November 2016

U.S. Energy Information Administration   |   Updated Buildings Sector Appliance and Equipment Costs and Efficiencies 5

APPENDIX D 
EIA - Technology Forecast Updates –

Residential and Commercial Building 

Technologies – Advanced Case

Presented to:

U.S. Energy Information Administration

Prepared by: 

Navigant Consulting, Inc.

1200 19th Street, NW, Suite 700

Washington, D.C. 20036

And

Leidos

11951 Freedom Drive

Reston, VA 20190

August 10, 2016 Confidential and Proprietary, 

©2015 Navigant Consulting, Inc.

Do not distribute or copy

Final
2

Draft

DISCLAIMER

This presentation was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United

States Government, nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, nor any of their contractors, subcontractors, or their employees, 

makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of 

any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference 

herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily 

constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency, contractor or

subcontractor thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States 

Government or any agency thereof. 

August 2016

Final
Table of Contents

Page

Objective4

Methodology5

Definitions6

Calculations7

Market Transformation8

Residential Lighting9

General Service 10

Reflector Lamps 13 4-foot Linear 2-lamp Lighting Systems 17

Outdoor Lamps 21

Commercial Lighting 25

General Service Lamps 26

Reflector Lamps 29 4-Foot Linear 2 Lamp Lighting Systems 32 8-Foot Linear 2 Lamp Lighting Systems 36

Low Bay Lighting Systems 40

High Bay Lighting Systems 43

Additional Technologies of Interest 46

Page

Commercial Refrigeration 47

Compressor Rack Systems 48

Condensers 50

Supermarket Display Cases 52

Reach-In Refrigerators 55

Reach-In Freezers 58

Walk-In Refrigerators 61

Walk-In Freezers 65

Ice Machines 69

Beverage Merchandisers 73

Refrigerated Vending Machines 76

Commercial Ventilation 79

Constant Air Volume Ventilation 80

Variable Air Volume Ventilation 82

Fan Coil Units 84

Appendix A: Data SourcesA-1

Appendix B: ReferencesB-1

Final
4

Draft Objective

The objective of this study is to develop baseline and projected performance/cost 

characteristics for residential and commercial end-use equipment in an “Advanced 

Case” that assumes accelerated adoption of energy-saving technologies due to 

increased R&D funding and market incentives.

• 2003/2012 (commercial) and 2009 (residential) baselines, as well as today’s (2015)

— Review of literature, standards, installed base, contractor, and manufacturer information.

— Provide a relative comparison and characterization of the cost/efficiency of a generic 

product.

• Forecast of technology improvements that are projected to be available through 2040

— Review of trends in standards, product enhancements, and Research and Development 

(R&D).

— Projected impact of product improvements and enhancement to technology.

The performance/cost characterization of end-use equipment developed in this study 

will assist EIA in projecting national primary energy consumption.

Final
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Draft

Input from industry, including government, R&D organizations, and manufacturers, 

was used to project product enhancements concerning equipment performance and cost 

attributes.

• Technology forecasting involves many uncertainties.

• Technology developments impact performance and cost forecasts.

• Varied sources ensure a balanced view of technology progress and the probable timing of 

commercial availability.

Methodology

Final
Definitions

• The following tables represent the current and projected efficiencies for residential and commercial building equipment ranging from 

the installed base in 2003 and 2012 (for commercial products) and 2009 (for residential) to the highest efficiency equipment that is 

expected to be commercially available by 2040, assuming incremental adoption. Below are definitions for the terms used in 

characterizing the status of each technology.

— Installed Base: the installed and “in use” equipment for that year. Represents the installed stock of equipment, but does NOT 

represent sales.

— Current Standard: the minimum efficiency (or maximum energy use) required (allowed) by current DOE standards, when 

applicable.

— ENERGY STAR: the minimum efficiency required (or maximum energy use allowed) to meet the ENERGY STAR criteria, when 

applicable. Presented performance data represents certified products just meeting current ENERGY STAR specifications.

— Low: The minimum available efficiency product or product mix available on the market. This typically reflects minimal 

compliance with DOE standards. 

— Typical: the average, or “typical,” product being sold in the particular timeframe.

— High: the product with the highest efficiency available in the particular timeframe.

— Lumens: All reported lumens are initial lumens.

— Correlated Color Temperature (CCT): a specification of the color appearance of the light emitted by a lamp.

— Color Rendering Index (CRI): a scale from 0 to 100 percent indicating how accurate a "given" light source is at rendering color when 

compared to a "reference" light source. The higher the CRI, the better the color rendering ability.

6

Draft Final
Calculations

• The following metrics are commonly referred to throughout the tables to follow. Below are the calculations for each metric

— Lighting

 System Wattage = (Lamp Wattage * Ballast Factor) / Ballast Efficiency

 System Lumens = Lamp Lumens * Ballast Factor

 Lamp Efficacy = Lamp Lumens / Lamp Wattage

 System Efficacy = System Lumens / System Wattage

 Lamp Cost ($/klm) = Lamp Cost / (Lamp Lumens / 1000)

 Total Equipment Cost = Lamp Cost + Fixture (including ballast) Cost

 System Cost ($/klm) = Total Equipment Cost / (System Lumens / 1000)

 Total Installed Cost = Total Equipment Cost + Labor Installation Cost

 BLE = A/(1+B*Avg Total Lamp Arc Power^(-C))

— Commercial Refrigeration

 Nominal Capacity over Average Input (Btu in / Btu out) = (Cooling or Heat Rejection Capacity)*24*365/(Annual Energy Consumption * 3412)

 Total Installed Cost = Retail Equipment Cost + Labor Installation Cost

 Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/hr) = Total Installed Cost*1000 / (Cooling or Heat Rejection Capacity)

 Annual Maintenance Cost ($/kBtu/hr) = Annual Maintenance Cost * 1000 / (Cooling or Heat Rejection Capacity)

— Ventilation

 CFM out / Btu in / hr = System Airflow / (System Fan Power * 3412)

 Total Installed Cost ($/1000 CFM) = Total Installed Cost * 1000 / System Airflow

 Annual Maintenance Cost ($/1000 CFM) = Annual Maintenance Cost * 1000 / System Fan Power

7

Draft Final
8

Draft

The market for the reviewed products has changed since the analysis was performed in 

2012. These changes are noted and reflected in the efficiency and cost characteristics.

• DOE issued Federal minimum efficiency standards that have or will soon go into effect for 

General Service Fluorescent Lamps (effective 2012), Incandescent Reflector Lamps (July 2012), 

Fluorescent Lamp Ballasts (2014), Refrigerated Beverage Vending Machines (2012), Automatic 

Commercial Ice Makers (2018), Walk-In Coolers and Freezers (2017) and Commercial 

Refrigeration Equipment (2017). DOE published a Final Rule updating energy conservation 

standards for Refrigerated Beverage Vending Machines at the end of 2015, effective in 2018.

Market Transformation

Final
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Residential Lighting

Note: More aggressive R&D investment and effort in the lighting 

industry will only change future projections of LED technologies as it 

is unlikely that additional funding/effort will be applied to traditional 

technologies that have been exceeded in performance by their LED 

counterparts. Therefore, the inputs for all non-LED technologies 

remain unchanged from the Reference Case and are therefore not 

included in this report. 

Final
10

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Residential General Service Lamps

The residential general service lamps characterized in this report are a 60 watt and a 75 watt medium screw based A-type incandescent lamp and their halogen, CFL, and LED equivalents. A 

standard 60 watt incandescent lamp produces approximately 800 lumens. A standard 75 watt incandescent lamp produces approximately 1100 lumens (ENERGY STAR Program). 

Performance: 

• A majority of residential lamps have a nominal CCT rating of 2700K and give off a warm, yellowish white color, but products with CCTs of 3000K, 3500K, 4100K (neutral white), 5000K 

(daylight) and 6500K (blueish white) are also available. Traditional incandescent light bulbs have a nominal CCT of about 2700K. When replacing a light bulb, it is advised to chose a 

product with a similar CCT value in order to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100, but for CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average around 80. 

CRI values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination, with high CRI products being preferable for retail and display applications where improved color quality is of real value. 

Higher CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these very specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• Many factors influence the price of LED lamps including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore typical lamp prices in 2015 reflecting a mix of lamp characteristics and 

features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• Fixture prices and installation costs are not included for the residential sector. Labor costs are assumed to be negligible as the homeowner likely replaces lamps themselves as they burn out. 

Therefore total installed cost is the price of a lamp, and annual maintenance costs are the cost of replacing the lamps, which is a function of lamp life, lamp price, and the annual operating 

hours of 652 hours/year for residential general service lamps (DOE SSL Program, 2012a). 

Legislation:

• The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA 2007) established standards for 60 watt general service lamps effective in 2014 and 75 watt lamps effective in 2013. These standards 

cannot be achieved by incandescent bulbs, but can by halogen, CFL, and LED technologies. As a result, 2015 data is not provided for incandescent general service lamps. 

• EISA 2007 also established a requirement that DOE establish standards for general service lamps that are equal to or greater than 45 lm/W by 2020. California’s Appliance Efficiency 

Regulations will require 45 lm/W for general service lamps with certain bases beginning in 2018. These standards can not be achieved by traditional incandescent or halogen technologies 

currently on the market and given current and projected trends in industry it is not likely they will be met. It is currently assumed that industry will increase their investment in LED 

technology at the expense of incandescent, halogen, and CFL technologies. 

• EPACT 2005 sets performance for medium based compact fluorescent lamps. It adopts ENERGY STAR performance requirements (August 6, 2001 version) for efficacy, lumen maintenance, 

lamp life, rapid cycle stress test, CRI, etc. The standard is effective for lamps manufactured on or after January 1, 2006. Note that EPACT 2005 standards do not apply to CFL lamps with 

screw bases other than medium (e.g., pin based). The Secretary may revise these requirements by rule or establish other requirements at a later date. An updated DOE standard is expected 

in 2017 with a potential effective date of 2020. 

• Beginning in 2017, California’s Title 24 will require all light sources to be high efficacy. All general service lamps with medium screw bases must meet the following requirements: initial 

efficacy ≥45 lm/W, power factor ≥0.90, CCT ≤3000K, CRI ≥90, rated life ≥15,000 hours. 

• For ENERGY STAR qualification, general service, omnidirectional lamps must have a minimum lamp efficacy of 55 lm/W and 65 lm/W for lamps with rated wattage of <15W and ≥ 15 W, 

respectively. Additionally, the lamps must have a CRI ≥ 80, nominal CCT of 2700, 3000, 3500, 4000/4100, 5000, or 6000 K, and rated lifetime ≥ 10,000 hours (ENERGY STAR, 2014). The 

ENERGY STAR Lamps Version 2.0 specification, currently under revision and will take effect January 2, 2017, will require 70 lm/W for omnidirectional lamps with CRI ≥ 90 and 80 lm/W for 

omnidirectional lamps with CRI < 90 (ENERGY STAR).

Final
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Performance/Cost Characteristics » Residential General Service Lamps

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2020, 2030, and 2040. Assumptions were made that the focus would be on improving efficacy, lifetime 

and price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of conventional lighting 

technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of performance improvement) to the emergence of a new 

light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2014).

• For LED Technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2014). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2040: 

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Incandescent 0% 0% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements.

Halogen +0.5% +0.5% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature.

CFL +0.5% +0.5% -0.5% Improvements in efficacy can be made by using more rare-earth phosphors in compact fluorescent 

lamps. Lifetime improvements can be made by improving the compact fluorescent lamp electrodes.

Final
12

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Residential General Service LED Lamps (60 Watt Equivalent)

1. Based on lowest efficacy product in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

2. Based on the average of products in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15).

3. Based on highest efficacy product in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

4. Represents the lowest efficacy product in the Energy Star Database (as downloaded on 11/4/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

DATA

2009 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low1 Typical2 High3 Energy 

Star4 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 18 13 9 8 14 7 4 5 4 4 4

Lamp Lumens 800 850 837 865 800 840 840 840 840 840 840

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 44 64 93 104 59 123 197 171 230 219 230

CRI 80 83 84 81 92 84 84 84 84 84 84

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3000 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700

Average Lamp Life (1000 hrs) 20 25 25 25 25 49 49 50 50 50 50

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) 652 652 652 652 652 652 652 652 652 652 652

Lamp Price ($) $68.00 $24.00 $7.53 $4.99 $11.98 $4.07 $4.07 $1.33 $1.33 $1.00 $1.00

Lamp Cost ($/klm) $85.00 $28.22 $9.00 $5.77 $14.98 $4.84 $4.84 $1.58 $1.58 $1.19 $1.19

Labor Cost ($/hr) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Labor Lamp Installation (hr) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost ($) $68.00 $24.00 $7.53 $4.99 $11.98 $4.07 $4.07 $1.33 $1.33 $1.00 $1.00 

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) $2.22 $0.63 $0.20 $0.13 $0.31 $0.05 $0.05 $0.02 $0.02 $0.01 $0.01 

Total Installed Cost ($/klm) $85.00 $28.22 $9.00 $5.77 $14.98 $4.84 $4.84 $1.58 $1.58 $1.19 $1.19 

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm) $2.77 $0.74 $0.23 $0.15 $0.39 $0.06 $0.06 $0.02 $0.02 $0.02 $0.02 

Final
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Performance/Cost Characteristics » Residential Reflector Lamps

The residential reflector lamps characterized in this report are directional lamps that emit between approximately 550-750 lumens. Multiple baseline reflector lamps were analyzed, 

including: 65W Incandescent BR30, Halogen PAR30, Halogen Infrared Reflector (HIR) PAR30, CFL BR30, LED BR30, LED PAR38. 

Performance: 

• A majority of residential lamps have a nominal CCT rating of 2700K and give off a warm, yellowish white color, but products with CCTs of 3000K, 3500K, 4100K (neutral white), 

5000K (daylight) and 6500K (blueish white) are also available. Traditional incandescent light bulbs have a nominal CCT of about 2700K. When replacing a light bulb, it is advised 

to chose a product with a similar CCT value in order to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100, but for CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average 

around 80. CRI values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination, with high CRI products being preferable for retail and display applications where improved color 

quality is of real value. Higher CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these very specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• Many factors influence the price of LED lamps including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore typical lamp prices in 2015 reflecting a mix of lamp 

characteristics and features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• Fixture prices and installation costs are not included for the residential sector. Labor costs are assumed to be negligible as the homeowner likely replaces lamps themselves as they 

burn out. Therefore total installed cost is the price of a lamp, and annual maintenance costs are the cost of replacing the lamps, which is a function of lamp life, lamp price, and the 

annual operating hours of 642 hours/year for residential reflector lamps(DOE SSL Program, 2012a). 

Legislation:

• EPACT92 established minimum performance standards for some reflector lamps and provided exemptions for certain specialty applications (e.g., ER/BR, vibration service, more 

than 5% neodymium oxide, impact resistant, infrared heat, colored). EPACT92 effectively phased-out R-shaped tungsten filament incandescent reflector lamps at certain wattages 

and bulb diameters, replacing them with more efficient and cost effective tungsten-halogen parabolic aluminized reflector (PAR) lamps. EISA 2007 took away certain exemptions 

from EPACT 1992, requiring certain previously exempted lamps to meet EPACT92 minimum performance standards by January 1, 2008. The 65W BR30, a large majority of the 

incandescent reflector lamp market is still exempted. In 2015, DOE issued a final rule which determined that amending the standards for incandescent reflector lamps could not 

be economically justified.

• For ENERGY STAR qualification, directional, reflector lamps must have a minimum lamp efficacy of 40 lm/W and 50 lm/W for lamps with rated wattage of <20W and ≥ 20 W, 

respectively. Additionally, the lamps must have a CRI ≥ 80, nominal CCT of 2700, 3000, 3500, 4000/4100, 5000, or 6000 K, and rated lifetime ≥ 10,000 hours (ENERGY STAR, 2014). 

The ENERGY STAR Lamps Version 2.0 specification, currently under revision and will take effect January 2, 2017, will require 61 lm/W for omnidirectional lamps with CRI ≥ 90 

and 70 lm/W for omnidirectional lamps with CRI < 90 (ENERGY STAR).

Final
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Performance/Cost Characteristics » Residential Reflector Lamps

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2020, 2030, and 2040. Assumptions were made that the focus would be on improving efficacy, lifetime 

and price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of conventional lighting 

technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of performance improvement) to the emergence of a new 

light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2014).

• For LED Technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2014). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2040: 

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Incandescent +0.2% +0.5% -0.5% Improvements can be made by improved filament design and placement, higher pressure capsules, 

or higher efficiency reflector coatings. 

Halogen +0.5% +0.5% -0.5% Improvements can be made by improved filament design and placement, higher pressure capsules, 

or higher efficiency reflector coatings. 

CFL +0.5% +0.5% -0.5% In addition to benefiting from higher efficiency reflector coatings, improvements in efficacy can be 

made by using more rare-earth phosphors in compact fluorescent lamps. Lifetime improvements 

can be made by improving the compact fluorescent lamp electrodes.

Final
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Performance/Cost Characteristics » Residential Reflector LED BR30

DATA

2009 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low1 Typical2 Best3 Energy 

Star4 Typical Best Typical Best Typical Best

Lamp Wattage 18 11 10 8 12 6 4 5 3 4 3

Lamp Lumens 600 670 794 699 605 700 700 700 700 700 700

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 33 59 78 89 50 109 197 153 230 196 230

CRI 80 95 84 82 93 84 84 84 84 84 84

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3000 2700 3000 5000 2700 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000

Average Lamp Life (1000 hrs) 20 25 28 25 25 49 49 50 50 50 50

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) 642 642 642 642 642 642 642 642 642 642 642

Lamp Price ($) $98.40 $12.99 $16.67 $20.97 $74.57 $3.39 $3.39 $1.11 $1.11 $1.00 $1.00

Lamp Cost ($/klm) $164.00 $19.39 $21.00 $30.01 $123.26 $4.84 $4.84 $1.58 $1.58 $1.43 $1.43

Labor Cost ($/hr) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Labor Lamp Installation (hr) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost ($) $98.40 $12.99 $16.67 $20.97 $74.57 $3.39 $3.39 $1.11 $1.11 $1.00 $1.00 

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) $3.16 $0.33 $0.38 $0.54 $1.91 $0.04 $0.04 $0.01 $0.01 $0.01 $0.01 

Total Installed Cost ($/klm) $164.00 $19.39 $21.00 $30.01 $123.26 $4.84 $4.84 $1.58 $1.58 $1.43 $1.43

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm) $5.26 $0.50 $0.48 $0.77 $3.16 $0.06 $0.06 $0.02 $0.02 $0.02 $0.02 

1. Based on lowest efficacy product in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

2. Based on the average of products in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15).

3. Based on highest efficacy product in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

4. Represents the lowest efficacy product in the Energy Star Database (as downloaded on 11/4/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

Final
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Performance/Cost Characteristics » Residential Reflector LED PAR38

DATA

2009 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low1 Typical2 Best3 Energy 

Star4 Typical Best Typical Best Typical Best

Lamp Wattage 28 18 16 17 20 13 7 9 6 7 6

Lamp Lumens 1000 1172 1328 1958 1050 1400 1400 1400 1400 1400 1400

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 36 64 83 116 53 109 197 153 230 196 230

CRI 80 91 84 81 93 84 84 84 84 84 84

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3000 2700 3000 4000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000

Average Lamp Life (1000 hrs) 20 25 28 25 25 49 49 50 50 50 50

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) 642 642 642 642 642 642 642 642 642 642 642

Lamp Price ($) $164.00 $25.68 $27.89 $36.59 $34.47 $6.78 $6.78 $2.21 $2.21 $1.67 $1.67

Lamp Cost ($/klm) $164.00 $21.92 $21.00 $18.69 $32.83 $4.84 $4.84 $1.58 $1.58 $1.19 $1.19

Labor Cost ($/hr) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Labor Lamp Installation (hr) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost ($) $164.00 $25.68 $27.89 $36.59 $34.47 $6.78 $6.78 $2.21 $2.21 $1.67 $1.67 

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) $5.26 $0.66 $0.64 $0.94 $0.88 $0.09 $0.09 $0.03 $0.03 $0.02 $0.02 

Total Installed Cost ($/klm) $164.00 $21.92 $21.00 $18.69 $32.83 $4.84 $4.84 $1.58 $1.58 $1.19 $1.19 

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm) $5.26 $0.56 $0.48 $0.48 $0.84 $0.06 $0.06 $0.02 $0.02 $0.02 $0.02 

1. Based on lowest efficacy product in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

2. Based on the average of products in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15).

3. Based on highest efficacy product in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

4. Represents the lowest efficacy product in the Energy Star Database (as downloaded on 11/4/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

Final
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Performance/Cost Characteristics » Residential 4-foot Linear 2-Lamp Lighting Systems

This section characterizes commercial linear fixtures that house 2 4ft long linear lamps and their integrated luminaire equivalents. The technologies available for this system are linear fluorescent 

and LED. 

• T5 lamps are approximately 40% narrower than T8 lamps and almost 60% narrower than T12 lamps. This allows T5 lamps to be coated with higher quality, more efficient phosphor blends than 

larger diameter lamps, resulting in a more efficacious lamp. The compact size of T5 lamps also permits greater flexibility in lighting design and construction.

• LED options for linear fixtures include replacement lamps that are able to fit directly into an existing fixture and fully integrated luminaire that can be used to replace existing fixtures. LED 

replacement lamps, also known as T lamps or TLEDs, do not require a ballast but can be installed in existing ballasted configurations with or without the removal of the linear fluorescent 

ballast. Replacement lamps are only sold to go into existing fixtures, if a new fixture is to be installed, a fully integrated LED luminaire is a more cost effective and efficient option. Because LED 

luminaires are fully integrated, they do not have lamp/fixture efficiency losses associated with ballasts and fixture optics.

Performance: 

• A majority of residential lamps have a nominal CCT rating of 2700K and give off a warm, yellowish white color, but products with CCTs of 3000K, 3500K, 4100K (neutral white), 5000K 

(daylight) and 6500K (blueish white) are also available. Traditional incandescent light bulbs have a nominal CCT of about 2700K. When replacing a light bulb, it is advised to chose a product 

with a similar CCT value in order to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100, but for CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average around 80. CRI 

values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination, with high CRI products being preferable for retail and display applications where improved color quality is of real value. Higher 

CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these very specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• Many factors influence the price of LED lamps including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore typical lamp prices in 2015 reflecting a mix of lamp characteristics and 

features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• The total installed cost is the price of a lamp, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated with the installation, except for in the case of LED replacement lamps which are 

sold only as a replacement for use in an existing fixture. The LED luminaire is more efficient and cost effective for new installations or fixture retrofits. 

• Labor costs for lamp changes are assumed to be negligible as the homeowner likely replaces lamps themselves as they burn out. Therefore annual maintenance costs are the cost of the 

replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp life and the annual operating hours of 684 hours/year for residential linear systems(DOE SSL 

Program, 2012a). 

Legislation:

• Beginning July 14, 2012 (or July 14, 2014 for T8 700-series phosphor lamps), DOE fluorescent lamp standards will require a minimum efficacy of 89 lm/W. While the amended performance-based 

standards do not explicitly prohibit T12 lamps, no T12 lamps met the standard at the time of its announcement. Since then, however, T12 lamps meeting the standard have entered the market.

• Beginning November 14, 2014, DOE standards will require that the characterized residential ballasts have a minimum BLE = 0.993 / (1 + 0.41 * Avg Total Lamp Arc power ^ (- 0.25)). Residential 

ballasts also must have a minimum power factor of 0.5.

• California's Title 24 mandates the use of electronic ballasts with high efficacy luminaires (including fluorescent) of 13 W or higher (CEC, 2005).

• ENERGY STAR residential fixtures require ≥ 65 lm/W per lamp-ballast platform before September 1, 2013 and ≥ 70 lm/W per lamp-ballast platform thereafter (ENERGY STAR, 2012).

Final
18

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Residential 4-foot Linear 2-Lamp Lighting Systems

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2020, 2030, and 2040. Assumptions were made that the focus would be on improving efficacy, lifetime 

and price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of conventional lighting 

technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of performance improvement) to the emergence of a new 

light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2014).

• For LED Technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2014). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2040: 

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

T12 0% 0% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature.

T8 +0.2% +0.5% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature.

T5 +0.2% +0.5% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature.

Final
19

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Residential Linear LED Replacement Lamp 2 Lamp System

1. Based on lowest efficacy product in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

2. Based on the average of products in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15).

3. N/A because Linear LED Replacement Lamps are a retrofit option and sold only to be put in existing fixtures. 

4. Based on highest efficacy product in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

DATA

2009 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low1 Typical2 High3 Energy 

Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 18 19 18 18 N/A 14 12 11 10 9 9

Lamp Lumens 1355 1743 2151 2309 N/A 2100 2100 2100 2100 2100 2100

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 75 92 116 132 N/A 151 173 199 203 230 230

System Wattage 36 38 37 35 N/A 28 24 21 21 18 18

System Lumens 2304 3103 3829 4110 N/A 3948 3948 4032 4032 4032 4032

System Efficacy (lm/W) 64 82 104 117 N/A 142 162 191 194 221 221

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 70 80 83 85 N/A 83 83 83 83 83 83

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4000 4000 4100 5000 N/A 4100 4100 4100 4100 4100 4100

Average Lamp Life (1000 hrs) 35 50 45 50 N/A 49 49 50 50 50 50

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) 684 684 684 684 684 684 684 684 684 684 684

Lamp Price ($) $135.83 $22.19 $34.42 $38.30 N/A $15.21 $15.21 $4.97 $4.97 $2.10 $2.10

Ballast Price ($) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price ($)3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost ($/klm) $100.25 $12.73 $16.00 $16.59 N/A $7.24 $7.24 $2.36 $2.36 $1.00 $1.00

System (l/b/f) Cost ($/klm)

3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost ($/hr) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 N/A $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Labor System Installation (hr)

3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hr) 0 0 0 0 N/A 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total Installed Cost ($) $271.67 $44.38 $68.84 $76.60 N/A $30.43 $30.43 $9.93 $9.93 $4.20 $4.20

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) $5.31 $0.61 $1.05 $1.05 N/A $0.42 $0.42 $0.14 $0.14 $0.06 $0.06

Total Installed Cost ($/klm) $200.49 $25.46 $32.00 $33.17 N/A $14.49 $14.49 $4.73 $4.73 $2.00 $2.00

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm) $3.92 $0.35 $0.49 $0.45 N/A $0.20 $0.20 $0.06 $0.06 $0.03 $0.03

Final
20

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Residential Linear LED Luminaire

1. Based on lowest efficacy product in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

2. Based on the average of products in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15).

3. Based on highest efficacy product in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

4. Represents the lowest efficacy product in the Energy Star Database (as downloaded on 11/4/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

5. N/A because Linear LED Luminaires are a fully integrated lighting solutions used to replace existing lamp/ballast/fixture systems and therefore does not have lamp, ballast, and fixture 

components. 

DATA

2009 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low1 Typical2 Best3 Energy 

Star4 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage 46 48 57 40 55 30 25 22 22 22 22

System Lumens 3395 4044 5697 4918 4000 5000 5000 5000 5000 5000 5000

System Efficacy (lm/W) 67 84 100 122 73 164 197 230 230 230 230

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) 5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 87 83 83 83 82 83 83 83 83 83 83

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500

Average Lamp Life (1000 hrs) 50 60 56 50 36 97 97 100 100 100 100

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) 684 684 684 684 684 684 684 684 684 684 684

Lamp Price ($) $731.04 $439.00 $176.61 $513.45 $139.00 $93.02 $93.02 $45.29 $45.29 $22.06 $22.06

Ballast Price ($) 5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price ($)5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost ($/klm) 5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost ($/klm)

5 $215.34 $108.56 $31.00 $104.41 $34.75 $18.60 $18.60 $9.06 $9.06 $4.41 $4.41

Labor Cost ($/hr) $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20

Labor System Installation (hr) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Labor Lamp Change (hr) 5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost ($) $765.14 $473.10 $210.71 $547.55 $173.10 $127.12 $127.12 $79.39 $79.39 $56.16 $56.16

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) $10.46 $5.39 $2.57 $7.49 $3.29 $0.90 $0.90 $0.54 $0.54 $0.38 $0.38

Total Installed Cost ($/klm) $225.38 $116.99 $36.99 $111.35 $43.28 $25.42 $25.42 $15.88 $15.88 $11.23 $11.23

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm) $3.08 $1.33 $0.45 $1.52 $0.82 $0.18 $0.18 $0.11 $0.11 $0.08 $0.08

Final
21

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Residential Outdoor Lamps

• The residential outdoor lamps characterized in this report include reflector and general service lamps used for security and/or porch lighting that can be switched on from inside 

the home (i.e. parking lot/garage and outdoor common area lighting at multifamily buildings are excluded) with lumen outputs of approximately 1000 lumens. Multiple baseline 

lamps were analyzed according to estimates of installed base average lumens by lamp type, including: 

• In 2010, it was estimated that over 96% of residential outdoor lamps were incandescent, halogen, or CFL technologies. Approximately, 51% of residential outdoor lamps were 

general service and 24% were reflector lamps. The remaining share was made up of primarily decorative and miscellaneous lamp types (DOE, 2012(3)).

Performance: 

• 65W BR30 is the only viable incandescent reflector lamp due to exemption from EISA 2007. The lumen output of this lamp type is well below other reflector lamp technologies 

characterized for residential outdoor spaces, thus its use is limited for this application.

• A majority of residential lamps have a nominal CCT rating of 2700K and give off a warm, yellowish white color, but products with CCTs of 3000K, 3500K, 4100K (neutral white), 

5000K (daylight) and 6500K (blueish white) are also available. Traditional incandescent light bulbs have a nominal CCT of about 2700K. When replacing a light bulb, it is advised 

to chose a product with a similar CCT value in order to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100, but for CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average 

around 80. CRI values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination, with high CRI products being preferable for retail and display applications where improved color 

quality is of real value. Higher CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these very specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• Many factors influence the price of LED lamps including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore typical lamp prices in 2015 reflecting a mix of lamp 

characteristics and features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• Fixture prices and installation costs are not included for the residential sector. Labor costs are assumed to be negligible as the homeowner likely replaces lamps themselves as they 

burn out. Therefore total installed cost is the price of a lamp, and annual maintenance costs are the cost of replacing the lamps, which is a function of lamp life, lamp price, and the 

annual operating hours of 1059 hours/year for residential reflector lamps (DOE SSL Program, 2012b). 

Security (Reflector Lamps) Porch (General Service Lamps)

Incandescent BR30 Incandescent A-Type

Halogen PAR38 Halogen A-Type

Halogen Infrared Reflector (HIR) PAR38 CFL Bare Spiral

CFL PAR38 LED A-Type Lamp

LED PAR38

Final
22

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Residential Outdoor Lamps

Legislation:

• For ENERGY STAR qualification, general service, omnidirectional lamps must have a minimum lamp efficacy of 55 lm/W and 65 lm/W for lamps with rated wattage of <15W and 

≥ 15 W, respectively. The ENERGY STAR Lamps Version 2.0 specification, currently under revision and will take effect January 2, 2017, will require 70 lm/W for omnidirectional 

lamps with CRI ≥ 90 and 80 lm/W for omnidirectional lamps with CRI < 90 (ENERGY STAR).

• For ENERGY STAR qualification, directional, reflector lamps must have a minimum lamp efficacy of 40 lm/W and 50 lm/W for lamps with rated wattage of <20W and ≥ 20 W, 

respectively. Additionally, the lamps must have a CRI ≥ 80 Energy Star, nominal CCT of 2700, 3000, 3500, 4000/4100, 5000, or 6000 K, and rated lifetime ≥ 10,000 hours (ENERGY 

STAR, 2014).

• Additionally, the lamps must have a CRI ≥ 80 Energy Star, nominal CCT of 2700, 3000, 3500, 4000/4100, 5000, or 6000 K, and rated lifetime ≥ 10,000 hours (ENERGY STAR, 2014). 

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2020, 2030, and 2040. Assumptions were made that the focus would be on improving efficacy, lifetime 

and price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of conventional lighting 

technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of performance improvement) to the emergence of a new 

light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2014).

• For LED Technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2014). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2040: 

Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Incandescent 

Omnidirectional

0% +0.5% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements.

Incandescent +0.2% +0.5% -0.5% Improvements can be made by improved filament design and placement, higher pressure capsules, 

or higher efficiency reflector coatings. 

Halogen +0.5% +0.5% -0.5% Improvements can be made by improved filament design and placement, higher pressure capsules, 

or higher efficiency reflector coatings. 

CFL +0.5% +0.5% -0.5% In addition to benefiting from higher efficiency reflector coatings, improvements in efficacy can be 

made by using more rare-earth phosphors in compact fluorescent lamps. Lifetime improvements 

can be made by improving the compact fluorescent lamp electrodes.

Final
23

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Security: LED Reflector)

Data based on an indoor 100W Equivalent LED A-type lamp, scaled to lumen output reported for the building exterior low-output technologies in the Energy Savings 

Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

DATA

2009 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 28 18 16 17 20 13 7 9 6 7 6

Lamp Lumens 1000 1172 1328 1958 1050 1400 1400 1400 1400 1400 1400

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 36 64 83 116 53 109 197 153 230 196 230

CRI 80 91 84 81 93 84 84 84 84 84 84

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3000 2700 3000 4000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000

Average Lamp Life (1000 hrs) 20 25 28 25 25 49 49 50 50 50 50

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) 1059 1059 1059 1059 1059 1059 1059 1059 1059 1059 1059

Lamp Price ($) $164.00 $25.68 $27.89 $36.59 $34.47 $6.78 $6.78 $2.21 $2.21 $1.67 $1.67

Lamp Cost ($/klm) $164.00 $21.92 $21.00 $18.69 $32.83 $4.84 $4.84 $1.58 $1.58 $1.19 $1.19

Labor Cost ($/hr) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Labor Lamp Change (hr) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost ($) $164.00 $25.68 $27.89 $36.59 $34.47 $6.78 $6.78 $2.21 $2.21 $1.67 $1.67 

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) $8.68 $1.09 $1.05 $1.55 $1.46 $0.15 $0.15 $0.05 $0.05 $0.04 $0.04 

Total Installed Cost ($/klm) $164.00 $21.92 $21.00 $18.69 $32.83 $4.84 $4.84 $1.58 $1.58 $1.19 $1.19

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm) $8.68 $0.93 $0.79 $0.79 $1.39 $0.10 $0.10 $0.03 $0.03 $0.03 $0.03 

Final
24

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Porch: LED A-Type)

Data based on an indoor 100W Equivalent LED A-type lamp, scaled to lumen output reported for the building exterior low-output technologies in the Energy Savings 

Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

DATA

2009 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 18 13 9 8 14 8 5 6 4 4 4

Lamp Lumens 964 964 964 964 964 964 964 964 964 964 964

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 44 64 93 104 71 123 197 171 230 219 230

CRI 80 83 84 81 92 84 84 84 84 84 84

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3000 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700

Average Lamp Life (1000 hrs) 20 25 25 25 25 49 49 50 50 50 50

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) 1059 1059 1059 1059 1059 1059 1059 1059 1059 1059 1059

Lamp Price ($) $68.00 $24.00 $8.68 $4.99 $11.98 $5.02 $5.02 $1.64 $1.64 $1.04 $1.04

Lamp Cost ($/klm) $85.00 $24.90 $9.00 $5.18 $12.43 $4.84 $4.84 $1.58 $1.58 $1.00 $1.00

Labor Cost ($/hr) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Labor Lamp Change (hr) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost ($) $68.00 $24.00 $8.68 $4.99 $11.98 $5.02 $5.02 $1.64 $1.64 $1.04 $1.04 

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) $3.60 $1.02 $0.37 $0.21 $0.51 $0.11 $0.11 $0.03 $0.03 $0.02 $0.02 

Total Installed Cost ($/klm) $70.54 $24.90 $9.00 $5.18 $12.43 $5.21 $5.21 $1.70 $1.70 $1.08 $1.08 

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm) $3.73 $1.05 $0.38 $0.22 $0.53 $0.11 $0.11 $0.04 $0.04 $0.02 $0.02 

Final
Commercial Lighting

25

Note: More aggressive R&D investment and effort in the lighting 

industry will only change future projections of LED technologies as it 

is unlikely that additional funding/effort will be applied to traditional 

technologies that have been exceeded in performance by their LED 

counterparts. Therefore, the inputs for all non-LED technologies 

remain unchanged from the Reference Case and are therefore not 

included in this report. 

. 

Final
26

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial General Service Lamps in Recessed Can Fixtures

This section characterizes commercial omnidirectional incandescent, halogen, CFL, and LED screw based general service lamps emitting approximately 1600 lumens (equivalent to a 100W incandescent lamp) used 

in recessed can fixtures. A recessed can is a directional fixture set into the ceiling, in which all of the light is directed downwards from the opening. Therefore, an omnidirectional lamp is not well suited for use in 

such fixtures, as light that emits upwards and out of the sides must be reflected downwards and out of the fixture and some light is absorbed in the process. A fixture efficiency of 61% is used to characterize these 

lumen losses for all omnidirectional lamps. For all lamp technologies, an annual fixture renovation rate of 10% (i.e., 10-year fixture service life) is used to reflect the proportion of equipment that retires each year.

Performance: 

• A majority of residential lamps have a nominal CCT rating of 2700K and give off a warm, yellowish white color, but products with CCTs of 3000K, 3500K, 4100K (neutral white), 5000K (daylight) and 6500K 

(blueish white) are also available. Traditional incandescent light bulbs have a nominal CCT of about 2700K. When replacing a light bulb, it is advised to chose a product with a similar CCT value in order to 

achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100, but for CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average around 80. CRI values of 80 are 

considered suitable for general illumination, with high CRI products being preferable for retail and display applications where improved color quality is of real value. Higher CRI is not expected to be a focus 

for future LED products except for these very specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• The total installed cost is the price of a lamp, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated with the installation, except for in the case of LED replacement lamps which are sold only as a 

replacement for use in an existing fixture. There are integrated LED luminaires that are more efficient and cost effective for new installations or fixture retrofits. Many factors influence the price of LED lamps 

including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore typical lamp prices in 2015 reflecting a mix of lamp characteristics and features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and 

high efficacy products in the future. 

• Annual maintenance costs are the cost of labor for replacing the lamps and the cost of the replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp life and the annual 

operating hours of 3868 hours/year for commercial general service lamps (DOE SSL Program, 2012a). 

Legislation:

• The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA 2007) established standards for 100W lamps effective in 2012. These standards cannot be achieved by incandescent bulbs, but can by halogen, CFL, 

and LED technologies. As a result, 2015 data is not provided for incandescent general service lamps. 

• EISA 2007 also established a requirement that DOE establish standards for general service lamps that are equal to or greater than 45 lm/W by 2020. California’s Appliance Efficiency Regulations will require 45 

lm/W for general service lamps with certain bases beginning in 2018. These standards can not be achieved by traditional incandescent or halogen technologies currently on the market and given current and 

projected trends in industry it is not likely they will be met. It is currently assumed that industry will increase their investment in LED technology at the expense of incandescent, halogen, and CFL 

technologies. 

• EPACT 2005 sets performance for medium based compact fluorescent lamps. It adopts ENERGY STAR performance requirements (August 6, 2001 version) for efficacy, lumen maintenance, lamp life, rapid 

cycle stress test, CRI, etc. The standard is effective for lamps manufactured on or after January 1, 2006. Note that EPACT 2005 standards do not apply to CFL lamps with screw bases other than medium (e.g., 

pin based). The Secretary may revise these requirements by rule or establish other requirements at a later date. An updated DOE standard is expected in 2017 with a potential effective date of 2020. 

• For ENERGY STAR qualification, general service, omnidirectional lamps, must have a minimum lamp efficacy of 55 lm/W and 65 lm/W for lamps with rated wattage of <15W and ≥ 15 W, respectively. 

Additionally, the lamps must have a CRI ≥ 80, nominal CCT of 2700, 3000, 3500, 4000/4100, 5000, or 6000 K, and rated lifetime ≥ 10,000 hours (ENERGY STAR, 2014). The ENERGY STAR Lamps Version 2.0 

specification, currently under revision and will take effect January 2, 2017, will require 70 lm/W for omnidirectional lamps with CRI ≥ 90 and 80 lm/W for omnidirectional lamps with CRI < 90 (ENERGY 

STAR).

• The ENERGY STAR Luminaires v1.2 specification took effect on December 21, 2012 and requires 42 lm/W for recessed downlights (ENERGY STAR, 2012). The ENERGY STAR Luminaires v2.0 specification 

will supersede v1.2 effective June 1, 2016 and will require 55 lm/W for recessed downlights (ENERGY STAR). 

Final
27

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial General Service Lamps in Recessed Can Fixtures

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2020, 2030, and 2040. Assumptions were made that the focus would be on improving efficacy, lifetime 

and price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of conventional lighting 

technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of performance improvement) to the emergence of a new 

light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2014).

• For LED Technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2014). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2040: 

Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Incandescent 0% 0% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements.

Halogen +0.5% +0.5% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature.

CFL +0.5% +0.5% -0.5% Improvements in efficacy can be made by using more rare-earth phosphors in compact fluorescent 

lamps. Lifetime improvements can be made by improving the compact fluorescent lamp electrodes.

Final
28

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial General Service 100W Equivalent LED Replacement 

Lamp in Recessed Can Fixture

DATA

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low1 Typical2 High3 Energy 

Star4 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage N/A 27 17 15 16 23 11 10 8 7 7 7

Lamp Lumens N/A 1600 1580 1646 1710 1600 1600 1600 1600 1600 1600 1600

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) N/A 60 92 108 110 71 150 161 209 220 230 230

System Wattage N/A 27 17 15 16 23 11 10 8 7 7 7

System Lumens N/A 976 964 1004 1043 976 976 976 976 976 976 976

System Efficacy (lm/W) N/A 36.6 56.4 66.2 67.3 43.4 91.6 98.1 127.4 133.9 140.3 140.3

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI N/A 80 84 83 81 82 83 83 83 83 83 83

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) N/A 3000 3000 2700 2700 3000 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700 2700

Average Lamp Life (1000 hrs) N/A 22 25 25 25 25 48 49 50 50 50 50

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) N/A 3868 3868 3868 3868 3868 3868 3868 3868 3868 3868 3868

Lamp Price ($) N/A $40.00 $14.71 $15.30 $15.99 $22.99 $7.74 $7.74 $2.53 $2.53 $1.60 $1.60

Ballast Price ($) 5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price ($)5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost ($/klm) N/A $25.00 $9.31 $9.30 $9.35 $14.37 $4.84 $4.84 $1.58 $1.58 $1.00 $1.00

System (l/b/f) Cost ($/klm) 5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost ($/hr) N/A $77.05 $81.95 $81.95 $81.95 $81.95 $81.95 $81.95 $81.95 $81.95 $81.95 $81.95

Labor System Installation (hr) N/A 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

Labor Lamp Change (hr) N/A 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

Total Installed Cost ($) N/A $117.05 $96.66 $97.25 $97.94 $104.94 $89.69 $89.69 $84.48 $84.48 $83.55 $83.55

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) N/A $7.71 $2.91 $3.00 $3.11 $4.19 $0.95 $0.93 $0.51 $0.51 $0.44 $0.44

Total Installed Cost ($/klm) N/A $73.16 $61.18 $59.10 $57.27 $65.59 $56.06 $56.06 $52.80 $52.80 $52.22 $52.22

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm) N/A $4.82 $1.84 $1.82 $1.82 $2.62 $0.60 $0.58 $0.32 $0.32 $0.28 $0.28

1. Based on lowest efficacy product in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

2. Based on the average of products in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15).

3. Based on highest efficacy product in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

4. Represents the lowest efficacy product in the Energy Star Database (as downloaded on 11/4/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

5. N/A b/c this is an LED Replacement lamp that is for existing fixtures. For installations where a fixture must be purchased, an integrated LED Luminaire would be more efficient and cost effective. 

Final
29

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reflector Lamps in Recessed Can Fixtures

This section characterizes commercial halogen, HIR, and LED screw based reflector lamps emitting approximately 1400 lumens used in recessed can fixtures. 

• Halogen infrared reflector (HIR) lamps contain a tungsten halogen capsule with a film coating on the inside of the capsule. The coating reflects infrared radiation back into the lamp filament, 

which forces the filament to burn at a higher temperature. This increases the efficacy of the lamp, without reducing operating life.

• A recessed can is a directional fixture set into the ceiling, in which all of the light is directed downwards from the opening. Therefore, a reflector lamp, which employs reflective coating to 

direct light out in only one direction, is well suited for use in such fixtures. However, some light is not able to escape the fixture, and a fixture efficiency of 93% is used to characterize these 

minimal lumen losses. For all lamp technologies, an annual fixture renovation rate of 10% (i.e., 10-year fixture service life) is used to reflect the proportion of equipment that retires each year.

Performance: 

• A majority of residential lamps have a nominal CCT rating of 2700K and give off a warm, yellowish white color, but products with CCTs of 3000K, 3500K, 4100K (neutral white), 5000K 

(daylight) and 6500K (blueish white) are also available. Traditional incandescent light bulbs have a nominal CCT of about 2700K. When replacing a light bulb, it is advised to chose a product 

with a similar CCT value in order to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100, but for CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average around 80. CRI 

values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination, with high CRI products being preferable for retail and display applications where improved color quality is of real value. Higher 

CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these very specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• The total installed cost is the price of a lamp, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated with the installation, except for in the case of LED replacement lamps which are 

sold only as a replacement for use in an existing fixture. There are integrated LED luminaires that are more efficient and cost effective for new installations or fixture retrofits. Many factors 

influence the price of LED lamps including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore typical lamp prices in 2015 reflecting a mix of lamp characteristics and features were 

used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• Annual maintenance costs are the cost of labor for replacing the lamps and the cost of the replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp life and the 

annual operating hours of 3860 hours/year for commercial reflector lamps (DOE SSL Program, 2012a). 

Legislation:

• EPACT92 established minimum performance standards for some reflector lamps and provided exemptions for certain specialty applications (e.g., ER/BR, vibration service, more than 5% 

neodymium oxide, impact resistant, infrared heat, colored). EPACT92 effectively phased-out R-shaped tungsten filament incandescent reflector lamps at certain wattages and bulb diameters, 

replacing them with more efficient and cost effective tungsten-halogen parabolic aluminized reflector (PAR) lamps. EISA2007 took away certain exemptions from EPACT 1992, requiring 

certain previously exempted lamps to meet EPACT92 minimum performance standards by January 1, 2008. In 2015, DOE issued a final rule which determined that amending the standards for 

incandescent reflector lamps could not be economically justified. 

• For ENERGY STAR qualification, directional, reflector lamps must have a minimum lamp efficacy of 40 lm/W and 50 lm/W for lamps with rated wattage of <20W and ≥ 20 W, respectively. 

Additionally, the lamps must have a CRI ≥ 80, nominal CCT of 2700, 3000, 3500, 4000/4100, 5000, or 6000 K, and rated lifetime ≥ 10,000 hours (ENERGY STAR, 2014). The ENERGY STAR 

Lamps Version 2.0 specification, currently under revision and will take effect January 2, 2017, will require 61 lm/W for omnidirectional lamps with CRI ≥ 90 and 70 lm/W for omnidirectional 

lamps with CRI < 90 (ENERGY STAR).

• The ENERGY STAR Luminaires v1.2 specification took effect on December 21, 2012 and requires 42 lm/W for recessed downlights (ENERGY STAR, 2012). The ENERGY STAR Luminaires v2.0 

specification will supersede v1.2 effective June 1, 2016 and will require 55 lm/W for recessed downlights (ENERGY STAR).

Final
30

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reflector Lamps in Recessed Can Fixtures

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2020, 2030, and 2040. Assumptions were made that the focus would be on improving efficacy, lifetime 

and price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of conventional lighting 

technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of performance improvement) to the emergence of a new 

light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2014).

• For LED Technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2014). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2040: 

Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Halogen +0.5% +0.5% -0.5% Improvements can be made by improved filament design and placement, higher pressure capsules, 

or higher efficiency reflector coatings.

HIR +0.5% +0.5% -0.5% Improvements can be made by improved filament design and placement, higher pressure capsules, 

or higher efficiency reflector coatings.

CFL +0.5% +0.5% -0.5% Improvements in efficacy can be made by using more rare-earth phosphors in compact fluorescent 

lamps. Lifetime improvements can be made by improving the compact fluorescent lamp electrodes.

Final
31

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial LED Reflector Lighting (PAR38)

1. Based on lowest efficacy product in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

2. Based on the average of products in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15).

3. Based on highest efficacy product in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

4. Represents the lowest efficacy product in the Energy Star Database (as downloaded on 11/4/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

5. N/A b/c this is an LED Replacement lamp that is for existing fixtures. For installations where a fixture must be purchased, an integrated LED Luminaire would be more efficient and cost effective.

DATA

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low1 Typical2 High3 Energy 

Star4 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage N/A 17 18 16 17 20 12 11 9 8 7 6

Lamp Lumens N/A 1045 1172 1328 1958 1050 1400 1400 1400 1400 1400 1400

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) N/A 61 64 83 116 53 116 124 162 170 209 216

System Wattage N/A 17 18 16 17 20 12 11 9 8 7 6

System Lumens* N/A 972 1090 1235 1821 977 1302 1302 1302 1302 1302 1302

System Efficacy (lm/W) N/A 57 59 78 108 49 108 115 151 158 194 201

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI N/A 83 91 84 81 93 84 84 84 84 84 84

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) N/A 3000 2700 3000 4000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000

Average Lamp Life (1000 hrs) N/A 22 25 28 25 25 49 49 50 50 50 50

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) N/A 3860 3860 3860 3860 3860 3860 3860 3860 3860 3860 3860

Lamp Price ($) N/A $52.25 $25.68 $27.89 $36.59 $34.47 $6.78 $6.78 $2.21 $2.21 $1.40 $1.40

Ballast Price ($) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price ($)** N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost ($/klm) N/A $50.00 $21.92 $21.00 $18.69 $32.83 $4.84 $4.84 $1.58 $1.58 $1.00 $1.00

System (l/b/f) Cost ($/klm)

5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost ($/hr) N/A $77.05 $81.95 $81.95 $81.95 $81.95 $81.95 $81.95 $81.95 $81.95 $81.95 $81.95

Labor System Installation (hr)

5 N/A 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

Labor Lamp Change (hr) N/A 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06

Total Installed Cost ($) N/A $56.99 $30.72 $32.93 $41.63 $39.51 $11.82 $11.82 $7.25 $7.25 $6.44 $6.44

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) N/A $10.00 $4.74 $4.54 $6.43 $6.10 $0.93 $0.93 $0.56 $0.56 $0.50 $0.50

Total Installed Cost ($/klm) N/A $54.53 $26.22 $24.79 $21.26 $37.63 $8.44 $8.44 $5.18 $5.18 $4.60 $4.60

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm) N/A $9.57 $4.05 $3.42 $3.28 $5.81 $0.66 $0.66 $0.40 $0.40 $0.36 $0.36

Final
32

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial 4-foot Linear 2-Lamp Lighting Systems

This section characterizes commercial linear fixtures that house 2 4ft long linear lamps and their integrated luminaire equivalents. The technologies available for this system are linear 

fluorescent and LED. 

• Linear fluorescent options are T5, T8, and T12 lamps. T5 lamps are approximately 40% narrower than T8 lamps and almost 60% narrower than T12 lamps. This allows T5 lamps to 

be coated with higher quality, more efficient phosphor blends than larger diameter lamps, resulting in a more efficacious lamp. The compact size of T5 lamps also permits greater 

flexibility in lighting design and construction.

• LED options for linear fixtures include replacement lamps that are able to fit directly into an existing fixture and fully integrated luminaire that can be used to replace existing 

fixtures. LED replacement lamps, also known as T lamps or TLEDs, do not require a ballast but can be installed in existing ballasted configurations with or without the removal of 

the linear fluorescent ballast. Replacement lamps are only sold to go into existing fixtures, if a new fixture is to be installed, a fully integrated LED luminaire is a more cost effective 

and efficient option. Because LED luminaires are fully integrated, they do not have lamp/fixture efficiency losses associated with ballasts and fixture optics. For all lamp 

technologies, an annual fixture renovation rate of 10% (i.e., 10-year fixture service life) is used to reflect the proportion of equipment that retires each year.

Performance: 

• A majority of residential lamps have a nominal CCT rating of 2700K and give off a warm, yellowish white color, but products with CCTs of 3000K, 3500K, 4100K (neutral white), 

5000K (daylight) and 6500K (blueish white) are also available. Traditional incandescent light bulbs have a nominal CCT of about 2700K. When replacing a light bulb, it is advised 

to chose a product with a similar CCT value in order to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100, but for CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average 

around 80. CRI values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination, with high CRI products being preferable for retail and display applications where improved color 

quality is of real value. Higher CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these very specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• The total installed cost is the price of 2 lamps, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated with the installation, except for in the case of LED replacement 

lamps which are sold only as a replacement for use in an existing fixture. There are integrated LED luminaires that are more efficient and cost effective for new installations or 

fixture retrofits. Many factors influence the price of LED lamps including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore typical lamp prices in 2015 reflecting a mix of 

lamp characteristics and features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• Annual maintenance costs are the cost of labor for replacing the lamps and the cost of the replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp 

life and the annual operating hours of 4055 hours/year for commercial 4ft linear systems (DOE SSL Program, 2012a). 

Legislation:

• Beginning July 14, 2012 (or July 14, 2014 for T8 700-series phosphor lamps), DOE fluorescent lamp standards will require a minimum efficacy of 89 lm/W. While the amended 

performance-based standards do not explicitly prohibit T12 lamps, no T12 lamps met the standard at the time of its announcement. Since then, however, T12 lamps meeting the 

standard have entered the market.

• California's Title 24 mandates the use of electronic ballasts with high efficacy luminaires (including fluorescent) of 13 W or higher (CEC, 2005).

• ENERGY STAR does not cover commercial linear luminaires (ENERGY STAR, 2012). 

Final
33

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial 4-foot Linear 2-Lamp Lighting Systems

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2020, 2030, and 2040. Assumptions were made that the focus would be on improving efficacy, lifetime 

and price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of conventional lighting 

technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of performance improvement) to the emergence of a new 

light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2014).

• For LED Technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2014). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2040: 

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

T8 F32 Commodity +0.2% +0.5% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature.

T8 F32 High 

Efficiency/High Output

+0.2% +0.5% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature.

T5 F28 +0.2% +0.5% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature.

Final
34

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial 4-ft Linear LED Replacement Lamp in 2-Lamp System

1. Based on lowest efficacy product in the DLC Qualified Product Database (as downloaded on 11/18/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

2. Based on the average of products in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15).

3. Based on highest efficacy product in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

4. N/A because Linear LED Replacement Lamps are a retrofit option and sold only to be put in existing fixtures. 

DATA

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low1 Typical2 High3 Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage N/A 21 19 18 18 N/A 14 12 11 10 9 9

Lamp Lumens N/A 2091 1743 2151 2303 N/A 2100 2100 2100 2100 2100 2100

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) N/A 101 92 116 132 N/A 151 173 199 221 230 230

System Wattage N/A 42 38 37 35 N/A 28 24 21 19 18 18

System Lumens N/A 3555 3102 3829 4099 N/A 3948 3948 4032 4032 4032 4032

System Efficacy (lm/W) N/A 85 82 104 117 N/A 142 162 191 212 221 221

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI N/A 86 80 83 85 N/A 83 83 83 83 83 83

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) N/A 4100 4000 4100 5000 N/A 4100 4100 4100 4100 4100 4100

Average Lifetime (1000 hrs) N/A 50 50 45 50 N/A 49 49 50 50 50 50

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) N/A 4055 4055 4055 4055 N/A 4055 4055 4055 4055 4055 4055

Lamp/Luminaire Price ($) N/A $234.66 $22.19 $34.42 $38.30 N/A $15.21 $15.21 $4.97 $4.97 $2.10 $2.10

Ballast Price ($)* N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price ($)* N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost ($/klm) N/A $112.20 $12.73 $16.00 $16.63 N/A $7.24 $7.24 $2.36 $2.36 $1.00 $1.00

System (l/b/f) Cost ($/klm)

4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost ($/hr) N/A $65.10 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 N/A $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20

Labor System Installation (hr)

4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hr) N/A 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 N/A 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40

Total Installed Cost ($) N/A $495.15 $71.43 $95.90 $103.65 N/A $42.27 $42.27 $32.02 $32.02 $29.15 $29.15

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) N/A $40.16 $5.79 $8.64 $8.41 N/A $3.50 $3.50 $2.60 $2.60 $2.36 $2.36

Total Installed Cost ($/klm) N/A $236.76 $40.98 $44.57 $45.01 N/A $20.13 $20.13 $15.25 $15.25 $13.88 $13.88

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm) N/A $19.20 $3.32 $4.02 $3.65 N/A $1.67 $1.67 $1.24 $1.24 $1.13 $1.13

Final
35

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial 4-ft Linear LED Luminaire to Replace 2-Lamp 

Systems

1. Based on lowest efficacy product in the DLC Qualified Product Database (as downloaded on 11/18/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

2. Based on the average of products in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15).

3. Based on highest efficacy product in the DLC Qualified Product Database (as downloaded on 11/18/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

4. N/A because Linear LED Luminaires are a fully integrated lighting solutions used to replace existing lamp/ballast/fixture systems and therefore does not have lamp, ballast, and fixture components

DATA

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low1 Typical2 High3 Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage 36.4 51 48 57 40 N/A 30 25 22 22 22 22

System Lumens 548 4818 4044 5697 4918 N/A 5000 5000 5000 5000 5000 5000

System Efficacy (lm/W) 15 94 84 100 122 N/A 164 197 230 230 230 230

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 92 84 83 83 83 N/A 83 83 83 83 83 83

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 N/A 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500 3500

Average Lifetime (1000 hrs) 50 67 60 56 50 N/A 97 97 100 100 100 100

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) 4055 4055 4055 4055 4055 N/A 4055 4055 4055 4055 4055 4055

Lamp/Luminaire Price ($) $215.19 $610.32 $439.00 $176.61 $513.45 N/A $93.02 $93.02 $45.29 $45.29 $22.06 $22.06

Ballast Price ($)4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price ($)4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost ($/klm)

4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost ($/klm) $392.68 $126.67 $108.56 $31.00 $104.41 N/A $18.60 $18.60 $9.06 $9.06 $4.41 $4.41

Labor Cost ($/hr) $110.50 $65.10 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 N/A $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20

Labor System Installation (hr) 0.5 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 N/A 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50

Labor Lamp Change (hr)

4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost ($) $270.44 $642.87 $473.10 $210.71 $547.55 N/A $127.12 $127.12 $79.39 $79.39 $56.16 $56.16

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) $0.07 $38.91 $31.98 $15.26 $44.41 N/A $5.31 $5.31 $3.22 $3.22 $2.28 $2.28

Total Installed Cost ($/klm) $493.50 $133.43 $116.99 $36.99 $111.35 N/A $25.42 $25.42 $15.88 $15.88 $11.23 $11.23

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm) $0.13 $8.08 $7.91 $2.68 $9.03 N/A $1.06 $1.06 $0.64 $0.64 $0.46 $0.46

Final
36

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial 8-foot Linear 2-Lamp Lighting Systems

This section characterizes commercial linear fixtures that house 2 8ft long linear lamps and their integrated luminaire equivalents. The technologies available for this system are linear 

fluorescent and LED. 

• Linear fluorescent options are T5, T8, and T12 lamps. T5 lamps are approximately 40% narrower than T8 lamps and almost 60% narrower than T12 lamps. This allows T5 lamps to 

be coated with higher quality, more efficient phosphor blends than larger diameter lamps, resulting in a more efficacious lamp. The compact size of T5 lamps also permits greater 

flexibility in lighting design and construction.

• LED options for linear fixtures include replacement lamps that are able to fit directly into an existing fixture and fully integrated luminaire that can be used to replace existing 

fixtures. LED replacement lamps, also known as T lamps or TLEDs, do not require a ballast but can be installed in existing ballasted configurations with or without the removal of 

the linear fluorescent ballast. Replacement lamps are only sold to go into existing fixtures, if a new fixture is to be installed, a fully integrated LED luminaire is a more cost effective 

and efficient option. Because LED luminaires are fully integrated, they do not have lamp/fixture efficiency losses associated with ballasts and fixture optics. For all lamp 

technologies, an annual fixture renovation rate of 10% (i.e., 10-year fixture service life) is used to reflect the proportion of equipment that retires each year.

Performance: 

• A majority of residential lamps have a nominal CCT rating of 2700K and give off a warm, yellowish white color, but products with CCTs of 3000K, 3500K, 4100K (neutral white), 

5000K (daylight) and 6500K (blueish white) are also available. Traditional incandescent light bulbs have a nominal CCT of about 2700K. When replacing a light bulb, it is advised 

to chose a product with a similar CCT value in order to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100, but for CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average 

around 80. CRI values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination, with high CRI products being preferable for retail and display applications where improved color 

quality is of real value. Higher CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these very specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• The total installed cost is the price of 2 lamps, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated with the installation, except for in the case of LED replacement 

lamps which are sold only as a replacement for use in an existing fixture. There are integrated LED luminaires that are more efficient and cost effective for new installations or 

fixture retrofits. Many factors influence the price of LED lamps including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore typical lamp prices in 2015 reflecting a mix of 

lamp characteristics and features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• Annual maintenance costs are the cost of labor for replacing the lamps and the cost of the replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp 

life and the annual operating hours of 4147 hours/year for commercial 8ft linear systems (DOE SSL Program, 2012a). 

Legislation:

• Beginning July 14, 2012 (or July 14, 2014 for T8 700-series phosphor lamps), DOE fluorescent lamp standards will require a minimum efficacy of 89 lm/W. While the amended 

performance-based standards do not explicitly prohibit T12 lamps, no T12 lamps met the standard at the time of its announcement. Since then, however, T12 lamps meeting the 

standard have entered the market.

• California's Title 24 mandates the use of electronic ballasts with high efficacy luminaires (including fluorescent) of 13 W or higher (CEC, 2005).

• ENERGY STAR does not cover commercial linear luminaires (ENERGY STAR, 2012). 

Final
37

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial 8-foot Linear 2-Lamp Lighting Systems

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2020, 2030, and 2040. Assumptions were made that the focus would be on improving efficacy, lifetime 

and price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of conventional lighting 

technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of performance improvement) to the emergence of a new 

light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2014).

• For LED Technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2014). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2040: 

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

T8 F59 Typical Efficiency +0.2% +0.5% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature.

T8 F59 High Efficiency +0.2% +0.5% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature.

T8 F96 High Output +0.2% +0.5% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature.

Final
38

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial 8-ft Linear LED Replacement Lamp for a 2 Lamp 

System

1. Based on the average of products in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15).

2. N/A because Linear LED Replacement Lamps are a retrofit option and sold only to be put in existing fixtures.

DATA

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical1 High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage N/A N/A N/A 36 N/A N/A 39 34 30 27 25 25

Lamp Lumens N/A N/A N/A 3975 N/A N/A 5650 5650 5650 5650 5650 5650

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) N/A N/A N/A 111 N/A N/A 144 165 190 211 230 230

System Wattage N/A N/A N/A 71 N/A N/A 79 69 59 54 49 49

System Lumens N/A N/A N/A 7076 N/A N/A 10622 10622 10848 10848 10848 10848

System Efficacy (lm/W) N/A N/A N/A 99 N/A N/A 135 155 182 203 221 221

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI N/A N/A N/A 80 N/A N/A 80 80 80 80 80 80

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) N/A N/A N/A 5000 N/A N/A 5000 5000 5000 5000 5000 5000

Average Lifetime (1000 hrs) N/A N/A N/A 50 N/A N/A 49 49 50 50 50 50

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) N/A N/A N/A 4147 N/A N/A 4147 4147 4147 4147 4147 4147

Lamp/Luminaire Price ($) N/A N/A N/A $75.53 N/A N/A $48.60 $48.60 $15.87 $15.87 $5.65 $5.65

Ballast Price ($)* N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price ($)* N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost ($/klm) N/A N/A N/A $19.00 N/A N/A $8.60 $8.60 $2.81 $2.81 $1.00 $1.00

System (l/b/f) Cost ($/klm)

2 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost ($/hr) N/A N/A N/A $68.20 N/A N/A $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 

Labor System Installation (hr)

2 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hr) N/A N/A N/A 0.4 N/A N/A 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4

Total Installed Cost ($) N/A N/A N/A $176.63 N/A N/A $74.18 $74.18 $41.44 $41.44 $32.70 $32.70 

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) N/A N/A N/A $14.65 N/A N/A $6.28 $6.28 $3.44 $3.44 $2.71 $2.71 

Total Installed Cost ($/klm) N/A N/A N/A $44.43 N/A N/A $13.13 $13.13 $7.33 $7.33 $5.79 $5.79 

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm) N/A N/A N/A $3.69 N/A N/A $1.11 $1.11 $0.61 $0.61 $0.48 $0.48 

Final
39

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial 8-ft Linear LED Luminaire Replacement for a 2-Lamp 

System

1. Based on the CREE CS18-80LHE found on Grainger online of 11/20/15

2. N/A because Linear LED Luminaires are a fully integrated lighting solutions used to replace existing lamp/ballast/fixture systems and therefore does not have lamp, ballast, and 

fixture components.

DATA

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical1 High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage N/A N/A N/A 73 N/A N/A 46 41 35 35 35 35

System Lumens N/A N/A N/A 8000 N/A N/A 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000

System Efficacy (lm/W) N/A N/A N/A 110 N/A N/A 173 197 230 230 230 230

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI N/A N/A N/A 90 N/A N/A 90 90 90 90 90 90

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) N/A N/A N/A 4000 N/A N/A 4000 4000 4000 4000 4000 4000

Average Lifetime (1000 hrs) N/A N/A N/A 75 N/A N/A 97 97 100 100 100 100

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) N/A N/A N/A 4147 N/A N/A 4147 4147 4147 4147 4147 4147

Lamp/Luminaire Price ($) N/A N/A N/A $640.00 N/A N/A $384.08 $384.08 $187.02 $187.02 $91.07 $91.07

Ballast Price ($)* N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price ($)* N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost ($/klm)

2 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost ($/klm) N/A N/A N/A $80.00 N/A N/A $48.01 $48.01 $23.38 $23.38 $11.38 $11.38

Labor Cost ($/hr) N/A N/A N/A $68.20 N/A N/A $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 $68.20 

Labor System Installation (hr) N/A N/A N/A 1.0 N/A N/A 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Labor Lamp Change (hr)

2 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost ($) N/A N/A N/A $708.20 N/A N/A $452.28 $452.28 $255.22 $255.22 $159.27 $159.27 

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) N/A N/A N/A $39.16 N/A N/A $19.34 $19.34 $10.58 $10.58 $6.60 $6.60 

Total Installed Cost ($/klm) N/A N/A N/A $88.53 N/A N/A $56.53 $56.53 $31.90 $31.90 $19.91 $19.91

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm) N/A N/A N/A $4.89 N/A N/A $2.42 $2.42 $1.32 $1.32 $0.83 $0.83

Final
40

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Low-Bay Lighting Systems

The commercial low bay lighting characterized in this report is a one-lamp and one-ballast system in a low/high bay fixture that emits between 6,000 and 10,000 system lumens. Low 

bay lighting is defined as “interior lighting where the roof trusses or ceiling height is less than 25ft. above the floor”(IESNA, 2000). For all lamp technologies, an annual fixture 

renovation rate of 10% (i.e., 10-year fixture service life) is used to reflect the proportion of equipment that retires each year.

Performance: 

• A majority of residential lamps have a nominal CCT rating of 2700K and give off a warm, yellowish white color, but products with CCTs of 3000K, 3500K, 4100K (neutral white), 

5000K (daylight) and 6500K (blueish white) are also available. Traditional incandescent light bulbs have a nominal CCT of about 2700K. When replacing a light bulb, it is advised 

to chose a product with a similar CCT value in order to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100, but for CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average 

around 80. CRI values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination, with high CRI products being preferable for retail and display applications where improved color 

quality is of real value. Higher CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these very specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• The total installed cost is the price of a lamp, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated with the installation, except for in the case of LED luminaires 

which are sold as one integrated system. Many factors influence the price of LED lamps including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore typical lamp prices 

in 2015 reflecting a mix of lamp characteristics and features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• Annual maintenance costs are the cost of labor for replacing the lamps and the cost of the replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp 

life and the annual operating hours of 4042 hours/year for commercial low-bay systems (DOE SSL Program, 2012a). 

Legislation:

• ENERGY STAR does not cover low/high bay luminaires (ENERGY STAR, 2012). 

Final
41

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Low-Bay Lighting Systems

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2020, 2030, and 2040. Assumptions were made that the focus would be on improving efficacy, lifetime 

and price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of conventional lighting 

technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of performance improvement) to the emergence of a new 

light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2014).

• For LED Technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2014). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2040: 

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Mercury Vapor +0.2% +0.5% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature.

Metal Halide +0.5% +0.5% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature.

Sodium Vapor +0.5% +0.5% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature.

T5 4xF54 HO 

Linear System

+0.2% +0.5% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature.

Final
42

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial LED Low-bay Luminaire

1. Based on lowest efficacy product in the DLC Qualified Product Database (as downloaded on 11/18/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

2. Based on the average of products in the DLC Qualified Product Database (as downloaded on 11/18//15).

3. Based on highest efficacy product in the LED Lighting Facts Database (as downloaded on 10/30/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

4. LED Low-Bay Luminaires are a fully integrated lighting solutions used to replace existing lamp/ballast/fixture systems and therefore does not have lamp, ballast, and fixture 

components. 

DATA

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low1 Typical2 High3 Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage 36 68 104 71 46 N/A 47 36 34 30 30 30

System Lumens 548 4877 8410 7042 6294 N/A 7000 7000 7000 7000 7000 7000

System Efficacy (lm/W) 15 72 81 100 136 N/A 150 197 207 230 230 230

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 92 85 75 81 84 N/A 81 81 81 81 81 81

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4000 4000 5000 4000 4000 N/A 4000 4000 4000 4000 4000 4000

Average Lifetime (1000 hrs) 50 50 100 60 100 N/A 97 97 100 100 100 100

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) 4042 4042 4042 4042 4042 N/A 4042 4042 4042 4042 4042 4042

Lamp/Luminaire Price ($) $215.19 $761.95 $447.31 $267.59 $332.80 N/A $159.63 $159.63 $77.73 $77.73 $37.85 $37.85

Ballast Price ($)4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price ($)4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost ($/klm)

4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost ($/klm) $392.68 $156.23 $53.19 $38.00 $52.88 N/A $22.80 $22.80 $11.10 $11.10 $5.41 $5.41

Labor Cost ($/hr) $36.83 $68.99 $68.99 $68.99 $68.99 N/A $68.99 $68.99 $68.99 $68.99 $68.20 $68.20 

Labor System Installation (hr) 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 N/A 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

Labor Lamp Change (hr) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost ($) $270.44 $865.44 $550.80 $371.08 $436.29 N/A $263.12 $263.12 $181.22 $181.22 $140.15 $140.15 

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) $0.07 $69.95 $22.26 $25.00 $17.63 N/A $10.96 $10.96 $7.32 $7.32 $5.66 $5.66 

Total Installed Cost ($/klm) $493.50 $177.44 $65.49 $52.70 $69.32 N/A $37.59 $37.59 $25.89 $25.89 $20.02 $20.02 

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm) $0.13 $14.34 $2.65 $3.55 $2.80 N/A $1.57 $1.57 $1.05 $1.05 $0.81 $0.81 

Final
43

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial High-Bay Lighting Systems

The commercial high-bay lighting characterized in this report is a one-lamp and one-ballast system in a low/high bay fixture that emits greater than 10,000 system lumens. High-bay 

lighting is defined as “interior lighting where the roof trusses or ceiling height is greater than 25ft. above the floor” (IESNA, 2000). For all lamp technologies, an annual fixture 

renovation rate of 10% (i.e., 10-year fixture service life) is used to reflect the proportion of equipment that retires each year.

Performance: 

• A majority of residential lamps have a nominal CCT rating of 2700K and give off a warm, yellowish white color, but products with CCTs of 3000K, 3500K, 4100K (neutral white), 

5000K (daylight) and 6500K (blueish white) are also available. Traditional incandescent light bulbs have a nominal CCT of about 2700K. When replacing a light bulb, it is advised 

to chose a product with a similar CCT value in order to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100, but for CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average 

around 80. CRI values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination, with high CRI products being preferable for retail and display applications where improved color 

quality is of real value. Higher CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these very specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• The total installed cost is the price of a lamp, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated with the installation, except for in the case of LED luminaires 

which are sold as one integrated system. Many factors influence the price of LED lamps including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore typical lamp prices 

in 2015 reflecting a mix of lamp characteristics and features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• Annual maintenance costs are the cost of labor for replacing the lamps and the cost of the replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp 

life and the annual operating hours of 4042 hours/year for commercial low-bay systems (DOE SSL Program, 2012a). 

Legislation:

• ENERGY STAR does not cover low/high bay luminaires (ENERGY STAR, 2012). 

Final
44

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Low-Bay Lighting Systems

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2020, 2030, and 2040. Assumptions were made that the focus would be on improving efficacy, lifetime 

and price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of conventional lighting 

technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of performance improvement) to the emergence of a new 

light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2014).

• For LED Technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2014). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2040: 

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Mercury Vapor +0.2% +0.5% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature.

Metal Halide +0.5% +0.5% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature.

Sodium Vapor +0.5% +0.5% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature.

T5 4xF54 HO 

Linear System

+0.2% +0.5% -0.5% Limited as the technology is mature.

Final
45

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial LED High-bay Luminaire

1. Based on lowest efficacy product in the DLC Qualified Product Database (as downloaded on 11/18/15) for which all of the information in the table is available. 

2. Based on the average of products in the DLC Qualified Product Database (as downloaded on 11/18/15).

3. Based on highest efficacy product in the DLC Qualified Product Database (as downloaded on 11/18/15) for which all of the information in the table is available.

4. LED High-Bay Luminaires are a fully integrated lighting solutions used to replace existing lamp/ballast/fixture systems and therefore does not have lamp, ballast, and fixture 

components. 

DATA

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low1 Typical2 High3 Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage 36 212 189 183 101 N/A 100 76 72 65 65 65

System Lumens 548 18915 15070 18722 13640 N/A 15000 15000 15000 15000 15000 15000

System Efficacy (lm/W) 15 89 80 102 135 N/A 150 197 207 230 230 230

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 92 74 73 80 83 N/A 80 80 80 80 80 80

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 5000 5000 5000 4000 4100 N/A 4000 4000 4000 4000 4000 4000

Average Lifetime (1000 hrs) 50 70 50 60 50 N/A 97 97 100 100 100 100

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) 4042 4042 4042 4042 4042 N/A 4042 4042 4042 4042 4042 4042

Lamp/Luminaire Price ($) $215.19 $2,395.94 $398.34 $711.42 $297.76 N/A $342.07 $342.07 $166.57 $166.57 $81.11 $81.11

Ballast Price ($)4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price ($)4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost ($/klm)

4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost ($/klm) $392.68 $126.67 $26.43 $38.00 $21.83 N/A $22.80 $22.80 $11.10 $11.10 $5.41 $5.41

Labor Cost ($/hr) $36.83 $72.71 $68.99 $68.99 $68.99 N/A $68.99 $68.99 $68.99 $68.99 $68.99 $68.99 

Labor System Installation (hr) 2 2 2 1.5 1.5 N/A 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

Labor Lamp Change (hr) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost ($) $270.44 $2,505.00 $501.83 $814.90 $401.25 N/A $445.55 $445.55 $270.05 $270.05 $184.59 $184.59 

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) $0.07 $144.63 $40.56 $54.89 $32.43 N/A $18.56 $18.56 $10.91 $10.91 $7.46 $7.46 

Total Installed Cost ($/klm) $493.50 $132.44 $33.30 $43.53 $29.42 N/A $29.70 $29.70 $18.00 $18.00 $12.31 $12.31 

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm) $0.13 $7.65 $2.69 $2.93 $2.38 N/A $1.24 $1.24 $0.73 $0.73 $0.50 $0.50 

Final
Additional Technologies of Interest: Lighting

• Tables were not provided for technologies of 

interest utilizing occupancy sensors and other 

controls due to lack of available data and 

currently small market presence. 

• Lighting controls can save energy by either 

reducing input wattage or limiting hours of 

operation. 

• The following table indicates prevalence of 

various lighting controls in 2010 (DOE SSL 

Program, 2012a). 

• Leading experts claim that controls 

penetration remains low, particularly for 

integrated/advanced controls (DOE 

Connected Lighting Systems Meeting, 

November 2015).

• As a result, there is not enough information 

to determine the price and performance 

impacts of controls on current lighting 

technologies or to project improvements 

going forward.

46

Prevalence of Lighting Controls by Sector and Lamp Type

None Dimmer

Light 

Sensor

Motion 

Detector Timer EMS Total

Residential

Incandescent 76% 5% 0% 0% 2% 16% 100%

Halogen 73% 5% 0% 1% 3% 18% 100%

CFL 77% 0% 0% 3% 2% 18% 100%

Linear Fluorescent 68% 3% 1% 7% 4% 17% 100%

HID 71% 0% 2% 1% 6% 20% 100%

Other 85% 0% 0% 0% 0% 15% 100%

Commercial

Incandescent 76% 5% 0% 0% 2% 16% 100%

Halogen 73% 5% 0% 1% 3% 18% 100%

CFL 77% 0% 0% 3% 2% 18% 100%

Linear Fluorescent 68% 3% 1% 7% 4% 17% 100%

HID 71% 0% 2% 1% 6% 20% 100%

Other 85% 0% 0% 0% 0% 15% 100%

EMS: Energy Management System

HID: High Intensity Discharge:

CFL: Compact Fluorescent Lamp

Final
Refrigeration

Advanced Case

47

Draft Final
Commercial Compressor Rack Systems

48

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Compressor Rack Systems

DATA

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Total Capacity (kBtu/hr) 1 1,050 1,200 1,200 1,190 930 N/A 830 775 777 679 777 679

Median Store Size (ft2

) 44,000 46,500 46,500 46,500 46,500 N/A 46,500 46,500 46,500 46,500 46,500 46,500

Power Input (kW) 180 162 162 160 125 N/A 104 102 85 74 74 70

Energy Use (MWh/yr) 2 1,618 1,497 1,497 1,484 1,160 N/A 1033 914 841 735 841 735

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.08 1.08 1.09 1.40 N/A 1.57 1.77 1.92 2.20 1.92 2.20

Average Life (yrs) 15 15 15 15 15 N/A 15 15 15 15 15 15

Total Installed Cost ($1000) 4 $630 $630 $630 $625 $488 N/A $452 $422 $408 $356 $408 $356 

Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/hr) $600 $525 $525 $525 $525 N/A $545 $545 $524 $524 $524 $524 

Annual Maintenance Cost ($1000)5 $33 $34 $34 $34 $34 N/A $34 $34 $34 $34 $34 $34 

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/kBtu/hr) $31.14 $28 $28 $29 $37 N/A $41 $44 $44 $50 $44 $50 1 The total capacity represents the nominal compressor capacity required for the entire refrigeration system of a typical supermarket. This usually includes two low temperature racks and two medium 

temperature racks. For 2012 a 1,200 MBtu/hr total cooling capacity is based on a 100 ton estimate for total capacity – 80 tons for the medium temperature racks and 20 tons for the low temperature 

racks. Beyond 2012, estimates are based on data provided by a supermarket refrigeration efficiency consultant. 

2

Capacity and Annual energy consumption for 2012 and beyond are based on interviews with supermarket refrigeration consultants

3

Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2003 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2003 Energy Use) / (Energy Use). 4

The total installed cost for 2003 is based on the entire supermarket compressor rack system (two medium temperature racks and two low temperature racks). The equipment purchase price for an 

entire supermarket compressor rack system is approximately $130,000, the installation cost (including piping, electrical, startup and commissioning) is approximately $400,000, and the rack defrost and 

lighting controls are approximately $100,000. Therefore the total installed cost for a typical supermarket compressor rack system is approximately $630,000. Total installed cost for 2012 and beyond is 

based on updated Navigant estimates. Note the decrease in cost over time as required capacity is decreased.

5 Maintenance cost includes oil changes, bearing lubrication, filter replacement, and system functionality checks. 

Final
Commercial Compressor Rack Systems

49

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Compressor Rack Systems

• Commercial compressor rack systems that serve commercial supermarket display cases and walk-ins consist of a 

number of parallel-connected compressors located in a separate machine room. By modulating compressor capacity, 

these integrated systems provide higher efficiency and mechanical longevity.

• Rack integrators generally supply a packaged compressor rack for which much of the necessary piping, insulation, 

components, and controls are pre-assembled. 

• A typical supermarket will have 10 to 20 compressors mounted in racks in the 3-hp to 15-hp size range. Usually there 

are 3 to 5 compressors per rack serving a series of loads with nearly identical evaporator temperature.

• The duty cycle for compressors is usually in the range 60% to 70%.

• Approximately 34 percent of the total annual electricity consumption for a typical supermarket is attributable to 

compressors. (NCI, 2009)

• There are an estimated 140,000 compressor rack systems installed in supermarkets across the U.S. as of 2008. (NCI, 

2009)

• Installed cost, power draw, and capacity are all expected to decrease in the future due to the reduced load of 

supermarket display cases

• For this advanced case, a 10% reduction in energy consumption and a 5% reduction in required capacity is assumed 

to occur over the reference case for 2020 and beyond due to VIP adoption by display cases and a relaxation in 

charge size limits for more efficient, low GWP, but toxic/flammable refrigerants such as ammonia and propane due 

to improved safety technology such as leak detection. 

Final
Commercial Condensers

50

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Condensers

DATA

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Total Capacity (kBtu/hr) 1 1,680 1,680 1,680 1,666 1,302 N/A 1,121 1,065 904 833 904 833

Median Store Size (ft2) 44,000 46,500 46,500 46,500 46,500 N/A 46,500 46,500 46,500 46,500 46,500 46,500

Power Input (kW) 25 25 24 22 18 N/A 14 13 11 9 11 9

Energy Use (MWh/yr) 138 120 115 106 86 N/A 67 64 52 46 52 43

Indexed Annual Efficiency2 1.00 1.15 1.20 1.30 1.60 N/A 2.06 2.17 2.64 3.03 2.64 3.18

Average Life (yrs) 10 10 10 10 10 N/A 10 10 10 10 10 10

Total Installed Cost ($1000) $47 $54 $54 $53 $51 N/A $51 $50 $50 $50 $50 $50 

Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/hr) $27.87 $32 $32 $32 $39 N/A $45 $47 $55 $60 $55 $60 

Annual Maintenance Cost3 $817 $954 $954 $954 $954 N/A $956 $956 $956 $956 $956 $956 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

($/kBtu/hr) $0.49 $0.57 $0.57 $0.57 $0.73 N/A $0.85 $0.90 $1.06 $1.15 $1.06 $1.15

1 Total capacity is the total heat rejected (THR) of condensers comprised of two low temperature condensers (THRL = 240 MBtu/hr each, suction temperature = -25°F, condensing temperature 

110°F) and two medium temperature (THRM = 520 MBtu/hr each, suction temperature = 15°F, condensing temperature = 115°F) condensers; ambient temperature = 95°F. (NCI, 2009). For 

2012 and beyond, capacity was estimated based on consultation with a supermarket refrigeration expert.

2 Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2003 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2003 Energy Use) / (Energy Use).

3 Maintenance cost includes coil cleaning, leak checking, belt replacement as necessary, and system functionality checks. Note a slight expected increase in maintenance costs due to the 

expected implementation of hybrid condenser systems.

Final
Commercial Condensers

51

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Condensers

• Condensers are designed with multiple methods of cooling: air-cooled, water-cooled, and evaporative. These units can be singlecircuit or a multiple circuit.

• Commercial condensers are remotely located, typically installed on the roof of a supermarket. 

• For use with parallel compressors in supermarkets, air-cooled units are the most commonly used condensers. This analysis is based 

on multiple air-cooled condensers connected to a supermarket refrigeration system comprised of two low temperature condensers 

and two medium temperature condensers, using R-404A refrigerant. 

• Each compressor rack has a dedicated condenser or a separate circuit of a single common condenser. Condenser temperatures of 

multiple racks are often different. 

• The duty cycle for condensers is usually in the range 50 - 70%.

• Approximately 5 percent of the total annual electricity consumption for a typical supermarket is attributable to condensers. (NCI, 

2009)

• There are an estimated 140,000 condensers installed in supermarkets across the U.S. as of 2008. (NCI, 2009)

• Total installed cost is expected to decrease over time due to an expected reduction in required capacity due to more efficient display 

cases

• For this advanced case, a 10% reduction in energy consumption and a 5% reduction in required capacity is assumed to occur over 

the reference case for 2020 and beyond due to VIP adoption by display cases and a relaxation in charge size limits for more 

efficient, low GWP, but toxic/flammable refrigerants such as ammonia and propane due to improved safety technology such as 

leak detection. 

Final
Commercial Supermarket Display Cases

52

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Supermarket Display Cases

DATA

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/hr) 20,000 17623 17623 17623 17623 N/A 17623 17623 17623 17623 17623 17623

Median Store Size (ft2

) 44,000 46,500 46,500 46,500 46,500 N/A 46,500 46,500 46,500 46,500 46,500 46,500

Case Length (ft) 12 12 10 10 10 N/A 10 10 10 10 10 10

Energy Use (kWh/yr) 1,2 21,000 13,497 13,497 12,565 11,746 N/A 11,787 10,467 9,420 8,938 7,823 7,667

Energy Use (kWh/ft) 1,750 1,125 1,350 1,257 1,175 N/A 1,179 1,047 942 894 782 767

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.56 1.56 1.67 1.79 N/A 1.78 2.01 2.23 2.35 2.68 2.74

Average Life (yrs) 10 10 10 10 10 N/A 10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost $4,371 $8,510 $8,510 $8,940 $9,601 N/A $9,356 $9,454 $9,926 $10,868 $10,096 $10,302 

Total Installed Cost $6,452 $10,811 $10,811 $11,241 $11,902 N/A $11,657 $11,755 $12,227 $13,169 $12,397 $12,603 

Total Installed Cost 

($/kBtu/hr) 323 613 613 638 675 N/A 661 667 694 747 703 715

Annual Maintenance Cost4 $657 $940 $940 $940 $940 N/A $940 $940 $940 $940 $940 $940 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

($/kBtu/hr) $32.85 $53.34 $53.34 $53.34 $53.34 N/A $53.34 $53.34 $53.34 $53.34 $53.34 $53.34

1 DOE’s Federal energy conservation standards for Commercial Refrigeration Equipment (CRE) went into effect on January 1, 2012. The 2012 typical and 2015 low efficiency values are based on minimal 

compliance with this standard. For 2015 and beyond, energy consumption and cost values were estimated using shipments-weighted averages reported in DOE’s 2014 CRE Final Rule TSD for equipment 

commonly used as display cases. DOE’s updated conservation standard goes into effect in 2017, so units sold in 2020 are assumed to comply with this standard. 2 For consistency with DOE rulemaking practices, Supermarket Display Case Energy Use reported above includes energy use of the compressor racks and condensers. To avoid double counting, do 

not add Energy Use from the Compressor Rack or Condenser Systems tabs if calculating total energy consumption.

3 Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2003 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2003 Energy Use) / (Energy Use). 4 Maintenance cost includes preventative maintenance costs such as cleaning evaporator coils, drain pans, fans, and intake screens as well as lamp replacements and other lighting maintenance 

activities. After 2012, these values are based on a reported maintenance and repair cost of $220 per unit for preventative maintenance plus approximately $60 per linear foot for additional repair and 

maintenance

Final
Commercial Supermarket Display Cases

• DOE set Federal energy efficiency standards for Commercial Refrigeration Equipment (CRE) in 2009. These standards set maximum

daily energy consumption levels, in kWh/day, for display cases manufactured and/or sold in the United States on or after January 1, 

2012. 

• DOE updated its Energy Conservation Standards for Commercial Refrigeration Equipment in 2014, for equipment sold on or after 

March 27, 2017. 

• The table below lists equipment used as supermarket display cases and their corresponding Energy Conservation Standard levels. The 

maximum allowable daily energy consumption for each equipment class is a linear function of Total Display Area (TDA)

53

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Supermarket Display Cases

Equipment Description DOE Designation

Standards

Equation (2012)

Standards

Equation (2017)

Vertical Open Cooler VOP.RC.M 0.82xTDA+4.07 0.64xTDA+4.07

Semi vertical Open Cooler SVO.RC.M 0.83xTDA+3.18 0.66xTDA+3.18

Horizontal Open Cooler HZO.RC.M 0.35xTDA+2.88 0.35xTDA+2.88

Transparent-Doored Cooler VCT.RC.M 0.22xTDA+1.95 0.15xTDA+1.95

Deli Display Cooler SOC.RC.M 0.51xTDA+0.11 0.44xTDA+0.11

Transparent-Doored Freezer VCT.RC.L 0.56xTDA+2.61 0.49xTDA+2.61

Horizontal Open Freezer HZO.RC.L 0.57xTDA+6.88 0.55xTDA+6.88

Final
Commercial Supermarket Display Cases

• The Food Marketing Institute reported the median total supermarket size in 2003 was 44,000 sq. ft., and in 2013, the last year reported in the study, it was listed as 46,500 

sq. ft.

• Unit energy consumption for 2012 and beyond is estimated using a shipments weighted average by efficiency level and equipment class, using data in DOE’s 2014 CRE 

Final Rule TSD and Engineering Spreadsheet. The equipment classes analyzed are listed in the table on the previous slide.

• Supermarket refrigeration systems consist of refrigerated display cases, condensing units, and centralized compressor racks

• A typical supermarket display case contains lighting, evaporators, evaporator fans, piping, insulation, valves, and controls.

• Approximately 20% of total annual electricity consumption for a typical supermarket is directly attributable to display cases (this does not include the energy consumed by 

compressors and condensers necessary to cool the display cases). (NCI, 2009) 

• The efficiency of supermarket display cases can be increased through the use of improved evaporator coils, larger evaporators, higher efficiency evaporator fan blades, 

high efficiency doors, LED lighting, and improved insulation.

• Unit energy consumption for supermarket display cases is expected to decrease over time as a result of DOE’s updated energy conservation standards

• In addition, a transition from open to transparent-doored display cases is expected to occur as supermarkets increase focus on energy efficiency. 

• For this advanced scenario, the typical display case in 2020 is assumed to minimally comply DOE’s updated ECS. 

• For 2020 and beyond, accelerated adoption of energy savings technologies is assumed to take place over the reference case, including accelerated shipments migration 

to doored over open units, where applicable, as well as vacuum insulated panels.

• The incremental cost of VIPs is assumed to decrease from its present value due to increased R&D funding

• Projected installed costs for this advanced scenario are higher than the reference case, even assuming increased R&D funding. Advanced energy-saving technologies 

are assumed to be made financially viable for operators by increased market incentives such as utility efficiency rebate programs and/or carbon pricing.

• This advanced case assumes a transition from HFC to more efficient propane and ammonia refrigerants by 2040

54

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Supermarket Display Cases

Final
Commercial Reach-In Refrigerators

55

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reach-In Refrigerators

DATA

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Energy 

Star2 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/hr) 3,000 2,929 2,929 2,929 2,929 2,929 2,929 2,929 2,929 2,929 2,929 2,929

Size (ft3

) 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49

Energy Use (kWh/yr) 3,800 2,340 2,665 2,033 1,394 1,394 1,448 1,303 1,099 1,047 1,047 1,026

Energy Use (kWh/yr/ft3

) 1 79 48 54 41 28 28 30 27 22 21 21 21

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.62 1.43 1.87 2.73 2.73 2.62 2.92 3.46 3.63 3.63 3.70

Average Life (yrs) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost $2,810 $2,624 $2,728 $2,780 $3,021 $3,021 $2,947 $3,242 $3,632 $3,335 $3,115 $3,271 

Total Installed Cost4 $2,966 $3,454 $3,591 $3,643 $3,884 $3,884 $3,810 $4,105 $4,495 $4,198 $3,978 $4,134

Total Installed Cost 

($/kBtu/hr) $989 $1,227 $1,226 $1,244 $1,326 $1,326 $1,301 $1,402 $1,535 $1,434 $1,358 $1,411

Annual Maintenance Cost5 $143 $185 $185 $185 $185 $185 $185 $185 $185 $185 $185 $185 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

($/kBtu/hr) $48 $63 $63 $63 $63 $63 $63 $63 $63 $63 $63 $63

1 EPACT 2005 energy standards went into effect in 2010. 2015 low efficiency cost and energy consumption values are based on minimum compliance with this standard. Unless otherwise 

noted, all other cases are based on shipments-weighted averages of solid and transparent doored units reported in the 2014 CRE TSD. DOE’s updated Energy Conservation standards go into 

effect in 2017; therefore, compliance with this standard is assumed for 2020 and beyond. 

2 The Energy Star category is based on a shipments weighted average of solid and transparent-doored units that are minimally compliant with Energy Star v3, effective October 1, 2014. Units 

compliant with Energy Star are found to be the most efficient reach-in refrigeration equipment on the market in 2015 

3 Annual efficiency normalized to the typical efficiency of the 2003 installed base. Normalized Annual Efficiency = (Typical 2003 Energy Use) / (Energy Use)4 Installation cost for 2003 is based 

on ADL, 1996 & NCI, 2009 reports which assumes a cost of $156. Installation cost for 2012 and beyond is based DOE’s CRE Final Rule, which assumes a installation cost of $863 for selfcontained equipment.

4 Maintenance costs after 2003 are based on DOE's CRE Final Rule TSD, which reports $35 annual preventative maintenance, per unit, per year, plus approximately $40 per linear foot, per 

year of additional repair and maintenance costs for the units characterized

Final
Commercial Reach-In Refrigerators

56

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reach-In Refrigerators

• The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT 2005) set maximum daily energy consumption levels, in kWh/day, for 

commercial reach-in refrigerators that went into effect on January 1, 2010. The daily energy consumption is based on 

the volume of the unit (V).

• In 2014, DOE updated its energy conservation standards for Reach-in refrigerators, effective March 27, 2017. Both 

standards are reported in the table below.

• In 2013, EPA updated its Energy Star® for Reach-in refrigerators, effective October 1, 2014. These standards are also 

based on the refrigerated volume of the unit.

Reach-In Refrigerator 

Size

0 < V < 15 15 ≤ V < 30 30 ≤ V < 50 50 ≤ V

Solid Door (VCS.SC.M) 0.02xV+1.60 0.09xV+0.55 0.01xV+2.95 0.06xV+0.45

Glass Door (VCT.SC.M) 0.10xV+1.07 0.15xV+0.32 0.06xV+3.02 0.08xV+2.02

Equipment Class EPCA Standard Level (2010) DOE Standard Level (2017)

Solid Door 

(VCS.SC.M)

0.10xV+2.04 0.05xV + 1.36

Glass Door

(VCT.SC.M)

0.12xV+3.34 0.1xV+0.86

Final
Commercial Reach-In Refrigerators

• Unit energy consumption for 2012 and beyond was estimated based on shipment-weighted averages by efficiency level and 

equipment class for 49 ft^3 VCS.SC.M and VCT.SC.M units reported in DOE’s 2014 CRE Final Rule TSD. These units were 

estimated to comprise approximately 85% and 15% of total reach-in refrigerator shipments, respectively.

• The efficiency of commercial reach-in refrigerators can be increased through the use of efficient compressors, efficient evaporator 

fans, efficient condenser fans, electric defrost, and more efficient lighting.

• Unit energy consumption is expected to decrease as a result of DOE’s updated energy conservation standards, as well as a 

transition to more efficient propane refrigerant due to compliance with EPA SNAP

• For this advanced scenario, the typical unit in 2020 is assumed to comply with DOE’s updated energy conservation standards 

for commercial refrigeration

• A shipments migration from transparent to solid-doored units is assumed for the advanced case

• By 2040, the adoption of vacuum insulated panels is assumed to occur, with the aid of decreased incremental costs due to 

increased R&D funding

• Projected installed costs for this advanced scenario are higher than the reference case, even assuming increased R&D funding.

Advanced energy-saving technologies are assumed to be made financially viable for operators by increased market incentives 

such as utility efficiency rebate programs and/or carbon pricing.

• This analysis finds that with increased R&D and market incentives for energy efficiency technologies, a limit of possible 

efficiency improvements for self-contained, vapor compression refrigeration systems will be reached by 2040. 

57

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reach-In Refrigerators

Final
Commercial Reach-In Freezers

58

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reach-In Freezers

DATA

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Energy 

Star3 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/hr) 4,341 4,341 4,341 4,341 4,341 4,341 4,341 4,341 4,341 4,341 4,341 4,341

Size (ft3) 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49

Energy Use (kWh/yr) 1 9,392 6,023 7,658 5,592 4,563 4,763 4,453 4,008 3,656 3,473 3,473 3,369

Energy Use (kWh/yr/ft3) 192 123 156 114 93 97 93 93 93 93 93 93

Indexed Annual Efficiency4 1.00 1.56 1.23 1.68 2.06 1.97 2.11 2.34 2.57 2.70 2.70 2.79

Average Life (yrs) 8 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost $2,498 $2,886 $3,002 $3,033 $3,186 $3,118 $3,395 $3,490 $4,099 $4,304 $3,674 $3,777 

Total Installed Cost5 $2,654 $3,749 $3,865 $3,896 $4,049 $3,981 $4,258 $4,353 $4,962 $5,167 $4,537 $4,640

Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/hr) $611 $864 $890 $897 $933 $917 $981 $1,003 $1,143 $1,190 $1,045 $1,069

Annual Maintenance Cost6 $140 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

($/kBtu/hr) $32.25 $41.70 $41.70 $41.70 $41.70 $41.70 $41.70 $41.70 $41.70 $41.70 $41.70 $41.70

1 EPACT 2005 energy standards went into effect in 2010. The 2015 low energy consumption and cost values are based on minimal compliance with this standard. 2 A 49 ft3 unit was characterized, as this was the representative size selected for DOE’s rulemaking analysis. 

3 The Energy Star category was based on a solid doored unit that is minimally compliant with Energy Star v3, effective October 1, 2014 4 Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2003 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2003 Energy Use) / (Energy Use). 5 Installation cost for 2003 is based on ADL, 1996 & NCI, 2009 reports which assumes a cost of $156. Installation cost for 2012 and beyond is based on DOE’s on-going CRE rulemaking which assumes a 

cost of $863 for self-contained equipment.

6 Maintenance costs are calculated based on a $35 per unit annual preventative maintenance cost, plus an additional $45 per linear foot repair and maintenance cost estimated based on values reported 

in the in the CRE TSD

Final
Commercial Reach-In Freezers

• EPACT 2005 set maximum daily energy consumption levels, in kWh/day, for commercial reach-in freezers that went into effect on January 1, 2010. The daily 

energy consumption is based on the volume of the unit (V). 

• In December of 2014, DOE updated its energy conservation standards for commercial refrigeration equipment, including reach-in freezers. Both the EPCA 

and DOE standards are reported in the table below.

• In 2013, EPA updated its Energy Star standards for reach-in freezers, effective October 1, 2014. These standards are also based on the refrigerated volume of 

the unit

59

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reach-In Freezers

Reach-In Freezer Size 0 < V < 15 15 ≤ V < 30 30 ≤ V < 50 50 ≤ V

Solid Door (VCS.SC.L) 0.25xV+1.55 0.20xV+2.30 0.25xV+0.80 0.14xV+6.30

Glass Door (VCT.SC.L) 0.56xV+1.61 0.30xV+5.50 0.55xV+2.00 0.32xV+9.49

Equipment Class EPCA (2010) DOE Standard Level (2017)

Solid Door (VCS.SC.L) 0.4xV+1.38 0.22xV+1.38

Transparent Door (VCT.SC.L) 0.75xV+4.10 0.29xV+2.95

Final
Commercial Reach-In Freezers

• The commercial reach-in freezer characterized in this report, which is the typical unit according to DOE’s 2014 CRE 

rulemaking, is a 49 cubic ft. solid two-door unit with a nominal compressor size 4,341 Btu/hr. 

• The efficiency of commercial reach-in freezers can be increased through the use of efficient compressors, efficient 

evaporator fans, efficient condenser fans, electric defrost, and more efficient lighting.

• Unit energy consumption for reach-in freezers is expected to decrease as a result of DOE’s updated energy conservation 

standards, as well as a transition to more efficient propane refrigerant due to EPA SNAP compliance. 

• For this advanced scenario, the typical unit in 2020 is assumed to comply with DOE’s updated energy conservation 

standards for commercial refrigeration

• By 2040, the adoption of vacuum insulated panels is assumed to occur, with the aid of decreased incremental costs 

due to increased R&D funding

• Projected installed costs for this advanced scenario are higher than the reference case, even assuming increased R&D 

funding. Advanced energy-saving technologies are assumed to be made financially viable for operators by increased 

market incentives such as utility efficiency rebate programs.

• This analysis finds that with increased R&D and market incentives for energy efficiency technologies, a limit of 

possible efficiency improvements for self-contained, vapor compression refrigeration systems will be reached by 

2040. 

60

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reach-In Freezers

Final
Commercial Walk-In Refrigerators

61

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Refrigerators

DATA

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/hr) 37,820 37,820 37,820 37,820 37,820 N/A 37,820 37,820 37,820 37,820 37,820 37,820

Size (ft2)1 305 305 305 305 305 N/A 305 305 305 305 305 305

Energy Use (kWh/yr)2 53,756 30,689 31,892 30,689 27,571 N/A 16,014 14,413 14,453 14,310 14,019 13,880

Energy Use (kWh/ft2/yr) 176 101 105 101 90 N/A 53 47 47 47 46 46

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.38 1.69 1.75 1.95 N/A 3.36 3.73 3.72 3.76 3.83 3.87

Insulated Box Average Life (yrs) 12 12 12 12 12 N/A 12 12 12 12 12 12

Compressor Average Life (yrs) 10 10 10 10 10 N/A 10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost $19,607 $23,598 $23,583 $23,598 $23,644 N/A $24,290 $25,696 $25,504 $25,696 $25,504 $25,696 

Total Installed Cost4 $23,846 $27,012 $26,997 $27,012 $27,057 N/A $27,703 $29,280 $29,088 $29,280 $29,088 $29,280 

Total Installed Cost($/kBtu/hr) $631 $714 $714 $714 $715 N/A $733 $774 $769 $774 $769 $774 

Annual Maintenance Cost5 $573 $716 $741 $741 $741 N/A $741 $741 $741 $741 $741 $741

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/kBtu/hr) $15.15 $18.93 $19.59 $19.59 $19.59 N/A $19.59 $19.59 $19.59 $19.59 $19.59 $19.59

1 Size is estimated based on analysis from the 2014 WICF TSD, which lists the average size of a walk in cooler as 305 ft2

2 EISA 2007 includes prescriptive standards for walk-in refrigerators that went into effect in 2009. All units for 2012 and beyond include these prescriptive standards. In 2014, DOE updated energy conservation 

standards for walk-ins. All units 2015 and beyond use data from this rulemaking, and all units 2020 and beyond are assumed to comply with DOE’s updated standards. 3 Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2003 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2003 Energy Use) / (Energy Use) 4 Installation cost for 2003 is based on ADL, 1996 & NCI, 2009 reports which assume a cost of $4,163 and $4,891 respectively. Installation cost for 2012 and beyond is based on DOE’s Walk-In TSD 5 Maintenance cost includes checking and maintaining refrigerant charge levels, checking settings, and cleaning heat exchanger coils.

Final
Commercial Walk-In Refrigerators

62

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Refrigerators

• The unit characterized in this report is a walk-in storage cooler with an area of 305 ft2, the average floor area reported by DOE’s 2014 

Final Rule TSD for this equipment type. 

• A typical walk-in refrigerator includes:

- insulated floor and wall panels

- merchandising doors, shelving, and lighting (not included in cost estimate)

- semi-hermetic reciprocating compressor

- refrigerant (R404A)

- condenser

- evaporator

• Energy consumption is assumed to scale with AWEF (Annual Walk-in Energy Factor), defined as the ratio of total heat removed from

the refrigerated volume per year to the total electrical energy input of refrigeration systems over the same time period. 

• The installation cost consists of freight and delivery costs in addition to on-site assembly.

• This advanced scenario assumes a projected 10% decrease in energy consumption over the reference case due to adoption of 

more efficient refrigerants. 

Final
Commercial Walk-In Refrigerators

63

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Refrigerators

• The Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) of 2007 included prescriptive standards for walk-in 

refrigerators (coolers) that went into effect in 2009. These prescriptive standards, which are included in the 

analysis for all units for 2012 and beyond, state that all walk-in refrigerators manufactured after January 1, 2009 

must:

— have automatic door closers 

— have strip doors, spring hinged doors, or other method of minimizing infiltration when doors are open

— contain wall, ceiling, and door insulation of at least R–25, except for glazed portions of doors and 

structural members

— use electronically commutated motors or 3-phase motors (for evaporator fan motors of under 1 

horsepower and less than 460 volts)

— use electronically commutated motors, permanent split capacitor-type motors, or 3-phase motors (for 

condenser fan motors of under 1 horsepower)

— use light sources with an efficacy of 40 lumens per watt or more, including ballast losses (if any), except 

that light sources with an efficacy of 40 lumens per watt or less, including ballast losses (if any), may be 

used in conjunction with a timer or device that turns off the lights within 15 minutes of when the walk-in 

refrigerator is not occupied by people.

Final
Commercial Walk-In Refrigerators

64

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Refrigerators

• In 2014, DOE updated its energy conservation standards for walk-in coolers and freezers. 

Minimum AWEFs (Annual Walk-in Energy Factor) was set for refrigeration systems, as 

well as upper limits on energy consumption attributable to passage, freight, and display 

doors. DOE elected not to set new standards for the R-value of Walk-in Panels.

ENERGY CONSERVATION STANDARDS FOR WALK-IN COOLERS AND WALK-IN FREEZERS

Class descriptor Class Standard level

Refrigeration Systems Minimum AWEF (Btu/W-h)

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Indoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ......... DC.M.I, <9,000 ... 5.61

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Indoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ......... DC.M.I, ≥ 9,000 ... 5.61

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Outdoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ...... DC.M.O, <9,000 ...7.60

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Outdoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ...... DC.M.O,≥9,000 ...7.60

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Indoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............... DC.L.I, <9,000 ..... 5.93 ⋅ 10¥5 ⋅ Q + 2.33

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Indoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............... DC.L.I, ≥9,000 .... 3.10

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Outdoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............. DC.L.O, <9,000 .. 2.30 ⋅ 10¥4 ⋅ Q + 2.73

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Outdoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............. DC.L.O, ≥9,000 .. 4.79

Multiplex Condensing, Medium Temperature ........................................................................... MC.M .................. 10.89

Multiplex Condensing, Low Temperature ................................................................................. MC.L ................... 6.57

Panels Minimum R-value (h-ft2-°F/Btu)

Structural Panel, Medium Temperature .................................................................................... SP.M .................. 25

Structural Panel, Low Temperature .......................................................................................... SP.L ................... 32

Floor Panel, Low Temperature ................................................................................................. FP.L .................... 28

Non-Display Doors Maximum energy consumption

(kWh/day) **

Passage Door, Medium Temperature ...................................................................................... PD.M .................. 0.05 ⋅ And + 1.7

Passage Door, Low Temperature ............................................................................................. PD.L ................... 0.14 ⋅ And + 4.8

Freight Door, Medium Temperature ......................................................................................... FD.M .................. 0.04 ⋅ And + 1.9

Freight Door, Low Temperature ............................................................................................... FD.L ................... 0.12 ⋅ And + 5.6

Display Doors Maximum Energy Consumption (kWh/day) †

Display Door, Medium Temperature ......................................................................................... DD.M .................. 0.04 ⋅ Add + 0.41

Display Door, Low Temperature ............................................................................................... DD.L ................... 0.15 ⋅ Add + 0.29

Final
Commercial Walk-In Freezers

65

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Freezers

DATA

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/hr) 22,114 22,114 22,114 22,114 22,114 N/A 22,114 22,114 22,114 22,114 22,114 22,114

Size (ft2) 1 172 172 172 172 172 N/A 172 172 172 172 172 172

Energy Use (kWh/yr) 2 33,540 22,862 23,610 22,862 20,878 N/A 13,421 12,079 12,113 12,006 11,749 11,645

Energy Use (kWh/ft2/yr) 195 133 137 133 121 N/A 78 70 70 70 68 68

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.47 1.42 1.47 1.61 N/A 2.50 2.78 2.77 2.79 2.85 2.88

Insulated Box Average Life 

(yrs) 12 12 12 12 12 N/A 12 12 12 12 12 12

Compressor Average Life (yrs) 10 10 10 10 10 N/A 10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost $16,333 $22,008 $21,993 $22,008 $22,054 N/A $22,793 $25,856 $25,130 $25,856 $25,130 $25,856 

Total Installed Cost4 $18,570 $24,058 $24,043 $24,058 $24,103 N/A $24,843 $28,115 $27,389 $28,115 $27,389 $28,115 

Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/hr) $840 $1,088 $1,087 $1,088 $1,090 N/A $1,123 $1,271 $1,239 $1,271 $1,239 $1,271 

Annual Maintenance Cost5 $573 $741 $741 $741 $741 N/A $741 $741 $741 $741 $741 $741

Annual Maintenance Cost 

($/kBtu/hr) $25.91 $33.51 $33.51 $33.51 $33.51 N/A $33.51 $33.51 $33.51 $33.51 $33.51 $33.51

1 Based on DOE's 2014 WICF Final Rule TSD which states the average floor area for a walk-in storage freezer as 172 ft2

2 EISA 2007 includes prescriptive standards for walk-in freezers that went into effect in 2009. All units for 2012 and beyond include these prescriptive standards. Units for 2015 and beyond are characterized 

using data from DOE’s 2014 WICF rulemaking. All units 2020 and beyond are assumed to comply with this standard

3 Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2003 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2003 Energy Use) / (Energy Use) 4 Installation cost for 2003 is based on ADL, 1996 & NCI, 2009 reports which assume a cost of $1,040. Installation cost for 2012 and beyond is based on DOE’s WICF TSD. 5 Maintenance cost includes checking and maintaining refrigerant charge levels, checking settings, and cleaning heat exchanger coils

Final
Commercial Walk-In Freezers

66

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Freezers

• The commercial walk-in freezer characterized in this report is a walk-in storage freezer with an area of 172 ft2 , the 

average size reported by DOE’s WICF TSD

• A typical walk-in freezer includes:

- insulated floor, door, and wall panels

- semi-hermetic reciprocating compressor

- refrigerant (R404A)

- condenser

- evaporator

• Energy consumption is assumed to scale with AWEF (Annual Walk-in Energy Factor), defined as the ratio of total 

heat removed from the refrigerated volume per year to the total electrical energy input of refrigeration systems over 

the same time period. 

• The installation cost consists of freight and delivery costs in addition to on-site assembly.

• This advanced scenario assumes a projected 10% decrease in energy consumption over the reference case due to 

adoption of more efficient refrigerants. 

Final
Commercial Walk-In Freezers: EISA 2007

67

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Freezers

• EISA 2007 included prescriptive standards for walk-in freezers that went into effect in 2009. These prescriptive 

standards, which are included in all units for 2011 and beyond, state that all walk-in freezers manufactured after 

January 1, 2009 must:

— have automatic door closers 

— have strip doors, spring hinged doors, or other method of minimizing infiltration when doors are open

— contain wall, ceiling, and door insulation of at least R–32, except for glazed portions of doors and structural 

members

— contain floor insulation of at least R–28

— use electronically commutated motors or 3-phase motors (for evaporator fan motors of under 1 horsepower and 

less than 460 volts)

— use electronically commutated motors, permanent split capacitor-type motors, or 3-phase motors (for condenser 

fan motors of under 1 horsepower)

— use light sources with an efficacy of 40 lumens per watt or more, including ballast losses (if any), except that 

light sources with an efficacy of 40 lumens per watt or less, including ballast losses (if any), may be used in 

conjunction with a timer or device that turns off the lights within 15 minutes of when the walk-in freezer is not 

occupied by people.

Final
Commercial Walk-In Freezers: DOE 2014 Standards

68

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Freezers

• In 2014, DOE updated its energy conservation standards for walk-in coolers and freezers. Minimum AWEFs 

(Annual Walk-in Energy Factor) was set for refrigeration systems, as well as upper limits on energy 

consumption attributable to passage, freight, and display doors. DOE elected not to set new standards for 

the R-value of Walk-in Panels.

ENERGY CONSERVATION STANDARDS FOR WALK-IN COOLERS AND WALK-IN FREEZERS

Class descriptor Class Standard level

Refrigeration Systems Minimum AWEF (Btu/W-h)

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Indoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ......... DC.M.I, <9,000 ... 5.61

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Indoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ......... DC.M.I, ≥ 9,000 ... 5.61

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Outdoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ...... DC.M.O, <9,000 ...7.60

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Outdoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ...... DC.M.O,≥9,000 ...7.60

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Indoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............... DC.L.I, <9,000 ..... 5.93 ⋅ 10¥5 ⋅ Q + 2.33

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Indoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............... DC.L.I, ≥9,000 .... 3.10

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Outdoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............. DC.L.O, <9,000 .. 2.30 ⋅ 10¥4 ⋅ Q + 2.73

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Outdoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............. DC.L.O, ≥9,000 .. 4.79

Multiplex Condensing, Medium Temperature ........................................................................... MC.M .................. 10.89

Multiplex Condensing, Low Temperature ................................................................................. MC.L ................... 6.57

Panels Minimum R-value (h-ft2-°F/Btu)

Structural Panel, Medium Temperature .................................................................................... SP.M .................. 25

Structural Panel, Low Temperature .......................................................................................... SP.L ................... 32

Floor Panel, Low Temperature ................................................................................................. FP.L .................... 28

Non-Display Doors Maximum energy consumption

(kWh/day) **

Passage Door, Medium Temperature ...................................................................................... PD.M .................. 0.05 ⋅ And + 1.7

Passage Door, Low Temperature ............................................................................................. PD.L ................... 0.14 ⋅ And + 4.8

Freight Door, Medium Temperature ......................................................................................... FD.M .................. 0.04 ⋅ And + 1.9

Freight Door, Low Temperature ............................................................................................... FD.L ................... 0.12 ⋅ And + 5.6

Display Doors Maximum Energy Consumption (kWh/day) †

Display Door, Medium Temperature ......................................................................................... DD.M .................. 0.04 ⋅ Add + 0.41

Display Door, Low Temperature ............................................................................................... DD.L ................... 0.15 ⋅ Add + 0.29

Final
Commercial Ice Machines

69

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Ice Machines

DATA

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Energy 

Star5 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Output (lbs/day) 1 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

Cooling Capacity (Btu/hr)2 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963

Water Use (gal/100 lbs) 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Energy Use (kWh/100 lbs) 8.4 7.7 7.7 6.7 6.1 6.7 6.1 5.4 5.7 5.4 5.4 5.4

Energy Use (kWh/yr)3 3,833 3,185 3,185 3,078 3,009 3,078 2901.0 2,611 2,525 2,508 2,399 2,383

Normalized Annual 

Efficiency4 1.00 1.20 1.20 1.25 1.27 1.25 1.32 1.47 1.52 1.53 1.60 1.61

Average Life (yrs) 8.0 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

Retail Equipment Cost $1,374 $2,146 $2,189 $2,284 $2,392 $2,284 $2,392 $2,548 $2,548 $2,925 $2,925 $2,925 

Total Installed Cost (with Bin) $1,499 $2,484 $2,484 $2,579 $2,687 $2,579 $2,699 $2,855 $2,855 $3,232 $3,232 $3,232 

Total Installed Cost 

($/kBtu/hr) $763 $1,265 $1,265 $1,314 $1,369 $1,314 $1,375 $1,455 $1,455 $1,647 $1,647 $1,647 

Annual Maintenance Cost6 $639 $826 $826 $826 $826 $826 $826 $826 $826 $826 $826 $826

Annual Maintenance Cost 

($/kBtu/hr) $326 $421 $421 $421 $421 $421 $421 $421 $421 $421 $421 $421

1 Based on the Final Rule shipment data from DOE’s Automatic Ice Maker rulemaking which states the most common equipment type is a small air cooled unit with an integrated ice making head with a 

representative capacity of 300 lbs/day. 2 Defined as the average heat load to remove the latent and sensible heat required to freeze the daily output capacity of ice

3 EPACT 2005 energy standards went into effect in 2010. The 2015 Low values are based on this standard. In 2014, DOE set new standards for commercial ice machines, with compliance required by 

2018. The unit characterized for 2012 and beyond use data from this rulemaking. All units 2020 and beyond are assumed to comply with the updated standard. 4 Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2003 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2003 Energy Use) / (Energy Use) 5 The Energy Star category is based on minimum compliance with the Energy Star v2.0 standard, which went into effect on February 1, 2013. According to this analysis, Energy Star certification is typical 

for the small air-cooled IMH unit characterized.

6 Maintenance cost includes cleaning and maintaining refrigerant levels, replacing filters, checking water distribution lines for leaks, cleaning, sanitizing, and descaling the bin and water system. 

Maintenance cost decreases as the size of the ice machine (i.e. output) decreases.

Final
Commercial Ice Machines

70

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Ice Machines

• For this advanced case, a 10% reduction in energy consumption is projected over the reference case due to the adoption of more efficient 

refrigerants such as propane, which, while not currently required by EPA SNAP, are a source of possible efficiency improvements

• The commercial ice machine characterized in this report is an air-cooled, ice maker head unit with an approximate output of 300 lbs/day. 

Commercial ice machines are typically integrated with an insulated ice storage bin or mounted on top of a separate storage bin. The retail 

equipment cost includes the ice making head and the integrated storage bin. Commercial ice machine condensers are either air-cooled or watercooled. Approximately 90% of all units are the air-cooled type.

• Commercial ice machine maintenance includes periodic cleaning (every 2 to 6 weeks) to remove lime and scale, and sanitizing to kill bacteria.

Some ice machines are self-cleaning/sanitizing.

• ENERGY STAR® updated its maximum energy consumption levels, in KWh/100 lbs ice, for air cooled ice machines that went into effect on 

February 1, 2013. These efficiency levels are based on the harvest rate, in lbs/24 hrs. (H). Water cooled ice machines are not eligible for Energy 

Star certification.

ENERGY STAR Requirements for Air-Cooled Batch-Type Ice Makers

Equipment Type

Applicable Ice 

Harvest Rate Range 

(lbs of ice/24 hrs)

Energy 

Consumption Rate 

(kWh/100 lbs ice)

Potable Water Use 

(gal/100 lbs ice)

IMH 200 ≤ H ≤ 1600 ≤ 37.72 * H -0.298 ≤ 20.0

RCU

400 ≤ H ≤ 1600 ≤ 22.95 * H -0.258 + 

1.00 ≤ 20.0

1600 ≤ H ≤ 4000 ≤ -0.00011 * H + 4.60 ≤ 20.0

SCU 50 ≤ H ≤ 450 ≤ 48.66 * H -0.326 + 

0.08 ≤ 25.0

ENERGY STAR Requirements for Air-Cooled Continuous-Type Ice Makers

Equipment Type Energy Consumption Rate 

(kWh/100 lbs ice)

Potable Water Use (gal/100 

lbs ice)

IMH ≤ 9.18 * H -0.057 ≤ 15.0

RCU ≤ 6.00 * H -0.162 + 3.50 ≤ 15.0

SCU ≤ 59.45 * H -0.349 + 0.08 ≤ 15.0

Final
Commercial Ice Machines: EPACT 2005

71

• EPACT 2005 issued standard levels for commercial ice machines with capacities between 50 and 2500 pounds per 24-

hour period that are manufactured and/or sold in the United States on or after January 1, 2010. The energy 

consumption is based on the harvest rate in pounds per 24 hours (H).

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Ice Machines

Water use is for the condenser only and does not include potable water used to make ice.

Equipment Type Type of

Cooling

Harvest Rate

(lbs ice/24 hrs)

Maximum Energy Use

(kWh/100 lbs ice)

Maximum Condenser Water

Use (gal/100 lbs ice)

Ice Making Head

Water

<500 7.80-0.0055 H 200-0.022 H

≥500 and <1436 5.58-0.0011 H 200-0.022 H

≥1436 4.0 200-0.022 H

Air

<450 10.26-0.0086 H Not Applicable

≥450 6.89-0.0011 H Not Applicable

Remote Condensing

(but not remote compressor)

Air

<1000 8.85-0.0038 H Not Applicable

≥1000 5.10 Not Applicable

Remote Condensing

and Remote Compressor

Air

<934 8.85-0.0038 H Not Applicable

≥934 5.3 Not Applicable

Self Contained

Water

<200 11.40-0.019 H 191-0.0315 H

≥200 7.60 191-0.0315 H

Air

<175 18.0-0.0469 H Not Applicable

≥175 9.80 Not Applicable

Final
Commercial Ice Machines: 2014 DOE Standards

72

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Ice Machines

Energy Conservation Standards for Batch Type Automatic Commercial Ice Makers 

Effective January 2018

Equipment Type Type of Cooling Harvest Rate

lb ice/24 hours

Maximum Energy 

Use

kWh/100 lb ice*

Maximum 

Condenser Water 

Use

gal/100 lb ice**

Ice-Making Head Water

<300 6.88 - 0.0055H 200 - 0.022H

300 and <850 5.80 - 0.00191H 200 - 0.022H

850 and <1,500 4.42 - 0.00028H 200 - 0.022H

1500 and <2,500 4.0 200 - 0.022H

2500 and <4,000 4.0 145

Ice-Making Head Air

<300 10 - 0.01233H Not Applicable

300 and <800 7.05 - 0.0025H Not Applicable

800 and <1500 5.55 - 0.00063H Not Applicable

1500 and <4,000 4.61 Not Applicable

Remote Condensing 

(but not remote 

compressor)

Air

50 and <1,000 7.97 - 0.00342H Not Applicable

1,000 and <4,000 4.55 Not Applicable

Remote Condensing 

and Remote 

Compressor

Air

<942 7.97 - 0.00342H Not Applicable

942 and <4,000 4.75 Not Applicable

Self-Contained Water

<200 9.5 - 0.019H 191 - 0.0315H

200 and <2,500 5.7 191 - 0.0315H

2500 and <4,000 5.7 112

Self-Contained Air

<110 14.79 - 0.0469H Not Applicable

110 and <200 12.42 - 0.02533H Not Applicable

200 and <4,000 7.35 Not Applicable

Energy Conservation Standards for Continuous Type Automatic Commercial Ice Makers 

Effective January 2018

Equipment Type Type of Cooling Harvest Rate

lb ice/24 hours

Maximum Energy 

Use

kWh/100 lb ice*

Maximum 

Condenser Water 

Use

gal/100 lb ice**

Ice-Making Head Water

<801 6.48 - 0.00267H 180 - 0.0198H

801 and <2,500 4.34 180 - 0.0198H

2,500 and <4,000 4.34 130.5

Ice-Making Head Air

<310 9.19 - 0.00629H Not Applicable

310 and <820 8.23 - 0.0032H Not Applicable

820 and <4,000 5.61 Not Applicable

Remote 

Condensing (but 

not remote 

compressor)

Air

<800 9.7 - 0.0058H Not Applicable

800 and <4,000 5.06 Not Applicable

Remote 

Condensing and 

Remote 

Compressor

Air

<800 9.9 - 0.0058H Not Applicable

800 and <4,000 5.26 Not Applicable

Self-Contained Water

<900 7.6 - 0.00302H 153 - 0.0252H

900 and <2,500 4.88 153 - 0.0252H

2500 and <4,000 4.88 90

Self-Contained Air

<200 14.22 - 0.03H Not Applicable

200 and <700 9.47 - 0.00624H Not Applicable

700 and <4,000 5.1 Not Applicable

Final
Commercial Beverage Merchandisers

73

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Beverage Merchandisers

DATA

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Energy Star2 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/hr) 4,689 4,689 4,689 4,689 4,689 4,689 4,689 4,689 4,689 4,689 4,689 4,689

Size (ft3) 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27

Energy Use (kWh/yr) 3,900 1,829 2,523 1,781 1,694 1,694 1,380 1,242 1,119 1,063 1,063 1,041

Energy Use (kWh/ft3/yr) 1 144 68 93 66 63 63 51 46 41 39 39 39

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 2.13 1.55 2.19 2.30 2.30 2.83 3.14 3.49 3.67 3.67 3.75

Average Life (yrs) 8.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0

Retail Equipment Cost $1,457 $2,382 $2,326 $2,602 $2,628 $2,628 $2,811 $2,839 $3,398 $3,432 $3,034 $3,064

Total Installed Cost4 $1,457 $2,382 $2,326 $2,602 $2,628 $2,628 $2,811 $2,839 $3,398 $3,432 $3,034 $3,064 

Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/hr) $311 $508 $496 $555 $560 $560 $599 $605 $725 $732 $647 $654 

Annual Maintenance Cost5 $84 $108 $108 $98 $95 $95 $95 $95 $95 $95 $95 $95

Annual Maintenance Cost 

($/kBtu/hr) $17.91 $23.03 $23.03 $20.79 $20.15 $20.15 $20.15 $20.15 $20.15 $20.15 $20.15 $20.15

1 EPACT 2005 energy conservation standards went into effect in 2010. The 2015 Low values are based on this standard. In 2015, DOE updated its energy conservation standards for commercial 

refrigeration equipment, including transparent-doored refrigerators with pull-down capability. Compliance with this standard is required by 2017. Units characterized for 2012 and beyond use data 

reported in this rulemaking’s TSD. Units 2020 and beyond are assumed to comply with this updated standard. 

2 The Energy Star category characterizes a unit that is compliant with Energy Star v3, effective October 1, 2014. This standard does not separately define units with pull-down capability 

3 Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2003 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2003 Energy Use) / (Energy Use) 4 Beverage merchandisers are shipped ready to be plugged in, so installation costs are assumed to be negligible 

5 Maintenance costs are estimated based on CRE Final Rule TSD data. Note that maintenance costs decrease slightly for more efficient units, which are assumed to include LED lighting with lower 

associated maintenance costs 

Final
Commercial Beverage Merchandisers

74

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Beverage Merchandisers

• EPACT 2005 sets maximum daily energy consumption levels, in kWh/day, for commercial refrigerators with a selfcontained condensing unit designed for pull-down temperature applications and transparent doors (i.e., beverage 

merchandisers) that went into effect on January 1, 2010. 

• In 2014, DOE updated its energy consumption standards for commercial refrigeration equipment, including beverage 

merchandisers, effective March 27, 2015. Both the DOE and EPCA standards are reported below. 

• In 2013, EPA updated its Energy Star standards for glass doored commercial refrigerators, which can be used as 

beverage merchandisers, effective October 1, 2014. These standards are also based on the volume of the unit (V). 

Note that Energy Star does not have a separate equipment class for units with pull-down capability. 

Beverage Merchandiser Size 0 < V < 15 15 ≤ V < 30 30 ≤ V < 50 50 ≤ V

Glass Door 0.118*V + 1.382 ≤ 0.140*V + 1.050 ≤ 0.088*V + 2.625 ≤ 0.110*V + 1.500

Equipment Type EPCA (2010) DOE Standards (2017)

Beverage Merchandisers 

(PD.SC.M)

0.126xV + 3.51 0.11xV+0.81

Final
Commercial Beverage Merchandisers

75

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Beverage Merchandisers

• The beverage merchandiser characterized in this report, which is the typical unit according to DOE’s 2014 CRE 

rulemaking, is a 27 cubic foot cooler with a single hinged, transparent door, bright lighting, and shelving with a 

nominal compressor size of 4,689 Btu/hr..

• The efficiency of beverage merchandisers can be increased through the use of more efficient compressors, fluorescent 

lighting with electronic ballasts, and improved insulation.

• Beverage merchandisers have an estimated installed base of 920,000 units in 2008. Of those beverage merchandisers 

460,000 are one-door units, which represents the most common type of beverage merchandiser.

• Unit energy consumption of beverage merchandisers is expected to decrease as a result of DOE’s updated Energy 

Conservation Standards, as well as a transition from R-134a to more efficient propane refrigerant due to EPA SNAP 

compliance

• For this advanced scenario, the typical unit in 2020 is assumed to comply with DOE’s updated energy conservation 

standards for commercial refrigeration

• By 2040, the adoption of vacuum insulated panels is assumed to occur, with the aid of decreased incremental costs 

due to increased R&D funding

• Projected installed costs for this advanced scenario are higher than the reference case, even assuming increased 

R&D funding. Advanced energy-saving technologies are assumed to be made financially viable for operators by 

increased market incentives such as utility efficiency rebate programs and/or carbon pricing.

• This analysis finds that with increased R&D and market incentives for energy efficiency technologies, a limit of 

possible efficiency improvements for self-contained, vapor compression refrigeration systems will be reached by 

2040. 

Final
Commercial Refrigerated Vending Machines

76

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Refrigerated Vending Machines

DATA

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Energy 

Star2 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/hr) 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810

Can Capacity 500 470 470 470 470 470 470 470 470 470 470 470

Size (ft3) 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26

Energy Use (kWh/yr) 1 3,000 1,632 1,718 1,632 1,504 1,504 1,360 1,224 803 701 701 687

Energy Use (kWh/ft3/yr) 115 63 66 63 58 58 52 47 31 27 27 26

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.84 1.75 1.84 1.99 1.99 2.21 2.45 3.74 4.28 4.28 4.37

Average Life (yrs) 14 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5

Retail Equipment Cost $1,769 $3,209 $3,187 $3,209 $3,276 $3,276 $3,551 $3,626 $4,479 $4,612 $4,343 $4,434 

Total Installed Cost $1,844 $3,320 $3,298 $3,320 $3,387 $3,387 $3,662 $3,737 $4,590 $4,723 $4,454 $4,545 

Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/hr) $1,019 $1,834 $1,822 $1,834 $1,872 $1,872 $2,023 $2,065 $2,536 $2,609 $2,461 $2,511

Annual Maintenance Cost4 $209 $270 $270 $270 $250 $250 $250 $250 $250 $250 $250 $250 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

($/kBtu/hr) $115 $149.17 $149.17 $149.17 $138.12 $138.12 $138.12 $138.12 $138.12 $138.12 $138.12 $138.12

1 Energy use for 2012 and beyond is estimated based on DOE’s 2015 BVM Final Rule

2 The Energy Star category assumes units that are compliant with the Energy Star v3 standard, since combination units are currently not separately defined by Energy Star. This standard went into effect 

on March 1, 2013. Our analysis finds Energy Star certified equipment to be the most efficient currently available on the market

3 Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2003 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2003 Energy Use) / (Energy Use) 4 Maintenance cost includes preventative maintenance costs such as checking and maintaining refrigerant charge levels, cleaning heat exchanger coils and also includes an annualized cost for 

refurbishments/remanufacturing. 

Final
Commercial Refrigerated Vending Machines

77

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Refrigerated Vending Machines

• DOE set Federal energy efficiency standards for refrigerated vending machines in 2009. These standards set maximum daily energy consumption levels, in kWh/day, for 

commercial refrigerated vending machines manufactured and/or sold in the United States on or after August 31, 2012. The daily energy consumption is based on the volume of 

the unit (V).

• Refrigerated Vending Machines that are fully-cooled (Type A) ≤ 0.055*V + 2.56

• Refrigerated Vending Machines that are zone-cooled (Type B) ≤ 0.073*V + 3.16

• Energy Star® updated its maximum daily energy consumption efficiency levels, also in KWh/day, for refrigerated vending machines, which went into effect on March 1, 2013. 

These efficiency levels are based on refrigerated volume.

• Currently, stakeholders such as Coca Cola have indicated a preference for CO2 refrigerant, which is less efficient. However, this advanced case scenario assumes a shift to 

more efficient propane for cost and energy consumption projections due to the superior efficiency of propane refrigerant. 

• By 2040, the adoption of vacuum insulated panels is assumed to occur, with the aid of decreased incremental costs due to increased R&D funding

• Projected installed costs for this advanced scenario are higher than the reference case, even assuming increased R&D funding. Advanced energy-saving technologies are 

assumed to be made financially viable for operators by increased market incentives such as utility efficiency rebate programs and/or carbon pricing.

• This analysis finds that with increased R&D and market incentives for energy efficiency technologies, a limit of possible efficiency improvements for self-contained, 

vapor compression refrigeration systems will be reached by 2040. 

Equipment Type Maximum Daily Energy 

Consumption

Low Power Mode Requirement

Class A (Transparent-Front) MDEC= 0.0523 x V + 2.432 Hard-wired controls and/or software capable 

of placing the machine into a low power 

mode during periods of extended inactivity 

while still connected to its power source Class B (Solid-Front) MDEC = 0.0657 x V + 2.844 

Final
Commercial Refrigerated Vending Machines

78

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Refrigerated Vending Machines

• In December 2015, DOE updated its energy conservation standards for beverage vending machines, and defined two new product 

classes for combination vending machines Compliance with these standards is required by 2019. For this analysis, compliance with 

these updated standards is assumed for equipment sold in 2020 and beyond. The updated standards and DOE equipment definitions 

are listed in the table below.

Equipment Class Maximum daily energy consumption (kilowatt hours per day)

Class A – a refrigerated bottled or canned beverage vending machine that is not a 

combination vending machine and in which 25 percent or more of the surface area 

on the front side of the beverage vending machine is transparent

MDEC = 0.052 x V + 2.43

Class B – any refrigerated bottled or canned beverage vending machine that is not 

considered to be Class A and is not a combination vending machine MDEC = 0.052 x V + 2.20

Combination A – a combination vending machine where 25 percent or more of the 

surface area on the front side of the beverage vending machine is transparent MDEC = 0.086 x V + 2.66

Combination B – a combination vending machine that is not considered to be 

Combination A MDEC = 0.111 x V + 2.04

Final
79

Commercial Ventilation

Advanced Case

Final
Commercial Constant Air Volume

80

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Constant Air Volume

2003 2012

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average3

Low4,5 Typical4,6 Best4,7 Energy Star Typical4,7 Best4,8 Typical4,8,9 Best4,8,9 Typical4,8,9 Best4,8,9

System Airflow (CFM) 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 N/A 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000

System Fan Power (kW) 11.80 11.56 11.56 11.56 11.56 N/A 11.56 11.56 11.56 11.56 11.56 11.56

Specific Fan Power (W/CFM) 0.787 0.771 0.771 0.771 0.771 N/A 0.771 0.771 0.771 0.771 0.771 0.771

Annual Fan Energy Use (kWh/yr)1 44,858 43,924 23,038 20,018 15,226 N/A 15,226 11,155 10,597 9,482 9,482 8,366

Average Life (yrs) 20 20 20 20 20 N/A 20 20 20 20 20 20

Total Installed Cost ($)2 $68,539 $68,539 $68,979 $68,979 $74,178 N/A $74,178 $74,778 $75,378 $75,978 $75,978 $76,578 

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) $900 $900 $900 $900 $900 N/A $900 $900 $900 $900 $900 $900

Total Installed Cost ($/1000 CFM) $4,569 $4,569 $4,599 $4,599 $4,945 N/A $4,945 $4,985 $5,025 $5,065 $5,065 $5,105

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/1000 CFM) $60 $60 $60 $60 $60 N/A $60 $60 $60 $60 $60 $60

DATA

2015 2020 2030 2040

1

 Based on 3800 operating hours per year (ADL, 1999) and typical zone air flow requirement profile (ASHRAE S45.11-2012).

2

 Total installed cost of 15,000 CFM CAV AHU and hypothetical supply ductwork layout.

3

 Based on ASHRAE 90.1-2007 fan power limit (Table 6.5.3.1.1A) with no pressure drop adjustment. Assumed 80% motor load and 91% motor efficiency.

4

 ASHRAE 90.1-2010 & 2013 Section 6.5.3.2 require minimum 2-speed fan control (no longer always constant volume).

5

 Two-speed motor.

6

 Two-speed VFD.

7

 Modulating VFD (66-100%).

8

 Modulating VFD (50-100%).

9

 High aerodynamic efficiency fan.

Assumes increased rate of technology 

advancement (lower energy use)

Final
Commercial Constant Air Volume

81

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Constant Air Volume

• Constant air volume (CAV) ventilation systems are common, inexpensive, air-side HVAC systems that operate in 

response to a single control zone. Historically, these systems provide a constant flow rate of air (typically a mix of 

recirculated and outside air) and adjust the supply temperature of that air in order to maintain space temperature 

setpoint. Recent energy efficiency standard changes (ASHRAE 90.1-2013) now mandate at least two fan speed 

settings with the requirement of a maximum 40% power at 66% flow. This analysis examines only the fan energy of 

the CAV system.

• There is movement in the industry and in energy codes to reduce fan power. ASHRAE 90.1 includes fan power limits 

for CAV systems. Fan power can be minimized through good design practice (efficient duct layout, low pressure 

drop ductwork, filters, coils), proper fan selection, and high efficiency type fans. ASHRAE 90.1-2013 now requires a 

minimum fan efficiency grade (FEG, based on AMCA 205-12: Energy Efficiency Classification for Fans) of 67 and a 

design operating fan efficiency within 15% of the maximum fan total efficiency. There are exceptions to this 

requirement, including packaged systems such as the CAV system type considered here. Still the fan power limits are 

expected to become more stringent, and fan efficiency will become more important throughout the industry.

• The unit characterized in this report is a 15,000 CFM CAV system. The average commercial building is approximately 

15,000 square feet (CBECS 2003 and BED 2007). Assuming 1 CFM is needed per square foot of floor area results in a 

15,000 CFM air handling unit.

• A 15,000 CFM CAV packaged indoor air handling unit with cooling and heating coils can be installed for 

approximately $60,722 (RS Means 2016). Ductwork would cost approximately $7,817 additional ($68,539 total). A 2-

speed motor (estimated $440 incremental cost) and variable frequency drive (estimated $5,639) add cost.

• ASHRAE Standard 90.1, which is used as a basis for most state energy codes, limits the fan power (brake HP or 

nameplate HP) for CAV systems. The 2007 version of Standard 90.1 was used to represent the 2012 minimum 

efficiency level (state energy codes typically refer to older versions of Standard 90.1 due to code revision cycles).

• Fan energy is affected by several factors, including: fan type (e.g., centrifugal, axial), fan blade shape (e.g., forwardcurved, backward-curved, backward-inclined, airfoil), drive type (belt or direct), configuration (plenum or housed 

centrifugal), system effects, duct design, filter and coil pressure drops, motor efficiency, and speed/flow control. 

Final
Commercial Variable Air Volume

82

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Variable Air Volume

2003 2012

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average3

Low4 Typical5 Best6 Energy Star Typical8 Best6,7 Typical6,7 Best6,7 Typical6,7 Best6,7

System Airflow (CFM) 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 N/A 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000

System Fan Power (kW) 16.72 15.99 15.99 15.99 15.99 N/A 15.99 15.99 15.99 15.99 15.99 15.99

Specific Fan Power (W/CFM) 1.115 1.066 1.066 1.066 1.066 N/A 1.066 1.066 1.066 1.066 1.066 1.066

Annual Fan Energy Use (kWh/yr)1 25,839 24,699 24,699 18,181 16,425 N/A 15,604 15,604 14,783 14,783 13,961 13,140

Average Life (yrs) 20 20 20 20 20 N/A 20 20 20 20 20 20

Total Installed Cost ($)2 $88,207 $88,207 $88,207 $93,846 $94,346 N/A $94,446 $94,946 $94,446 $94,946 $94,446 $94,946 

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) $900 $900 $900 $900 $900 N/A $900 $900 $900 $900 $900 $900

Total Installed Cost ($/1000 CFM) $5,880 $5,880 $5,880 $6,256 $6,290 N/A $6,296 $6,330 $6,296 $6,330 $6,296 $6,330

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/1000 CFM) $60 $60 $60 $60 $60 N/A $60 $60 $60 $60 $60 $60

DATA

2015 2020 2030 2040

1 Based on 3800 operating hours per year (ADL, 1999) and typical zone air flow requirement profile (ASHRAE S45.11-2012).

2 Total installed cost of 15,000 CFM VAV AHU, VFD, (10) VAV boxes, and hypothetical supply ductwork layout.

3 Based on ASHRAE 90.1-2007 fan power limit (Table 6.5.3.1.1A) with no pressure drop adjustment. Assumed 80% motor load and 91% motor efficiency.

4 ASHRAE 90.1-2010 Section 6.5.3.2 minimum power-flow requirement.

5 ASHRAE 90.1-2013 fan power limit and typical VAV power-flow relationship for 50%-100% flow.

6 ASHRAE 90.1-2013 fan power limit and typical VAV power-flow relationship for 30%-100% flow.

7 High aerodynamic efficiency fan.

Assumes increased rate of technology 

advancement (lower energy use)

Final
Commercial Variable Air Volume

83

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Variable Air Volume

• Variable air volume (VAV) ventilation systems are the most common multi-zone system type specified today for 

conditioning commercial buildings. These systems provide conditioned air to multiple zone terminal units (VAV 

boxes) that use dampers to modulate the amount of cool air to each zone. An individual zone thermostat controls the 

VAV box damper to allow more or less cooling. If a zone requires heating then the VAV box provides the minimum 

flow rate and typically includes a reheat coil to meet space temperature setpoint. As VAV box dampers close in the 

system, a variable frequency drive reduces fan speed and flow continuously to meet current requirements.

• This analysis examines only the fan energy of the VAV system. VAV systems vary fan speed/flow to meet space 

conditioning requirements; minimum flow settings apply for DX cooling stages and gas furnace heating stages. Most 

hours of operation are much lower than full speed, and fan power varies with the cube of fan speed according to fan 

affinity laws. The 2012 ASHRAE Handbook: HVAC Systems and Equipment (p. 45.11) provided the typical flow 

profile used for this analysis. The unit characterized in this report is a 15,000 CFM VAV system. 

• There is movement in the industry and in energy codes to reduce fan power. ASHRAE 90.1 includes fan power limits 

for VAV systems. Fan power can be minimized through good design practice (efficient duct layout, low pressure 

drop ductwork, filters, coils), proper fan selection, and high efficiency type fans. ASHRAE 90.1-2013 now requires a 

minimum fan efficiency grade (FEG, based on AMCA 205-12: Energy Efficiency Classification for Fans) of 67 and a 

design operating fan efficiency within 15% of the maximum fan total efficiency. There are exceptions to this 

requirement, including packaged systems such as the VAV system type considered here. Still the fan power limits are 

expected to become more stringent, and fan efficiency will become more important throughout the industry.

• A 15,000 CFM VAV packaged indoor air handling unit with cooling and heating coils can be installed for 

approximately $69,100 (RS Means 2016). Ductwork and (10) VAV boxes with reheat would cost approximately 

$19,107 additional ($88,207 total). A 20 hp variable frequency drive (estimated $5,639) is an additional cost.

• ASHRAE Standard 90.1, which is used as a basis for most state energy codes, limits the fan power for VAV systems 

(brake HP or nameplate HP). The 2007 version of Standard 90.1 was used to represent the 2012 minimum efficiency 

level (state energy codes typically refer to older versions of Standard 90.1 due to code revision cycles).

• Fan energy is affected by several factors, including: fan type (e.g., centrifugal, axial), fan blade shape (e.g., forwardcurved, backward-curved, backward-inclined, airfoil), drive type (belt or direct), configuration (plenum or housed 

centrifugal), system effects, duct design, filter and coil pressure drops, and motor VFD efficiency. 

Final
Commercial Fan Coil Units

84

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Fan Coil Units

2003 2012

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average5

Low3 Typical6 Best6 Energy Star Typical4,7 Best4,8 Typical4,8 Best4,8,9 Typical4,8,9 Best4,8,9

System Airflow (CFM) 800 800 800 800 800 N/A 800 800 800 800 800 800

System Fan Power (kW) 0.315 0.241 0.748 0.241 0.148 N/A 0.148 0.148 0.148 0.141 0.141 0.133

Specific Fan Power (W/CFM) 0.394 0.302 0.935 0.301 0.185 N/A 0.185 0.185 0.185 0.176 0.176 0.166

Annual Fan Energy Use (kWh/yr)1 709 543 1,683 543 333 N/A 152 94 94 89 89 84

Average Life (yrs) 20 20 20 20 20 N/A 20 20 20 20 20 20

Total Installed Cost ($)2 $2,429 $2,429 $2,429 $2,429 $2,753 N/A $2,753 $2,995 $2,753 $2,995 $2,995 $3,044 

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) $100 $100 $100 $100 $100 N/A $100 $100 $100 $100 $100 $100

Total Installed Cost ($/1000 CFM) $3,036 $3,036 $3,036 $3,036 $3,441 N/A $3,441 $3,744 $3,441 $3,744 $3,744 $3,805

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/1000 CFM) $125 $125 $125 $125 $125 N/A $125 $125 $125 $125 $125 $125

DATA

2015 2020 2030 2040

1 Based on 2250 operating hours per year (ADL, 1999) and typical zone air flow requirement profile (ASHRAE S45.11-2012).

2 Total installed cost of 2-ton horizontal 2-pipe fan coil unit, housing and controls. 

3 Based on ASHRAE 90.1-2010 fan power limit (Table 6.5.3.1.1A) with no pressure drop adjustment. Assumed 80% motor load and 60% motor efficiency.

4 Based on ASHRAE 90.1-2013 Section 6.5.3.5 requirement of electronically commutated or 70+% efficient fan motor.

5 Permanent split capacitor fan motor.

6 Electronically commutated fan motor (single speed).

7 Electronically commutated fan motor (two-speed).

8 Electronically commutated fan motor (variable speed).

9 High aerodynamic efficiency fan.

Assumes increased rate of technology 

advancement (lower energy use)

Final
Commercial Fan Coil Units

85

Performance/Cost Characteristics » Commercial Fan Coil Units

• Commercial fan coil units (FCUs) are self-contained, mass-produced assemblies that provide cooling, heating, or 

cooling and heating, but do not include the source of cooling or heating. The unit characterized in this report is a 

cooling only (2-pipe), horizontal unit with housing and controls. Fan coil units are typically installed in or adjacent to 

the space being served and have no (or very limited) ductwork. 

• According to manufacturer literature, the cooling capacity for a nominal 800 CFM fan coil unit is about 2 tons. This 

analysis examines only the fan energy of FCUs.

• Fan coil unit fan motors can be shaded pole, a single phase AC motor with offset start winding and no capacitor; PSC, 

a single phase AC motor with offset start winding with capacitor; or ECM, an AC electronically commutated 

permanent magnet DC motor. PSC motors are currently the most common motor type in FCUs, but most 

manufacturers offer ECM as an option. ASHRAE 90.1-2013 requires an electronically commutated fan motor (or 

minimum motor efficiency of 70%) for this system.

• There is movement in the industry and in energy codes to reduce fan power. ASHRAE 90.1 includes fan power limits 

for FCUs. Fan power can be minimized through good design practice and high efficiency type fans. ASHRAE 90.1-

2013 now requires a minimum fan efficiency grade (FEG, based on AMCA 205-12: Energy Efficiency Classification for 

Fans) of 67 and a design operating fan efficiency within 15% of the maximum fan total efficiency. There are 

exceptions to this requirement, including small systems such as the FCU considered here. Still the fan power limits 

are expected to become more stringent, and fan efficiency will become more important throughout the industry.

• Fan coil units have higher maintenance costs than central air systems due to the distributed nature of the system. For 

each unit the filters must be changed and drain systems must be flushed periodically.

• ASHRAE Standard 90.1, which is used as a basis for most state energy codes, limits the fan power (brake HP or 

nameplate HP). The 2007 version of Standard 90.1 was used to represent the 2012 minimum efficiency level (state 

energy codes typically refer to older versions of Standard 90.1 due to code revision cycles).

• Fan energy is affected by several factors, including: fan type configuration, filter and coil pressure drops, motor 

efficiency, and fan speed control. 

Final
Appendix A

Data Sources

A-1

Navigant Consulting, Inc.

1200 19th Street, NW, Suite 700

Washington, D.C. 20036

And

Leidos

8301 Greensboro Drive

McLean, VA 22102

Final
A-2

Residential Lighting

Final
A-3

Data Sources » Residential General Service LED Lamps (60 Watt Equivalent)

DATA SOURCES

2009 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage Calculated

LED Lighting Facts Database (downloaded 

10/31/15)

Energy Star 

Light Bulb 

product 

database 

(downloaded 

11/4/15)

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Product 

Catalogs Calculated from 2015 Values

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 2012 SSL 

MYPP Calculated

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2014)

Calculated

CRI

Product 

Catalogs

Energy Star 

Light Bulb 

product 

database 

(downloaded 

11/4/15)

Assume Unchanged From 2015 Typical Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

LED Lighting 

Facts 

Database 

(downloaded 

10/31/15)

SSL R&D Plan 

Table 2.1 

(DOE SSL 

Program, 

2015)

LED Lighting 

Facts 

Database 

(downloaded 

10/31/15)

Average Lamp Life (1000 hrs) Retailer 

Websites Retailer Websites

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2014)

Assume Unchanged

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) U.S. DOE SSL Program, 2010 Lighting Market Characterization, Prepared by Navigant Consulting Inc., January 2012.

Lamp Price ($) Calculated Retailer 

Websites Calculated Retailer Websites Calculated

Lamp Cost ($/klm) 2012 SSL 

MYPP Calculated

SSL R&D Plan 

Table 2.1 

+adjustment 

(DOE SSL 

Program, 

2015)

Calculated

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2014)

Calculated

Labor Cost ($/hr) N/A Labor Lamp Installation (hr)

Total Installed Cost ($)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost ($)

Total Installed Cost ($/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm)

Final
A-4

Data Sources » Residential Reflector LED BR30

DATA SOURCES

2009 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock Average Low Typical High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage Calculated

LED Lighting Facts Database (downloaded 

10/31/15)

Energy Star 

Light Bulb 

product 

database 

(downloaded 

11/4/15)

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Adjusted 

based on 

PAR38 values

Nominal lumen output based on historical values

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of SolidState Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2014)

CRI

Adjusted 

based on 

PAR38 values

Energy Star 

Light Bulb 

product 

database 

(downloaded 

11/4/15)

Assume Unchanged Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

LED Lighting 

Facts Database 

(downloaded 

10/31/15)

DOE SSL 

Program R&D 

Plan (DOE SSL 

Program, 

2015)

LED Lighting 

Facts Database 

(downloaded 

10/31/15)

Average Lamp Life (1000 hrs) Retailer 

Websites Retailer Websites

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of SolidState Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2014)

Assume Unchanged

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) U.S. DOE SSL Program, 2010 Lighting Market Characterization, Prepared by Navigant Consulting Inc., January 2012.

Lamp Price ($) Calculated Retailer 

Websites Calculated Retailer Websites Calculated

Lamp Cost ($/klm) 

Adjusted 

based on 

PAR38 values

Calculated

DOE SSL 

Program R&D 

Plan (DOE SSL 

Program, 

2015)

Calculated

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of SolidState Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2014)

Calculated

Labor Cost ($/hr) N/A Labor Lamp Installation (hr)

Total Installed Cost ($)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost ($)

Total Installed Cost ($/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm)

Final
DATA SOURCES

2009 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage Calculated

LED Lighting Facts Database (downloaded 

10/31/15)

Energy Star Light 

Bulb product 

database 

(downloaded 11/4/15)

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Product 

Catalogs

Nominal lumen output based on historical values

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 2012 SSL 

MYPP

Calculated

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2014) Calculated

CRI

Product 

Catalogs

Energy Star Light 

Bulb product 

database 

(downloaded 11/4/15) Assume Unchanged Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

LED Lighting 

Facts Database 

(downloaded 

10/31/15)

DOE SSL 

Program R&D 

Plan (DOE 

SSL Program, 

2015)

LED Lighting 

Facts Database 

(downloaded 

10/31/15)

Average Lamp Life (1000 hrs) Retailer 

Websites

Retailer 

Websites

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2014) Assume Unchanged

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) U.S. DOE SSL Program, 2010 Lighting Market Characterization, Prepared by Navigant Consulting Inc., January 2012.

Lamp Price ($) Calculated

Retailer 

Websites Calculated Retailer Websites Calculated

Calculated

Lamp Cost ($/klm) 

2012 SSL 

MYPP Calculated

DOE SSL 

Program R&D 

Plan (DOE 

SSL Program, 

2015) Calculated

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Labor Cost ($/hr)

Labor Lamp Installation (hr) N/A

Total Installed Cost ($)

Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost ($)

Total Installed Cost ($/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm) A-5

Data Sources » Residential Reflector LED PAR38

Final
A-6

Data Sources » Residential Linear LED Replacement Lamp 2 Lamp System*

DATA SOURCES 2009 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed Stock Average Low Typical High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage DOE SSL Program: LED 

Application Series, Linear 

Fluorescent Replacement Lamps 

(DOE SSL Program, 2011) LED Lighting Facts Qualified Product List 

(Downloaded 11/17/15)

N/A

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Adjusted for 2015 Typical Lumen Output

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of SolidState Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2014)

Calculated

System Wattage Calculated Calculated

System Lumens DOE SSL Program R&D Plan (DOE SSL Program, 2015) DOE SSL Program R&D Plan (DOE SSL Program, 2015)

System Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated Calculated

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A

CRI

DOE SSL Program: LED 

Application Series, Linear 

Fluorescent Replacement Lamps 

(DOE SSL Program, 2011)

LED Lighting 

Facts Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/17/15)

LED Lighting 

Facts Qualified 

Product List 

Downloaded 

11/17/15

LED Lighting 

Facts Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/17/15)

Assume Unchanged

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) DOE SSL 

Program R&D 

Plan (DOE SSL 

Program, 2015)

Average Lamp Life (1000 hrs) Retailer 

Websites

Retailer 

Websites

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of SolidState Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2014)

Assume Unchanged

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) U.S. DOE SSL Program, 2010 Lighting Market Characterization, Prepared by 

Navigant Consulting Inc., January 2012.

U.S. DOE SSL Program, 2010 Lighting Market Characterization, Prepared by Navigant 

Consulting Inc., January 2012.

Lamp Price ($)

DOE SSL Program: LED 

Application Series, Linear 

Fluorescent Replacement Lamps 

(DOE SSL Program, 2011)

Retailer 

Websites Calculated Retailer Websites Calculated

Ballast Price ($) N/A N/A Fixture Price ($)*

Lamp Cost ($/klm) Calculated Calculated

DOE SSL 

Program R&D 

Plan (DOE SSL 

Program, 2015)

Calculated

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of SolidState Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2014)

Calculated

System (l/b/f) Cost ($/klm)* N/A N/A

Labor Cost ($/hr) U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in 

General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General 

Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014) Labor System Installation (hr)*

Labor Lamp Change (hr)

Total Installed Cost ($)

Calculated Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost ($)

Total Installed Cost ($/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm)

Final
A-7

Data Sources » Residential Linear LED Luminaire*

DATA SOURCES

2009 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

Lamp Lumens N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

Calculated

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

LED Lighting 

Facts Database 

(downloaded 

10/31/15)

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

Energy Star Light 

Bulb product 

database 

(downloaded 

11/4/15)

Calculated

System Lumens Calculated Calculated Adjusted for 2015 Typical Lumen Output

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15) Calculated

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting 

in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Calculated

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A

CRI

Calculated

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

LED Lighting 

Facts Database 

(downloaded 

10/31/15)

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

Energy Star Light 

Bulb product 

database 

(downloaded 

11/4/15)

Assume Unchanged Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lifetime (1000 hrs) 

DOE SSL Program 

R&D Plan (DOE 

SSL Program, 

2015)

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting 

in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Assume Unchanged

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) U.S. DOE SSL Program, 2010 Lighting Market Characterization, Prepared by Navigant Consulting Inc., January 2012.

Lamp/Luminaire Price ($) Calculated Retailer Websites Calculated Retailer Websites Retailer Websites Calculated

Ballast Price ($)

Fixture Price ($) N/A

Lamp Cost ($/klm) 

System (l/b/f) Cost ($/klm)

Calculated Calculated

DOE SSL Program 

R&D Plan (DOE 

SSL Program, 

2015) Calculated Calculated

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting 

in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Calculated

Labor Cost ($/hr)

Labor System Installation (hr) Assume Same as T5

Labor Lamp Change (hr) N/A

Total Installed Cost ($)

Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost ($)

Total Installed Cost ($/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm)

Final
A-8

Data Sources » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Security: LED PAR38)

DATA SOURCES

2009 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage Calculated

LED Lighting Facts Database (downloaded 

10/31/15)

Energy Star 

Light Bulb 

product 

database 

(downloaded 

11/4/15)

Calculated

Lamp Lumens 

Product 

Catalogs

Nominal lumen output based on historical values

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

2012 SSL MYPP

Calculated U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014) Calculated

CRI

Product 

Catalogs

Energy Star 

Light Bulb 

product 

database 

(downloaded 

11/4/15)

Assume Unchanged Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

LED Lighting 

Facts Database 

(downloaded 

10/31/15)

DOE SSL 

Program R&D 

Plan (DOE SSL 

Program, 2015)

LED Lighting 

Facts Database 

(downloaded 

10/31/15)

Average Lamp Life (1000 hrs) Retailer 

Websites

Retailer 

Websites

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014) Assume Unchanged

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) U.S. DOE SSL Program, 2010 Lighting Market Characterization, Prepared by Navigant Consulting Inc., January 2012.

Lamp Price ($) Calculated

Retailer 

Websites Calculated Retailer Websites Calculated

Calculated

Lamp Cost ($/klm) 

2012 SSL MYPPCalculated

DOE SSL 

Program R&D 

Plan (DOE SSL 

Program, 2015) Calculated

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Labor Cost ($/hr)

Labor Lamp Installation (hr) N/A

Total Installed Cost ($)

Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost ($)

Total Installed Cost ($/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm)

Final
A-9

Data Sources » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Porch: LED A-Type*)

DATA SOURCES

2009 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Energy 

Star* Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage Calculated

Lamp Lumens U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

Scaled based on 60W Residential A-type Lamp

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (1000 hrs) 

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) DOE SSL Program, Residential Lighting End-Use Consumption Study: Estimation Framework and Initial Estimates (DOE SSL Program, 

2012)

Lamp Price ($) Calculated

Lamp Cost ($/klm) Scaled based on 60W Residential A-type Lamp

Labor Cost ($/hr) U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Labor Lamp Installation (hr)

Total Installed Cost ($)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost ($)

Total Installed Cost ($/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm)

Final
Commercial Lighting

A-10

Final
A-11

Data Sources » Commercial General Service 100W Equivalent LED Replacement Lamp in Recessed Can Fixture

DATA SOURCES

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

N/A

DOE SSL 

Program, 2013 

Multi-Year 

Program Plan 

(DOE SSL 

Program, 2013)

LED Lighting Facts Database (downloaded 

10/31/15)

Energy Star 

Light Bulb 

product 

database 

(downloaded 

11/4/15)

Calculated

Lamp Lumens U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated Calculated

System Wattage 

Calculated System Lumens* 

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE)

CRI

DOE SSL 

Program, 2013 

Multi-Year 

Program Plan 

(DOE SSL 

Program, 2013)

LED Lighting Facts Database (downloaded 

10/31/15)

Energy Star 

Light Bulb 

product 

database 

(downloaded 

11/4/15)

Assume Unchanged

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) Retailer 

Websites

Assume Same as 

A19 60W equiv

Retailer 

Websites

Average Lamp Life (1000 hrs) Calculated U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) U.S. DOE SSL Program, 2010 Lighting Market Characterization, Prepared by Navigant Consulting Inc., January 2012.

Lamp Price ($) Calculated Retailer 

Websites Calculated Retailer Websites U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014) Calculated

Ballast Price ($) N/A Fixture Price ($)**

Lamp Cost ($/klm) 

DOE SSL 

Program, 2013 

Multi-Year 

Program Plan 

(DOE SSL 

Program, 2013)

Calculated

DOE SSL 

Program R&D 

Plan (DOE SSL 

Program, 2015)

Calculated Calculated Calculated Calculated

System (l/b/f) Cost ($/klm) N/A

Labor Cost ($/hr)

Labor System Installation (hr)** Same as for CFL

Labor Lamp Change (hr)

Total Installed Cost ($)

Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost ($)

Total Installed Cost ($/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm)

Final
A-12

Data Sources » Commercial LED Reflector Lighting (PAR38)

DATA SOURCES

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

N/A

LED Lighting Facts Qualified Product List (Downloaded 11/17/15) Energy Star 

Light Bulb 

product 

database 

(downloaded 

11/4/15)

Calculated

Lamp Lumens U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated Calculated

System Wattage Calculated

System Lumens*

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A

CRI

LED Lighting Facts Qualified 

Product List (Downloaded 

11/17/15)

LED Lighting 

Facts Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/17/15)

LED Lighting 

Facts Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/17/15)

Energy Star 

Light Bulb 

product 

database 

(downloaded 

11/4/15)

Assume Unchanged

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) DOE SSL 

Program R&D 

Plan (DOE SSL 

Program, 2015)

Average Lamp Life (1000 hrs) 

Calculated

Retailer 

Websites

Retailer 

Websites

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014) Assume Unchanged

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) U.S. DOE SSL Program, 2010 Lighting Market Characterization, Prepared by Navigant Consulting Inc., January 2012.

Lamp Price ($) Calculated

Retailer 

Websites Calculated Retailer Websites Calculated Calculated

Ballast Price ($)

Fixture Price ($)** N/A

Lamp Cost ($/klm) 

DOE SSL 

Program, 2013 

Multi-Year 

Program Plan 

(DOE SSL 

Program, 2013) Calculated

DOE SSL 

Program R&D 

Plan (DOE SSL 

Program, 2015) Calculated

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014) Calculated

System (l/b/f) Cost ($/klm)** N/A

Labor Cost ($/hr)

Same as for Halogen

Labor System Installation (hr)**

Labor Lamp Change (hr)

Total Installed Cost ($)

Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost ($)

Total Installed Cost ($/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm)

Final
DATA SOURCES

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

N/A

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

LED Lighting Facts Database (downloaded 

11/17/15)

N/A

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Adjusted for 2015 Typical Lumen Output

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014) Calculated

System Wattage 

Calculated Calculated

System Lumens 

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE)

CRI

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

LED Lighting Facts Database (downloaded 

11/17/15)

Correlated Color Temperature Assume Unchanged

(CCT)

Average Lamp Life (1000 hrs) Retailer 

Websites

DOE SSL 

Program R&D 

Plan (DOE SSL 

Program, 2015)

Retailer 

Websites

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Assume 

Unchanged

Annual Operating Hours 

(hrs/yr)

U.S. DOE SSL Program, 2010 Lighting Market Characterization, 

Prepared by Navigant Consulting Inc., January 2012.

U.S. DOE SSL Program, 2010 Lighting Market Characterization, Prepared by Navigant Consulting 

Inc., January 2012.

Lamp Price ($) Calculated

Retailer 

Websites Calculated

Retailer 

Websites

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014) Calculated

Ballast Price ($)

N/A

N/A

Fixture Price ($)*

Lamp Cost ($/klm) 

U.S. DOE SSL 

Program, 

Energy Savings 

Forecast of 

Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2014) Calculated

DOE SSL 

Program R&D 

Plan (DOE SSL 

Program, 2015) Calculated

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Calculated

System (l/b/f) Cost ($/klm)* N/A N/A

Labor Cost ($/hr) Calculated Assume Same as Analgous Conventional Tech

Assume Unchanged

Labor System Installation (hr)* N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hr) Calculated

Total Installed Cost ($)

Calculated Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost ($)

Total Installed Cost ($/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

($/klm)

A-13

Data Sources » Commercial 4-ft Linear LED Replacement Lamp in 2-Lamp System Final
A-14

Data Sources » Commercial 4-ft Linear LED Luminaire to Replace 2-Lamp Systems*

DATA SOURCES

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

N/A

N/A

N/A

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

2008 EIA Reference 

Case

DLC Qualified Product List (Downloaded 

11/18/15)

LED Lighting Facts 

Qualified Product 

List (Downloaded 

11/17/15)

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

Calculated

System Lumens U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General 

Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Assume Unchanged

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Calculated

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A

CRI

2008 EIA Reference 

Case

DLC Qualified Product List (Downloaded 

11/18/15)

LED Lighting Facts 

Qualified Product 

List (Downloaded 

11/17/15)

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

Assume Unchanged from 2015 Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lifetime (1000 hrs) 

Calculated

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General 

Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Assume Unchanged

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) U.S. DOE SSL Program, 2010 Lighting Market Characterization, Prepared by Navigant Consulting Inc., 

January 2012. U.S. DOE SSL Program, 2010 Lighting Market Characterization, Prepared by Navigant Consulting Inc., January 2012.

Lamp/Luminaire Price ($) 2008 EIA Reference 

Case Calculated Retailer Website Calculated Retailer Website

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General 

Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014) Calculated

Ballast Price ($)

Fixture Price ($) N/A N/A

Lamp Cost ($/klm) 

System (l/b/f) Cost ($/klm)

Calculated

U.S. DOE SSL 

Program, Energy 

Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting 

in General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2014) Calculated

DOE SSL Program 

R&D Plan (DOE SSL 

Program, 2015) Calculated

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General 

Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Calculated

Labor Cost ($/hr) 2008 EIA Reference 

Case

Calculated Assume Unchanged Labor System Installation (hr) 2008 EIA Reference Case

Labor Lamp Change (hr) N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost ($)

Calculated Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost ($)

Total Installed Cost ($/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm)

Final
A-15

Data Sources » Commercial 8-ft Linear LED Replacement Lamp for a 2 Lamp System*

DATA SOURCES

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Energy 

Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

N/A

LED Lighting Facts 

Qualified Product List 

(Downloaded 11/17/15)

N/A

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Nominal Lumen output based on 2015 values

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General 

Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

System Wattage 

Calculated

System Lumens Calculated

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A

Assume Unchanged from 2015 CRI

Calculated from LED 

Lighting Facts Qualified 

Product List Downloaded 

11/17/15

Correlated Color Temperature 

(CCT) DOE SSL Program R&D 

Plan (DOE SSL Program, 

2015) Average Lamp Life (1000 hrs) U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General 

Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Annual Operating Hours 

(hrs/yr)

U.S. DOE SSL Program, 

2010 Lighting Market 

Characterization, Prepared 

by Navigant Consulting 

Inc., January 2012.

U.S. DOE SSL Program, 2010 Lighting Market Characterization, Prepared by 

Navigant Consulting Inc., January 2012.

Lamp Price ($) Calculated

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General 

Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Ballast Price ($)

N/A N/A Fixture Price ($)*

Lamp Cost ($/klm) Navigant Price Analysis

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General 

Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

System (l/b/f) Cost ($/klm)* N/A N/A

Labor Cost ($/hr) Assume Same as Analgous 

Labor System Installation (hr)* Conventional Tech Assume Unchanged from 2015

Labor Lamp Change (hr)

Total Installed Cost ($)

Calculated Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost ($)

Total Installed Cost ($/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

($/klm)

Final
A-16

Data Sources » Commercial 8-ft Linear LED Luminaire Replacement for a 2-Lamp System*

DATA SOURCES

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

N/A

Calculated

N/A

Lamp Lumens N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage Retailer 

Websites

Calculated

System Lumens U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of SolidState Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2014)

Assume Unchanged

System Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A

CRI Retailer 

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) Websites Assume Unchanged from 2015

Average Lifetime (1000 hrs) U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General 

Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr)

U.S. DOE SSL 

Program, 2010 

Lighting 

Market 

Characterizatio

n, Prepared by 

Navigant 

Consulting 

Inc., January 

2012.

U.S. DOE SSL Program, 2010 Lighting Market Characterization, Prepared by Navigant 

Consulting Inc., January 2012.

Lamp/Luminaire Price ($) Calculated Calculated

Ballast Price ($)

Fixture Price ($) N/A N/A

Lamp Cost ($/klm) 

System (l/b/f) Cost ($/klm) Navigant Price 

analysis

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of SolidState Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2014)

Calculated

Labor Cost ($/hr) Assume Same 

as Analgous 

Conventional 

Tech Assume Unchanged

Labor System Installation (hr)

Labor Lamp Change (hr) N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost ($)

Calculated Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost ($)

Total Installed Cost ($/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm)

Final
DATA SOURCES

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

N/A

N/A

Lamp Lumens N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

2008 EIA 

Reference Case Calculated

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

LED Lighting 

Facts Database 

(downloaded 

11/17/15)

Calculated

System Lumens U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of SolidState Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2014)

Assume Unchanged

System Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A

CRI

2008 EIA 

Reference Case

Calculated

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

LED Lighting 

Facts Database 

(downloaded 

11/17/15)

Assume Unchanged from 2015

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

DOE SSL 

Program R&D 

Plan (DOE SSL 

Program, 2015)

Average Lifetime (1000 hrs) 

Calculated

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

Retailer 

Websites

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General 

Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) U.S. DOE SSL Program, 2010 Lighting Market Characterization, Prepared by 

Navigant Consulting Inc., January 2012.

U.S. DOE SSL Program, 2010 Lighting Market Characterization, Prepared by Navigant 

Consulting Inc., January 2012.

Lamp/Luminaire Price ($) 2008 EIA 

Reference Case Calculated

Retailer 

Websites Calculated

Retailer 

Websites Calculated

Ballast Price ($)

N/A

Fixture Price ($) N/A

Lamp Cost ($/klm) 

System (l/b/f) Cost ($/klm)

Calculated

Calculated

Calculated

DOE SSL 

Program R&D 

Plan (DOE SSL 

Program, 2015) Calculated

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of SolidState Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2014)

Calculated

Labor Cost ($/hr) 2008 EIA 

Reference Case

Assume Same as Analgous Conventional Tech

Assume Unchanged Labor System Installation (hr)

Labor Lamp Change (hr) N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost ($)

Calculated

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost ($)

Total Installed Cost ($/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm)

A-17

Data Sources » Commercial LED Low-bay Luminaire * Final
DATA SOURCES

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Energy Star Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

N/A

N/A

Lamp Lumens N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

2008 EIA 

Reference Case

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

LED Lighting 

Facts Database 

(downloaded 

11/17/15)

Calculated

System Lumens U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Assume Unchanged

System Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A

CRI

2008 EIA 

Reference Case

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

LED Lighting 

Facts Database 

(downloaded 

11/17/15)

Assume Unchanged from 2015

Correlated Color Temperature 

(CCT)

DOE SSL 

Program R&D 

Plan (DOE SSL 

Program, 2015)

Retailer 

Websites

Average Lifetime (1000 hrs) 

Calculated

DLC Qualified 

Product List 

(Downloaded 

11/18/15)

LED Lighting 

Facts Database 

(downloaded 

11/17/15)

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr) U.S. DOE SSL Program, 2010 Lighting Market Characterization, Prepared by Navigant 

Consulting Inc., January 2012.

U.S. DOE SSL Program, 2010 Lighting Market Characterization, Prepared by Navigant Consulting Inc., 

January 2012.

Lamp/Luminaire Price ($) 2008 EIA 

Reference Case Calculated

Retailer 

Websites Calculated

Retailer 

Websites Calculated

Ballast Price ($)

N/A

Fixture Price ($) N/A

Lamp Cost ($/klm) 

System (l/b/f) Cost ($/klm)

Calculated Calculated Calculated

DOE SSL 

Program R&D 

Plan (DOE SSL 

Program, 2015) Calculated

U.S. DOE SSL Program, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2014)

Calculated

Labor Cost ($/hr) 2008 EIA 

Reference Case Assume Same as Analgous Conventional Tech

Labor System Installation (hr) Assume Same as Analgous Conventional Tech Assume Unchanged

Labor Lamp Change (hr) N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost ($)

Calculated Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost ($)

Total Installed Cost ($/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/klm)

A-18

Data Sources » Commercial LED High-bay Luminaire * Final
Refrigeration

A-19

Draft Final
Data Sources » Commercial Compressor Rack Systems

A-20

DATA SOURCES

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical Energy Star High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Total Capacity (MBtu/hr) ADL, 1996 Interview with supermarket refrigeration efficiency consultant / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Median Store Size

Food Marketing 

Institute (FMI), 

2012

Food Marketing Institute, 2015 / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Power Input (kW) Copeland, 2008 Interview with supermarket refrigeration efficiency consultant / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Energy Use (MWh/yr) ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2015 Interview with supermarket refrigeration efficiency consultant / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Normalized Annual Efficiency Calculated

Nominal Capacity Over Average Input (Btu out / Btu 

in) Calculated

Average Life (yrs) Kysor-Warren, 

2008 EIA, 2012

Total Installed Cost ($1000)

NCI, 2009 /

NCI Analysis, 

2012

Interview with supermarket refrigeration efficiency consultant / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/hr) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost ($1000) ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 Interview with supermarket refrigeration efficiency consultant / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/kBtu/hr) Calculated

Final
Data Sources » Commercial Condensers

A-21

DATA SOURCES

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical Energy Star High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Total Capacity (MBtu/hr)

NCI Analysis, 2008 

/ Heatcraft, 2008 

/ ADL, 1996

Interview with supermarket refrigeration efficiency consultant / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Median Store Size

Food Marketing 

Institute (FMI), 

2012

Food Marketing Institute, 2015 / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Power Input (kW)

NCI Analysis, 2008 

/ Heatcraft, 2008 

/ ADL, 1996

Interview with supermarket refrigeration efficiency consultant / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Energy Use (MWh/yr) NCI Analysis, 2008 

/ ADL, 1996 Interview with supermarket refrigeration efficiency consultant / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Indexed Annual Efficiency #REF!

Average Life (yrs) ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 EIA, 2012

Total Installed Cost ($1000)

NCI Analysis, 2008 

/ Heatcraft, 2008 

/ RS Means, 2007

Interviews with supermarket refrigeration efficiency consultant / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/hr) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost NCI Analysis, 2008 EIA, 2012

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/kBtu/hr) Calculated

Final
Data Sources » Commercial Supermarket Display Cases

A-22

DATA SOURCES

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical Energy Star High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/hr) DOE, 2007 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 Navigant Analysis, 2015

Median Store Size (ft2

) 

Food Marketing 

Institute (FMI), 

2012

Food Marketing Institute, 2015 / Navigant Analysis

Case Length DOE, 2014: CRE TSD

Energy Use (kWh/yr) DOE, 2007 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE 2014: CRE Engineering Spreadsheet / Navigant Analysis

Energy Use (kWh/ft) Calculated

Indexed Annual Efficiency Calculated

Average Life (yrs) DOE, 2007 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE 2014: CRE TSD

Retail Equipment Cost DOE, 2007 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE 2014: CRE Engineering Spreadsheet / Navigant Analysis

Total Installed Cost DOE, 2007 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE TSD / Navigant Analysis

Total Installed Cst ($/kBtu/hr) Navigant Analysis, 2015

Annual Maintenance Cost DOE, 2007 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE TSD / Navigant Analysis

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/kBtu/hr) Calculated

Final Final
Data Sources » Commercial Reach-In Refrigerators

A-23

DATA SOURCES

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical Energy Star High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/hr) ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Engineering Spreadsheet

Size (ft3) 

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor Web 

Sites

DOE, 2014: CRE TSD

Energy Use (kWh/yr) ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE TSD / Navigant Analysis

Energy Use (kWh/yr/ft3) NCI Analysis, 2012 Calculated

Indexed Annual Efficiency Calculated

Average Life (yrs) ACEEE, 2002 DOE, 2014: CRE TSD

Retail Equipment Cost 

ADL, 1996/ 

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2014: CRE TSD / Navigant Analysis

Total Installed Cost

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2014: CRE TSD / Navigant Analysis

Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/hr) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost NCI Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE TSD / Navigant Analysis

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/kBtu/hr) Calculated

Final Final
Data Sources » Commercial Reach-In Freezers

A-24

DATA SOURCES

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical Energy Star High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/hr) ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE TSD 

Size (ft3) 

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor Web 

Sites

DOE, 2014: CRE TSD 

Energy Use (kWh/yr) ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Energy Use (kWh/yr/ft3) NCI Analysis, 2012 Calculated

Normalized Annual Efficiency Calculated

Nominal Capacity Over Average Input (Btu 

out / Btu in) Calculated

Average Life (yrs) ACEEE, 2002 DOE, 2014: CRE TSD

Retail Equipment Cost 

ADL, 1996/ 

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2014: CRE TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Total Installed Cost

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2014: CRE TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/hr) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost NCI Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE TSD

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/kBtu/hr)

Calculated

Final
Data Sources » Commercial Walk-In Refrigerators

A-25

DATA SOURCES

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical Energy Star High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/hr) ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: WICF TSD

Size (ft2) ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: WICF TSD

Energy Use (kWh/yr)

ADL, 1996 / 

PG&E, 2004 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2014: WICF TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Energy Use (kWh/ft2/yr) Calculated

Indexed Annual Efficiency Calculated

Insulated Box Average Life (yrs) ADL, 1996 / 

PG&E, 2004 DOE, 2014: WICF TSD

Compressor Average Life (yrs) ADL, 1996 / 

PG&E, 2004 DOE, 2014: WICF TSD

Retail Equipment Cost

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2014: WICF TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Total Installed Cost

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2014: WICF TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/hr) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost

ADL, 1996 / FMI, 

2005 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2014: WICF TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/kBtu/hr) Calculated

Final
Data Sources » Commercial Walk-In Freezers

A-26

DATA SOURCES

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical Energy Star High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/hr)

ADL, 1996 / 

NCI Analysis, 

2008

DOE, 2014: WICF TSD

Size (ft2) 

ADL, 1996 / 

NCI Analysis, 

2008

DOE, 2014: WICF TSD

Energy Use (kWh/yr)

ADL, 1996 / 

PG&E, 2004 / 

NCI Analysis, 

2008

DOE, 2014: WICF TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Energy Use (kWh/ft2/yr) Calculated

Indexed Annual Efficiency Calculated

Insulated Box Average Life 

(yrs)

ADL, 1996 / 

PG&E, 2004 DOE, 2014: WICF TSD

Compressor Average Life 

(yrs)

ADL, 1996 / 

PG&E, 2004 DOE, 2014: WICF TSD

Retail Equipment Cost

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor 

Web Sites / 

NCI Analysis, 

2008

DOE, 2014: WICF TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Total Installed Cost

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor 

Web Sites / 

NCI Analysis, 

2008

DOE, 2014: WICF TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Total Installed Cost 

($/kBtu/hr) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost DOE, 2014: WICF TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2014

Annual Maintenance Cost 

($/kBtu/hr) Calculated

Final
Data Sources » Commercial Ice Machines

A-27

DATA SOURCES

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical Energy Star High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Output (lbs/day) ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: ACIM TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Water Use (gal/100 lbs)

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor 

Web Sites

DOE, 2014: ACIM TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Energy Use (kWh/100 lbs) ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: ACIM TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Energy Use (kWh/yr)

ACEEE, 2002 /

NCI Analysis, 

2012

DOE, 2014: ACIM TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Average Life (yrs)

ADL, 1996/ 

Distributor 

Web Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2014: ACIM TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Retail Equipment Cost 

Distributor 

Web Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2014: ACIM TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Total Installed Cost (with Bin) NCI Analysis, 

2008 DOE, 2014: ACIM TSD / Distributor Websites / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/hr) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: ACIM TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Annual Maintenance Cost 

($/kBtu/hr) Calculated

Final
Data Sources » Commercial Beverage Merchandisers

A-28

DATA SOURCES

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical Energy Star High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/hr) DOE, 2014: CRE TSD

Size (ft3) 

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor 

Web Sites

DOE, 2014: CRE TSD

Energy Use (kWh/yr)

ADL, 1996 / 

NCI Analysis, 

2008

DOE, 2014: CRE TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Energy Use (kWh/ft3/yr) Calculated

Normalized Annual Efficiency Calculated

Nominal Capacity Over Average Input 

(Btu out / Btu in) Calculated

Average Life (yrs) ACEEE, 2002 DOE, 2015: CRE TSD

Retail Equipment Cost 

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor 

Web Sites

DOE, 2014: CRE TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Total Installed Cost DOE, 2014: CRE TSD, Navigant Analysis

Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/hr) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost DOE, 2014: CRE TSD, Navigant Analysis, 2015

Annual Maintenance Cost 

($/kBtu/hr) Calculated

Final
Data Sources » Commercial Refrigerated Vending Machines

A-29

DATA SOURCES

2003 2012 2015 2020 2030 2040

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical Energy Star High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/hr) DOE, 2008 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2015: BVM Engineering Spreadsheet

Can Capacity CEC, 2005 / NREL, 

2003 / FEMP, 2004 DOE, 2015: BVM FR TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Size (ft3) DOE, 2015: BVM Engineering Spreadsheet

Energy Use (kWh/yr) ADL, 1996 / CEC, 

2008 / NREL, 2003 DOE, 2015: BVM Engineering Spreadsheet

Energy Use (kWh/ft3/yr) Calculated

Normalized Annual Efficiency Calculated

Nominal Capacity Over Average Input 

(Btu out / Btu in) Calculated

Average Life (yrs) ADL,1996 DOE, 2015: BVM FR TSD

Retail Equipment Cost 

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 / 

DOE, 2008

DOE, 2015: BVM Engineering Spreadsheet

Total Installed Cost

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 / 

DOE, 2008

DOE, 2015: BVM FR TSD

Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/hr) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost DOE, 2008 DOE, 2014: BVM FR TSD / Navigant Analysis, 2015

Annual Maintenance Cost 

($/kBtu/hr) Calculated

Final
A-30

Commercial Ventilation 

Final
Commercial Constant Air Volume

A-31

Data Sources » Commercial Constant Air Volume

2003 2012

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical Best Energy Star Typical Best Typical Best Typical Best

System Airflow (CFM) 

System Fan Power (kW) 

Specific Fan Power (W/CFM) 

Annual Fan Energy Use (kWh/yr)1

Average Life (yrs) 

Total Installed Cost ($)2

Annual Maintenance Cost ($)

Total Installed Cost ($/1000 CFM)

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/1000 CFM)

Calculated

2030 2040

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020

2016 RS Means Online

CBECS 2003 & BED 2007

ASHRAE 

90.1-2004

ASHRAE 

90.1-2007

ASHRAE 

90.1-2010

Leidos

ASHRAE A37.3-2015

2016 RS Means Online

Final
Commercial Variable Air Volume

A-32

Data Sources » Commercial Variable Air Volume

2003 2012

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical Best Energy Star Typical Best Typical Best Typical Best

System Airflow (CFM) 

System Fan Power (kW) 

Specific Fan Power (W/CFM) 

Annual Fan Energy Use (kWh/yr)1

Average Life (yrs) 

Total Installed Cost ($)2

Annual Maintenance Cost ($)

Total Installed Cost ($/1000 CFM)

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/1000 CFM)

DATA SOURCES

2015

ASHRAE A37.3-2015

2016 RS Means Online

2016 RS Means Online

Calculated

2020 2030 2040

CBECS 2003 & BED 2007

ASHRAE 

90.1-2004

ASHRAE 

90.1-2007

ASHRAE 

90.1-2010

Leidos

Final
Commercial Fan Coil Units

A-33

Data Sources » Commercial Fan Coil Units

2003 2012

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical Best Energy Star Typical Best Typical Best Typical Best

System Airflow (CFM) 

System Fan Power (kW) 

Specific Fan Power (W/CFM) 

Annual Fan Energy Use (kWh/yr)1

Average Life (yrs) 

Total Installed Cost ($)2

Annual Maintenance Cost ($)

Total Installed Cost ($/1000 CFM)

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/1000 CFM)

DATA SOURCES

2015

ASHRAE A37.3-2015

2016 RS Means Online

2016 RS Means Online

Calculated

2020 2030 2040

Product Literature

Product 

Literature

ASHRAE 

90.1-2007

ASHRAE 

90.1-2010

Leidos

Final
119

Appendix B

References

Navigant Consulting, Inc.

1200 19th Street, NW, Suite 700

Washington, D.C. 20036

And

Leidos

11951 Freedom Drive

Reston, VA 20190

Final
References

• Appliance Magazine. (2005). Portrait of the U.S. Appliance Industry. Appliance Magazine.

• Arthur D. Little. (1996). Energy Savings Potential for Commercial Refrigeration Equipment.

• DOE SSL Program. (2012a). 2010 U.S. Lighting Market Characterization

• DOE SSL Program. (2012b). Residential Lighting End-Use Consumption Study: Estimation Framework and Initial Estimates

• EERE. (2014). Energy Conservation Program for Appliance Standards: Automatic Commercial Ice Makers

• EERE. (2014). Energy Conservation Program for Appliance Standards: Commercial Refrigeration Equipment.

• EERE. (2014). Energy Conservation Program for Appliance Standards: Refrigerated Beverage Vending Machines

• EERE. (2015). Energy Conservation Program for Appliance Standards: Walk-in Coolers and Freezers.

• ENERGY STAR. (n.d.). Retrieved November 2015, from ENERGY STAR Products: 

http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=products.pr_find_es_products

• ENERGY STAR. (n.d.) Retrieved January 2016, from ENERGY STAR Lamps Specification Version 2.0: 

https://www.energystar.gov/products/spec/lamps_specification_version_2_0_pd

• ENERGY STAR. (n.d.) Retrieved January 2016, from ENERGY STAR Luminaires Specification Version 2.0: 

https://www.energystar.gov/products/spec/luminaires_specification_version_2_0_pd

• ENERGY STAR. (2014) ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs) Eligibility 

Criteria Version 1.1

• ENERGY STAR. (2012) ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Luminaires (Light Fixtures) 

Eligibility Criteria Version 1.1

B-1

Final
References

• Federal Standard. (1975). National energy conservation standards authorized under the Energy and Policy 

Conservation Act of 2007 (EPCA 1975).

• Federal Standard. (2005). National energy conservation standards authorized under the Energy Policy Act of 2005 

(EPACT 2005).

• Federal Standard. (2007). National energy conservation standards authorized under the Energy Independence and 

Security Act of 2007 (EISA 2007).

• Food Marketing Institute. (n.d.). Retrieved November 2015, from FMI Supermarket Facts: 

http://www.fmi.org/research-resources/supermarket-facts/median-total-store-size-square-feet

• Navigant Consulting, Inc. (2009). Energy Savings Potential and R&D Opportunities for Commercial Refrigeration.

• Navigant Consulting, Inc. (n.d.). In House Expertise.

• Product Literature. (n.d.). Literature from manufacturers and experts on specific products

B-2

Final