What is victimization? 

According to the U.S. Department of 

Justice (2004), victimization occurs when 

“...a person suffers direct or threatened 

physical, emotional, and/or financial 

harm.” Victimization can include physical 

violence, sexual violence, psychological 

or emotional abuse, and neglect. The 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 

(CDC) acknowledges such victimization 

as a serious and preventable public health 

problem. 

•	 Physical violence is “the intentional 

use of physical force with the potential 

for causing death, disability, injury, 

or harm.”(Rosenberg and Mercy 

1991; CDC 2006) It includes, but is 

not limited to, “scratching, pushing, 

shoving, throwing, grabbing, biting 

choking, shaking, slapping, punching, 

burning, use of a weapon, and 

use of restraints or one’s body, 

size, or strength against another 

person.”(CDC 2006)

•	 Sexual violence is “the use of 

physical force to compel a person 

to engage in a sexual act against 

his or her will, whether or not the 

act is completed; an attempted 

or completed sex act involving a 

person who is unable to understand 

the nature or condition of the 

act, to decline participation, or to 

communicate unwillingness to

engage in the sexual act; and

abusive sexual contact.”

(CDC 2004)

•	 Emotional abuse occurs when a 

person is “threatened, terrorized, 

or severely rejected, ignored, or 

verbally attacked.”(Nosek et al. 

2001) It includes, but is not limited to, 

“episodes of yelling, threats, or acts 

meant to humiliate or hurt feelings.” 

(Curry et al. 2003)

•	 Neglect is a “situation in which the 

basic needs of a person (such as 

food, clothing, hygiene, protection, 

or medical care) are temporarily or 

permanently not met.”(Verdugo and 

Bermejo 1997) It includes, but is not 

limited to, “preventing a person with 

disabilities from using a wheelchair, 

cane, respirator, or other assistive 

devices as well as failure to address 

basic needs for food, clothing, shelter, 

or hygiene.”(McFarlane et al. 2001)

Victimization of Persons with

Traumatic Brain Injury or Other Disabilities:

A Fact Sheet for Professionals
What is the extent

of the problem?

Current knowledge about victimization of persons 

with disabilities is based on a small number of 

studies, and little is known about victimization of 

important groups such as persons with traumatic 

brain injury (TBI) (Marge 2003).

•	 Persons with disabilities are 4 to 10 times more 

likely to become a victim of violence, abuse, 

or neglect than persons without disabilities 

(Petersilia 2001).

•	 Children with disabilities are more than twice 

as likely to be physically or sexually abused as 

children without disabilities (Petersilia 2001; 

Sobsey and Mansell 1994).

•	 Similar proportions of women with and without 

disabilities report having experienced episodes 

of physical violence, sexual violence, or 

emotional abuse (Sobsey and Mansell 1994). 

Women with disabilities, however, report 

greater numbers of perpetrators and longer 

time periods of individual episodes than women 

without disabilities (Young et al. 1997).

Where does victimization occur? 

•	 Victimization can occur anywhere; however, it 

usually happens in isolated locations where a 

person with disabilities has little or no control of 

the environment (Sobsey and Mansell 1994),

and the setting is away from the view of law 

enforcement (Verdugo and Mermejo 1997).

•	 Institutional settings are risk locations for 

persons with disabilities because multiple 

episodes of physical and sexual violence, 

emotional abuse, neglect, or violence may 

be committed against them by staff or other 

residents and yet go undetected or unreported 

(Sobsey and Mansell 1994; Brown and Turk 

1994; Turk and Brown 1993).

Who commits acts of 

victimization?

•	 More men than women, either as intimate 

partners or as health care workers (Brown 

and Turk 1994; Marley and Buila 2001), are 

reported to commit acts of physical violence, 

sexual violence, emotional abuse, or neglect 

against persons with disabilities.

•	 Family members have been reported to commit 

crimes of victimization while caring for a 

relative with disabilities (Milberger et al. 2003; 

Stromsness 1993). 

•	 Personal home care attendants (Oktay and 

Tompkins 2004; Saxton et al. 2001) or health 

care workers at institutions (Brown and Turk 

1994; Sequeira and Halstead 2001) have

been reported to perpetrate emotional

abuse and sexual violence against persons 

with disabilities.

•	 In institutional settings, persons with disabilities 

may commit acts of physical violence or sexual 

violence against other persons with disabilities 

(Sobsey and Doe 1991).

What factors make a

person with disabilities 

susceptible to victimization?

 

Societal Factors: 

•	 Misperceptions about disability include 

“having a disability protects a person from 

victimization”; the risks to a person with 

disabilities are thought to be less than the risks 

to a person who has none (Young et al. 1997).

•	 Unemployment or underemployment of 

persons with disabilities restricts their income 

and limits their choices for caregivers, 

leading to an increased risk of physical and 

sexual violence, emotional abuse, or neglect 

(Stromsness 1993). 

•	 Lack of money often causes persons with 

disabilities to live in areas where crime rates 

are high and the potential for physical and 

sexual violence is greater than in wealthier 

neighborhoods (Curry et al. 2001). 


Community Factors:

•	 Community resources for victims of physical and 

sexual violence, emotional abuse, or neglect 

are usually designed to assist people without 

disabilities (Swedlund and Nosek 2000; Chang 

et al. 2003; Cramer et al. 2003). Organizations 

that provide such resources do not routinely 

collaborate with organizations that assist 

persons with disabilities (Curry et al. 2001; 

Swedlund and Nosek 2000; Chang et al. 2003). 

•	 Frequently, health care (Swedlund and Nosek 

2000; Chang et al. 2003; Cramer et al. 2003) 

and law enforcement (DOJ 1998) professionals 

are uninformed about victimization of persons 

with disabilities. Thus, they may not have the 

specialized knowledge or skills to identify and 

assist these individuals when victimized.

What factors make a person

with a traumatic brain injury, or 

TBI, susceptible to victimization?

Relationship Factors:

•	 Persons living with a TBI often have difficulty 

with anger management, which may prompt 

others to use undue physical force or 

inappropriate medication (Kim 2002). 

•	 Misperceptions about TBI and its effects may 

lead to treatment that is demeaning or abusive 

(Sequeira and Halsted 2001).

•	 TBI outcomes affect others’ perceptions of a 

person’s ability to honestly and accurately report 

an incident of victimization (DOJ 1998). 

•	 Persons with TBI or other disabilities may 

experience physical and sexual violence, 

emotional abuse, or neglect by a caregiver 

in return for access to medication, adaptive 

equipment, or assistance with activities of daily 

life (Oktay and Tompkins 2004).

Individual Factors:

•	 A TBI can cause cognitive problems that 

reduce one’s ability to perceive, remember, or 

understand risky situations that could lead to 

an incident of physical or sexual violence (Kim 

2002; Levin 1999). 

•	 Persons with a TBI may engage in at-risk 

drinking or drug use that place them in situations 

or relationships that lead to episodes of 

victimization (Kwasnica and Heinemann 1994; Li 

et al. 2000). 

•	 In some persons, a TBI causes uninhibited 

behaviors that lead to risky sexual engagement, 

exposing them to HIV/AIDS or other sexually 

transmitted diseases (Jaffe et al. 2000; Kramer 

et al. 1993).



Information and Support

Brain Injury Association of America 

At the national and state level, the Association serves as a clearinghouse 

for community service information for persons with TBI, their families, and 

sponsors of educational programs.

800-444-6443 www.biausa.org

Defense and Veterans Brain Injury Center

Serves active-duty military personnel and veterans who acquired TBI in the 

line of duty; provides medical care and educational programs for them and 

their dependents.

800-870-9244

662-6345 (DSN)

www.dvbic.org

National Disability Rights Network

Voluntary association of protection and advocacy systems and clientassistance programs. Promotes rigorous enforcement of laws protecting the 

civil and human rights of persons with disabilities, including those with TBI.

202-408-9514

202-408-9521 

(TTY)

www.ndm.org

National Domestic Violence Hotline

Provides information and advice about domestic violence; makes referrals to 

local resources and shelters.

800-799-SAFE

800-787-3224 

(TTY)

www.ndvh.org
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