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PHILOSOPHY OF MOSQUITO CONTROL

Portions of this chapter were obtained from the University of Florida and the American Mosquito Control

Association Public Health Pest Control web site at http://vector.ifas.ufl.edu, the University of Sydney Department of 

Medical Entomology website at http://medent.usyd.edu.au/fact/irrigwet.htm, the Environmental Protection Agency 

Mosquito Control web site at http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/health/mosquitoes/control.htm, and the Association of 

State and Territorial Health Officials’ Public Health Confronts the Mosquito report at

http://www.astho.org/?template=mosquito_control.html.

The  underlying  philosophy of mosquito control is based on the  fact that the  greatest control 

impact on mosquito populations will occur when  they  are concentrated, immobile and

accessible. This emphasis focuses on habitat management and controlling the immature stages

before  mosquitoes emerge  as adults. This policy reduces the  need  for widespread  pesticide 

application in residential areas.

The use of pesticides for mosquito control is considered a temporary form of control. Since it is

unreasonable  to expect to  completely eliminate the  next generation by treating  the  current 

generation, the  process may have  to be  repeated  time  and  again. This is true  for chemical 

treatment of both immature and adult populations of mosquitoes. By contrast, source reduction 

that prevents mosquito development can  be  a permanent form of control, perhaps requiring 

limited maintenance from time to time.

Integrated Mosquito Management is the use of all appropriate technological and management 

techniques that brings about  an effective  degree  of mosquito prevention and suppression in  a 

safe, cost­effective, and environmentally sound  manner. The major components of integrated 

mosquito management are: 

1. Source reduction 

2. Biological control 

3. Larviciding 

4. Adulticiding 

5. Public education 

All of these control methods should be based on surveillance data to determine need and timing 

of application.

SOURCE REDUCTION

Source reduction consists of elimination of larval habitats or rendering such habitats unsuitable 

for larval development. Source reduction  ranges from the  simple  overturning of a  discarded 

bucket or disposing of waste tires to complex water level manipulations in marshes. The removal 

or reduction of mosquito breeding habitat is often the most effective and economical long­term 

method  of mosquito control. These  efforts minimize or even eliminate  the  need for mosquito 

larviciding in the affected habitat and greatly reduce adulticiding in nearby areas.
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Sanitation

Containers of all types, man­made structures such as

unscreened rain barrels, roof gutters and  discarded  tires are 

capable  of producing  prodigious numbers of mosquitoes,

including  species that can transmit disease.  Removal of

debris and  regular  inspection, when conducted  on a 

continuous basis, reduces breeding in such sites. Typically, mosquito control­related  sanitation efforts are  best 

accomplished  by homeowners and  residents who, through 

their own actions, have  created  mosquito breeding  around 

their homesites (peridomestic). Mosquito  control agencies

support educational programs that call attention to the hazards 

and recommend individual effort on residential area cleanup.

(See  specific  recommendations for homeowners  under  “Public Education”).

Water Management

Prevention of breeding  can be  accomplished  by removing 

surface waters from productive sites, manipulating shoreline 

water levels, or flooding areas in which mosquitoes oviposit in the soil. Special care must  be 

given to wetlands and sensitive natural areas. Wetlands, streams and even constructed drainage

systems can provide habitat for an array of wildlife, including amphibians, mammals, birds and 

insects. Wetlands also help  control flooding, improve  water  quality, and  provide recreational 

opportunities. Draining healthy wetlands is a  controversial and  often  inappropriate  option, whereas controlling  breeding sites such as sewer  catch basins, puddles, containers, and poorly 

designed or poorly managed stormwater management areas are practices routinely incorporated 

in integrated mosquito management programs.

Irrigated  agriculture  is widespread in  New  Mexico  and  irrigation systems can be sources of

mosquitoes. Water  management is the  essence of good  irrigation practice, and  water 

management should  be  the essence of mosquito management in irrigation  areas. Overuse  of

water  and  inadequate  drainage  are  the  principal causes of

mosquito production associated with irrigation areas. Water  delivery channels 'above' the  land  to be  irrigated  are 

usually well maintained and free of marginal vegetation in order 

to  enhance water flow. They may be  lined  with concrete, or if

earthen lined  any vegetation that establishes is periodically 

removed. In this state  they usually do not  provide a  suitable 

habitat to support mosquito larvae. Water  drainage channels 'below' the  irrigated  land, designed  to 

dispose of unused water, are usually earthen lined and often not 

well maintained. They can become heavily vegetated, restricting 

water  flow  and  providing  suitable  habitat with harborage and 

nutrient resources for various mosquito species.
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The different methods of irrigation itself also vary in their potential for the creation of habitat for

various mosquito species.

Flood  irrigation, where  areas of land  are  inundated  by relatively large  amounts of water,

provides the most obvious potential mosquito habitat. However, providing the water infiltrates, evaporates, or drains off and is delivered elsewhere and does not persist as stagnant pools for

more than 5 days, there is usually no concern for mosquito production.

Sprinkler irrigation and channel irrigation, are  of intermediate  concern and  these  usually 

provide for mosquito habitat only when the water is over­applied, the area is poorly drained, and 

stagnant pools are able to persist for more than 5 days.

Irrigation of pastures is usually accomplished by 

flooding or by using fixed or traveling sprinkler 

systems. Invariably, the  result will be  very 

shallow water on level pasture, but there may be 

deeper  pools in  depressed areas  within  the 

pasture  or in the perimeter  drainage zones. Ensuring water does not persist on pastures and 

in row crop channels for more than 5 days will 

usually prevent mosquito production. Effective 

slope drainage, and infiltration and evaporation 

rates associated with the soil must be considered 

with respect to  the  water  application rates and 

frequencies. Ensuring free flow of water in the delivery and (particularly) the drainage channels

by clearing  emergent and  floating  vegetation  will help  to prevent buildup  of mosquito 

populations.

On the shores of lakes or lagoons, clear emergent vegetation or prevent it from taking hold by 

lining the lagoon or steepening the sides of the lagoon.
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Managing retention ponds/stormwater impoundments

Stormwater  structures that temporarily or permanently retain runoff are  receiving  increasing 

attention as potential mosquito breeding  areas. Measures that lower  mosquito production in 

stormwater  structures are  needed  to protect  public  health. If designed  properly, stormwater 

structures should  not promote  mosquito breeding. Ensuring that these structures are  properly 

designed and maintained is the key to limiting mosquito production.

Historically, stormwater  controls were  designed to  quickly collect, store  and  transport runoff

away from developed  areas into nearby streams to prevent flooding. However, it is now 

recognized that these systems alone are often not the ideal solution because they impact streams

by increasing the volume and velocity of water and amount of pollutants.

Today stormwater management promotes a variety of practices and controls that help runoff to 

infiltrate and minimize contact of runoff with pollutants. For example, infiltration practices using 

vegetated areas like swales and rain gardens slow the velocity of water and allow for percolation 

into the ground. When properly designed and maintained, stormwater management practices do 

not encourage mosquito breeding. Stormwater managers should incorporate design, construction, management and  maintenance features into stormwater  structures to minimize  mosquito 

production (and therefore decrease or eliminate the need for insecticides) without compromising 

water quality functions.

Design and management of stormwater best management practices (BMPs) is beyond the scope 

of this manual. More  information  is available  at the  EPA stormwater  website at: 

http://www.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater.

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

Biological control, or biocontrol, is the use of biological organisms to control pests—in this case,

mosquitoes. Biocontrol is popular  in  theory because  of its potential to be  host­specific with 

virtually no  effect on non­target organisms. Overall, larvivorous fish  are the most extensively 

used biocontrol agent for mosquito control. Predacious fish such as Gambusia affinis and other 

top minnows (Poeciliidae) and killifishes (Cyprinodontidae) that occur naturally in many aquatic 

habitats, can be  collected  (or in some  cases propagated)  and  placed  in  permanent or semi­ permanent water bodies for larval control. Other  biocontrol agents have  been tested for use in 

mosquito control but to date  have not been  found  feasible. These  include the  predacious

mosquito Toxorhynchites, predacious copepods, the parasitic nematode Romanomermis and the 

fungus Lagenidium  giganteum. Biocontrol certainly holds the possibility of becoming  a  more 

important tool and  playing  a larger  role  in  mosquito control in  the future  when improved 

technology and economics may enhance their usefulness. Although bacteria  and insect growth 

regulators may be  considered  a  form of biocontrol, they are  discussed  in  detail in  the 

“Larviciding” section.

Unfortunately, the role of bats and purple martins in mosquito “control” has been exaggerated.

Bats may be  both opportunistic  and selective  in  their feeding, and several factors determine 

which specific insects may be consumed in the greatest quantity. In general, research has shown 

that the little brown bat feeds on softbodied insects such as moths, flies, midges, mosquitoes and
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mayflies. The  larger  big  brown bat is opportunistic, and  preys mostly upon beetles such as

ground  beetles, June  bugs, cucumber  beetles and other  beetles and  insects. The Mexican freetailed bat consumes primarily moths and beetles. Bats are biologically beneficial mammals, and 

are a very important and unique part of our wildlife. But relative to pest populations, whether or

not the  feeding  of bats in  our urban and agricultural communities provides any measurable 

benefit (such as reduction of mosquito biting density or number of West Nile cases) is highly 

questionable. At best, their beneficial contributions are likely to vary tremendously depending on 

the  complex  local environmental conditions and  particular  ecosystem  (

http://www.texasmosquito.org/Bats.html). Purple martins are  not prodigious consumers of

mosquitoes as is so often claimed by companies that manufacture martin housing. Purple martins

and freshwater mosquitoes rarely ever cross paths. Martins are daytime feeders, and feed high in 

the sky; mosquitoes, on the other hand, stay low in damp places during daylight hours, and are 

most active  at night  (http://www.purplemartin.org/main/mgt.html). It makes sense, though, to 

minimize  adverse  effects on natural mosquito predators by using  alternatives to  pesticides or

choosing those pesticides with the least impact on non­target organisms.

Gambusia affinis, the western mosquitofish

Gambusia belong  to the  Poeciliidae  family. Mosquitofish prefer  quiet, shallow  ponds, lakes, ditches, drains, marshes and sluggish creeks with clear water and aquatic vegetation. They prefer 

warm water  temperatures and  can tolerate  water  temperatures between 40  and  100  degrees

Fahrenheit. Their life span is short, probably less than 15 months, but they may live two to three

years under favorable conditions. They are ovoviviparous, meaning the females give birth to live 

young. Gambusia reach sexual maturity in 6 to 8 weeks. Each female can produce three to four

broods per season, every 3 to 6 weeks. The number of young in each brood is highly variable,

and average about 60 to 70. The young are born in spring and summer when they are about 0.4 

inches long. Adult length ranges from 0.8 to 2.5 inches (the females are larger than the males). Mosquitofish eat a variety of macro­invertebrates, including mosquito larvae, other small insect 

larvae, zooplankton, crustaceans and  aquatic  plants such as algae and  diatoms. Gambusia are 

aggressive and may also feed on fish fry including their own young. Feeding is at the water’s

surface.
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Gambusia have  been used  for mosquito  control in the  US  since  the  early 1900’s. Various

agencies throughout the  world  have  developed  stocking  guidelines for mosquito  control in 

swimming pools (abandoned), ornamental pools, ditches, wetlands, mine pits, storm water  and 

waste  water disposal lagoons, natural creeks, animal watering  troughs and  small seasonal or

permanent ponds. Recommended stocking rates in the US range from 15­100 fish for backyard 

ornamental ponds to 2,500 fish/acre for small ponds and ditches. Reports from mosquito control 

organizations indicate  that the  greatest problem associated  with the  inability of Gambusia to 

control mosquito larvae are aquatic vegetation, inadequate fish numbers or a lack of distribution 

by the fish in a water site. 

The introduction of mosquitofish into areas where they have not previously been found may have 

adverse effects. They are very quick to adapt to changing conditions, reproduce quickly and are 

voracious and aggressive feeders. Their presence may be detrimental to economically important 

fish or endangered  native  fish such as the  closely related  Pecos gambusia.  Therefore  new 

introduction  of mosquitofish should  be  limited  to  isolated sites with  no connection to lakes,

rivers, streams or canals where they may have a positive impact upon the existing or potential 

mosquito populations.

LARVICIDING

The  application of chemicals to kill immature  mosquitoes by ground  or aerial applications is

typically more effective and target­specific than adulticiding, although  less permanent than 

source reduction. Several materials in various formulations are labeled for mosquito larviciding,

including some biorational pesticides such as insect growth regulators (IGRs) and bacteria that 

target  mosquitoes and  blackflies. Also labeled  for mosquito control are  conventional 

organophosphate insecticides, oils, and monomolecular surface films.

The timing of larvicide application is dependent on the nature of the control agent. Conventional 

insecticides, for example,  kill larvae at all stages and  thus can be  applied  when convenient. Bacteria must be  consumed  by the  larvae and  are  usually applied well before the  4 th instar to 

ensure that consumption occurs. Insect growth regulators mimic an essential hormone present in 

high concentration in  early instar  larvae but in  very low  concentration  in  4 thinstar  larvae. Exposure  of 4 th

instar  larvae  to the  IGR upsets the  physiological molting  process and  kills 

mosquitoes in the subsequent pupal stage. IGRs can be formulated as slow release insecticides so 

that application in the 2 nd or 3 rd instar will result in an adequate exposure during the 4 thinstar.

Monomolecular films prevent the insect from remaining at the surface of the water by reducing 

surface  tension. Under  these  conditions larvae  of all stages and  pupae  deplete  their energy 

reserves trying to stay at the surface and succumb to exhaustion. The oils kill larvae and pupae

by suffocation, because the insect is not able to obtain air through the siphon at the oily surface.

Each larvicide has very specific applications and may be more effective against one species or

group than another. Each label (the law when using pesticides) is different and special attention 

must be  given to  a full understanding  of the  provisions of the  label for each chemical being 

considered for use in mosquito control programs. The label prescribes application methods and 

rates, habitat restrictions, personal and environmental exposure limits, etc. Pesticide applicators

must be knowledgeable of the label contents and abide by the label.
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Important characteristics for larvicides include specificity for mosquitoes, minimal impact on 

non­target organisms and, in many instances, ability to penetrate  dense  vegetative  canopy. Larvicide formulations (e.g., liquid, granular, solid) must be accurately applied and appropriate 

to the habitat being treated. Some dry formulations, such as briquets and granules, may also be 

applied pre­flooding, if the  label allows. Larvicide  applications, when  based  on  accurate 

surveillance  data,  are  an important component of an integrated  mosquito control operation. Accuracy of application coverage  is important, as failure  to expose  even a  relatively small 

portion of a breeding area can result in the emergence of a large mosquito brood and lead to the 

need for immediate broad­scale adulticiding.

Dipteran­specific bacteria

Two species of bacteria are  labeled for mosquito larval control: Bacillus thuringiensis var.

israelensis (Bti) and Bacillus sphaericus (Bs). Both types of naturally­occurring bacteria produce

spores and a crystalline protein known as delta­endotoxin. These crystals are toxic to mosquito 

larvae when ingested. Bti is also used to control larvae of black flies, midges and fungus gnats. All species of Culex are susceptible to Bs, as well as some species of Aedes, Psorophora and

Anopheles. Bti breaks down quickly in  the  environment and  thus has no residual effect. Bs, however, recycles in  dead  mosquito larvae  and provides extended  control. This is useful for

multiple­brood species. Neither bacterium is harmful to non­target organisms, including plants,

fish and other organisms in the aquatic environment, when used according to the label.

Insect growth regulators

Methoprene is an insect growth regulator which interferes with normal mosquito development. Treated larvae continue normal development to the pupal stage where they die. Methoprene has

no effect on mosquitoes which have already reached the pupal or adult stage prior to treatment. Methoprene  is target­specific,  and  will not affect fish, waterfowl, mammals or beneficial 

predatory insects when used according to the label. When  using  methoprene  for mosquito control  it is important to remember  you will still see

larvae; dip counts will not tell you if the product is working. To determine the effectiveness of

treatment, it is necessary to collect a sample of pupae from treated and untreated areas and to rear

them in emergence cages to count the number of live adults that emerge.

Surface films and oils

Monomolecular  surface  films are  alcohol­based products that  produce a  film on the  water 

surface. This film makes it difficult for mosquito larvae, pupae, and emerging adults to attach to 

the  water’s surface,  causing  them to drown. Species that do not require  surface  contact for

breathing while in the larval or pupal stage (i.e., Coquillettidia) will be affected when the adults

emerge. Monomolecular  surface films can  be  applied  at either  the  larval or pupal stage. Sustained winds of 10 mph or greater will push the film and thus result in poor control. Surface 

films are  not visible  and an indicator oil must be  used  to determine  presence of the  product. Monomolecular surface films do not last long  in the  environment and  do not adversely affect 

fish, birds or other wildlife when used according to the label.

Petroleum­based  oils were widely used  in the  past but few products remains available, due to 

environmental hazards of petroleum­based products and adverse non­target effects. Oil kills both
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larvae and  pupae  through suffocation. Oils will also  kill  emerging  adults and  may inhibit 

oviposition. Organophosphate larvicides

Temephos is currently the only organophosphate registered for larval mosquito control. Aquatic 

invertebrates (in addition to mosquito larvae) are extremely sensitive to temephos. Temephos is

also slightly to moderately toxic to fish, more so in the liquid formulation than granular. Because 

temephos is applied  directly to  water, it is not  expected  to  have  a  direct impact on terrestrial 

animals or birds. It is best used  in highly polluted waters or water with high organic  content, where less hazardous alternatives may not be effective. The power backpack blower application 

to tire piles is a minor but critical use. The temephos product used for this application is uniquely 

formulated for penetration of large tire piles and residual action (30 days or more). It is more 

effective and longer lasting than alternatives for this use.

ADULTICIDING

The  ground  or aerial application of chemicals to kill adult mosquitoes is usually the  least 

efficient mosquito control technique  and is considered  the  last resort. Effective  sustainable 

integrated  mosquito management programs strive  to prevent large  flights or swarms of

mosquitoes through all the  measures described  above, but heavy precipitation, flooding,

environmental constraints, inaccessible  larval habitats, missed  breeding  sites, human disease 

outbreaks, as well as budget shortfalls, absent employees, or equipment failures, may necessitate 

use of adulticides. Therefore it remains an important part of an integrated mosquito management 

program.

Effective adult mosquito control with insecticides requires small droplets that drift through areas

where mosquitoes are  flying. The droplets that  impinge on mosquitoes provide the  contact 

activity necessary to kill them. Large  droplets that settle  on the  ground  or vegetation without 

contacting  mosquitoes waste  material and  may  cause  undesirable effects on non­targeted 

organisms. To achieve  small droplets, special aerial and ground  ultra­low­volume (ULV) 

equipment is used. Ground ULV  applicators produce droplets of 8 to  30 microns in diameter.

Insecticides are applied in concentrated form at very low volumes, usually less than 3 ounces per 

acre. Ground or aerially applied thermal application of adulticides (thermal fogger) is also used 

in some areas but to a much lesser degree. 

As with all uses of pesticides, the label is the law. Adulticiding labels specify application rate,

vehicle and  wind speed  and  required  droplet size. It is important to calibrate  the  application 

equipment regularly to  ensure  it is producing the required  droplet size  and flow rate. Fogging 

should  take place  in early morning  and  evening when mosquitoes are  active  and  convection 

currents are minimal, to hold the fog closer to the ground.

Most currently registered  adulticides fall into one  of two groups of insecticides:  synthetic 

pyrethroids or organophosphates. Pyrethroids are synthetic  chemical insecticides that act in a 

similar manner to pyrethrins, which are derived from chrysanthemum flowers. Pyrethroids used 

in mosquito control are typically mixed with a synergist compound, such as piperonyl butoxide 

which enhances the effectiveness of the active ingredient. The product is often diluted in water or
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oil and applied using ULV equipment at rates less than 1/100 th of a pound of active ingredient or

less than 4 fluid ounces of mixed formulation per acre. The synthetic pyrethroids commonly used 

in mosquito control programs are  permethrin, resmethrin (restricted  use)  and  sumithrin. Pyrethroids are  considered to pose slight risks of acute toxicity to humans, but at high doses, pyrethroids can affect the nervous system. Pyrethroids, when applied at mosquito control rates, are low in toxicity to mammals and birds, but are toxic to fish and bees. For this reason the labels

have restrictions about application over water or blooming crops when bees may be present. Organophosphates registered  for adult mosquito control include  chlorpyrifos, malathion and 

naled. When applied according  to the  label, these  products can  be  used  for adult mosquito 

control without posing “unreasonable risks” (EPA language) to human health, wildlife  or the 

environment. In high doses organophosphates can overstimulate  the  nervous system causing 

nausea, dizziness or confusion. Severe  high dose  poisoning  can cause  convulsions, respiratory 

paralysis and  death. Because  there  are  relatively  few  chemicals registered  for adult mosquito 

control, organophosphates remain  an important part  of an integrated  mosquito management 

program. Mosquito resistance to insecticides may occur between insecticides within a class (for example,

resistance to both malathion and naled) or could be passed from immature to adult stages subject 

to the  same insecticidal mode  of action. Different species of mosquitoes may also vary in 

susceptibility to different larvicides and adulticides. Sustained integrated mosquito management 

requires alternative  use  of different classes of insecticides, in  conjunction with  resistance 

monitoring, source reduction, biological control and public education.

PUBLIC EDUCATION

An integrated  mosquito management program involves the  public  by instituting a  public 

information program emphasizing  personal responsibility, ways in  which  people  can  prevent 

mosquito breeding, and  how  they can reduce  the  risk  of being  bitten by observing  personal 

protection measures such as repellent use. A public education program should also inform the 

public  about  the  use  and  timing  of pesticides in their community, and  pesticide  risks and 

benefits. Mosquito control programs need  the  support of an informed  public. Informing  the 

public shows a respect for the community and will lead to a stronger, better supported program 

that is tailored to the community and its values.

Strategies to  inform the  public  can include  press education prior to  the  mosquito season; 

educational meetings with policy­makers such as city councils and  county commissioners; 

preparation of materials such as fact sheets for the  public; website  development; plans for a 

hotline  and recorded  messages; and regular  information to the  public  about mosquito 

surveillance  and  disease  incidence. The New Mexico Department of Health can provide West 

Nile  virus brochures upon request, and  also maintains a  website  mapping  West Nile  virus

activity in humans, horses and mosquitoes. That website is: 

http://www.health.state.nm.us/epi/wnv.html.
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Prevent mosquito breeding

The following recommendations, aimed  at residents and  homeowners,  were  adapted from the 

AMCA website: http://www.mosquito.org/mosquito­information/control.aspx.

1. Destroy or dispose of tin cans, old tires, buckets, unused plastic swimming pools or

other containers that collect and hold water. Do not allow water to accumulate in the 

saucers of flowerpots, cemetery urns or in pet dishes for more than 2 days.

2. Clean debris from rain gutters and  remove  any  standing  water  under  or around 

structures, or on flat roofs. Check around faucets and air conditioner units and repair

leaks or eliminate puddles that remain for several days.

3. Change  the  water  in birdbaths and  wading  pools at least once a  week  and  stock 

ornamental pools with top  feeding predacious minnows. Known as mosquito fish,

these minnows are about 1 – 11⁄2 inches in length and can be purchased or seined from 

streams and creeks  locally. Ornamental pools may be treated  with biorational 

larvicides [Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) or S­methoprene (IGR) containing 

products] under  certain circumstances. Commercial products containing Bti

("Mosquito Dunks" and "Mosquito Bits") can be purchased at many hardware/garden 

stores for residential  use. S­Methoprene  insect growth regulator is available 

commercially as “Pre­Strike”. Like Mosquito Dunks, Pre­Strike can be found at many 

home/garden and pet specialty stores.

4. Fill or drain puddles, ditches and swampy areas, and either remove, drain or fill tree

holes and stumps. These areas may be treated with Bti or methoprene products also.

5. Eliminate seepage from cisterns, cesspools, and septic tanks.

6. Eliminate  standing  water  around  animal watering  troughs. Flush livestock  water 

troughs twice a week. 

7. Check  for trapped  water in plastic  or canvas tarps used  to cover  boats, pools, etc.

Arrange the tarp to drain the water.

8. Check around construction sites or do­it­yourself improvements to ensure that proper 

backfilling and grading prevent drainage problems.

9. Irrigate lawns and gardens carefully to prevent water from standing for several days.

Traps and Misting Systems

Focal or homeowner­based mosquito control strategies, such as traps and misting systems, may be 

perceived as an alternative by the public  in affected communities. There has been a rapid 

proliferation of backyard mosquito control equipment and technologies. However, there is little data 

on the efficacy of these methods, machines, and materials either for area­wide or focal programs, especially for mosquito­borne disease control. Some of these technologies may result in the misuses

of pesticides and have other negative impacts. If the public believes that these alternatives are best 

for them (for example, because  of intensive  advertising), they could  rationalize not  authorizing 

public  support  for community­wide mosquito  control. Therefore, organized mosquito  control
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programs could suffer. These methods also  do  not adequately address the need for surveillance, monitoring, source reduction, or larval control  –  all basic  components of integrated mosquito 

management. In addition to  not  providing area­wide protection, focal strategies are usually more 

expensive than the annual per person cost of organized, community mosquito control.

Repellents

It is important for both vector control personnel and the public to protect themselves from mosquito 

bites by consistently using an effective  insect  repellent. For years, DEET (N,N­diethyl­mtoluamide) has been the most common active ingredient in commercial insect repellents. DEET has

been shown to be effective and has a long safety record when used according to the label. Recently,

two new active ingredients have been registered by the EPA. In recent scientific articles, repellents

with Picaridin (KBR 3023) have been shown to provide long­lasting protection similar to DEET. Oil of lemon eucalyptus [p­menthane 3,8­diol (PMD)], a plant based repellent, is also registered 

with EPA. In two recent scientific publications, when oil of lemon eucalyptus was tested against 

mosquitoes found in the U.S. it provided protection similar to repellents with low concentrations

of DEET.

The EPA makes the following recommendations on any repellent use:

· Apply repellents only to exposed skin and/or clothing (as directed on the product label). Do not use under clothing. · Never use repellents over cuts, wounds, or irritated skin. · Do not apply to eyes and mouth, and apply sparingly around ears. When using sprays do 

not spray directly onto face; spray on hands first and then apply to face. · Do not allow children to handle the products, and do not apply to children's hands. When 

using on children, apply the product to your own hands and then put it on the child. · Do not spray in enclosed areas. Avoid breathing repellent spray, and do not use near

food. · Use just enough repellent to cover exposed skin and/or clothing. Heavy application and 

saturation is generally unnecessary for effectiveness; if biting insects do not respond to a 

thin film of repellent, then apply a bit more. · After returning indoors, wash treated skin with soap and water or bathe. This is

particularly important when repellents are used repeatedly in a day or on consecutive 

days. Also, wash treated clothing before wearing it again. If you suspect that you or your

child are reacting to an insect repellent, discontinue use, wash treated skin, and then call 

your local poison control center (1­800­222­1222 in New Mexico). If you go to a doctor,

take the repellent with you.

Choose a repellent that provides protection for the amount of time that you will be outdoors. A 

product with a higher percentage of active ingredient is a good choice if you will be outdoors for

several hours while  a product with a lower  concentration can be used if time outdoors will be 

limited. Simply re­apply repellent (following label instructions) if you are outdoors for a longer 

time than expected and start to be bitten by mosquitoes.

Certain products which contain permethrin are  recommended  for use  on clothing, shoes, bed 

nets, and camping gear, and are registered with EPA for this use. Permethrin is highly effective
12 

as an  insecticide and  as a repellent. Permethrin­treated  clothing repels and  kills ticks, mosquitoes, and  other  arthropods and  retains this effect after  repeated  laundering. The 

permethrin  insecticide should  be reapplied following  the  label instructions. Some  commercial 

products are available pretreated with permethrin.
13

AMCA POLICY ON MOSQUITO CONTROL

The American Mosquito Control Association advocates management of mosquito populations when 

and where necessary by means of integrated programs designed to  benefit  or to  have minimal 

adverse effects on people, wildlife, and the environment. This integrated pest management policy 

recognizes that mosquito populations cannot always be eliminated but often must be suppressed to 

tolerable levels for the well­being of humans, domestic animals, and wildlife, and that selection of

scientifically sound suppression methods must  be based on consideration of what  is ecologically 

and economically in the long­term best interest of mankind.

The following principles are advocated: 

1. Mosquito control measures should be undertaken only when there is adequate justification 

based upon surveillance data.

2. Integrated mosquito management programs should be tailored to the needs and requirements

of the local situation. The combination of methods for mosquito control should be chosen 

after careful consideration of the efficacy, ecological effects and costs versus benefits of the 

various options, including public education, legal action, natural and biological control, elimination of breeding sources, and insecticide applications.

3. Mosquito breeding sources, whether natural or created by human activity, should be altered 

in such a manner as to cause the least undesirable impact on the environment.

4. Insecticides and application methods should be  used in the most  efficient  and least 

hazardous manner, in accordance  with all applicable  laws and  regulations and available 

scientific data. The registered label requirements for insecticide should be followed. When 

choices are available among effective insecticides, those offering the least  hazard to 

non­target organisms should be used. Insecticides should be chosen and used in a manner 

that will minimize the development of resistance in the mosquito populations.

5. Personnel involved in mosquito  management  programs should  be properly trained  and 

supervised, and certified in accordance with relevant laws and regulations, and should keep 

current with improvements in management techniques through continuing education and/or

training problems.

Official policy of the AMCA, adopted at  the annual meeting held April 17­21, 1978, Chicago,

Illinois
14 

This rule was filed as 20 NMAC 8.2.

TITLE 20  ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

CHAPTER 8  NUISANCE ABATEMENT 

PART 2  MOSQUITO ABATEMENT AND CONTROL

20.8.2.1  ISSUING AGENCY: New Mexico Environmental Improvement Board.

[11/30/95; 20.8.2.1 NMAC ­ Rn, 20 NMAC 8.2.100, Recompiled 11/27/01] 

20.8.2.2 SCOPE: All persons having ownership of or control over any property upon which water may collect.

[11/30/95; 20.8.2.2 NMAC ­ Rn, 20 NMAC 8.2.101, Recompiled 11/27/01] 

20.8.2.3  STATUTORY AUTHORITY: Section 74­1­8 NMSA 1978.

[11/30/95; 20.8.2.3 NMAC ­ Rn, 20 NMAC 8.2.102, Recompiled 11/27/01] 

20.8.2.4  DURATION: Permanent.

[11/30/95; 20.8.2.4 NMAC ­ Rn, 20 NMAC 8.2.103, Recompiled 11/27/01] 

20.8.2.5  EFFECTIVE DATE: November 30, 1995.

[11/30/95; 20.8.2.5 NMAC ­ Rn, 20 NMAC 8.2.104, Recompiled 11/27/01] 

20.8.2.6  OBJECTIVE: To prevent or control the occurrence of mosquitoes that are a nuisance or are

capable of transmitting disease to man or domestic animals.

[9/22/72, 11/30/95; 20.8.2.6 NMAC ­ Rn, 20 NMAC.7.2.105, Recompiled 11/27/01] 

20.8.2.7  DEFINITIONS: As used in this part [20.8.2 NMAC]:

A. "abatement" means the control or elimination of mosquitoes by elimination of their breeding 

sources or by poisoning, spraying, or the use of biological and environmental controls, or any other method 

approved by the Department;

B. "collection of water" includes any collection of water contained in ditches, borrow pits, pools, crop fields, ponds, streams, excavations, holes, depressions, open cesspools, privy vaults, fountains, cisterns, tanks, shallow wells, troughs, sewage oxidation ponds and lagoons, barrels, urns, cans, boxes, bottles, tubes, buckets, roof 

gutters, tanks of flush closets, reservoirs, vessels, receptacles of any kind, or other containers or devices which may 

hold water;

C. "Department" means the New Mexico Environment Department;

D. "mosquito" means any arthropod belonging to the Class Insects, Order Diptera, Family Culicidae, Subfamily Culicinae;

E. "mosquito larvae" means the immature aquatic stages of mosquitoes occurring between the egg 

and pupal stages;

F. "mosquito pupae" means the aquatic stages between the larval and adult stages of mosquitoes; and 

G. "person" means any individual, partnership, firm public or private corporation, trust, estate, company, society, political subdivision or agency, or any other legal entity or their legal representatives, agents or 

assigns.

[9/22/72, 11/30/95; 20.8.2.7 NMAC – Rn, 20 NMAC.8.2.106, Recompiled 11/27/01] 

20.8.2.8 to 20.8.2.106 [RESERVED] 

20.2.8.107  PROHIBITED ACTS: No person shall create or maintain any collection of water in or on which 

mosquitoes breed or are likely to breed unless approved methods of abatement are employed as specified by the

Department. The presence of mosquito larvae or mosquito pupae, or both, in collections of water shall constitute

conclusive evidence that mosquitoes are breeding there.

[9/22/72; 11/30/95; 20.2.8.107 NMAC – Rn, 20 NMAC 8.2.107, Recompiled 11/27/01]
15 

20.8.2 NMAC 

20.2.8.108  APPROVED METHODS OF ABATEMENT: Approved methods of mosquito abatement

may consist of one or more of the following procedures:

A. eliminate collections of water by filling or draining;

B. free collections of water of all vegetative growth, floating debris and other obstruction;

C. clean premises by disposal, removal or destruction of the cans, boxes, broken or empty 

bottles, vehicles, tires and similar articles likely to hold water;

D. empty collections of water every four (4) days;

E. stock collections of water with mosquito­destroying fish;

F. screen collections of water with corrosion resistant netting of at least 16 meshes to the

inch each way, or with other material which will effectually prevent the ingress and egress of mosquitoes;

G. treat collections of water with chemicals approved by the Department; or 

H. any other method approved by the Department.

[9/22/72, 11/30/95; 20.8.2.108 NMAC – Rn, 20 NMAC 8.2.108, Recompiled 11/27/01] 

20.8.2.109  SEVERABILITY: If any provision of application of this Part is held invalid, the

remainder, or its application to other situations or persons, shall not be affected.

[11/30/95; 20.8.2.109 NMAC – Rn, 20 NMAC 8.2.109, Recompiled 11/27/01] 

20.8.2.110  AMENDMENT AND SUPERSESSION OF PRIOR REGULATIONS: This Part shall be

construed as amending and superseding the Regulations Governing Mosquito Abatement and Control, EIB 

72­1, filed August 23, 1972. All references to the Regulations Governing Mosquito Abatement and Control

in any other rule shall be construed as a reference to this Part.

[11/30/95; 20.8.2.110 NMAC – Rn, 20 NMAC 8.2.110, Recompiled 11/27/01] 

20.8.2.111  SAVING CLAUSE: Supersession of the Regulations Governing Mosquito Abatement

and Control shall not affect any administrative or judicial enforcement action pending on the effective date

of this Part. [11/30/95; 20.8.2.111 NMAC – Rn, 20 NMAC 8.2.111, Recompiled 11/27/01] 

20.8.2.112  COMPLIANCE WITH OTHER REGULATIONS: Compliance with this Part does not

relieve a person from the obligation to comply with other applicable state and federal regulations.

[11/30/95; 20.8.2.112 NMAC – Rn, 20 NMAC 8.2.112, Recompiled 11/27/01] 

HISTORY OF 20.8.2 NMAC: The material in this part was derived from that previously filed with the

commission of public records – state records center and archives. EIB 72­1, Regulations Governing Mosquito Abatement And Control, 8/23/1972.

History of Repealed Material: [RESERVED] 

20.8.2 NMAC