of onset 

of human Lyme disease cases or data obtained from passive surveillance (submission of ticks from 

people or pets, etc.). 

• Sampling each site 3 or more times within the perceived peak of host-seeking activity provides the most 

accurate density estimates, but this may not always be feasible; sampling twice improves precision over 

a single sample (Dobson 2013). 

• Sampling should NOT be conducted when it is raining, when the vegetation is wet enough to saturate 

the tick drag or when it is unseasonably cold or extremely windy.

How Many Sites to Sample

Sampling numerous sites per county provides better estimates of spatial variation in the density of host-seeking 

(infected) ticks within a county. Sampling multiple sites is strongly encouraged, particularly within ecologicallydiverse counties. However, data will be displayed if minimum sampling requirements are met for only a single 

site per county.

How to Estimate Infection Prevalence in Host-Seeking Ticks

In some situations, particularly where the densities of host-seeking ticks are low, it will not be possible to collect 

a reasonable sample size for pathogen testing within the defined 750 m2 sampling area even when combining 

ticks collected over multiple sampling sessions. In this case, it is recommended to collect additional ticks 

through drag sampling or flagging in the area surrounding the sampling plot. These ticks should not be included 

in estimates of nymphal or females densities, but can be included in assessing site-specific estimates of 

pathogen prevalence.

Pathogen detection assays should meet the minimal requirements described above (“Minimum criteria for 

acceptability of pathogen detection assay”). Pathogen prevalence and 95% confidence intervals can be 

estimated per tick life stage and per site in Excel using the Pooled Infection Rate Add-In. Inclusion of confidence 

intervals is recommended in addition to point estimates in order to convey the level of uncertainty in point 

estimates. Confidence intervals can be interpreted as “there is a 95% probability that the true infection 

prevalence is between [insert lower confidence limit] and [insert upper confidence limit].” As sample sizes 

increase, the width of the confidence intervals decreases. Typically testing 50 ticks per site gives reasonable 

confidence limits. However, the number of ticks that need to be tested is dependent on how infection 

prevalence estimates will translate to public health action. Pathogen prevalence will not be displayed unless a 

minimum of 25 I. scapularis ticks of a given life stage have been tested within a given county. NOTE: infection 

prevalence and confidence intervals will be calculated per site upon submission of data to the ArboNET Tick 

Module (described below: ArboNET Tick Module). 

How to Calculate the Density of Host-Seeking (Infected) Ticks with 

Confidence Intervals 
20

• Density of host-seeking nymphs (DON) is estimated as the total number of I. scapularis nymphs collected 

per total area sampled. DON can be scaled per 1000 m2 by multiplying the total number of I. scapularis

nymphs collected per sampling session by 1000 m2

, then dividing the product by the total area sampled.

• Density of host-seeking infected nymphs (DIN) is estimated by multiplying DON by the local infection 

prevalence (% of ticks infected or the point estimate derived using the Pooled Infection Rate Add-In). To 

include a confidence interval, DON should be multiplied by the lower infection prevalence confidence 

limit and then by the upper infection prevalence confidence limit.

• Density of host-seeking females (DOF) is estimated as the total number of I. scapularis females collected 

per total area sampled. DOF can be scaled per 1000 m2 by multiplying the total number of I. scapularis

females collected per sampling session by 1000 m2

, then dividing the product by the total area sampled.

• Density of host-seeking infected adults (DIF) is estimated by multiplying DOF by the local infection 

prevalence (% of ticks infected or the point estimate derived using the Pooled Infection Rate Add-In). To 

include a confidence interval, DOF should be multiplied by the lower infection prevalence confidence 

limit and then by the upper infection prevalence confidence limit.

Describing Host-Seeking Phenology of 

Ixodes scapularis Ticks 

Where to Sample 

Because I. scapularis is a primarily woodland-associated tick, phenology study sites should be situated in 

woodlands, ideally in an area where the tick is abundant in order to accurately assess temporal changes in 

density. Sites with low tick density are susceptible to stochastic variation. Typically, significant differences in 

host-seeking phenology are not expected over short-distances. Therefore, this labor-intensive sampling should 

be conducted in strategic locations to identify regional differences in host-seeking phenology, such as in 1-2 sites 

per state.

How to Sample

Drag sampling, flagging or collection of ticks from hosts trapped within a fixed area provide suitable samples for 

documenting when ticks are actively host-seeking. 

When to Sample

Sampling should be conducted at the same site, using the same standardized methods across sampling session. 

Sites should be sampled weekly or every two weeks to assess either the presence or abundance of ticks 

collected by life stage per visit. For drag sampling or flagging, ticks should be returned to the transect from 

which they were collected (non-removal sampling) to avoid artificial depletion of ticks over time in the study 

area due to intensive sampling. 
21

Describing State or Regional Trends in 

When and How Frequently Different Life 

Stages of I. scapularis and Other Ixodes

Species Ticks are Biting or Infesting 

humans

How to Sample

Ticks found crawling on or biting people or pets may be submitted to state, local or partnering institutions that 

are participating in passive surveillance programs. Submissions should include the tick (preserved as instructed 

by the participating program) and minimal data on when (date) and where (county) the tick was found, if it was 

found on a person pet or other source, if the tick was found crawling or attached (biting), and if the person or 

pet traveled outside the county of record within 10 d of finding the tick. Fields required for ArboNET reporting

are available upon request (ticksurveillance@cdc.gov).

When to Sample

Submissions should be accepted year-round.

Pathogen Detection

Recommended Tick Samples and Preservation for Pathogen Testing 

Pathogen testing in host-seeking, unfed ticks is recommended for the following surveillance objectives:

• Identifying presence and prevalence of pathogens

• Calculating DIN and DIF

Results from pathogen testing in fed ticks, or from vertebrate host blood or tissue, should be considered with 

caution because: 1) in some cases ticks can acquire pathogens from hosts while feeding and become infected, 

but not be able to maintain infection through the molt to the next life stage, and 2) infection rates derived from 

blood-fed ticks or from hosts is not representative of infection rates in host-seeking ticks. Pathogen testing in 

fed ticks, or from vertebrate host blood or tissue, is acceptable for the following surveillance objectives:

• Documenting presence of pathogens in a county

Prior to testing, ticks or tissue samples should be preserved in one of the following:

• 70-95% ethanol (denatured ethanol should be avoided as it contains additives that may inhibit PCR)
22

• RNALater

• Frozen at -80°C without preservatives

Minimum Criteria for Acceptability of Pathogen Detection Assay 

To improve accuracy in estimates of infection prevalence and to enable detection of co-infections, ticks should 

be tested individually, rather than in pools. However, testing pools of ticks can be useful in some situations, 

including 1) when prevalence of infection is expected to be very low and testing resources are limited, or 2) 

when simply noting the presence, rather than prevalence, of pathogens is the goal.

In order to report that an I. scapularis or pool of I. scapularis is positive for Borrelia burgdorferi s.s., Borrelia

mayonii, Borrelia miyamotoi, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Babesia microti, Ehrlichia muris eauclairensis, or 

Powassan virus based on the results of molecular testing of a nucleic acid extract, that testing must include:

• A detection assay or assays (e.g., real-time PCR or standard PCR) specific to the target pathogen. To 

demonstrate that an assay is pathogen species-specific, it should be tested against a panel comprising 

genetically-similar species, ideally including any genetically-similar species that might also be found in I. 

scapularis ticks (see the specific considerations for each pathogen below). A published assay that has 

previously been shown not to detect genetically-similar species meets this requirement.

OR

• An assay or assays that detect a genus (bacteria and hemoprotozoan parasites) or family (viruses) 

followed by sequencing to identify the pathogen to species or to at least confirm or rule out the target 

species. If a molecular target sequence is similar to homologous sequences from multiple species such 

that it is impossible to confirm or rule out the presence of the target species, testing must incorporate 

sequencing of at least one additional molecular target.

In addition to the minimum requirements listed above, we highly recommend using a molecular testing scheme 

that has been published in a peer-reviewed journal and includes:

• Multiple targets for each pathogen. 

• Established limits of detection for each real-time and/or standard PCR target in the presence of tick 

DNA. If the testing scheme includes a multiplex assay designed to detect multiple pathogens, the limit 

of detection for each pathogen target should also be confirmed in the presence of more abundant DNA 

from other pathogens targeted by the same assay. 

• An internal control (e.g., a segment of the tick actin gene) that can be used to confirm the presence of 

amplifiable DNA in each specimen. A specimen that does not contain amplifiable DNA should not be 

included in infection prevalence calculations. 

See, for example, Graham et al. (2018).

All real-time or standard PCR testing should include no-template controls and, if possible, negative extraction 

controls (extracts from DNA-free water or buffer taken through the entire DNA extraction process alongside tick 

specimens). To limit the risk of contaminating field-collected samples with amplicons from previously processed 

samples, nucleic acid extraction, PCR reaction set-up, and any work with amplicons (e.g., setting up sequencing 

reactions) should be conducted in separate work areas, ideally with dedicated pipets.
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Important considerations for Borrelia testing

The Borrelia genus comprises two major clades: a relapsing fever (RF) group and a distinct Borrelia burgdorferi

sensu lato (s.l.) complex. Phylogenetic analyses place B. miyamotoi within the RF group. To date, B. miyamotoi

is the only RF group Borrelia associated with I. scapularis (Barbour 2014). Borrelia miyamotoi is known to cause 

human disease in the United States (Krause et al. 2015).

There are at least 9 recognized (named) species within the B. burgdorferi s.l. complex occurring in the United 

States (Schotthoefer and Frost 2015, Pritt et al. 2016, Margos et al. 2017a). At least 4 of those have been 

detected in field- collected I. scapularis: B. burgdorferi s.s., B. mayonii, B. kurtenbachii, and B. andersonii

(Margos et al. 2010, Hamer et al. 2012b, Eisen et al. 2017). Of the I. scapularis-associated B. burgdorferi s.l.

species, only B. burgdorferi s.s. and B. mayonii have been culture-confirmed as human pathogens in the United 

States (Stanek and Reiter 2011, Pritt et al. 2016).

Notes on nomenclature:

• Publications may use “Borrelia burgdorferi” to refer to B. burgdorferi s.s. and/or B. burgdorferi s.l. If you 

are using a published assay that is reported to be B. burgdorferi-specific, it is important to determine 

whether it is truly specific to B. burgdorferi s.s., which causes human disease, or to B. burgdorferi s.l., 

which includes a number of species that are not known to cause human disease.

• Some have proposed dividing the genus Borrelia into two genera, with Borrelia continuing to encompass 

species in the RF group, and a new genus, Borreliella, to encompass species previously included in the 

Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. group (Adeolu and Gupta 2014). Investigators continue to debate this proposal 

(Barbour et al. 2017, Margos et al. 2017b). Those querying databases to identify specimens to species

should be aware, however, that Borreliella was included in a validation list (no. 163: list of new names 

and new combinations previously effectively, but not validly, published (Oren and Garrity 2015)), and 

that B. burgdorferi s.l. species in the National Center for Biotechnology (NCBI) nucleotide databases may 

be identified as Borrelia species or Borreliella species.

To demonstrate that an assay is B. miyamotoi specific, it should be tested against at least one B. burgdorferi s.l.

species (e.g., B. burgdorferi s.s.). Ideally, it should also be shown not to detect other RF Borrelia species.

To demonstrate that an assay is B. burgdorferi s.s. specific, it should be tested against a panel including nontarget B. burgdorferi s.l. species, ideally including B. kurtenbachii and B. andersonii. If you will be testing ticks 

from the upper Midwestern United States, testing should also demonstrate that the assay does not detect B. 

mayonii. 

To demonstrate that an assay is B. mayonii specific, it should be tested against a panel that includes B. 

burgdorferi s.s. and other non-target B. burgdorferi s.l. species, ideally including B. kurtenbachii and B. 

andersonii.

There are a number of published assays for amplifying and sequencing Borrelia targets to identify Borrelia to 

species. Assays including nested PCR protocols are useful for amplifying the often scarce pathogen DNA in ticks. 

See (Wang et al. 2014) for descriptions of and references to several approaches for molecular typing of B. 

burgdorferi s.l. Note that protocols for PCR-based RFLP can also be used to generate amplicons for sequencing. 
24

Important considerations for Anaplasma phagocytophilum testing

To demonstrate that an assay is specific to A. phagocytophilum, it is important to confirm that A. 

phagocytophilum primer and probe target sites are not conserved across Anaplasmataceae or Rickettsiaceae, as 

I. scapularis can harbor at least one rickettsial endosymbiont and at least one Ehrlichia species (Kurtti et al. 

2015, Pritt et al. 2017). Assays should be tested for specificity against Rickettsia and Ehrlichia spp. as well as 

against other Anaplasma spp., ideally including A. bovis and A. marginale.

Molecular assays designed to detect A. phagocytophilum usually cannot differentiate the A. phagocytophilum

human-active strain (A. phagocytophilum-ha), which causes disease in humans, from other variants that are not 

known to infect humans, including A. phagocytophilum variant 1 (A. phagocytophilum-v1) (Keesing et al. 2014). 

Ixodes scapularis may be infected with either A. phagocytophilum-ha, variant 1, or both, but the relative 

abundance of the two strains can vary dramatically between sites and years (Keesing et al. 2014). The relative 

abundance of A. phagocytophilum-v1 also tends to be higher among female ticks that have fed on deer than 

among males collected from deer, consistent with findings that white-tailed deer are likely a reservoir for A. 

phagocytophilum-v1 but not for A. phagocytophilum-ha (Courtney et al. 2003). You should interpret PCR-based 

A. phagocytophilum testing results with this in mind. It is possible to differentiate the two strains by amplifying 

and sequencing select targets (i.e., the msp4 gene (de la Fuenta et al., 2005), the ank gene (Massung et al. 

2007), or a segment of the 16S rRNA gene (Massung et al., 2003). This is advisable when reporting an A. 

phagocytophilum-positive tick from a county that has never reported a human anaplasmosis case and/or has 

never reported an A. phagoctophilum ha-positive tick.

Important considerations for Ehrlichia muris eauclairensis testing

To demonstrate that an assay is specific to Ehrlichia muris eauclairensis:

• At a minimum, BLAST analysis should be used to confirm that primer and probe target sites are not 

conserved across Anaplasmataceae or Rickettsiaceae, as I. scapularis can harbor A. phagocytophilum

and at least one rickettsial endosymbiont (Kurtti et al. 2015).

• Ideally, the assay should be tested against a panel including other ehrlichial species as well as 

Rickettsiales. See, for example, (Allerdice et al. 2016).

Important considerations for Babesia microti testing

In the United States, I. scapularis is the vector of the parasite B. microti, which is the most common etiologic 

agent of human cases of babesiosis in this country. To date, I. scapularis has not been established to be the 

vector of any of the other pathogens that have caused documented U.S. zoonotic cases of babesiosis. However, 

the tick vectors have not been identified for all such agents, let alone for all of the many other Babesia species 

that infect non-human animals and that might be found to have zoonotic potential. 

Ixodes scapularis may be infected with B. odocoilei, a parasite of white-tailed deer and other cervids, and 

Theileria cervi, another parasite in the same order as Babesia spp. (Prioplasmida) (Steiner et al. 2006, Fritzen et 

al. 2014). Neither of these has been documented to cause infection in humans.

To demonstrate that an assay is B. microti-specific, it should be tested – at a minimum – against B. odocoilei, 

and ideally against a panel comprising other Babesia species as well as T. cervi.
25

Important considerations for Powassan virus testing

Powassan virus comprises 2 lineages: Powassan virus (POWV) lineage I, for which Ixodes cookei serves as the 

vector, and Powassan virus lineage II, or deer tick virus (DTV), for which I. scapularis serves as the vector (Telford 

et al. 1997, Kuno et al. 2001). 

Powassan virus is a positive-sense RNA virus.

• Sample preservation, nucleic acid extraction, and nucleic acid storage requirements for RNA are 

generally more stringent than those for bacterial or protozoan DNA. If you want to include Powassan 

virus testing in your tick surveillance plan, you may need to collect and store one set of ticks for DNA 

testing and a second set for RNA testing. Alternatively, you may optimize your sample preservation, 

nucleic acid extraction, and nucleic acid storage protocols to allow for both DNA and RNA testing. In this 

case, it is important to ensure that your preservation, extraction, and storage procedures do not 

compromise assay sensitivity to any of your RNA or DNA pathogen targets.

• PCR-based assays designed to detect or identify this virus must incorporate a reverse transcription step.

Samples CDC will Test for Pathogens

In support of tick surveillance efforts, CDC has limited resources available to support pathogen detection in ticks 

submitted by public health partners. Samples will not be accepted for testing from the general public. We offer 

tick testing for the following pathogens: Borrelia burgdorferi s.s., Borrelia mayonii, Borrelia miyamotoi, 

Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia microti. By submitting ticks to CDC for testing, submitters agree to 

allow CDC to retain the DNA extract for our reference collection. Limited resources typically preclude us from 

returning aliquots from ticks for which we perform DNA extractions. For submitters wishing to retain DNA from 

their ticks, we ask that you extract the DNA and submit an aliquot to CDC for pathogen testing. Prior to 

submitting ticks or DNA for testing, public health entities should contact CDC at: ticksurveillance@cdc.gov. 

In Counties Where the Pathogen of Interest has Never Been 

Identified

In counties where Borrelia burgdorferi s.s., Borrelia mayonii, Borrelia miyamotoi, Anaplasma phagocytophilum

or Babesia microti have not been identified previously in ticks or hosts, CDC will test the following samples 

submitted by collaborating public health partners for presence of pathogens: 

• Host-seeking nymphs (collected from vegetation, walking samples or tick traps); pathogen prevalence 

will be estimated if sample size is >25 individuals per site per county. 

• Host-seeking females (collected from vegetation, walking samples or tick traps); pathogen prevalence 

will be estimated if sample size is >25 individuals per site per county.

• Ticks collected from hosts; ticks will be tested for pathogen presence only, but prevalence will not be 

estimated. 

In Counties Where the Pathogen of Interest has Been Identified 

In counties where Borrelia burgdorferi s.s., Borrelia mayonii, Borrelia miyamotoi, Anaplasma phagocytophilum

or Babesia microti have been identified previously in ticks or hosts, CDC will test the following samples 

submitted by collaborating public health partners for prevalence of pathogens: 
26

• Host-seeking nymphs (collected from vegetation, walking samples or tick traps) where >25 individuals 

are submitted per site per county.

• Host-seeking females (collected from vegetation, walking samples or tick traps) where >25 individuals 

are submitted per site per county. 

• In areas where drag sampling/flagging was conducted to assess DIN or DIF, we will test ticks from low 

density sites, even if the total sample size is less than 25 individuals. Collection of additional ticks from 

area surrounding the density sampling site should be attempted, but in some cases, collection of 25 

individuals will not be feasible.

Limitations to Tick Surveillance

• Presence of I. scapularis within a county may be a poor indicator of human disease risk. For example, I. 

scapularis has been reported in many counties in the southeastern United States, but Borrelia 

burgdorferi s.s. infection rates are typically low and nymphs do not commonly ascend vegetation when 

host-seeking, thus limiting contact between people and nymphs.

• Although county estimates of the density of host-seeking infected nymphs is a better predictor of 

human disease occurrence compared with simple measures of tick presence or density of host-seeking 

nymphs, DIN and DON do not always accurately estimate risk of tick-borne diseases in humans. This 

may relate to spatial heterogeneity in where ticks are found and where people spend time outdoors, 

human behaviors that may increase or decrease risk of exposure to infected ticks, or other factors.
27

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Adeolu, M., and R. S. Gupta. 2014. A phylogenomic and molecular marker based proposal for the division of the genus

Borrelia into two genera: the emended genus Borrelia containing only the members of the relapsing fever Borrelia, 

and the genus Borreliella gen. nov. containing the members of the Lyme disease Borrelia (Borrelia burgdorferi 

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Allerdice, M. E. J., B. S. Pritt, L. M. Sloan, C. D. Paddock, and S. E. Karpathy. 2016. A real-time PCR assay for detection of 

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Supplemental Material

Avoiding Tick Bites

The best way to prevent tick-borne diseases is to prevent tick bites. To do so, CDC recommends: 

While You Are Outdoors

• Know where to expect I. scapularis ticks. Spending time outside playing in the yard, gardening or doing yard 

work, walking your dog in the neighborhood, camping, or hunting could bring you in contact with ticks

seeking a host. Many people get bites by I. scapularis ticks in their own yard or neighborhood, where the 

ticks occur commonly in wooded portions and along wooded ecotones in yards or greenbelts (shaded, 

moister microhabitats), but less commonly on open, sunny and drier lawns.

• Use Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)-registered tick repellents containing DEET, picaridin, IR3535, Oil 

of Lemon Eucalyptus (OLE), para-menthane-diol (PMD), or 2-undecanone. EPA’s helpful search tool can help 

you find the product that best suits your needs. Always follow product instructions. 

o Do not use repellent on babies younger than 2 months old.

o Do not use products containing OLE or PMD on children under 3 years old.

• Treat clothing and gear with products containing 0.5% permethrin. Permethrin can be used to treat boots, 

clothing and camping gear and remain protective through several washings.

• Minimize the risk of contact with I. scapularis ticks

o Avoid wooded and brushy areas with high grass and leaf litter when possible. 

o Walk in the center of trails.

• Check your clothing for crawling ticks frequently and remove them before they can attach and blood-feed. 

After You Come Indoors

• Check your clothing for ticks. Ticks may be carried into the house on your clothing. Any ticks that are 

found should be removed. Tumble dry clothes in a dryer on high heat for 10 minutes to kill ticks on dry 

clothing after you come indoors. If the clothes are damp, additional time may be needed. If the clothes 

require washing first, hot water is recommended. Cold and medium temperature water will not kill ticks.

• Shower soon after being outdoors. Showering within two hours of coming indoors has been shown to 

reduce your risk of getting Lyme disease and may be effective in reducing the risk of other tick-borne 

diseases. Showering ensures that you remove (and then presumably change into clean) clothing and also 

provides an opportunity to spot ticks that were crawling or attached under the clothing. Showering may 

help wash off unattached ticks and it is a good opportunity to do your daily tick check.
32

• Even if not showering, check your body for ticks after being outdoors. Conduct a full body check upon 

return from potentially tick-infested areas, including your own backyard. Use a hand-held or full-length 

mirror to view all parts of your body. Tick can attach anywhere on the body, but especially check these parts 

of your body and your child’s body for ticks:

o Under the arms

o In and around the ears

o Inside belly button

o Back of the knees

o In and around the hair

o Between the legs

o Around the waist

• Examine gear and pets. Ticks can be transported into the home on clothing and pets, then attach to a person 

later, so carefully examine pets, coats, and daypacks.

How to Remove a Tick

• Use fine-tipped tweezers to grasp the tick as close to the skin’s surface as possible.

• Pull upward with steady, even pressure. Don’t twist or jerk the tick; this can cause the mouth-parts to break 

off and remain in the skin. If this happens, remove the mouth-parts with tweezers. If you are unable to 

remove the mouth-parts easily with clean tweezers, leave it alone and let the skin heal.

• After removing the tick, thoroughly clean the bite area and your hands with rubbing alcohol or soap and 

water.

• Never crush a tick with your fingers. Dispose of a live tick by putting it in alcohol, placing it in a sealed 

bag/container, wrapping it tightly in tape, or flushing it down the sink or toilet.
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• If you develop a rash or fever within several weeks of removing a tick, see your doctor. Be sure to tell the 

doctor about your recent tick bite, when the bite occurred, and where you most likely acquired the tick.

How to Make Tick Drags

Blanket-Style Drag

Supplies

1-1/2 yd. rubberized cotton flannel sheeting, 45” wide

2 - zinc-plated screw eyes, size #12

3 - zinc-plated cut washers, 2” outer diameter, 3/4” inner diameter 

1 - length of braided polyester clothesline, 3/16” thick

1 - dowel, 3/4” in diameter, 48” long

Heavy-duty thread 

Heavy-duty sewing machine 

20 small lead sinkers, used for weighting fishing lines, 1⁄4 oz. size

Sewing instructions

For each flag:

Step 1: Preparing the materials

From the rubberized cotton flannel material, cut:

a. One (1) – 39.5” x 36” rectangle for the main panel of the tick drag. 

b. One (1) – 39.5” x 4” strip for the pocket that will hold the washers.

Step 2: Sewing the loop for the dowel

a. Laying the main panel flat so that it measures 39.5” from left to right, fold the top of the panel down 

approximately 3” toward the front of the panel and pin or clip in place. (Diagram A)

b. Sew along the bottom edge of the fabric, leaving the two sides open to form a “loop” for the dowel. 

(Diagram B)
34

Step 3 (flat drag): Adding the weights

a. Flip the panel over so that the seam from Step 2 is facing down. The panel should still be situated so that 

the loop is across the top of the panel.

b. Next, pin or clip the 39.5” x 4” rectangle onto the bottom of the panel so that the long edges align. Sew 

the two pieces together along the bottom edge, using a generous seam allowance. (Diagram C)

c. Flip the panel again so that the seam from Step 2 is again facing up. Turn the 39.5” x 4” strip from Step 

3b to the front of the panel and pin or clip in place. (Diagram D)

d. Following the diagram, sew the strip in place, adding the three washers as you work. (Diagram E)

Step 4: Completing the drag

a. Affix one screw eye to each end of the dowel, and thread the dowel through the dowel loop from Step 

2.

b. Measure and cut a length of braided cord, and knot each end through the screw eyes to make the drag 

handle. The length of cord should be long enough for the front of the drag to reach the ground as the 

collector pulls it along the vegetation.
35

Sewing diagrams
36

Modified Drag with “Fingers”

Supplies

1-1/2 yd. rubberized cotton flannel sheeting, 36” wide

2 - zinc-plated screw eyes, size #12

3 - zinc-plated cut washers, 2” outer diameter, 3/4” inner diameter 

1 - length of braided polyester clothesline, 3/16” thick

1 - dowel, 3/4” in diameter, 48” long

20 - small lead sinkers, 1⁄4 oz. weight

Heavy-duty thread 

Heavy-duty sewing machine 

Sewing instructions

From the rubberized cotton flannel material, cut:

a. One (1) – 39.5” x 23” rectangle for the main panel of the tick drag. 

b. Ten (10) – 23” x 2” strips for the fingers that will hold the lead weights.

Step 2: Sewing the loop for the dowel

a. Laying the main panel flat so that it measures 39.5” from left to right, fold the top of the panel down 

approximately 3” toward the front of the panel and pin or clip in place. (Diagram A)

b. Sew along the bottom edge of the fabric, leaving the two sides open to form a “loop” for the dowel. 

(Diagram B)

Step 3 (finger drag): Adding the weights

a. Pin or clip the ten 23” x 2” fabric strips at even distances across the bottom of the rectangular piece so 

that each one overlaps the larger piece by approximately 1”. 

b. Sew a double line of stitches across all ten fingers, securing them to the back of the drag. (Diagram C)

c. Fold approximately 2” of the bottom of each strip over and sew along two edges to form a pocket with 

an open side. (Diagram D)

d. Insert two of the lead sinkers into this pocket and continue sewing the third side of the pocket to close. 

Repeat for all ten fingers. (Diagram D)

Step 4: Completing the drag

a. Affix one screw eye to each end of the dowel, and thread the dowel through the dowel loop from Step 

2.

b. Measure and cut a length of braided cord, and knot each end through the screw eyes to make the drag 

handle. The length of cord should be long enough for the front of the drag to reach the ground as the 

collector pulls it along the vegetation.
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Sewing diagrams