Energy Information

Administration

Reducing Home Heating

and Cooling Costs

July 1994

SR/EMEU/94-01
CONTACTS

This report, Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs,

was prepared under the general direction of W. Calvin

Kilgore, Director of the Office of Energy Markets and End

Use. Specific technical information concerning the content

of the report may be obtained from John D. Pearson,

202-586-6162, through internet at jpearson@eia.doe.gov, or

via FAX at 202-586-9753. Detailed technical questions on

the topics indicated may be referred to the following

members of the technical staff:

Stephanie Battles Residential End-Use Data 202-586-7237 sbattles@eia.doe.gov

John Cymbalsky Residential End-Use Technologies 202-586-4815 jcymbals@eia.doe.gov

Michael Morris Health, Safety, and the Environment 202-586-1199 mmorris@eia.doe.gov

Henry S. Weigel Special Assistant to the Director 202-586-1571 jweigel@eia.doe.gov

ii Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs
PREFACE

This report is in response to a request from the House

Committee on Energy and Commerce that the Energy

Information Administration (EIA) undertake a neutral,

unbiased analysis of the cost, safety, and health and

environmental effects of the three major heating fuels:

heating oil, natural gas, and electricity. The Committee also

asked EIA to examine the role of conservation in the choice

of heating and cooling fuel.

To accommodate a wide audience, EIA decided to respond

to the Committee’s request in the context of a report on

reducing home heating and cooling costs. Accordingly, this

report discusses ways to weatherize the home, compares the

features of the three major heating and cooling fuels, and

comments on the types of heating and cooling systems on

the market. The report also includes a worksheet and

supporting tables that will help in the selection of a heating

and/or cooling system.

A number of organizations have provided substantial

assistance in the preparation of the report. In particular, the

authors wish to acknowledge the assistance and

contributions from the following organizations:

Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute

American Gas Association

Appliance Manufacturers Association

Citizen Action

Dorgan Associates

Edison Electric Institute

Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association

Petroleum Marketers Association of America

In response to a Federal Register Notice requesting

comments, the following organizations submitted

information and comments that were used in the preparation

of this report—Associated Electric Cooperative, Atlanta Gas

Light Company, Brooklyn Union Gas Company, Cardinal

Fiberglass Industries, Carolina Power and Light, Central and

South West Corporation, Columbia Gas, Con Edison,

Consumer Energy Council of America Foundation,

ElectriCities of North Carolina Incorporated, Empire District

Electric Company, Energy Kinetics, Walter Epp, Fiberglass

Petroleum Tank & Pipe Institute, Florida Power

Corporation, Henry Gluckstern Attorney and Counselor at

Law, Illinois Power Company, Metropolitan Gas Marketing

Group, Morgan, Lewis & Bockius Counselors at Law,

Nashville Electric Service, New York State Consumer

Protection Board, New York State Consumer Energy Office,

North Carolina Petroleum Marketers Association, Oil Heat

Task Force, Pacific Power, PacifiCorp, Petroleum Marketers

Association of America, PSI Energy, South Carolina

Electric & Gas Company, Southern California Edison,

Southern California Gas Company, Union Electric

Company, and the Wisconsin State Energy Office.

Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs iii
CONTENTS

Home Heating and Cooling Costs: An Overview .............................................. 1

Weatherizing the Home ................................................................ 3

Air-Leakage Control ............................................................... 4

Insulation ....................................................................... 4

Weatherization Savings ............................................................. 6

Financial Assistance ................................................................ 7

Oil, Natural Gas, and Electricity: Comparison of Major Features ................................. 8

Cost ........................................................................... 8

Safety ......................................................................... 9

Health Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Environmental Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Choosing a Heating and Cooling System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Oil Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Gas Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Retrofitting Older Oil and Gas Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Electric Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Air-Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Appendices

A. Comparing Costs of Heating and Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

B. Tables of Heating and Cooling Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

C. Calculations in This Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Works Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Tables

1. Recommended R-Values for Existing Houses in Eight Insulation Zones in the United States .............. 5

2. Average Cost of Weatherization and Resulting Savings for Homes in the Department of Energy

Weatherization Program .............................................................. 6

A1. Worksheet for Comparing Heating and Cooling Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

B1. Annual Cost of Oil Heat in Various Climates for a Range of Heating Oil Prices and System Efficiencies . . . . . 21

B2. Annual Cost of Gas Heat in Various Climates for a Range of Natural Gas Prices and System Efficiencies . . . . . 22

B3. Annual Cost of Heating or Cooling Using a Heat Pump in Various Climates for a Range of Electricity

Prices and System Efficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

B4. Annual Cost of Electric Furnace Heat for a Range of Electricity Prices and Heating Requirements . . . . . . . . . . 24

C1. Calculating Annual Heating Costs for an Oil or Gas Heating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

C2. Calculating Heating and Cooling with a Heat Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

C3. The Savings per $100 of Heating Bill from Upgrading a Furnace or Boiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

C4. The Savings per $100 of Heating or Cooling Bill from Upgraded Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

C5. A Year’s Worth of Emissions from Various Heating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs v
CONTENTS

Illustrations

1. U.S. Map Showing the Three Major Climate Zones ........................................... 1

2. Information Provided by an Energy Audit ................................................. 3

3. Eight Insulation Zones in the United States ................................................ 5

4. Typical Heating Bills for the Nation at Large, and for Three Specific Areas in December 1993 ............ 8

5. Fires, Deaths and Injuries per Year Caused by Home Central Heating Units, 1985-1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

6. Range of Typical Heating Bills for Oil Heat in 1993 by Climate and Unit Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

7. Range of Typical Heating Bills for Gas Heat in 1993 by Climate and Unit Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

8. Range of Typical Heating Bills in 1993 for Electric Heat by Climate and Unit Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

9. Range of Typical Cooling Bills in 1993 by Climate and Unit Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

vi Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs
HOME HEATING AND COOLING COSTS:

AN OVERVIEW

Moderate

Warm, little heating needed

Cold, little cooling needed

.

Figure 1. U.S. Map Showing the Three Major Climate Zones

Source: Energy Information Administration, Household Energy Consumption and Expenditures 1990,

DOE/EIA-0321(90), February 1993, p. 327.

Although the energy crisis of the late 1970’s

has passed, the costs of home heating and

cooling are still a concern to homeowners. The

homeowner’s fuel bill depends on four major

elements:

• The climate in which the house is located

• The amount of heat that escapes from the

house in winter or the amount of heat and

humidity that enters the house in the

summer

• The cost of the fuel used in the central

heating and cooling system

• The cost and efficiency of the central

heating and cooling system.

Climate is the biggest factor in determining

how much heating and cooling a house will

need. Although the climate and the fuel (to

some extent) are out of the homeowner’s control, they determine how the homeowner deals

with the other two elements. This report aims to

help homeowners manage those elements

effectively in order to reduce their home heating

and cooling costs. The report aims especially at

those homeowners whose central unit is

reaching the end of its useful life.

The United States can be divided into three

major climate zones based on a standard unit of

measure called a heating degree-day (Figure 1).

A heating degree-day (HDD) occurs when a

day’s outdoor temperature averages 64 degrees

Fahrenheit, just 1 degree below 65 degrees

Fahrenheit; a 10 HDD occurs when a day’s

temperature averages 55 degrees Fahrenheit.

The northern climate zone has more than 7,000

HDD; the middle climate zone has between

4,000 and 7,000 HDD; and the southern climate

zone has fewer than 4,000 HDD.

The home’s first line of defense against the

climate—the attic, basement, walls, windows,

and doors—should receive a periodic conservation checkup. Through weatherization—

Older and larger

homes lose more heat

in winter and thus

have higher heating

bills.

The zones are

representative of the

average climate. In

each climate zone,

there are cooler and

warmer areas that

result in higher or

lower heating bills.

Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs 1
HOME HEATING AND COOLING COSTS:

AN OVERVIEW

Fuel prices often

vary by county, and

no one fuel is

universally the least

expensive.

The most efficient

heating or cooling

system will result in

the lowest bills.

reducing air leakage and insulating the house

—homeowners can reduce their fuel bills

significantly.

The second most effective measure for

reducing fuel bills is to use the least expensive

fuel in the particular area in which the homeowners live. Contrary to what many fuel advertisers would have the public believe, no one

fuel is universally the least expensive. In some

areas, heating oil is the least expensive, whereas

in other areas, natural gas or electricity is the

least expensive.

Also contrary to the advertisements, a

homeowner’s primary consideration in selecting

a fuel should be its cost. None of the three fuels

has any significant advantage over the others in

terms of safety or health and environmental

impact; all three are safe, presenting relatively

few dangers to human health or the

environment.

Finally, a new, high-efficiency central heating

and cooling system will greatly reduce monthly

fuel bills. However, these systems are

expensive, and most homeowners will wait until

the poor performance and high repair bills for

the old system necessitate a replacement. When

they do reach that point, they will have many

choices—oil or gas furnaces or boilers, or

electric heat pumps. Most homeowners will

simplify this process by choosing the same type

of unit as the one they are replacing. However,

some may find it desirable to switch fuels or to

switch the type of heating unit. For example, in

some homes, the original heating unit may have

been fueled with oil simply because natural gas

was unavailable at the time. Since the

deregulation of natural gas in 1985, natural gas

heating units have become strong competitors

with oil heating units. In other areas, rebates

offered by local utilities may make a new type

of system desirable.

Having chosen the type of system, the homeowner must then consider its efficiency. Because of improved technology and strict Federal

standards, new heating and cooling systems on

the market are much more efficient than older

units. Generally, homeowners can save the most

over the life of the unit by buying the most

efficient system they can afford. To determine

their best option, homeowners should contact

their local appliance dealers and utilities to

determine the initial and operating costs of the

various units available. With these figures in

hand, they are ready to make an informed

choice as to the best system for their home.

Having weatherized their homes, selected the

least expensive fuel in their area, and selected

the most efficient heating system, homeowners

can realize much lower fuel bills. This report

attempts to provide some general guidance on

each of these measures, but few choices apply

in every region in the country. In the end, all

decisions about the relative merits of specific

types of weatherization, fuels, and equipment

are local ones.

2 Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs
WEATHERIZING THE HOME

Repairs

Low Cost

Measures

Diagnostics

Air

Leakage

Health

and Safety

Audit

Obstacles

Checking Heating and

Cooling Systems for

Fuel Leaks

Sealing

Cracks in

Walls, Windows

and Doors

Ensuring

Adequate Furnace

Ventilation

Checking for Heat Losses

and Leaks with Thermal

Detectors and Blower Doors

Clock

Thermostats,

Caulking

and Insulation

Repairing Windows and

Doors

Figure 2. Information Provided by an Energy Audit

Source: Marilyn Brown et al., National Impacts of the Weatherization Assistance Program in Single

Family and Small Multifamily Dwellings, ORNL/CON-326, U.S. Department of Energy, May 1993.

Before rushing out to buy a more efficient

heating system in hopes of reducing their

heating and cooling bills, homeowners should

first make sure that their home is adequately

weatherized. Home heating bills will be

high—no matter what fuel is used or how

efficient the heating-cooling system—if the

house has leaking windows, door frames, or

heating ducts, and poorly insulated walls, attics,

and crawlspaces.

Weatherizing the home can lower energy

consumption, which means lower monthly bills.

Based on a 1990 evaluation of the Department

of Energy Weatherization Program,

homeowners can expect weatherization to lower

their space heating consumption around 18

percent, at a contracted cost of about $1,710 in

1993 dollars. [2, p. 10.18] If the homeowners

want to do much of the work themselves, the

cost of weatherization can be even less.

To find out how energy efficient their home

is, homeowners may want to have a local utility

or an independent architect or engineer perform

an energy audit (Figure 2). Although the

independent audit will cost a great deal more

than a utility audit (which may even be free),

the homeowner may prefer the objectivity of an

independent person.

In addition to checking the efficiency of the

heating and cooling equipment (to be discussed

in the next chapter), the auditor will check for

drafts and faulty insulation. When the auditor

has finished an inspection, a written report will

usually be presented that recommends what

should be done and advises as to the likely

benefits and the estimated cost. This chapter

gives an overview of the recommended actions

that energy auditors often make, many of which

homeowners can implement themselves. [26]

Air-Leakage Control

The easiest way for a home to lose its warmth

or gain humidity is through leaks around doors

and windows; around openings in walls, floors,

and ceilings; and around heating ducts.

Homes need a

periodic tuneup to

reduce leaks and heat

losses and thereby

minimize heating

bills.

An energy auditor

has many tools to

detect air leaks and

heat losses.

Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs 3
WEATHERIZING THE HOME

Sealing leaks often

requires attention to

detail. A small leak

can lose a considerable quantity of heat

over the year.

The homeowner can stop many leaks from

windows and doors by caulking and weatherstripping. During periods of severe cold,

temporary sheet plastic storm windows fitted on

the inside of larger windows work well. If the

draft from the window is particularly bad and if

the window rattles or is loose, a new storm

window may have to be installed. However,

auditors of energy efficiency have found that

installing storm windows saves less energy than

other simpler and less costly conservation

measures. [2, p. 9.11]

In addition to caulking and weatherstripping,

doors may need to be adjusted or a draft stop

and edge seal added. In very cold and very hot

climates, a new storm door may be advisable,

but—like storm windows—storm doors may not

be cost effective.

Walls, floors, and ceilings may also provide

openings for drafts, especially at those points

where plumbing or electrical wiring passes to

the outside. Likely sources of drafts are around

electrical outlets and ceiling fixtures and at

openings to the attic.

Leaks around heating ducts can reduce the

amount of heated or cooled air delivered into

the living space. In many older houses with

forced-air furnaces, an estimated 20 percent of

the heated or cooled air is wasted. To compensate, homeowners turn up the thermostat to get

the heat they need or turn it down to get the

desired cooling, raising their heating-cooling

bills considerably. Sealing any duct leaks can

be a highly effective conservation measure.

Insulation

Many homes are losing a great deal of heat in

winter and letting in a great deal of heat in

summer because they lack proper insulation in

their attics, walls, ceilings, basements, and

crawlspaces.

Installing insulation in the attic is relatively

easy, a task many homeowners will choose to

do for themselves. However, they must take

care not to insulate over eave vents or on top of

recessed lighting fixtures or other heatproducing equipment on the attic floor, keeping

insulation at least 3 inches away from the sides

of these fixtures.

Insulating an attic will cost between $100 and

$1,000—depending on whether the attic already

has some insulation. Annual heating and cooling

savings should range from around 5 percent—if

insulation is being added to present

insulation—to as much as 30 percent if the attic

had no insulation at all. [22, p. 4]

The insulation of exterior walls is an

expensive measure that requires the services of

a contractor, but it may be cost effective for

houses in climates that are very hot (like Texas)

or very cold (like Minnesota). Costs range from

30 cents to $1.65 per square foot (about $1,500

for an average home), but savings could amount

to 20 percent of heating and cooling costs. [22,

p. 4]

In some older homes, the exterior walls are

not only uninsulated but the cavity between the

inside and outside walls is often open to both

the basement and the attic. As a result, a

circulating column of air conducts heat from the

basement, past the inner living space, up to the

attic, and out of the house. One study showed

that blowing high-density cellulose into the wall

cavity of an old house can reduce air leakage

by 50 percent. [2, p. 9.9]

4 Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs
WEATHERIZING THE HOME

Insulating floors over unheated spaces, such as

3

5

3

6

7 8

8

8

7 7

7

5

5

5

4

4

4

3

3

2

2

2

1

1

1

7

4

6

4

6

6

7

Figure 3. Eight Insulation Zones in the United States

Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Tips for Energy Savers, DOE/CE-231, October 1991.

Table 1. Recommended R-Values for Existing Houses in Eight Insulation Zones

in the United States

Insulation

Zone

(Figure 3)

Ceiling Below

Ventilated

Attics

Floors Over

Unheated

Crawlspaces,

Basements

Exterior Walls

(wood frame)

Crawlspace

Walls

1 19 - 30a 0 0 -11a 11

2 30 0 11 19

3 30 - 38 0 - 19a 11 19

4 30 - 38a 19 11 19

5 38 19 11 19

6 38 19 11 19

7 38 - 49a 19 11 19

8 49 19 11 19

_________________________________

a

Higher figures apply to homes with electric resistance heating units.

Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Tips for Energy Savers, DOE/CE-0231, October 1991, p. 15.

basements and crawl spaces, could cost from

$200 to $400. Savings could amount to 8

percent on previous heating and cooling costs.

[22, p. 4]

Before buying insulation, homeowners should

make sure they understand what R-values or Rnumbers they need. R-values indicate the thickness of the insulation material and its resistance

to winter heat loss or summer heat gain. The

higher the R-number, the more effective the

insulating capability.

The amount and type of insulation a house

needs depends on the space to be insulated, the

climate, and—to some extent—the type of

heating system (Figure 3 and Table 1).

Generally, the colder

the climate the

thicker the insulation

should be and the

higher the R-value

needed.

Choose the thicker

insulation when using

electric resistance

heating.

Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs 5
WEATHERIZING THE HOME

Table 2. Average Cost of Weatherization and Resulting Savings for Homes

in the Department of Energy Weatherization Program

Category Savings

Weatherization costs per dwelling (contracted) $1,710

First-year energy savings per dwelling 16.4 million Btu

Energy savings as a percentage of space heating use 18.2%

Energy savings as a percentage of total energy use 13.5%

First-year dollars saved per dwelling $130

_________________________________

Note: Costs and savings are in 1993 dollars.

Source: Marilyn Brown et al., National Impacts of the Weatherization Assistance Program in Single-Family

and Small Multifamily Dwellings, ORNL/CON-326, U.S. Department of Energy, May 1993, p. 10.18.

The weatherization

savings are average.

Since every home is

different, there is a

wide variation in savings across homes.

For example:

• Houses need the most insulation in ceilings

below ventilated attics and the least in the

exterior walls of wood-framed houses.

• Most houses need to insulate floors over

unheated crawlspaces and basements;

however, houses in warm climates like

those in Florida, southern Texas, and

southern New Mexico do not need to do so.

• For most houses, the type of heating system

does not affect the amount of insulation

needed; however, houses in some

climates—like those of North Carolina and

northern California, in Zone 3—need

insulation having an R-value of 38 if the

heating unit is electric resistance, but

insulation having an R-value of 30 if the

heating unit is oil, gas, or heat pump.

Weatherization Savings

A recent Department of Energy (DOE)

analysis of its weatherization programs also

found that most weatherization measures are

well worth the money they cost, particularly in

colder climates (Table 2). [2, p. 10.18] DOE

weatherized about 200,000 single-family and

small multi-family homes across the country in

1989. The typical dwelling weatherized was a

51-year-old single-family detached dwelling in

the central region of the United States with

1,193 square feet of heating space. The typical

house was heated by an old gas furnace, had

significant air leakage, and had little insulation.

During an audit of the results of these

weatherization programs, DOE found that the

most significant savings occurred in homes

heated by electric resistance furnaces, where the

savings averaged 35 percent of the heating bill

for the same average cost.

DOE also found the most significant savings

in the colder and moderate climates. Programs

in these areas used energy audits more

frequently, and they tended to focus on high

energy users. An average expenditure of just

over $1,700 per home resulted in first-year

savings of 25 percent of the natural gas heating

bill, 42 percent of the electrical heating bill, and

17 percent of the fuel oil heating bill.

In States with a warmer climate, the programs

cost about $1,500 per home but resulted in only

a 15-percent savings on the heating bill for gasheated homes and a 16-percent savings on the

heating bill for electric-heated homes.

6 Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs
WEATHERIZING THE HOME

Financial Assistance

There are two significant sources of funds to

help homeowners weatherize their homes. Most

States have a weatherization program partly

funded by the Department of Energy, designed

to help low-income homeowners lower their

energy bills. Information on this program can

be obtained from the State energy office. A

local public library should be able to help locate

the office.

Many utilities have “Demand Side

Management” programs that will assist any

utility customer. Depending on the local utility,

these programs may include weatherization

assistance, rebates for purchasing more efficient

heating or cooling systems, or installation of

load control devices. The local utility will be

the best source of information on availability

and extent of the program. Utilities have

reported plans to expand these programs to a

level of $4 billion dollars by 1997. [4, p. 174]

Generally, these are

electrical utilities, but

oil and gas customers

are often eligible.

Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs 7
OIL, NATURAL GAS, AND ELECTRICITY:

COMPARISON OF MAJOR FEATURES

$0

$200

$400

$600

$800

$1,000

$1,200

$380

$520

$485

$425

$463 $434

$581

$449

$971

$288

$447

$368

Gas Heat

Oil Heat

Electric Heat

Washington,

DC

New York

State

Washington

State

U.S.

Figure 4. Typical Heating Bills for the Nation at Large, and for Three Specific

Areas in December 1993

Note: Prices are the December 1993 average for all residential users in each region. Costs are

evaluated with minimum standard efficiency equipment and the same heating requirement.

These typical bills

are based upon

national and State

average prices for all

users.

Oil vendors offer to convert the homeowner’s

electric heating system to “safe, efficient oil

heat,” promising significant savings in a brief

payback period. Natural gas vendors proclaim

that natural gas is “cleaner, more dependable,

and more economical than oil.” And electric

utility companies assert that “the new heat

pump beats gas hands down.”

Bombarded by such claims about the relative

cost, safety, and health and environmental

impacts of the three fuels, homeowners may

feel some bewilderment when the time comes to

replace their old heating-cooling system or to

select a new one. This chapter aims at helping

the homeowner examine some of the competing

claims of the three major fuels.

Cost

Each fuel supplier claims that his fuel is the

cheapest. In reality, the price of a fuel depends

heavily on where a home is located because

fuel prices differ in each State, and even in

each city in a State. If the same home, with the

same heating system, could be transported to

three different States having the same weather,

the heating bills would be quite different just

because of fuel prices (Figure 4).

Based on national average fuel bills in

December 1993, for example, a typical home

with natural gas heat would have had the lowest

heating bills. [6, Table 9] However, based on

State average prices, the same home in

Washington, DC, would have had lower heating

bills with an electric heat pump than similar

homes with gas or oil heating units. But, in

New York State, a scant 200 miles further

north, heating costs would have favored fuel oil.

And in Washington State, heating costs would

have again favored natural gas. Based upon city

average prices, the results would likely have

been different again.

8 Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs
OIL, NATURAL GAS, AND ELECTRICITY:

COMPARISON OF MAJOR FEATURES

Another way to show how fuel prices can

vary from place to place is to compare the

average price of a fuel across the Nation with

its average price in particular States:

• In the week ending January 3, 1994, fuel oil

averaged about 92 cents per gallon across

the Nation, but the average cost in

particular States ranged between a low of

about 67 cents in Iowa and a high of about

$1.04 in New York and the District of

Columbia. [5, Table 7]

• In December 1993, the average price of

natural gas delivered to residential

consumers across the Nation averaged $6.07

per thousand cubic feet, but the average

cost in particular States ranged between a

low of $3.86 in Alaska and of $4.51 in

Colorado to a high of $9.84 in Florida and

even $17.01 in Hawaii. [9, Table 60]

• In 1993, electricity averaged 7.9 cents per

kilowatthour across the Nation, but the

average cost in particular States ranged

between a low of 4.7 cents in Idaho and

Washington and a high of 12.4 cents in

Vermont. [11, Table 24]

Fuel prices also vary over time. As some fuels

have become deregulated, their prices have

tended to fluctuate more as demand changes

during different seasons of the year. This makes

monthly comparisons of prices somewhat

misleading unless a longer term view is taken.

Over the long term, the Energy Information

Administration projects that both oil and gas are

expected to rise by about 5 percent per year for

the next two decades, while electricity will rise

only about 4 percent per year, with only

minimal regional changes. [4, Table A3]

Despite seasonal fluctuations, homeowners can

be reasonably confident that the fuel that has

tended to be the most economical in their area

should remain the most economical for years to

come.

In short, local prices and conditions determine

the annual cost of heating. No fuel is the

universally agreed-upon best choice. Any of the

three major fuel systems—oil heat with central

air-conditioning, gas heat with central airconditioning, and heat pump heat with central

air-conditioning—could conceivably be the

cheapest overall system in a given area, at a

given time. Homeowners who want the lowest

possible energy bills need to find out how the

various fuels have compared in price in their

particular area. (See Appendix A for a

worksheet and cost tables that cover a range of

prices.)

Safety

Few deaths or accidents result from home

heating equipment, no matter which fuel is

used. Fires and deaths resulting from all heating

equipment account for less than one-fifth of all

home fires, and heating systems rank below

smoking and arson in the list of principal causes

of fires. Of the fires caused by home heating

systems, most result from portable space heaters

and chimney fires. These two sources account

for three-fourths of all home heating fires and

four out of five related deaths. [15]

Comparisons of the safety records are difficult

because the statistics are not necessarily

gathered in a way that points to the cause of the

incident. Data exist on some explosions and

electrocutions, for example, but not on the

number resulting from home heating systems.

Heating fuel prices

have always fluctuated. However, an

efficient heating

system will minimize

the effects of these

changes.

Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs 9
OIL, NATURAL GAS, AND ELECTRICITY:

COMPARISON OF MAJOR FEATURES

Electric

Heat (435 )

Oil & Propane

Heat (368 )

Gas Heat (106 )

Fires Per Million Households

Gas Heat (2 )

Electric

Heat (1 )

Oil & Propane

Heat (2 )

Deaths

Per Million Households

Electric

Heat (5 )

Oil & Propane

Heat (5 )

Gas Heat (4 )

Injuries

Per Million Households

.

Figure 5. Fires, Deaths and Injuries per Year Caused by Home Central Heating

Units, 1985-1991

Source: John R. Hall, Jr., U.S. Home Heating Fire Patterns and Trends Through 1991, National Fire

Protection Association, September 1993, Tables 14, 19.

Electrical and

mechanical problems

tend to be the cause

of many fires

associated with

electric and oil

heating systems.

The best sources for information on accidents

and deaths resulting from home heating units

are The National Fire Protection Association

(NFPA) and the Consumer Product Safety

Commission (CPSC). However, both sources

combine statistics on oil and propane central

heating systems, making it impossible to

determine the statistics for oil central heating

systems alone.

NFPA analyzes statistics on deaths and

injuries resulting from fires in the home. The

CPSC analyzes statistics on accidents and

injuries that hospital emergency rooms report

and that can be associated with various home

appliances, including heating and cooling

systems.

Based on these two sources, from 1987 to

1991, central heating systems caused an average

of 909 fires per million households per year

(Figure 5). During the same period, an

estimated 2 deaths and 4 or 5 injuries occurred

per million households per year as a result of

the fires and of carbon monoxide poisonings

resulting from central home heating units: [15,

Tables 14, 19]

• Gas central heating systems caused an

average of just over 2 deaths and 4 injuries

from fires or carbon monoxide poisonings

per million households per year.

• Liquid fuel central heating systems (oil and

propane) caused an average of just under 2

deaths and 5 injuries per million households

per year.

• Electric resistance and heat pump central

heating systems caused an average of 1

death and 5 injuries per million households.

10 Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs
OIL, NATURAL GAS, AND ELECTRICITY:

COMPARISON OF MAJOR FEATURES

Another way to put these figures into

perspective is to realize that, in the same period,

automobile accidents caused over 450 deaths

per million households per year. [21]

Health Impact

None of the fuels presents a health hazard

when used in a properly installed and

maintained heating unit. In most cases, the

small amounts of toxic gases that heating units

produce are vented harmlessly up the chimney.

Problems can occur, however, if (1) a house

has been so tightly weatherized that too little

outside air enters the house to provide sufficient

oxygen for complete combustion or (2) walls

have been built in the heating unit area,

obstructing the normal flow of air to the unit,

preventing the gases from rising up the chimney

quickly, creating only a weak draft to draw inside air into the combustion chamber. [25, p. 1]

Very low combustion air and a weak draft can

set the stage for a hazardous condition known

as “backdrafting.” Backdrafting occurs when a

different exhaust draft, such as a heavy-duty

kitchen exhaust fan or a large fire in the

fireplace, is stronger than the draft of the gas

furnace vent and draws the combustion exhaust

gases back into the house instead of up the

vent. Backdrafting can cause serious health

risks and even death.

Environmental Impact

Both natural gas and fuel oil burned in home

heating units produce small amounts of nitrous

oxide and carbon monoxide and even smaller

amounts of soot, sulfur dioxide, methane, and

volatile organic compounds (Table C5 in

Appendix C). These fuels (both carbon based)

also produce large quantities of carbon dioxide

when they are burned in a home heating

system. However, natural gas produces nearly

30 percent less carbon dioxide than either

heating oil or the average electric utility

generation plant, and there is concern that

emissions of carbon dioxide and other

greenhouse gasses are contributors to global

warming. All of these emissions are normally

vented through the chimney stack, and for this

reason it is important that furnace ventilation be

checked periodically.

Electricity used in home heating produces

no atmospheric emissions at the home.

However, electricity generated by the burning

of fossil fuels—the most common source

of electricity—produces somewhat larger

quantities of pollutants at the generating

plant sites (Table C5, Appendix C). This

concerns not only the use of electricity for

heating, but also the operation of oil and natural

gas furnaces (the electric furnace fans and

pumps) and all other electric devices in

the home.

For all systems, the

most efficient combustion leads to the

least consumption

and the lowest environmental emissions.

Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs 11
CHOOSING A HEATING AND COOLING

SYSTEM

Electric and gas

utility rebates and

dealer discounts can

substantially reduce

the cost of highefficiency equipment.

Different heating

systems can be rated

by comparing their

payback time relative

to the current system.

Replacing an old, inefficient central heating

and cooling system with a new, efficient one

can result in much lower energy bills. This

chapter describes various heating and cooling

options for the homeowner and calculates the

annual costs of operating each, using a range of

heating and cooling requirements and a range of

fuel prices.

After determining their heating requirement

and finding the fuel prices in their area,

homeowners who want to replace an old central

heating and cooling system must choose a new

system. Most homeowners simplify this process

by choosing the same type of unit as the one

they are replacing. Still, homeowners will have

to decide what “efficiency” to buy.

The efficiency of a heating unit is the amount

of energy produced that is actually used for

heat. A furnace having an efficiency of 78 percent, for example, would use 78 percent of the

heat produced for heating, with the remaining

22 percent being vented up the chimney.

The efficiencies of furnaces and boilers, heat

pumps, and air-conditioners are measured in

different ways:

• The efficiency of furnaces and boilers is

stated as an average over the heating

season, the so-called “Average Fuel Use

Efficiency (AFUE).”

• The efficiency of the heat pump has two

measures: (1) its ability to extract heat from

its heat source, usually the outside air, and

to expel it into the home—called its

“Heating System Performance Factor

(HSPF),” and (2) its ability to extract heat

from the home and to expel it into the

outside air—called its “Seasonal Energy

Efficiency Ratio (SEER).”

• The efficiency of the air-conditioner is also

measured in terms of SEER.

Equipment bought before 1992—when

efficiency standards for furnaces, boilers, or

heat pumps were first established—is probably

much less efficient than the heating and cooling

equipment available today.

Generally, when it comes time to replace all

or part of the home heating and cooling system,

homeowners can save the most over the life of

the unit by buying the most efficient system

they can afford. To encourage homeowners to

buy higher efficiency units, many utilities offer

rebates to the homeowner who buys a better

than minimum efficiency unit. These rebates

can be substantial, paying half or more of the

extra cost of the unit.

To determine whether it would be cost

effective to replace an old heating unit with a

new, high-efficiency one, homeowners should

determine how much the new unit will reduce

their annual energy bill and then divide the cost

of the furnace by the annual savings to

determine how many years it will take to pay

for the upgraded unit.

For example, upgrading from an old unit with

an efficiency of 50 percent to a standardefficiency furnace of 78 percent would save

about $36 for every $100 of the annual fuel

bill. If the annual fuel bill was $400 and the

new unit cost $2,000, it would pay for itself in

about 14 years.

Upgrading to the most efficient unit (95

percent) would save about $47 for every $100

of the fuel bill. If the new unit cost $2,500, it

would also pay for itself in about 13 years

(Appendices A and B).

12 Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs
CHOOSING A HEATING AND COOLING

SYSTEM

By comparing the final installed costs of

.

$0 $500 $1,000

Climate

Warm

Climate

Moderate

Climate

Cold

$155 - $244

$129 - $203

$119 - $187

$388 - $610

$324 - $508

$297 - $467

$621 - $976

$518 - $813

$475 - $746

New High Efficiency Unit (85 %)

New Standard Unit (78 %)

Existing Unit (65 %)

.

Figure 6. Range of Typical Heating Bills for Oil Heat in 1993 by Climate

and Unit Efficiency

Source: Heating cost ranges for each climate from Table B1.

various units (oil, gas, and electric) after rebates

and the savings in heating and cooling bills

—which would of course depend on the local

price of the various fuels—homeowners can

determine which heating unit is the best buy.

This chapter gives some examples of typical

heating and cooling costs, but the appendices

provide costs for a wider range of efficiencies.

Oil Heat

In 1990, the Energy Information

Administration (EIA) estimated that approximately 12 million homeowners use an oil-fired

furnace or boiler for home heat. Most users live

in the Northeastern and Midwestern United

States. [10, Table 32] According to the industry,

oil-fired furnaces and boilers last an average of

about 20 years before replacement. [18]

While not as large as it once was, the oil

market is still strong. The new and replacement

market for boilers and furnaces represents an

industry with currently over 30 certified

manufacturers, most of whom also manufacture

gas-fired furnaces and boilers. [14]

New oil furnaces range from a year-round

efficiency of 78 percent (the standard), up to

about 86 percent. Boiler efficiencies can reach

as high as 89 percent. [14] An 85-percent

efficient oil furnace will cost an estimated

$2,500. [17]

Homeowners living in a cold climate who

have a 65-percent efficient oil furnace and an

annual heat bill of $976 could save $230 a year

by replacing their old furnace with a highefficiency model (Figure 6). Thus, a new

furnace costing $2,500 would have a payback

period of about 11 years.

All furnace installation costs vary by

locality and the

difficulty of the

project.

The bars represent

the range of costs a

homeowner might

expect, solely because of the range in

fuel prices across the

United States.

Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs 13
CHOOSING A HEATING AND COOLING

SYSTEM

$0 $500 $1,000

Climate

Warm

Climate

Moderate

Climate

Cold

$123 - $246

$103 - $205

$84 - $168

$308 - $615

$256 - $513

$211 - $421

$492 - $985

$410 - $821

$337 - $674

New High Efficiency Unit (95 %)

New Standard Efficiency Unit (78 %)

Existing Unit (65 %)

.

Figure 7. Range of Typical Heating Bills for Gas Heat in 1993 by Climate

and Unit Efficiency

Source: Heating cost ranges for each climate from Table B2.

The average system

is about 65-percent

efficient, but older

gas furnaces can be

less efficient leading

to higher savings

from an upgrade.

Despite the range in

fuel prices, the

cheapest bills occur

with the most efficient furnace.

Gas Heat

Gas is the most popular form of space

heating. In 1990, EIA estimated that about 58

million homes used natural gas heat, about 60

percent of all homes. [10, Table 31] According

to the industry, gas furnaces last an average of

about 19 years before replacement. [19]

New natural gas furnaces are available in a

wider range of efficiencies than oil units. In

addition to conventional furnaces that range up

to an AFUE of about 85 percent, “condensing”

furnaces are also available. These furnaces,

which recover heat from the furnace exhaust,

can achieve up to 96-percent efficiency. [14]

A 95-percent efficient furnace would cost

about $2,800. [17] Homeowners living in a cold

climate who have a 65-percent efficient gas

furnace and an annual heating bill of $985

might save $311 a year by replacing their old

furnace with a high-efficiency model (Figure 7).

As a result, a new furnace would pay for itself

in about 9 years.

Retrofitting Older Oil and Gas

Systems

Older oil and gas furnaces and boilers can

also be retrofitted with electronic ignition and a

vent damper to reduce heating bills. Oil

furnaces and boilers can also be equipped with

a new, more efficient burner. These devices

account for some of the improvement in

efficiency found in a new system. For any of

these options, homeowners should seek

professional advice and installation to ensure

that the improved system is safe.

Electronic ignition eliminates the pilot light on

a gas system. It costs approximately $250 and

can save its installation cost in 3 to 6 years.

[25] A vent damper closes the exhaust vent

of either an oil or gas system when it is not

14 Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs
CHOOSING A HEATING AND COOLING

SYSTEM

operating. A vent damper costs about $400 and

can save 3 to 10 percent of the heating bill.

[25] A new oil burner, which produces a hotter

flame than the older burners installed in the

1960’s, costs about $500, and can save 10 to 15

percent of the heating bill. [16]

Electric Heat

Electric heat is of two types: electric

resistance heat using an electric furnace and

electric heat pumps. In 1990, EIA estimated that

about 15 percent of U.S. households were using

electric heat: about 6.7 million households were

using electric furnaces, and 6.4 million

households were using heat pumps. [10, Table

31] According to the industry, conventional heat

pumps last an average of 11 years and electric

furnaces 16 years before replacement. [19]

Electric resistance heaters are usually the most

expensive form of heat, but they make sense in

climates where little heat is needed because

electric furnaces or base board heaters are

generally cheaper to install. The efficiency of

the electric furnace is close to 100 percent,

since almost all the electrical energy ends up as

usable heat. However, when the inefficiency of

electricity generation by the power company

and the transmission losses to the consumer are

taken into account, the primary efficiency is

close to 33 percent. [6, Table A8]

The standard efficiency for heat pumps is 6.8,

but the most efficient heat pumps have an

HSPF of 10 or more. Ground-source heat

pumps can even reach an HSPF of 14 or more,

because they rely on the ground for their heat

source, and this is more uniform year-round. [1]

The most efficient heat pump (Figure 8) will

cost about $3,900 to install, including the heat

pump and the air handler but no significant duct

work. [17] An existing furnace may substitute

for the air handler, saving about $1,500.

Choosing this heat pump to replace the existing

old heat pump would save $187 per year with

the most expensive electricity in the moderate

climate.

Heat pumps and electric furnaces are usually

installed in newer, more efficient homes for

which the heating requirement is smaller than

for the average home. For these “tighter”

homes, the utility company will often quote a

lower winter rate for “all electric” homes,

perhaps with a rider allowing the installation of

load controllers to limit peak summer use, or to

control specific loads such as electric hot water

heaters.

The operating costs of heat pumps depend

significantly on how cold it gets in winter. [1]

Unlike a furnace or boiler, the colder the

weather becomes, the less heat a heat pump

delivers. The heat pump cost ranges in Figure 8

do not show the effect of backup heat and thus

understate the total operating cost for a heat

pump system.

Heat pumps usually have a backup heat source

that is switched on when the outside

temperature falls below the freezing point.

Since the use of backup heat is expensive, few

houses in cold climates have heat pumps.

However, ground-source heat pumps (which

rely on the ground for their source of heat) are

much less susceptible to cold weather and are

promoted as the better choice in the colder

climates of the Northern States. [17]

The backup source for heat pumps is usually

electric resistance heat. (The backup can,

however, be an old furnace.) Electric backup

heat can increase the cost of heating significantly, since an electric furnace costs twice as

Installation costs of

heat pumps depend

on what they are

replacing.

Heat pumps have the

advantage that

electricity is

available nearly

everywhere, and no

special hookup is

required.

Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs 15
CHOOSING A HEATING AND COOLING

SYSTEM

$1172 - $3048

$0 $500 $1,000 $1,500 $2,000 $2,500 $3,000 $3,500 $4,000

Climate

Warm

Climate

Moderate

Climate

Cold

$154 - $400

$147 - $382

$125 - $325

$293 - $762

$385 - $1000

$368 - $956

$313 - $813

$733 - $1905

$615 - $1600

$588 - $1529

$500 - $1300

Electric Resistance Furnace

New High Efficiency Unit (8.0 HSPF)

New Standard Unit (6.8 HSPF)

Existing Unit (6.5 HSPF)

.

.

Figure 8. Range of Typical Heating Bills in 1993 for Electric Heat by Climate

and Unit Efficiency

Source: Heating cost ranges for each climate from Tables B3 and B4. The costs do not include the cost

of auxiliary heat in the coldest climate.

The average operating heat pump has

an HSPF of 6.7, not

much lower than the

current standard of

6.8. It is nearly twice

as efficient as an

electric furnace.

much to operate as the average heat pump. For

example, if the temperature is below freezing

for 10 percent of the winter season, then the

total heating bill with electric resistance backup

could be as much as 20 percent more than

without use of backup. Using an existing oil or

gas furnace as backup will generally reduce this

cost substantially.

Air-Conditioning

In the warmer climates of the United States,

air-conditioning is as standard as a heating

system. However, in 1990 only 25 percent of

the homeowners in the coldest climate owned

central air-conditioning, compared to 60 percent

in the warmest climate. [10, Table 37]

According to the industry, an air-conditioner

lasts an average of 12 years, about the same as

a heat pump. [19]

Air-conditioning serves two purposes: It

lowers the inside air temperature to a comfort

level of 78 degrees Fahrenheit or so, and it

keeps the humidity in a more comfortable

range. When cooling, air-conditioners and heat

pumps operate alike. The standard SEER for

central air-conditioners and heat pumps is 10,

but many units exceed 16. Because the SEER is

the ratio of the heat removed to the electricity

used and there are 3.4 heat units in an electrical

unit, a SEER of 10 means that the standard

units remove three times as much heat as they

consume in electric energy.

16 Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs
CHOOSING A HEATING AND COOLING

SYSTEM

Higher efficiency leads to lower seasonal

$0 $500 $1,000

Climate

Warm

Climate

Moderate

Climate

Cold

$291 - $756

$250 - $650

$192 - $500

$116 - $302

$100 - $260

$77 - $200

$58 - $151

$50 - $130

$38 - $100

.

New High Efficiency Unit (SEER 13)

New Standard Unit (SEER 10)

Existing Air Conditioner (SEER 8.6)

Figure 9. Range of Typical Cooling Bills in 1993 by Climate and Unit Efficiency

Source: Cooling cost ranges for each climate from Table B3.

costs. For example, replacing an old airconditioner with a SEER of 8.6 with a unit

having a SEER of 13 could save about onethird of the old cooling bill (Figure 9).

The size of an air-conditioner or heat pump is

measured in “tons” of cooling capacity,

equivalent to tons of ice melted per day. Sizing

the unit is a task that should be done by an

experienced professional. Cooling experts

suggest that the unit should be as small as

possible, because if the unit is sized to run

continuously in the hottest weather, it will run

more efficiently and will dehumidify more

effectively. Otherwise, an oversized unit can

cool a home before it has dehumidified, making

the home uncomfortable.

Only in the warmest

climates are airconditioning costs

significant.

Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs 17
APPENDIX A

COMPARING COSTS OF HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS

Using the worksheet on the opposite page, homeowners can compare the installation and operating costs of the various

heating and cooling systems on the market. With this information in hand, they will be able to choose the best system for

their home. The following are the instructions for completing the worksheet, with an example worked out using a natural gas

furnace and an electric air-conditioner.

1. The dealer should provide the cost of the finished installation excluding any rebate. (The example gas furnace might

cost $2,500 and air-conditioner $2,000 for a total installed cost of $4,500. Actual costs may well be different).

2. Check with both the dealer and the fuel utility for any installation rebate, usually given for heating and/or cooling

efficiencies higher than the standard. (In the example, the total utility rebates are $300 for buying a better air-conditioner

than the SEER 10 standard. The actual rebate could be different).

3. The dealer will provide the heating efficiency of the unit—the AFUE value for a furnace or boiler or the HSPF for a

heat pump. (The example AFUE is 85 with no assumed rebate).

4. The utility company or the dealer will provide the winter heating fuel price for oil, gas, or electricity in cents per gallon,

cents per therm, or cents per kilowatthour, the usual units on the utility bill. (The example natural gas is 60 cents per

therm).

5. Consult Tables B1 through B4 for standard heating bills for particular fuels, climates, and heating requirements. (The

example gas cost is $353 from Table B2, for a moderate climate).

6. The dealer will provide the cooling efficiency—the SEER value for the heat pump or air-conditioner. (The example

SEER is 12).

7. The electric utility will provide the summer price of electricity in cents per kilowatthour. Winter and summer prices

are usually different. (The example electricity costs 9 cents per kilowatthour).

8. Consult Table B3 for standard cooling bills using either an air-conditioner or a heat pump, for particular climates and

cooling requirements. (The example annual cost is $150 in a moderate climate).

9. Add the heating bill and cooling bill for the total annual bill. (The example heating bill is $353 and the cooling bill is

$150, for a total annual bill of $503).

18 Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs
COMPARING COSTS OF HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS

Table A1. Worksheet for Comparing Heating and Cooling Costs

Row Step Examplea Option 1 Option 2 Option 3

1 Installed Cost $4,500

2 Dealer/Utility Rebates $300

3 Heating Efficiency 85%

4 Heating Fuel Price 60 cents per

Therm

5 Standard Heating Bill $353

6 Cooling Efficiency 12 SEER

7 Electricity Price 9 cents per

Kwh

8 Standard Cooling Bill $150

9 Total Annual Bill $503

a

The example is a gas furnace plus an air-conditioner in a moderate climate that requires 50 million Btu of heat and 20 million

Btu of cooling.

Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs 19
APPENDIX B

TABLES OF HEATING AND COOLING COSTS

The tables that follow give comparable heating and cooling bills for a typical house having a specified heating requirement

for each climate. The heating requirement is stated in British thermal units (Btu), a measure of the energy each fuel provides.

(One Btu is the heat needed to warm a pound of water 1 degree Fahrenheit.) The calculation procedure is illustrated in

Appendix C. The heating and cooling requirements of a home depend on the climate, the home size and other factors such

as its age, state of weatherization and exposure to the elements. Strictly to provide some basis for comparison of heating and

cooling systems, a series of average requirements were estimated for a 1,700 square foot home in each of the climates in

Figure 1. The requirements estimate the heat delivered by a heating system by dividing fuel consumed for heating by the

average efficiency of all heating systems in use. Individual homes could require more or less heating and cooling than these

average figures. [10, Tables 31, 32 and 33],[17]

• For homes in cold climates in the Northern States, the heating requirement is assumed to be 80 million Btu for heating

and 10 million Btu for cooling. Tables B1 through B4 give comparable heating costs for the amount of heat needed in

these climates. Table B3 values are for 20 million Btu, and should be halved to give the costs for the cooling needed.

• For homes in moderate climates, the heating requirement is assumed to be 50 million Btu and the cooling requirement

to be 20 Btu. Tables B1 through B4 give comparable heating costs for the amount of heat needed in these climates.

Table B3 gives the costs of the amount of cooling needed.

• For homes in warm climates, the heating requirement is assumed to be 20 million Btu, and the cooling requirement is

assumed to be 50 million Btu. Tables B1 through B4 give comparable costs for the amount of heat needed in these

climates. Table B3 gives the costs for the amount of cooling needed.

To compute the annual heating or cooling cost in one of the tables, use the unit efficiency (furnace, boiler or heat pump)

for the row, and the fuel price column to locate the appropriate table entry. In a given location, any one of the systems may

offer the cheapest annual heating bill based upon current fuel costs.

The heat pump tables cover both heating and cooling because HSPF and SEER are defined in the same way. Note that in

most utility service areas, the electricity price in summer will most likely not be the same as in winter.

Working out the heating bill for the old system works the same way except that the efficiency and fuel price are for the

old system. The auditor or the heating engineer should be able to measure the efficiency of the old system if it still operates.

The efficiency of the average furnace or boiler is about 65 percent, the average heat pump HSPF is about 6.7 and the average

SEER is about 8.3. [17] These average values will suffice, and will underestimate savings because older unit efficiencies can

be much less than these values. In most climates where heating is significant, it suffices to focus on heating when choosing

between an oil, gas or heat pump unit. Air-conditioning costs will be the same for an air-conditioner or a heat pump.

Installation costs will however be different.

20 Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs
TABLES OF HEATING AND COOLING COSTS

Table B1. Annual Cost of Oil Heat in Various Climates for a Range of Heating Oil Prices

and System Efficiencies

Cost in a Cold Climate With an 80-Million-Btu Annual Heat Requirement

AFUE

Heating Oil Price (Cents per Gallon)

70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110

55 $734 $787 $839 $891 $944 $996 $1,049 $1,101 $1,154

60 $673 $721 $769 $817 $865 $913 $961 $1,009 $1,058

65 $621 $666 $710 $754 $799 $843 $887 $932 $976

70 $577 $618 $659 $700 $742 $783 $824 $865 $906

75 $538 $577 $615 $654 $692 $731 $769 $808 $846

78 $518 $555 $592 $629 $666 $703 $740 $776 $813

80 $505 $541 $577 $613 $649 $685 $721 $757 $793

85 $475 $509 $542 $576 $610 $644 $678 $712 $746

Cost in a Moderate Climate With a 50-Million-Btu Annual Heat Requirement

AFUE

Heating Oil Price (Cents per Gallon)

70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110

55 $459 $492 $524 $557 $590 $623 $655 $688 $721

60 $421 $451 $481 $511 $541 $571 $601 $631 $661

65 $388 $416 $444 $471 $499 $527 $555 $582 $610

70 $361 $386 $412 $438 $464 $489 $515 $541 $567

75 $336 $361 $385 $409 $433 $457 $481 $505 $529

78 $324 $347 $370 $393 $416 $439 $462 $485 $508

80 $315 $338 $361 $383 $406 $428 $451 $473 $496

85 $297 $318 $339 $361 $382 $403 $424 $445 $467

Cost in a Warm Climate With a 20-Million-Btu Annual Heat Requirement

AFUE

Heating Oil Price (Cents per Gallon)

70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110

55 $184 $197 $210 $223 $236 $249 $262 $275 $288

60 $168 $180 $192 $204 $216 $228 $240 $252 $264

65 $155 $166 $177 $189 $200 $211 $222 $233 $244

70 $144 $155 $165 $175 $185 $196 $206 $216 $227

75 $135 $144 $154 $163 $173 $183 $192 $202 $212

78 $129 $139 $148 $157 $166 $176 $185 $194 $203

80 $126 $135 $144 $153 $162 $171 $180 $189 $198

85 $119 $127 $136 $144 $153 $161 $170 $178 $187

Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs 21
TABLES OF HEATING AND COOLING COSTS

Table B2. Annual Cost of Gas Heat in Various Climates for a Range of Natural Gas Prices

and System Efficiencies

Cost in a Cold Climate With an 80-Million-Btu Annual Heat Requirement

AFUE

Natural Gas Price (Cents per Therm)

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

55 $582 $655 $727 $800 $873 $945 $1,018 $1,091 $1,164

60 $533 $600 $667 $733 $800 $867 $933 $1,000 $1,067

65 $492 $554 $615 $677 $738 $800 $862 $923 $985

70 $457 $514 $571 $629 $686 $743 $800 $857 $914

75 $427 $480 $533 $587 $640 $693 $747 $800 $853

78 $410 $462 $513 $564 $615 $667 $718 $769 $821

80 $400 $450 $500 $550 $600 $650 $700 $750 $800

85 $376 $424 $471 $518 $565 $612 $659 $706 $753

90 $356 $400 $444 $489 $533 $578 $622 $667 $711

95 $337 $379 $421 $463 $505 $547 $589 $632 $674

Cost in a Moderate Climate With a 50-Million-Btu Annual Heat Requirement

AFUE

Natural Gas Price (Cents per Therm)

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

55 $364 $409 $455 $500 $545 $591 $636 $682 $727

60 $333 $375 $417 $458 $500 $542 $583 $625 $667

65 $308 $346 $385 $423 $462 $500 $538 $577 $615

70 $286 $321 $357 $393 $429 $464 $500 $536 $571

75 $267 $300 $333 $367 $400 $433 $467 $500 $533

78 $256 $288 $321 $353 $385 $417 $449 $481 $513

80 $250 $281 $313 $344 $375 $406 $438 $469 $500

85 $235 $265 $294 $324 $353 $382 $412 $441 $471

90 $222 $250 $278 $306 $333 $361 $389 $417 $444

95 $211 $237 $263 $289 $316 $342 $368 $395 $421

Cost in a Warm Climate With a 20-Million-Btu Annual Heat Requirement

AFUE

Natural Gas Price (Cents per Therm)

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

55 $145 $164 $182 $200 $218 $236 $255 $273 $291

60 $133 $150 $167 $183 $200 $217 $233 $250 $267

65 $123 $138 $154 $169 $185 $200 $215 $231 $246

70 $114 $129 $143 $157 $171 $186 $200 $214 $229

75 $107 $120 $133 $147 $160 $173 $187 $200 $213

78 $103 $115 $128 $141 $154 $167 $179 $192 $205

80 $100 $113 $125 $138 $150 $163 $175 $188 $200

85 $94 $106 $118 $129 $141 $153 $165 $176 $188

90 $89 $100 $111 $122 $133 $144 $156 $167 $178

95 $84 $95 $105 $116 $126 $137 $147 $158 $168

22 Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs
TABLES OF HEATING AND COOLING COSTS

Table B3. Annual Cost of Heating or Cooling Using a Heat Pump in Various Climates for a Range

of Electricity Prices and System Efficiencies

Cost in a Cold or Hot Climate With an 80-Million-Btu Annual Heating or Cooling Requirement

HSPF

SEER

Electricity Price (Cents per Kilowatt-hour)

5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00

6.00 $667 $800 $933 $1,067 $1,200 $1,333 $1,467 $1,600 $1,733

6.50 $615 $738 $862 $985 $1,108 $1,231 $1,354 $1,477 $1,600

6.80 $588 $706 $824 $941 $1,059 $1,176 $1,294 $1,412 $1,529

7.00 $571 $686 $800 $914 $1,029 $1,143 $1,257 $1,371 $1,486

8.00 $500 $600 $700 $800 $900 $1,000 $1,100 $1,200 $1,300

9.00 $444 $533 $622 $711 $800 $889 $978 $1,067 $1,156

10.00 $400 $480 $560 $640 $720 $800 $880 $960 $1,040

11.00 $364 $436 $509 $582 $655 $727 $800 $873 $945

12.00 $333 $400 $467 $533 $600 $667 $733 $800 $867

13.00 $308 $369 $431 $492 $554 $615 $677 $738 $800

14.00 $286 $343 $400 $457 $514 $571 $629 $686 $743

15.00 $267 $320 $373 $427 $480 $533 $587 $640 $693

16.00 $250 $300 $350 $400 $450 $500 $550 $600 $650

Cost in a Moderate Climate With a 50-Million-Btu Annual Heating or Cooling Requirement

HSPF

SEER

Electricity Price (Cents per Kilowatt-hour)

5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00

6.00 $417 $500 $583 $667 $750 $833 $917 $1,000 $1,083

6.50 $385 $462 $538 $615 $692 $769 $846 $923 $1,000

6.80 $368 $441 $515 $588 $662 $735 $809 $882 $956

7.00 $357 $429 $500 $571 $643 $714 $786 $857 $929

8.00 $313 $375 $438 $500 $563 $625 $688 $750 $813

9.00 $278 $333 $389 $444 $500 $556 $611 $667 $722

10.00 $250 $300 $350 $400 $450 $500 $550 $600 $650

11.00 $227 $273 $318 $364 $409 $455 $500 $545 $591

12.00 $208 $250 $292 $333 $375 $417 $458 $500 $542

13.00 $192 $231 $269 $308 $346 $385 $423 $462 $500

14.00 $179 $214 $250 $286 $321 $357 $393 $429 $464

15.00 $167 $200 $233 $267 $300 $333 $367 $400 $433

16.00 $156 $188 $219 $250 $281 $313 $344 $375 $406

Cost in a Warm (or Cool) Climate With a 20-Million-Btu Annual Heating (or Cooling) Requirement

HSPF

SEER

Electricity Price (Cents per Kilowatt-hour)

5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00

6.00 $167 $200 $233 $267 $300 $333 $367 $400 $433

6.50 $154 $185 $215 $246 $277 $308 $338 $369 $400

6.80 $147 $176 $206 $235 $265 $294 $324 $353 $382

7.00 $143 $171 $200 $229 $257 $286 $314 $343 $371

8.00 $125 $150 $175 $200 $225 $250 $275 $300 $325

9.00 $111 $133 $156 $178 $200 $222 $244 $267 $289

10.00 $100 $120 $140 $160 $180 $200 $220 $240 $260

11.00 $91 $109 $127 $145 $164 $182 $200 $218 $236

12.00 $83 $100 $117 $133 $150 $167 $183 $200 $217

13.00 $77 $92 $108 $123 $138 $154 $169 $185 $200

14.00 $71 $86 $100 $114 $129 $143 $157 $171 $186

15.00 $67 $80 $93 $107 $120 $133 $147 $160 $173

16.00 $63 $75 $88 $100 $113 $125 $138 $150 $163

Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs 23
TABLES OF HEATING AND COOLING COSTS

Table B4. Annual Cost of Electric Furnace Heat for a Range of Electricity Prices and Heating

Requirements

Million

Btu

Fuel Price (Cents per Kilowatt-hour)

5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00

80 $1,172 $1,407 $1,641 $1,876 $2,110 $2,345 $2,579 $2,814 $3,048

70 $1,026 $1,231 $1,436 $1,641 $1,846 $2,052 $2,257 $2,462 $2,667

60 $879 $1,055 $1,231 $1,407 $1,583 $1,758 $1,934 $2,110 $2,286

50 $733 $879 $1,026 $1,172 $1,319 $1,465 $1,612 $1,758 $1,905

40 $586 $703 $821 $938 $1,055 $1,172 $1,290 $1,407 $1,524

30 $440 $528 $615 $703 $791 $879 $967 $1,055 $1,143

20 $293 $352 $410 $469 $528 $586 $645 $703 $762

10 $147 $176 $205 $234 $264 $293 $322 $352 $381

24 Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs
APPENDIX C

CALCULATIONS IN THIS REPORT

Heating and Cooling Costs

The bills for heating and cooling shown in Tables B1 to B4 are computed using the steps in Table C1. In general, a

homeowner needs to know the fuel price, the furnace or boiler efficiency and the climate’s heating or cooling requirement.

The examples in Tables C1 and C2 assume the average 1993 fuel prices, average efficiencies and a moderate climate.

Table C1. Calculating Annual Heating Costs for an Oil or Gas Heating System

Step Using Heating Oil Using Natural Gas

Heat required 50 Million Btu 50 Million Btu

Fuel Price 91 Cents/Gallon 61 Cents/Therm

Fuel Price $/Million Btu 0.91 / 138,690 x 1,000,000 = $6.56 0.61 / 100,000 x 1,000,000 = $6.10

Heat Price $/Million Btu at 65 AFUE 6.56 / .65 = $10.09 6.10 / 0.65 = $9.38

Heating Bill $10.09 x 50 = $505 $9.38 x 50 = $469

_______________________________

Note: Calculated assuming a 50 million Btu annual heating requirement. All calculations are independently rounded to the nearest 1993

dollar. A gallon of heating oil contains 138,690 Btu, a therm of natural gas contains 100,000 Btu.

Source: Average fuel prices for 1993 and Btu values from Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, DOE/EIA0035(94/04) (Washington DC, April 1994), Section 9 and Table A1.

Table C2. Calculating Heating and Cooling Costs with a Heat Pump

Step Example Calculation

Heat required 50 Million Btu

Electricity Price 8.3 Cents/Kwh

Electricity Required (HSPF of 6.7) 50 million / 6.7 = 7,463 Kwh

Annual Heating Bill 7,463 X $0.083 = $619

Cooling Required 20 Million Btu

Electricity Required (SEER of 8.3) 20 million / 8.3 = 2,410 Kwh

Annual Cooling Bill 2,410 X .083 = $200

Total Heating and Cooling Bill $619 + $200 = $819

_______________________________

Note: Calculated, assuming a 50-million-Btu annual heating requirement, a 20-million-Btu annual cooling requirement. All calculations

are independently rounded to the nearest 1993 dollar.

Source: Average fuel prices for 1993 from Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, DOE/EIA-0035(94/04)

(Washington DC, April 1994), Section 9.

Not included in the oil and gas heating bills shown in Tables B1, B2, and C1, are the cost of annual maintenance, typically

$50 to $100, and also the cost of running the heating system electric blower fan or pumps, typically another $50 to $100. [14]

Calculations for heating and cooling with a heat pump or air-conditioner follow the same procedure. While Table C2

combines heating and cooling for an average heat pump, the steps for an air-conditioner are similar to the cooling portion

alone. Finally the costs for an electric resistance furnace can be computed using the heating portion of Table C2, but with

an HSPF of 3.4 rather than 6.7.

Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs 25
CALCULATIONS IN THIS REPORT

The Effect of Improved Efficiency

The savings from upgrading a heating system can be calculated from Table C3, which shows the savings per $100 of heating

bill. For example, upgrading from an old furnace or boiler with an efficiency of 50 percent to even a standard efficiency

furnace of 78 percent would save $36 for every $100 of the fuel bill. Upgrading to the most efficient unit, 95 percent, would

save nearly $47 for every $100 of the fuel bill.

Table C3. The Savings per $100 of Heating Bill from Upgrading a Furnace or Boiler

Old Efficiency

New Furnace or Boiler Efficiency

78% 80% 85% 90% 95%

50% $36 $38 $41 $44 $47

55% $29 $31 $35 $39 $42

60% $23 $25 $29 $33 $37

65% $17 $19 $24 $28 $32

70% $10 $13 $18 $22 $26

75% $4 $6 $12 $17 $21

_______________________________

Note: The savings per $100 are $100 x (1 - old efficiency / new efficiency).

Table C4. The Savings per $100 of Heating or Cooling Bill from Upgraded Efficiency

Old Efficiency

New Heat Pump or Air-Conditioner Efficiency

6.8 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 14.0 16.0

5.0 $26 $29 $38 $44 $50 $55 $58 $64 $69

6.0 $12 $14 $25 $33 $40 $45 $50 $57 $63

7.0 $0 $13 $22 $30 $36 $42 $50 $56

8.0 $0 $11 $20 $27 $33 $43 $50

9.0 $0 $10 $18 $25 $36 $44

10.0 $0 $9 $17 $29 $38

_______________________________

Note: The savings per $100 are $100 x (1 - old efficiency / new efficiency).

The savings from upgrading an electrical heating or cooling system, either a heat pump or an air-conditioner, can be

calculated from Table C4. Starting with an old heat pump with an HSPF of 5.0 and upgrading to a standard one with an HSPF

of 6.8 will save $26 for every $100 of the original heating bill. Table C4 works equally well for heat pumps and airconditioners in heating and cooling modes. For example, if the old air-conditioner with a cooling SEER of 6.0 is replaced

with a new air-conditioner with a standard SEER of 10.0, then the savings per $100 of air-conditioning bill will be $40.

26 Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs
CALCULATIONS IN THIS REPORT

Heating System Environmental Emissions

Heating systems emissions are vented to the atmosphere either at the home, or in the case of electric systems, at the

generating station. Table C5 compares a year’s worth of emissions from an oil furnace, a gas furnace, and an average heat

pump. The values in Table C5 are calculated for heating in a moderate climate using 50 million Btu per year.

Table C5. A Year’s Worth of Emissions from Various Heating Systems

Factor

Direct Residential Emissions

(lb per year)

Indirect Electric Utility

Emissions From Fossil Fuels

(lb per year)

Fuel Oil Furnacea Natural Gas Furnacea Heat Pump

Soot (Particulates) 0.14 n/a n/a

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) 0.03 to 0.16 0.04 80

Nitrous Oxides (N2O) 8.11 5.69 42

Carbon Monoxide (CO) 2.25 2.42 n/a

Organic Compounds n/a 0.67 n/a

Carbon 2718 1979 2704

_______________________________

a

The furnace and boiler emissions are for direct combustion and exclude the emissions from the generation of electricity required to

power furnace fans and boiler pumps.

n/a = The data source does not provide this emission estimate.

Notes: • Assumes an annual heating requirement of 50 million Btu with 80-AFUE oil furnaces and gas furnaces, and 6.8 HSPF heat

pumps; the ranges for heating oil indicate the effect of low- and high-sulfur fuel oil. • The heat pump emissions prorate national total SO2

and NOx emissions from steam electric plants across total sales of electricity in 1992.

Sources: Environmental Protection Agency, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Volume 1: External Combustion Sources,

AP-42 Supplement F (Washington DC, July 1993, Tables 1.3-2,1.4-3); Energy Information Administration, Electric Power Annual 1992,

DOE/EIA-0348(92), (Washington DC, January 1994, Table 44); Energy Information Administration, Emissions of Green House Gases in

the United States 1985-1990 DOE/EIA-0573 (Washington DC, October 1993, p. 73).

Using an 80-percent efficient furnace, the oil and natural gas systems consume 62.5 million Btu of fuel to provide 50 million

Btu of heat. The emissions characteristics of the oil and gas furnaces are taken from the standard source on emission

measurements, and those for furnaces represent average older furnaces in use, not new furnaces. [12,Volume 1] The

calculation in each case is to multiply the number of gallons, or cubic feet of fuel consumed, by the emission coefficient for

the fuel.

Electric utility emissions are more difficult to quantify because utilities in different regions of the country burn different

fuels. Using a standard electric heat pump efficiency of 6.8, a heat pump would consume 7,352 kilowatthours of electricity

to produce 50 million Btu of heat. Table C5 shows the national average emissions for three significant pollutants: sulfur

dioxide, carbon dioxide, and oxides of nitrogen, averaged over national sales of electricity. This approach effectively assumes

that every utility in the country burns the same mix of fuels. [8,Table 44] However, emissions could be less for a utility that

used more than the national average quantities of either natural gas, hydro or nuclear generation, any of which cause less

pollution than coal.

Comparisons of the totals in Table C5 depend on what is considered and where the emissions are generated. Since heating

oil, natural gas and coal are composed principally of carbon, the most significant component is always carbon emissions in

the form of the gas carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is emitted either directly at the home furnace vent, or indirectly at the

electric utility chimney stack.

Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs 27
CALCULATIONS IN THIS REPORT

A comparison of the other emissions are not as simple as it may appear. The direct emissions from the home furnace vent

for oil and gas furnaces are very similar and lower than the average indirect emissions at the utility to produce the electricity

to power a heat pump. However, not considered in Table C5 is that the average oil or gas furnace also uses approximately

500 kilowatthours of electricity per year to power the fan and pumps and this electricity causes emissions at the generating

station. [14] For example, this adds over 5 pounds of indirect emissions of sulfur dioxide per year for the furnace fan for

either oil or gas heat, much higher than the emissions from the direct combustion of either oil or gas. The figure is higher

because average electricity emissions are set by the use of coal.

28 Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs
WORKS CITED

1. Air-conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, Directory of Certified Unitary Air-Conditioners and Unitary Air-Source

Heat Pumps (Arlington, VA, August 1993).

2. Brown, Marilyn A., et al., National Impacts of the Weatherization Assistance Program in Single-Family and Small

Multifamily Dwellings, ORNL/CON-326, U.S. Department of Energy (Washington, DC, May 1993).

3. Electric Power Research Institute, Energy Conservation Standards for Consumer Products, BR-101148 (Palo Alto, CA,

1992).

4. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook 1994, DOE/EIA-0383(94) (Washington, DC, January 1994).

5. Energy Information Administration, Winter Fuels Report: Week Ending March 18, 1994, DOE/EIA-0538 (93/94-24)

(Washington, DC, 24 March 1994), Table 7.

6. Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, DOE/EIA-0035(94/03) (Washington, DC, March 1994),

Table 9.

7. Energy Information Administration, Housing Characteristics 1990, The Residential Energy Consumption Survey,

DOE/EIA-0314(90) Washington, DC.

8. Energy Information Administration, Electric Power Annual 1992, DOE/EIA-0348(92) (Washington, DC, January 1994),

Table 44.

9. Energy Information Administration, Natural Gas Monthly, DOE/EIA-0130 (94/03) (Washington, DC, March 1994),

Table 60.

10. Energy Information Administration, Household Energy Consumption and Expenditures 1990, Residential Energy

Consumption Survey, DOE/EIA-0321(90) (Washington, DC, February, 1993).

11. Energy Information Administration, Electric Power Monthly, DOE/EIA-0226 (94/03) (Washington, DC, March 1994),

Table 24.

12. Environmental Protection Agency, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Volume 1: External Combustion

Sources, AP-42, Supplement F (Washington, DC, July 1993), pp. 1.3-13/14, 1.4-5/6.

13. “Furnaces, Upgrades and Replacements,” Consumer Reports (October 1993), pp. 660-661.

14. Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association, Consumer’s Directory of Certified Efficiency Ratings (Arlington, VA,

October 1993).

15. Hall, John R. Jr., U.S. Home Heating Fire Patterns and Trends Through 1991, National Fire Protection Association,

Fire Analysis and Research Division (Quincy, MA, September 1993).

16. Hayden, A.C.S., “Teach Your Oiled Furnace New Tricks,” Home Energy (January/February, 1992).

17. L’Ecuyer, Michael, and others, “Review of Existing and Emerging Space Conditioning Technologies,” Space

Conditioning: The Next Frontier, Environmental Protection Agency, EPA-430-R93-004 (Washington, DC, April 1993).

18. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, U.S. Residential Appliance Energy Efficiency: Present Status and Future Directions

(Berkeley, CA, 1991).

19. “Life Expectancy/Replacement Picture,” Appliance Magazine (September 1990), Page 71.

Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs 29
WORKS CITED

20. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, National Electronic Injury Surveillance System, National Injury Information

Clearinghouse, Estimates for Calendar Year 1992 (Bethesda, MD, July 1993).

21. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States (Washington, DC, 1991),

Table 124.

22. U.S. Department of Energy, Tips for Energy Savers, DOE/CE-0231 (Washington, DC, October 1991).

23. U.S. Department of Energy, “Heat Pumps,” DOE/CE-0301P (Washington, DC, December, 1990).

24. U.S. Department of Energy, “Appliance Labelling,” DOE/CE-0354P (Washington, DC, April, 1992).

25. U.S. Department of Energy, “Improving The Efficiency of Your Gas Heating System” (Washington, DC, September

1993).

26. Wilson, Alex and John Morrill, Consumer Guide to Home Energy Savings, American Council for an Energy Efficient

Economy (Washington, DC, 1993).

30 Energy Information Administration/ Reducing Home Heating and Cooling Costs