1 

Interfacing Immunization Information Systems with CDC’s Vaccine Ordering 

System: Strategies for Improving Accountability, Efficiency and Provider 

Satisfaction 

Janet Fath, PhD; Ulrica Andujar, MPH; Warren Williams, MPH; Mary Beth Kurilo, MPH, MSW 

Author Information 





Fath, Andujar, Williams: Immunization Information Systems Support Branch, Immunization Services

Division, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia.

Kurilo: Oregon Immunization Program, Portland, Oregon at the time of this work; currently with a joint

appointment to American Immunization Registry Association (AIRA) as Policy and Planning Director,

Washington, D.C. and to Public Health Informatics Institute (PHII) as a Public Health Consultant

The findings and conclusions presented here are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the 

official position of CDC. The authors declare no conflicts of interest. 

Acknowledgements 

The authors would like to thank Namita Agravat, Sasschon Henderson, Sally Somerfeldt, T’hani Whitfield, and 

Zunera Mirza for their support of this project, and each of the ExIS awardees that received PPHF funding for 

their accomplishments and continued collaboration: Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Hawaii, 

Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, New 

Mexico, New York City, New York state, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Philadelphia, Rhode Island, 

Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. The American Immunization Registry 

Association (AIRA) played an important role by supporting national conference sessions and educational 

opportunities for awardees to learn about and discuss VTrckS ExIS requirements and best practices. The CDC 

VTrckS team ensured that awardees had the tools they needed to develop ExIS solutions, including specifications 

and training. 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention October 2015
2 

Introduction 

Immunization information systems (IIS) are confidential, population-based, computerized databases that record 

all immunization doses administered by participating providers to persons residing within a given geopolitical 

area1. Increased focus on accountability of publicly funded vaccine2 and transition to the Vaccine Tracking 

System (VTrckS), CDC's new national vaccine ordering and inventory management system for publicly purchased 

vaccine, have led state and local health departments to enhance their IIS to improve accountability and increase 

efficiency. 

By May 2013, all 64 federally funded immunization programs (known as awardees) transitioned from a legacy 

system called Vaccine Management System (VACMAN) to VTrckS. VTrckS is a component of the CDC Vaccine 

Management Business Improvement Project. As they transitioned to VTrckS, 47 of the awardees used their IIS or 

an external information system to collect data before sending to VTrckS, and interfaced or took steps to 

interface their IIS with VTrckS. 

The 47 awardees represent 92% (over 39,000) of the Vaccines for Children (VFC) provider sites (CDC, 

unpublished data, 2013). These awardees built on existing infrastructure and relationships with vaccine 

providers, who already used the IIS to record vaccine administrations. Provider sites in these jurisdictions 

interact with a single system – the IIS – to document vaccine administrations, track inventory, and order vaccine. 

Vaccine program staff in these jurisdictions review provider on-hand inventory and approve provider vaccine 

orders in the IIS; they then log on to VTrckS to upload order and inventory data. Using this approach, awardees 

leverage VTrckS’ powerful back end vaccine ordering capabilities while maintaining control over 

communications and IIS functions providers can access. In addition, a number of awardees are able to 

decrement vaccine inventory quantities in the IIS based on vaccine administration data sent via electronic data 

exchange from providers’ Electronic Health Records (EHRs). 

Table 1 lists the tasks performed by providers and vaccine program staff. Note that providers perform all of their 

tasks in the IIS, but vaccine program staff performs some tasks in the IIS and some in VTrckS. 

Table 1. Tasks Performed in the IIS and VTrckS. 

Tasks Performed in the IIS Tasks Performed in VTrckS

Providers







 

 

 

 

Update contact information 

Record inventory on hand 

Order vaccine 

Vaccine Program Staff

Approve orders Manage rejected orders

Export provider master data, inventory, and/or order data 

files

Upload data files

Upload shipment data files Export shipment data

Upload Federal Vaccines List Export Federal Vaccines List

Figure 1 depicts the data collected in the IIS and uploaded to VTrckS, as well as the data available in VTrckS that 

can be uploaded to the IIS. At a minimum, ExIS awardees upload inventory and order data to VTrckS. Additional 

interfaces allow providers to enter and update their contact information (i.e., information needed to ensure that 

orders are delivered to the correct address and person during business hours), allow for inventory to be prepopulated based on vaccine shipments, and ensure that the list of vaccines that can be ordered in the IIS 

matches the vaccines on CDC’s Federal Vaccines List. Although awardees implemented a wide range of 
3 

improvements in support of vaccine ordering and inventory tracking, every ExIS awardee’s IIS must conform to 

published specifications for the upload and download interfaces. 

Figure 1. VTrckS Upload and Download Interfaces. 

The objective of this paper is to list improvements awardees made to their IIS to support vaccine ordering and 

inventory tracking and the associated awardee-reported impacts. Results of this effort will be used to inform 

awardees of additional improvements, and as input to a plan for measuring the public health impact of the 

improvements to inform future investment decisions. 

Methods 

In 2011 and 2012, a total of 32 awardees received Prevention and Public Health Fund (PPHF) resources to 

enhance their IIS to exchange vaccine ordering and inventory data with VTrckS. Some awardees planned to build 

or enhance related functions such as online provider enrollment, inventory decrementing using data from EHRs, 

and provider inventory reconciliation. 

Data were derived from: 

1. Monthly written reports between PPHF awardees and CDC project monitors 

2. A one-hour recorded demonstration of vaccine ordering, inventory tracking, and related functions 

conducted with each PPHF awardee near project completion 

3. A monthly call for all awardees to discuss accomplishments and obstacles 

CDC project monitors routinely noted “success stories” and other project status information. Success stories 

were statements made by awardees that tied a change in the IIS or supporting processes to a public health 

impact. For example, “Inventory pre-populated from VTrckS shipment data ensure that tracking inventory is 

easier and less error prone.” PPHF project demonstrations were conducted through a web conferencing 

program and were a primary resource for identifying and cataloging improvements and summarized project 

impacts. This project was determined to be public health – non-research, and was thus exempt from 

Institutional Review Board approval 

Factors Affecting Design, Development, and Deployment of the ExIS Solution 

Awardees linked perceived increases in accountability, efficiency and provider satisfaction to emphasis on 

accountability, efficiency, and usability during design, development, and deployment of their ordering and 

inventory solution. Each awardee’s approach was additionally influenced by the intended end users of the 

solution, local laws, policies, and budget. In general, however, awardees reported improved accountability when 

they added checks and balances to inventory and ordering processes. They reported improved efficiency when 

they simplified or automated processes and empowered vaccine program staff to take on tasks previously 

performed by technical development staff. Awardees reported higher provider satisfaction when users had 

needed information for each task and when the system design prevented errors. 
4 

Not every awardee implemented all accountability, efficiency, and usability features discussed in the remainder 

of this section. As awardees plan enhancements to their ExIS solutions, they should consider the possible 

benefits of implementing all features described. 

Accountability 

Awardees strove to ensure that all parties concerned comply with vaccine program policies and can 

demonstrate compliance. One accountability strategy awardees employed was to build checks and balances into 

the IIS to give better insight into inventory management and ordering practices in provider offices. Providers 

were required to verify shipping information, submit supporting documentation with each order, and validate 

vaccine deliveries against shipment data in the IIS. As part of their review of each order, vaccine program staff 

were required to review supporting documentation. To promote accountability, vaccine program staff were also 

supplied with new reports and data quality tools. 

Some of the checks and balances awardees incorporated into the ordering and receiving processes included: 



o

o

o

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



Require providers to verify shipping information and submit supporting documentation with each 

order: 

Verify shipping information – Providers must verify shipping address and hours of operation 

before they are allowed to submit an order to ensure that the vaccine can be delivered 

appropriately. 

Submit inventory on hand – Providers must submit National Drug Codes (NDC, a universal 

product identifier for drugs3) and lot number for doses administered as well as lost, borrowed, 

and wasted vaccine. Having more than one or two lots of any NDC on hand at a given time might 

indicate that the provider is not rotating stock in the refrigerator properly. For example, if a 

provider finds five different lots in their refrigerator for the same NDC, they can take steps to 

reduce the number of lots for that vaccine to one or two. Providers that report vaccine 

administrations electronically through data exchange with an EHR must reconcile data on doses 

administered with the count of inventory on hand before submitting their inventory counts. 

Submit temperature logs – Some awardees require that providers submit temperature logs with 

orders by e-mail, fax, and/or through data loggers. The IIS for these awardees does not permit 

providers to order without the required temperature logs. 

Require providers to validate vaccine shipments – Providers must verify online that temperatures of 

shipped vaccine are within acceptable ranges before accepting the vaccine as inventory in the IIS. 

Providers may need to adjust quantities of on-hand inventory recorded in the IIS to reflect amounts 

actually received. If there are discrepancies, vaccine program staff are notified either by the provider or 

automatically through the IIS and may take action as needed. 

Require vaccine program staff to review supporting documentation before approving an order –

Online tools give staff the information they need to make good decisions. This step involves more work 

for staff, but helps them to identify issues they might otherwise have missed. For instance, staff can tell 

if a provider submitted the same inventory two months in a row and can work with the provider to 

correct the problem. Some IIS also capture returns (vaccines in their original package that can be 

returned to CDC’s centralized distributor for Federal Excise Tax credit4) and wastage for a more 

complete accounting of inventory. Damaged vaccines, vaccine in partially used multi-dose vials (which 

cannot be visually quantified), and vaccine from a unit dose vial that was drawn up into a syringe, are 

characterized as wastage4

. When vaccine program staff finds issues in the supporting documentation, 

they can follow up with providers to correct discrepancies and prevent future problems. 

Supply staff with accountability reports – Reports that promote accountability include a printable 

“Product Lot Expiration Report” that assists provider staff in proper stock rotation and a “Vaccine 
5 

Accountability” report to view doses administered (total and by age group), doses lost/expired, doses 

received, doses transferred, and accountability percent for each vaccine. A building block for improved 

vaccine accountability reporting is the shift to tracking dose level eligibility, the best practice specified in 

the 2013-2017 IIS functional standards5, rather than tracking by patient level or visit level eligibility6. This 

new best practice makes it possible to manage inventory more accurately and to improve accountability 

for both publicly and privately funded vaccine. 

 Supply staff with data quality tools – Awardees have a number of tools to improve the quality of data 

received through EHRs and entered manually in the IIS. Automated data processing, for instance, can 

help reconcile duplicate records, ambiguous IDs, and user-flagged records. Online enrollment and the 

ability to update contact information at any time help to ensure that provider contact information is 

accurate and that orders are delivered to the correct address and person during business hours. Access 

to real-time information helps staff find and address errors more quickly, potentially reducing their 

impact.

Efficiency 

Two strategies awardees used to improve efficiency were to simplify and/or automate processes and to 

empower vaccine program staff. A major simplification for ExIS awardees was a single web-based application for 

providers to track inventory, order vaccine, and record doses administered. Many providers were already 

documenting doses in the IIS, as well as receiving vaccine histories and forecasts. Adding inventory tracking and 

vaccine ordering offered the benefit of making the IIS a “one-stop shop.” Awardees also simplified and/or 

automated the vaccine ordering process, implemented online flu prebooking, automated recommended order 

quantity calculations, allowed providers to update delivery information online, and implemented online review 

of supporting documents such as temperature logs. 











Implement online ordering – Although some IIS already supported aspects of online ordering, many 

replaced cumbersome and error-prone paper processes. Three advantages of automating the ordering 

process are no more lost paper forms, less time sorting through faxed or e-mailed orders, and no more 

need to hand write the NDC and lot numbers needed for accurate vaccine inventory tracking. 

Implement online flu prebooking – Integrating influenza vaccine pre-booking into the online ordering 

process allowed providers to indicate their needs for influenza vaccine each year; supported vaccine 

program staff as they review and approve the requested amounts; ensures that all parties concerned 

can see the allocated amounts of vaccine as the influenza season progresses; and permits providers to 

order surplus influenza vaccine when all pre-booked amounts have been shipped. 

Automate recommended order quantity calculations – IIS calculate a recommended order quantity for 

each provider based on ordering history and other factors. IIS can consistently and quickly calculate 

recommended order quantity, freeing vaccine program staff for more important aspects of the order 

review process. 

Allow providers to update provider delivery information online – IIS allow providers to update their 

own data such as delivery hours and contact person changes and free vaccine program staff for other 

tasks. 

Implement online supporting documents review – IIS allow submission of supporting data needed to 

approve new orders, including inventory on hand, doses administered, and temperature logger 

readings. Making supporting data easily accessible to vaccine program staff online as they review orders 

facilitates the process for deciding whether to approve, modify, or deny each order. Having temperature 

logger data available online also allows staff to see highest and lowest temperatures for comparison 
6 

with recommended values. The system automatically sends notifications to vaccine program field staff if 

temperatures are out of range, enabling them to take action to prevent future temperature incursions. 

ExIS awardees reported that granting vaccine program staff access to a web-based application for placing and 

processing orders not only empowered staff, but also saved on travel to the office during normal operations and 

supported business continuity in case of an emergency (e.g., during the response to the 2009 H1N1 epidemic). 

Awardees also built functionality to allow vaccine program staff to configure IIS settings (rather than relying on 

technical staff to do so), organize their tasks with work lists, and create reports to monitor vaccine ordering 

operations. 











Allow program staff to configure IIS settings – When vaccine program staff can configure and adjust IIS 

settings, changes can be made quickly and accurately without engaging technical development staff, 

resulting in higher quality data transmitted to VTrckS and less time spent fixing errors. Settings vaccine 

program staff can configure include NDCs available for ordering, provider formularies (i.e., sets of 

vaccines select groups of providers can order), parameters for recommended order quantity 

calculations, allowable provider ordering frequency, thresholds for notifications that vaccines are soon 

to expire, and maximum time between inventory reconciliations. 

Supply staff with work lists – IIS can help vaccine program staff and providers organize their work. For 

example, an “Enrollment Work List” helps vaccine program staff track how close each provider is to 

completing steps for enrolling in the IIS and/or enrolling in the VFC program to receive publicly funded 

vaccines. An “Orders Work List” indicates the steps each provider must complete to order vaccines and 

shows vaccine program staff where providers are in the overall process. Sample steps in the process are 

verifying contact information and business hours; entering/reconciling vaccine inventory; verifying 

temperature logs; and submitting vaccine orders. Vaccine program staff can search for orders that were 

saved and not submitted and assist providers in completing orders. 

Supply staff with operations reports – Better reporting tools help staff identify and address problems in 

a timely manner. Sample reports that improve efficiency include: 

A “Daily Orders” report, which vaccine program staff use to track orders processed each day. 

Ad hoc reporting, which allows vaccine program and support staff to create need-specific reports 

easily. 

Usability 

Awardees employed three usability strategies in their ExIS solutions: 1. ensure that users have the information 

they need, when they need it; 2. notify users when important events take place or when users need to take 

action; and 3. build in logic to prevent errors. 

Awardees added information to IIS pages to help answer typical provider questions at any point in the ordering 

process. Beta testing with small groups of providers helped awardees fine-tune messages before widespread 

deployment. Helpful information added to IIS pages included: 





Provider information – Accurate provider information helps to ensure that vaccine is delivered to the 

right person at the right place during business hours. Because of the importance of this information, the 

names of primary provider contacts, business hours, and shipping address are located in a prominent 

position on the ordering page and providers are able to make updates as needed. 

Inventory information – A printable inventory page with NDCs, lot numbers, and expiration dates makes 

it easy for providers to document accurate inventory information quickly. Highlighting soon-to-expire 

vaccine on the inventory page can also help in stock rotation and prevent wastage.
7 







Order information – Vaccine, trade name, manufacturer, packaging, and NDC are displayed consistently 

throughout the IIS ordering module to acquaint providers with the values as they report inventory and 

receive shipments. Designing the online order form to include the minimum/maximum order quantity 

allowed, doses administered since the last order, and doses on hand (along with the associated lot 

numbers and expiration dates) makes it easier for providers to select the quantity they need to order 

and for awardee staff to approve orders. Order status, including provider and vaccine staff 

comments/questions, helps set provider expectations for order delivery date and prompts providers to 

take action if needed to keep the process moving.

Shipment tracking number – When the IIS has the capability to import VTrckS shipment data, providers 

can access shipment tracking numbers and plan to be in the office to accept deliveries. 

Meaningful error messages – Meaningful error messages identify problems and help users take 

appropriate action. An example is an error message displayed when a provider enters an unacceptable 

multiple for vaccines. Helping the provider to correct the problem ensures that only quality data are 

entered into the system. 

Awardees designed on-screen and e-mail notifications to communicate status and remind users to take 

appropriate action. Sample notifications include: 









Onscreen notification at log-on of vaccines that are soon to expire to help providers minimize possible 

wastage 

Order status notifications (e.g., order approved, order rejected, and impending deliveries) to help 

reduce the number of questions providers have for vaccine program staff, as well as the time providers 

spend answering questions about orders with issues 

Notifications about impending shipments sent to providers to help reduce the number of failed 

shipments 

Notifications when vaccine is wasted and/or logs show out-of-range temperatures to help avoid future 

wastage 

Another strategy awardees took for improving usability was to present only valid choices to prevent errors from 

occurring. IIS employed several methods for presenting only valid choices: 







Ordering Wizards – Wizards guide providers through the steps for ordering vaccine, including reviewing 

provider profile information, submitting/reconciling inventory, and ordering acceptable amounts of 

vaccine. 

Formularies – Awardees allow providers to order a subset of available vaccines, called a formulary, 

depending on provider characteristics. Awardees have a variety of methods for determining the number 

of formularies within the IIS, including having one formulary for local health departments and another 

for private providers. 

Constraints on values entered – Valid values for NDCs, lot numbers, and expiration dates are available 

to the IIS from the VTrckS shipment data export and, for some awardees, shipment data from thirdparty vendors or wholesalers. IIS can use these data to restrict selection or entry to valid choices only. 
8 

 Map user-entered values to acceptable values – Map information users enter to likely correct answers. 

An example is a mapping of NDCs on vaccine vials with NDCs on the secondary packages. VTrckS tracks 

NDCs on the secondary packaging and sends them in the Federal Vaccines List and in shipment data. 

Providers administering vaccine and counting individual doses in a refrigerator might enter the NDC on 

the vial. 

Successes Reported 

ExIS awardees demonstrated the ability to extend the federal vaccine ordering and inventory tracking system by 

building on existing systems already accessed by providers that administer vaccines in their jurisdictions. In the 

process, awardees built tools for improved vaccine accountability and reported decreased vaccine order 

processing time and increased provider satisfaction. These initial indicators are especially important for 

sustaining a vaccine distribution system that relies on participation and support from the nearly 40,000 VFC 

providers that administer vaccines and document those vaccines in IIS. Table 2 highlights reported benefits for 

providers. While not analyzed in this paper, there may be associated cost savings for any of the reported 

benefits. 

Table 2. Benefits Realized by Providers, as Reported by Awardees. 

Decreased Vaccine Order Processing Time 



























The time for providers to place an order dropped from 30-40 minutes to 15-20 minutes. (P) 

Improved Tools for Vaccine Accountability

Verification of provider shipping information for every order ensures that vaccine is delivered to the 

correct address and the appropriate person during business hours. (P, S)

Notifications of impending shipments sent to providers have decreased failed shipments. (L)

Data quality increases when providers no longer have to hand write order and inventory information, 

including NDCs, lot numbers, and expiration dates. (R, S, T)

Online ordering streamlines the process of collecting lot numbers; by the time providers complete two 

or three monthly ordering cycles, the accuracy of lot numbers improves in the IIS. (F)

Functionality for tracking and transferring vaccine to where it is needed reduced influenza vaccine 

wastage. (P)

Inventory decrementing based on data from EHR further increases accountability. (C, F, J, L, M, U, V, W, 

X)

Improved inventory reports and notifications result in less chance for vaccine to expire before it is 

administered. (F, L)

Providers must verify online that temperatures of shipped vaccine are within acceptable ranges before 

accepting it as inventory on hand. (P)

Increased Satisfaction

Provider Satisfaction

Vaccine ordering has been a “carrot” in encouraging additional clinics to participate in the IIS and 

keeping them in the program. (H)

Improvements to online ordering resulted in an increase from 50% to 75–80% of providers ordering 

online. (L)

Private providers have been very receptive, with approximately 60-70% ordering vaccine online. (H)

One provider commented (B): 

“I am pleasantly surprised that the [ordering system] is an improvement over the previous monthly 

’fill out the paper form and fax to DOH’ system which recently had become quite burdensome, so 

much so that I was questioning my continued participation in the VFC program.”

Specific Aspects Providers Appreciate
9 







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



Providers “are ecstatic” that the system was designed with a focus on accountability and usability. (P)

Providers look forward to the new changes and are glad they have moved away from the paper 

process, which they say was not user-friendly. (R)

Elimination of paper forms means no more lost paper forms. (B)

Providers appreciate not having to enter state-supplied inventory into the IIS by hand. (M)

Providers appreciate that they can see the status of their orders and the amounts of vaccines ordered. 

(B, K)

Most providers rely on the system, even with limited training. (A)

Providers indicate that the new ordering tool interface is easy to use; vaccine program staff are 

receiving fewer questions from providers. (H)

Awardees reported only the benefits they observed and may not have reported improvements in all three areas: 

accountability, efficiency, and provider satisfaction. No awardee reported that changes to their IIS for this 

project resulted in less accountability, decreased efficiency, and lower provider satisfaction. Although specific 

awardees are not identified in this section, Table 3 indicates the interfaces implemented by each awardee 

referenced. Benefits reported by awardees for vaccine program staff and providers are summarized in this 

section. 

Table 3. Interfaces Implemented by PPHF Awardees Referenced in this Paper. 

ID Provider 

Master Data

Inventory 

Data

Returns Wastage Order Data Shipment 

Data

Federal 

Vaccines 

List*

A X X X X X

B X X X X X

C X X X X

D X X X

E X X X X

F X X X X

G X X X X X

H X X X X X

I X X X X X X X

J X X X

K X X X X X X

L X X X X

M X X X X

N X X X X

P X X X X

Q X X X

R X X

S X X X X

T

U X X X

V X X X X

W X X X

X X X X X X

* Awardees indicated receive e-mail notifications of changes in the Federal Vaccines List. Awardees not 

indicated use other methods for obtaining this information 

Improved tools for vaccine accountability – Awardee N observed that “online ordering makes providers true 

VFC partners.” This partnership is built, in part, on having better tools for vaccine accountability. When VTrckS 

shipment data are imported into the IIS, the IIS can send providers notifications of impending shipments; 
10

providers can track shipment deliveries online; and providers can verify shipments when they arrive without 

having to retype NDCs, lot numbers, and expiration dates. Awardee L observed that notifications of impending 

shipments led to a decrease in failed shipments. Awardee F stated that online ordering streamlined the process 

of collecting lot numbers; by the time providers complete two or three monthly ordering cycles, the accuracy of 

lot numbers has improved in the IIS. Functionality for tracking and transferring vaccine to where it is needed 

reduced influenza vaccine wastage for awardee P. Decrementing inventory based on doses administered data 

from EHR is another tool for improving accountability used by a number of IIS inventory management 

components. Providers that have this capability reconcile the vaccines on hand with the information in the IIS, 

further increasing the level of accountability. Finally, awardees that require providers to verify online that 

temperatures of shipped vaccine are within acceptable ranges help to ensure that only viable vaccine is tracked 

as inventory on hand. 

Decreased vaccine order processing time – Both vaccine program staff and providers benefit from decreased 

vaccine order processing time. Awardee K reported that vaccine program staff save 21 hours weekly – 20 hours 

because providers now enter orders in the IIS instead of submitting paper forms and an additional hour because 

the IIS calculates suggested order minimum and maximum, which staff previously calculated by hand. Awardee 

D estimated a savings of 10 hours per week because vaccine program staff now change settings for IIS functions 

that previously required technical development staff assistance. Awardees A and B said that vaccine program 

staff now spend less time communicating order status because providers are able to check order status online. 

Another benefit for providers in some jurisdictions is reduced ordering time. Awardee P estimated that the time 

for providers to place an order was reduced from 30-40 minutes to 15-20 minutes per order. 

Increased provider satisfaction – Providers have acknowledged the improvements in the process of ordering 

vaccine and are responding positively, with increases in the numbers of providers ordering online and increased 

satisfaction of the providers already ordering online. Awardee H noted that online vaccine ordering has been a 

“carrot” in encouraging additional providers to participate in the IIS and in retaining providers in the program. 

Several awardees reported increases in the number of providers participating in the IIS. Awardee L, for instance, 

stated that the percent of providers ordering vaccine through the IIS increased after online ordering 

enhancements were made, from 50% to 75–80%. Awardees have received positive feedback on their approach 

to emphasize accountability and usability when implementing and/or improving the IIS ordering capabilities. 

Specific aspects of the online ordering component that providers especially favor include the move away from a 

paper ordering process; not having to enter state-supplied inventory by hand into the IIS; and the ability to see 

order status and approved amounts of vaccine ordered. Focus on usability has enabled providers to use the 

system with limited training and has reduced the number of questions providers have for vaccine program staff. 

Recommendations 

Awardees reported improved accountability and efficiency in the vaccine distribution process, resulting in time 

savings for providers and vaccine program staff as well as increased user satisfaction. Looking ahead, there are 

more improvements that can be made to IIS and a number of opportunities as well. An evaluation plan for 

determining the most impactful improvements will guide further investment in improved vaccine ordering and 

inventory tracking features. 

In the near term, awardees would benefit from focusing on: 





Implementing the VTrckS inventory and orders interfaces and any other interfaces they plan to use. 

Reaching this important milestone will mean that all ExIS awardees have achieved baseline functionality 

and will be ready for new interfaces when they become available. 

Adopting accountability, efficiency, and usability strategies identified in this report as they build new 

interfaces and enhance existing ones, as well as exploring improvements based on feedback from 

vaccine program staff, providers, and other awardees. 
11

 Importing VTrckS shipment data into the IIS, potentially increasing accountability, efficiency, and 

usability. When VTrckS shipment data are imported into the IIS, the IIS can send providers notifications 

of impending shipments; providers can track shipment deliveries online; and providers can verify 

shipments when they arrive and populate their online inventory without having to retype NDCs, lot 

numbers, and expiration dates. 

As VTrckS evolves, there will be more opportunities to leverage IIS to support vaccine ordering and inventory 

tracking. Three areas of special interest are new interfaces, automated data exchange between the IIS and 

VTrckS, and barcode technology: 







CDC recently developed returns and wastage upload interfaces. Based on a survey conducted in January 

2014, at least 39 awardees have plans to implement these interfaces. Depending on CDC policies, 

additional interfaces could also be developed. 

Automated near-real-time data exchange between IIS and VTrckS would eliminate or reduce the need 

for manual file upload and download. In the meantime, generating inventory and order files for manual 

upload to VTrckS has enabled awardees to collect and export the needed data. When VTrckS has defined 

protocols for automated data exchange, awardees will need to embark on another development effort 

to comply. 

Advances in two-dimensional (2D) barcode technologies7, 8 have allowed for rapid, accurate, and 

automatic capture of vaccine NDC, lot number, and expiration date by a handheld imaging device or 

scanner, as well as the ability to populate fields in IIS and EHR with these data. As more vaccines are 

encoded with 2D barcodes, awardees and providers can continue to improve efficiency by scanning 

vaccines delivered to their offices and by scanning vaccine inventory on hand. IIS and the related 

workflows will need to evolve to take advantage of this technology in support of vaccine ordering and 

inventory tracking. 

Limitations

These interfaces and functions will continue to evolve, and there is a significant need for support to ensure that 

every IIS has the flexibility needed to take advantage of evolution in both IIS and in VTrckS. This project did not 

assess how well positioned awardees’ IIS are to accommodate future changes to vaccine program operations 

and policies (e.g., provider enrollment process) or the financial impact of such changes. Future projects should 

address these aspects. 

Self-reported data on impact have not been verified and are not representative of all awardees. As a result there 

is a continued need to gather feedback, input, and lessons learned from the broader community of awardees as 

they implement these interfaces. Future evaluations should gather data from all stakeholders engaged in this 

work. 

Conclusions 

PPHF resources enabled awardees to make progress toward improving the accountability, efficiency, and 

usability of the vaccine distribution process. The transition to VTrckS has been a significant accomplishment and 

an impetus for vaccine program staff to work closely with IIS staff on a shared endeavor. Nonetheless, ExIS 

awardees face a number of challenges that will require vaccine program staff and IIS staff to strengthen and 

solidify their collaboration, including the following: 

 Until automated data exchange between IIS and VTrckS becomes a reality, the process of synchronizing 

the IIS with VTrckS is manual and susceptible to human error. Ensuring the creation and implementation 

of data quality protocols and procedures will be essential for protecting the quality of the data and the 

integrity of the interface. 
12

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

EHRs are still evolving in their ability to send complete and accurate data – including data elements for 

dose level eligibility – to the IIS. High-quality EHR data are critical for recording accurate doses 

administered data, as well as for decrementing inventory and meeting accountability requirements. IIS 

and vaccine program staff will need to collaborate to ensure that each provider’s EHR is configured 

properly and electronically submitted data sent to the IIS meet the necessary requirements. 

PPHF resources from 2011 and 2012 helped to fill a funding gap for 32 awardees to build and enhance 

their inventory and ordering functionality. Awardees will need funding from other sources for ongoing 

operations and future enhancements. 

CDC and awardees partnered to create a broad and efficient system for distributing and managing publicly 

funded vaccines. With emphasis on accountability, efficiency, and usability, awardees reported higher 

accountability, reduced order processing time, and higher provider satisfaction. Continued investments in the 

most impactful in IIS vaccine ordering and inventory tracking functionality can ensure that ExIS awardees are 

prepared to streamline the related processes further and improve accountability of publicly purchased vaccine, 

resulting in significant benefits for providers, awardee staff, and the populations they strive to protect from 

vaccine-preventable diseases. 

References 

1. Increasing Appropriate Vaccination: Immunization Information Systems. The Community Guide website. 

http://www.thecommunityguide.org/vaccines/imminfosystems.html. Updated July 2010. Accessed 

October 8, 2014. 

2. Ching, PLYH. Evaluating Accountability in the Vaccines for Children Program: Protecting a Federal 

Investment. Public Health Reports. 2007 Nov-Dec; 122(6): 718–724. 

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1997239/. Accessed October 8, 2014. 

3. National Drug Code Directory website. http://www.fda.gov/drugs/informationondrugs/ucm142438.htm. 

Updated June 27, 2014. Accessed June 27, 2014. 

4. IPOM: Immunization Program Operations Manual. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. 

http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/imz-managers/guides-pubs/ipom/index.html. Updated August 6, 2012. 

Accessed April 22, 2014. 

5. Immunization Information System (IIS) Functional Standards. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 

website. http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/programs/iis/func-stds.html. Updated December 18, 2012. 

Accessed April 22, 2014. 

6. Recording Dose Level Eligibility in Immunization Information Systems (IIS) Perceptions about Benefits, 

Barriers and Mitigating Strategies. American Immunization Registry Association white paper.

http://www.immregistries.org/resources/Recording_Dose_Level_Eligiblity_in_IIS_AIRA_2012.pdf

December 30, 2012. 

7. Two-Dimensional (2D) Vaccine Barcodes. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. 

http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/programs/iis/2d-vaccine-barcodes/index.html. Updated May 7, 2014. 

Accessed June 27, 2014. 

8. EHR-IIS 2D Barcode Functional Capabilities Report, Version 1.0. Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention website. http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/programs/iis/2d-vaccinebarcodes/downloads/barcode-functional-capabilities.pdf. July 2013.