Effects of Removing Restrictions 

on U.S. Crude Oil Exports

September 2015

Independent Statistics & Analysis

www.eia.gov

U.S. Department of Energy

Washington, DC 20585
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports i

This report was prepared by the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), the statistical and 

analytical agency within the U.S. Department of Energy. By law, EIA’s data, analyses, and forecasts are 

independent of approval by any other officer or employee of the United States government. The views 

in this report therefore should not be construed as representing those of the U.S. Department of Energy 

or other federal agencies.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports ii

Contacts

This report, Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports, was prepared under the general 

guidance of John Conti, Assistant Administrator for Energy Analysis, A. Michael Schaal, Director, Office of 

Petroleum, Natural Gas, and Biofuels Analysis, and Lynn Westfall, Director, Office of Energy Markets and 

Financial Analysis at 202/586-3811 (email, Lynn.Westfall@eia.gov).

Technical information concerning the content of the report may be obtained from Lynn Westfall, 

Director, Office of Energy Markets and Financial Analysis at 202/586-3811 (email, 

Lynn.Westfall@eia.gov), or from John Powell, Team Leader, Liquid Fuels Markets Team at 202/586-1814 

(email, John.Powell@eia.gov).

Contributing authors by discipline and issue areas are as follows:

• David Daniels – model design

• Elizabeth May – refinery market modeling

• Adrian Geagla – global crude oil and product market modeling

• Hannah Breul – petroleum market analysis

• Dana Van Wagener – U.S. exploration and production

• Michael Cole – integrated modeling 

Other EIA contributors to the report include: Michael Ford, Stefanie Palumbo, Laurie Falter, Michael 

Burdette, Melinda Hobbs, Peggy Wells, Colleen Blessing, and Dale Sweetnam.
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports iii

Preface

This report examines the implications of removing current restrictions on U.S. crude oil exports for the 

price of domestic and global marker crude oil streams, gasoline prices, domestic crude oil production, 

domestic refining activity, and trade in crude oil and petroleum products. The analysis, which builds on 

and extends previous studies and activities related to the implications of growing domestic crude 

production that the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) has undertaken since May 2014, uses 

cases drawn from EIA’s Annual Energy Outlook 2015 (AEO2015) that incorporate a range of assumptions 

regarding domestic resource availability and world oil prices.

EIA studies and activities related to implications of increased crude oil production and possible 

relaxation or removal of crude oil export restrictions

Study/Activity Publication Date

U.S. Crude Oil Production Forecast: Analysis of Crude Types May 2014

Condensate Workshop September 2014

What Drives U.S. Gasoline Prices? October 2014

EIA’s U.S. Crude Oil Import Tracking Tool: Selected Sample Applications November 2014

Technical Options for Processing Additional Light Tight Oil Volumes within the

United States

April 2015

Implications of Increasing Light Tight Oil Production for U.S. Refining May 2015

U.S. Crude Oil Production to 2025: Updated Projection of Crude Types May 2015

Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports this study (September 2015)

U.S. oil production has grown rapidly in recent years. Data reflecting combined U.S. production of crude 

oil and lease condensate show a rise from 5.6 million barrels per day (b/d) in 2011 to 8.7 million b/d in 

2014. EIA’s August 2015 Short-Term Energy Outlook forecasts U.S. crude oil production of 9.4 million b/d 

in 2015 and 9.0 million b/d in 2016, with the decrease in production between 2015 and 2016 reflecting 

recent and forecast changes in drilling activity following the sharp decline in oil prices since mid-2014. 

AEO2015 projects domestic production growth beyond 2016, although the pace and duration remain 

uncertain.

Recognizing that some options, such as like-for-like replacement of import streams, are inherently 

limited, the question of how the relaxation or removal of current limitations on crude exports might 

affect domestic and international markets for both crude oil and products continues to hold great 

interest for policymakers, industry, and the public.
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U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports iv

Contents

Contacts........................................................................................................................................................ ii

Preface ......................................................................................................................................................... iii

Executive Summary..................................................................................................................................... vii

Key analysis results............................................................................................................................... viii

Caveats..................................................................................................................................................... x

Introduction and Background .......................................................................................................................1

Export policy assumptions.......................................................................................................................4

Options for accommodating increased crude oil production..................................................................5

Caveats regarding the analysis................................................................................................................6

Experience in accommodating increased domestic crude oil production since 2009 ............................7

Results.........................................................................................................................................................14

Overview and organization....................................................................................................................14

Crude oil prices......................................................................................................................................15

Petroleum product prices......................................................................................................................21

Domestic crude oil production ..............................................................................................................21

Petroleum trade and its components....................................................................................................24

Capacity additions, throughput, and refiner and producer revenues...................................................30

Appendix A. Congressional Requests for Information on the Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. 

Crude Oil Exports........................................................................................................................................35

Appendix B. Supplemental Tables of Results..............................................................................................38
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U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports v

Tables

Table ES-1. Summary results for U.S. petroleum markets with (res) and without (unr) crude oil export 

restrictions across EIA cases in 2025 .......................................................................................................... xii

Table 1. EIA studies and activities related to implications of increased crude oil production and possible 

relaxation or removal of crude oil export restrictions..................................................................................1

Table 2. Comparison of baseline assumptions in the Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, 

and High Oil and Gas Resource/Low Oil Price cases.....................................................................................2

Table 3. Crude oil and petroleum product prices with (res) and without (unr) crude oil export restrictions 

in 2025 across cases....................................................................................................................................20

Table B-1. Summary results for four cases with (res) and without (unr) current crude oil export 

restrictions in 2015 .....................................................................................................................................39

Table B-2. Summary results for four cases with (res) and without (unr) current crude oil export 

restrictions in 2020 .....................................................................................................................................41

Table B-3. Summary results for four cases with (res) and without (unr) current crude oil export 

restrictions in 2025 .....................................................................................................................................43

Figures

Figure 1. Brent crude oil price projections by case with current crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25.....3

Figure 2. Total U.S. crude oil production projections by case with current crude oil export restrictions, 

2010-25 .........................................................................................................................................................4

Figure 3. Annual U.S. crude oil production, 1950-2015................................................................................8

Figure 4. Monthly average Brent and WTI prices, January 2010 to June 2015 ............................................9

Figure 5. Annual U.S. crude oil imports by type, 2010-15 ..........................................................................10

Figure 6. Annual U.S. refinery gross inputs, 2000-14 .................................................................................11

Figure 7. Annual U.S. petroleum product trade, 1990-2014 ......................................................................12

Figure 8. Annual U.S. net crude oil imports, 2000-14.................................................................................13

Figure 9a. Brent crude oil price projections by case with current crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25.16

Figure 9b. Brent-WTI crude oil price spread by case under current crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25

....................................................................................................................................................................17

Figure 9c. Brent-WTI crude oil price spread by case with the removal of current crude oil export 

restrictions, 2010-25...................................................................................................................................17

Figure 10a. Difference in West Texas Intermediate crude oil prices by case from removing current crude 

oil export restrictions, 2010-25...................................................................................................................18

Figure 10b. Difference in Brent crude oil prices by case from removing current crude oil export 

restrictions, 2010-25...................................................................................................................................19

Figure 11a. Total U.S. crude oil production by case with current crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25..22
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U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports vi

Figure 11b. Difference in domestic crude oil production by case from removing current crude oil export 

restrictions, 2010-25...................................................................................................................................23

Figure 12a. Combined U.S. crude oil and petroleum product net export projections by case with current 

crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25 ........................................................................................................25

Figure 12b1/b2. U.S. crude oil and petroleum product net export projections by case with current crude 

oil export restrictions, 2010-25...................................................................................................................26

Figure 12c1/c2. U.S. crude oil and petroleum product gross export projections by case with current 

crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25 ........................................................................................................27

Figure 12d1/d2. U.S. crude oil and petroleum product gross import projections by case with current 

crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25 ........................................................................................................28

Figure 13a. Difference in combined U.S. crude oil and petroleum product net exports by case from 

removing current crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25 ...........................................................................29

Figure 13b1/b2. Difference in U.S. crude oil and petroleum product net exports by case from removing 

current crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25............................................................................................30

Figure 14a. Total U.S. crude oil distillation capacity projections by case with current crude oil export 

restrictions, 2010-25...................................................................................................................................31

Figure 14b. Total U.S. crude oil distillation throughput projections by case with current crude oil export 

restrictions, 2010-25...................................................................................................................................32

Figure 15a. Difference in the average 3-2-1 crack spread at U.S. refineries by case from removing current 

crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25 ........................................................................................................33

Figure 15b. Difference in total U.S. crude oil distillation capacity by case from removing current crude oil 

export restrictions, 2010-25 .......................................................................................................................34

Figure 15c. Difference in total U.S. crude oil distillation throughput by case from removing current crude 

oil export restrictions, 2010-25...................................................................................................................34
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U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports vii

Executive Summary 

Recent increases in domestic crude oil production and the prospect of continued supply growth have 

sparked discussion on the topic of how rising domestic crude oil volumes might be absorbed, including 

the possibility of removing or relaxing current restrictions on U.S. crude oil exports.

In response to requests from Congress1 and the Administration, EIA developed several analyses that 

address these issues. Recent EIA reports have addressed gasoline price determinants (EIA, What Drives 

U.S. Gasoline Prices?, October 2014), changes in U.S. crude oil imports to accommodate increased 

domestic production (EIA, “Crude oil imports continue to decline,” This Week in Petroleum, January 23, 

2014), options for refinery capacity expansion (EIA, Technical Options for Processing Additional Light 

Tight Oil Volumes within the United States, April 2015), and refinery responses to higher, but fixed, 

levels of domestic crude oil production under both current crude oil export restrictions and with 

unrestricted crude oil exports (EIA, Implications of Increasing Light Tight Oil Production for U.S. Refining, 

May 2015). EIA also developed projections of domestic crude oil production by crude type through 2025 

(EIA, U.S. Crude Oil Production to 2025: Updated Projection of Crude Types, May 2015), supplementing 

the overall production projection provided in the Annual Energy Outlook 2015 (AEO2015) and updating 

a previous report issued in May 2014.

This report builds on these earlier efforts by applying EIA’s energy models to directly compare cases 

over the next decade with and without the removal of current restrictions on crude oil exports. Four 

baseline cases using EIA’s National Energy Modeling System are considered to reflect a range of outlooks 

for resources and technology as well as prices, which are key drivers of domestic crude oil production.

Current laws and regulations allow for unlimited exports of petroleum products, but require licensing of 

crude oil exports. Exports of crude oil to Canada for use there are presumptively granted licenses, as are 

exports of crude oil from Alaska’s North Slope (ANS crude), re-exports of foreign-sourced crude, and 

certain exports from California. In addition, recent rulings by the U.S. Department of Commerce’s 

Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) have clarified that condensate processed through a distillation 

tower is classified as a petroleum product and is therefore exportable without a license.2 For this 

analysis, EIA generally assumes that all streams with API gravity of 50 degrees and above (API 50+) 

would be eligible for processing and export under recent BIS guidance. Through the first five months of 

2015, crude oil exports averaged 491,000 b/d. In addition, exports of processed condensate through the 

first five months of 2015 are estimated to have reached an average of 84,000 b/d. 

 1 Requests from Congress include letters from Senators Murkowski and Landrieu (April 10, 2014) and Senators Cantwell and 

Wyden (February 3, 2014), which are provided in Appendix A. Questions on this matter have also been directed to 

Administrator Sieminski at several recent hearings. 

2 In addition, the Department of Commerce Bureau of Industry and Security is recently-reported to have approved one or more 

applications for the exchange of domestically produced light crude oil for heavy crude oil produced in Mexico (Reuters, “U.S. 

approves landmark crude oil export swaps with Mexico,” August 14, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/08/14/us-usaoil-exports-exclusive-idUSKCN0QJ1RI20150814). This study does not consider this action or its impact on U.S. crude oil export 

and import volumes. 
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U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports viii

Although the current policies outlined above are characterized by some as a crude oil export ban, crude 

oil exports have been rising steadily in recent years (EIA, “Crude exports and re-exports continue to rise; 

some volumes sent to Europe and Asia,” Today in Energy, October 31, 2014). Even with current 

restrictions, a further increase in crude exports, including additional flows to Canada and more exports 

of ANS crude, is possible. In this analysis, projections under current policies are compared to alternative 

cases that allow unrestricted exports of crude oil, paralleling the current treatment of petroleum 

product exports.

Key analysis results

The effects of eliminating restrictions on crude oil exports depend on the level of future domestic 

production, which itself depends on the characterization of resources and technology as well as future 

crude oil prices. Under current policies, projected domestic crude oil production (including lease 

condensate) in 2025 ranges from 9.5 million b/d in the Low Oil Price (LP) case to 13.6 million b/d in the 

High Oil and Gas Resource (HOGR) case, with production in other cases (the Reference case, and a case 

that combines HOGR with the LP case (HOGR/LP)) falling within this range (Table ES-1). 

The discount of West Texas Intermediate (WTI) crude to North Sea Brent, the latter a key marker for 

waterborne light crudes, is expected to increase to more than $10/b in cases where current crude oil 

export policy is maintained and domestic production reaches or exceeds about 11.7 million b/d by 

2025. Under current export policies, the Brent-WTI spread averages roughly $15/b over 2020-25 in the 

HOGR case, reflecting the price discount required to spur investment in additional processing capacity to 

convert incremental volumes of domestic crude oil into exportable petroleum products. In the 

Reference case, where production averages 10.4 million b/d over 2020-25, there is no need for a wider 

Brent-WTI spread to encourage more investment in domestic processing capacity additions. The average 

annual Brent-WTI spread remains close to $6/b in the Reference case whether or not restrictions on 

crude oil exports are removed, and unlike the HOGR case, projected total U.S. distillation capacity is the 

same whether current crude oil export restrictions are maintained or removed (Table ES-1). It should be 

noted that the $6/b–$8/b range for the Brent-WTI spread with unrestricted crude exports differs 

significantly from historic experience in which Brent and WTI typically traded close to parity. A BrentWTI spread in the $6/b–$8/b range is consistent with the costs of moving WTI from Cushing, Oklahoma 

to overseas markets where it might compete with Brent. The historical situation of approximate parity 

reflected competition between Brent- and WTI-based crudes in the Gulf Coast and Cushing where Brentbased crudes have now been largely displaced.

In cases where the Brent-WTI spread grows beyond $6/b–$8/b, removal of current restrictions on 

crude oil exports would result in higher wellhead prices for domestic producers, who would then 

respond with additional production. This effect is evident in the HOGR and HOGR/LP cases, where 

projected levels of domestic production in 2025 in cases without export restrictions are, respectively, 

3.5% (470,000 b/d) and 3.2% (380,000 b/d) higher than in corresponding cases that maintain current 

export policies. In contrast, in the Reference and LP cases, where projected annual average Brent-WTI 

spreads generally remain in the $6/b–$8/b range under current export restrictions, the removal of those 

restrictions does not increase wellhead prices or projected domestic crude oil production. In EIA’s 

analysis, domestic production responds to the increase in domestic crude oil prices, if any, when crude 
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U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports ix

export restrictions are removed in each case. Any increase in domestic crude oil production that occurs 

because of the removal of restrictions on crude oil exports that is not offset by reduced production 

outside the United States would also represent an increase in global crude oil supplies, which in turn 

places downward pressure on global crude oil prices, as represented by Brent. To the extent that higher 

domestic production results in lower global crude prices, the increase in the absolute level of domestic 

crude prices will be smaller than the reduction in the Brent-WTI spread, which reflects both higher WTI 

prices and lower Brent prices.

Petroleum product prices in the United States, including gasoline prices, would be either unchanged 

or slightly reduced by the removal of current restrictions on crude oil exports. As shown in a previous 

EIA report (What Drives U.S. Gasoline Prices?, October 2014) petroleum product prices throughout the 

United States have a much stronger relationship to Brent prices than to WTI prices. In the high 

production cases considered in this study (HOGR and HOGR/LP), the elimination of current restrictions 

on crude oil exports narrows the Brent-WTI spread by raising the WTI price. As domestic producers 

respond to the higher WTI price with higher production, the global supply/demand balance becomes 

looser unless increased domestic production is fully offset by production cuts elsewhere. The looser 

balance implies lower Brent prices, which in turn results in lower petroleum product prices for U.S. 

consumers. 

Combined net exports of crude oil and petroleum products from the United States are generally 

higher in cases with higher levels of U.S. crude oil production regardless of U.S. crude oil export 

policies. However, crude oil export policies materially affect the mix between crude and product 

exports, particularly in the HOGR and HOGR/LP cases, which have high levels of domestic production. 

The result regarding combined net exports of crude and petroleum products reflects a market in which 

domestic consumption of petroleum products is mainly driven by the economy, efficiency policies, and 

petroleum product prices and does not depend significantly on the level of U.S. crude oil production. 

Looking at the composition of trade, crude oil exports tend to represent a larger share of combined 

crude and product exports in cases where crude oil exports are unrestricted. Also, in cases where the 

level of domestic crude production increases with the removal of crude oil export restrictions, total 

combined crude and product exports are higher than in parallel cases with current crude export 

restrictions in place. 

Refiner margins (measured as the spread between crude input costs and wholesale product prices), 

which tend to increase as the Brent-WTI spread widens, would be lower without current restrictions 

on crude oil exports than with them in high-production cases where export restrictions lead to a 

widening Brent-WTI spread. If domestic crude oil production reaches a level where current restrictions 

on crude oil exports result in a need for significant additional processing capacity to convert domestic 

crude into petroleum products that can be exported, the discount of domestic crude prices compared 

with global crudes such as Brent will widen to encourage investment in such capacity, notwithstanding 

the risk of future changes in crude oil export policy or market conditions. For owners of existing refinery 

capacity, a wider Brent-WTI spread will provide higher margins as refined product prices continue to 

move with global crude prices. In high-production cases, the removal of export restrictions limits 

growth of the Brent-WTI spread (Table ES-1), limiting growth in refining margins. However, even with 
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U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports x

the removal of export restrictions, the projected Brent-WTI spread would still be higher than its average 

level in 2014. For upstream oil producer margins, the opposite prevails – in addition to an increase in 

production in cases where unrestricted crude oil exports result in higher domestic prices, production 

that would occur with or without a change in crude oil export policy is more profitable with domestic 

wellhead prices that are not held down by crude oil export restrictions.

Although unrestricted exports of U.S. crude oil would either leave global crude prices unchanged or 

result in a small price reduction compared to parallel cases that maintain current restrictions on crude 

oil exports, other factors affecting global supply and demand will largely determine whether global 

crude prices remain close to their current level, as in the Low Oil Price case, or rise along a path closer 

to the Reference case trajectory. While removing restrictions on U.S. crude oil exports either leaves 

global prices unchanged or lowers them modestly, global price drivers unrelated to U.S. crude oil export 

policy will affect growth in U.S. crude oil production and exports of crude oil and products whether or 

not current export restrictions are removed.

Caveats

The results of this study are sensitive to key assumptions used in the modeling as well as the structural 

features of EIA’s model. Differences between the results obtained in this study and other analyses that 

address the same subject may result from differences in models or assumptions.

Characterization of current crude oil export policies. As noted above, current policies restrict, but do 

not ban, crude oil exports, and they are also assumed to allow exports of API 50+ material that is 

processed through a distillation tower. The use of a more restrictive characterization of current policies, 

which some other studies have applied, would likely show crude oil export restrictions to be binding at 

lower domestic production volumes and show larger effects from their removal for cases in this analysis 

in which they already have an impact on domestic production and crude export volumes.

Ability to back out existing crude oil imports. To date, import substitution has been a key part of the 

response to increased domestic crude oil production (EIA “U.S. crude oil production growth helps reduce 

Gulf Coast imports,” Today in Energy, June 22, 2015). Between 2011 and 2014, U.S. light crude imports 

(35 API or greater) decreased by 1.0 million b/d, while imports of medium crude (27 API up to 35 API) 

decreased by 0.8 million b/d. Heavy crude imports (below 27 API) remained relatively flat in 2011 and 

2012, but they have increased since 2013. Consistent with recent experience, the analysis assumes that 

import substitution or import shifting (for example, reducing imports of medium crudes and increasing 

imports of heavy crude for blending with light domestic streams) continues to be an option. However, 

import substitution must remain economic to continue. For example, refiners would be unlikely to back 

out heavy crude imports needed to keep their coking units fully charged, particularly since suppliers of 

such crudes may not be able to find alternative markets, and may therefore discount their prices. More 

severe limits on continued import substitution, up to and including the assumption in some studies that 

it is nearly impossible to back out any remaining imports, would result in domestic processing capacity 

to become constrained at somewhat lower levels of domestic crude oil production than in this analysis. 

Additions of domestic processing capacity. After increasing significantly in 2012, U.S. crude processing 

capacity has been rising more slowly over the past few years. Nevertheless, several splitter and refinery 
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U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports xi

projects are currently underway. This report allows for additional expansion of domestic processing 

capacity in high production cases, although potential investors in such projects are assumed to require 

high and rapid return on their investment in new processing facilities, whose economic value could be 

adversely affected by future changes in crude oil export policy. More restrictive assumptions regarding 

barriers to incremental refining capacity investments, including an assumption in some studies that no 

new investment in U.S. processing capacity could occur given the risk of a subsequent change in crude 

oil export policy, could increase the challenge to increased domestic crude production under current 

crude export policies. The effects of more restrictive assumptions regarding investment in processing 

capacity would likely be most significant in cases that assume high resource availability (HOGR, 

HOGR/LP). 

Global production response to incremental U.S. production. This study assumes a partial global offset 

to increases in U.S. crude oil production. A larger (e.g., full offset) or smaller (e.g., no offset) global 

production response would respectively increase or reduce the size of the projected increase in 

domestic crude prices and domestic production associated with the removal of export restrictions in the 

high resource (HOGR and HOGR/LP) cases, while respectively reducing or increasing the projected 

decline in crude and petroleum product prices at home and abroad.
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U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports xii

Table ES-1. Summary results for U.S. petroleum markets with (res) and without (unr) crude oil export restrictions across EIA cases in 2025

2025

Selected results

History Reference case LP case HOGR case HOGR/LP case

2013 2014 1q15 res unr dif res unr dif res unr dif res unr dif

Crude oil (million b/d)

Total domestic crude production 7.46 8.71 9.48 10.28 10.28 0.00 9.46 9.47 0.00 13.63 14.10 0.47 11.69 12.07 0.38

Net crude imports 7.60 6.99 6.84 6.23 6.22 (0.01) 6.56 6.57 0.01 4.22 2.03 (2.19) 4.83 4.19 (0.64)

Crude imports 7.73 7.34 7.28 6.88 6.86 (0.02) 7.19 7.20 0.01 5.41 5.68 0.26 6.16 6.55 0.39

Crude exports 0.13 0.35 0.45 0.65 0.64 (0.01) 0.63 0.63 0.00 1.20 3.64 2.45 1.33 2.36 1.03

Non-crude petroleum and other liquids supply (million b/d)

Net product imports (1.36) (1.95) (1.89) (3.33) (3.32) 0.01 (2.07) (2.08) (0.01) (5.40) (3.63) 1.78 (3.12) (2.88) 0.24

Product imports 2.13 1.88 2.12 2.39 2.39 0.00 2.99 2.98 (0.01) 2.24 2.25 0.02 2.83 2.82 0.00

Product exports 3.49 3.83 4.01 5.72 5.71 (0.01) 5.06 5.07 0.00 7.64 5.88 (1.76) 5.95 5.70 (0.24)

All other non-crude supply1 5.14 5.54 5.44 6.51 6.51 0.00 6.24 6.24 0.01 7.61 7.53 (0.07) 7.06 7.10 0.04

Total primary supply for domestic use2 18.83 19.30 19.87 19.69 19.70 0.00 20.19 20.19 0.00 20.05 20.04 (0.01) 20.46 20.48 0.02

Crude oil and petroleum product trade (million b/d)

Net crude oil and petroleum product imports 6.24 5.04 4.95 2.90 2.90 0.00 4.49 4.48 (0.01) (1.19) (1.60) (0.41) 1.71 1.31 (0.40)

Crude oil and petroleum product imports 9.86 9.22 9.40 9.27 9.25 (0.02) 10.18 10.18 0.00 7.65 7.93 0.28 8.99 9.38 0.39

Crude oil and petroleum product exports 3.62 4.18 4.45 6.37 6.35 (0.01) 5.69 5.70 0.00 8.84 9.53 0.69 7.28 8.06 0.79

Processing operations3

Total distillation capacity (million b/cd)4 17.82 17.92 17.97 19.25 19.25 0.00 19.25 19.25 0.00 20.15 19.25 (0.90) 19.36 19.25 (0.11)

 Total distillation unit inputs (million b/d)5 15.72 16.15 15.78 16.51 16.50 0.00 16.03 16.04 0.01 17.84 16.13 (1.71) 16.52 16.26 (0.26)
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Table ES-1. Summary results for U.S. petroleum markets with (res) and without (unr) crude oil export restrictions across EIA cases in 2025 

(cont.)

2025

History Reference case LP case HOGR case HOGR/LP case

Selected results 2013 2014 1q15 res unr dif res unr dif res unr dif res unr dif

Crude oil prices (2013 $/b)6

Brent spot 108.56 97.22 53.45 90.40 90.23 (0.18) 63.01 63.01 0.00 81.39 80.47 (0.92) 56.31 55.78 (0.54)

West Texas Intermediate spot 97.98 91.60 48.07 84.32 84.15 (0.17) 57.50 57.47 (0.03) 66.39 72.26 5.87 42.33 47.65 5.32

Brent-WTI spread 10.58 5.62 5.38 6.08 6.08 0.00 5.51 5.54 0.03 15.00 8.21 (6.79) 13.98 8.13 (5.85)

Average petroleum product prices (2013 $/gallon)6

Motor gasoline (all sectors)7 3.58 3.38 2.34 2.91 2.90 0.00 2.37 2.37 0.00 2.66 2.65 (0.01) 2.20 2.19 (0.01)

Diesel (transportation sector)8 3.92 3.76 2.89 3.46 3.46 0.00 2.78 2.78 0.00 3.18 3.17 0.00 2.53 2.52 (0.01)

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Supply Monthly, Short-Term Energy Outlook, Refinery Capacity Report, and Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas 

Resource, and High Oil and Gas Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with and without current crude oil export restrictions. 

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System. Totals may not equal sum or difference of components due to independent rounding.

1

All other non-crude supply includes refinery processing gain, product stock withdrawal, natural gas plant liquids, supply from renewable sources, liquids from gas, liquids from 

coal, and other supply. 

2

Historical values equal total petroleum product supplied (or U.S. petroleum product consumption) plus the average daily change in crude oil and petroleum product inventories. 3

Includes both splitter and atmospheric distillation unit capacity and throughput.

4 Equals total operable atmospheric crude oil distillation capacity as of January 1 of each calendar year.

5

Historical volumes include unfinished oils, whereas projected volumes include only crude oil volumes. 

6

Historical prices calculated with historical values from the Short-Term Energy Outlook, adjusted to 2013 prices using the Consumer Price Index (all urban consumers). 7

U.S. all grades retail price, including taxes.

8

U.S. retail price, including taxes.
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 1

Introduction and Background

Recent increases in domestic crude oil production and the prospect of continued supply growth have 

sparked discussion on the topic of how rising domestic crude oil volumes might be absorbed, including 

the possibility of removing or relaxing current restrictions on U.S. crude oil exports. In response to 

requests from Congress3 and the Administration, EIA developed several analyses that address these 

issues (Table 1).

Table 1. EIA studies and activities related to implications of increased crude oil production and 

possible relaxation or removal of crude oil export restrictions

Study/Activity Publication Date

U.S. Crude Oil Production Forecast: Analysis of Crude Types May 2014

Condensate Workshop September 2014

What Drives U.S. Gasoline Prices? October 2014

EIA’s U.S. Crude Oil Import Tracking Tool: Selected Sample Applications November 2014

Technical Options for Processing Additional Light Tight Oil Volumes within

the United States

April 2015

Implications of Increasing Light Tight Oil Production for U.S. Refining May 2015

U.S. Crude Oil Production to 2025: Updated Projection of Crude Types May 2015

Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports this study (September 2015)

This report examines the effects of eliminating current restrictions on exports of domestically produced 

crude oil, drawing on cases from EIA’s Annual Energy Outlook 2015 (AEO2015). There are four cases that 

reflect different outlooks for future crude oil production and prices. Each of the four cases is run in a 

baseline version, reflecting current policies that restrict, but do not entirely ban, crude oil exports, and 

in an alternative version without any crude oil export restrictions. A summary of the baseline 

assumptions in each of these cases is shown below in Table 2.

 3 Requests from Congress include letters from Senators Murkowski and Landrieu (April 10, 2014) and Senators Cantwell and 

Wyden (February 3, 2014), which are provided in Appendix A. Questions on this matter have also been directed to 

Administrator Sieminski at several recent hearings. 
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 2

Table 2. Comparison of baseline assumptions in the Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas 

Resource, and High Oil and Gas Resource/Low Oil Price cases

Case Case overview

Reference Assumes global crude oil prices continue to fall through 2015, 

before increasing to $75/b (all prices in 2013 dollars) in 2018; 

after 2018, growth in demand from non-OECD countries 

pushes the projected Brent price in 2025 to $90/b 

Low Oil Price (LP) Assumes lower world demand for petroleum products, 

higher OPEC upstream investment, and lower non-OPEC 

exploration and development costs; these factors hold the 

projected price for Brent crude oil in 2025 to $63/b, well 

below the level in the Reference case projection

High Oil and Gas Resource

(HOGR)

Reflects more optimistic assumptions about domestic crude 

oil and natural gas supply prospects than the Reference case; 

these assumptions result in significantly higher domestic 

production, which reaches 13.6 million b/d in 2025 (versus 

10.3 million b/d in the Reference case), and leads to the 

Brent crude oil price rising to $81/b by 2025 (versus $90/b in 

the Reference case)

High Oil and Gas Resource/

Low Oil Price (HOGR/LP)

Combines assumptions from the HOGR and LP cases; the 

projected price for Brent crude oil rises to $56/b in 2025; 

lower world oil prices also reduce the impact of more 

optimistic resource assumptions on domestic production, 

which reaches 11.7 million b/d in 2025, higher than 

production in the Reference case but lower than production 

in the HOGR case 

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas

Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System.

The implications of removing current restrictions on crude oil exports depend significantly on the 

amount of domestic crude production. The baseline cases considered in this report reflect widely 

varying perspectives regarding two key factors that drive domestic production: world oil prices and 

domestic crude oil supply potential. The world oil price trajectory reflects global supply and demand 

factors including world economic growth, decisions by major oil exporters, energy efficiency policies 

that affect oil demand, and geopolitical developments. AEO2015 includes the Reference and Low Oil 

Price (LP) cases, which span a wide range of future price outcomes. Domestic supply potential is 

characterized by the extent of the domestic hydrocarbon resource base and the pace of advances in 

production technology. 

The Reference and High Oil and Gas Resource (HOGR) cases in AEO2015 reflect alternate views of 

domestic supply potential. The HOGR case uses Reference case global supply and demand conditions to 
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 3

determine pricing in global crude oil markets, but it includes higher levels of U.S. production that reflect 

a combination of more abundant resources and better technology than assumed in the Reference case.

Another case considered in this study, the High Oil and Gas Resource/Low Oil Price (HOGR/LP) case, 

combines HOGR case resource assumptions with assumptions regarding global supply and demand 

conditions from the LP case to determine pricing in global crude markets. The HOGR/LP case reflects a 

situation where resources and technology conditions support strong domestic production growth in a 

setting where low global crude prices have the opposite effect. 

Oil price paths across the Reference, LP, HOGR, and HOGR/LP cases are shown in Figure 1. Domestic 

crude oil production levels for the same four baseline cases are shown in Figure 2. Domestic production 

responds to both oil prices and the domestic resource/technology characterization. The Reference and

LP cases both use the Reference case domestic resource/technology assumptions, while the HOGR and 

HOGR/LP cases reflect more optimistic domestic resource/technology assumptions.

Figure 1. Brent crude oil price projections by case with current crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25

2013 dollars per barrel

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, National Energy Modeling System Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas

Resource, and High Oil and Gas Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System.

Ref

HOGR

LP

HOGR/LP

0

30

60

90

120

150

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections
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U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 4

Figure 2. Total U.S. crude oil production projections by case with current crude oil export restrictions, 

2010-25

million barrels per day

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas

Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System. Includes production of lease condensate.

Export policy assumptions

Current policy allows for unrestricted exports of petroleum products, but requires licensing of crude oil 

exports. Exports of crude oil to Canada for use within that country are presumptively granted licenses, 

as are exports from Alaska’s North Slope and certain heavy crude oil exports from California. In addition, 

recent rulings by the U.S. Department of Commerce’s Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) have 

classified condensate processed through a distillation tower as exportable without a license.4

For this analysis, EIA generally assumes that all crude oil streams with API gravity5 of 50 degrees and 

above (API 50+) are eligible for processing and export under recent BIS guidance. However, to reflect 

uncertainty surrounding the interpretation of current BIS guidance, the report also considers the 

implications of a more restrictive interpretation of current policy that does not allow exports of API 50+ 

material to grow beyond the level of exports of processed condensate in the first quarter of 2015. 

 4 In addition, BIS reportedly approved on August 14, 2015 applications for the exchange of domestically produced light crude oil 

for heavy crude oil produced in Mexico (Reuters, “U.S. approves landmark crude oil export swaps with Mexico”, August 14, 

2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/08/14/us-usa-oil-exports-exclusive-idUSKCN0QJ1RI20150814). This study does not 

consider this action or its impact on U.S. crude oil export and import volumes. 5 American Petroleum Institute measure of specific gravity of crude oil or condensate in degrees, an arbitrary scale expressing

the gravity or density of liquid petroleum products. The measuring scale is calibrated in terms of degrees API; it is calculated as 

follows: Degrees API = (141.5 / specific gravity 60 deg.F/60 deg.F) - 131.5.

Ref

HOGR

LP

HOGR/LP

0

3

6

9

12

15

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections
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U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 5

Options for accommodating increased crude oil production

There are three main pathways to accommodate increased domestic crude oil production without the 

need for significant investments in new processing capacity: (1) displacement of imported crude streams 

where economically justified; (2) increased crude runs through existing domestic processing capacity, 

yielding petroleum products that can be sold in domestic and global markets; (3) increased crude 

exports (including condensates) consistent with current restrictions. 

In considering the pathway involving displacement of imported crudes, market conditions for particular 

grades of imported crude oil are an important factor. For example, given the profitability of coker 

operations in heavy conversion refineries and limited global markets for heavy crudes, heavy crudes 

from the Americas were assumed to compete favorably for access to U.S. coking capacity and remain 

sufficiently price-competitive with U.S. light crude. This view of the market for heavy crude oil results in 

high utilization rates for coking units located at U.S. refineries that do not vary significantly across 

analysis cases with different levels of domestic crude oil production. 

Under conditions where domestic crude production would rise beyond a level that can be absorbed 

using the three pathways identified above, two additional options come into play: (1) adding new 

domestic distillation capacity to process additional volumes of crude oil into petroleum products that 

can be sold in either domestic or global markets; and (2) declining domestic crude prices that discourage 

production of crude oil. As a practical matter, these two options work together, because the lowering of 

domestic light crude prices compared with global crudes makes investment in additional processing 

capacity more economically attractive. 

With current restrictions in place, domestic crude prices are expected to decline compared with global 

crude prices in cases where production rises beyond the volumes that can be accommodated using the 

three pathways that do not require new refinery investments. As the spread between global and 

domestic crude prices widens, which is represented by the difference between North Sea Brent (Brent) 

and West Texas Intermediate (WTI) prices, investment in new capacity to process additional crude

becomes economically attractive because petroleum product prices are more closely tied to Brent than 

WTI prices, as shown in an EIA analysis of linkages between crude and product prices.

6

A May 2015 report commissioned by EIA from Turner-Mason7 suggests that a hydroskimming refinery, 

which consists of an atmospheric distillation unit (ADU) to distill light crude oil and a modest set of 

secondary processing units,

8,9 would be among the most attractive types of capacity to add for 

 6 U.S. Energy Information Administration, What Drives U.S. Gasoline Prices?, October 2014, 

http://www.eia.gov/analysis/studies/gasoline/. 7 U.S. Energy Information Administration, Implications of Increasing Light Tight Oil Production for U.S. Refining, May 2015, 

http://www.eia.gov/analysis/studies/petroleum/morelto/. 8 It is assumed that a hydroskimmer refinery with a 100,000 barrel-per-stream-day (b/sd) ADU would include 20,000-b/sd heavy 

naphtha, light naphtha, kerosene, and diesel hydrotreater units, as well as a 20,000-b/sd heavy naphtha reformer unit, and a 

5,000-b/sd gas processing unit. 9 Barrels per stream day reflects the maximum number of barrels of input that a distillation facility can process within a 24-hour 

period when running at full capacity under optimal crude oil and product slate conditions with no allowance for downtime. For 
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 6

processing additional light sweet crude oil. A hydroskimming refinery is a good match for light crude oil’s 

distillation yield and would also be less expensive than a full cracking refinery. However, potential 

investors in new hydroskimming capacity would need to take account of policy risk as well as traditional 

market risks.

10 For example, the value of additional capacity, once built, could be materially reduced by 

the subsequent removal of restrictions on crude oil exports. The investment risk issue and its 

implications for the size of the Brent-WTI spread that might be required to encourage investment in new 

hydroskimming capacity were examined in a recent EIA report, Technical Options for Processing 

Additional Light Tight Oil Volumes within the United States, released in April 2015.

The alternative export policy scenario considered in this report assumes the removal of current 

restrictions on U.S. crude oil exports. With the ability to sell crude in the global market without 

restriction, the gap between global and domestic crude prices does not widen to a level sufficient to 

foster hydroskimmer investments even in cases where domestic crude oil production rises to 11.7 

million b/d or more. 

Caveats regarding the analysis

EIA recognizes that projections of energy markets over an extended period are highly uncertain and 

subject to many events that cannot be foreseen, such as supply disruptions, policy changes, and 

technological breakthroughs. This uncertainty is particularly true in projecting the effects of relaxing U.S. 

crude oil export restrictions because of the following factors:

• Characterization of current crude oil export policy. Characterizing the current crude oil 

export restrictions as allowing exports of API 50+ crude oil streams is an assumption that 

does not necessarily fully reflect current U.S. policy. The use of more restrictive current 

policies, which some other studies have applied, will result in restricted-exports scenarios 

with lower crude oil export and production volumes and will show larger effects from 

removing crude oil export restrictions.

• Ability to back out existing crude oil imports. To date, import substitution has been a key part 

of the response to increased domestic crude oil production.11 Between 2011 and 2014, U.S. light 

crude oil imports (35 API gravity or greater) decreased by 1.0 million b/d, while imports of 

medium crude (27 API up to 35 API) decreased by 0.8 million b/d. Heavy crude imports (below 

27 API) remained relatively flat, but they have increased since 2013. Consistent with recent 

experience, the analysis assumes that import substitution or import shifting (for example, 

reducing medium imports in favor of heavy imports for blending with light domestic streams) 

 

more information, see U.S. Energy Information Administration, “U.S. refinery capacity reaches 18 million barrels per day,”

Today in Energy, June 25, 2015, http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=21812. 10 For a description of refinery types discussed in the paper, please see, U.S. Energy Information Administration, Technical 

Options for Processing Additional Light Tight Oil Volumes within the United States, April 2015, 

http://www.eia.gov/analysis/studies/petroleum/lto/, and U.S. Energy Information Administration, Implications of Increasing 

Light Tight Oil Production for U.S. Refining, May 2015, http://www.eia.gov/analysis/petroleum/crudetypes/pdf/crudetypes.pdf. 11 U.S. Energy Information Administration, “U.S. crude oil production growth helps reduce Gulf Coast imports,” Today in Energy, 

June 22, 2015, http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=21752.
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U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 7

continues to be an available option. However, import substitution must remain economic to 

continue. For example, operators would be unlikely to back out heavy crude oil imports needed 

to keep their coking units fully charged, particularly since suppliers of such crudes may not be 

able to find alternative markets, and will therefore have to discount their prices as well. More 

severe limits on continued import substitution, up to and including the assumption in some 

studies that it is nearly impossible to back out any remaining imports, would result in domestic 

processing capacity becoming constrained at somewhat lower levels of domestic crude 

production than occur in this analysis. 

• Global crude oil market response. When U.S. crude oil export restrictions are removed, 

resulting in higher levels of U.S. crude oil production and a narrower Brent-WTI price spread, 

this report assumes a response from overseas producers that is limited to the effect of lower 

Brent crude prices resulting from the greater availability of U.S. crude on world markets. If 

foreign production were to decrease in response to an increase in competing U.S. crude oil 

supply, there would likely be a somewhat greater positive effect on domestic production, but a 

smaller reduction in domestic product prices, from lifting U.S. crude oil export restrictions.

• Modeling. The National Energy Modeling System (NEMS) is not a world energy model and does 

not address the interaction among multiple international regions and the United States. 

• Aggregate versus individual company actions. Individual company economic incentives to 

export crude oil will differ from the average industry incentives to export crude oil, and will 

depend on the individual sales options and logistical advantages they may have.

• Price volatility and markets. NEMS is an annual modeling system. As such, NEMS does not 

address the role of short-term price volatility that may affect both production and trade. NEMS 

also does not consider the effect of possible changes in the shape of the crude oil forward 

curve.

12

Experience in accommodating increased domestic crude oil production since 

2009

In 2009, after declining steadily since 1985 (with the exception of a 60,000 barrels per day (b/d) increase 

in 1991), crude oil production in the United States increased by 350,000 b/d to 5.4 million b/d. Since 

2009, annual production has continued to rise, averaging 8.7 million b/d in 2014 and 9.5 million b/d in 

the first five months of 2015 (Figure 3). 

 12 The shape of the forward curve can directly affect the economics of crude exports. With an upward-sloping (contango) 

forward curve, crude exports may be economic at a lower Brent-WTI spread at a given point in time; the opposite applies for 

downward-sloping forward curve, with the market in backwardation. 
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 8

The experience in processing rapid domestic crude oil production growth in recent years illustrates 

some pathways that could play a role in accommodating future domestic production growth. Roughly 

90% of all U.S. crude oil production growth from 2011 to 2014 consisted of light sweet crude oil with API 

gravity greater than 40 degrees and sulfur content less than 0.5% by weight.13 The growth in production 

resulted primarily from the use of horizontal drilling in conjunction with multistage hydraulic fracturing 

to develop tight oil resources in areas including the Bakken, Eagle Ford, and Niobrara formations and the 

Permian Basin. EIA’s monthly Drilling Productivity Report closely follows tight oil and shale gas 

production in these and other key regions. 

Figure 3. Annual U.S. crude oil production, 1950-2015

million barrels per day

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Supply Annual and Short-Term Energy Outlook.

Note: 2015 crude oil production is a forecast from August 2015 Short-Term Energy Outlook.

Before 2010, domestically produced crude oil and crude oil imported into the Gulf Coast supplied the 

major crude oil trading and distribution hub at Cushing, Oklahoma, which also serves as the pricing 

location for the New York Mercantile Exchange light sweet crude oil futures contract. Northbound 

pipelines from the Gulf Coast and inland Texas moved both imported crude oil and domestic production, 

which was concentrated in Texas and the Federal Gulf of Mexico, to Cushing. This supply pattern defined 

the relationship between the price of Brent and WTI crude oil. The Brent-WTI spread moved in a range 

 13 EIA, U.S. Crude Oil Production to 2025: Updated Projection of Crude Types, May 2015, 

http://www.eia.gov/analysis/petroleum/crudetypes/pdf/crudetypes.pdf.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 9

around zero as shifting market conditions affected crude oil supply/demand balances, with Brent priced 

at a slight discount to WTI on average. 

The rapid growth of production from tight oil plays in the United States, as well as the development of 

oil sands in Canada, dramatically changed crude flows in the United States. By 2011, as increased flows 

of Canadian and U.S. crudes reached Cushing, the previous requirement for northward flows of Brentlinked crudes into Cushing was largely eliminated, and Cushing itself became glutted with crude supply. 

This situation created a requirement to ship crude oil from Cushing to the U.S. Gulf Coast, where roughly 

half of total U.S. refining capacity is located. Reflecting these new conditions, the Brent-WTI spread 

widened, averaging $16/b in 2011 and $18/b in 2012, with spreads of $20/b for limited periods in the 

second half of both years (Figure 4). 

Figure 4. Monthly average Brent and WTI prices, January 2010 to June 2015 

nominal dollars per barrel

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, based on Thomson Reuters.

The sustained large WTI discount to Brent encouraged additional infrastructure investment, including 

new and expanded pipeline capacity to move crude from Cushing to refining centers in the Gulf Coast, 

as well as crude-by-rail loading and unloading facilities to move crude oil from the new producing 

regions directly to refining centers on the Gulf Coast, East Coast, and West Coast. In 2014, almost 

800,000 b/d of crude moved by rail between the five major regions for which EIA reports oil data, 

compared with just 13,000 b/d in 2010. Rail movements have averaged 776,000 b/d in the first five 

months of 2015. In 2014, 609,000 b/d of crude moved by pipeline from the Midwest (where the Cushing 

hub is located) to the Gulf Coast, compared with 136,000 b/d in 2010 and 52,000 b/d in 2009. The Brent-

-20

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Jan-10 Jul-10 Jan-11 Jul-11 Jan-12 Jul-12 Jan-13 Jul-13 Jan-14 Jul-14 Jan-15

Brent minus WTI spread Brent WTI
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 10

WTI spread remained positive throughout 2014 and the first eight months of 2015, but it is significantly 

lower than it was during 2011 and 2012. 

Refiners adjusted the volume and mix of crude qualities processed (crude slates) to accommodate the 

increased flows of U.S. and Canadian production, only some of which provided a like-for-like 

replacement of the imported streams that were displaced by the new North American streams. As 

discussed in EIA's April 2015 report Technical Options for Processing Additional Light Tight Oil Volumes 

Within the United States,

14 U.S. refineries have accommodated much of the growth in U.S. crude 

production from 2010 to 2014 with two limited- or no-investment-cost options: displacing imports of 

crude oil (primarily light crude, but also medium crude) from countries other than Canada, and 

increasing refinery utilization rates.

Over this period, domestic crude production increased by 3.2 million b/d, crude imports fell by 1.9 

million b/d (Figure 5), and refinery crude inputs increased by 1.1 million b/d.

Figure 5. Annual U.S. crude oil imports by type, 2010-15

million barrels per day

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Supply Annual and Petroleum Supply Monthly.

Note: 2015 crude oil imports value is a daily average from January through May from Petroleum Supply Monthly.

In 2010, total U.S. imports of light sweet crude oil averaged 1.6 million b/d, of which about 1.2 million 

b/d was sourced from Africa. By 2014, imports of light sweet crude oil into the United States had 

dropped to 338,000 b/d (of which only about 80,000 b/d was from countries in Africa). Through the first 

five months of 2015, imports of light sweet crude averaged 279,000 b/d, including 50,000 b/d coming 

 14 http://www.eia.gov/analysis/studies/petroleum/lto/.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

light - sweet

light - sour

medium - sweet

medium - sour

heavy - sweet

heavy - sour
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 11

from Africa. Imports of light sour and medium sweet crude oil have also declined as refineries adjusted 

crude slates to balance increased inputs of light sweet crude oil produced in the United States. 

Adjustments to balance crude slates also partially explain the slight increase in heavy sour crude imports 

since 2010; however, heavy sour crude imports from Canada also increased to supply Midwest refineries 

that have added coker capacity.15

Gross inputs to U.S. refineries totaled a multi-decade high 16.1 million b/d in 2014, increasing 1.4 million 

b/d from 14.7 million b/d in 2009 (Figure 6). Through the first five months of 2015, gross inputs have 

continued to average 16.1 million b/d. The increase resulted from a combination of refinery capacity 

expansions, the return to service of previously idled refinery capacity, and increased utilization of overall 

capacity. Most of the increase in operating refinery capacity16 is attributable to the expansion project at 

Motiva’s Port Arthur, Texas, facility and the restart of the Trainer refinery in Pennsylvania. Utilization 

rates increased over this period17 because of high refinery margins that resulted from high global 

petroleum product prices in combination with relatively lower crude oil and natural gas costs for U.S. 

refineries as compared to refineries outside the United States.

Figure 6. Annual U.S. refinery gross inputs, 2000-14

million barrels per day

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Supply Annual.

 15 EIA, “Midwest refineries boost capacity for heavy crude oil,” This Week in Petroleum, March 27, 2013, 

http://www.eia.gov/petroleum/weekly/archive/2013/130327/twipprint.html. 16 EIA, “U.S. refinery capacity: Restarts and expansions increased capacity in 2012, with continuing changes in the first half of 

2013,” This Week in Petroleum, June 26, 2013, http://www.eia.gov/petroleum/weekly/archive/2013/130626/twipprint.html. 17 EIA, “U.S. refineries run at record high throughputs,” This Week in Petroleum, August 5, 2015, 

http://www.eia.gov/petroleum/weekly/archive/2015/150805/includes/analysis_print.cfm.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
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U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 12

With U.S. demand for petroleum products slightly declining from 2010 through 2014, the increase in 

refinery production of gasoline, diesel, and other products from higher refinery inputs was exported to 

supply the global petroleum products market. These higher petroleum product exports, combined with 

lower product imports, shifted the United States from being a net petroleum product importer to a net 

product exporter in 2011. Gross product imports in 2011 were 2.5 million b/d and gross exports were 

2.9 million b/d. From 2011 to 2014, this trend strengthened, as exports continued to increase and 

imports decreased. By 2014, U.S. net petroleum product exports had increased to 2.0 million b/d, 

compared with 0.4 million b/d in 2011. The increase in U.S. net product exports from 2011 to 2014 

resulted from a decrease in gasoline imports, an increase in distillate exports, and both a decrease in 

imports and an increase in exports of other products (Figure 7). Through the first five months of 2015, 

U.S. net petroleum product exports have averaged 2.0 million b/d.

Figure 7. Annual U.S. petroleum product trade, 1990-2014

million barrels per day

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Supply Annual.

Most exports of petroleum products from the United States are from the Gulf Coast. Gulf Coast 

refineries are generally very competitive in the global market because of access to cost-advantaged 

crude oil and natural gas, significant upgrading capability, and proximity to demand centers in Latin 

America. Typically, about 90% of gasoline exports from the Gulf Coast are delivered within the Western 

Hemisphere. However, small volumes now routinely reach Africa and, less often, Asia. As discussed in an 

earlier EIA report, What Drives U.S. Gasoline Prices (October 2014),

18 gasoline exports to Asia typically 

 18 U.S. Energy Information Administration, What Drives U.S. Gasoline Prices? October 30, 2014, 

http://www.eia.gov/analysis/studies/gasoline/.

net exports 

(net imports)

Other exports

Motor gasoline 

exports

Distillate exports

Other imports

Motor gasoline 

imports

Distillate imports

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 13

peak in the winter months when U.S. demand is seasonally low. Gulf Coast distillate production is 

exported almost exclusively to the Atlantic Basin market, with about 50% delivered to Central America 

and South America, 35% to Europe, and 12% to North America, primarily Mexico.

Finally, notwithstanding existing restrictions on the export of U.S. crude oil production, increased crude 

oil exports have played some role in accommodating the increasing volumes of U.S. crude oil production

(Figure 8). Notably, gross exports of crude oil to Canada increased from 46,000 b/d in 2011 to 324,000 

b/d in 2014 and averaged 460,000 b/d through the first five months of 2015. Several shipments of ANS 

crude have also occurred recently.

Figure 8. Annual U.S. net crude oil imports, 2000-14

million barrels per day

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Supply Annual.

Although the Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) considers condensate at the wellhead to be crude oil, 

in mid-2014 it responded to classification requests filed by market participants with rulings that 

condensate processed through a distillation tower is a refined petroleum product and therefore is not 

subject to the restricted licensing regime for crude oil exports. In December 2014, BIS published 

Frequently Asked Questions

19 related to the requirements for exporting crude oil and refined petroleum 

products. In the first five months of 2015, exports of processed condensate were estimated to average 

84,000 b/d. 

 19 U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Industry Security. “FAQs – Crude Oil and Petroleum Products December 30, 2014,” 

http://www.bis.doc.gov/index.php/licensing/embassy-faq?view=category&id=114#subcat171. 

-12

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

0

2

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014

crude exports crude imports net
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U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 14

Results

Overview and organization

This report considers the effects of removing crude oil export restrictions in the context of four baseline 

cases. These cases encompass a wide range of outcomes with respect to crude oil and petroleum 

product prices, domestic crude oil production, trade flows for both crude oil and petroleum products, 

and domestic processing capacity levels and utilization patterns. Differences across the baseline cases 

highlight the wide range of future levels of oil prices and domestic crude oil production that may be 

realized whether or not current restrictions on crude oil exports are retained or removed (Figures 1 and 

2). 

Turning to the effects of removing restrictions on crude oil exports, the level of domestic production in 

each baseline case (Figure 2) is a key determinant of the differences, if any, between baseline outcomes 

and those that occur in a case that removes current crude oil export restrictions but otherwise uses the 

same assumptions. 

In the Reference and Low Oil Price (LP) cases, which both use Reference case assumptions about 

resource and technology availability, domestic crude production rises modestly but does not exceed the 

capability of U.S. refiners to economically process domestic crude production after accounting for 

opportunities for further crude oil import substitution and the possibility of increased crude oil exports 

allowed under current restrictions. Under these conditions, the removal of export restrictions does not 

change domestic crude oil prices or production volumes.20 

Domestic supply potential is significantly greater in cases that use more optimistic assumptions about 

resources and technology, as in the High Oil and Gas Resource (HOGR) and HOGR/Low Oil Price 

(HOGR/LP) cases. With higher domestic supply potential, the pathways identified in the previous 

paragraph are not capable of accommodating available domestic supply under current crude oil export 

restrictions. As a result, domestic crude prices fall compared with global crude prices, but domestic 

prices for petroleum products such as diesel and motor gasoline remain tied to the prices of crude oil 

and products in the global market. The increasing spread between domestic crude and product prices, 

which follows the widening of the Brent-WTI spread, encourages the addition of new domestic capacity 

to process additional volumes of crude oil into petroleum products that can be sold in both domestic 

and global markets. The wider Brent-WTI spread reflects a significant supply of domestic crude that is 

not easily accommodated through no- and low-cost pathways given current restrictions on crude 

exports. 

Under these conditions, the absence of export restrictions on crude would change domestic crude 

prices, domestic crude production volumes, and trade flows. This results in a more favorable outcome 

for domestic crude producers (higher domestic crude prices and production volumes), and to a lesser 

extent, domestic consumers of gasoline and other petroleum products, who benefit from slightly lower 

 20 The Brent-WTI spread is a direct indication of the profitability of light crude exports. The higher the Brent price and the lower 

the WTI price, the more profitable it is to export crude from U.S. ports.
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 15

petroleum product prices as additional domestic crude production volumes exert downward pressure 

on global crude oil prices. Domestic refiners, however, see lower processing margins as competition 

with overseas crude buyers for domestic production leads them to pay more for their crude inputs while 

product prices decline slightly.

The situation outlined above, and explored in more detail below, presents a challenge to policy makers. 

Given the range of cases considered in this analysis, most of which include rising price paths for both 

crude oil and petroleum products, even sectors or groups that would stand to benefit from the removal 

of crude oil export limitations, such as gasoline consumers, may see future price increases for reasons 

totally unrelated to decisions regarding the removal or retention of existing crude oil export restrictions. 

For example, should a removal of export restrictions on crude oil be followed by a rise in gasoline prices, 

it is unlikely that consumers would respond favorably to an argument that prices would have increased 

even more if crude oil export restrictions had remained in effect. 

The subsections below present the results of the analysis, organized by topic rather than analysis case. 

The following topics are considered: Crude oil prices (prices and price spreads); petroleum product 

prices (mainly gasoline); domestic production; trade in crude oil and petroleum products (exports, 

imports, and net trade); and processing capacity, utilization, and refiner and producer revenues.

Appendix B provides tables that summarize the analysis results for all cases for the years 2015, 2020, 

and 2025. Detailed tables for all model runs are available through EIA’s AEO table browser application.

Crude oil prices

As previously noted, the price of Brent21 and other global crude streams reflects global supply and 

demand factors including world economic growth, decisions by major oil exporters, energy efficiency 

policies that affect oil demand, and geopolitical developments, as well as the availability of U.S. crude oil 

resources. Assumptions about these factors, which vary across the baseline cases used in this report, 

have a major effect on both domestic and global crude oil prices (Figure 9a and Table 3). EIA’s Annual 

Energy Outlook 2015 (AEO2015) provides additional information regarding the specific demand and 

supply assumptions for each of the Reference, LP, and HOGR baseline cases shown in Figure 9a.

 21 Across all cases, the Brent spot price reflects the market price for light sweet crude oil free on board (FOB) at the Sullom Voe 

oil terminal in Scotland.
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 16

2013 dollars per barrel

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas

Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System.

In cases with relatively modest growth in U.S. crude production, such as the Reference and LP cases, 

production is not high enough to require a reduction in domestic crude oil prices to lower domestic 

production and widen the Brent-WTI price spread to a point that encourages adding new domestic 

processing capacity. In such cases, the projected Brent-WTI spread remains within the $5/b–$6/b range 

in 2025 regardless of whether or not crude oil export restrictions are removed (Figures 9b and 9c). 

However, in baseline cases with high production growth, such as the HOGR and HOGR/LP cases, where 

domestic production reaches or exceeds 11.7 million b/d by 2025, the Brent-WTI price spread is 

projected to increase to about $14/b–$15/b with current policies restricting domestic crude oil exports 

in place (Figure 9b). Without export restrictions (Figure 9c), the Brent-WTI spread generally stays in the 

$6/b–$8/b range no matter how much domestic crude oil production increases, consistent with the 

costs of moving WTI from Cushing to overseas markets where it might compete with Brent. Significant

differences arise only in the HOGR and HOGR/LP cases, where spreads would widen considerably under 

current export restrictions but generally remain in the $6/b–$8/b range without those restrictions.

Ref

HOGR

LP

HOGR/LP

0

30

60

90

120

150

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections

Figure 9a. Brent crude oil price projections by case with current crude oil export restrictions, 

2010-25 
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 17

2013 dollars per barrel

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas

Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System.

2013 dollars per barrel

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas

Resource/Low Oil Price cases, without crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System.

Ref

HOGR

LP

HOGR/LP

0

3

6

9

12

15

18

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections

Figure 9b. Brent-WTI crude oil price spread by case under current crude oil export restrictions, 

2010-25 

Ref

HOGR

LP

HOGR/LP

0

3

6

9

12

15

18

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections

Figure 9c. Brent-WTI crude oil price spread by case with the removal of current crude oil

export restrictions, 2010-25 
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 18

Export restrictions or the absence of export restrictions do not affect the absolute level of domestic 

(WTI) or global (Brent) prices in either the Reference or LP cases, where export restrictions are not a 

binding constraint. However, in high production cases (HOGR and HOGR/LP) projected domestic crude 

prices would be higher without export restrictions than with them (Figure 10a), while the reverse is true 

for projected global crude prices (Figure 10b). By contrast, many other oil price drivers tend to move 

domestic and global crude prices in the same direction. The difference in domestic crude prices with and 

without crude oil export restrictions in the high oil and gas resource cases tends to be larger in absolute 

terms than the difference in global crude prices, because the latter are tied to the overall percentage 

change in global production, which tends to be small.

22

The estimated price effects presented in this analysis generally reflect an assumption that increases in 

U.S. crude oil production are partially offset by lower crude production outside the United States. The 

use of a no offset assumption would roughly double the projected reduction in global crude prices 

compared with those presented in this analysis, while a full offset assumption would result in no overall 

change to world crude production or global crude prices.

2013 dollars per barrel

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas

Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with and without current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System.

 22 For example, a 500,000 b/d increase in U.S. production in 2025 would represent roughly 0.5% of projected 2025 global 

production in the HOGR case. 

Ref

HOGR

LP

HOGR/LP

-8

-6

-4

-2

0

2

4

6

8

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections

Figure 10a. Difference in West Texas Intermediate crude oil prices by case from removing current 

crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 19

2013 dollars per barrel

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas 

Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with and without current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System.

Given the interest of both policymakers and stakeholders in exploring the implications of relaxation or 

removal of existing policies restricting crude oil exports, many readers of this and other reports on this 

subject will naturally focus on comparisons between cases with and without these policies. Although 

policy decisions regarding crude oil export restrictions do affect crude oil prices in some cases, it is 

evident that those effects are modest in relation to the price differences that arise because of variation

in other assumptions across the different baseline cases (Figures 9a and 10b, Table 3). 

Figure 10b. Difference in Brent crude oil prices by case from removing current crude oil export 

restrictions, 2010-25 

Ref

HOGR

LP

HOGR/LP

-8

-6

-4

-2

0

2

4

6

8

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 20

Table 3. Crude oil and petroleum product prices with (res) and without (unr) crude oil export restrictions in 2025 across cases

2025

Selected results

History Reference case LP case HOGR case HOGR/LP case

2013 2014 1q15 res unr dif res unr dif res unr dif res unr dif

Crude oil prices (2013 $/b)1

Brent spot 108.56 97.22 53.45 90.40 90.23 (0.18) 63.01 63.01 0.00 81.39 80.47 (0.92) 56.31 55.78 (0.54)

West Texas Intermediate spot 97.98 91.60 48.07 84.32 84.15 (0.17) 57.50 57.47 (0.03) 66.39 72.26 5.87 42.33 47.65 5.32

Brent-WTI spread 10.58 5.62 5.38 6.08 6.08 0.00 5.51 5.54 0.03 15.00 8.21 (6.79) 13.98 8.13 (5.85)

Average petroleum product prices (2013 $/gallon)1

Motor gasoline (all sectors)2 3.58 3.38 2.34 2.91 2.90 0.00 2.37 2.37 0.00 2.66 2.65 (0.01) 2.20 2.19 (0.01)

Diesel (transportation sector)3 3.92 3.76 2.89 3.46 3.46 0.00 2.78 2.78 0.00 3.18 3.17 0.00 2.53 2.52 (0.01)

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Supply Monthly, Short-Term Energy Outlook, and Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, and High Oil 

and Gas Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with (res) and without (unr) current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System. Totals may not equal sum or difference of components due to independent rounding.

1

Historical prices calculated with historical values from the Short-Term Energy Outlook, adjusted to 2013 prices using Short-Term Energy Outlook data for the Consumer Price 

Index (all urban consumers). 2

U.S. all grades retail price, including taxes.

3

U.S. retail price, including taxes.
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 21

Petroleum product prices

EIA research has found that Brent crude oil prices have historically had a stronger effect on the price of 

motor gasoline in the United States than the price of WTI, a pattern that has become more pronounced 

since U.S. crude production began growing in 2009 and put downward pressure on WTI prices compared 

with Brent.

23 The prices of motor gasoline and diesel fuel, which are freely traded, generally follow 

changes in the Brent price across the baseline cases in this analysis, with the highest prices in the 

Reference case and the lowest prices in the LP and HOGR/LP cases. 

However, some differences between the gasoline and diesel responses to crude oil price changes reflect 

the assumptions that are used to develop the different baseline cases. For example, the LP and HOGR/LP

cases reflect a combination of lower global demand and higher global supply for petroleum products. 

The downward shift in demand is driven primarily by assumptions regarding economic growth in 

developing economies, which in all EIA projections are the major growth markets for petroleum 

products. The product mix in developing countries is more heavily weighted toward diesel than it is in 

the traditional industrialized countries, which results in a disproportionate weakening of diesel demand 

and prices in cases where the projected growth rate is reduced. 

In a comparison of cases with and without current crude oil export restrictions, petroleum product 

prices in the United States, including gasoline prices, are either unchanged (Reference and LP cases) or 

slightly reduced (HOGR and HOGR/LP cases) without crude oil export restrictions. In the HOGR and 

HOGR/LP cases, the removal of crude oil export restrictions results in higher domestic crude prices, 

which leads to increased domestic production that adds to world crude supply and thereby reduces 

Brent crude prices and petroleum product prices (Table 3). 

Domestic crude oil production

Across the four baseline cases considered in this report, crude oil production in the United States is 

primarily influenced by two factors: (1) availability and quality of resources and production technology, 

which determine the amount of crude oil production at each domestic crude price level; and (2) world 

oil prices, which depend on global supply and demand drivers. As previously noted, there is substantial 

variation in crude production across the four baseline cases considered in this report (Figure 11a).

 23 U.S. Energy Information Administration, What Drives U.S. Gasoline Prices? October 30, 2014 

http://www.eia.gov/analysis/studies/gasoline/. 
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 22

million barrels per day

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas 

Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System. Includes production of lease condensate.

Comparing cases with and without current crude oil export restrictions, the absence of crude oil export 

restrictions does not change projected domestic crude oil production over the next decade in the 

Reference and LP cases, but results in higher production and higher revenue to producers in the HOGR 

and HOGR/LP cases (Figure 11b). In the high oil and gas resource cases, the absence of export 

restrictions results in higher domestic crude prices, which leads to more domestic production. The HOGR 

case, which has the highest domestic crude production levels, shows the largest domestic production 

increase because of the removal of crude oil export restrictions. Production in 2025 totals 13.6 million 

b/d assuming current export restrictions, which is 470,000 b/d lower than the 14.1 million b/d of 

production without export restrictions. In the HOGR/LP case, where the WTI price with current export 

restrictions is about $42/b in 2025, about $24/b lower than in the HOGR case, domestic production in 

2025 is roughly 2.0 million b/d lower than in the HOGR case, both with and without a removal of crude 

oil export restrictions. In the HOGR/LP case, domestic production in 2025 without current export 

restrictions is roughly 380,000 b/d higher than if current restrictions are maintained (11.7 million b/d 

with current export restrictions compared to 12.1 million b/d without export restrictions). 

Figure 11a. Total U.S. crude oil production by case with current crude oil export restrictions, 

2010-25

Ref

HOGR

LP

HOGR/LP

0

3

6

9

12

15

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 23

million barrels per day

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas 

Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with and without current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System.

Producer revenue differences between variants of the HOGR and HOGR/LP cases with and without 

crude oil export restrictions reflect changes in the price received by domestic producers as well as the 

changes in the projected volumes of production noted above. A rough calculation using the change in 

WTI prices as a proxy for changes in the price for all domestic production streams suggests that gross 

revenue to producers from crude sales in the HOGR case when just accounting for price impacts would 

be about $29.7 billion higher in 2025 without crude oil export restrictions than it would be if those 

restrictions were maintained. The same calculation for the HOGR/LP case shows estimated gross 

revenue to producers in 2025 would be roughly $23.1 billion higher without crude oil export restrictions 

than if those restrictions were maintained. The similarity of the producer revenue effect of removing 

export restrictions in the HOGR and HOGR/LP cases highlights the dominant role of price changes rather 

than higher production volumes in driving increases in gross producer revenues. As noted below in the 

section on refining implications, refiner gross revenues net of crude input costs are lower in the HOGR 

and HOGR/LP cases without export restrictions than they would be if those restrictions were 

maintained. 

The larger difference in domestic production because of the absence of export restrictions in the HOGR 

case than in the HOGR/LP case reflects the characterization of production activity in the Oil and Gas 

Supply Module of EIA’s National Energy Modeling System. The more optimistic characterization of 

Figure 11b. Difference in domestic crude oil production by case from removing current crude 

oil export restrictions, 2010-25 

Ref

HOGR

LP

HOGR/LP

-0.1

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 24

resources and technology that is common to both the HOGR and HOGR/LP cases allows significant 

drilling activity in core areas to be profitable whether oil prices follow the Reference case path, as in 

HOGR, or the LP case path, as in HOGR/LP. In both the HOGR and HOGR/LP cases, the increased prices 

available to domestic producers in the absence of export restrictions encourage more drilling and 

production in core areas with high estimated ultimate recoveries. In the HOGR case, however, the 

absolute level of prices is high enough that the increased prices available to domestic producers in the 

absence of export restrictions also fosters additional drilling and production in noncore areas.

Petroleum trade and its components 

The balance in the market for crude oil and petroleum products is summarized as:

Production – Consumption = Exports – Imports + Change in Inventory

 = Net Exports + Change in Inventory

Although changes in crude oil and petroleum product inventories play a significant role over relatively 

short time periods, additions and withdrawals from inventories are roughly balanced over periods of a 

decade or more. For purposes of this long-term analysis, EIA therefore simplifies the relationship as:

Production – Consumption = Exports – Imports = Net Exports

With some combination of higher production and lower consumption in three of the four baseline cases 

considered in this analysis, U.S. net exports, equal to production minus consumption, are generally 

increasing. As already noted, domestic production varies widely across the four baseline cases. All cases 

show a rise in production from current levels over the next five years, with varying patterns thereafter. 

Turning to petroleum consumption, some cases show a slight rise and others a slight fall over time, 

mainly because of differences in assumptions about prices that, together with efficiency policies such as 

fuel economy standards and the level of economic activity, are the main drivers of petroleum product 

consumption. Petroleum consumption does not depend significantly on the level of U.S. crude oil 

production. As a result, combined net exports of crude oil and petroleum products from the United 

States are generally higher in cases with higher levels of U.S. crude oil production (Figures 11a and 12a). 

The HOGR case is the only case in which the United States becomes a combined net exporter of crude oil 

and petroleum products by 2025. This result occurs regardless of whether current crude oil export 

restrictions are removed.
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 25

million barrels per day

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas 

Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System.

There are important differences across cases in the composition of trade. Current policies restrict, but 

do not prohibit, exports of crude oil. Continued growth in domestic crude oil production supports some 

projected growth in crude oil exports (including processed condensate), even in the Reference and LP 

cases, which use Reference resource and technology assumptions. Projected crude oil net exports 

(Figure 12b1) are higher in cases with higher production levels, particularly the HOGR and HOGR/LP 

cases, but as current crude export restrictions become more binding, growth in net product exports

(Figure 12b2) becomes the main channel for increasing net exports to maintain market balance in the 

HOGR and HOGR/LP cases (Figures 12c1 and 12c2) with current restrictions in place. 

Figure 12a. Combined U.S. crude oil and petroleum product net export projections by case

with current crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25 

Ref

HOGR

LP

HOGR/LP

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

0

2

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections

Net exports

Net imports
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 26

million barrels per day

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas 

Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System.

Looking at gross measures of exports and imports, gross exports of crude oil (Figure 12c1) and 

petroleum products (Figure 12c2) are higher in cases with higher projected domestic crude oil 

production with current export restrictions in place. The range across cases of projected petroleum 

product gross exports is significantly larger than the range of projected gross crude oil imports. This 

outcome reflects the role of current crude oil export restrictions, which limit crude oil exports but allow 

for unlimited petroleum product exports. 

Figure 12b1/b2. U.S. crude oil and petroleum product net export projections by case with 

current crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25 

Ref

HOGR

LP

HOGR/

LP

-12

-9

-6

-3

0

3

6

9

12

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections

Ref

HOGR

LP

HOGR/

LP

-12

-9

-6

-3

0

3

6

9

12

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections

Crude oil Petroleum products

Net exports

Net imports

Net exports

Net imports
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 27

million barrels per day

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas 

Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System.

Looking at gross imports of crude oil (Figure 12d1) and petroleum products (Figure 12d2), there is a 

much larger range across cases in crude oil gross imports than in petroleum product gross imports. This 

also reflects the role of current crude oil export restrictions, which encourage additional substitution of 

domestic crude oil streams for imported crude oil in cases with high domestic crude oil production. For 

petroleum products, where exports are currently unrestricted, the level of prices rather than the level of 

domestic production is the key driver of variation in gross imports across cases. Lower prices encourage 

additional consumption of petroleum products throughout the country, including the East Coast which 

relies on petroleum product imports to meet a significant share of its overall product demand.

Figure 12c1/c2. U.S. crude oil and petroleum product gross export projections by case with 

current crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25 

Ref HOGR

LP

HOGR/ 

LP

0

3

6

9

12

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections

Ref

HOGR

LP

HOGR/ 

LP

0

3

6

9

12

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections

Crude oil Petroleum products
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 28

million barrels per day

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas 

Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System.

Comparing parallel cases with and without current crude export restrictions, the absence of crude oil 

export restrictions affects combined net trade in crude and products through its effect, if any, on 

domestic crude oil production. In the Reference and LP cases, where the absence of export restrictions 

does not change the level of domestic production, the absence of crude oil export restrictions does not 

affect combined U.S. crude oil and petroleum product net exports. In the HOGR and HOGR/LP cases, 

where projected domestic production is higher without export restrictions than if current export 

restrictions are maintained, the absence of export restrictions raises net combined crude and product 

exports (Figure 13a).

Figure 12d1/d2. U.S. crude oil and petroleum product gross import projections by case with 

current crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25 

Ref

HOGR

LP

HOGR/

LP

0

3

6

9

12

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections

Ref

HOGR

LP HOGR/

LP

0

3

6

9

12

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections

Crude oil Petroleum products
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 29

million barrels per day

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas 

Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with and without current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System.

Looking at net trade projections for separate crude oil and petroleum product components (Figures 

13b1 and 13b2), the presence or absence of crude oil export restrictions does not affect projected net 

exports in either category in the Reference and LP cases. However, in the HOGR and HOGR/LP cases, 

where domestic crude oil production levels are higher, projected crude oil net exports are significantly 

higher without current export restrictions than with them in place. The reverse is true for petroleum 

product exports, reflecting the role of product exports as an (imperfect) alternative to crude exports in 

cases where crude oil production is high and current export restrictions are in place. With crude oil 

export restrictions in place in the HOGR and HOGR/LP cases, high production is largely accommodated 

by domestic processing of additional crude volumes, yielding refined products that can be exported 

freely. Without such restrictions, the volume of gross crude oil exports in 2025 in the HOGR and 

HOGR/LP cases are 2.4 million b/d and 1.0 million b/d higher, respectively, while product gross export 

volumes are substantially lower, by 1.8 million b/d and 0.2 million b/d respectively in that year. 

Figure 13a. Difference in combined U.S. crude oil and petroleum product net exports by case

from removing current crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25 

Ref

HOGR

LP HOGR/LP

-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections

Shift toward greater net exports

Shift toward greater net imports
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 30

million barrels per day

Crude oil Petroleum products

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas 

Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with and without current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System.

Capacity additions, throughput, and refiner and producer revenues

As previously noted, the combination of increased refinery utilization rates and growth in processing 

capacity has been one of the key pathways for accommodating the growth in U.S. crude production 

since 2009.24 With continued domestic crude oil production growth and price-advantaged natural gas as

both a fuel and feedstock for U.S. refineries, EIA expects that high utilization of domestic refineries will 

continue. Already-announced splitter investment plans and further investments to debottleneck existing 

refineries contribute to projected increases in total distillation capacity through 2020 across all four 

cases (Figure 14a). The need for domestic processing capacity beyond what is expected to be available 

based on currently planned splitter builds and continued debottlenecking depends on the level of 

domestic crude production, whether or not current restrictions on crude oil exports remain in place. 

 24 See discussion in the section entitled “Experience in accommodating increased domestic crude oil production since 2009.”

Substitution of domestic crude for imported crudes, and, to a lesser extent, increased crude exports, have also played a role.

Figure 13b1/b2. Difference in U.S. crude oil and petroleum product net exports by case from 

removing current crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25 

HOGR

LP

HOGR/

LP

Ref

-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections

 Shift towards greater net exports

 Shift towards greater net imports

HOGR

LP

HOGR/

LP

Ref

-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections

 Shift towards greater net exports

 Shift towards greater net imports
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 31

Refinery utilization rates are largely driven by domestic crack spreads, which, given the close 

relationship of the price of gasoline and other petroleum products to Brent crude prices, closely follow 

the Brent-WTI spread. Therefore, the Brent-WTI spread provides a general indication of the profitability 

for refiners from processing additional domestic production. 

In the HOGR and HOGR/LP cases, there is robust growth in domestic crude oil production even with 

current export restrictions in place. As a result, the discount of domestic crude prices to global crudes 

such as Brent widens and encourages further capacity investments (Figure 14a), notwithstanding the 

risk of future changes in crude oil export policy or market conditions. The size of the discount required 

to motivate additional capacity investment is discussed in two recent EIA reports.

25 Total domestic 

refinery throughput also responds to the higher profitability of refining in the HOGR and HOGR/LP cases 

with current crude oil export restrictions in place (Figure 14b).

million barrels per calendar day

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas 

Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System.

 25 U.S. Energy Information Administration, Technical Options for Processing Additional Light Tight Oil Volumes within the United 

States, April 2015, and U.S. Energy Information Administration, Implications of Increasing Light Tight Oil Production for U.S. 

Refining, May 2015. In the April 2015 report, EIA estimates the per-barrel amortized capital cost of a 100,000-b/d greenfield 

hydroskimmer at between $6.50/b and $7.00/b assuming an 18% required return on investment and a 10-year investment 

payback period. The per-barrel amortized cost would be nearly 50% lower under a low-risk scenario that would use a 12% 

required return and a 25-year investment payback period (p. 12). The market and policy risk issues that guide these 

assumptions are also discussed in the April 2015 report (pp. 5-6). 

Figure 14a. Total U.S. crude oil distillation capacity projections by case with current crude oil 

export restrictions, 2010-25 

HOGR

LP

HOGR/LP

Ref

13

15

17

19

21

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections

≈

0
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 32

million barrels per day

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas 

Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System.

Comparing cases with and without current crude oil export restrictions, the absence of crude oil export 

restrictions affects domestic refinery capacity and utilization through its effects on refining margins. The 

absence of crude oil export restrictions matters most in cases with high resource assumptions (HOGR 

and HOGR/LP) where unrestricted crude oil exports generally preclude a widening of the Brent-WTI 

spread beyond $6/b–$8/b by providing an alternative to domestic processing of high production 

volumes. Without crude oil export restrictions in these cases, less domestic processing capacity is added, 

and both refinery throughout and refinery margins are lower compared to baseline cases that maintain 

current policies restricting crude oil exports (Figures 15a, 15b, and 51c). 

Differences in refining margins and throughput with and without current export restrictions in the HOGR 

and HOGR/LP cases result in significant differences in gross revenue net of crude input cost from 

refining activity. A rough calculation suggests that refining sector gross profits (gross revenue net of 

crude costs) in the HOGR case are about $22.7 billion lower in 2025 without crude oil export restrictions 

than they would be if those restrictions were maintained. This outcome reflects the expectation that 

refinery margins would grow with increases in the Brent-WTI spread under current export restrictions in 

high-production cases. Without crude oil export restrictions, the Brent-WTI spread is limited by the 

export option, but still remains above its 2014 level. With or without current crude oil export 

restrictions, domestic refiners are also expected to maintain a significant advantage compared to 

Figure 14b. Total U.S. crude oil distillation throughput projections by case with current crude oil 

export restrictions, 2010-25

HOGR

LP

HOGR/LP

Ref

13

15

17

19

21

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections

≈

0
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 33

offshore refiners given the continued projected availability of low-cost domestic natural gas, which is 

used as both a fuel and feedstock by refiners. 

2013 dollars per barrel

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas 

Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with and without current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System. The crack spread is calculated using West Texas Intermediate Spot 

prices for crude oil feedstock prices and New York Harbor wholesale prices for gasoline and distillate fuel oil, for both historical 

data and projections.

Figure 15a. Difference in the average 3-2-1 crack spread at U.S. refineries by case from removing 

current crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25 

Ref

HOGR

LP

HOGR/LP

-8

-6

-4

-2

0

2

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 34

million barrels per calendar day

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, National Energy Modeling System Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas 

Resource, and High Oil and Gas Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with and without current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System.

million barrels per day

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas 

Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with and without current crude oil export restrictions.

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System.

Figure 15b. Difference in total U.S. crude oil distillation capacity by case from removing current 

crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25 

Ref

HOGR

LP

HOGR/LP

-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections

Ref

HOGR

LP

HOGR/LP

-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025

history projections

Figure 15c. Difference in total U.S. crude oil distillation throughput by case from removing 

current crude oil export restrictions, 2010-25 
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 35

Appendix A. Congressional Requests for Information on the Effects 

of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports

• February 3, 2014, Letter from Senators Cantwell and Wyden to EIA Administrator Adam 

Sieminski

• April 10, 2014, Letter from Senators Landrieu and Murkowski to EIA Administrator Adam 

Sieminski
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 36
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 37
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 38

Appendix B. Supplemental Tables of Results

• Table B-1: Summary results for four cases with (res) and without (unr) current crude oil export 

restrictions in 2015

• Table B-2: Summary results for four cases with (res) and without (unr) current crude oil export 

restrictions in 2020

• Table B-3: Summary results for four cases with (res) and without (unr) current crude oil export 

restrictions in 2025

Note: The model runs used in this report were made using the National Energy Modeling System. The 

model run names that correspond to the specific cases in this report are listed below:

Reference Case (res): refcx/d073015b

Reference Case (unr): refallx/d073015a

LP Case (res): lpcx/d073015a

LP Case (unr): lpallx/d073015a

HOGR Case (res): refhrcx/d073015a

HOGR Case (unr): refhrallx/d073015a

HOGR/LP Case (res): lphrcx/d073015a

HOGR/LP Case (unr): lphrallx/d073015a
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 39

Table B-1. Summary results for four cases with (res) and without (unr) current crude oil export restrictions in 2015

2015

Selected results

History Reference case LP case HOGR case HOGR/LP case

2013 2014 1q15 res unr dif res unr dif res unr dif res unr dif

Crude oil (million b/d)

Total domestic crude production 7.46 8.71 9.48 9.32 9.32 0.00 9.18 9.18 0.00 9.58 9.59 0.01 9.53 9.53 0.00

Tight oil1 3.15 4.19 NA 4.78 4.78 0.00 4.64 4.64 0.00 5.10 5.11 0.01 4.97 4.98 0.01

CO2-EOR NA NA NA 0.29 0.29 0.00 0.29 0.29 0.00 0.29 0.29 0.00 0.29 0.29 0.00

Lower 48 offshore2 NA NA NA 1.64 1.64 0.00 1.64 1.64 0.00 1.64 1.64 0.00 1.64 1.64 0.00

Other production3 4.31 4.53 NA 2.60 2.60 0.00 2.61 2.61 0.00 2.55 2.55 0.00 2.63 2.62 (0.01)

Net crude imports 7.60 6.99 6.84 6.42 6.42 0.00 7.09 7.09 0.00 6.36 6.45 0.08 6.75 6.73 (0.02)

Crude imports 7.73 7.34 7.28 6.82 6.82 0.00 7.49 7.49 0.00 6.76 6.85 0.08 7.15 7.13 (0.02)

Crude exports 0.13 0.35 0.45 0.40 0.40 0.00 0.40 0.40 0.00 0.40 0.40 0.00 0.40 0.40 0.00

Non-crude petroleum and other liquids supply (million b/d)

Net product imports (1.36) (1.95) (1.89) (2.15) (2.15) 0.00 (2.63) (2.63) 0.00 (2.47) (2.55) (0.08) (2.75) (2.74) 0.01

Product imports 2.13 1.88 2.12 1.98 1.98 0.00 2.55 2.55 0.00 2.36 2.36 0.00 2.52 2.53 0.00

Product exports 3.49 3.83 4.01 4.12 4.12 0.00 5.18 5.18 0.00 4.83 4.91 0.08 5.28 5.27 (0.01)

All other non-crude supply4 5.14 5.54 5.44 5.43 5.43 0.00 5.46 5.46 0.00 5.67 5.66 (0.01) 5.60 5.61 0.00

Total primary supply for domestic use5 18.83 19.30 19.87 19.24 19.23 0.00 19.11 19.11 0.00 19.13 19.14 0.01 19.13 19.13 0.00

Crude oil and petroleum product trade (million b/d)

Net crude oil and petroleum product imports 6.24 5.04 4.95 4.27 4.27 0.00 4.47 4.47 0.00 3.89 3.89 0.00 4.00 3.99 (0.01)

Crude oil and petroleum product imports 9.86 9.22 9.40 8.80 8.80 0.00 10.05 10.05 0.00 9.12 9.20 0.08 9.68 9.66 (0.02)

Crude oil and petroleum product exports 3.62 4.18 4.45 4.52 4.52 0.00 5.58 5.58 0.00 5.23 5.31 0.08 5.68 5.67 (0.01)

Crude oil prices (2013 $/b)6

Brent spot 108.56 97.22 53.45 57.47 57.47 0.00 50.54 50.54 0.00 53.81 53.69 (0.13) 48.21 48.16 (0.06)

West Texas Intermediate spot 97.98 91.60 48.07 50.37 50.37 0.00 44.94 44.96 0.01 46.91 47.73 0.82 41.31 42.03 0.72

Brent-WTI spread 10.58 5.62 5.38 7.10 7.10 0.00 5.60 5.59 (0.01) 6.90 5.95 (0.95) 6.91 6.13 (0.78)

Average petroleum product prices (2013 $/gallon)6

Motor gasoline (all sectors) 7 3.58 3.38 2.34 2.31 2.31 0.00 2.19 2.19 0.00 2.27 2.28 0.01 2.16 2.15 0.00

Diesel (transportation sector) 8 3.92 3.76 2.89 2.70 2.70 0.00 2.46 2.46 0.00 2.51 2.51 0.00 2.40 2.39 (0.01)
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 40

Table B-1. Summary results for four cases with (res) and without (unr) current crude oil export restrictions in 2015 (cont.)

2015

Selected results

History Reference case LP case HOGR case HOGR/LP case

2013 2014 1q15 res unr dif res unr dif res unr dif res unr dif

Processing operations9

Total distillation capacity (million b/cd)10 17.82 17.92 17.97 18.36 18.36 0.00 18.36 18.36 0.00 18.36 18.36 0.00 18.36 18.36 0.00

 Total distillation unit inputs (million b/d)11 15.72 16.15 15.78 16.74 16.74 0.00 16.27 16.28 0.00 15.94 16.03 0.09 16.28 16.26 (0.02)

Total distillation capacity utilization rate (%) 88 90 88 91 91 0 89 89 0 87 87 1 89 89 0

Crude exports by gravity (million b/d) 12

Light exports NA NA NA 0.36 0.36 0.00 0.36 0.36 0.00 0.36 0.36 0.00 0.36 0.36 0.00

Medium exports NA NA NA 0.04 0.04 0.00 0.04 0.04 0.00 0.04 0.04 0.00 0.04 0.04 0.00

Heavy exports NA NA NA 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Crude imports by gravity (million b/d) 12

Light imports 0.99 0.66 0.66 1.35 1.34 (0.01) 1.24 1.24 0.00 0.67 0.66 (0.01) 0.58 0.58 0.00

Medium imports 2.69 2.53 2.14 2.25 2.25 0.00 2.15 2.15 0.00 1.70 1.74 0.04 1.83 1.82 (0.01)

Heavy imports 4.01 4.15 4.48 4.22 4.23 0.01 4.11 4.11 0.00 4.39 4.44 0.05 4.75 4.73 (0.01)

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Supply Monthly, Short-Term Energy Outlook, Refinery Capacity Report, and Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and 

Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with and without current crude oil export restrictions. 

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System. Totals may not equal or difference sum of components due to independent rounding. NA = Not Available.

1

Historical totals reflect model results benched to EIA estimates calculated with state administrative data collected by DrillingInfo. 2

Historical offshore values include Alaska offshore volumes and are thus not listed. 3

Includes other Lower 48 onshore production and all Alaska production. Historical values also include carbon dioxide enhanced oil recovery and Lower 48 offshore production. 4

All other non-crude supply includes refinery processing gain, product stock withdrawal, natural gas plant liquids, supply from renewable sources, liquids from gas, liquids from coal, 

and other supply.

5

Historical values equal total petroleum product supplied (or U.S. petroleum product consumption) plus the average daily change in crude oil and petroleum product inventories. 6

Historical prices calculated with historical values from the Short-Term Energy Outlook, adjusted to 2013 prices using the Consumer Price Index (all urban consumers). 7

U.S. all grades retail price, including taxes.

8

U.S. retail price, including taxes.

9

Includes both splitter and atmospheric distillation unit capacity and throughput.

10Equals total operable atmospheric crude oil distillation capacity as of January 1 of each calendar year.

11Historical volumes include unfinished oils, whereas projected volumes include only crude oil volumes. 12Light crude oil includes crude oil with an API gravity of 35 or higher; medium crude oil includes crude oil with an API gravity of equal to or above 27 and less than 35; heavy crude 

oil includes crude oil with an API gravity of below 27.
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 41

Table B-2. Summary results for four cases with (res) and without (unr) current crude oil export restrictions in 2020

2020

Selected results

History Reference case LP case HOGR case HOGR/LP case

2013 2014 1q15 res unr dif res unr dif res unr dif res unr dif

Crude oil (million b/d)

Total domestic crude production 7.46 8.71 9.48 10.57 10.58 0.00 9.94 9.94 0.00 12.42 12.54 0.12 11.62 11.70 0.08

Tight oil1 3.15 4.19 NA 5.58 5.58 0.00 5.02 5.02 0.00 7.27 7.39 0.11 6.55 6.61 0.06

CO2-EOR NA NA NA 0.35 0.35 0.00 0.33 0.33 0.00 0.31 0.31 0.00 0.30 0.31 0.01

Lower 48 offshore2 NA NA NA 2.15 2.15 0.00 2.13 2.13 0.00 2.30 2.30 0.00 2.28 2.28 0.00

Other production3 4.31 4.53 NA 2.50 2.50 0.00 2.46 2.46 0.00 2.53 2.54 0.00 2.49 2.50 0.01

Net crude imports 7.60 6.99 6.84 6.45 6.44 (0.01) 6.63 6.63 0.00 4.70 3.76 (0.95) 5.41 4.57 (0.84)

Crude imports 7.73 7.34 7.28 7.08 7.07 (0.01) 7.26 7.26 0.00 5.58 5.76 0.18 6.16 6.02 (0.15)

Crude exports 0.13 0.35 0.45 0.63 0.63 0.00 0.63 0.63 0.00 0.88 2.00 1.12 0.75 1.44 0.69

Non-crude petroleum and other liquids supply (million b/d)

Net product imports (1.36) (1.95) (1.89) (3.78) (3.77) 0.01 (2.75) (2.75) 0.00 (4.30) (3.43) 0.87 (3.60) (2.85) 0.74

Product imports 2.13 1.88 2.12 2.31 2.31 0.00 2.86 2.86 0.00 2.21 2.18 (0.03) 2.77 2.74 (0.03)

Product exports 3.49 3.83 4.01 6.08 6.08 (0.01) 5.61 5.61 0.00 6.51 5.61 (0.90) 6.37 5.60 (0.78)

All other non-crude supply4 5.14 5.54 5.44 6.44 6.43 0.00 6.26 6.26 0.00 7.04 6.98 (0.06) 6.73 6.74 0.01

Total primary supply for domestic use5 18.83 19.30 19.87 19.68 19.68 0.00 20.07 20.07 0.00 19.86 19.85 (0.01) 20.17 20.16 0.00

Crude oil and petroleum product trade (million b/d)

Net crude oil and petroleum product imports 6.24 5.04 4.95 2.67 2.67 0.00 3.88 3.88 (0.01) 0.40 0.33 (0.07) 1.81 1.72 (0.09)

Crude oil and petroleum product imports 9.86 9.22 9.40 9.38 9.38 0.00 10.12 10.11 0.00 7.80 7.94 0.15 8.94 8.76 (0.18)

Crude oil and petroleum product exports 3.62 4.18 4.45 6.71 6.71 (0.01) 6.24 6.24 0.00 7.39 7.61 0.22 7.12 7.04 (0.08)

Crude oil prices (2013 $/b)6

Brent spot 108.56 97.22 53.45 78.39 78.39 0.00 56.20 56.18 (0.01) 72.87 71.60 (1.27) 52.36 50.89 (1.47)

West Texas Intermediate spot 97.98 91.60 48.07 72.28 72.27 0.00 50.71 50.70 (0.01) 59.71 63.41 3.71 41.17 42.72 1.55

Brent-WTI spread 10.58 5.62 5.38 6.11 6.11 0.01 5.49 5.49 0.00 13.16 8.18 (4.98) 11.18 8.16 (3.02)

Average petroleum product prices (2013 $/gallon)6

Motor gasoline (all sectors)7 3.58 3.38 2.34 2.70 2.71 0.00 2.30 2.30 0.00 2.59 2.55 (0.03) 2.17 2.13 (0.04)

Diesel (transportation sector) 8 3.92 3.76 2.89 3.15 3.15 0.00 2.60 2.60 0.00 2.94 2.90 (0.05) 2.46 2.39 (0.07)
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 42

Table B-2. Summary results for four cases with (res) and without (unr) current crude oil export restrictions in 2020 (cont.)

2020

Selected results

History Reference case LP case HOGR case HOGR/LP case

2013 2014 1q15 res unr dif res unr dif res unr dif res unr dif

Processing operations9

Total distillation capacity (million b/cd)10 17.82 17.92 17.97 19.25 19.25 0.00 19.25 19.25 0.00 19.52 19.25 (0.27) 19.36 19.25 (0.11)

 Total distillation unit inputs (million b/d)11 15.72 16.15 15.78 17.02 17.01 0.00 16.57 16.57 0.00 17.12 16.30 (0.82) 17.03 16.27 (0.76)

Total distillation capacity utilization rate (%) 88 90 88 88 88 0 86 86 0 88 85 (3) 88 85 (3)

Crude exports by gravity (million b/d) 12

Light exports NA NA NA 0.57 0.57 0.00 0.57 0.57 0.00 0.82 1.95 1.12 0.69 1.39 0.69

Medium exports NA NA NA 0.06 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.06 0.00

Heavy exports NA NA NA 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Crude imports by gravity (million b/d) 12

Light imports 0.99 0.66 0.66 0.91 0.91 0.00 1.21 1.21 0.00 0.11 0.04 (0.07) 0.22 0.16 (0.05)

Medium imports 2.69 2.53 2.14 1.61 1.61 0.00 1.59 1.59 0.00 0.79 0.81 0.03 0.92 0.92 0.00

Heavy imports 4.01 4.15 4.48 4.55 4.55 0.00 4.45 4.45 0.00 4.69 4.91 0.21 5.03 4.94 (0.09)

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Supply Monthly, Short-Term Energy Outlook, Refinery Capacity Report, and Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and 

Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with and without current crude oil export restrictions. 

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System. Totals may not equal sum or difference of components due to independent rounding. NA = Not Available.

1

Historical totals reflect model results benched to EIA estimates calculated with state administrative data collected by DrillingInfo. 2

Historical offshore values include Alaska offshore volumes and are thus not listed. 3

Includes other Lower 48 onshore production and all Alaska production. Historical values also include carbon dioxide enhanced oil recovery and Lower 48 offshore production. 4

All other non-crude supply includes refinery processing gain, product stock withdrawal, natural gas plant liquids, supply from renewable sources, liquids from gas, liquids from coal, 

and other supply.

5

Historical values equal total petroleum product supplied (or U.S. petroleum product consumption) plus the average daily change in crude oil and petroleum product inventories. 6

Historical prices calculated with historical values from the Short-Term Energy Outlook, adjusted to 2013 prices using the Consumer Price Index (all urban consumers). 7

U.S. all grades retail price, including taxes.

8

U.S. retail price, including taxes.

9

Includes both splitter and atmospheric distillation unit capacity and throughput.

10Equals total operable atmospheric crude oil distillation capacity as of January 1 of each calendar year.

11Historical volumes include unfinished oils, whereas projected volumes include only crude oil volumes. 

12Light crude oil includes crude oil with an API gravity of 35 or higher; medium crude oil includes crude oil with an API gravity of equal to or above 27 and less than 35; heavy crude 

oil includes crude oil with an API gravity of below 27.
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 43

Table B-3. Summary results for four cases with (res) and without (unr) current crude oil export restrictions in 2025

2025

Selected results

History Reference case LP case HOGR case HOGR/LP case

2013 2014 1q15 res unr dif res unr dif res unr dif res unr dif

Crude oil (million b/d)

Total domestic crude production 7.46 8.71 9.48 10.28 10.28 0.00 9.46 9.47 0.00 13.63 14.10 0.47 11.69 12.07 0.38

Tight oil1 3.15 4.19 NA 5.31 5.31 0.00 4.76 4.76 0.00 8.47 8.89 0.42 7.13 7.47 0.34

CO2-EOR NA NA NA 0.47 0.47 0.00 0.37 0.38 0.00 0.37 0.38 0.02 0.33 0.34 0.01

Lower 48 offshore2 NA NA NA 1.95 1.95 0.00 1.87 1.87 0.00 2.20 2.22 0.01 2.05 2.05 0.00

Other production3 4.31 4.53 NA 2.55 2.55 0.00 2.46 2.46 0.00 2.59 2.61 0.02 2.18 2.21 0.03

Net crude imports 7.60 6.99 6.84 6.23 6.22 (0.01) 6.56 6.57 0.01 4.22 2.03 (2.19) 4.83 4.19 (0.64)

Crude imports 7.73 7.34 7.28 6.88 6.86 (0.02) 7.19 7.20 0.01 5.41 5.68 0.26 6.16 6.55 0.39

Crude exports 0.13 0.35 0.45 0.65 0.64 (0.01) 0.63 0.63 0.00 1.20 3.64 2.45 1.33 2.36 1.03

Non-crude petroleum and other liquids supply (million b/d)

Net product imports (1.36) (1.95) (1.89) (3.33) (3.32) 0.01 (2.07) (2.08) (0.01) (5.40) (3.63) 1.78 (3.12) (2.88) 0.24

Product imports 2.13 1.88 2.12 2.39 2.39 0.00 2.99 2.98 (0.01) 2.24 2.25 0.02 2.83 2.82 0.00

Product exports 3.49 3.83 4.01 5.72 5.71 (0.01) 5.06 5.07 0.00 7.64 5.88 (1.76) 5.95 5.70 (0.24)

All other non-crude supply4 5.14 5.54 5.44 6.51 6.51 0.00 6.24 6.24 0.01 7.61 7.53 (0.07) 7.06 7.10 0.04

Total primary supply for domestic use5 18.83 19.30 19.87 19.69 19.70 0.00 20.19 20.19 0.00 20.05 20.04 (0.01) 20.46 20.48 0.02

Crude oil and petroleum product trade (million b/d)

Net crude oil and petroleum product imports 6.24 5.04 4.95 2.90 2.90 0.00 4.49 4.48 (0.01) (1.19) (1.60) (0.41) 1.71 1.31 (0.40)

Crude oil and petroleum product imports 9.86 9.22 9.40 9.27 9.25 (0.02) 10.18 10.18 0.00 7.65 7.93 0.28 8.99 9.38 0.39

Crude oil and petroleum product exports 3.62 4.18 4.45 6.37 6.35 (0.01) 5.69 5.70 0.00 8.84 9.53 0.69 7.28 8.06 0.79

Crude oil prices (2013 $/b)6

Brent spot 108.56 97.22 53.45 90.40 90.23 (0.18) 63.01 63.01 0.00 81.39 80.47 (0.92) 56.31 55.78 (0.54)

West Texas Intermediate spot 97.98 91.60 48.07 84.32 84.15 (0.17) 57.50 57.47 (0.03) 66.39 72.26 5.87 42.33 47.65 5.32

Brent-WTI spread 10.58 5.62 5.38 6.08 6.08 0.00 5.51 5.54 0.03 15.00 8.21 (6.79) 13.98 8.13 (5.85)

Average petroleum product prices (2013 $/gallon)6

Motor gasoline (all sectors) 7 3.58 3.38 2.34 2.91 2.90 0.00 2.37 2.37 0.00 2.66 2.65 (0.01) 2.20 2.19 (0.01)

Diesel (transportation sector) 8 3.92 3.76 2.89 3.46 3.46 0.00 2.78 2.78 0.00 3.18 3.17 0.00 2.53 2.52 (0.01)
September 2015

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Effects of Removing Restrictions on U.S. Crude Oil Exports 44

Table B-3. Summary results for four cases with (res) and without (unr) current crude oil export restrictions in 2025 (cont.)

2025

Selected results

History Reference case LP case HOGR case HOGR/LP case

2013 2014 1q15 res unr dif res unr dif res unr dif res unr dif

Processing operations9

Total distillation capacity (million b/cd)10 17.82 17.92 17.97 19.25 19.25 0.00 19.25 19.25 0.00 20.15 19.25 (0.90) 19.36 19.25 (0.11)

 Total distillation unit inputs (million b/d)11 15.72 16.15 15.78 16.51 16.50 0.00 16.03 16.04 0.01 17.84 16.13 (1.71) 16.52 16.26 (0.26)

Total distillation capacity utilization rate (%) 88 90 88 86 86 0 83 83 0 89 84 (5) 85 84 (1)

Crude exports by gravity (million b/d) 12

Light exports NA NA NA 0.59 0.58 (0.01) 0.57 0.57 0.00 1.14 3.33 2.19 1.27 2.28 1.01

Medium exports NA NA NA 0.06 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.31 0.25 0.06 0.08 0.02

Heavy exports NA NA NA 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Crude imports by gravity (million b/d) 12

Light imports 0.99 0.66 0.66 0.82 0.83 0.00 1.21 1.21 0.00 0.07 0.05 (0.02) 0.28 0.17 (0.12)

Medium imports 2.69 2.53 2.14 1.41 1.41 0.00 1.45 1.45 0.00 0.51 0.48 (0.03) 0.59 0.64 0.04

Heavy imports 4.01 4.15 4.48 4.65 4.62 (0.02) 4.53 4.53 0.00 4.84 5.15 0.31 5.28 5.75 0.47

Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Supply Monthly, Short-Term Energy Outlook, Refinery Capacity Report, and Reference, Low Oil Price, High Oil and 

Gas Resource, and High Oil and Gas Resource/Low Oil Price cases, with and without current crude oil export restrictions. 

Note: Projections from National Energy Modeling System. Totals may not equal sum or difference of components due to independent rounding. NA = Not Available.

1

Historical totals reflect model results benched to EIA estimates calculated with state administrative data collected by DrillingInfo. 2

Historical offshore values include Alaska offshore volumes and are thus not listed. 3

Includes other Lower 48 onshore production and all Alaska production. Historical values also include carbon dioxide enhanced oil recovery and Lower 48 offshore production. 4

All other non-crude supply includes refinery processing gain, product stock withdrawal, natural gas plant liquids, supply from renewable sources, liquids from gas, liquids from coal, 

and other supply.

5

Historical values equal total petroleum product supplied (or U.S. petroleum product consumption) plus the average daily change in crude oil and petroleum product inventories. 6

Historical prices calculated with historical values from the Short-Term Energy Outlook, adjusted to 2013 prices using the Consumer Price Index (all urban consumers). 7

U.S. all grades retail price, including taxes.

8

U.S. retail price, including taxes.

9

Includes both splitter and atmospheric distillation unit capacity and throughput.

10Equals total operable atmospheric crude oil distillation capacity as of January 1 of each calendar year. 11

Historical volumes include unfinished oils, whereas projected volumes include only crude oil volumes. 

12

Light crude oil includes crude oil with an API gravity of 35 or higher; medium crude oil includes crude oil with an API gravity of equal to or above 27 and less than 35; heavy crude 

oil includes crude oil with an API gravity of below 27.