Report on Carcinogens, Thirteenth Edition

National Toxicology Program, Department of Health and Human Services

For Table of Contents, see home page: http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/go/roc13

Acetaldehyde

CAS No. 75-07-0

Reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen

First listed in the Sixth Annual Report on Carcinogens (1991)

Also known as ethanal

C

H3C

O

H

Carcinogenicity

Acetaldehyde is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen

based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals. 

Cancer Studies in Experimental Animals

Exposure to acetaldehyde by inhalation caused tumors in two rodent species and at two different tissue sites. In rats of both sexes, it 

caused cancer of the nasal mucosa (squamous-cell carcinoma and 

adenocarcinoma), and in hamsters of both sexes, it caused cancer 

of the larynx (carcinoma) (IARC 1985, 1987). Inhalation of acetaldehyde also promoted the induction of respiratory-tract tumors by 

intratracheal instillation of the known carcinogen benzo[a]pyrene 

in hamsters of both sexes.

Since acetaldehyde was listed in the Sixth Annual Report on Carcinogens, an additional study in rats has been identified. Administration of acetaldehyde in drinking water increased the incidences of 

hemolymphoreticular cancer (leukemia and lymphoma combined), 

benign tumors of the pancreas (islet-cell adenoma), and cancer of the 

bone (osteosarcoma) and nasal cavity (carcinoma) in males and benign mammary-gland tumors (fibroma or fibroadenoma) in females 

(Soffritti et al. 2002). Increased incidences of tumors observed at 

other sites occurred only at one of the lower doses tested. 

Cancer Studies in Humans

The data available from epidemiological studies are inadequate to 

evaluate the relationship between human cancer and exposure specifically to acetaldehyde. A survey of workers producing acetaldehyde 

and other aldehydes in Germany reported 9 cases of cancer, including 5 of lung cancer and 2 of oral-cavity cancer, among an unspecified number of workers; these incidences reportedly were higher 

than expected, but the observations were confounded by the fact that 

all cases of cancer occurred in tobacco smokers (IARC 1985, 1987). 

Since acetaldehyde was listed in the Sixth Annual Report on Carcinogens, additional epidemiological studies have been identified, primarily case-control studies of populations exposed to acetaldehyde 

(the main initial metabolite of alcohol) following consumption of alcoholic beverages. Alcoholic beverage consumption is listed in the 

Report on Carcinogens as known to be a human carcinogen. In its 

1999 review, the International Agency for Research on Cancer noted 

that three small case-control studies found increased risks of alcoholrelated cancer (of the oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, and esophagus) 

among individuals with genetic variations (polymorphisms) that result in increased levels of acetaldehyde after alcohol consumption. 

However, IARC concluded that the data available were inadequate 

to evaluate the carcinogenicity of acetaldehyde (IARC 1999). Since 

then, a number of review articles and meta-analyses have summarized the results of subsequent studies that found dose-response relationships between alcohol consumption and cancer of the oral cavity, 

pharynx, larynx, and esophagus, and possibly the stomach and colorectum, among individuals with genetic polymorphisms that increase blood or salivary levels of acetaldehyde (Bagnardi et al. 2001, 

Zeka et al. 2003, Boffetta and Hashibe 2006, Baan et al. 2007, Boccia 

et al. 2009, Salaspuro 2009). In 2009, IARC concluded that acetaldehyde associated with alcohol consumption was carcinogenic to humans (Secretan et al. 2009). Few studies have been conducted on the 

association of these polymorphisms with cancer at other tissue sites, 

and the role of acetaldehyde in pancreatic, liver, bladder, or breast 

cancer is not clear (van Dijk et al. 2001, Terry et al. 2006, Seitz and 

Becker 2007, Visvanathan et al. 2007, Druesne-Pecollo et al. 2009). 

Studies on Mechanisms of Carcinogenesis

Alcohol is metabolized to acetaldehyde by alcohol dehydrogenases 

(ADH), and acetaldehyde is metabolized to acetic acid by aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDH). In some individuals, genetic polymorphisms 

in these enzymes can result in either higher rates of acetaldehyde 

production from alcohol or lower rates of acetaldehyde metabolism 

to acetic acid, resulting in higher blood acetaldehyde levels after a 

given level of alcohol intake than in individuals without these polymorphisms. Five ADH genes have been identified in humans, two of 

which have been shown to be polymorphic. The variant allele of the 

ALDH2 gene, which is prevalent in Asians, encodes an enzyme that 

has almost no ability to detoxify acetaldehyde (IARC 1999).

Properties

Acetaldehyde is an aliphatic aldehyde that exists at room temperature 

as a colorless gas with a fruity, pungent odor. It is miscible with water, 

ether, benzene, gasoline, solvent naphtha, toluene, xylene, turpentine, 

and acetone. It is very flammable and is unstable in air (Akron 2009, 

HSDB 2009). Physical and chemical properties of acetaldehyde are 

listed in the following table.

Property Information

Molecular weight 44.0a

Specific gravity 0.79 at 16°C/4°Ca

Melting point –124°Ca

Boiling point 21°Ca

Log Kow –0.34b

Water solubility 1,000 g/L at 25°Ca

Vapor pressure 902 mm Hg at 25°Ca

Vapor density relative to air 1.5a

Dissociation constant (pKa) 13.6 at 25°Ca

Sources: aHSDB 2009, bChemIDplus 2009.

Use

Acetaldehyde is used primarily as a chemical intermediate in the production of acetic acid, pyridine and pyridine bases, peracetic acid, 

pentaerythritol, butylene glycol, and chloral. It is also used in the 

synthesis of crotonaldehyde, flavor and fragrance acetals, acetaldehyde 1,1-dimethylhydrazone, acetaldehyde cyanohydrin, acetaldehyde oxime, various acetic acid esters, paraldehyde, metaldehyde (a 

molluscicide widely used to kill slugs and snails), polymers, and various halogenated derivatives (IARC 1985, 1999). Acetaldehyde has 

been used in the manufacture of aniline dyes, plastics, and synthetic 

rubber, to silver mirrors, and to harden gelatin fibers. It has also been 

used in the production of polyvinyl acetal resins, in fuel compositions, 

to inhibit mold growth on leather, and in the manufacture of disinfectants, pesticides, drugs, explosives, lacquers and varnishes, photographic chemicals, phenolic and urea resins, and rubber accelerators 

and antioxidants (EPA 1994).

Acetaldehyde is considered by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to be generally recognized as safe for use as a flavoring agent 

and adjuvant (Furia and Bellanca 1975, HSDB 2009). It is an important 

component of food flavorings and is added to milk products, baked 
Report on Carcinogens, Thirteenth Edition

National Toxicology Program, Department of Health and Human Services 2

goods, fruit juices, candy, desserts, and soft drinks; it is especially 

useful for imparting orange, apple, and butter flavors. The concentration of acetaldehyde in food generally is up to 0.047%. In 1976, about 

8,600 kg (19,000 lb) of acetaldehyde was used as food additives. Acetaldehyde is also used in the manufacture of vinegar and as a fruit and 

fish preservative. It is approved for use in phenolic resins in molded 

containers for contact with non-acidic foods. Acetaldehyde is no longer registered as an active ingredient in any pesticide. When it was 

used as a fumigant for storage of apples and strawberries, it was exempted from a residue tolerance (IARC 1985, EPA 1994, HSDB 2009).

Production

Acetaldehyde was first produced commercially in 1916 (IARC 1985). 

U.S. production was 63.5 million kilograms (140 million pounds) in 

1940 and 408 million kilograms (899 million pounds) in 1960. Production peaked in 1969 at 748 million kilograms (1.65 billion pounds), 

decreasing to 281 million kilograms (619 million pounds) in 1982. In 

2009, acetaldehyde was produced by 50 manufacturers worldwide 

(17 in China, 12 in India, 6 in East Asia, 5 in Europe, 5 in Central 

and South America, 2 in Mexico, 2 in the Middle East, and 1 in the 

United States) (SRI 2009) and was available from 49 suppliers, including 21 U.S. suppliers (ChemSources 2009). U.S. imports of acetaldehyde increased from 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) in 1989 to 414,000 kg 

(913,000 lb) in 2006 (USITC 2009). U.S. exports of acetaldehyde were 

19 million kilograms (42.6 million pounds) in 1989, decreasing to 1.6 

million kilograms (3.5 million pounds) in 2003 and remaining near 

this level from 2004 through 2008 (USITC 2009). Reports filed under 

the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Toxic Substances Control Act Inventory Update Rule indicated that U.S. production plus 

imports of acetaldehyde totaled 500 million to 1 billion pounds in 

1986 and 1990 and 100 million to 500 million pounds in 1994, 1998, 

and 2002 (EPA 2004). 

Exposure

There is high potential for exposure of the general population to acetaldehyde through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact and of 

workers through inhalation and dermal contact. The main source of 

exposure of the general population is through consumption of alcoholic beverages and the subsequent metabolism of alcohol to form 

acetaldehyde (HSDB 2009). Because acetaldehyde may form in wine 

and other alcoholic beverages after exposure to air (Hagemeyer 2002), 

alcoholic beverages (including wines, beer, and spirits) also frequently 

contain acetaldehyde as a volatile component (HSDB 2009). 

Acetaldehyde is a product of most hydrocarbon oxidation reactions and is a normal intermediate in the respiration of most higher 

plants. It is found in trace amounts in many plant products, including apples, broccoli, coffee, grapefruit, grapes, lemons, mushrooms, 

onions, oranges, peaches, nectarines, pears, pineapples, raspberries, 

strawberries, cranberries, sour cherries, and mango. It has been detected in the essential oils of alfalfa, rosemary, balm, clary sage, daffodil, bitter orange, camphor, angelica, fennel, mustard, peppermint, 

and lychee, and in oak and tobacco leaves and cotton leaves and blossoms (IARC 1985, Burdon et al. 1996, Gorny et al. 1999, Gunes et al.

2002, Bonerz et al. 2007, Mahattanatawee et al. 2007). Acetaldehyde 

has also been detected in breast milk. Consumers may be exposed to 

acetaldehyde in many milk products, including all types of cheese, yogurt, and milk of varying fat content (Mistry and Hassan 1992, Barbieri et al. 1994, Jandal 1996, Beshkova et al. 1998, Van Aardt et al.

2001, Kondyli et al. 2002, Boscaini et al. 2003, Di Cagno et al. 2004, 

Fernandez-Garcia et al. 2004, Blagden and Gilliland 2005, Gadaga

et al. 2007, Kaminarides et al. 2007). Acetaldehyde has also been detected in cooked beef, chicken, and fish (HSDB 2009, Yasuhara and 

Shibamoto 1995) and is used as a synthetic flavoring ingredient in 

processed foods, especially margarine (HSDB 2009). 

According to EPA’s Toxics Release Inventory, environmental releases of acetaldehyde have increased slightly since 1988, when 9.5 

million pounds was released, 73% to air, 23% to underground injection wells, and the remainder to surface water and landfills. Since 

then, releases to underground injection wells have decreased, and releases to surface water have increased. In 2007, 11.4 million pounds 

of acetaldehyde was released from 336 facilities that processed, produced, or used the chemical; 29 facilities each released more than 

100,000 lb. Of the total amount, 94% was released to air, 3.1% to underground injection wells, and 2.8% to water (TRI 2009). Acetaldehyde will volatilize rapidly from water or land, and it will leach into 

the ground, where it will biodegrade (HSDB 2009). Acetaldehyde is 

also degraded readily in soil, sewage, and natural waters by microorganisms (EPA 1987). 

Acetaldehyde is a natural product of photooxidation of hydrocarbons commonly found in the atmosphere and occurs naturally 

as emissions from forest fires, volcanoes, and animal wastes. In 

the 1990s, annual emissions of acetaldehyde from all sources in the 

United States were estimated at 12.1 million kilograms (27 million 

pounds) (IPCS 1995). Burning wood produces acetaldehyde at approximately 0.7 g/kg of wood, and fireplace emissions range from 

0.083 to 0.20 g/kg of wood burned (HSDB 2009). In the 1990s, annual emissions from residential burning in the United States were 

estimated at 5,000 metric tons (11 million pounds) (IPCS 1995). Acetaldehyde is also a combustion product of some plastics (e.g., polycarbonate) and some hard and soft polyurethane foams. It also occurs 

in gasoline exhaust (1.4 to 8.8 mg/m3

) and diesel exhaust (0.05 to 

6.4 mg/m3

); however, very little is emitted from small engines such 

as lawn mowers or leaf blowers (IARC 1985, Baldauf et al. 2006). 

Many individuals are exposed to acetaldehyde by inhalation. The 

highest ambient-air concentrations of acetaldehyde were reported 

for urban or suburban areas or near sources of combustion (HSDB 

2009). In ambient air, concentrations of acetaldehyde generally averaged 5 μg/m3

. Indoor air concentrations were higher than ambient 

concentrations in all locations where acetaldehyde air concentrations 

were measured, both in the United States and in other countries 

(Miguel et al. 1995, Mukund et al. 1996, Brickus et al. 1998, MacIntosh et al. 2000, Possanzini et al. 2002, Baez et al. 2003, Hellen et 

al. 2004, Hodgson et al. 2004, Park and Ikeda 2004, Saijo et al. 2004, 

Sax et al. 2004, Shendell et al. 2004, Gilbert et al. 2005, Cavalcante et 

al. 2006, Ohura et al. 2006, Pang and Mu 2006, Sax et al. 2006, Hodgson et al. 2007, Possanzini et al. 2007). Acetaldehyde is also found in 

tobacco and marijuana cigarette smoke (1,220 μg per cigarette) and 

tobacco cigarettes (980 to 1,370 μg per cigarette). 

In 1988–89, acetaldehyde was detected in 4 of 10 surveyed water 

supplies (EPA 1987). In surface water, concentrations generally are 

less than 0.1 μg/L, and the contribution from drinking water to human exposure is considered negligible (IPCS 1995). 

The National Occupational Exposure Survey (conducted from 

1981 to 1983) estimated that 216,533 workers, including 97,770 

women, potentially were exposed to acetaldehyde (NIOSH 1990). 

Workers potentially exposed include those involved in the manufacture or use of industrial organic chemicals, dyes, fabricated rubber, 

plastics, urea-formaldehyde foam insulation, fuels, drugs, explosives, varnishes, pesticides, food additives, leather goods, and mirrors (IARC 1985, EPA 1994).

Regulations 

Coast Guard, Department of Homeland Security

Minimum requirements have been established for safe transport of acetaldehyde on ships and barges.
Report on Carcinogens, Thirteenth Edition

National Toxicology Program, Department of Health and Human Services 3

Department of Transportation (DOT)

Acetaldehyde is considered a hazardous material, and special requirements have been set for marking, 

labeling, and transporting this material.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Clean Air Act

Mobile Source Air Toxics: Listed as a mobile source air toxic for which regulations are to be developed.

National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants: Listed as a hazardous air pollutant.

New Source Performance Standards: Manufacture of acetaldehyde is subject to certain provisions for the 

control of volatile organic compound emissions.

Prevention of Accidental Release: Threshold quantity (TQ) = 10,000 lb.

Urban Air Toxics Strategy: Identified as one of 33 hazardous air pollutants that present the greatest 

threat to public health in urban areas.

Clean Water Act

Designated a hazardous substance.

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

Reportable quantity (RQ) = 1,000 lb.

Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act

Toxics Release Inventory: Listed substance subject to reporting requirements.

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

Listed Hazardous Waste: Waste code for which the listing is based wholly or partly on the presence of 

acetaldehyde = U001.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

While this section accurately identifies OSHA’s legally enforceable PELs for this substance in 2010, 

specific PELs may not reflect the more current studies and may not adequately protect workers.

Permissible exposure limit (PEL) = 200 ppm (360 mg/m3).

Considered a highly hazardous chemical: Threshold quantity (TQ) = 2,500 lb.

Guidelines

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)

Threshold limit value – ceiling (TLV-C) = 25 ppm.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)

Immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) limit = 2,000 ppm.

Listed as a potential occupational carcinogen.

References

Akron. 2009. The Chemical Database. The Department of Chemistry at the University of Akron. http://ull.

chemistry.uakron.edu/erd and search on CAS number. Last accessed: 7/2/09. 

Baan R, Straif K, Grosse Y, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F, Bouvard V, Altieri A, Cogliano V. 2007. Carcinogenicity 

of alcoholic beverages. Lancet Oncol 8(4): 292-293. 

Baez A, Padilla H, Garcia R, Torres MD, Rosas I, Belmont R. 2003. Carbonyl levels in indoor and outdoor air 

in Mexico City and Xalapa, Mexico. Sci Total Environ 302(1-3): 211-226. 

Bagnardi V, Blangiardo M, La Vecchia C, Corrao G. 2001. A meta-analysis of alcohol drinking and cancer 

risk. Br J Cancer 85(11): 1700-1705. 

Baldauf R, Fortune C, Weinstein J, Wheeler M, Blanchard F. 2006. Air contaminant exposures during the 

operation of lawn and garden equipment. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 16(4): 362-370. 

Barbieri G, Bolzoni L, Careri M, Mangia A, Parolari G, Spagnoli S, Virgili R. 1994. Study of the volatile 

fraction of Parmesan cheese. J Agric Food Chem 42(5): 1170-1176. 

Beshkova D, Simova E, Frengova G, Simov Z. 1998. Production of flavour compounds by yogurt starter 

cultures. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 20(3-4): 180-186. 

Blagden TD, Gilliland SE. 2005. Reduction of levels volatile components with the “beany” flavor in soymilk 

by lactobacilli and streptococci. J Food Sci 70(3): M186-M189.

Boccia S, Hashibe M, Galli P, De Feo E, Asakage T, Hashimoto T, et al. 2009. Aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 

and head and neck cancer: A meta-analysis implementing a Mendelian randomization approach. Cancer 

Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 18(1): 248-254. 

Boffetta P, Hashibe M. 2006. Alcohol and cancer. Lancet Oncol 7(2): 149-156. 

Bonerz D, Würth K, Dietrich H, Will F. 2007. Analytical characterization and the impact of ageing on 

anthocyanin composition and degradation in juices from five sour cherry cultivars. Eur Food Res Technol

224(3): 355-364. 

Boscaini E, Van Ruth S, Biasioli F, Gasperi F, Märk TD. 2003. Gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O) 

and proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) analysis of the flavor profile of Grana Padano, 

Parmigiano Reggiano, and Grana Trentino cheeses. J Agric Food Chem 51(7): 1782-1790. 

Brickus LSR, Cardoso JN, Neto FRD. 1998. Distributions of indoor and outdoor air pollutants in Rio de 

Janeiro, Brazil: Implications to indoor air quality in bayside offices. Environ Sci Technol 32(22): 3485-3490. 

Burdon J, Dori S, Marinansky R, Pesis E. 1996. Acetaldehyde inhibition of ethylene biosynthesis in mango 

fruit. Postharvest Biol Technol 8(2): 153-161. 

Cavalcante RM, Campelo CS, Barbosa MJ, Silveira ER, Carvalho TV, Nascimento RF. 2006. Determination 

of carbonyl compounds in air and cancer risk assessment in an academic institute in Fortaleza, Brazil. 

Atmos Environ 40(29): 5701-5711. 

ChemIDplus. 2009. ChemIDplus Advanced. National Library of Medicine. 

http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/chemidheavy.jsp and select Registry Number and search on 

CAS number. Last accessed: 7/2/09. 

ChemSources. 2009. Chem Sources - Chemical Search. Chemical Sources International. http://www.

chemsources.com/chemonline.html and search on acetaldehyde. Last accessed: 7/2/09. 

Di Cagno R, Tamborrino A, Gallo G, Leone C, De Angelis M, Faccia M, Amirante P, Gobbetti M. 2004. Uses 

of mares’ milk in manufacture of fermented milks. Int Dairy J 14(9): 767-775. 

Druesne-Pecollo N, Tehard B, Mallet Y, Gerber M, Norat T, Hercberg S, Latino-Martel P. 2009. Alcohol and 

genetic polymorphisms: Effect on risk of alcohol-related cancer. Lancet Oncol 10(2): 173-180. 

EPA. 1987. Health Assessment Document for Acetaldehyde. EPA/600/8-86-015A. Research Triangle Park, 

NC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

EPA. 1994. Chemical Summary for Acetaldehyde. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.

gov/chemfact/s_acetal.txt. 

EPA. 2004. Non-confidential IUR Production Volume Information. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 

http://www.epa.gov/oppt/iur/tools/data/2002-vol.html and search on CAS number. 

Fernandez-Garcia E, Carbonell M, Gaya P, Nuñez M. 2004. Evolution of the volatile components of ewes 

raw milk Zamorano cheese. Seasonal variation. Int Dairy J 14(8): 701-711. 

Furia TE, Bellanca N. 1975. Fenaroli’s Handbook of Flavour Ingredients, vol. 2, Cleveland, OH: CRC Press. 

Gadaga TH, Viljoen BC, Narvhus JA. 2007. Volatile organic compounds in naturally fermented milk and 

milk fermented using yeasts, lactic acid bacteria and their combinations as starter cultures. Food Technol 

Biotechnol 45(2): 195-200. 

Gilbert NL, Guay M, Miller JD, Judek S, Chan CC, Dales RE. 2005. Levels and determinants of formaldehyde, 

acetaldehyde, and acrolein in residential indoor air in Prince Edward Island, Canada. Environ Res 99(1): 

11-17. 

Gorny JR, Hess-Pierce B, Kader AA. 1999. Quality changes in fresh-cut peach and nectarine slices as affected 

by cultivar, storage atmosphere and chemical treatments. J Food Sci 64(3): 429-432. 

Gunes G, Liu RH, Watkins CB. 2002. Controlled-atmosphere effects on postharvest quality and antioxidant 

activity of cranberry fruits. J Agric Food Chem 50(21): 5932-5938. 

Hagemeyer HJ. 2002. Acetaldehyde. In Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, vol. 1. Online 

edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 99-114.

Hellen H, Hakola H, Reissell A, Ruuskanen TM. 2004. Carbonyl compounds in boreal coniferous forest air 

in Hyytiala, Southern Finland. Atmos Chem Phys 4: 1771-1780. 

Hodgson AT, Shendell DG, Fisk WJ, Apte MG. 2004. Comparison of predicted and derived measures of 

volatile organic compounds inside four new relocatable classrooms. Indoor Air 14(s8): 135-144. 

Hodgson AT, Destaillats H, Sullivan DP, Fisk WJ. 2007. Performance of ultraviolet photocatalytic oxidation 

for indoor air cleaning applications. Indoor Air 17(4): 305-316. 

HSDB. 2009. Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/

cgi-bin/sis/htmlgen?HSDB and search on CAS number. Last accessed: 7/2/09. 

IARC. 1985. Acetaldehyde. In Allyl Compounds, Aldehydes, Epoxides, and Peroxides. IARC Monographs on 

the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans, vol. 36. Lyon, France: International Agency 

for Research on Cancer.pp. 101-132. 

IARC. 1987. Acetaldehyde. In Overall Evaluations of Carcinogenicity. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation 

of Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans, suppl. 7. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research 

on Cancer.pp. 77-78. 

IARC. 1999. Acetaldehyde. In Re-evaluation of Some Organic Chemicals, Hydrazine, and Hydrogen Peroxide. 

IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans, vol. 71. Lyon, France: 

International Agency for Research on Cancer.pp. 319-335. 

IPCS. 1995. Environmental Health Criteria No. 167. Acetaldehyde. International Programme on Chemical 

Safety. http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc167.htm.

Jandal JM. 1996. Studies on dried fermented dairy products prepared from sheep milk. Small Rumin 

Res 21(3): 217-220. 

Kaminarides S, Stamou P, Massouras T. 2007. Comparison of the characteristics of set type yoghurt made 

from ovine milk of different fat content. Int J Food Sci Tech 42(9): 1019-1028. 

Kondyli E, Katsiari MC, Masouras T, Voutsinas LP. 2002. Free fatty acids and volatile compounds of low-fat 

Feta-type cheese made with a commercial adjunct culture. Food Chem 79(2): 199-205. 

MacIntosh DL, Zimmer-Dauphinee SA, Manning RO, Williams PL. 2000. Aldehyde concentrations in ambient 

air of coastal Georgia, USA. Environ Monit Assess 63(3): 409-429. 

Mahattanatawee K, Perez-Cacho PR, Davenport T, Rouseff R. 2007. Comparison of three lychee cultivar 

odor profiles using gas chromatography—Olfactometry and gas chromatography—Sulfur detection. J 

Agric Food Chem 55(5): 1939-1944. 

Miguel AH, Neto FBD, Cardoso JN, Vasconcellos PD, Pereira AS, Marquez KSG. 1995. Characterization of 

indoor air-quality in the cities of Sao-Paulo and Rio-de-Janeiro, Brazil. Environ Sci Technol 29(2): 338-345. 

Mistry VV, Hassan HN. 1992. Manufacture of nonfat yogurt from a high milk protein powder. J Dairy Sci

75(4): 947-957. 

Mukund R, Kelly TJ, Spicer CW. 1996. Source attribution of ambient air toxic and other VOCs in Columbus, 

Ohio. Atmos Environ 30(20): 3457-3470. 
Report on Carcinogens, Thirteenth Edition

National Toxicology Program, Department of Health and Human Services 4

NIOSH. 1990. National Occupational Exposure Survey (1981-83). National Institute for Occupational Safety 

and Health. Last updated: 7/1/90. http://www.cdc.gov/noes/noes1/01038sic.html. 

Ohura T, Amagai T, Senga Y, Fusaya M. 2006. Organic air pollutants inside and outside residences in Shimizu, 

Japan: Levels, sources and risks. Sci Total Environ 366(2-3): 485-499. 

Pang XB, Mu YJ. 2006. Seasonal and diurnal variations of carbonyl compounds in Beijing ambient air. 

Atmos Environ 40(33): 6313-6320. 

Park JS, Ikeda K. 2004. Exposure to the mixtures of organic compounds in homes in Japan. Indoor Air

14(6): 413-420. 

Possanzini M, Di Palo V, Cecinato A. 2002. Sources and photodecomposition of formaldehyde and 

acetaldehyde in Rome ambient air. Atmos Environ 36(19): 3195-3201. 

Possanzini M, Tagliacozzo G, Cecinato A. 2007. Ambient levels and sources of lower carbonyls at 

Montelibretti, Rome (Italy). Water Air Soil Pollut 183(1-4): 447-454. 

Saijo Y, Kishi R, Sata F, Katakura Y, Urashima Y, Hatakeyama A, et al. 2004. Symptoms in relation to chemicals 

and dampness in newly built dwellings. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 77(7): 461-470. 

Salaspuro M. 2009. Acetaldehyde as a common denominator and cumulative carcinogen in digestive tract 

cancers. Scand J Gastroenterol 44(8): 912-925. 

Sax SN, Bennett DH, Chillrud SN, Kinney PL, Spengler JD. 2004. Differences in source emission rates of 

volatile organic compounds in inner-city residences of New York City and Los Angeles. J Expo Anal Environ 

Epidemiol 14(suppl. 1): S95-S109.

Sax SN, Bennett DH, Chillrud SN, Ross J, Kinney PL, Spengler JD. 2006. A cancer risk assessment of innercity teenagers living in New York City and Los Angeles. Environ Health Perspect 114(10): 1558-1566. 

Secretan B, Straif K, Baan R, Grosse Y, El Ghissassi F, Bouvard V, et al. 2009. A review of human carcinogens—

Part E: tobacco, areca nut, alcohol, coal smoke, and salted fish. Lancet Oncol 10(11): 1033-1034. 

Seitz HK, Becker P. 2007. Alcohol metabolism and cancer risk. Alcohol Res Health 30(1): 38-47. 

Shendell DG, Winer AM, Stock TH, Zhang L, Zhang J, Maberti S, Colome SD. 2004. Air concentrations of 

VOCs in portable and traditional classrooms: Results of a pilot study in Los Angeles County. J Expo Anal 

Environ Epidemiol 14(1): 44-59. 

Soffritti M, Belpoggi F, Lambertini L, Lauriola M, Padovani M, Maltoni C. 2002. Results of long-term 

experimental studies on the carcinogenicity of formaldehyde and acetaldehyde in rats. Ann N Y Acad 

Sci 982: 87-105. 

SRI. 2009. Directory of Chemical Producers. Menlo Park, CA: SRI Consulting. Database edition. Last accessed: 

7/2/09. 

Terry MB, Gammon MD, Zhang FF, Knight JA, Wang Q, Britton JA, Teitelbaum SL, Neugut AI, Santella RM. 

2006. ADH3 genotype, alcohol intake and breast cancer risk. Carcinogenesis 27(4): 840-847. 

TRI. 2009. TRI Explorer Chemical Report. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Last updated: 6/07. http://

www.epa.gov/triexplorer and select Acetaldehyde. Last accessed: 7/2/09.

USITC. 2009. USITC Interactive Tariff and Trade DataWeb. United States International Trade Commission. 

http://dataweb.usitc.gov/scripts/user_set.asp and search on HTS no. 2912120000. Last accessed: 7/2/09.

Van Aardt M, Duncan SE, Bourne D, Marcy JE, Long TE, Hackney CR, Heisey C. 2001. Flavor threshold 

for acetaldehyde in milk, chocolate milk, and spring water using solid phase microextraction gas 

chromatography for quantification. J Agric Food Chem 49(3): 1377-1381. 

Van Dijk BAC, Van Houwelingen KP, Witjes JA, Schalken JA, Kiemeney LALM. 2001. Alcohol dehydrogenase 

type 3 (ADH3) and the risk of bladder cancer. Eur Urol 40(5): 509-514. 

Visvanathan K, Crum RM, Strickland PT, You X, Ruczinski I, Berndt SI, et al. 2007. Alcohol dehydrogenase 

genetic polymorphisms, low-to-moderate alcohol consumption, and risk of breast cancer. Alcohol Clin 

Exp Res 31(3): 467-476. 

Yasuhara A, Shibamoto T. 1995. Quantitative analysis of volatile aldehydes formed from various kinds of 

fish flesh during heat treatment. J Agric Food Chem 43(1): 94-97. 

Zeka A, Gore R, Kriebel D. 2003. Effects of alcohol and tobacco on aerodigestive cancer risks: A metaregression analysis. Cancer Causes Control 14(9): 897-906.