|Energy Information Administration Residential Transportation Energy Consumption Survey Channel.  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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             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        Home > Transportation 
        Home Page > **Chapter 2. Vehicle Characteristics**                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
|**Chapter 2. Vehicle Characteristics**
            U.S. 
              households used a fleet of nearly 157 million vehicles in 1994. 
              Despite remarkable growth in the number of minivans and sport-utility 
              vehicles, passenger cars continued to predominate in the residential 
              vehicle fleet. This chapter looks at changes in the composition 
              of the residential fleet in 1994 compared with earlier years and 
              reviews the effect of technological changes on fuel efficiency (how 
              efficiently a vehicle engine processes motor fuel) and fuel economy 
              (how far a vehicle travels on a given amount of fuel). Using data 
              unique to the Residential Transportation Energy Consumption Survey, 
              it also explores the relationship between residential vehicle use 
              and family income.
            **Changes 
                in the Composition of the Residential Fleet**
            The 
              number of vehicles in U.S. households rose from 148 million in 1988 
              to 157 million in 1994, an increase of 9 million vehicles. During 
              the same period, the U.S. population grew by almost 15 million persons 
              to 260 million.(1) The average annual 
              growth rates of both residential vehicles and population equaled 
              1.0 percent. The number of licensed drivers grew(2) 
              at an average annual rate of 1.2 percent, and, in 1994, there were 
              1.1 licensed drivers per residential vehicle, slightly more than 
              in 1988.
            Residential 
              vehicles continued to account for the majority of all U.S. vehicles. 
              Not surprisingly, the rate of increase in vehicles available for 
              use in households was approximately the same as the rate of increase 
              for the U.S. total vehicle stock (Figure 2.1).
            Graphic:Figure 2.1:Number of Vehicles, 1983, 1985, 1991, and 1994 Note: 
              U.S. total vehicles include motorcycles and buses, as well as other 
              nonresidential vehicles, which are excluded from the Residential 
              Transportation Energy Consumption Survey. Sources: **U.S. 
              Total Vehicles:** Energy Information Administration (EIA), 
              *Annual Energy Review 1995*, DOE/EIA-0384(95) (Washington, 
              DC, July 1996), Table 2.16. **Residential Vehicles:** 
              1983--EIA, *Consumption Patterns of Household Vehicles 1983*, 
              DOE/EIA-0464(83) (Washington, DC, January 1985), Table 11. 1985--EIA, 
              *Consumption Patterns of Household Vehicles 1985*, DOE/EIA-0464(85) 
              (Washington, DC, April 1987), Table 8. 1988--EIA, *Household 
              Vehicles Energy Consumption 1988*, DOE/EIA-0464(88) (Washington, 
              DC, February 1990), Table 6. 1991--EIA, *Household Vehicles Energy 
              Consumption 1991*, DOE/EIA-0464(91) (Washington, DC, December 
              1993), Table 8. 1994--Table 5.1 in this report.
            A 
              Growing Number of Passenger Cars Were Replaced by Light Trucks
            The 
              number of passenger cars in U.S. households was 106 million in 1994 
              (Figure 2.2). At a 68-percent share, passenger cars continued to 
              dominate the residential fleet, but not to the same extent as in 
              1988, when their share was 74 percent.
            Graphic:Figure2.2:Number of Residential Vehicles by Type, 1988 and 1994 Note: 
              Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. 
              
              Sources: 1988--Energy Information Administration, *Household 
              Vehicles Energy Consumption 1988*, DOE/EIA-0464(88) (Washington, 
              DC, February 1990), Table 6. 1994--Table 5.1 in this report.
            In 
              contrast, there was remarkable growth in the number of household 
              vehicles categorized as light trucks, particularly minivans. From 
              1988 through 1994, the number of light trucks in the residential 
              fleet increased by an estimated 12 million, which more than compensated 
              for the apparent decline in the number of passenger cars.
            The 
              number of **minivans** grew dramatically. It rose from 
              2.2 million in 1988 to 8.1 million in 1994, an increase of 268 percent 
              (Figure 2.3). Minivans, introduced into the market in the mid-1980's, 
              accounted for nearly 1 in 20 residential vehicles in 1994.
            Graphic:Figure 2.3 Change in Number of Residential Vehicles by Type, 1988 to 1994 Sources: 
              1988--Energy Information Administration, *Household Vehicles 
              Energy Consumption 1988*, DOE/EIA-0464(88) (Washington, DC, 
              February 1990), Table 6. 1994--Table 5.1 in this report.
            Text Box:How Do Passenger Cars Differ from Light Trucks?
            **Sport-utility 
              vehicles**, termed "jeep-like" vehicles in the 
              1988 survey, also increased in number at a remarkable rate. From 
              1988 through 1994, they rose 98 percent to 9.5 million.
            **Pickup 
              trucks** were the most prevalent of the light trucks on the 
              road. Almost 1 in 5 residential vehicles in 1994 was a pickup truck. 
              In 1994, the number of pickup trucks totaled 29 million.
            The 
              only type of light truck estimated to have declined over the period 
              was the **large van**. The large van share of the residential 
              fleet fell from 3 percent in 1988 to 2 percent in 1994 when large 
              vans numbered 3.4 million.
            Throughout 
              the 7-year period of 1988 through 1994, inflation-adjusted prices 
              of motor fuel (motor gasoline and diesel fuel) were well below the 
              peak prices of the early 1980's. For example, at its peak in 1981, 
              the adjusted price (in chained [1992] dollars(3) and including taxes) of unleaded regular motor 
              gasoline was $2.09 per gallon, whereas in 1994 the comparable price 
              was $1.06.(4)
            When 
              motor fuel prices are relatively low, consumers have less incentive 
              for choosing vehicles with higher fuel economy ratings. And, in 
              fact, consumer preference for light trucks, which have significantly 
              lower fuel economy ratings than do passenger cars, was one factor 
              leading to the decline in the number of passenger cars. A second 
              factor contributing to the increase in light trucks' share of the 
              residential fleet was the continuing tendency of householders to 
              keep older light trucks in operation while retiring older passenger 
              cars. Those factors had their greatest effect in the West, where 
              light trucks make up a higher percentage of the residential vehicle 
              fleet than in other regions.
            **Consumer 
              Preference for Light Trucks Increased**
            Total 
              sales of new light trucks to all sectors rose during the 1980's 
              and 1990's (Figure 2.4). For model year 1995, 5.7 million light 
              trucks were sold, more than ever before and nearly three times the 
              number of sales for model year 1980. Although sales of new passenger 
              cars fluctuated and rose as high as 11 million for model year 1986, 
              for model year
            Graphic:Figure 2.4 Sales of New Passenger Cars and New Light Trucks for Model Years 1980-1995 Source: 
              Federal Highway Administration, *Summary of Fuel Economy Performance*(Washington, DC, April 1996), p. 3.
            1995 
              sales of 9.2 million were about the same as they had been for model 
              year 1980 (9.4 million). For model year 1995, therefore, light trucks 
              accounted for slightly more than one-third of total sales.
            Sales 
              data disaggregated by sector are not available, but changes in the 
              composition of the residential fleet, as noted above, clearly reflect 
              householders' growing preference for light trucks. That preference 
              restrained the increase in the fuel economy of the residential fleet 
              as a whole (see Chapter 4).
            **Light 
              Trucks Were Kept in Operation Longer**
            Although 
              the number of old passenger cars in the residential fleet declined 
              rapidly from 1988 through 1994, old light trucks, particularly pickup 
              trucks and large vans, were taken out of service at a slower rate. 
              For example, the number of passenger cars of model year 1982 or 
              earlier fell from 57 million in 1988 to 20 million in 1994, meaning 
              that about two-thirds of those older passenger cars were retired 
              from the residential fleet over the 7-year period (Figure 2.5). 
              By comparison, the number of pre-1983 light trucks fell from 21 
              million to 11 million, meaning that only about one-half were retired.
            Graphic:Figure 2.5 Number of Pre-1983 Residential Vehicles by Type, 1988 ,1991, and 1994 Sources: 
              1988--Energy Information Administration (EIA), *Household Vehicles 
              Energy Consumption 1988*, DOE/EIA-0464(88) (Washington, DC, 
              February 1990), Table 9. 1991--EIA, *Household Vehicles Energy 
              Consumption 1991*, DOE/EIA-0464(91) (Washington, DC, December 
              1993), Table 11. 1994--Table 5.4 in this report.
            The 
              tendency to retain old light trucks led to a difference in the average 
              age of light trucks and passenger cars. In the 1994 fleet, the average 
              age of passengers cars was 8.1 years. Light trucks as a group averaged 
              8.5 years, but there was wide variation in the average age of different 
              types of light trucks. For example, pickup trucks and large vans 
              were, on average, 9.9 years old, whereas sport-utility vehicles 
              averaged 6.6 years and minivans averaged 4.8 years.
            Light 
              Trucks Were Most Prevalent in the West
            In 
              1994, the western fleet had a high ratio of light trucks to passenger 
              cars. Light trucks made up 37 percent of the residential fleet in 
              the West, compared with 33 percent in the South, 30 percent in the 
              Midwest, and 26 percent in the Northeast (Figure 2.6).
            Graphic:Figure 2.6 Light Trucks' Share of Each Region's Residential Fleet, 1994 (Percent)
            Source: Table 5.16 in this report. The 
              national tendency to keep old trucks in service longer than old 
              cars meant that in the West old residential vehicles as a whole 
              were taken out of service at a slower rate than in the other regions 
              of the country. For example, vehicles of model year 1988 or earlier 
              accounted for a 64-percent share of all of the residential vehicles 
              in the West. In the other regions of the country, the shares were 
              lower: 59 percent in the Midwest and 57 percent each in the South 
              and Northeast.
            The 
              rural nature of much of the West may have contributed to the prevalence 
              of light trucks in the region. In general, rural areas had a higher 
              ratio of light trucks to passenger cars than did urban areas. Even 
              California, the most populous State in the West, had a ratio above 
              the national average. In California, 1 of every 3 residential vehicles 
              was a light truck. In contrast, in New York fewer than 1 in 4 was.
            **Residential Vehicles at 
              the Household Level**
            In 1994, the 156.8 million residential vehicles 
              were divided among the 84.9 million households that had at least 
              one vehicle, meaning that each of those households had an average 
              of about 1.8 vehicles. Despite the increase in the total number 
              of vehicles in the residential fleet from 1988 to 1994, the average 
              number of vehicles per household remained at 1.8 because the growth 
              in the number of households kept pace with the growth in the number 
              of vehicles. An additional 12.5 million households, including many 
              of the poorest households, had no vehicles.
            **Lower-Income Households Had Fewer Vehicles 
              in 1994**
            Lower-income households--those with annual family 
              incomes below $25,000--had, on average, 1.5 vehicles in 1994. Not 
              surprisingly, households with annual family incomes of $25,000 or 
              above had more vehicles--2.1, on average
            **More Households in 1994 Had No Vehicles**
            In 1988 and 1991, the number of households without 
              vehicles remained at about 10 million, even though the total number 
              of households rose 3.0 million from 1988 to 1991. In 1991, the share 
              of households without vehicles was 10.6 percent.
            In 1994, by contrast, the share of households without 
              vehicles jumped to 12.7 percent. The total number of households 
              rose 2.7 million from 1991 to 1994, while the number of households 
              without vehicles rose 2.5 million.
            The lowest-income households accounted for 83 percent 
              of the total increase in the number of households without vehicles. 
              (The lowest-income households are those categorized as eligible 
              for Federal assistance because their income is lower than 150 percent 
              of the national poverty line or 60 percent of statewide median income, 
              whichever is higher.(5)) In 1994, 30 percent of the Nation's lowest-income 
              households were without vehicles, compared with a national average 
              for all households of 13 percent.
            **Changes in Residential Vehicle Technology**
            The transportation sector relies almost entirely on petroleum. 
              Because it also accounts for about two-thirds of U.S. total petroleum 
              demand,(6) passenger cars and light 
              trucks became a focus of efforts to use petroleum more efficiently, 
              thereby restraining demand.
            The Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 required passenger 
              car and light truck manufacturers to meet corporate average fuel 
              economy (CAFE) standards applied on a fleet-wide basis for each 
              manufacturer.(7) The CAFE standards, 
              higher fuel prices in the 1970's and 1980's, and environmental quality 
              initiatives such as the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 all contributed 
              to increasing the demand for more fuel-efficient vehicles.
            In turn, the demand for more fuel-efficient vehicles spurred improvements 
              in existing technologies and the development of new technologies. 
              For example, using lighter-weight materials and reducing the size 
              of vehicles led to lighter vehicles that consumed less fuel per 
              mile.
            Many improvements occurred in engine technology. Increasing the 
              number of valves per cylinder resulted in increased performance 
              from smaller, more fuel-efficient engines. Increasing the number 
              of gears in manual and automatic transmissions allowed engines to 
              operate at peak efficiency more of the time. Similarly, using lockup 
              torque converters to allow direct drive under some driving conditions 
              also increased fuel economy.
            One of the most far-reaching improvements in engine technology 
              concerned fuel injection, which was available but not widely used 
              prior to the mid-1980's. Valued for its greater fuel economy, as 
              well as for its ability to control carbon monoxide emissions and 
              to improve engine performance, fuel injection technology began to 
              penetrate the fleet during the 1980's, and it was improved to such 
              an extent that after 1990 virtually all new light-duty vehicles 
              were equipped with fuel injection instead of carburetors. By 1994, 
              the trend toward the use of fuel injection rather than carburetors 
              for fuel metering had brought the share of residential vehicles 
              using fuel injection to nearly half of the total residential fleet. 
              That share will increase rapidly in future years as older vehicles 
              are retired.
            **Engine Size Shrank and Then Increased Slowly**
            For model year 1975 (the year in which CAFE standards were first 
              mandated), residential vehicle engine size averaged 293 cubic inches 
              of displacement.(8) Twelve years 
              later, the engines were much smaller. Model year 1987 engines averaged 
              175 cubic inches (Figure 2.7). Thereafter, engine size trended upward, 
              reaching an average of 198 cubic inches of displacement for model 
              year 1995.
             
            Graphic:Figure 2.7 Average Engine Size for Residential Vehicles for Model Years 1980-1995 Sources: 
              **New Vehicle Averages:** Environmental Protection 
              Agency,*Light-Duty Automotive Technology and Fuel Economy Trends 
              Through 1996*, EPA/AA/TDSG/96-01 (Washington, DC, August 1996), 
              Table 1. **Fleet Averages:** Energy Information Administration 
              calculations made on the basis of data from the Residential Transportation 
              Energy Consumption Survey 1988, 1991, and 1994, March 17, 1997.
            As 
              is generally the case, changes in the residential vehicle fleet 
              as a whole lagged the changes by model year. Of the 3 years for 
              which fleet data are available, 1991 had the lowest average engine 
              size (despite an upward trend in the 4 preceding model years). In 
              1994, the fleet average was 227 cubic inches, while the 1994 model 
              year average was 196.
            **Engines 
              Averaged Fewer Cylinders**
            Meanwhile, 
              the average number of cylinders in residential vehicle engines was 
              decreasing. In 1988, 55 million vehicles, over one-third of the 
              total residential fleet, had 8-cylinder engines. In 1994, 8-cylinder 
              engines were found in only about 42 million vehicles, just over 
              one-fourth of the total (Figure 2.8).
            Graphic:Figure 2.8 Number of Cylinders in Residential Vehicles Engines, 1988 and 1994 Sources: 
              1988--Energy Information Administration, *Household Vehicles 
              Energy Consumption 1988*, DOE/EIA-0464(88) (Washington, DC, 
              February 1990), Table 6. 1994--Table 5.1 in this report.
            The 
              trend over the 7-year period was toward more 4- and 6-cylinder engines. 
              In 1994, 4-cylinder engines were the most common (62 million out 
              of a total of 157 million), but the 52 million 6-cylinder engines 
              represented the greatest increase (45 percent) relative to the 1988 
              level.
            **Power 
              and Performance Improved but Fuel Economy Stagnated**
            The 
              improvements in residential vehicle technology allowed for improvements 
              in performance despite shrinking or relatively stable engine size. 
              However, improved performance came at the expense of improvements 
              in fuel economy. For example, technical improvement in the efficiency 
              of engines can be used to provide increased acceleration or smaller, 
              lighter engines with better fuel economy.
            The 
              effect of the improvements was particularly noticeable over the 
              1988-to-1994 period, when engine size stayed at or below 198 cubic 
              inches of displacement but power and performance rose markedly. 
              For example, the average horsepower of new vehicles rose from 123 
              in 1988 to 159 in 1994, an increase of 29 percent (Figure 2.9). 
              Vehicles manufactured in 1994, with an average of 159 horsepower, 
              had the highest horsepower rating in at least 20 years, a rating 
              markedly higher than the 20-year low-point of 102 horsepower in 
              1981.
            Graphic:Figure 2.9 Vehicle Performance for Model Years 1980-1995 (Index, 1980 = 100) Source: 
              Environmental Protection Agency,*Light-Duty Automotive Technology 
              and Fuel Economy Trends Through 1996*, EPA/AA/TDSG/96-01 (Washington, 
              DC, August 1996), Table 1.
            Similarly, 
              the time required for the average residential vehicle to accelerate 
              from 0 miles per hour to 60 miles per hour was reduced by 1.1 seconds, 
              from 12.8 seconds in 1988 to 11.7 seconds in 1994. The 11.7 seconds 
              time was the fastest in at least 20 years.(9)
            Over 
              the same 7 years, however, the average fuel economy of new vehicles 
              stagnated. Nevertheless, the average fuel economy of the residential 
              fleet rose somewhat, as new, more fuel-economic vehicles replaced 
              older, less fuel-economic vehicles (see Chapter 4).
            1.Energy Information Administration,*Annual Energy Review 
              1995*, DOE/EIA-0384(95) (Washington, DC, July 1996), Table 1.5.
            2.**1988**--Federal Highway Administration (FHA), 
              Highway Statistics 1988, FHWA-PL-89-003 (Washington, DC, September 
              1989), Table DL-1B. **1994**--FHA, Highway Statistics 
              1994, FHWA-PL-95-042 (Washington, DC, October 1995), Table DL-1B.
            3."Chained dollars" is a measure used to express real 
              prices. Real prices are those that have been adjusted to remove 
              the effect of changes in the purchasing power of the dollar; they 
              usually reflect buying power relative to a reference year (in this 
              case, 1992). Prior to 1996, real prices were expressed in constant 
              dollars, a measure based on the weights of goods and services in 
              a single year, usually a recent year. In 1996, the U.S. Department 
              of Commerce introduced the chained-dollar measure. The new measure 
              is based on the average weights of goods and services in successive 
              pairs of years. It is "chained" because the second year 
              in each pair, with its weights, becomes the first year of the next 
              pair. The advantage of using the chained-dollar measure is that 
              it is more closely related to any given period covered and is therefore 
              subject to less distortion over time.
            4.Energy Information Administration, *Annual Energy Review 
              1995*, DOE/EIA-0384(95) (Washington, DC, July 1996), Table 5.21.
            5.Energy Information Administration, *Household Energy Consumption 
              and Expenditures 1993*, DOE/EIA-0321(93) (Washington, DC, October 
              1995), p. 296.
            6.Energy Information Administration, *Annual Energy Review 
              1995*, DOE/EIA-0384(95) (Washington, DC, July 1996), Table 5.12b.
            7.International Trade Association, "Corporate Average Fuel 
              Economy Explained." Online. (http://www.ita.doc.gov/industry/basic/cafe.htm) 
              (March 5, 1997).
            8.Environmental Protection Agency,*Light-Duty Automotive Technology 
              and Fuel Economy Trends Through 1996*, EPA/AA/TDSG/96-01 (Washington, 
              DC, August 1996), Table 1.
            9.Environmental Protection Agency,*Light-Duty Automotive Technology 
              and Fuel Economy Trends Through 1996*, EPA/AA/TDSG/96-01 (Washington, 
              DC, August 1996), Table 1.
            File Last Modified: February 1, 2002If you are having any technical problems with this 
              site, please contact the EIA Webmaster at wmaster@eia.doe.gov | **Chapter 2. Vehicle Characteristics**
            U.S. 
              households used a fleet of nearly 157 million vehicles in 1994. 
              Despite remarkable growth in the number of minivans and sport-utility 
              vehicles, passenger cars continued to predominate in the residential 
              vehicle fleet. This chapter looks at changes in the composition 
              of the residential fleet in 1994 compared with earlier years and 
              reviews the effect of technological changes on fuel efficiency (how 
              efficiently a vehicle engine processes motor fuel) and fuel economy 
              (how far a vehicle travels on a given amount of fuel). Using data 
              unique to the Residential Transportation Energy Consumption Survey, 
              it also explores the relationship between residential vehicle use 
              and family income.
            **Changes 
                in the Composition of the Residential Fleet**
            The 
              number of vehicles in U.S. households rose from 148 million in 1988 
              to 157 million in 1994, an increase of 9 million vehicles. During 
              the same period, the U.S. population grew by almost 15 million persons 
              to 260 million.(1) The average annual 
              growth rates of both residential vehicles and population equaled 
              1.0 percent. The number of licensed drivers grew(2) 
              at an average annual rate of 1.2 percent, and, in 1994, there were 
              1.1 licensed drivers per residential vehicle, slightly more than 
              in 1988.
            Residential 
              vehicles continued to account for the majority of all U.S. vehicles. 
              Not surprisingly, the rate of increase in vehicles available for 
              use in households was approximately the same as the rate of increase 
              for the U.S. total vehicle stock (Figure 2.1).
            Graphic:Figure 2.1:Number of Vehicles, 1983, 1985, 1991, and 1994 Note: 
              U.S. total vehicles include motorcycles and buses, as well as other 
              nonresidential vehicles, which are excluded from the Residential 
              Transportation Energy Consumption Survey. Sources: **U.S. 
              Total Vehicles:** Energy Information Administration (EIA), 
              *Annual Energy Review 1995*, DOE/EIA-0384(95) (Washington, 
              DC, July 1996), Table 2.16. **Residential Vehicles:** 
              1983--EIA, *Consumption Patterns of Household Vehicles 1983*, 
              DOE/EIA-0464(83) (Washington, DC, January 1985), Table 11. 1985--EIA, 
              *Consumption Patterns of Household Vehicles 1985*, DOE/EIA-0464(85) 
              (Washington, DC, April 1987), Table 8. 1988--EIA, *Household 
              Vehicles Energy Consumption 1988*, DOE/EIA-0464(88) (Washington, 
              DC, February 1990), Table 6. 1991--EIA, *Household Vehicles Energy 
              Consumption 1991*, DOE/EIA-0464(91) (Washington, DC, December 
              1993), Table 8. 1994--Table 5.1 in this report.
            A 
              Growing Number of Passenger Cars Were Replaced by Light Trucks
            The 
              number of passenger cars in U.S. households was 106 million in 1994 
              (Figure 2.2). At a 68-percent share, passenger cars continued to 
              dominate the residential fleet, but not to the same extent as in 
              1988, when their share was 74 percent.
            Graphic:Figure2.2:Number of Residential Vehicles by Type, 1988 and 1994 Note: 
              Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. 
              
              Sources: 1988--Energy Information Administration, *Household 
              Vehicles Energy Consumption 1988*, DOE/EIA-0464(88) (Washington, 
              DC, February 1990), Table 6. 1994--Table 5.1 in this report.
            In 
              contrast, there was remarkable growth in the number of household 
              vehicles categorized as light trucks, particularly minivans. From 
              1988 through 1994, the number of light trucks in the residential 
              fleet increased by an estimated 12 million, which more than compensated 
              for the apparent decline in the number of passenger cars.
            The 
              number of **minivans** grew dramatically. It rose from 
              2.2 million in 1988 to 8.1 million in 1994, an increase of 268 percent 
              (Figure 2.3). Minivans, introduced into the market in the mid-1980's, 
              accounted for nearly 1 in 20 residential vehicles in 1994.
            Graphic:Figure 2.3 Change in Number of Residential Vehicles by Type, 1988 to 1994 Sources: 
              1988--Energy Information Administration, *Household Vehicles 
              Energy Consumption 1988*, DOE/EIA-0464(88) (Washington, DC, 
              February 1990), Table 6. 1994--Table 5.1 in this report.
            Text Box:How Do Passenger Cars Differ from Light Trucks?
            **Sport-utility 
              vehicles**, termed "jeep-like" vehicles in the 
              1988 survey, also increased in number at a remarkable rate. From 
              1988 through 1994, they rose 98 percent to 9.5 million.
            **Pickup 
              trucks** were the most prevalent of the light trucks on the 
              road. Almost 1 in 5 residential vehicles in 1994 was a pickup truck. 
              In 1994, the number of pickup trucks totaled 29 million.
            The 
              only type of light truck estimated to have declined over the period 
              was the **large van**. The large van share of the residential 
              fleet fell from 3 percent in 1988 to 2 percent in 1994 when large 
              vans numbered 3.4 million.
            Throughout 
              the 7-year period of 1988 through 1994, inflation-adjusted prices 
              of motor fuel (motor gasoline and diesel fuel) were well below the 
              peak prices of the early 1980's. For example, at its peak in 1981, 
              the adjusted price (in chained [1992] dollars(3) and including taxes) of unleaded regular motor 
              gasoline was $2.09 per gallon, whereas in 1994 the comparable price 
              was $1.06.(4)
            When 
              motor fuel prices are relatively low, consumers have less incentive 
              for choosing vehicles with higher fuel economy ratings. And, in 
              fact, consumer preference for light trucks, which have significantly 
              lower fuel economy ratings than do passenger cars, was one factor 
              leading to the decline in the number of passenger cars. A second 
              factor contributing to the increase in light trucks' share of the 
              residential fleet was the continuing tendency of householders to 
              keep older light trucks in operation while retiring older passenger 
              cars. Those factors had their greatest effect in the West, where 
              light trucks make up a higher percentage of the residential vehicle 
              fleet than in other regions.
            **Consumer 
              Preference for Light Trucks Increased**
            Total 
              sales of new light trucks to all sectors rose during the 1980's 
              and 1990's (Figure 2.4). For model year 1995, 5.7 million light 
              trucks were sold, more than ever before and nearly three times the 
              number of sales for model year 1980. Although sales of new passenger 
              cars fluctuated and rose as high as 11 million for model year 1986, 
              for model year
            Graphic:Figure 2.4 Sales of New Passenger Cars and New Light Trucks for Model Years 1980-1995 Source: 
              Federal Highway Administration, *Summary of Fuel Economy Performance*(Washington, DC, April 1996), p. 3.
            1995 
              sales of 9.2 million were about the same as they had been for model 
              year 1980 (9.4 million). For model year 1995, therefore, light trucks 
              accounted for slightly more than one-third of total sales.
            Sales 
              data disaggregated by sector are not available, but changes in the 
              composition of the residential fleet, as noted above, clearly reflect 
              householders' growing preference for light trucks. That preference 
              restrained the increase in the fuel economy of the residential fleet 
              as a whole (see Chapter 4).
            **Light 
              Trucks Were Kept in Operation Longer**
            Although 
              the number of old passenger cars in the residential fleet declined 
              rapidly from 1988 through 1994, old light trucks, particularly pickup 
              trucks and large vans, were taken out of service at a slower rate. 
              For example, the number of passenger cars of model year 1982 or 
              earlier fell from 57 million in 1988 to 20 million in 1994, meaning 
              that about two-thirds of those older passenger cars were retired 
              from the residential fleet over the 7-year period (Figure 2.5). 
              By comparison, the number of pre-1983 light trucks fell from 21 
              million to 11 million, meaning that only about one-half were retired.
            Graphic:Figure 2.5 Number of Pre-1983 Residential Vehicles by Type, 1988 ,1991, and 1994 Sources: 
              1988--Energy Information Administration (EIA), *Household Vehicles 
              Energy Consumption 1988*, DOE/EIA-0464(88) (Washington, DC, 
              February 1990), Table 9. 1991--EIA, *Household Vehicles Energy 
              Consumption 1991*, DOE/EIA-0464(91) (Washington, DC, December 
              1993), Table 11. 1994--Table 5.4 in this report.
            The 
              tendency to retain old light trucks led to a difference in the average 
              age of light trucks and passenger cars. In the 1994 fleet, the average 
              age of passengers cars was 8.1 years. Light trucks as a group averaged 
              8.5 years, but there was wide variation in the average age of different 
              types of light trucks. For example, pickup trucks and large vans 
              were, on average, 9.9 years old, whereas sport-utility vehicles 
              averaged 6.6 years and minivans averaged 4.8 years.
            Light 
              Trucks Were Most Prevalent in the West
            In 
              1994, the western fleet had a high ratio of light trucks to passenger 
              cars. Light trucks made up 37 percent of the residential fleet in 
              the West, compared with 33 percent in the South, 30 percent in the 
              Midwest, and 26 percent in the Northeast (Figure 2.6).
            Graphic:Figure 2.6 Light Trucks' Share of Each Region's Residential Fleet, 1994 (Percent)
            Source: Table 5.16 in this report. The 
              national tendency to keep old trucks in service longer than old 
              cars meant that in the West old residential vehicles as a whole 
              were taken out of service at a slower rate than in the other regions 
              of the country. For example, vehicles of model year 1988 or earlier 
              accounted for a 64-percent share of all of the residential vehicles 
              in the West. In the other regions of the country, the shares were 
              lower: 59 percent in the Midwest and 57 percent each in the South 
              and Northeast.
            The 
              rural nature of much of the West may have contributed to the prevalence 
              of light trucks in the region. In general, rural areas had a higher 
              ratio of light trucks to passenger cars than did urban areas. Even 
              California, the most populous State in the West, had a ratio above 
              the national average. In California, 1 of every 3 residential vehicles 
              was a light truck. In contrast, in New York fewer than 1 in 4 was.
            **Residential Vehicles at 
              the Household Level**
            In 1994, the 156.8 million residential vehicles 
              were divided among the 84.9 million households that had at least 
              one vehicle, meaning that each of those households had an average 
              of about 1.8 vehicles. Despite the increase in the total number 
              of vehicles in the residential fleet from 1988 to 1994, the average 
              number of vehicles per household remained at 1.8 because the growth 
              in the number of households kept pace with the growth in the number 
              of vehicles. An additional 12.5 million households, including many 
              of the poorest households, had no vehicles.
            **Lower-Income Households Had Fewer Vehicles 
              in 1994**
            Lower-income households--those with annual family 
              incomes below $25,000--had, on average, 1.5 vehicles in 1994. Not 
              surprisingly, households with annual family incomes of $25,000 or 
              above had more vehicles--2.1, on average
            **More Households in 1994 Had No Vehicles**
            In 1988 and 1991, the number of households without 
              vehicles remained at about 10 million, even though the total number 
              of households rose 3.0 million from 1988 to 1991. In 1991, the share 
              of households without vehicles was 10.6 percent.
            In 1994, by contrast, the share of households without 
              vehicles jumped to 12.7 percent. The total number of households 
              rose 2.7 million from 1991 to 1994, while the number of households 
              without vehicles rose 2.5 million.
            The lowest-income households accounted for 83 percent 
              of the total increase in the number of households without vehicles. 
              (The lowest-income households are those categorized as eligible 
              for Federal assistance because their income is lower than 150 percent 
              of the national poverty line or 60 percent of statewide median income, 
              whichever is higher.(5)) In 1994, 30 percent of the Nation's lowest-income 
              households were without vehicles, compared with a national average 
              for all households of 13 percent.
            **Changes in Residential Vehicle Technology**
            The transportation sector relies almost entirely on petroleum. 
              Because it also accounts for about two-thirds of U.S. total petroleum 
              demand,(6) passenger cars and light 
              trucks became a focus of efforts to use petroleum more efficiently, 
              thereby restraining demand.
            The Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 required passenger 
              car and light truck manufacturers to meet corporate average fuel 
              economy (CAFE) standards applied on a fleet-wide basis for each 
              manufacturer.(7) The CAFE standards, 
              higher fuel prices in the 1970's and 1980's, and environmental quality 
              initiatives such as the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 all contributed 
              to increasing the demand for more fuel-efficient vehicles.
            In turn, the demand for more fuel-efficient vehicles spurred improvements 
              in existing technologies and the development of new technologies. 
              For example, using lighter-weight materials and reducing the size 
              of vehicles led to lighter vehicles that consumed less fuel per 
              mile.
            Many improvements occurred in engine technology. Increasing the 
              number of valves per cylinder resulted in increased performance 
              from smaller, more fuel-efficient engines. Increasing the number 
              of gears in manual and automatic transmissions allowed engines to 
              operate at peak efficiency more of the time. Similarly, using lockup 
              torque converters to allow direct drive under some driving conditions 
              also increased fuel economy.
            One of the most far-reaching improvements in engine technology 
              concerned fuel injection, which was available but not widely used 
              prior to the mid-1980's. Valued for its greater fuel economy, as 
              well as for its ability to control carbon monoxide emissions and 
              to improve engine performance, fuel injection technology began to 
              penetrate the fleet during the 1980's, and it was improved to such 
              an extent that after 1990 virtually all new light-duty vehicles 
              were equipped with fuel injection instead of carburetors. By 1994, 
              the trend toward the use of fuel injection rather than carburetors 
              for fuel metering had brought the share of residential vehicles 
              using fuel injection to nearly half of the total residential fleet. 
              That share will increase rapidly in future years as older vehicles 
              are retired.
            **Engine Size Shrank and Then Increased Slowly**
            For model year 1975 (the year in which CAFE standards were first 
              mandated), residential vehicle engine size averaged 293 cubic inches 
              of displacement.(8) Twelve years 
              later, the engines were much smaller. Model year 1987 engines averaged 
              175 cubic inches (Figure 2.7). Thereafter, engine size trended upward, 
              reaching an average of 198 cubic inches of displacement for model 
              year 1995.
             
            Graphic:Figure 2.7 Average Engine Size for Residential Vehicles for Model Years 1980-1995 Sources: 
              **New Vehicle Averages:** Environmental Protection 
              Agency,*Light-Duty Automotive Technology and Fuel Economy Trends 
              Through 1996*, EPA/AA/TDSG/96-01 (Washington, DC, August 1996), 
              Table 1. **Fleet Averages:** Energy Information Administration 
              calculations made on the basis of data from the Residential Transportation 
              Energy Consumption Survey 1988, 1991, and 1994, March 17, 1997.
            As 
              is generally the case, changes in the residential vehicle fleet 
              as a whole lagged the changes by model year. Of the 3 years for 
              which fleet data are available, 1991 had the lowest average engine 
              size (despite an upward trend in the 4 preceding model years). In 
              1994, the fleet average was 227 cubic inches, while the 1994 model 
              year average was 196.
            **Engines 
              Averaged Fewer Cylinders**
            Meanwhile, 
              the average number of cylinders in residential vehicle engines was 
              decreasing. In 1988, 55 million vehicles, over one-third of the 
              total residential fleet, had 8-cylinder engines. In 1994, 8-cylinder 
              engines were found in only about 42 million vehicles, just over 
              one-fourth of the total (Figure 2.8).
            Graphic:Figure 2.8 Number of Cylinders in Residential Vehicles Engines, 1988 and 1994 Sources: 
              1988--Energy Information Administration, *Household Vehicles 
              Energy Consumption 1988*, DOE/EIA-0464(88) (Washington, DC, 
              February 1990), Table 6. 1994--Table 5.1 in this report.
            The 
              trend over the 7-year period was toward more 4- and 6-cylinder engines. 
              In 1994, 4-cylinder engines were the most common (62 million out 
              of a total of 157 million), but the 52 million 6-cylinder engines 
              represented the greatest increase (45 percent) relative to the 1988 
              level.
            **Power 
              and Performance Improved but Fuel Economy Stagnated**
            The 
              improvements in residential vehicle technology allowed for improvements 
              in performance despite shrinking or relatively stable engine size. 
              However, improved performance came at the expense of improvements 
              in fuel economy. For example, technical improvement in the efficiency 
              of engines can be used to provide increased acceleration or smaller, 
              lighter engines with better fuel economy.
            The 
              effect of the improvements was particularly noticeable over the 
              1988-to-1994 period, when engine size stayed at or below 198 cubic 
              inches of displacement but power and performance rose markedly. 
              For example, the average horsepower of new vehicles rose from 123 
              in 1988 to 159 in 1994, an increase of 29 percent (Figure 2.9). 
              Vehicles manufactured in 1994, with an average of 159 horsepower, 
              had the highest horsepower rating in at least 20 years, a rating 
              markedly higher than the 20-year low-point of 102 horsepower in 
              1981.
            Graphic:Figure 2.9 Vehicle Performance for Model Years 1980-1995 (Index, 1980 = 100) Source: 
              Environmental Protection Agency,*Light-Duty Automotive Technology 
              and Fuel Economy Trends Through 1996*, EPA/AA/TDSG/96-01 (Washington, 
              DC, August 1996), Table 1.
            Similarly, 
              the time required for the average residential vehicle to accelerate 
              from 0 miles per hour to 60 miles per hour was reduced by 1.1 seconds, 
              from 12.8 seconds in 1988 to 11.7 seconds in 1994. The 11.7 seconds 
              time was the fastest in at least 20 years.(9)
            Over 
              the same 7 years, however, the average fuel economy of new vehicles 
              stagnated. Nevertheless, the average fuel economy of the residential 
              fleet rose somewhat, as new, more fuel-economic vehicles replaced 
              older, less fuel-economic vehicles (see Chapter 4).
            1.Energy Information Administration,*Annual Energy Review 
              1995*, DOE/EIA-0384(95) (Washington, DC, July 1996), Table 1.5.
            2.**1988**--Federal Highway Administration (FHA), 
              Highway Statistics 1988, FHWA-PL-89-003 (Washington, DC, September 
              1989), Table DL-1B. **1994**--FHA, Highway Statistics 
              1994, FHWA-PL-95-042 (Washington, DC, October 1995), Table DL-1B.
            3."Chained dollars" is a measure used to express real 
              prices. Real prices are those that have been adjusted to remove 
              the effect of changes in the purchasing power of the dollar; they 
              usually reflect buying power relative to a reference year (in this 
              case, 1992). Prior to 1996, real prices were expressed in constant 
              dollars, a measure based on the weights of goods and services in 
              a single year, usually a recent year. In 1996, the U.S. Department 
              of Commerce introduced the chained-dollar measure. The new measure 
              is based on the average weights of goods and services in successive 
              pairs of years. It is "chained" because the second year 
              in each pair, with its weights, becomes the first year of the next 
              pair. The advantage of using the chained-dollar measure is that 
              it is more closely related to any given period covered and is therefore 
              subject to less distortion over time.
            4.Energy Information Administration, *Annual Energy Review 
              1995*, DOE/EIA-0384(95) (Washington, DC, July 1996), Table 5.21.
            5.Energy Information Administration, *Household Energy Consumption 
              and Expenditures 1993*, DOE/EIA-0321(93) (Washington, DC, October 
              1995), p. 296.
            6.Energy Information Administration, *Annual Energy Review 
              1995*, DOE/EIA-0384(95) (Washington, DC, July 1996), Table 5.12b.
            7.International Trade Association, "Corporate Average Fuel 
              Economy Explained." Online. (http://www.ita.doc.gov/industry/basic/cafe.htm) 
              (March 5, 1997).
            8.Environmental Protection Agency,*Light-Duty Automotive Technology 
              and Fuel Economy Trends Through 1996*, EPA/AA/TDSG/96-01 (Washington, 
              DC, August 1996), Table 1.
            9.Environmental Protection Agency,*Light-Duty Automotive Technology 
              and Fuel Economy Trends Through 1996*, EPA/AA/TDSG/96-01 (Washington, 
              DC, August 1996), Table 1.
            File Last Modified: February 1, 2002If you are having any technical problems with this 
              site, please contact the EIA Webmaster at wmaster@eia.doe.gov
|**Chapter 2. Vehicle Characteristics**
            U.S. 
              households used a fleet of nearly 157 million vehicles in 1994. 
              Despite remarkable growth in the number of minivans and sport-utility 
              vehicles, passenger cars continued to predominate in the residential 
              vehicle fleet. This chapter looks at changes in the composition 
              of the residential fleet in 1994 compared with earlier years and 
              reviews the effect of technological changes on fuel efficiency (how 
              efficiently a vehicle engine processes motor fuel) and fuel economy 
              (how far a vehicle travels on a given amount of fuel). Using data 
              unique to the Residential Transportation Energy Consumption Survey, 
              it also explores the relationship between residential vehicle use 
              and family income.
            **Changes 
                in the Composition of the Residential Fleet**
            The 
              number of vehicles in U.S. households rose from 148 million in 1988 
              to 157 million in 1994, an increase of 9 million vehicles. During 
              the same period, the U.S. population grew by almost 15 million persons 
              to 260 million.(1) The average annual 
              growth rates of both residential vehicles and population equaled 
              1.0 percent. The number of licensed drivers grew(2) 
              at an average annual rate of 1.2 percent, and, in 1994, there were 
              1.1 licensed drivers per residential vehicle, slightly more than 
              in 1988.
            Residential 
              vehicles continued to account for the majority of all U.S. vehicles. 
              Not surprisingly, the rate of increase in vehicles available for 
              use in households was approximately the same as the rate of increase 
              for the U.S. total vehicle stock (Figure 2.1).
            Graphic:Figure 2.1:Number of Vehicles, 1983, 1985, 1991, and 1994 Note: 
              U.S. total vehicles include motorcycles and buses, as well as other 
              nonresidential vehicles, which are excluded from the Residential 
              Transportation Energy Consumption Survey. Sources: **U.S. 
              Total Vehicles:** Energy Information Administration (EIA), 
              *Annual Energy Review 1995*, DOE/EIA-0384(95) (Washington, 
              DC, July 1996), Table 2.16. **Residential Vehicles:** 
              1983--EIA, *Consumption Patterns of Household Vehicles 1983*, 
              DOE/EIA-0464(83) (Washington, DC, January 1985), Table 11. 1985--EIA, 
              *Consumption Patterns of Household Vehicles 1985*, DOE/EIA-0464(85) 
              (Washington, DC, April 1987), Table 8. 1988--EIA, *Household 
              Vehicles Energy Consumption 1988*, DOE/EIA-0464(88) (Washington, 
              DC, February 1990), Table 6. 1991--EIA, *Household Vehicles Energy 
              Consumption 1991*, DOE/EIA-0464(91) (Washington, DC, December 
              1993), Table 8. 1994--Table 5.1 in this report.
            A 
              Growing Number of Passenger Cars Were Replaced by Light Trucks
            The 
              number of passenger cars in U.S. households was 106 million in 1994 
              (Figure 2.2). At a 68-percent share, passenger cars continued to 
              dominate the residential fleet, but not to the same extent as in 
              1988, when their share was 74 percent.
            Graphic:Figure2.2:Number of Residential Vehicles by Type, 1988 and 1994 Note: 
              Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. 
              
              Sources: 1988--Energy Information Administration, *Household 
              Vehicles Energy Consumption 1988*, DOE/EIA-0464(88) (Washington, 
              DC, February 1990), Table 6. 1994--Table 5.1 in this report.
            In 
              contrast, there was remarkable growth in the number of household 
              vehicles categorized as light trucks, particularly minivans. From 
              1988 through 1994, the number of light trucks in the residential 
              fleet increased by an estimated 12 million, which more than compensated 
              for the apparent decline in the number of passenger cars.
            The 
              number of **minivans** grew dramatically. It rose from 
              2.2 million in 1988 to 8.1 million in 1994, an increase of 268 percent 
              (Figure 2.3). Minivans, introduced into the market in the mid-1980's, 
              accounted for nearly 1 in 20 residential vehicles in 1994.
            Graphic:Figure 2.3 Change in Number of Residential Vehicles by Type, 1988 to 1994 Sources: 
              1988--Energy Information Administration, *Household Vehicles 
              Energy Consumption 1988*, DOE/EIA-0464(88) (Washington, DC, 
              February 1990), Table 6. 1994--Table 5.1 in this report.
            Text Box:How Do Passenger Cars Differ from Light Trucks?
            **Sport-utility 
              vehicles**, termed "jeep-like" vehicles in the 
              1988 survey, also increased in number at a remarkable rate. From 
              1988 through 1994, they rose 98 percent to 9.5 million.
            **Pickup 
              trucks** were the most prevalent of the light trucks on the 
              road. Almost 1 in 5 residential vehicles in 1994 was a pickup truck. 
              In 1994, the number of pickup trucks totaled 29 million.
            The 
              only type of light truck estimated to have declined over the period 
              was the **large van**. The large van share of the residential 
              fleet fell from 3 percent in 1988 to 2 percent in 1994 when large 
              vans numbered 3.4 million.
            Throughout 
              the 7-year period of 1988 through 1994, inflation-adjusted prices 
              of motor fuel (motor gasoline and diesel fuel) were well below the 
              peak prices of the early 1980's. For example, at its peak in 1981, 
              the adjusted price (in chained [1992] dollars(3) and including taxes) of unleaded regular motor 
              gasoline was $2.09 per gallon, whereas in 1994 the comparable price 
              was $1.06.(4)
            When 
              motor fuel prices are relatively low, consumers have less incentive 
              for choosing vehicles with higher fuel economy ratings. And, in 
              fact, consumer preference for light trucks, which have significantly 
              lower fuel economy ratings than do passenger cars, was one factor 
              leading to the decline in the number of passenger cars. A second 
              factor contributing to the increase in light trucks' share of the 
              residential fleet was the continuing tendency of householders to 
              keep older light trucks in operation while retiring older passenger 
              cars. Those factors had their greatest effect in the West, where 
              light trucks make up a higher percentage of the residential vehicle 
              fleet than in other regions.
            **Consumer 
              Preference for Light Trucks Increased**
            Total 
              sales of new light trucks to all sectors rose during the 1980's 
              and 1990's (Figure 2.4). For model year 1995, 5.7 million light 
              trucks were sold, more than ever before and nearly three times the 
              number of sales for model year 1980. Although sales of new passenger 
              cars fluctuated and rose as high as 11 million for model year 1986, 
              for model year
            Graphic:Figure 2.4 Sales of New Passenger Cars and New Light Trucks for Model Years 1980-1995 Source: 
              Federal Highway Administration, *Summary of Fuel Economy Performance*(Washington, DC, April 1996), p. 3.
            1995 
              sales of 9.2 million were about the same as they had been for model 
              year 1980 (9.4 million). For model year 1995, therefore, light trucks 
              accounted for slightly more than one-third of total sales.
            Sales 
              data disaggregated by sector are not available, but changes in the 
              composition of the residential fleet, as noted above, clearly reflect 
              householders' growing preference for light trucks. That preference 
              restrained the increase in the fuel economy of the residential fleet 
              as a whole (see Chapter 4).
            **Light 
              Trucks Were Kept in Operation Longer**
            Although 
              the number of old passenger cars in the residential fleet declined 
              rapidly from 1988 through 1994, old light trucks, particularly pickup 
              trucks and large vans, were taken out of service at a slower rate. 
              For example, the number of passenger cars of model year 1982 or 
              earlier fell from 57 million in 1988 to 20 million in 1994, meaning 
              that about two-thirds of those older passenger cars were retired 
              from the residential fleet over the 7-year period (Figure 2.5). 
              By comparison, the number of pre-1983 light trucks fell from 21 
              million to 11 million, meaning that only about one-half were retired.
            Graphic:Figure 2.5 Number of Pre-1983 Residential Vehicles by Type, 1988 ,1991, and 1994 Sources: 
              1988--Energy Information Administration (EIA), *Household Vehicles 
              Energy Consumption 1988*, DOE/EIA-0464(88) (Washington, DC, 
              February 1990), Table 9. 1991--EIA, *Household Vehicles Energy 
              Consumption 1991*, DOE/EIA-0464(91) (Washington, DC, December 
              1993), Table 11. 1994--Table 5.4 in this report.
            The 
              tendency to retain old light trucks led to a difference in the average 
              age of light trucks and passenger cars. In the 1994 fleet, the average 
              age of passengers cars was 8.1 years. Light trucks as a group averaged 
              8.5 years, but there was wide variation in the average age of different 
              types of light trucks. For example, pickup trucks and large vans 
              were, on average, 9.9 years old, whereas sport-utility vehicles 
              averaged 6.6 years and minivans averaged 4.8 years.
            Light 
              Trucks Were Most Prevalent in the West
            In 
              1994, the western fleet had a high ratio of light trucks to passenger 
              cars. Light trucks made up 37 percent of the residential fleet in 
              the West, compared with 33 percent in the South, 30 percent in the 
              Midwest, and 26 percent in the Northeast (Figure 2.6).
            Graphic:Figure 2.6 Light Trucks' Share of Each Region's Residential Fleet, 1994 (Percent)
            Source: Table 5.16 in this report. The 
              national tendency to keep old trucks in service longer than old 
              cars meant that in the West old residential vehicles as a whole 
              were taken out of service at a slower rate than in the other regions 
              of the country. For example, vehicles of model year 1988 or earlier 
              accounted for a 64-percent share of all of the residential vehicles 
              in the West. In the other regions of the country, the shares were 
              lower: 59 percent in the Midwest and 57 percent each in the South 
              and Northeast.
            The 
              rural nature of much of the West may have contributed to the prevalence 
              of light trucks in the region. In general, rural areas had a higher 
              ratio of light trucks to passenger cars than did urban areas. Even 
              California, the most populous State in the West, had a ratio above 
              the national average. In California, 1 of every 3 residential vehicles 
              was a light truck. In contrast, in New York fewer than 1 in 4 was.
            **Residential Vehicles at 
              the Household Level**
            In 1994, the 156.8 million residential vehicles 
              were divided among the 84.9 million households that had at least 
              one vehicle, meaning that each of those households had an average 
              of about 1.8 vehicles. Despite the increase in the total number 
              of vehicles in the residential fleet from 1988 to 1994, the average 
              number of vehicles per household remained at 1.8 because the growth 
              in the number of households kept pace with the growth in the number 
              of vehicles. An additional 12.5 million households, including many 
              of the poorest households, had no vehicles.
            **Lower-Income Households Had Fewer Vehicles 
              in 1994**
            Lower-income households--those with annual family 
              incomes below $25,000--had, on average, 1.5 vehicles in 1994. Not 
              surprisingly, households with annual family incomes of $25,000 or 
              above had more vehicles--2.1, on average
            **More Households in 1994 Had No Vehicles**
            In 1988 and 1991, the number of households without 
              vehicles remained at about 10 million, even though the total number 
              of households rose 3.0 million from 1988 to 1991. In 1991, the share 
              of households without vehicles was 10.6 percent.
            In 1994, by contrast, the share of households without 
              vehicles jumped to 12.7 percent. The total number of households 
              rose 2.7 million from 1991 to 1994, while the number of households 
              without vehicles rose 2.5 million.
            The lowest-income households accounted for 83 percent 
              of the total increase in the number of households without vehicles. 
              (The lowest-income households are those categorized as eligible 
              for Federal assistance because their income is lower than 150 percent 
              of the national poverty line or 60 percent of statewide median income, 
              whichever is higher.(5)) In 1994, 30 percent of the Nation's lowest-income 
              households were without vehicles, compared with a national average 
              for all households of 13 percent.
            **Changes in Residential Vehicle Technology**
            The transportation sector relies almost entirely on petroleum. 
              Because it also accounts for about two-thirds of U.S. total petroleum 
              demand,(6) passenger cars and light 
              trucks became a focus of efforts to use petroleum more efficiently, 
              thereby restraining demand.
            The Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 required passenger 
              car and light truck manufacturers to meet corporate average fuel 
              economy (CAFE) standards applied on a fleet-wide basis for each 
              manufacturer.(7) The CAFE standards, 
              higher fuel prices in the 1970's and 1980's, and environmental quality 
              initiatives such as the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 all contributed 
              to increasing the demand for more fuel-efficient vehicles.
            In turn, the demand for more fuel-efficient vehicles spurred improvements 
              in existing technologies and the development of new technologies. 
              For example, using lighter-weight materials and reducing the size 
              of vehicles led to lighter vehicles that consumed less fuel per 
              mile.
            Many improvements occurred in engine technology. Increasing the 
              number of valves per cylinder resulted in increased performance 
              from smaller, more fuel-efficient engines. Increasing the number 
              of gears in manual and automatic transmissions allowed engines to 
              operate at peak efficiency more of the time. Similarly, using lockup 
              torque converters to allow direct drive under some driving conditions 
              also increased fuel economy.
            One of the most far-reaching improvements in engine technology 
              concerned fuel injection, which was available but not widely used 
              prior to the mid-1980's. Valued for its greater fuel economy, as 
              well as for its ability to control carbon monoxide emissions and 
              to improve engine performance, fuel injection technology began to 
              penetrate the fleet during the 1980's, and it was improved to such 
              an extent that after 1990 virtually all new light-duty vehicles 
              were equipped with fuel injection instead of carburetors. By 1994, 
              the trend toward the use of fuel injection rather than carburetors 
              for fuel metering had brought the share of residential vehicles 
              using fuel injection to nearly half of the total residential fleet. 
              That share will increase rapidly in future years as older vehicles 
              are retired.
            **Engine Size Shrank and Then Increased Slowly**
            For model year 1975 (the year in which CAFE standards were first 
              mandated), residential vehicle engine size averaged 293 cubic inches 
              of displacement.(8) Twelve years 
              later, the engines were much smaller. Model year 1987 engines averaged 
              175 cubic inches (Figure 2.7). Thereafter, engine size trended upward, 
              reaching an average of 198 cubic inches of displacement for model 
              year 1995.
             
            Graphic:Figure 2.7 Average Engine Size for Residential Vehicles for Model Years 1980-1995 Sources: 
              **New Vehicle Averages:** Environmental Protection 
              Agency,*Light-Duty Automotive Technology and Fuel Economy Trends 
              Through 1996*, EPA/AA/TDSG/96-01 (Washington, DC, August 1996), 
              Table 1. **Fleet Averages:** Energy Information Administration 
              calculations made on the basis of data from the Residential Transportation 
              Energy Consumption Survey 1988, 1991, and 1994, March 17, 1997.
            As 
              is generally the case, changes in the residential vehicle fleet 
              as a whole lagged the changes by model year. Of the 3 years for 
              which fleet data are available, 1991 had the lowest average engine 
              size (despite an upward trend in the 4 preceding model years). In 
              1994, the fleet average was 227 cubic inches, while the 1994 model 
              year average was 196.
            **Engines 
              Averaged Fewer Cylinders**
            Meanwhile, 
              the average number of cylinders in residential vehicle engines was 
              decreasing. In 1988, 55 million vehicles, over one-third of the 
              total residential fleet, had 8-cylinder engines. In 1994, 8-cylinder 
              engines were found in only about 42 million vehicles, just over 
              one-fourth of the total (Figure 2.8).
            Graphic:Figure 2.8 Number of Cylinders in Residential Vehicles Engines, 1988 and 1994 Sources: 
              1988--Energy Information Administration, *Household Vehicles 
              Energy Consumption 1988*, DOE/EIA-0464(88) (Washington, DC, 
              February 1990), Table 6. 1994--Table 5.1 in this report.
            The 
              trend over the 7-year period was toward more 4- and 6-cylinder engines. 
              In 1994, 4-cylinder engines were the most common (62 million out 
              of a total of 157 million), but the 52 million 6-cylinder engines 
              represented the greatest increase (45 percent) relative to the 1988 
              level.
            **Power 
              and Performance Improved but Fuel Economy Stagnated**
            The 
              improvements in residential vehicle technology allowed for improvements 
              in performance despite shrinking or relatively stable engine size. 
              However, improved performance came at the expense of improvements 
              in fuel economy. For example, technical improvement in the efficiency 
              of engines can be used to provide increased acceleration or smaller, 
              lighter engines with better fuel economy.
            The 
              effect of the improvements was particularly noticeable over the 
              1988-to-1994 period, when engine size stayed at or below 198 cubic 
              inches of displacement but power and performance rose markedly. 
              For example, the average horsepower of new vehicles rose from 123 
              in 1988 to 159 in 1994, an increase of 29 percent (Figure 2.9). 
              Vehicles manufactured in 1994, with an average of 159 horsepower, 
              had the highest horsepower rating in at least 20 years, a rating 
              markedly higher than the 20-year low-point of 102 horsepower in 
              1981.
            Graphic:Figure 2.9 Vehicle Performance for Model Years 1980-1995 (Index, 1980 = 100) Source: 
              Environmental Protection Agency,*Light-Duty Automotive Technology 
              and Fuel Economy Trends Through 1996*, EPA/AA/TDSG/96-01 (Washington, 
              DC, August 1996), Table 1.
            Similarly, 
              the time required for the average residential vehicle to accelerate 
              from 0 miles per hour to 60 miles per hour was reduced by 1.1 seconds, 
              from 12.8 seconds in 1988 to 11.7 seconds in 1994. The 11.7 seconds 
              time was the fastest in at least 20 years.(9)
            Over 
              the same 7 years, however, the average fuel economy of new vehicles 
              stagnated. Nevertheless, the average fuel economy of the residential 
              fleet rose somewhat, as new, more fuel-economic vehicles replaced 
              older, less fuel-economic vehicles (see Chapter 4).
            1.Energy Information Administration,*Annual Energy Review 
              1995*, DOE/EIA-0384(95) (Washington, DC, July 1996), Table 1.5.
            2.**1988**--Federal Highway Administration (FHA), 
              Highway Statistics 1988, FHWA-PL-89-003 (Washington, DC, September 
              1989), Table DL-1B. **1994**--FHA, Highway Statistics 
              1994, FHWA-PL-95-042 (Washington, DC, October 1995), Table DL-1B.
            3."Chained dollars" is a measure used to express real 
              prices. Real prices are those that have been adjusted to remove 
              the effect of changes in the purchasing power of the dollar; they 
              usually reflect buying power relative to a reference year (in this 
              case, 1992). Prior to 1996, real prices were expressed in constant 
              dollars, a measure based on the weights of goods and services in 
              a single year, usually a recent year. In 1996, the U.S. Department 
              of Commerce introduced the chained-dollar measure. The new measure 
              is based on the average weights of goods and services in successive 
              pairs of years. It is "chained" because the second year 
              in each pair, with its weights, becomes the first year of the next 
              pair. The advantage of using the chained-dollar measure is that 
              it is more closely related to any given period covered and is therefore 
              subject to less distortion over time.
            4.Energy Information Administration, *Annual Energy Review 
              1995*, DOE/EIA-0384(95) (Washington, DC, July 1996), Table 5.21.
            5.Energy Information Administration, *Household Energy Consumption 
              and Expenditures 1993*, DOE/EIA-0321(93) (Washington, DC, October 
              1995), p. 296.
            6.Energy Information Administration, *Annual Energy Review 
              1995*, DOE/EIA-0384(95) (Washington, DC, July 1996), Table 5.12b.
            7.International Trade Association, "Corporate Average Fuel 
              Economy Explained." Online. (http://www.ita.doc.gov/industry/basic/cafe.htm) 
              (March 5, 1997).
            8.Environmental Protection Agency,*Light-Duty Automotive Technology 
              and Fuel Economy Trends Through 1996*, EPA/AA/TDSG/96-01 (Washington, 
              DC, August 1996), Table 1.
            9.Environmental Protection Agency,*Light-Duty Automotive Technology 
              and Fuel Economy Trends Through 1996*, EPA/AA/TDSG/96-01 (Washington, 
              DC, August 1996), Table 1.
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