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Glossary 331 

Glossary
 


Advertising threshold. The level of message exposure that is required to make an impact with your target audience. 

Appeal. A message quality that can be tailored to one’s target audience(s). This term refers to the motivation 

within the target audience that a message strives to encourage or ignite (e.g., appeal to the love of family, 

appeal to the desire to be accepted by peer group). 

Attitudes. An individual’s predispositions toward an issue, object, person, or group, which influence his or her 

response to be either positive or negative, favorable or unfavorable. 

Audience. The number of people or households that are potentially exposed to a counter-marketing tactic 

(e.g., radio ad, grassroots event, newspaper article) or other intervention. 

Audience profile. A formal description of the characteristics of the people who make up a target audience. Some 

typical characteristics useful in describing audiences include media habits (e.g., newspaper and magazine readership, television [TV] viewership, radio listenership, and Internet use), family size, residential location, education, income, lifestyle preferences, leisure activities, religious and political beliefs, level of acculturation, ethnicity, 

ancestral heritage, consumer purchases, and psychographics. An audience profile can help you to develop more 

effective media messages and interventions based on an improved understanding of the audience. 

Audience segment(s). A group of people who share a set of common characteristics. On the basis of these similarities, one can develop program elements and communications activities that are likely to be successful with 

most members of the segment. 

Audience segmentation. The process of dividing up or grouping a large target audience into smaller groups 

based on common characteristics related to behaviors or predictors of behavior. Audience segmentation will 

help you to target media messages and key strategies more precisely. 

Barriers (or audience barriers). Hindrances to desired change. These may be factors external or internal to 

audience members themselves (e.g., lack of information about health effects of tobacco use, the belief that fate 

causes illness and one cannot alter fate, lack of access to cessation services). 

Baseline study. The collection and analysis of data regarding the target audience or environment before an 

intervention. Generally, baseline data are collected to provide a point of comparison to the data collected 

during the intervention and at its conclusion. 

Bonus weight/time. Additional advertising space or time given as a “bonus” by the media outlets for buying ad time. 

Central location intercept interviews. A method for pretesting messages and materials. It involves “intercepting” 

potential intended audience members at a high-traffic location (such as a shopping mall), asking them a few 
332 Glossary

questions to see if they fit the intended audience’s characteristics, sometimes showing them a message or materials, 

and administering a questionnaire of predominantly closed-ended questions. Because respondents form a convenience sample, the results cannot be projected to the population. Also called mall intercept interviews. 

Channels (also called vehicles). The routes or methods used to reach a target audience (e.g., mass media 

channels include TV, radio, newspapers, and magazines; interpersonal channels include parents and health 

professionals; organizational channels include faith-based organizations; community channels include community events, such as health fairs and sporting events). 

Closed-ended questions. Questions worded to provide respondents with a set number of possible response 

choices (e.g., multiple-choice, yes/no, scales). 

Communication check (or “comm check”). In advertising, a type of pretest to measure whether the messages 

and impressions played back by the audience after viewing the ad (the overall “take away”) are as intended. 

Communications plan (sometimes called media campaign plan). A written strategy document that details 

the framework and establishes the foundation for your communications activities. A communications or 

media campaign plan serves as a guide to help achieve the program goals by delineating choices made about 

factors such as audiences, messages, and media vehicles. 

Community channel. A communications channel in which messages are disseminated at the community 

level (e.g., library, supermarket, house of worship, municipal swimming pool). 

Concept testing. The process of 1) learning about the target audience’s responses to possible concepts on 

which you might base your message, and 2) assessing which of the concepts is most persuasive and has the 

greatest likelihood of changing attitudes and behaviors. This process usually requires qualitative research such 

as focus groups. 

Control group. A group that is randomly selected and matched to the target population according to characteristics identified in the study to permit a comparison between the changes for those who receive the intervention and those who do not. 

Convenience samples. Samples of respondents in research studies who are typical of the target audience and 

who are easily accessible. No attempt is made to collect a probability sample, and convenience samples are 

not statistically representative of the entire population being studied. Therefore, findings from studies using 

convenience samples cannot be generalized. 

Copy. The written text in print materials (e.g., ads, newspaper articles, books) or the spoken words in radio or TV 

(e.g., ads). This term is also used more broadly to signify a whole ad or body of ads. For example, someone might 

make reference to needing to develop new copy for the following year’s campaign. 

Copy strategy. A short and simple statement that outlines your specific communications approach for an 

ad or a campaign (e.g., the message to be conveyed, the intended outcome, the benefit offered to the target 
Designing and Implementing an Effective Tobacco Counter-Marketing Campaign 

Glossary 333 

audience in exchange for making the desired change, and the character or tone of the advertising). The copy 

strategy guides the advertising agency as they develop new advertising or other materials. 

Counter-advertising (or tobacco counter-advertising). Any advertising efforts aimed at countering the 

tobacco industry advertising and other protobacco influences. Counter-advertising seeks to counter these 

protobacco messages and influences with persuasive prohealth, antitobacco messages. These can take many 

forms, including TV, radio, billboards, print ads, outdoor and transit advertising, and cinema advertising. 

Counter-marketing (or tobacco counter-marketing). Marketing and communications efforts aimed at countering the marketing efforts (including but not limited to advertising) of the tobacco industry and other protobacco influences. Counter-marketing can include efforts such as media advocacy, media relations, in-school 

curriculum programs, sponsorships, and promotions, as well as counter-advertising through paid media 

channels, such as TV, radio, billboards, the Internet, and print media. 

Creative. This word is typically used as a noun in the advertising industry and has two meanings: 1) the advertising agency staff (artists and writers) who create advertising ideas and concepts are called “creatives,” and 2) 

the body of work that the creatives produce is called “the creative” and is always used in singular form. 

Creative brief. A document that guides the agency’s creative team in developing concepts, messages, and 

materials. It includes elements such as the goal and main messages of the communications piece(s), the 

actions you want the target audience to take and barriers to those actions, the demographic and psychographic characteristics of the audience, and other key insights about the audience that should be considered 

when developing the communications piece(s). 

Cultural competence. An organizational and philosophical commitment to, and actions based on, recognizing the cultural differences and similarities within, among, and between groups, including their history, culture, context, geography, and other factors. 

Cultural diversity. The range of differences in race, ethnicity, religion, or nationality among various groups 

within a community, state, region, or nation. 

Culturally appropriate. Demonstration of sensitivity to cultural similarities and differences, and effective use 

of cultural symbols and language to communicate messages. 

Culture. The shared values, traditions, norms, customs, arts, history, folklore, and institutions of a group of 

people who are unified by race, ethnicity, language, nationality, or religion. 

Demographics. Data, such as gender, age, ethnicity, income, or education, which can be collected from a target audience and which can be useful for defining the target audience and understanding how to communicate more effectively with them. 

Earned media (also called free media or news making). Coverage of your story without paying for media 

placements. Examples include letters to the editor, op-eds, coverage of press conferences, appearances on talk 
334 Glossary

shows or local news programs, and on-air or print interviews. Such coverage is called “earned media” because 

you have to develop materials (e.g., news releases, press kits), work with reporters (e.g., by holding press conferences, proactively contacting reporters), and expend resources to get it; however, you do not pay for the 

placement of the messages in the stories. 

Executions (or creative executions). Different creative approaches for communicating the same message 

strategy, usually involving variations in copy, tone, casting, setting, wardrobe, music, etc. Typically each ad 

campaign will develop, and perhaps use, several different executions, with each execution being a unique way 

to communicate the same main message. 

Editorial. Articles expressing opinions that appear on the editorial page of a newspaper or magazine, separate 

from the news stories. They are usually not signed by an individual because they are seen as representing the 

official position of the publication. 

Flight. The period of time over which a set of ads is broadcast. For example, media campaign managers typically 

buy media in “flights” of 3 to 6 weeks. They may go off the air for several weeks, then return for additional flights. 

Focus groups. A qualitative research method in which a skilled moderator, using a discussion guide of openended questions, facilitates a 1- to 2-hour discussion among 5 to 10 participants who are encouraged to talk 

freely and spontaneously. The discussion guide is developed on the basis of the goals of the research and on 

what information about the participants is sought. As new topics related to the material emerge, the moderator asks additional questions to learn more. Focus groups are often used during the planning and development stages to identify previously unknown issues or concerns, or to explore reactions to potential actions, 

benefits, concepts, or communications materials. 

Formative evaluation. Evaluation research conducted during program development. May be used to pretest 

concepts, messages, and materials, and to pilot test interventions and programs. 

Formative research. Research conducted during the development of a program to help decide on and describe the 

target audience, understand the factors that influence their behavior, and determine the best ways to reach them. It 

looks at behaviors, attitudes, and practices of target groups; involves exploring behavioral determinants; and uses 

primarily qualitative methods to collect and analyze data. Formative research may be used to complement existing 

epidemiologic and behavioral data to assist in program planning and design. 

Framing. The process of developing a particular perspective on a news story to maximize its news value and to 

ensure that it is presented in a way that supports your policy goals. News coverage can provide visibility, credibility, and legitimacy to the issue being covered, and can help set public and policy agendas. 

■	 	 Framing for access—Shaping a story to attract journalists’ attention and to interest the media in 
 


covering the story.
 


■	 	 Framing for content—Shaping a story to ensure that the content supports your point of view and 
 


your policy goals.
 

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Glossary 335 

Frequency. Used in advertising to describe the average number of times an audience is exposed to a specific 

media message over a certain period of time (usually 4 weeks). 

Gatekeeper. An organization or individual you must work with before you can reach a target population (e.g., 

a schoolteacher) or accomplish a task (e.g., a TV public service director). Gatekeepers may be leaders in the 

community or have access to and knowledge about a group of people you are trying to reach. 

Goal. The overall health improvement or other significant advance that a program, organization, or agency 

strives to create. 

Health behavior. An action performed by an individual that can negatively or positively affect his or her health 

(e.g., smoking, exercising). 

Health communication. The study and use of communications strategies to inform and influence individual 

and community decisions related to health. 

Impact evaluation (also called outcome evaluation and summative evaluation). The systematic collection 

of information to assess the impact of a program and to measure the extent to which a program has accomplished its stated goals and objectives. This information can be used to make conclusions about the merit 

or worth of a program, and to make recommendations about future program direction or improvement. 

In-depth individual interview. A qualitative research method that involves a one-on-one discussion during 

which a trained interviewer guides an individual through a discussion about selected topics, allowing the 

respondent to talk freely and spontaneously. The structure and interviewing style are less rigid than in quantitative, interviewer-administered surveys. This technique is often used during the planning and development 

stages to identify previously unknown issues or concerns, or to explore reactions to potential actions, benefits, 

or concepts, or communications materials. 

Indicator. A specific, observable, and measurable characteristic or change that shows the progress a program 

is making toward achieving a specified outcome. For example, the “number of days that you smoked during 

the past 30 days” is an indicator of smoking behavior. Researchers often use several indicators to represent a 

complex concept such as behavior. 

Intermediaries. Organizations, such as professional, industrial, civic, social, and fraternal groups, that act 

as channels for distributing program messages and materials to members of the desired target audience. 

Interpersonal channel. A communications channel that involves the dissemination of messages through 

one-on-one communication (e.g., mentor to student, friend to friend, pharmacist to customer). 

Language. Includes form and pattern of speech. It may be spoken or written, and it is used by residents or 

descendants of a particular area, region, or nation or by a large group of people. Language can be formal or 

informal and includes dialect, idiomatic speech, and slang. 
336 Glossary

Local media. Media whose coverage and circulation are confined to, or concentrated in, markets that are 

smaller than a state. Usually, they offer different sets of rates to national and local advertisers. 

Logic model. A systematic and visual way to present the perceived relationships among the resources you 

have to operate the program, the activities you plan to do, and the changes or results you hope to achieve. 

Marketing. The process of planning and executing the conception, promotion, and distribution of ideas, 

goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy consumers. 

Media. Channels for disseminating your message and materials. Mass media include TV, radio, newspapers, 

magazines, billboards, public transportation, direct mailings, Web sites, and others. 

Media advisory. A submission to media outlets that provides basic information (who, what, when, where, why) 

about an upcoming event with opportunities for interviews and/or photographs. Advisories are usually not 

more than one page. 

Media advocacy. The strategic use of media and community advocacy to advance social or policy change. 

Media advocacy can reframe issues; shape public discussion; or build support for a policy, point of view, or 

environmental change. Instead of using vehicles to send messages to the community, media advocacy works 

with the community to create messages to help change the environment within which the community lives. 

Media alert. A short (two- to three-paragraph) announcement to the media alerting them to new information 

or a new development on an issue. It provides the “who, what, when, where, and how” and generally little 

other information. 

Media campaign plan. See communications plan. 

Media kit (also called press kit, press packet, or information kit). A packet (usually a folder) that includes 

items explaining a program or health issue to the media. It contains a lead or main press release and related 

elements (e.g., brochures, fact sheets, contact information, and camera-ready photographs or images) that tell 

a complete story to the press. 

Media literacy. The ability to analyze, evaluate, and produce media in various forms. It involves the examination of the techniques, technologies, and institutions that are involved in media production, the ability to 

deconstruct and critically analyze media messages to identify the sponsor’s motives, and the recognition of the 

role that audiences play in taking meaning from those messages. It also involves the ability of individuals to 

construct or compose media messages representing their (the intended audience’s) point of view. 

Media placement plan (or media buy plan or media plan). The specific schedule of paid placements that 

have been negotiated for an ad or set of ads. The media placement plan details the times and programs during which TV and radio ads will be aired, the locations and sizes of billboards that will be placed, the magazines, issues, and specific placements into which print ads will be placed, etc. The media placement plan also 

contains a summary of target audience reach and frequency, typically per 4-week period. 
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Glossary 337 

Media relations. Establishing a positive working relationship between individuals in your organization and 

members of the news media to increase the likelihood that your issue will be covered favorably, thus helping 

to advance your program goals. Media relations includes getting to know individual reporters (including the 

scope of their work and their interest areas); serving as a reliable, proactive provider of credible information 

about the issue; and being timely and responsive to their requests for interviews, additional contacts, and 

other resources. 

Media tracking. The monitoring of radio, TV, and print media over a specified period of time for a specific 

topic or message. Data gathered can be analyzed for content, slant (positive or negative), location of placement, or trends in the amount of coverage. 

Medium. Any media class used to convey a message to the public, such as TV, radio, the Internet, billboards, 

cable TV, newspapers, neighborhood publications, magazines, comic books, billboards, posters, music, and 

point-of-purchase displays. 

Moderator’s guide. A set of questions, probes, and discussion points used by a focus group moderator to help 

him or her facilitate the group. A guide can also contain reminders of which questions are most important to 

the research to help the moderator use the discussion time effectively. 

Objectives. Quantifiable statements describing the intended program achievements necessary to reach a program goal. Objectives should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound. 

Op-Ed (Opinion Editorial). A letter, statement, article, or short essay submitted to a newspaper editor by a reader 

or a representative of an organization. Op-eds usually express a strong opinion or point of view about an issue, 

and are backed by well-researched and documented facts. They appear on the page opposite the editorial page. 

Open-ended questions. Questions worded to allow an individual to respond freely in his or her own words, in 

contrast to closed-ended or fixed-choice questions. 

Organizational channel. A communications channel in which messages are disseminated at the organizational level (e.g., corporate newsletters, cafeteria bulletin boards). 

Outcome evaluation. See impact evaluation. 

Over recruiting. Recruiting more respondents than required to compensate for expected “no shows.” 

Paid media (also called paid advertising). The placement of messages through advertising on TV, radio, print, 

outdoor media, the Internet, etc. Because you are paying for these placements, you can control the exact 

placement and content of the messages, making them very useful in targeting specific audience segments. 

However, paid advertising can be very expensive, making it difficult to use effectively with a small budget. 

Partners. Individuals or organizations/agencies that contribute to the efforts initiated by a leader or a head 

organization/agency. Partners can have a variety of roles (e.g., contribute research data, share evaluation 

experience, help spread the health message). 
338 Glossary

Piggybacking. Relating your story to other breaking events in the media as a way of gaining access to the media. 

Pilot testing. Implementing and evaluating the program in a limited area for a limited amount of time to make 

program adjustments based on the pilot experience. 

Pitch letter. A brief, targeted letter or e-mail message that tries to convince a journalist to cover your story by 

outlining the information that you have to share and why it is valuable. Pitches can also be made by telephone. 

Pretesting. A type of formative evaluation that involves assessing the target audience’s reactions to your messages, materials, or both before they are finalized. This will help you determine if your messages and materials 

are likely to achieve the intended effect. 

Primary target audience(s) (or primary audience(s)). The group(s) of individuals you determine are most 

important for your communications effort to reach and influence. The primary audience is a portion of a 

larger population selected because influencing that group will contribute most to achieving your campaign’s 

objectives. You may also choose secondary audiences, but your greatest emphasis will be on achieving your 

objectives through communication with the primary target audience. 

Probe. An interviewer technique that is used primarily in qualitative research (e.g., focus groups, individual 

in-depth interviews) to solicit additional information about a question or issue. Probes should be neutral (e.g., 

“What else can you tell me about _____?”) rather than directive (“Do you think the pamphlet was suggesting 

that you take a particular step, such as changing your diet?”). 

Process evaluation. The systematic collection of information to document and assess how well a program is 

being implemented. Process evaluation includes assessments such as whether materials are being distributed 

to the right people and in what quantities, whether and to what extent program activities are occurring, 

whether and how frequently the audience is being exposed to your ads, and other measures of how and how 

well the program is being implemented. This information can help you determine whether the original program is being implemented as designed and can be used to improve the delivery and efficiency of the program. 

Program evaluation. The systematic collection of information about a program’s activities and outcomes for 

the purpose of making judgments about the program, improving program effectiveness, and informing decisions about future program development. 

Psychographics. A set of variables that describes an individual in terms of his or her overall approach to life, 

including personality traits, values, beliefs, preferences, habits, and behaviors. Psychographics are not usually 

related to health-specific issues, but more commonly to characteristics such as consumer- or purchase-specific 

behaviors, beliefs, and values. 

Psychosocial factors. Variables that describe an individual in terms of preferences and characteristics, such as 

attitudes, beliefs, values, perceived norms, self-efficacy, and intentions. In many theories of behavior, psychosocial factors are assumed to be the determinants of behaviors or the factors that influence whether a behavior 

is performed. 
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Public relations. Using various communications channels, such as earned media, paid advertising, media 

relations, Web sites, speakers’ bureaus, and/or brochures, to help the public understand your organization, 

its programs, and its products and services, as well as to build a positive image of them in the community. 

Public service announcement (PSA). A form of advertising that can be delivered via TV or radio and that is 

aired free of charge by the media. There is limited control over when or how often a PSA airs, making it difficult 

to effectively reach specific target audiences. 

Qualitative research. Research that focuses on in-depth audience insights and information as opposed to collecting numerical measures. Qualitative research is useful for exploring reactions; collecting information about 

feelings, impressions, and motivations; and uncovering additional ideas, issues, or concerns. Results from 

qualitative research cannot be generalized to the whole target audience because the participants don’t constitute 

a representative random sample, samples are relatively small, and not all participants are asked precisely the 

same questions. Focus groups and in-depth individual interviews are common types of qualitative research. 

Quantitative research. Research designed to count and measure knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors 

by asking a large number of people identical (and predominantly closed-ended) questions. Quantitative 

research yields numerical data that can be analyzed statistically. If the respondents are a representative 

random sample, quantitative data can be used to make statements about the intended audience as a whole. 

Quantitative research is useful for measuring the extent to which knowledge, attitudes, or behaviors are 

prevalent in an audience. Surveys are a common type of quantitative research. 

Random sample. A sample of respondents in which every member of the target population has an equal 

chance of being included in the sample. 

Rating points. Used in media buys to measure the exposure of the audience to an ad. Target rating points 

(TRPs) and gross rating points (GRPs) are the two main types of rating points. TRPs are obtained by multiplying the percentage of the target audience potentially reached (“reach”) by the number of times that this percentage will potentially see the message (“frequency”). GRPs are a similar measure of exposure, but among the 

whole population, rather than just the specific target audience. Often the two terms (TRPs and GRPs) will be 

used interchangeably to mean exposure among the selected target audience. Rating points are usually, but not 

necessarily, expressed in 4-week figures. For example, an agency may recommend buying 1,200 rating points 

over 3 months, which means an average of 400 points per 4-week period. 

Reach. Used in advertising to describe the percentage of the total target audience exposed to a specific media 

message during a specific period (usually 4 weeks). 

Recall. The extent to which respondents remember seeing or hearing a message shown in a competitive media 

environment. It usually centers on the main idea or the awareness of an ad. 

Schedule/flow chart. A list or graphic of the media placements that have been bought and when they are 

going to air or appear. 
340 Glossary

Screener. An instrument containing short-answer questions used in the recruitment process for research 

methods such as focus groups and central location intercept interviews. Interviewees’ answers to the questions determine who is eligible to participate in the research. 

Secondary target audience(s) (or secondary audience(s)). Group(s) of individuals in addition to the primary 

audience(s) that your communications efforts seek to reach and influence. Secondary audiences may be a 

subset of the primary audience (e.g., adult Hispanic/Latino smokers, if adult smokers are the primary audience); groups that may help reach or influence the primary audience (e.g., parents or teachers, if youth aged 

12-17 years old is the primary audience); or other groups that are important for reaching your objectives (e.g., 

policy makers, if changes in policies and individual behavior are both necessary). 

Self-administered questionnaires. Questionnaires that are filled out by respondents. These can be distributed 

by mail, handed out in person, or programmed into a computer. 

Setting. A location or an environment where the target audience can be reached with a communications effort. 

For example, a grocery store is a setting where audience members can be reached with educational pamphlets. 

Social marketing. The application and adaptation of commercial marketing concepts and techniques to the 

analysis, planning, implementation, and evaluation of programs designed to bring about behavior change of 

target audiences to improve the welfare of individuals or their society. Social marketing emphasizes thorough 

market research to identify and understand the intended audience and what is preventing them from adopting a certain health behavior and to then develop, monitor, and constantly adjust a program to stimulate 

appropriate behavior change. Social marketing programs can address any or all of the traditional marketing 

mix variables—product, price, place, or promotion. 

Stakeholders. Individuals or organizations that are invested in the program and its outcomes. They include 

those involved in the campaign’s operation (e.g., managers, staff, funders, partners), those served or affected 

by the program (e.g., advocacy groups, target group members), and those in a position to make decisions 

about program efforts. 

Storyboard. Illustrations and accompanying scripts that represent ideas for scenes for a TV ad. 

Strategy. The overall approach that a program takes. Effective strategies contribute toward achieving program 

goals and objectives. Strategies should be based on knowledge about effective counter-marketing; the target 

audience’s needs and characteristics; and the program’s capabilities, timelines, and resources. 

Strategy statement. A written document delineating the important choices you have made that will help 

achieve the campaign’s objectives. The strategy statement should include the target audience profile, the 

action audience members should take, how they will benefit (from their perspective, not necessarily from a 

public health perspective), and how you can reach them. This document provides the direction and consistency for all program messages and materials for this audience and is broader than a creative brief, which is used 

for the development of individual materials. 
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Style. A message quality that can be tailored to one’s target audience(s). This is a general term that refers to issues 

such as presenting cartoon figures versus detailed graphs or using embellished text versus short or concise text. 

Summative evaluation. See impact evaluation. 

Surveillance. The ongoing, systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of data essential to planning, 

implementation, and evaluation of public health programs. For example, this would include assessing at 

regular time intervals target audience beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors related to tobacco use. Surveillance 

efforts can also track health outcomes over time. 

Tailoring. The adaptation of program components to best fit the relevant needs and characteristics of the 

target population. 

Talking points. Prepared notes used by a speaker to guide his or her presentation. Often used in preparing for 

interviews or other interaction with the news media. 

Target audience (target population). The group of people the program intends to involve and affect in some way. 

The target audience shares common characteristics that help guide decisions about program development. 

Theater-style pretesting. A research method in which a large group (usually 50 to 300 people) is gathered in a 

theater-style setting to view and respond to audiovisual materials such as TV ads. Ads are typically shown 

embedded in a set of other audiovisuals (programming, other ads, or both) to replicate a more natural viewing 

environment and to help determine memorability of test materials when shown among other materials. 

Tobacco counter-advertising. See counter-advertising. 

Tobacco counter-marketing. See counter-marketing. 

Tone. A message quality that can be tailored to one’s target audience(s). This term refers to the manner in 

which a message is expressed (e.g., an authoritative tone, an alarming tone, a friendly tone). 

Variable. A characteristic of an object of measurement that can take on a range of values (e.g., height, test 

scores, gender).