June 2013

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Buildings Appliance and Equipment Costs and Efficiency 3

APPENDIX B
FINAL

EIA - Technology Forecast Updates –

Residential and Commercial Building 

Technologies – Advanced Case

Presented to:

U.S. Energy Information Administration

Prepared by

Navigant Consulting, Inc.

1801 K Street, NW, Suite 500

Washington, D.C. 20006

With

SAIC

8301 Greensboro Drive

McLean, VA 22102

September 22, 2011
Final

DISCLAIMER

This presentation was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States 

Government. Neither the United States Government, nor any agency thereof, nor any of their 

employees, nor any of their contractors, subcontractors, or their employees, makes any warranty, 

express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or 

usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use 

would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, 

process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily 

constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government 

or any agency, contractor or subcontractor thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed 

herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency 

thereof. 

September 2011

1
Final

Objective 3

Methodology 4

Definitions 5

Market Transformation 6

Historical Shipment Data 7

Residential Gas-Fired Water Heaters 8

Residential Oil Water Heaters 11

Residential Electric Resistance Water Heaters 13

Residential Heat Pump Water Heaters 16

Residential Instantaneous Water Heaters 18

Residential Solar Water Heaters 20

Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces 22

Residential Oil-Fired Furnaces 25

Residential Hydronic Heating Systems (Boilers) 28

Residential Room Air Conditioners 30

Residential Central Air Conditioners 33

Residential Air Source Heat Pumps 35

Residential Ground Source Heat Pumps 37

Residential Gas Heat Pumps 39

Residential Refrigerator / Freezer 42

Residential Natural Gas Cooktops 46

Residential Clothes Washers 49

Residential Clothes Dryers 52

Residential Dishwashers 55

Commercial Gas-Fired Furnaces 58

Commercial Oil-Fired Furnaces 60

Commercial Electric Boilers 62

Commercial Gas-Fired Boilers 64

Commercial Oil-Fired Boilers 66

Commercial Gas Fired Chillers 68

Commercial Centrifugal Chillers 70

Commercial Reciprocating Chillers 72

Commercial Screw Chillers 74

Commercial Scroll Chillers 76

Commercial Rooftop Air Conditioners 78

Commercial Gas-Fired Engine-Driven Rooftop Air 

Conditioners 80

Commercial Rooftop Heat Pumps 83

Commercial Ground Source Heat Pumps 85

Commercial Electric Resistance Heaters 87

Commercial Gas-Fired Water Heaters 89

Commercial Electric Resistance Water Heaters 92

Commercial Oil-Fired Water Heaters 95

Commercial Gas-Fired Instantaneous

Water Heaters 97

Commercial Electric Booster Water Heaters 99

Commercial Gas Booster Water Heaters 100

Data Sources A-1

References B-1

Page Page

Table of Contents
Final

3

The objective of this study is to develop baseline and projected 

performance/cost characteristics for residential and commercial 

end-use equipment.

• 2005 and 2007 baselines, as well as today’s (2010)

— Review of literature, standards, installed base, contractor, and manufacturer 

information.

— Provide a relative comparison and characterization of the cost/efficiency of a 

generic product.

• Forecast of technology improvements that are projected to be available through 2035

— Review of trends in standards, product enhancements, and Research and 

Development (R&D).

— Projected impact of product improvements and enhancement to technology.

Objective

The performance/cost characterization of end-use equipment developed in 

this study will assist EIA in projecting national primary energy 

consumption.
Final

4

Input from industry, including government, R&D organizations, and 

manufacturers, was used to project product enhancements concerning 

equipment performance and cost attributes.

• Technology forecasting involves many uncertainties.

• Technology developments impact performance and cost forecasts.

• Varied sources ensure a balanced view of technology progress and the probable timing 

of commercial availability.

• All cost forecasts are shown in real, 2010 dollars.

Methodology
Final

5

The following tables represent the current and projected efficiencies for residential and 

commercial building equipment ranging from the installed base in 2005 and 2007, to 

the highest efficiency equipment that is expected to be commercially available by 2035, 

assuming advanced adoption. Below are definitions for the terms used in 

characterizing the status of each technology.

• 2005/2007 Installed Base: the currently installed and “in use” equipment for that year. 

Represents the installed stock of equipment, does not represent sales.

• 2010 Current Standard: the minimum efficiency required by current standards, or 

typical where no standard exists.

• Typical: the average, or “typical” product being sold in the particular timeframe.

• ENERGY STAR: the minimum efficiency required to meet the ENERGY STAR criteria, 

where applicable.

• Mid-Level: middle tier high-efficiency product available in the particular timeframe.

• High: the product with the highest efficiency available in the particular timeframe.

• Advanced adoption assumes increases in market incentives, market adoption, and/or 

technology research and development (R&D).

Definitions
Final

6

Market Transformation

The market for the reviewed products has changed since the analysis 

performed in 2007 and is reflected in the efficiency and cost 

characteristics.

• Over the past three years, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) established 

ENERGY STAR specifications for a number of new products, including residential 

water heaters.

• Typical air conditioners have improved efficiencies as a result of increased Federal 

standards or otherwise. In 2007, the typical Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) for a 

residential room air conditioner was 10.0, today it is 10.8; the typical EER for a 

commercial rooftop air conditioner was 10.1, today it is 11.2.

• Overall, there has been an increased market acceptance of energy efficient products 

driven by initiatives such as LEED and other green building programs.
Final

Commercial Appliances

130,000

135,000

140,000

145,000

150,000

155,000

160,000

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Unit Shipments, Excluding Exports

Year

7

Historical Shipment Data

Due to the severe recession and dramatic contraction in the housing market, over the 

past few years there has been a trend of decreased appliance shipments, except in 

commercial appliances where a specific trend is not evident. In 2010, shipments have 

increased across all appliance types.

Source: Appliance Magazine 2010, U.S. Appliance Shipment 

Statistics Monthly: January 2011

Throughout the presentation, shipment trends 

for specific products are depicted. Overall, the 

recession and contraction of the housing 

market has significantly affected each 

product.

Major Appliances

55,000,000

60,000,000

65,000,000

70,000,000

75,000,000

80,000,000

20002001200220032004200520062007200820092010

Unit Shipments, Excluding Exports

Year

Comfort Conditioning

14,000,000

16,000,000

18,000,000

20,000,000

22,000,000

24,000,000

20002001200220032004200520062007200820092010

Unit Shipments, Excluding Exports

Year
Final

8

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Gas-Fired Water Heaters

DATA

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Current

Typical ENERGY High Typical High Typical High Typical High Base Standard STAR 

Typical Capacity (gal) 40 40 40 40 50 40 50 40 50 40 50

Energy Factor 0.6 0.59 0.62 0.67 0.85 0.62 0.85 0.62 1.4 0.85 1.4

Average Life (yrs) 9-15 9-15 9-15 9-15 9-15 9-15 9-15 9-15 9-15 9-15 9-15

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 470- 470- 480- 780- 1500- 450- 1380- 450- 1960- 1168.5 1893.50-

510 510 510 810 3000 500 2880 500 3360 3293.5

Total Installed Cost ($) 920- 920- 930- 1230- 1950- 1050- 1980- 1050- 2670- 1900- 2610-

960 960 960 1260 3450 1100 3480 1100 3570 3400 3510

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) - - 13 17 17 13 17 13 17 13 17

Higher efficiencies and different costs than ref. case
Final

• The current Federal standard, which came into effect in January 2004 mandates an EF of 0.59 for a 40-

gallon water heater. The equation for the Federal standard is: 

EF=0.67-(0.0019*Gal), which is used to expand the analysis to a greater range of storage 

capacities.

• An updated Federal standard will go into effect on April 16, 2015. The equation for the Federal standard 

is:

EF=0.675-(0.0015*Gal) for a volume ≤ 55 gallons and

EF=0.8012-(0.00078*Gal) for a volume > 55 gallons

• Per discussions with National Labs, there is a potential trend towards a capacity of 50 gallons after 2020.

• Gas-fired water heater capacities typically fall between 30 and 75 gallons.

• As part of the heating products Federal standards rulemaking, a high efficiency model was examined, 

EF=0.77 at 40 gallons, which represents a condensing unit with two inches of insulation and a power 

vent.

• The cost of installation is approximately $450, which is higher than electric water heaters for a number of 

reasons, which includes an extra 1.5 hours of labor for 2 plumbers that is required for gas units. 

• Generally, there are no storage gas water heaters between approximately 0.7 and 0.8 EF, which would 

fall in the “near-condensing” range of operation. Gas-fired water heaters are typically either condensing 

or non-condensing models.

• Gas heat pump water heaters use a gas-fired engine-driven heat pump or a gas-fired absorption heat 

pump to heat water. Waste heat from the engine could also be recovered for water heating. These units 

are not commercially available.

9

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Gas-Fired Water Heaters
Final

Since the last analysis was performed in 2007, there has been a 

decrease in residential gas-fired water heater shipments. 

10

Shipment Data » Residential Gas-Fired Water Heaters

Water Heaters, Gas

Source: Appliance Magazine 2010, U.S. Appliance Shipment Statistics 

Monthly: January 2011

3,500,000

3,700,000

3,900,000

4,100,000

4,300,000

4,500,000

4,700,000

4,900,000

5,100,000

5,300,000

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Unit Shipments, Excluding Exports

Year
Final

11

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Oil Water Heaters

DATA

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed

Base

Current

Standard Typical MidLevel High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (gal) 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

Energy Factor 0.5 0.53 0.54 0.62 0.68 0.62 0.68 0.62 0.68 0.62 0.68

Average Life (yrs) 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 1200-

1300

1300-

1400

1350-

1450

1450-

1550

1600-

1700

1440-

1540

1600-

1700

1420-

1520

1600-

1700

1420-

1520

1600-

1700

Total Installed Cost ($) 1800-

1900

1900-

2000

1950-

2050

2050-

2150

2200-

2300

2040-

2140

2200-

2300

2020-

2120

2200-

2300

2020-

2120

2200-

2300

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) - - 157 157 157 157 157 157 157 157 157

Same as Reference Case
Final

• The current Federal standard, which came into effect in January 2004 mandates an EF of 

0.53 for a 30-gallon water heater. The equation for the Federal standard is:

EF=0.59-(0.0019*Gal), which is used to expand the analysis to a greater range

of storage capacities.

• An updated Federal standard will go into effect on April 16, 2015. The equation for the 

Federal standard is:

EF=0.68-(0.0019*Gal)

• Oil-fired water heaters often have small tanks with larger input ratings, relative to 

natural gas and electric residential water heaters.

• No condensing oil-fired, storage residential water heaters currently exist on the U.S. 

market, hence the range of efficiencies tops out at near-condensing efficiency levels.

• The max-tech model on the market is achieved using a proprietary “turbo flue” design. 

12

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Oil Water Heaters
Final

13

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Electric Resistance Water Heaters

DATA

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed

Base

Current

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (gal) 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

Energy Factor 0.9 0.9 0.92 0.95 0.95 0.96 0.95 0.96 0.95 0.96

Average Life (yrs) 13-15 13-15 13-15 13-15 13-15 13-15 13-15 13-15 13-15 13-15

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 250-300 250-300 275-325 350-375 350-375 400-450 350-375 400-450 350-375 400-450

Total Installed Cost ($) 550-600 550-600 575-625 650-675 650-675 700-750 650-675 700-750 650-675 700-750

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) - - 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

Same as Reference Case
Final

• The current Federal minimum efficiency standard, which went into effect in January 

2004, requires an EF of 0.90 for a 50-gallon electric resistance water heater. The equation 

for the Federal standard is:

EF=0.97-(0.00132*volume), which is used to expand the analysis to a greater range

of storage capacities.

• An updated Federal standard will go into effect on April 16, 2015. The equation for the 

Federal standard is:

EF=0.96-(0.0003*Gal) for a volume ≤ 55 gallons and

EF=2.057-(0.00113*Gal) for a volume > 55 gallons

• Electric resistance water heater capacities usually range between 30 and 119 gallons.

• The max tech model, EF=2.35 at 50 gallons, is a heat pump water heater and is described 

in the following slides.

14

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Electric Resistance Water Heaters
Final

Since the last analysis was performed in 2007, there has been a 

decrease in residential electric resistance water heater shipments. 

15

Shipment Data » Residential Electric Resistance Water Heaters

Water Heaters, Electric

Source: Appliance Magazine 2010, U.S. Appliance Shipment Statistics 

Monthly: January 2011

3,600,000

3,800,000

4,000,000

4,200,000

4,400,000

4,600,000

4,800,000

5,000,000

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Unit Shipments, Excluding Exports

Year
Final

16

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Heat Pump Water Heaters

DATA

2005 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed

Base

ENERGY

STAR High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (gal) 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

Energy Factor 2 2 2.35 2.1 3 2.5 3.2 2.5 3.5

Average Life (yrs) 13-15 13-15 13-15 13-15 13-15 13-15 13-15 13-15 13-15

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 1400- 1400- 1500- 1265- 1690- 1170- 1690- 1125- 1690-

1700 1700 2000 1465 1890 1470 1890 1425 1890

Total Installed Cost ($) 1500- 1500- 1600- 1365- 1790- 1270- 1790- 1225- 1790-

2200 2200 2500 1965 2390 1970 2390 1925 2390

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Lower costs and higher efficiencies than ref. case
Final

• There is not a unique Federal standard for heat pump water heaters (HPWH). Because integrated HPWHs 

are in the same product class as electric resistance water heaters under DOE’s classifications, the Federal 

standard that applies to electric resistance water heaters applies here as well.

• Since 1990, significant R&D efforts have gone into developing HPWHs. Improvements have advanced 

efficiency and reliability; however, the high first cost still precludes high-volume market penetration.

• Although there is an installed base listed for 2005, the market penetration of HPWHs was quite low at that 

time.

• Three major domestic storage water heater manufacturers (Rheem, AO Smith, and GE) have an integrated 

HPWH model on the market; however, new and established competitors offer integrated or retrofit units 

(for existing electric or indirect storage water heaters). 

• Stiebel Eltron has an 80 gallon, 2.5 energy factor high efficiency HPWH. This unit was not included in the 

analysis presented on the previous slide because it has a significantly larger capacity than the units 

included, making for a difficult comparison.

• Sales are estimated to be limited and driven in part by rebates and tax credits at the utility, local, state, and 

Federal level. Hence, it is not surprising that all HPWH products on the market meet ENERGY STAR 

minimums and that no HPWH products are being offered below the ENERGY STAR efficiency level. 

• While resistive heating elements are virtually 100% efficient at transferring heat to the water inside a water 

heater, there is a jump in efficiency when heat pump technology is adopted since the COP of heat pump 

systems is usually between 2 and 3, at least on a seasonal basis.

• Due to the typically slow rate at which heat pumps raise the water temperature in a storage water heater, it 

is not unusual for heat pump systems to use resistive heat for some proportion of the water heating process 

to meet consumer expectations. All HPWH systems examined by DOE allow the consumer to adjust the 

HPWH behavior.

17

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Heat Pump Water Heaters
Final

18

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Instantaneous Water Heaters

DATA

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed

Base

Current

Standard Typical ENERGYSTAR High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (BTU/h) 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 185

Energy Factor 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.98 0.82 0.98 0.82 0.98 0.82 0.98

Average Life (yrs) 15-20 15-20 15-20 15-20 15-20 15-20 15-20 15-20 15-20 15-20 15-20

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 1050-

1150

1050-

1150

1050-

1150

1050-

1150

2150-

2250

1050-

1150

2150-

2250

1050-

1150

2150-

2250

1050-

1150

2150-

2250

Total Installed Cost ($) 1550-

1650

1550-

1650

1550-

1650

1550-

1650

2650-

2750

1550-

1650

2650-

2750

1550-

1650

2650-

2750

1550-

1650

2650-

2750

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85

Same as Reference Case
Final

• Most instantaneous hot water heaters sold in 2010 are gas-fired and have an efficiency 

of 0.80 EF or above, which is also the qualifying criteria for ENERGY STAR

• Navien manufactures the highest efficiency gas-fired model currently available on the 

market, which has an EF of 0.98. This is achieved through the use of electronic ignition, 

powered direct venting, and through condensing the flue gases.

• All of the major water heater manufacturers now offer an instantaneous model, all of 

which are imported and private-labeled.

• The maintenance cost includes cleaning the water inlet filter and the heat exchanger of 

mineral deposits and replacing the water valve approximately once every five years for 

all energy efficiency levels of instantaneous water heaters.

• When replacing a storage water heater with an instantaneous water heater, there are 

significant additional costs to upsize the gas supply line to 3/4 inch from the typical 1⁄2 

inch and change the venting.

• There is at least one electric (whole house) instantaneous water heater (4 chamber 

model) available on the market. This product retails for approximately $700-$750.

19

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Instantaneous Water Heaters
Final

20

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Solar Water Heaters

DATA

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed

Base

Current

Standard

Typical / ENERGY

STAR2 Typical2

Typical2Typical2

Typical Capacity (sq. ft.) 42-63 NA 42-63 42-63 42-63 42-63

Overall Efficiency (Solar 

Fraction) 0.5 NA 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Solar Energy Factor 2.5 NA 2.5 3 3.5 3.5

Average Life (yrs) 20 NA 20 20 20 20

Retail Equipment Cost1($) 3300-

5200 NA

3300-

5200

2900-

4600

2400-

3900

2400-

3900

Total Installed Cost1($) 7600-

10000 NA 7600-10,000

7100-

9300

6700-

8700

6700-

8700

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 25 NA 25 25 25 25

1 Costs are for an indirect (active closed loop) system, including tank and backup heater. Smaller capacity/cost systems are typical for 

southern & western states (>2/3 of the current market). Higher capacity/cost systems are required in colder/cloudier regions.

2 ENERGY STAR requires OG-300 rating from SRCC. Most installations use SRCC rated collectors; a high efficiency option is not 

applicable.

Lower costs than ref. case
Final

• ENERGY STAR requires an OG-300 rating from the Solar Rating and Certification Corporation 

(SRCC). Most installations use SRCC rated collectors, so there is no high efficiency category.

• Solar water heaters (SWHs) can be either active or passive. An active system uses an electric pump 

to circulate the heat transfer fluid; a passive system has no pump. Most solar water heaters in the 

United States are the active type.

• Solar water heaters are also characterized as open loop (also called "direct") or closed loop (also 

called "indirect"). An open-loop system circulates household (potable) water through the collector. 

A closed-loop system uses a heat transfer fluid (water or diluted antifreeze, for example) to collect 

heat and a heat exchanger to transfer the heat to household water.

• Solar fraction represents the fraction of total annual water heating energy met by the solar water 

heater. A backup water heating system is required with SWHs, and it is typically most economical 

to size the system to provide about 50% of water heating energy (solar fraction = 0.5).

• Solar Energy Factor (SEF) is defined by the SRCC as the useful energy delivered by the system 

divided by the total electrical and/or fossil fuel required for backup heating, pumping, and controls 

(the free solar energy input is neglected).

• Over 2/3 of the current SWH market is in the southern or western US (including Hawaii). The 

collector area of 42 ft2 would be typical for these areas. Colder areas of the US would require a larger 

collector (63 ft2).

• Installed costs are higher for colder areas where larger collectors are required. Costs also vary 

widely depending on collector quality, type of system, and site-specific characteristics.

21

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Solar Water Heaters
Final

22

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces

DATA

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed

Base

Current

Standard Typical ENERGYSTAR High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75

AFUE (%) 78 78 80 90 98 90 98 90 98 90 98

Electric Consumption (kWh/yr) 780 780 430 371 340 371 340 371 340 371 340

Average Life (yrs) 15-25 15-25 15-25 15-25 15-25 15-25 15-25 15-25 15-25 15-25 15-25

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 700-

800

700-

800

700-

800

1200-

2200

2200-

3200

1200-

2200

1700-

1800

1200-

2200

1700-

1800

1200-

2200

1700-

1800

Total Installed Cost ($) 2000-

3000

2000-

3000

2000-

3000

2500-

3000

3500-

4000

2500-

3000

3000-

3500

2500-

3000

3000-

3500

2500-

3000

3000-

3500

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

Same as Reference Case
Final

• The current standard for residential gas-fired furnaces is 78% AFUE; however, virtually all furnaces 

on the market have an AFUE of 80% or better.

• The minimum criteria for an ENERGY STAR qualified gas-fired furnace is 90% AFUE.

• York and Lennox manufacture the highest efficiency models currently available on the market, 

which have an efficiency of 98%.

• The high efficiency furnaces available are condensing furnaces, which use an additional heat 

exchanger to extract additional energy from the gases. Higher end models have variable speed 

blowers.

• Condensing furnaces use an additional heat exchanger to extract additional energy from the flue 

gases; some models also have variable speed blowers, which decrease electrical energy consumption, 

and inducer fan systems, which usually have modulating gas valves to allow the furnace to 

modulate in very small increments, providing an AFUE boost of a few percent.

• Non-condensing AFUE levels for natural gas top out at around 81%; above this level, the potential 

for exhaust gas condensation increases. This condensate is corrosive and will breach the appliance or 

vent over time and hence allow flue gases into the structure.

• High-efficiency condensing furnaces typically have aluminized steel heat exchangers and low NOx

emissions, flexible installation, direct vent, and sealed combustion systems. The furnace does not use 

room air for combustion, but instead draws the combustion air directly from outdoors. 

• Depending on the location of the home, piping materials in use, and other considerations, 

condensing furnaces may need an acid neutralizer and/or lift pump for the condensate.

• Furnaces may contain PSC or electronically commutated motors (ECM) fan motors, though the type 

of motor has no impact on the AFUE measurement. It only impacts SEER/EER of the associated air 

conditioner.

23

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces
Final

Since the last analysis was performed in 2007, there has been a 

decrease in gas-fired furnace shipments. 

24

Shipment Data » Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces

Furnaces, Warm Air, Gas

Source: Appliance Magazine 2010, U.S. Appliance Shipment Statistics 

Monthly: January 2011

2,000,000

2,200,000

2,400,000

2,600,000

2,800,000

3,000,000

3,200,000

3,400,000

3,600,000

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Unit Shipments, Excluding Exports

Year
Final

25

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Oil-Fired Furnaces

DATA

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed

Base

Current

Standard Typical ENERGYSTAR High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105

AFUE (%) 80 78 80 85 98 82 98 82 98 82 98

Electric Consumption (kWh/yr) 1001 1001 1001 944 900 950 900 950 900 950 900

Average Life (yrs) 15-25 15-25 15-25 15-25 15-25 15-25 15-25 15-25 15-25 15-25 15-25

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 2000-

2200

2000-

2200

2000-

2200

2200-

2800

3200-

3800

1900-

2100

3200-

3800

1800-

2000

3200-

3800

1775-

1975

3200-

3800

Total Installed Cost ($) 3000-

3500

3000-

3500

3000-

3500

3500-

4000

4500-

5000

2900-

3100

4500-

5000

2800-

3000

4500-

5000

2775-

2975

4500-

5000

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120

Same as Reference Case
Final

• The current NAECA Standard for oil-fired, forced air furnaces is 78% AFUE.

• The ENERGY STAR criteria for oil-fired furnaces is 85% AFUE.

• Since the latent heat content of oil is lower than that for either propane or natural gas, 

oil-fired appliances can typically operate at a higher AFUE rating than comparable gasfired appliances before condensation issues arise.

• There are condensing residential oil-fired furnaces on the market that operate at about 

95% AFUE. They have a tiny market share (<1%), due to market acceptance issues. 

• Condensate from condensing oil furnaces is typically even more corrosive than that of 

gas-fired systems due to the higher sulfur content in fuel oil. Hence, condensing oil 

furnaces also likely require the use of an acid neutralizer.

• Oil-fired furnaces, like gas-fired furnaces, achieve condensing conditions through the 

use of a secondary heat exchanger. Typically, these heat exchangers use a high-grade 

stainless steel (Al29-4C) as the primary heat exchange surface.

• Sooting is an issue for all oil-fired appliances, but secondary heat exchangers, with their 

narrow passages, are even more prone to be plugged by soot. Because of this, oil 

furnaces require frequent cleaning and maintenance.

26

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Oil-Fired Furnaces
Final

Since the last analysis was performed in 2007, there was initially a 

decrease with a recent slight increase in oil-fired furnace shipments. 

27

Shipment Data » Residential Oil-Fired Furnaces

Furnaces, Warm Air, Oil

Source: Appliance Magazine 2010, U.S. Appliance Shipment Statistics 

Monthly: January 2011

40,000

50,000

60,000

70,000

80,000

90,000

100,000

110,000

120,000

130,000

140,000

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Unit Shipments, Excluding Exports

Year
Final

28

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Hydronic Heating Systems (Boilers)

DATA

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed

Base

Current

Standard Typical ENERGYSTAR High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105

AFUE (%) 78 80 82 85 98 85 98 85 99 85 99

Average Life (yrs) 20-30 20-30 20-30 20-30 20-30 20-30 20-30 20-30 20-30 20-30 20-30

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 1000-

1100

1000-

1800

1200-

2000

2100-

2500

2500-

3500

2100-

2500

2500-

3500

2100-

2500

2500-

3500

2100-

2500

2500-

3500

Total Installed Cost ($) 2800-

2900

2800-

3800

3000-

4000

4000-

4500

4500-

5500

4000-

4500

4500-

5500

4000-

4500

4500-

5500

4000-

4500

4500-

5500

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130

Higher efficiencies for typical and high efficiency units
Final

• The NAECA standard for hot-water residential gas boilers is 80% AFUE, while the 

ENERGY STAR standard for boilers is 85% AFUE. The highest available efficiency is 

98% AFUE. 

• Hydronic systems represent about 6% of all U.S. residential heating systems.

• The bulk of U.S. boiler sales is for non-condensing boilers, primarily manufactured in 

North America. These are typically high-mass systems whose heat exchangers are 

made of iron or steel and which have simple on/off burners.

• Due to incentives and market pressure, the U.S. boiler industry has been shifting 

towards also providing condensing boilers. Most of these boilers are private-labeled 

products sourced from Europe, where the hydronic market is much bigger and 

condensing appliances are much more common and/or required by law.

• Typically, condensing boilers are low-mass in construction with modulating burners, 

variable-speed inducer fan systems, sealed powered direct-vent combustion, multiple 

sensor technologies, and electronic ignition and control. In the future, higher efficiency 

boilers may involve modulating burners, power venting, and electronic ignition.

• Most value-added components for condensing boilers are sourced abroad, even when 

the condensing boiler is assembled in North America (i.e. heat exchanger, gas valve, 

burner, blower systems, sensors, and/or controls). The market for boilers is primarily in 

retrofit applications.

29

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Hydronic Heating Systems (Boilers)
Final

30

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Room Air Conditioners

DATA

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed

Base

Current

Standard Typical ENERGYSTAR High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5

EER 9.8 9.8 9.8 10.8 11.5 11 13 12 13 12 13

Average Life (yrs) 9-13 9-13 9-13 9-13 9-13 9-13 9-13 9-13 9-13 9-13 9-13

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 230-

300

230-

300

230-

300

250-

320

400-

470

250-

320

480-

550

250-

320

480-

550

250-

320

480-

550

Total Installed Cost ($) 230-

300

230-

300

230-

300

250-

320

400-

470

250-

320

480-

550

250-

320

480-

550

250-

320

480-

550

Annual Maintenance Cost ($)* - - - - - - - - - - -

* Annual Maintenance Cost is negligible

Higher efficiencies than ref. case
Final

• The residential room air conditioners analyzed in this study are window room air 

conditioners.

• The ENERGY STAR criteria requires an EER of 10.8, which also represents the most 

common efficiency on the market.

• According to the AHAM Directory of Certified Products, the most efficient product on 

the market has an EER of 11.5. Based on the DOE Building Technologies Program (BTP) 

R&D, it is anticipated that units may reach an EER of 13.0 by 2030.

• A wider range of costs reflects a variation in the marketplace

• It is assumed that the homeowners will install their own room air conditioner.

• Efficiency improvements are attained by:

— Higher efficiency compressor and fan motors, and

— An increased heat transfer area in the evaporator and condenser through the use of 

larger heat exchangers, finer fin spacing, micro-channel heat exchangers, and 

similar design options. 

• According to the ACEEE – AHAM Consensus Agreement, the Federal standards will 

be updated in 2014 from 9.8 to 11.0

31

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Room Air Conditioners
Final

Since the last analysis was performed in 2007, there has been a 

decrease in room air conditioner shipments. 

32

Shipment Data » Residential Room Air Conditioners

Air-Conditioners, Room

5,000,000

6,000,000

7,000,000

8,000,000

9,000,000

10,000,000

11,000,000

20002001200220032004200520062007200820092010

Unit Shipments, Excluding Exports

Year

Source: Appliance Magazine 2010, U.S. Appliance Shipment Statistics 

Monthly: January 2011
Final

33

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Central Air Conditioners

DATA

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed

Base

Current

Standard Typical ENERGYSTAR High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36

SEER 10.2 13 13.7 14.5 24 14 24 15 26 16 26

Average Life (yrs) 14-19 14-19 14-19 14-19 14-19 14-19 14-19 14-19 14-19 14-19 14-19

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 1000-

1500

2000-

2500

2050-

3750

2500-

4200

6500-

13500

2500-

4200

6500-

13500

2500-

4200

6500-

13500

2500-

4200

6500-

13500

Total Installed Cost ($) 2500-

2700

2500-

3500

2550-

4750

3000-

5200

7000-

14500

4000-

6200

8000-

15000

4000-

6200

8000-

15000

4000-

6200

8000-

15000

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 20-120 20-120 20-120 20-120 20-120 20-120 20-120 20-120 20-120 20-120 20-120

Higher efficiencies for high efficiency units
Final

• The current NAECA minimum SEER is 13.0.

• The ENERGY STAR criteria is 14.5 SEER and 12 EER for split systems, which is close to 

the efficiency of the typical product on the market.

• Energy efficiency is driven by several factors:

— Heat exchanger (surface area, number of tube rows, tube & fin vs. micro-channel)

— Compressor choices (i.e., type of compressor and single-stage vs. two-stage vs. 

variable-speed operation)

— Fan motor choices (PSC vs. ECM fan motors on inside and outside)

— Control choices (i.e., piston, TXV, or EEV expansion devices)

As an example, above 16 SEER, units typically have very large heat exchangers, an ECM 

evaporator fan motor and a two-stage scroll compressor. 

• Variable-speed compressor technology typically leads to a significant SEER boost, but 

does not affect the EER. Manufacturers have used the SEER boost to develop high-SEER 

condensing units with smaller enclosures. 

• The high efficiency units currently available use an evaporator ECM fan motor and have 

modulating capacity.

• Efficiency levels beyond 21 SEER are made possible through combining existing large 

heat exchangers with variable-speed compressors, ECM fan motors, and EEVs.

34

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Central Air Conditioners
Final

35

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Air Source Heat Pumps

DATA

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed

Base

Current

Standard Typical ENERGYSTAR High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36

HSPF (Heating) 6.8 8 8 8.2 10.7 8.1 11 8.3 12 8.5 12

SEER (Cooling) 10 14 14 14.5 22 14.2 23 15 24 15.3 25

Average Life (yrs) 14-16 14-16 14-16 14-16 14-16 14-16 14-16 14-16 14-16 14-16 14-16

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 3500-

4000

4000-

4500

4000-

4500

5500-

6000

7000-

7500

4000-

4500

7040-

7290

3940-

4140

6500-

6750

3940-

4140

6300-

6800

Total Installed Cost ($) 4500-

5500

5000-

6000

5000-

6000

6500-

7500

8000-

10000

5000-

6000

7130-

9780

4900-

5100

6800-

10000

4900-

5100

6525-

11225

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120

Higher efficiency and lower costs than ref. case
Final

• The NAECA minimum HSPF is 7.7 and the minimum SEER is 13.

• The ENERGY STAR criteria states a minimum HSPF of 8.2 and a minimum SEER of 

14.5.

• Heat pumps are generally sized to meet the cooling load of the house. When the heating 

load exceeds heat pump heating capacity, resistance heat is supplemented; however, 

when the heating capacity exceeds the heating load, the heat pump starts and stops 

more frequently, causing wear and tear on the components and an overall loss of 

efficiency. Multi-stage and/or variable-speed compressors can help, as does 

sophisticated refrigerant management.

• High efficiency cooling does not necessarily lead to high efficiency heating. The range of 

SEER/HSPF combinations is very broad.

36

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Air Source Heat Pumps
Final

37

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Ground Source Heat Pumps

DATA

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed

Base

Current

Standard Typical ENERGYSTAR High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36

COP (Heating) 3 3.1 3.1 3.5 4.3 3.5 5 3.6 5 3.7 5

EER (Cooling) 12 13.4 13.4 16.1 23 16.1 30 17.1 30 18 30

Average Life (yrs) 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 4000-

6000

4000-

6000

4000-

6000

5000-

7000

7000-

9000

3900-

5900

7000-

9000

3800-

5800

7000-

9000

3800-

5800

7000-

9000

Total Installed Cost ($) 9000-

11000

9000-

11000

9000-

11000

10000-

12000

12000-

14000

8900-

10900

12000-

14000

8800-

10800

12000-

14000

8800-

10800

12000-

14000

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70

Higher typical efficiencies and lower costs than ref. case
Final

• There are currently 19 ground source heat pump manufacturers in the US.

• Heating COP does not correlate with cooling EER (coefficient of determination, R2 = 

0.62). The highest efficiency GSHP is the Envision by WaterFurnace International, Inc. 

(30 EER & 5.0 COP).

• The ENERGY STAR® criteria for water-to-air ground source heat pumps are:

• The most common ground source heat pump is a closed-loop system in which water or 

an anti-freeze solution is circulated through plastic pipes buried underground. Open 

loop systems that employ ground water or surface water (e.g., open well, pond, lake) 

are used in some parts of the country, but water supply and water quality issues impose 

limitations on such applications.

• Installation cost is for a closed loop system and includes necessary accessories. The 

ground loop heat exchanger represents a majority of the installation cost.

• Electronically commutated motors (ECMs) improve performance on high end models.

38

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Ground Source Heat Pumps

Type

Tier 1 (12/1/2009) Tier 2 (1/1/2011) Tier 3 (1/1/2012)

Heating 

COP

Cooling 

EER

Heating 

COP

Cooling 

EER

Heating 

COP

Cooling 

EER

Closed Loop 3.3 14.1 3.5 16.1 3.6 17.1

Open Loop 3.6 16.2 3.8 18.2 4.1 21.1

Direct Expansion 3.5 15 3.6 16 3.6 16
Final

39

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Gas Heat Pumps

DATA

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed

Base

Current

Standard1 Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) 60 60 60 60 60 60

Heating (GCOP) 1.3 NA 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.5

Cooling (GCOP) 0.6 NA 0.6 0.7 0.75 0.75

Annual Electric Use (kWh/yr) 2000 2000 2000 1500 1500 1500

Average Life (yrs) 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 6500-7500 6500-7500 6500-7500 6400-7400 6300-7300 6300-7300

Total Installed Cost ($) 8500-9500 8500-9500 8500-9500 8400-9400 8300-9300 8300-9300

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 150 150 150 150 150 150

1NAECA does not cover residential gas heat pumps, but the CEC Title 24, Part 6 Section 112 does indicate 

minimum cooling efficiency for gas heat pumps.

Higher efficiencies and lower costs than ref. case
Final

• Residential Gas Heat Pumps are not currently covered by NAECA. CEC Title 24, Part 6 

Section 112 does indicate cooling efficiency requirements for gas heat pumps, and two 

residential size units are listed there; Robur and Yazaki. Both units are 5-ton cooling 

capacity, which is too big for all but larger homes. The Yazaki unit offers cooling only 

and appears to be available only in Europe at the moment. Since only one product is 

available, no mid-level or high efficiency categories are included.

• The data represents air-source absorption heat pumps. Gas engine-driven vapor 

compression heat pumps are available in other parts of the world; York formerly offered 

the Triathlon gas engine-driven heat pump in the US. It is possible to couple either 

technology to the ground (ground source) rather than the atmosphere (air source).

• The absorption heat pump is a gas-fired, ammonia-water absorption cycle, combined 

with a high-efficiency low-pressure boiler integrated into one outdoor unit.

• The cooling efficiency of a gas-fired air source absorption heat pump is considerably 

lower than for an electric air source heat pump. Heating efficiency of an air source heat 

pump (electric or gas-fired absorption) decreases as outdoor temperature decreases; 

however the gas-fired absorption heat pump recovers waste heat from the combustion 

process to improve heating efficiency.

• Gas-fired cooling equipment currently comprises less than 1% of the residential air 

conditioning/heat pump market.

40

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Gas Heat Pumps
Final

Since the last analysis was performed in 2007, there has been a 

decrease in both air source and ground source heat pump shipments. 

41

Shipment Data » Residential Heat Pumps

Heat Pumps

Source: Appliance Magazine 2010

1,200,000

1,300,000

1,400,000

1,500,000

1,600,000

1,700,000

1,800,000

1,900,000

2,000,000

2,100,000

2,200,000

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Unit Shipments, Excluding Exports

Year
Final

42

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Refrigerator / Freezer

DATA

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed

Base

Current

Standard Typical ENERGYSTAR High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Capacity (cu. ft.) 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6

Energy Consumption (kWh/yr) 840 453 475 408 285 475 285 408 285 408 285

Average Life (yrs) 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 200-

400

400-

500

400-

500

425-

525

800-

1200

400-

500

800-

1200

400-

500

800-

1200

400-

500

800-

1200

Total Installed Cost ($) 200-

500

400-

600

400-

600

425-

625

800-

1300

400-

600

800-

1300

400-

600

800-

1300

400-

600

800-

1300

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

Higher efficiencies for typical units than ref. case
Final

• The current NAECA standard for a typical top-mount refrigerator/freezers is 453 kWh/yr while the typical top-mount 

refrigerator/freezer currently consumes approximately 475 kWh/yr. The best available top-mount refrigerator/freezer 

uses 285 kWh/yr.

• According to NAECA standards, for a refrigerator/freezer to qualify as ENERGY STAR, it must be at least 20% more 

energy efficient than the minimum Federal government standard. This equates to an annual energy use of 

approximately 408 kWh/yr.

• EISA 2007 requires that DOE publish a final rule no later than December 31, 2010 to determine whether to amend the 

standards in effect for products manufactured on or after January 1, 2014.

• A wider range of costs reflects a variation in the marketplace

• Improvement opportunities include:

— Higher efficiency and/or variable-speed compressor systems

— Larger heat exchangers

— Permanent-magnet fan systems (vs. SPM and PSC fan motors)

— Demand defrost systems

— Vacuum-insulated panels

— Thicker insulation (though at a loss of consumer utility)

— Better gasketing

— Optimized refrigerants (Isobutane vs. R134a) and air temperature

— Magnetic refrigeration cycle (currently used in laboratory applications)

• All manufacturers are using at least some of these technologies in an attempt to reach ENERGY STAR qualification.

• According to the ACEEE – AHAM Consensus Agreement, the Joint Stakeholders agree to jointly petition DOE to 

initiate a rulemaking by January 1, 2012 to be completed by December 31, 2012 to revise the test procedure for 

refrigerators/freezers to incorporate measured ice maker energy use. Additionally, the Federal standards will be 

revised in 2014. For top-mount units without ice makers, the standard is represented by 7.35 AV+ 207.0 and for units 

with ice makers, the standard is represented by 7.65 AV+ 267.0, where AV is the adjusted volume.1

43

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Refrigerator / Freezer

1Adjusted Volume (AV) for refrigerators is calculated as follows: AV = (Fresh Volume) + 1.63 x (Freezer Volume). When the new rulemaking is published, 

the formula for AV will become: AV = (Fresh Volume) + 1.76 x (Freezer Volume).
Final

• This analysis focuses on top-mount refrigerator-freezers because they have the largest 

market share of all refrigerator-freezer product classes at 50.6%*. The market share for 

bottom- and side-mount refrigerator-freezers are as follows:

— Bottom-mount: 12.5%*

— Side-mount: 26.9 %*

• Top-mount refrigerator-freezers also have the greatest percent of total available units at 

20.9%. The percent of total available units for bottom- and side-mount refrigeratorfreezers are as follows:

— Bottom-mount: 18.8%

— Side-mount: 9.5%

• When looking at all product classes, the energy consumption ranges from 

approximately 790 kWh/yr** to 230 kWh/yr, with the typical energy consumption at the 

current standard level.

• There are also significant differences in average equipment cost across the product 

classes:

— Top-mount: $400-$1500

— Bottom-mount: $1700-$2100

— Side-mount: $1400-$1800

44

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Refrigerator / Freezer

* 2008 data

** A product operating at this level is less efficient than the current Federal standard

Sources: CEC, AHAM, Technical Support Document
Final

Since the last analysis was performed in 2007, there has been a 

decrease in standard residential refrigerator / freezer shipments. 

45

Shipment Data » Residential Refrigerator / Freezer

Refrigerators, Standard

8,000,000

8,500,000

9,000,000

9,500,000

10,000,000

10,500,000

11,000,000

11,500,000

20002001200220032004200520062007200820092010

Unit Shipments, Excluding Exports

Year

Source: Appliance Magazine 2010, U.S. Appliance Shipment Statistics 

Monthly: January 2011
Final

46

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Natural Gas Cooktops

DATA

2005 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) 9-12 9-12 9-12 9-12 9-12 9-12 9-12 9-12 9-12

Cooking Efficiency (%) 38 39.9 42 39.9 42 39.9 42 39.9 42

Average Life (yrs) 17-18 17-18 17-18 17-18 17-18 17-18 17-18 17-18 17-18

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 225-300 250-350 375-450 250-350 375-450 250-350 375-450 250-350 375-450

Total Installed Cost ($) 275-350 300-400 425-500 300-400 425-500 300-400 425-500 300-400 425-500

Annual Maintenance Cost ($)* - - - - - - - - -

* Annual Maintenance Cost is negligible

Same as Reference Case
Final

• In 1990, gas cooktops were no longer allowed to have a constantly burning pilot light. 

Thus gas cooktops with an electrical supply must have electronic ignition systems.

• Efficiency levels vary little for cooktops on the market.

• The typical model on the market has a cooking efficiency of 39.9% and the highest 

efficiency model on the market has a cooking efficiency of 42%.

47

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Natural Gas Cooktops
Final

Since the last analysis was performed in 2007, there has been a 

decrease in residential natural gas cooktop shipments. 

48

Shipment Data » Residential Natural Gas Cooktops

Cooktops, Gas

Data is unavailable for dates prior to 2007.

2,200,000

2,300,000

2,400,000

2,500,000

2,600,000

2,700,000

2,800,000

2007 2008 2009 2010

Unit Shipments, Exluding Exports

Year

Source: Appliance Magazine 2010, U.S. Appliance Shipment Statistics 

Monthly: January 2011
Final

49

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Clothes Washers

DATA

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed

Base

Current

Standard Typical ENERGYSTAR High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3) 3 3.2 3 2.7 3.5 2.7 3.5 2.7 3.5 2.7 3.5

Modified Energy Factor (ft3/kWh/cycle) 2 1.26 2 2 3.88 2.2 3.88 2.2 3.88 2.2 3.88

Average Life (yrs) 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15

Water Consumption (gal/cycle) 14 30 11 20 13 11 13 11 13 11 13

Hot Water Energy (kWh/cycle) 0.4 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4

Machine Energy (kWh/cycle) 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Dryer Energy (kWh/cycle) 0.7 1.0 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 550-

700

360-

440

550-

700

550-

700

800-

900

550-

700

850-

950

550-

700

850-

950

550-

700

850-

950

Total Installed Cost ($) 650-

800

460-

540

650-

800

650-

800

900-

1000

650-

800

950-

1050

650-

800

950-

1050

650-

800

950-

1050

Annual Maintenance Cost ($)* - - - - - - - - - - -

* Annual Maintenance Cost is negligible

Same as Reference Case
Final

• This analysis examined front-loading residential clothes washers. It should be noted 

that there are high efficiency top-loading residential clothes washers on the market as 

well, though front-loaders are inherently more efficient than top-loaders.

• The current standard for standard-size front-loading and top-loading clothes washers is 

a modified energy factor (MEF) of 1.26. The ENERGY STAR criteria is 2 MEF; however, 

the most common front-loading models on the market exceed the ENERGY STAR 

criteria and have a MEF of 2.2.

• Only clothes washers with capacities of greater than 1.6 ft3 are eligible to earn ENERGY 

STAR.

• Energy efficiency improvement opportunities include:

— Higher efficiency motors and higher spin speeds

— Better load sensing (soiling and size and type of load)

— Better controls / greater number of wash programs

— Use of nylon beads

• The annual maintenance cost for residential clothes washers is negligible.

• According to the ACEEE – AHAM Consensus Agreement, the Federal standards frontloading residential clothes washers will be updated in 2015 (and will remain current 

through the 2018 standard updates) to a MEF of 2.2 and a water factor (WF) of 4.5

50

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Clothes Washers
Final

Since the last analysis was performed in 2007, there has been a 

decrease in automatic residential clothes washer shipments. 

51

Shipment Data » Residential Clothes Washers

Washers, Automatic

7,000,000

7,500,000

8,000,000

8,500,000

9,000,000

9,500,000

10,000,000

20002001200220032004200520062007200820092010

Unit Shipments, Excluding Exports

Year

Source: Appliance Magazine 2010, U.S. Appliance Shipment Statistics 

Monthly: January 2011
Final

52

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Clothes Dryers

DATA

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed

Base

Current

Standard Typical MidLevel High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3) 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

EF (lb/kWh)

electric:

3.01

gas:

2.67

electric:

3.01

gas:

2.67

electric:

3.1

gas:

2.75

gas:

2.85

electric:

3.16

gas:

3.02

electric:

3.17

gas:

2.81

electric:

4.51

gas: 3.02

electric:

3.17

gas:

2.81

electric:

4.51

gas:

3.02

electric:

3.17

gas:

2.81

electric:

4.51

gas:

3.02

Average Life (yrs) 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19

Retail Equipment Cost ($)

electric:

400-500

gas:

450-550 

electric:

400-500

gas:

450-550 

electric:

450-550

gas:

550-600

gas:

650-750

electric:

550-650

gas:

850-950

electric:

450-550

gas:

550-600

electric:

650-750

gas:

850-950

electric:

450-550

gas:

550-600

electric:

650-750

gas:

850-950

electric:

450-550

gas:

550-600

electric:

650-750

gas:

850-950

Total Installed Cost ($)

electric:

500-600

gas:

600-700

electric:

500-600

gas:

600-700

electric:

675-775

gas:

700-800

gas:

800-900

electric:

700-800

gas:

950-1050

electric:

675-775

gas:

700-800

electric:

900-1000

gas:

950-1050

electric:

675-775

gas:

700-800

electric:

900-1000

gas:

950-1050

electric:

675-775

gas:

700-800

electric:

900-1000

gas:

950-1050

Annual Maintenance Cost ($)* - - - - - - - - - - -

* Annual Maintenance Cost is negligible

Same as Reference Case
Final

• The test procedure for residential clothes dryers was recently amended to include a new efficiency metric, 

combined energy factor (CEF), which adds a measure of standby/off-mode power. Although EF and CEF are 

both expressed in lbs/kWh of energy use, they can not be compared side-by-side since they are calculated 

differently. 

• There are both gas and electric models of clothes dryers on the market:

— For gas clothes dryers, the standard efficiency is 2.67 lb/kWh (CEF = 3.14 lb/kWh)

— For electric clothes dryers, the standard efficiency is 3.01 lb/kWh (CEF = 3.55 lb/kWh)

• Improvement opportunities include:

— Multi-step or modulating heat

— Higher efficiency drum motors

— Inlet air pre-heat

— Heat pump (for electric clothes dryers): heat pump residential clothes dryers, which operate much like a 

small air conditioner, are currently available in Europe and are anticipated to make it to the US market by 

2020.

— Better control systems for cycle termination (not reflected per the current test procedure, however)

— Using microwave technology

• No ENERGY STAR incentives currently exist to motivate manufacturers to adapt to existing energy efficiency 

opportunities. This is an especially important factor for heat pumps due to the high initial cost and the 

potential reliability issues. 

• The high electric clothes dryer EF value of 4.51 represents a product with heat pump technology, which is 

planned to enter the market around 2020.

• According to the ACEEE – AHAM Consensus Agreement, the Federal standards will be revised in 2015.

— For gas clothes dryers, the standard efficiency will be 2.81 lb/kWh (CEF = 3.30 lb/kWh)

— For electric clothes dryers, the standard efficiency will be 3.17 lb/kWh (CEF = 3.73 lb/kWh)

53

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Clothes Dryers
Final

Since the last analysis was performed in 2007, there has been a 

decrease in residential clothes dryer shipments.

54

Shipment Data » Residential Clothes Dryers

Dryers, Electric Dryers, Gas

5,000,000

5,200,000

5,400,000

5,600,000

5,800,000

6,000,000

6,200,000

6,400,000

6,600,000

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Unit Shipments, Excluding Exports

Year

1,200,000

1,300,000

1,400,000

1,500,000

1,600,000

1,700,000

1,800,000

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Unit Shipments, Excluding Exports

Year

Source: Appliance Magazine 2010, U.S. Appliance Shipment Statistics Monthly: January 2011
Final

55

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Dishwashers

DATA

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed

Base

Current

Standard Typical ENERGYSTAR High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Annual Use (kWh/yr) 720 355 355 324 190 355 175 353 166 353 156

Efficiency (cycle/kWh) 0.30 0.61 0.61 0.66 1.13 0.61 1.23 0.61 1.30 0.61 1.38

Annual Hot Water Energy Use (kWh/yr) 286 261 261 185 100 261 100 260 100 260 100

Average Life (yrs) 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 200-

300

200-

300

200-

300

300-

1200 900 200-300 800 200-300 800 200-300 800

Total Installed Cost ($) 300-

400

300-

400

300-

400

400-

1300 1200 300-400 1100 300-400 1100 300-400 1100

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) - - - - - - - - - - -

* Annual Maintenance Cost is negligible

Higher efficiencies and lower costs for high efficiency units
Final

• The current standard was established by the EISA 2007 amendments to EPCA and stipulates a 

maximum of 355 kWh/yr of energy use and 6.5 gal/cycle of water use for standard sized 

dishwashers, which typically handle eight place settings plus six serving pieces.

• The current ENERGY STAR qualifying criteria require a maximum of 324 kWh/yr of energy use and 

5.8 gal/cycle of water use for standard sized dishwashers.

• The most efficient dishwasher has an annual energy use of 190 kWh/yr, but at a high retail price and 

very small market share. Typical high efficiency units have an EF closer to the current standard.

• Dishwasher annual energy use is based on the U.S. DOE test procedure. This procedure is based on 

total energy use - including motor, dryer, booster heater (if present), and for hot water required from 

the water heater. The previous U.S. DOE test procedure was based on a usage estimate of 322 cycles 

per year, but as of September 2003 a new test procedure of 215 cycles per year was implemented.

• Efficiency improvement opportunities include:

— Better soil sensing in the water, the filter, and the controls to make use of that 

— Water distribution (small pipes, fine filter, small sump, alternating water use)

— Inline water heater (to minimize sump volume)

— High-efficiency, variable-speed pump motor

— Vent assembly to help drying of dishes

— Zeolithic drying

• According to the ACEEE – AHAM Consensus Agreement, the Federal standards will be revised in 

2013. The updated standard stipulates a maximum of 307 kwh/year and 5.0 gal/cycle of water use.

56

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Residential Dishwashers
Final

Since the last analysis was performed in 2007, there has been a 

decrease in residential dishwasher shipments.

57

Shipment Data » Residential Dishwashers

Dishwashers, Built-In

5,000,000

5,500,000

6,000,000

6,500,000

7,000,000

7,500,000

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Unit Shipments, Excluding Exports

Year

Source: Appliance Magazine 2010, U.S. Appliance Shipment Statistics 

Monthly: January 2011
Final

Higher efficiencies and lower costs than ref. case

58

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Gas-Fired Furnaces

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h)* 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400

Combustion Efficiency (%)** 76 77 80 80 82 80 90 80 93 80 93

Average Life (yrs) 15-20 15-20 15-20 15-20 15-20 15-20 15-20 15-20 15-20 15-20 15-20

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 1800-

2000

2000-

2400

2700-

2900

2700-

2900

2900-

3200

2700-

2900

3360-

3660

2700-

2900

4060-

4360

2700-

2900

3830-

4130

Total Installed Cost ($) 2800-

3000

3000-

3500

3050-

3275

3050-

3275

3275-

3625

3050-

3275

3735-

4035

3050-

3275

4205-

4505

3050-

3275

4435-

4735

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

*Capacity is input

** Gas furnaces less than 225,000 Btu/hr are rated by AFUE. Furnaces larger than 225,000 Btu/hr must been an 80% combustion efficiency.
Final

• EPACT standard for a gas-fired furnace is 80% combustion efficiency at maximum rated 

capacity.

• According to the U.S. DOE, combustion efficiency is a measure of how effectively the 

heat content of a fuel is transferred into usable heat.

• Commercial furnace efficiency ranges are as wide as those for residential and the 

technology options are similar (though usually scaled up).

• Besides scale, commercial units can differ in terms of the control system (i.e. integration 

with a Building Management System, twinning, or other staging strategies) and they 

may also use a heat recovery system to pre-heat inlet air.

• The maintenance cost is based on two cleanings per year.

59

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Gas-Fired Furnaces
Final

60

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Oil-Fired Furnaces

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current

Standard Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h)* 400 400 400 400 400 400 400

Thermal Efficiency (%) 81 81 81 82 82 82 82

Average Life (yrs) 17-20 17-20 17-20 17-20 17-20 17-20 17-20

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 3000-3600 3000-3600 3000-3600 3600-3700 3600-3700 3600-3700 3600-3700

Total Installed Cost ($) 3575-4125 3575-4125 3575-4125 4125-4225 4125-4225 4125-4225 4125-4225

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

* Capacity is input

Same as Reference Case
Final

• Commercial oil-fired furnaces with a capacity of 225,000 BTU/h or more must meet a 

thermal efficiency standard of 81% as stipulated in ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2007. The 

ASHRAE standard also mandates that furnaces that are not within the conditioned 

space must not have jacket losses that exceed 0.75% of the input rating.

• According to the U.S. DOE, thermal efficiency is interpreted as what is commonly 

known as “combustion efficiency” in other contexts, i.e., 100 percent minus percent flue 

loss

• The maintenance cost is based on two cleanings per year.

61

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Oil-Fired Furnaces
Final

62

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Electric Boilers

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (kW)* 165 165 165 165 165 165

Efficiency (%) 98 98 98 98 98 98

Average Life (yrs) 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 6000-7000 6000-7000 6000-7000 6000-7000 6000-7000 6000-7000

Total Installed Cost ($) 7500-9000 7500-9000 7500-9000 7500-9000 7500-9000 7500-9000

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 100-150 100-150 100-150 100-150 100-150 100-150

* Capacity is output

Same as Reference Case
Final

• There are currently no Federal standards associated with electric boilers.

• The costs shown are for one 165kW unit, which would equate to a steady load of 

approximately 550,000 Btu/hr.

• Service life is determined mainly by water quality. Water conditioning (e.g., filters, 

softeners, de-alkizers, chemical feeders) may be necessary for a given application. 

• Annual maintenance in a typical application would include draining the unit for 

removal of any accumulated scale or sludge buildup.

• Minor end-use inefficiencies for electric boilers result from heat loss through the boiler 

(jacket losses).

63

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Electric Boilers
Final

64

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Gas-Fired Boilers

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current

Standard Typical MidRange High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h)* 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800

Combustion Efficiency (%) 76 77 80 80 90 98 80 98 82 98 82 98

Average Life (yrs) 20-30 20-30 20-30 20-30 20-30 20-30 20-30 20-30 20-30 20-30 20-30 20-30

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 5000-

6000

7000-

9000

9000-

11000

9000-

11000

13500-

16500

22500-

27500

13500-

16500

22500-

27500

13500-

16500

22500-

27500

13500-

16500

22500-

27500

Total Installed Cost ($) 12000-

13000

14000-

16000

16000-

18000

16000-

18000

20500-

23500

29500-

34500

20500-

23500

29500-

34500

20500-

23500

29500-

34500

20500-

23500

29500-

34500

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 450 450 450 450 450 450 450 450 450 450 450 450

* Capacity is output

Same as Reference Case
Final

• The current requirement for gas-fired boilers is a minimum combustion efficiency of 

80% at the maximum rated capacity.

• Similar technologies to the those used in the residential market can be leveraged in the 

commercial arena. The higher efficiency units typically include electronic ignition, 

power burners, and improved heat exchangers. They may even condense and/or preheat incoming air.

• Since the last ASHRAE standard was published, ASHRAE has changed the metric for 

stating the efficiency of most classes of commercial boilers, excluding large oil hot water 

and large gas hot water boilers. Federal standards express efficiency in terms of 

combustion efficiency while efficiency levels in ASHRAE 90.1-2007 are expressed in 

terms of thermal efficiency. The thermal efficiency descriptor, as used in Standard 90.1-

2007, accounts for jacket losses as well as flue losses, while combustion efficiency only 

accounts for flue losses.

• Small, gas-fired, hot water, commercial packaged boilers (input capacity between 

300,000 and 2,500,000 Btu/hr) are the largest commercial packaged boiler equipment 

class in the market.

• The higher efficiency units typically include electronic ignition, power burners, and 

improved heat exchangers.

65

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Gas-Fired Boilers
Final

66

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Oil-Fired Boilers

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h)* 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200

Thermal Efficiency (%) 79 80 83 83.5 98 83.5 98 83.5 98 83.5 98

Average Life (yrs) 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 11000-

12000

11000-

12000

12300-

13400

12300-

13400

24000-

26000

12300-

13400

24000-

26000

12300-

13400

24000-

26000

12300-

13400

24000-

26000

Total Installed Cost ($) 15000-

16000

15000-

16000

16600-

17700

16600-

17700

30000-

35000

16600-

17700

30000-

35000

16600-

17700

30000-

35000

16600-

17700

30000-

35000

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 110-

155

110-

155

110-

155

110-

155

110-

155

110-

155

110-

155

110-

155

110-

155

110-

155

110-

155

* Capacity is output

Same as Reference Case
Final

• Commercial oil-fired boilers must meet a thermal efficiency standard of 83%.

• The higher efficiency units typically include improved heat exchangers, and multi-step 

or variable-output power burners.

• Since the last ASHRAE standard was published, ASHRAE has changed the metric for 

stating the efficiency of commercial boilers. Federal standards expresses efficiency in 

terms of combustion efficiency while efficiency levels in ASHRAE 90.1-2007 are 

expressed in terms of thermal efficiency. The thermal efficiency descriptor, as used in 

Standard 90.1-2007, accounts for jacket losses as well as flue losses, while combustion 

efficiency only accounts for flue losses.

67

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Oil-Fired Boilers
Final

68

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Gas-Fired Chillers1

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed

Base:

Absorption

Installed

Base:

Engine

-Driven

Installed

Base:

Absorption

Installed

Base:

Engine–

Driven

AbsorptionEngineDrivenAbsorptionEngineDrivenAbsorptionEngineDrivenAbsorptionEngineDriven

Typical Capacity (tons)* 150-

1500 400 150-1500 400 150-1500 400 150-1500 400 150-1500 400 150-1500 400

Efficiency (kW/ton2) 3.5 2.3 3.5 2.3 3.2 2.0 2.9 1.9 2.3 1.8 2.3 1.8

COP 1.0 1.5 1.0 1.5 1.1 1.8 1.2 1.9 1.5 2.0 1.5 2.0

Average Life (yrs) 23 25 23 25 23 25 23 25 23 25 23 25

Retail Equipment Cost ($/ton) 600-

750

700-

800

600-

750

700-

800

600-

750

700-

800

600-

750

700-

800

750-

900

700-

800

750-

900

700-

800

Total Installed Cost ($/ton) 750-

900

850-

950

750-

900

850-

950

750-

900

850-

950

750-

900

850-

950

900-

1150

850-

950

900-

1150

850-

950

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/ton) 15-30 35-45 15-30 35-45 15-30 35-45 15-30 35-45 15-30 35-45 15-30 35-45

1This analysis assumes a water-cooled chiller; both gas-fired chiller types (absorption and engine-driven) are shown.

2This is merely the cooling COP expressed in units of kW/ton for comparison to an electric chiller in terms of site efficiency; it does not 

represent the electrical consumption of the gas-fired chiller.

Higher efficiencies and costs than ref. case

* Capacity is output
Final

• Gas-fired chillers are available as either air-cooled (~25-50 tons) or water-cooled (150+ 

tons). This analysis includes only water-cooled chillers. Two direct-fired gas chiller 

technologies are in the market; absorption and engine-driven.

• Direct gas firing provides high enough temperatures to operate double effect absorption 

chillers, which operate at a 50-60% higher COP than single effect absorption chillers. 

Triple effect absorption chillers are expected to boost cooling COP another 50% beyond 

that of a double effect chiller. Prototype direct-fired triple effect absorption chillers 

have been tested by York and Trane, but are not commercially available. Some 

absorption chillers can be operated in reverse to provide heating; these are referred to as 

chiller/heaters.

• Gas-fired engine-driven chillers pair conventional vapor compression technologies 

(typically screw or centrifugal compressors) with natural gas powered reciprocating 

engines. Gas-fired engine-driven chillers exhibit higher peak cooling COP than 

absorbers, and engine modulation results in even better part load performance. 

Incremental efficiency improvements may be expected for engine driven chillers. 

Engine driven chillers allow the opportunity to recover waste heat on site for useful 

purposes. 

69

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Gas-Fired Chillers
Final

70

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Centrifugal Chillers

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Typical2 Mid3 High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity 

(tons)* 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350

Efficiency [fullload/IPLV] (kW/ton1

)

0.70 / 

0.67

0.70 / 

0.67

0.58 / 

0.55

0.56 / 

0.45

0.48 / 

0.39

0.56 / 

0.43

0.46 / 

0.36

0.56 / 

0.41

0.46 / 

0.36

0.56 / 

0.41

0.46 / 

0.36

COP [full-load/IPLV] 1 5.0 / 

5.2

5.0 / 

5.2

6.1 / 

6.4

6.3 / 

7.8

7.3 / 

9.0

6.3 / 

8.2

7.6 / 

9.7

6.3 / 

8.6

7.6 / 

9.7

6.3 / 

8.6

7.6 / 

9.7

Average Life (yrs) 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment 

Cost ($/ton)

250-

350

250-

350

250-

350

300-

400

400-

500

300-

400

400-

500

300-

400

400-

500

300-

400

400-

500

Total Installed Cost 

($/ton)

300-

450

300-

450

300-

450

350-

500

450-

600

350-

500

450-

600

350-

500

450-

600

350-

500

450-

600

Annual Maintenance 

Cost ($/ton) 15-30 15-30 15-30 15-30 15-30 15-30 15-30 15-30 15-30 15-30 15-30

1COP and kW/ton efficiencies listed are for full load rated conditions as well as integrated part load value (IPLV), which is 

more indicative of annual performance.

22010 typical efficiency based on ASHRAE 90.1-2007.

32010 mid efficiency based on FEMP recommendations.

Higher efficiencies than ref. case

* Capacity is output
Final

• For most chiller applications the seasonal performance (represented by the integrated 

part-load value; IPLV) is more indicative of performance than the full-load performance 

at rated conditions. The IPLV does not necessarily correlate well to the full-load 

efficiency, so both efficiency parameters are listed in the comparison table.

• The ASHRAE 90.1-2007 minimum efficiency requirements for centrifugal chillers 

greater than 300 tons capacity are the same as for 90.1-2004 (COP=6.10 full-load; 

COP=6.40 IPLV). 

• The Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) recommends a full -load efficiency 

of 0.56 or less kW/ton for base-loaded chillers or an integrated part-load value efficiency 

of 0.45 kW/ton for chillers with seasonally variable loads.

• The highest efficiency centrifugal chillers incorporate some of the following:

— Variable speed compressors

— greater heat exchanger surface areas; enhanced tube configurations (counterflow)

— Optimized fluid flow velocities

— High efficiency electric motors

— Improved turbomachinery design, resulting in higher compressor efficiency

— Better piping and valving, including electronic expansion valves

— Evaporative condenser for the heat rejection equipment

• Installed costs vary widely depending on equipment needed for installation (e .g. crane) 

and size of system. This is a mature market with centrifugal chillers representing 75% of 

commercial chiller sales larger than 200 tons.

71

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Centrifugal Chillers
Final

72

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reciprocating Chillers

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Typical2 Mid3 High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity 

(tons)

100-

200

100-

200 100-200 100-200 100-200 100-200 100-200 100-200 100-200 100-200 100-200

Efficiency [fullload/IPLV] (kW/ton1

)

1.26 / 

1.15

1.26 / 

1.15

1.26 / 

1.15

1.23 / 

0.90

1.00 / 

0.80

1.23 / 

0.90

1.00 / 

0.80

1.23 / 

0.90

1.00 / 

0.80

1.23 / 

0.90

1.00 / 

0.80

COP [full-load/IPLV] 1 2.80 / 

3.05

2.80 / 

3.05

2.80 / 

3.05

2.86 / 

3.91

3.52 / 

4.40

2.86 / 

3.91

3.52 / 

4.40

2.86 / 

3.91

3.52 / 

4.40

2.86 / 

3.91

3.52 / 

4.40

Average Life (yrs) 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Retail Equipment 

Cost ($/ton)

400-

500

400-

500 400-500 450-550 500-600 450-550 500-600 450-550 500-600 450-550 500-600

Total Installed Cost 

($/ton)

475-

600

475-

600 475-600 525-650 575-700 525-650 575-700 525-650 575-700 525-650 575-700

Annual Maintenance 

Cost ($/ton) 25-40 25-40 25-40 25-40 25-40 25-40 25-40 25-40 25-40 25-40 25-40

1COP and kW/ton efficiencies listed are for full load rated conditions as well as integrated part load value (IPLV), which is more indicative of annual 

performance.

22010 typical efficiency based on ASHRAE 90.1-2007.

32010 mid efficiency based on FEMP recommendations.

Same as Reference Case
Final

• For most chiller applications the seasonal performance (represented by the integrated 

part-load value; IPLV) is more indicative of performance than the full-load performance 

at rated conditions. The IPLV does not necessarily correlate well to the full-load 

efficiency, so both efficiency parameters are listed in the comparison table.

• Reciprocating chillers are most cost effective for small loads. Reciprocating chiller 

market share continues to be supplanted by screw chiller market share.

• Reciprocating chillers can be used in either air-cooled or water cooled applications. 

Reciprocating chillers shown in the data are air-cooled. Air-cooled chillers are less 

efficient than the water-cooled models. Listed efficiencies include matched condensers 

and their associated energy use (as required for compliance with ASHRAE 90.1-2010).

• The ASHRAE 90.1-2007 minimum efficiency requirements for air-cooled reciprocating 

chillers are the same as for 90.1-2004 (COP=2.80 full-load; COP=3.05 IPLV). 

• The most recent Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) recommendations for 

reciprocating chillers (published 11/03) include a full -load efficiency of 1.23 or less 

kW/ton for base-loaded chillers or an integrated part-load value efficiency of 0.90 

kW/ton for chillers with seasonally variable loads.

• The highest efficiency reciprocating chillers incorporate some of the following:

— Multiple compressors for staged capacity control

— Improved heat-exchangers

73

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reciprocating Chillers
Final

74

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Screw Chillers

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Typical2 Mid3 High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity 

(tons)* 100-300 100-300 100-300 100-300 100-300 100-300 100-300 100-300 100-300 100-300 100-300

Efficiency [fullload/IPLV] 

(kW/ton1)

1.26 / 

1.15

1.26 / 

1.15

1.26 / 

1.15

1.22 / 

0.94

0.94 / 

0.79

1.20 / 

0.90

0.94 / 

0.79

1.10 / 

0.85

0.94 / 

0.79

1.10 / 

0.85

0.94 / 

0.79

COP [fullload/IPLV] 12.80 / 

3.05

2.80 / 

3.05

2.80 / 

3.05

2.88 / 

3.74

3.02 / 

4.45

2.93 / 

3.91

3.02 / 

4.45

3.20 / 

4.14

3.02 / 

4.45

3.20 / 

4.14

3.02 / 

4.45

Average Life (yrs) 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Retail Equipment 

Cost ($/ton) 300-400 300-400 300-400 350-450 400-500 350-450 400-500 350-450 400-500 350-450 400-500

Total Installed 

Cost ($/ton) 375-500 375-500 375-500 400-525 450-575 400-525 450-575 400-525 450-575 400-525 450-575

Annual 

Maintenance Cost 

($/ton)

10-50 10-50 10-50 10-50 10-50 10-50 10-50 10-50 10-50 10-50 10-50

1COP and kW/ton efficiencies listed are for full load rated conditions as well as integrated part load value (IPLV), which is more indicative of 

annual performance.

22010 typical efficiency based on ASHRAE 90.1-2007.

32010 mid efficiency based on FEMP recommendations.

Higher typical efficiencies than ref. case

* Capacity is output
Final

• For most chiller applications the seasonal performance (represented by the integrated 

part-load value; IPLV) is more indicative of performance than the full-load performance 

at rated conditions. The IPLV does not necessarily correlate well to the full-load 

efficiency, so both efficiency parameters are listed in the comparison table.

• Screw chillers are available from ~50-1100 tons but are most cost effective for small 

(<300 tons) loads. Screw chillers dominate the current market for small to mid-size 

chillers.

• Screw chillers can be used in either air-cooled or water cooled applications. Screw 

chillers shown in the data are air-cooled. Air-cooled chillers are less efficient than the 

water-cooled models. Listed efficiencies include matched condensers and their 

associated energy use (as required for compliance with ASHRAE 90.1-2010).

• The ASHRAE 90.1-2007 minimum efficiency requirements for air-cooled screw chillers 

are the same as for 90.1-2004 (COP=2.80 full-load; COP=3.05 IPLV). 

• The most recent Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) recommendations for 

150+ ton screw chillers (published 12/10) include a full -load efficiency of 1.22 or less 

kW/ton for base-loaded chillers or an integrated part-load value efficiency of 0.94 

kW/ton for chillers with seasonally variable loads. 

• The highest efficiency screw chillers incorporate some of the following:

— Variable speed compressors and/or multiple compressors

— Improved heat-exchangers

75

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Screw Chillers
Final

76

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Scroll Chillers

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (tons)* 20-140 20-140 20-140 20-140 20-140 20-140

Efficiency [full-load/IPLV] (kW/ton1)

1.26 / 

1.15

1.26 / 

1.15 1.19/0.80 1.19/0.80 1.19/0.80 1.19/0.80

COP [full-load/IPLV] 1 2.80 / 

3.05

2.80 / 

3.05 2.96/4.40 2.96/4.40 2.96/4.40 2.96/4.40

Average Life (yrs) 20 20 20 20 20 20

Retail Equipment Cost ($/ton) 300-400 300-400 350-450 350-450 350-450 350-450

Total Installed Cost ($/ton) 400-500 400-500 450-550 450-550 450-550 450-550

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/ton) 35-50 35-50 35-50 35-50 35-50 35-50

1COP and kW/ton efficiencies listed are for full load rated conditions as well as integrated part load value (IPLV), which is 

more indicative of annual performance.

Same as Reference Case

* Capacity is output
Final

• For most chiller applications the seasonal performance (represented by the integrated 

part-load value; IPLV) is more indicative of performance than the full-load performance 

at rated conditions. The IPLV does not necessarily correlate well to the full-load 

efficiency, so both efficiency parameters are listed in the comparison table.

• Scroll chillers can be used in either air-cooled or water cooled applications. Scroll 

chillers shown in the data are air-cooled, which is most common. Air-cooled chillers are 

less efficient than the water-cooled models. Listed efficiencies include matched 

condensers and their associated energy use (as required for compliance with ASHRAE 

90.1-2010).

• The most recent Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) recommendations for 

<150 ton scroll chillers (published 12/10) include a full -load efficiency of 1.19 or less 

kW/ton for base-loaded chillers or an integrated part-load value efficiency of 0.80 

kW/ton for chillers with seasonally variable loads. 

• The highest efficiency screw chillers incorporate some of the following:

— Multiple compressors for staged capacity control

— Improved heat-exchangers

77

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Scroll Chillers
Final

78

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Rooftop Air Conditioners

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current

Standard Typical MidRange High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h)* 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90

Efficiency (EER) 9.2 10.1 11.2 11.2 12.7 13.9 11.2 13.9 11.2 13.9 11.2 13.9

Average Life (yrs) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 3300-

4500

4000-

5100

5500-

6500

5500-

6500

7000-

8000

20000-

21000

4900-

5900

14875-

15875

4900-

5900

14875-

15875

4900-

5900

14875-

15875

Total Installed Cost ($) 5000-

6200

5700-

7000

7500-

8500

7500-

8500

9000-

10000

22000-

24000

6900-

7900

20700-

22900

6900-

7900

20700-

22900

6900-

7900

20700-

22900

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 150-

300

150-

300

150-

300

150-

300

150-

300

150-

300

150-

300

150-

300

150-

300

150-

300

150-

300

150-

300

Lower costs than ref. case

* Capacity is input
Final

• Effective January 1, 2010, the minimum efficiency standards for commercial rooftop air 

conditioners are as follows:

• Above, two EERs are listed. The first refers to systems with electric resistance heat or no 

heating, and the second refers to systems with all other heating system types that are 

integrated into the unitary equipment.

• This analysis examined 90,000 BTU/h (7.5 ton), cooling only units.

• The high efficiency unit includes a variable capacity digital scroll compressor, which 

saves energy during off-design hours, approximately 17% annual energy savings over a 

typical unit.

• Future increases in efficiency will result from the inclusion of more efficient 

compressors, larger heat exchanges, further advances in enhanced heat exchanger 

surfaces, and through the use of evaporative coolers.

79

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Rooftop Air Conditioners

Air-Cooled Products Efficiency Standards

≥ 65 - < 135 kBtu/h 11.2/11.0 EER

≥ 135 - < 240 kBtu/h 11.0/10.8 EER
Final

80

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Gas-Fired Engine-Driven Rooftop Air 

Conditioners

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (tons) 25 25 11 11 11 11

Heating COP NA NA 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4

Cooling COP 0.7 0.7 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1

Average Life (yrs) 30 30 30 30 30 30

Retail Equipment Cost 

($/ton) 775-835 775-835 775-835 775-835 775-835 775-835

Total Installed Cost ($/ton) 1200-1300 1200-1300 1200-1300 1200-1300 1200-1300 1200-1300

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 55 55 55 55 55 55

* Capacity is output

Same as Reference Case
Final

• The only gas-fired engine-driven rooftop unit currently available in the US market is by 

Nextaire (an Aisin Seiki product line). It is an 11 ton heat pump with dual scroll 

compressors, variable refrigerant flow, and a variable speed supply fan. Engine coolant 

heat recovery improves the heating mode COP. This heat pump was introduced in 

2010.

• There are currently no Federal requirements on gas-fired engine-driven rooftop air 

conditioners or heat pumps.

• Annual sales of the engine-driven rooftop heat pump are estimated at less than 5,000 

units per year.

81

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Gas-Fired Engine-Driven Rooftop Air 

Conditioners
Final

Since the last analysis was performed in 2007, there has been a 

decrease in unitary (rooftop) air conditioner shipments. 

82

Shipment Data » Commercial Rooftop Air Conditioners

Air-Conditioners, Unitary

This data includes both residential and commercial units. It should be noted that the vast 

majority of rooftop air conditioners are residential, not commercial. 

3,000,000

3,500,000

4,000,000

4,500,000

5,000,000

5,500,000

6,000,000

6,500,000

7,000,000

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Unit Shipments, Excluding Exports

Year

Source: Appliance Magazine 2010, U.S. Appliance Shipment Statistics 

Monthly: January 2011
Final

83

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Rooftop Heat Pumps

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h)* 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90

Efficiency (EER) 9.3 9.8 11.0/10.8* 11.0 12.0 11 13 11 15 11 15

COP (Heating) 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.8

Average Life (yrs) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 3500-

4500

4000-

5000

5000-

6000

5000-

6000

5500-

6500

5000-

6000

6000-

7000

5000-

6000

6900-

7900

5000-

6000

6300-

7300

Total Installed Cost ($) 5000-

6500

6000-

7100

6500-

7300

6500-

7300

7900-

9500

6500-

7300

8400-

9400

6500-

7300

9300-

10300

6500-

7300

8700-

9700

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 100-

150

100-

150

100-

150

100-

150

100-

150

100-

150

100-

150

100-

150

100-

150

100-

150

100-

150

Higher efficiencies and higher cost than ref. case

* Capacity is output

** The first EER refers to systems with electric resistance heat or no heating, and the second refers to systems with all other heating system types 

that are integrated into the unitary equipment.
Final

• Effective January 1, 2010, the minimum efficiency standards for commercial rooftop 

heat pumps are as follows:

• Above, two EERs are listed. The first refers to systems with electric resistance heat or no 

heating, and the second refers to systems with all other heating system types that are 

integrated into the unitary equipment.

• Installed costs vary widely depending on size of building and unit for retrofit 

applications.

84

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Rooftop Heat Pumps

Air-Cooled Products Efficiency Standards

≥ 65 - < 135 kBtu/h 11.0./10.8 EER

3.3 COP @470F

≥ 135 - < 240 kBtu/h 10.6/10.4 EER

3.2 COP @470F
Final

85

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Ground Source Heat Pumps

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h)* 80-100 80-100 80-100 80-100 80-100 80-100 80-100 80-100 80-100 80-100

COP (Heating) 3.4 3.5 3.5 4.9 3.5 4.9 3.5 4.9 3.5 4.9

EER (Cooling) 13.8 14 14 27.8 14 27.8 14 27.8 14 27.8

Average Life (yrs) 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 7000-

8000

7000-

8000

7000-

8000

10000-

12000

7000-

8000

10000-

12000

7000-

8000

10000-

12000

7000-

8000

10000-

12000

Total Installed Cost ($) 14000-

15000

14000-

15000

14000-

15000

17000-

20000

12000-

13000

15000-

17000

12000-

13000

15000-

17000

12000-

13000

15000-

17000

Annual Maintenance Cost (¢/sqft) 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15

Lower installed costs than ref. case

* Capacity is output
Final

• There is no Federal standard for commercial ground source heat pumps.

• Commercial design applications vary in size, style, and configuration.

• The most common ground source heat pump is a closed-loop system in which water or 

an anti-freeze solution is circulated through plastic pipes buried underground. Openloop systems employ groundwater, or surface water such as a pond or lake, but water 

supply and water quality issues impose limitations on such applications.

• Input and output ratios (i.e., efficiencies) of a given machine change with different 

entering water temperatures, air flow rates, water flow rates, and relative humidity.

• Useful life is based on the expected life of the compressor. Replacement cost would be 

less than installed cost, since the ground loop is already in place and would have a 

useful life much longer than the compressor. A closed-loop system can last up to 50 

years.

• There is an expectation that large, central facilities are used in commercial buildings. 

This is not always the case. Distributed, small units with zonal ducting and controls are 

almost always more efficient and less expensive.

• Adoption of commercial ground source heat pumps is slow due to the high initial cost.

86

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Ground Source Heat Pumps
Final

87

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Electric Resistance Heaters

DATA

2010 2020 2030 2035

Small Large Small Large Small Large Small Large

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h)* 17 170 17 170 17 170 17 170

Efficiency (%) 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98

Average Life (yrs) 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 500-

700

3400-

3800

500-

700

3400-

3800

500-

700

3400-

3800

500-

700

3400-

3800

Total Installed Cost ($) 600-

800

3500-

3900

600-

800

3500-

3900

600-

800

3500-

3900

600-

800

3500-

3900

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) ** - - - - - - - -

* *Annual Maintenance Cost is negligible

Same as Reference Case

* Capacity is output
Final

• This analysis examined electric unit heaters

• Electric unit heaters range in capacity from 14 to 170 kBtu/hr, with 17 and 170 kBtu/hr 

being the most typical units on the market

• Electric resistance heaters are considered 100% efficient because there is no heat loss 

through ducts or combustion. For this analysis, the efficiency is 98% to account for IR 

losses and fan inefficiency.

• Installation time and costs are estimated to be minimal

88

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Electric Resistance Heaters
Final

89

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Gas-Fired Water Heaters

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (gal) 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Typical Input Capacity (kBTU/h) 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200

Thermal Efficiency (%) 77 78 80 80 96 80 96 80 99 80 99

Average Life (yrs) 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 2800-

4200

3000-

4500

3500-

4500

3500-

4500

5000-

6500

3500-

4500

5000-

6500

3500-

4500

5000-

6500

3500-

4500

5000-

6500

Total Installed Cost ($) 3200-

4700

3500-

5000

4000-

5000

4000-

5000

5500-

7000

4000-

5000

5500-

7000

4000-

5000

5500-

7000

4000-

5000

5500-

7000

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 100-

200

100-

200

100-

200

100-

200

100-

200

100-

200

100-

200

100-

200

100-

200

100-

200

100-

200

Higher efficiencies for high efficiency units
Final

• Commercial gas-fired water heaters with a capacity of 75,000 BTU/h or more must meet 

a thermal efficiency standard of 80% as stipulated in ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2007. 

• Baseline units are constructed quite similarly to residential units, though typically at 

higher storage and/or input capacities. 

• High-efficiency, integrated commercial storage water heaters feature condensing heat 

exchangers , consisting of either stainless or enameled tubing and an inducer fan system 

or power burner. Other designs incorporate an external heating module with a storage 

tank assembly. Either design approach can yield a condensing appliance. 

• Maintenance for water heaters consists of sediment and scale removal once or twice per 

year. Estimated cost for a gas water heater would be $100 per year for one cleaning 

performed by a plumber.

90

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Gas-Fired Water Heaters
Final

Since the last analysis was performed in 2007, there has been a 

decrease in commercial gas-fired water heater shipments. 

91

Shipment Data » Commercial Gas-Fired Water Heaters

Commercial Water Heaters, Gas

70,000

75,000

80,000

85,000

90,000

95,000

100,000

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Unit Shipments, Excluding Exports

Year

Source: Appliance Magazine 2010, U.S. Appliance Shipment Statistics 

Monthly: January 2011
Final

92

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Electric Resistance Water Heaters

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current

Standard Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (gal) 120 120 120 120 120 120 120

Typical Capacity (kW) 45 45 45 45 45 45 45

Thermal Efficiency (%) 98 98 98 98 98 98 98

Average Life (yrs) 14 14 14 14 14 14 14

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 3400-5300 3400-5300 3400-5300 3400-5300 3400-5300 3400-5300 3400-5300

Total Installed Cost ($) 4000-6000 4000-6000 4000-6000 4000-6000 4000-6000 4000-6000 4000-6000

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

Same as Reference Case
Final

• The EPACT standard will remain in effect for electric water heaters.

• The most efficient units on the market include an electric booster element as backup.

93

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Electric Resistance Water Heaters
Final

Since the last analysis was performed in 2007, there has been a 

decrease in commercial electric resistance water heater shipments. 

94

Shipment Data » Commercial Electric Resistance Water Heaters

Commercial Water Heaters, Electric

40,000

45,000

50,000

55,000

60,000

65,000

70,000

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Unit Shipments, Excluding Exports

Year

Source: Appliance Magazine 2010, U.S. Appliance Shipment Statistics 

Monthly: January 2011
Final

95

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Oil-Fired Water Heaters

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current

Standard Typical MidRange High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (gal) 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70

Typical Input Capacity (kBTU/h) 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

Thermal Efficiency (%) 78 79 78 80 82 85 80 85 80 85 80 85

Average Life (yrs) 12-20 12-20 12-20 12-20 12-20 12-20 12-20 12-20 12-20 12-20 12-20 12-20

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 4100 4150 4100 4200 4300 4400 4200 4400 4200 4400 4200 4400

Total Installed Cost ($) 4600 4650 4600 4700 4800 4900 4700 4900 4700 4900 4700 4900

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) 100-

200

100-

200

100-

200

100-

200

100-

200

100-

200

100-

200

100-

200

100-

200

100-

200

100-

200

100-

200

Same as Reference Case
Final

• Commercial oil-fired water heaters with a capacity of 105,000 BTU/h or more must meet 

a thermal efficiency standard of 78% as stipulated in ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2007.

• Condensing commercial water heaters do not exist, the highest attainable efficiency 

with oil-fired storage water heaters is thus about 86% TE.

• Maintenance for commercial oil-fired water heaters consists of sediment and scale 

removal once or twice per year.

96

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Oil-Fired Water Heaters
Final

97

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/hr)

180-

230

180-

230

180-

230

180-

230

180-

230

180-

230

180-

230

180-

230

180-

230

180-

230

180-

230

Thermal Efficiency (%) 76 77 80 84 85 84 90 84 92 84 92

Average Life (yrs) 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 500-

750

600-

850

800-

1000

1250-

1300

1350-

1450

1250-

1300

1350-

1450

1250-

1300

1350-

1450

1250-

1300

1350-

1450

Total Installed Cost ($) 650-

900

750-

1000

900-

1250

1500-

1800

1600-

2000

1500-

1800

1600-

2000

1500-

1800

1600-

2000

1500-

1800

1600-

2000

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) - - - - - - - - - - -

* Annual Maintenance Cost is negligible

Higher efficiencies for high efficiency units
Final

• Commercial gas-fired instantaneous water heaters with a capacity of 200,000 BTU/h or 

more must meet a thermal efficiency standard of 80% as stipulated in ASHRAE 

Standard 90.1-2007.

• Commercial instantaneous systems use similar technologies for improving energy 

efficiency as residential systems; however, unlike condensing residential systems, 

condensing commercial systems typically do not use multiple heat exchangers.

• Depending on the manufacturer, input ratings for condensing systems usually top out 

at 800,000 BTU/h, requiring the use of multiple units for staging purposes; however, 

there are reliability, comfort, and efficiency benefits to staging multiple units.

• When replacing a storage water heater with an instantaneous water heater, there may 

be significant additional costs to upsize the gas supply line and change the venting.

• Using multiple water heaters located at the source improves the efficiency of the system, 

but at a higher installed cost. Each smaller, point-of-use electric instantaneous water 

heater retails for approximately $150-$250. They typically have a storage capacity of 2-7 

gallons.

98

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters
Final

99

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Electric Booster Water Heaters

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (kBtu/hr) 100-200 100-200 100-200 100-200 100-200 100-200

Thermal Efficiency (%) 98 98 98 98 98 98

Average Life (yrs) 3-8 3-8 3-8 3-8 3-8 3-8

Retail Equipment Cost ($) 1200-1500 1200-1500 1200-1500 1200-1500 1200-1500 1200-1500

Total Installed Cost ($) 1400-1700 1400-1700 1400-1700 1400-1700 1400-1700 1400-1700

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) * - - - - - -

* Annual Maintenance Cost is negligible

Same as Reference Case
Final

100

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Gas Booster Water Heaters

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity 

(kBtu/hr)

100-

200

100-

200 100-200 100-200

100-

200

100-

200

100-

200 100-200 100-200

100-

200 100-200

Thermal 

Efficiency (%) 79 79 80 80 90 82 92 85 95 85 95

Average Life (yrs) 3-8 3-8 3-8 3-8 3-8 3-8 3-8 3-8 3-8 3-8 3-8

Retail Equipment 

Cost ($)

5000-

6000

5000-

6000

5000-

6000

5000-

6000

10000-

11000

5000-

6000

10000-

11000

5000-

6000

10000-

11000

5000-

6000

10000-

11000

Total Installed 

Cost ($)

5300-

6300

5300-

6300

5300-

6300

5300-

6300

10300-

11300

5300-

6300

10300-

11300

5300-

6300

10300-

11300

5300-

6300

10300-

11300

Annual 

Maintenance 

Cost ($)

150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150

Same as Reference Case
Final

• Booster water heaters are used for high water temperature applications, which typically 

include commercial dishwashers, laundromats, hospitals, and car washes where water 

temperature must reach higher than 1800F.

• Booster water heaters are installed, often at the point of use, in series with the main 

service water heating system to boost service water temperatures. The main service 

water heating system may provide 110-140 F water, and the booster water heater may 

increase that temperature to 180-195 F. Typical commercial applications for booster 

water heaters include commercial dishwashers, laundromats, hospitals, and car washes.

• There is currently no energy efficiency standard for electric booster water heaters. Gas 

booster water heater minimum efficiency is dictated by ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2007 

under the “gas instantaneous water heaters” category.

• Booster water heaters typically have short lifetimes because of high usage and extreme 

temperatures.

• Typical sales are small due to the limited number of applications.

101

Performance / Cost Characteristics » Commercial Booster Water Heaters
Final

102

Appendix A

Data Sources

Navigant Consulting, Inc.

1801 K Street, NW, Suite 500

Washington, D.C. 20006

(202) 973-2400

www.navigantconsulting.com
Final

A-1

Data Sources » Residential Gas-Fired Water Heaters

SOURCES

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical ENERGY

STAR High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (gal) AHRI /

Distributors EERE AHRI /Distributors

NCI

Energy Factor AHRI EERE AHRI ENERGY

STAR AHRI

Average Life (yrs) EERE

Retail Equipment Cost ($) Distributors EERE Distributors

Total Installed Cost ($) Distributors /

RS Means 2010 EERE

Distributors /

RS Means

2010

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) EERE
Final

Data Sources » Residential Oil Water Heaters

A-2

SOURCES

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed

Base

Current

Standard Typical Mid-Level High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (gal) AHRI /

Distributors EERE AHRI EERE

NCI

Energy Factor AHRI EERE AHRI

Average Life (yrs) Ka-BOOM! 

Retail Equipment Cost ($) Distributors EERE

Total Installed Cost ($) Distributors /

RS Means 2007 EERE

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) EERE
Final

Data Sources » Residential Electric Resistance Water Heaters

A-3

SOURCES

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (gal) AHRI /

Distributors EERE

NCI

Energy Factor AHRI EERE DEER, 2008 AHRI

Average Life (yrs) EERE

Retail Equipment Cost ($) Distributors EERE

Total Installed Cost ($) Distributors /

RS Means 2010 EERE

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) EERE
Final

Data Sources » Residential Heat Pump Water Heaters

A-4

SOURCES

2005 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base ENERGY STAR High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (gal) AHRI EERE

NCI

Energy Factor AHRI ENERGY STAR AHRI

Average Life (yrs) ACEEE, 2007 EERE

Retail Equipment Cost w/o Tank($) RS Means 2010 /

ACEEE, 2007 EERE / Distributors

Total Installed Cost w/o Tank ($) RS Means 2010 /

ACEEE, 2007 EERE / Distributors

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) EERE
Final

Data Sources » Residential Instantaneous Water Heaters

A-5

SOURCES

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical ENERGY STAR High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (BTU/h) EERE

NCI

Energy Factor Distributors EERE AHRI ENERGY STAR Distributors

Average Life (yrs) ENERGY STAR EERE

Retail Equipment Cost w/o Tank ($) Distributors /

RS Means 2010 EERE

Total Installed Cost w/o Tank ($) DEER, 2008 EERE

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) NCI EERE
Final

Data Sources » Residential Solar Water Heaters

SOURCES

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (sq. ft.) SRCC

SAIC

Overall Efficiency (Solar 

Fraction) 0.3-0.5 (RETScreen); 0.58-0.83 (SRCC); 0.5-0.75 (EERE)

Solar Energy Factor ENERGY STAR range=0.53-47, median=2, average=2.83

Average Life (yrs) 20 year system life (EERE); Collector warranties are 10 years (ENERGY STAR/SRCC)

Retail Equipment Cost1($) RS Means

Total Installed Cost1($) RS Means

1Costs are for an indirect (active closed loop) system, including tank and backup heater. Smaller capacity/cost systems are typical for southern 

& western states (>2/3 of the current market). Higher capacity/cost systems are required in colder/cloudier regions.

2ENERGY STAR requires OG-300 rating from SRCC. Most installations use SRCC rated collectors; a high efficiency option is not applicable.

A-6
Final

Data Sources » Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces

A-7

SOURCES

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical ENERGY STAR High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) AHRI Distributors AHRI

NCI / Max Tech 

(Desroches)

AFUE (%) AHRI EERE ENERGY STAR AHRI

Electric Consumption (kWh/yr) AHRI EERE AHRI

Average Life (yrs) Appliance Magazine, 2005 EERE

Retail Equipment Cost ($) EERE Distributors

Total Installed Cost ($) EERE

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) EERE
Final

Data Sources » Residential Oil-Fired Furnaces

A-8

SOURCES

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical ENERGY STAR High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) AHRI Distributors AHRI

NCI / Max Tech 

(Desroches)

AFUE (%) AHRI EERE AHRI ENERGY STAR AHRI

Electric Consumption (kWh) AHRI EERE

Average Life (yrs) Appliance Magazine, 2005 EERE

Retail Equipment Cost ($) EERE Distributors EERE

Total Installed Cost ($) EERE

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) EERE
Final

Data Sources » Residential Hydronic Heating Systems (Boilers)

A-9

SOURCES

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical ENERGY STAR High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) EERE

NCI

AFUE (%) AHRI EERE ENERGY STAR EERE

Average Life (yrs) Appliance Magazine, 2005 EERE

Retail Equipment Cost ($) EERE

Total Installed Cost ($) EERE

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) EERE
Final

Data Sources » Residential Room Air Conditioners

A-10

SOURCES

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical ENERGY STAR High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) Distributors AHAM

NCI

EER Distributors Federal Standard AHAM ENERGY STAR AHAM

Average Life (yrs) Appliance Magazine, 2005 Ka-BOOM!

Ka-BOOM! /

Appliance Magazine, 2010

Retail Equipment Cost ($) Distributors

Total Installed Cost ($) Distributors

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) NCI
Final

Data Sources » Residential Central Air Conditioners

A-11

SOURCES

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical ENERGY STAR High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) Distributors EERE

NCI / Max Tech 

(Desroches)

SEER Distributors Federal Standard EERE ENERGY STAR EERE

Average Life (yrs) Appliance Magazine, 2005 EERE

Retail Equipment Cost ($) Distributors EERE /

Distributors

Total Installed Cost ($) Distributors EERE

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) NCI EERE
Final

Data Sources » Residential Air Source Heat Pumps

A-12

SOURCES

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical ENERGY STAR High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) Distributors / 

Product Literature AHRI

NCI / Max Tech 

(Desroches)

HSPF (Heating) AHRI Federal Standard AHRI ENERGY STAR AHRI /

CEC

SEER (Cooling) AHRI Federal Standard AHRI ENERGY STAR AHRI /

CEC

Average Life (yrs) EERE

Retail Equipment Cost ($)

Distributors /

RS Means 2010 /

NCI

EERE

Total Installed Cost ($)

Distributors /

RS Means 2010 /

NCI

EERE

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) NCI
Final

Data Sources » Residential Ground Source Heat Pumps

A-13

SOURCES

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical Mid-Range High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) AHRI/SAIC

NCI / Max Tech 

(Desroches)

COP (Heating) SAIC ASHRAE 90.1-2007, ENERGY STAR

EER (Cooling) SAIC ASHRAE 90.1-2007, ENERGY STAR

Average Life (yrs) System life 25 years, ground loop life 50 years (EERE)

Retail Equipment Cost ($) Distributors / CEC

Total Installed Cost ($) Distributors / CEC

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) SAIC
Final

Data Sources » Residential Gas Heat Pumps

A-14

SOURCES

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) Manufacturer/SAIC

SAIC

Heating (GCOP) Manufacturer/SAIC Manufacturer/SAIC Manufacturer/SAIC

Cooling (GCOP) Manufacturer/SAIC CEC/T24 Manufacturer/SAIC

Annual Electric Use (kWh/yr) Manufacturer/SAIC

Average Life (yrs) SAIC

Retail Equipment Cost ($) SAIC

Total Installed Cost ($) SAIC

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) SAIC
Final

Data Sources » Residential Refrigerator / Freezer

A-15

SOURCES

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical ENERGY STAR High Typical / High

Energy Consumption (kWh/yr) Distributors ENERGY STAR CEC ENERGY STAR CEC

NCI / Max Tech 

(Desroches)

Average Life (yrs) Appliance Magazine, 2005 Ka-BOOM!

Ka-BOOM! /

Appliance Magazine, 2010

Retail Equipment Cost ($) EERE /

Distributors EERE

Total Installed Cost ($) Distributors /

RS Means 2010

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) NCI EERE
Final

Data Sources » Residential Natural Gas Cooktops

A-16

SOURCES

2005 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) Distributors /

Product Literature EERE

NCI

Cooking Efficiency (%) Distributors /

Product Literature EERE

Average Life (yrs) Appliance Magazine, 2005 Appliance Magazine, 2010

Retail Equipment Cost ($) EERE

Total Installed Cost ($) EERE

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) NCI / EERE
Final

Data Sources » Residential Clothes Washers

A-17

SOURCES

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical ENERGY STAR High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (ft3) Distributors CEC ENERGY STAR CEC

NCI / Max Tech 

(Desroches)

Modified Energy Factor (ft3/kWh/cycle) Distributors Standards CEC ENERGY STAR CEC

Average Life (yrs)

Appliance Magazine,

2005 /

EERE

Ka-BOOM! /

Appliance Magazine, 2010

Water Consumption (gal/cycle) EERE /

Distributors CEC

Hot Water Energy (kWh/cycle) EERE /

Distributors

Machine Energy (kWh/cycle) EERE /

Distributors

Dryer Energy (kWh/cycle) EERE /

Distributors

Retail Equipment Cost ($) EERE /

Distributors DEER, 2008

EERE /

Distributors

Total Installed Cost ($) RS Means 2010 DEER, 2008 RS Means 2010

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) NCI
Final

Data Sources » Residential Clothes Dryers

A-18

SOURCES

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical Mid-Level High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (ft3) NCI CEC CEC /

Distributors

NCI / Max Tech 

(Desroches)

EF (lb/kWh) NCI EERE

Machine Energy (kWh/cycle) NCI EERE

Average Life (yrs) NCI Ka-BOOM! /

Appliance Magazine, 2010

Retail Equipment Cost ($) NCI EERE

Total Installed Cost ($) NCI EERE

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) EERE EERE
Final

Data Sources » Residential Dishwashers

A-19

SOURCES

2005 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical ENERGY STAR High Typical / High

Typical Annual Use (kWh/yr) Product Literature EERE Distributors ENERGY STAR CEC

NCI / Max Tech 

(Desroches)

Efficiency (cycle/kWh) NCI EERE CEC

Average Life (yrs) Appliance Magazine, 2005 Ka-BOOM! /

Appliance Magazine, 2010

Retail Equipment Cost ($) EERE Distributors EERE

Total Installed Cost ($) EERE DEER, 2008 DEER, 2008 EERE

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) NCI
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Gas-Fired Furnaces

A-20

SOURCES

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) Arthur D. Little, 1997 AHRI

NCI

AFUE ASHRAE Standard

90.1-2004

ASHRAE Standard

90.1-2004 /

CEC

AHRI

Average Life (yrs)

2003 ASHRAE

Handbook –

HVAC Applications

Appliance Magazine, 2010

Retail Equipment Cost ($)

RS Means 2010/

NCI /

Distributors

RS Means 2010

Total Installed Cost ($)

RS Means 2010/

NCI /

Distributors

RS Means 2010

Annual Maintenance Cost ($)

RS Means 2010/

NCI /

Distributors
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Oil-Fired Furnaces

A-21

SOURCES

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h)

NCI /

Distributors /

AHRI

AHRI

NCI

Thermal Efficiency (%) ASHRAE Standard

90.1-2004 AHRI AHRI /CEC AHRI

Average Life (yrs) 2003 ASHRAE Handbook –

HVAC Applications Appliance Magazine, 2010

Retail Equipment Cost ($) RS Means 2010

Total Installed Cost ($) RS Means 2010

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) NCI / Distributors
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Electric Boilers

A-22

SOURCES

2003 2007 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (kW) BSRIA

SAIC

Efficiency (%) SAIC

Average Life (yrs) ASHRAE 2007 HVAC Applications

Retail Equipment Cost ($) RS Means/SAIC

Total Installed Cost ($) RS Means/SAIC

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) RS Means/SAIC
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Gas-Fired Boilers

A-23

SOURCES

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical Mid-Range High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h)

Arthur D. Little /

Building Services Research and

Information Association & Ducker

Research Company, 1997, 1998

NCI EERE

NCI

Combustion Efficiency (%) ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004 CEC AHRI

Average Life (yrs)

Building Services Research and

Information Association & Ducker

Research Company, 1997, 1998 /

Appliance Magazine, 2005

EERE

Retail Equipment Cost ($) CEC /

RS Means 2010 DEER, 2008 EERE /Appliance Magazine, 2010

Total Installed Cost ($) CEC /

RS Means 2010 NCI EERE /Appliance Magazine, 2010

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) NCI EERE /

Appliance Magazine, 2010
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Oil-Fired Boilers

A-24

SOURCES

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h)

Building Services Research

and Information Association & Ducker

Research Company, 1997, 1998

NCI EERE

NCI

Combustion Efficiency (%) ASHRAE Standard

90.1-2004 AHRI

Average Life (yrs)

Building Services Research

and Information Association & Ducker

Research Company, 1997, 1998 /

NCI

EERE

Retail Equipment Cost ($)

Distributors /

RS Means 2010 /

NCI

EERE

Total Installed Cost ($)

Distributors /

RS Means 2010 /

NCI

EERE

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) NCI EERE
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Gas-Fired Chillers

A-25

SOURCES

2003 2007 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed 

Base: 

Absorption

Installed 

Base: 

EngineDriven

Installed 

Base: 

Absorption

Installed 

Base: 

EngineDriven

AbsorptionEngineDrivenAbsorptionEngineDrivenAbsorptionEngineDrivenAbsorptionEngineDriven

Typical 

Capacity (tons) BSRIA/Distributors

Efficiency 

(kW/ton)

Product Literature/SAIC

COP

Average Life 

(yrs) 2007 ASHRAE Applications Handbook/Distributors

Retail 

Equipment 

Cost ($/ton)

Distributors/RS Means/SAIC Total Installed 

Cost ($/ton)

Annual 

Maintenance 

Cost ($/ton)
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Centrifugal Chillers

SOURCES

2003 2007 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Typical Mid High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity 

(tons) US Census SAIC

Efficiency 

(kW/ton)

DEER/FEMP/Product Literature SAIC

COP

Average Life (yrs) 2007 ASHRAE Applications Handbook

Retail Equipment 

Cost ($/ton)

RS Means/Distributors/SAIC

Total Installed 

Cost ($/ton)

Annual 

Maintenance 

Cost ($/ton)

SAIC

A-26
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Reciprocating Chillers

A-27

SOURCES

2003 2007 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Typical Mid High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical 

Capacity (tons) BSRIA / DEER SAIC

Efficiency 

(kW/ton)

DEER/FEMP/Product Literature SAIC

COP

Average Life 

(yrs) Manufacturers

Retail 

Equipment 

Cost ($/ton) RS Means/Distributors/SAIC

Total Installed 

Cost ($/ton)

Annual 

Maintenance 

Cost ($/ton)

SAIC
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Screw Chillers

A-28

SOURCES

2003 2007 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Typical Mid High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity 

(tons) SAIC

Efficiency 

(kW/ton)

DEER/FEMP/Product Literature SAIC

COP

Average Life (yrs) Manufacturers

Retail Equipment 

Cost ($/ton) RS Means/Distributors/SAIC

Total Installed Cost 

($/ton)

Annual 

Maintenance Cost 

($/ton)

SAIC
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Scroll Chillers

A-29

SOURCES

2003 2007 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (tons)

SAIC/Manufacturers

Efficiency [full-load/IPLV] (kW/ton)

Product Literature SAIC

COP [full-load/IPLV] 

Average Life (yrs)

Manufacturers

Retail Equipment Cost ($/ton)

RS Means/SAIC

Total Installed Cost ($/ton)

Annual Maintenance Cost ($/ton)

SAIC
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Rooftop Air Conditioners

A-30

SOURCES

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical Mid-Range High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) AHRI / NCI

NCI / Max Tech 

(Desroches)

Efficiency (EER) ASHRAE Standard

90.1-2004

Distributors /

NCI EERE AHRI

Average Life (yrs) 2003 ASHRAE Handbook –

HVAC Applications Appliance Magazine, 2010

Retail Equipment Cost ($) NCI /

LBNL, 2003

Distributors /

NCI /

DEER, 2008

EERE Distributors

Total Installed Cost ($) NCI /

LBNL, 2003

Distributors /

NCI /

DEER, 2008

EERE Distributors

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) EERE
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Gas-Fired Engine-Driven Rooftop Air Conditioners

A-31

SOURCES

2003 2007 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (tons) Distributors

Heating COP NA Product 

Literature

Distributors/SAIC

Cooling COP Product Literature

Average Life (yrs)

Distributors/SAIC

Retail Equipment Cost 

($/ton)

Total Installed Cost ($/ton)

Annual Maintenance Cost ($)
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Rooftop Heat Pumps

A-32

SOURCES

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) AHRI

NCI / Max Tech 

(Desroches)

Efficiency (EER) ASHRAE Standard

90.1-2004 EERE

COP (Heating) NCI / EERE EERE

Average Life (yrs) 2003 ASHRAE Handbook - HVAC Applications

Retail Equipment Cost ($) Distributors / RS Means 2010 / NCI / DEER

Total Installed Cost ($) Distributors / RS Means 2010 / NCI / DEER

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) Distributors / RS Means 2010 / NCI / DEER
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Ground Source Heat Pumps

A-33

SOURCES

2003 2007 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) GHPC

NCI / Max Tech 

(Desroches)

COP (Heating) IGSPHA / GHPC

EER (Cooling) GHPC

Average Life (yrs) GHPC

Retail Equipment Cost ($) NCI / Distributors

Total Installed Cost ($) NCI / Distributors

Annual Maintenance Cost (¢/sqft) GHPC
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Electric Resistance Heaters

A-34

DATA

2010 2020 2030 2035

Small Large Small Large Small Large Small Large

Typical Capacity (kBTU/h) Distributors

NCI

Efficiency (%) NCI

Average Life (yrs)

Technology Cost and 

Performance File for 

Commercial Model for 

AEO2010

Retail Equipment Cost ($) Distributors

Total Installed Cost ($) Distributors

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) NCI
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Gas-Fired Water Heaters

A-35

SOURCES

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (gal) Arthur D. Little / Distributors / AHRI AHRI

NCI / Max Tech 

(Desroches)

Typical Input Capacity (BTU/h) Arthur D. Little /

AHRI CEC AHRI

Thermal Efficiency (%)

EERE /

ASHRAE Standard

90.1-2004

AHRI

Average Life (yrs)

Building Services Research

and Information Association & Ducker

Research Company, 1997, 1998 /

Appliance Magazine, 2005

Retail Equipment Cost ($) Distributors /

CEC / NCI Distributors

Total Installed Cost ($) Distributors / CEC / NCI

Annual Maintenance Cost (¢/sqft) NCI
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Electric Resistance Water Heaters

A-36

SOURCES

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (gal) NCI / Product Literature AHRI

NCI / Max Tech 

(Desroches)

Typical Capacity (kW) Product Literature

Thermal Efficiency (%) Product Literature ASHRAE Standard

90.1-2004 AHRI

Average Life (yrs)

Appliance Magazine, 2005 /

Building Services Research and

Information Association & Ducker

Research Company, 1997, 1998

Appliance Magazine, 2005

Retail Equipment Cost ($) Distributors / NCI Distributors

Total Installed Cost ($) Distributors / NCI NCI

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) NCI
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Oil-Fired Water Heaters

A-37

SOURCES

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical Mid-Range High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (gal) NCI AHRI / NCI

NCI

Typical Input Capacity (kBTU/h) NCI AHRI / NCI AHRI / CEC

Thermal Efficiency (%) NCI ASHRAE Standard

90.1-1999

ANSI / ASHRAE /

IESNA Standard

90.1-2007

AHRI / CEC

Average Life (yrs) NCI Appliance Magazine, 2005

Retail Equipment Cost ($) NCI Distributors / NCI

Total Installed Cost ($) NCI Distributors / NCI NCI

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) NCI Distributors / NCI NCI
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters

A-38

SOURCES

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current Standard Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (gal)

Building Services Research and

Information Association & Ducker

Research Company, 1997, 1998 /

AHRI

AHRI

Building Services Research and

Information Association & Ducker

Research Company, 1997, 1998 /

AHRI

NCI / Max Tech 

(Desroches)

Thermal Efficiency (%) AHRI

ANSI / ASHRAE /

IESNA Standard

90.1-2007

Average Life (yrs) EERE

Retail Equipment Cost ($) CEC / NCI / Distributors Distributors / NCI

Total Installed Cost ($) CEC / NCI / Distributors

Annual Maintenance Cost ($) CEC / NCI / Distributors
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Electric Booster Water Heaters

A-39

DATA

2003 2007 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (gal) SAIC/Distributors

SAIC

Thermal Efficiency (%) Product Literature

Average Life (yrs)

Retail Equipment Cost ($)

Total Installed Cost ($) SAIC/Distributors

Annual Maintenance Cost ($)
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Gas Booster Water Heaters

A-40

SOURCES

2003 2007 2010 2010 2020 2030 2035

Installed Base Current 

Standard Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity 

(gal) Distributors/SAIC

SAIC

Thermal 

Efficiency (%) Product Literature

Average Life (yrs) Product Literature/SAIC

Retail Equipment 

Cost ($)

Distributors/SAIC Total Installed 

Cost ($)

Annual 

Maintenance 

Cost ($)
Final

143

Appendix B

References

Navigant Consulting, Inc.

1801 K Street, NW, Suite 500

Washington, D.C. 20006

(202) 973-2400

www.navigantconsulting.com
Final

144

• ACEEE. (2007). Top Rated Energy-Efficient Appliances. American Council for an EnergyEfficient Economy.

• AHAM - ACEEE. (2010). Agreement on Minimum Federal Efficiency Standards, Smart Appliances, 

Federal Incentives and Related Matters for Specified Appliances.

• AHAM. (n.d.). AHAM Directory of Certified Products. Retrieved September 2010, from 

http://www.ahamdir.com/dirsvc/aham.nsf/fraRAC?OpenFrameset&pgm=Room%20Air%20C

onditioners

• AHRI. (n.d.). Certification Directory. Retrieved September 2010, from Directory of Certified 

Product Performance: http://www.ahridirectory.org/ahridirectory/pages/home.aspx

• Appliance Magazine. (2010). Appliance Market Research Report - U.S. Appliance Industry: Market 

Share, Life Expectancy & Replacement Market, and Saturation Levels. Appliance Magazine.

• Appliance Magazine. (2005). Portrait of the U.S. Appliance Industry. Appliance Magazine.

• Arthur D. Little. (1997). Massachusetts Market Transformation Scoping Study; Final Report.

Massachusetts Gas DSM / Market Transformation Collaborative.

References

B-1
Final

145

• ASHRAE. (2003). 2003 ASHRAE Handbook - HVAC Applications. ASHRAE, Inc.

• ASHRAE. (2007). ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2007. ASHRAE, Inc.

• ASHRAE. (1999). ASHRAE Standard 90.1-1999. ASHRAE, Inc.

• ASHRAE. (2004). ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004. ASHRAE, Inc.

• Building Services Research and Information Association & Ducker Research Company. (1997, 

1998). U.S. Market for Central Plant Air Conditioning; Market for Ducted Warm Air Central 

Heating; U.S. Market for Hydronic Heating and Burners; U.S. Water Heating Market; U.S. Unitary 

and Close Control Air Conditioning.

• California Energy Commission. (n.d.). Retrieved September 2010, from Appliance Efficiency 

Database: http://www.appliances.energy.ca.gov/AdvancedSearch.aspx

• DEER. (2008, June). Database for Energy Efficiency Resources. Retrieved September 2010, from 

California Energy Commission: www.energy.ca.gov/deer

• Desroches, L.-B. a. (2011). Max Tech and Beyond, Maximizing Appliance and Equipment Efficiency 

by Design. Berkeley: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.

• Distributors. (n.d.). NCI discussions with distributors and online research (i.e. Grainger, 

Home Depot, Lowes, Sears, and others).

References

B-2
Final

146

• EERE. (2006). Buildings Energy Data Book.

• EERE. (2000). Clothes Washers Technical Support Document, Final Rule Technical Support 

Document: Energy Efficiency Standards for Consumer Products: Clothes Washers.

• EERE. (2009). Commercial Heating, Air Conditioning and Water Heating Equipment (i.e. ASHRAE 

Equipment).

• EERE. (2006). DOE Appliance Standards Framework, Rulemaking Framework for Residential Water 

Heaters, Direct Heating Equipment and Pool Heaters.

• EERE. (2005). Draft Technical Analysis for Refrigerators, Analysis of Amended Energy Conservation 

Standards for Residential Refrigerators-Freezers.

• EERE. (2010). Energy Conservation Program for Appliance Standards: Residential Central Air 

Conditioners and Heat Pumps.

• EERE. (2001). Energy Conservation Program for Consumer Products: Central Air Conditioners and 

Heat Pumps Energy Conservation Standards; Final Rule.

References

B-3
Final

147

• EERE. (2007). Energy Conservation Program for Consumer Products: Energy Conservation 

Standards for Residential Furnaces and Boilers; Final Rule.

• EERE. (2009). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Certain Consumer 

Products and for Certain Commercial and Industrial Equipment; Final Rule.

• EERE. (2010). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Water 

Heaters, Direct Heating Equipment, and Pool Heaters; Final Rule.

• EERE. (2009). Final Rule Technical Support Document: Residential Dishwashers, Dehumidifiers, 

Cooking Products, and Commercial Clothes Washers.

• EERE. (2004). Joint Stakeholders Comments on Standards for Commercial Package Air Conditioners 

and Heat Pumps.

• EERE. Preliminary Technical Support Document: Energy Efficiency Program for Consumer 

Products: Refrigerators, Refrigerator-Freezers, and Freezers.

• EERE. (2010). Residential Clothes Dryers and Room Air Conditioners Preliminary Technical Support 

Document.

References

B-4
Final

148

• EERE. (2006). Technical Analysis for Residential Furnaces and Boilers, Energy Conservation 

Program for Residential Furnaces and Boilers; Proposed Rule.

• EERE. (2006). Technical Analysis for Rulemaking Framework for Dishwashers/Cooktops/Ovens, 

Rulemaking Framework for Commercial Clothes Washers and Residential Dishwashers, 

Dehumidifiers, and Cooking Products.

• EERE. (2005). Technical Support Document: Energy Efficiency Program for Commercial and 

Industrial Equipment: Commercial Unitary Air Conditioners and Heat Pumps.

• ENERGY STAR. (n.d.). Retrieved September 2010, from ENERGY STAR Products: 

http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=products.pr_find_es_products

• Federal Standard. (n.d.). National energy conservation standards authorized under the 

Energy and Policy Conservation Act (EPCA).

• GeoExchange. GeoExchange Heating and Cooling Systems: Fascinating Facts.

References

B-5
Final

149

• GHPC. (n.d.). Geothermal Heat Pump Consortium. Retrieved 2007, from www.geoexchange.org

• IGSPHA. (n.d.). International Ground Source Heat Pump Association. Retrieved 2007, from 

www.igshpa.okstate.edu

• LBNL. (2003). Commercial Unitary Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps - Life Cycle Cost Analysis: 

Inputs and Results. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.

• Max Neubauer, A. d. (2009). Ka-BOOM! The Power of Appliance Standards. ACEEE, ASAP.

• Navigant Consulting, Inc. (n.d.). In House Expertise.

• Navien America Inc. (n.d.). Navien Condensing 98%. Retrieved September 2010, from 

http://www.navienamerica.com/PDS/ftp/NavienCondensingTankless/DownLoad_Brochure_

Manual/NavienCodensing98_Brochure.pdf

• Product Literature. (n.d.). Literature from manufacturers and experts on specific products.

• RS Means Mechanical Cost Data. (2007). Means Construction Information Network.

• RS Means Mechanical Cost Data. (2010). Means Construction Information Network.

• SAIC. (n.d.). In House Expertise.

• Technology Cost and Performance File for Commercial Model for AEO2010. (2009). (E. 

Boedecker, Compiler)

References

B-6