Updated Buildings Sector 

Appliance and Equipment 

Costs and Efficiencies

March 2023

www.eia.gov

U.S. Department of Energy

Washington, DC 20585
U.S. Energy Information Administration | Updated Buildings Sector Appliance and Equipment Costs and Efficiencies i

The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), the statistical and analytical agency within the 

U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), prepared this report. By law, our data, analyses, and forecasts are 

independent of approval by any other officer or employee of the U.S. Government. The views in this 

report do not represent those of DOE or any other federal agencies.
March 2023

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Updated Buildings Sector Appliance and Equipment Costs and Efficiencies 1

Updated Buildings Sector Appliance and Equipment Costs and 

Efficiencies 

Energy used in the residential and commercial sectors provides a wide range of services, including 

heating, cooling, lighting, refrigeration, cooking, and numerous other end uses. The U.S. Energy 

Information Administration (EIA) conducts two buildings-sector surveys—the Residential Energy 

Consumption Survey (RECS) and the Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS)—that 

provide information on the equipment stock and energy consumption within existing buildings. 

However, these surveys do not directly gather other information that we need to project future energy 

consumption, such as equipment cost information or nameplate efficiency ratings. 

The Residential Demand Module (RDM) and the Commercial Demand Module (CDM) of the National 

Energy Modeling System (NEMS) use equipment cost and performance technology menus that 

represent competing options for most of the major end uses. The contracted reports in Appendixes A–D 

provide the information basis on which these menus can be built, focusing on cost and efficiency 

characterizations across equipment and fuel types. Previous editions of the Annual Energy Outlook

(AEO) used similar contracted reports. 

Multiple equipment classes and types are represented in these menus so that the projected equipment 

stock can change over time in response to fuel prices and other factors that affect equipment choice, 

such as appliance standards. The equipment menus interact with other NEMS parameters to determine 

market shares, equipment efficiency levels, cost estimates, and equipment interactions,1 and they are 

used to translate service demand into energy demand. 

Appendixes A and B constitute one set of reports that characterizes most major residential equipment 

and commercial heating, cooling, and water heating equipment. Appendix A is used in developing 

Reference case projections, while Appendix B is used in developing advanced technology cases.2 These 

assumptions will be developed and implemented during the AEO2025 cycle. 

Appendixes C and D constitute another set of reports that characterizes residential and commercial 

lighting, as well as commercial ventilation and refrigeration equipment. Appendix C is used in developing 

the Reference case, while Appendix D is used in developing advanced technology cases. These 

assumptions were developed and implemented during the AEO2023 cycle. 

When referencing the contracted reports in Appendixes A, B, C, and D, you should cite them as reports 

by Guidehouse and Leidos, prepared for the U.S. Energy Information Administration. 

1 Examples of equipment interactions are solar water heaters that supplement traditional water heaters, clothes washers that 

reduce the need for clothes drying, and water heaters that provide dishwashers and clothes washers with heated water.

2

In addition to the Reference case, we also develop sensitivities to explore different assumptions for the cost and performance 

of future technologies. For the more optimistic cases, some equipment achieves lower life-cycle costs through improved 

efficiency or lower upfront costs, or both. The contracted reports provide a base case and an advanced case for modeling the 

AEO Reference case along with the more optimistic cases. We use the advanced case assumptions to develop side cases for 

AEO reports that include such analyses.
March 2023

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Updated Buildings Sector Appliance and Equipment Costs and Efficiencies 2

APPENDIX A
Final

EIA - Technology Forecast Updates –

Residential and Commercial Building 

Technologies – Reference Case

Presented to:

U.S. Energy Information Administration

Prepared by: 

Guidehouse

1676 International Drive

McLean, VA 22102

And

Leidos

11951 Freedom Drive

Reston, VA 20190

March 3, 2023
Final

DISCLAIMER

This presentation was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither 

the United States Government, nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, nor any of their contractors, 

subcontractors, or their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or 

responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, 

or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, 

process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its 

endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency, contractor or subcontractor 

thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States 

Government or any agency thereof. 

March 2023
Final Table of Contents

Objective 5

Methodology 6

Definitions 7

Market Transformation 8

Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces (North) 10

Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces (Rest of Country) 11

Residential Oil-Fired Furnaces 14

Residential Gas-Fired Boilers 17

Residential Oil-Fired Boilers 20

Residential Electric Furnaces 23

Residential Electric Resistance Heaters 25

Residential Central Air Conditioners (North) 27

Residential Central Air Conditioners (South) 28

Residential Room Air Conditioners 31

Residential Portable Air Conditioners 34

Residential Swamp Coolers 37

Residential Air-Source Heat Pumps 39

Residential Ductless Mini-Split Air-Source Heat Pumps 43

Residential Ground-Source Heat Pumps 45

Residential Natural Gas Heat Pumps 47

Residential Cordwood Stoves 49

Residential Wood Pellet Stoves 52

Residential Gas-Fired Water Heater 56

Residential Oil-Fired Water Heater 59

Residential Electric Resistance Water Heater 62

Residential Electric Heat Pump Water Heater 65

Residential Solar Water Heater 68

Residential Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heater 72

Residential Electric Instantaneous Water Heater 74

Residential Refrigerator/Freezer (Top-Mount) 77

Residential Refrigerator/Freezer (Side-Mount) 78 

Residential Refrigerator/Freezer (Bottom-Mount) 79 

Residential Freezers (Chest) 83 

Residential Freezers (Upright) 84

Residential Natural Gas Cooktops 87

Residential Natural Gas Ovens 88

Residential Natural Gas Ranges 89

Residential Electric Cooktops 92

Residential Electric Ovens 93

Residential Electric Ranges 94

Residential Clothes Dryers (Electric) 97

Residential Clothes Dryers (Gas) 98

Residential Clothes Washers (Front-Loading) 101

Residential Clothes Washers (Top-Loading) 102

Residential Dishwashers 105
Final Table of Contents

Commercial Gas-Fired Furnaces 109

Commercial Oil-Fired Furnaces 112

Commercial Electric Resistance Heaters 115

Commercial Electric Boilers 117

Commercial Gas-Fired Boilers 119

Commercial Oil-Fired Boilers 122

Commercial Centrifugal Chillers 125

Commercial Reciprocating Chillers 127

Commercial Screw Chillers 129

Commercial Scroll Chillers 131

Commercial Gas Fired Chillers 133

Commercial Rooftop Air Conditioners 135

Commercial Gas-Fired Engine-Driven Rooftop Air Conditioners 137

Commercial Rooftop Heat Pumps 139

Commercial Ground-Source Heat Pumps 141

Packaged Terminal Air Conditioners 143

Packaged Terminal Heat Pumps 145

Commercial Gas-Fired Water Heater 148

Commercial Electric Resistance Water Heater 151

Commercial Heat Pump Water Heater 154

Commercial Oil-Fired Water Heater 156

Commercial Electric Booster Water Heater 158

Commercial Gas-Fired Booster Water Heater 159

Commercial Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heater 161

Commercial Solar Water Heater 164

Commercial Gas Range with Griddle and Oven 167

Commercial Electric Range with Griddle and Oven 168

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinet - Small 172

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinet - Medium 173

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinet - Large 174

Data Sources A-1

References B-1
Final

Objective

The objective of this study is to develop baseline and projected performance/cost characteristics for residential and 

commercial end-use equipment.

• Installed base in 2012 and 2018 (for commercial products) or 2015 and 2020 (for residential products) and current 

market (2022)

— Review literature, standards, installed base, contractor, and manufacturer information

— Provide a relative comparison and characterization of the cost/efficiency of a generic product

• Forecast of technology improvements that are projected to be available through 2050

— Review trends in standards, product enhancements, and Research and Development (R&D)

— Project impact of product improvements and enhancement to technology

The performance/cost characterization of end-use equipment developed in this study will assist EIA in projecting 

national primary energy consumption.

5

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Final

Methodology

Input from industry stakeholders, including government, R&D organizations, and manufacturers, was used to project 

product enhancements concerning equipment performance and cost attributes.

• Technology forecasting involves many uncertainties.

• Technology developments impact performance and cost forecasts.

• Varied sources ensure a balanced view of technology progress and the probable timing of commercial availability.

• Only currently published efficiency standards and regulations are considered when predicting technology 

developments; unpublished future regulatory action is not predicted.

• All costs are shown in 2022 dollars (2022$).

• Ranges, when given, represent the span of typical values for a given parameter (e.g., installed cost for equipment 

meeting the federal standard) not the highest and lowest available on the market.

6

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Final

Definitions

The following tables represent the current and projected efficiencies for residential and commercial building 

equipment ranging from the installed base in 2012 and 2018 (for commercial products) or 2015 and 2020 (for residential 

products) to the highest efficiency equipment that is expected to be commercially available by 2050, assuming 

incremental adoption. Below are definitions for the terms used in characterizing the status of each technology.

• Installed Base: Efficiency values are for those units installed and “in use” in that year. Cost values are for the typical 

new unit sold in that year.

• Current Standard: The minimum efficiency (or maximum energy use) that is required (allowed) by current U.S. 

Department of Energy (DOE) standards, when applicable.

• ENERGY STAR: The minimum efficiency that is required (or maximum energy use allowed) to meet the ENERGY 

STAR criteria, when applicable. The performance data that are presented are representative of certified products that 

just meet current ENERGY STAR specifications.

• Typical: Efficiency and cost values are for the average, or “typical,” product being sold in the particular timeframe. 

This may represent either the shipments-weighted average product performance or the most common product on the 

market.

• High: Efficiency and cost values are for the product with the highest efficiency available in the particular timeframe.

7

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Final

Market Transformation

The market for the reviewed products has changed since this analysis was previously conducted.1 These changes are 

noted and reflected in the efficiency and cost characteristics.

• In some categories the typical new product purchased today is more efficient than the average product in the installed 

base in 2012 (commercial) or 2015 (residential):

— Residential sector: boilers, central air conditioners, room air conditioners, gas-fired furnaces (North), gas-fired 

furnaces (Rest of Country), oil-fired furnaces, electric resistance furnaces, heat pump water heaters, gas-fired 

instantaneous water heaters, natural gas cooktops, natural gas ovens, refrigerator-freezers, freezers, clothes dryers, 

clothes washers, and dishwashers

— Commercial sector: gas-fired furnaces, oil-fired boilers, commercial rooftop heat pumps, commercial groundsource heat pumps, gas-fired instantaneous water heater, natural gas and electric ranges, griddles, and ovens

• More stringent Federal standards have taken effect for the following products:

— Gas-fired and oil-fired boilers in 2021

— Rooftop air conditioners and rooftop heat pumps in 2018

• Federal standards are slated to take effect in the coming years for the following products:

— Central air conditioners, residential air-source heat pumps, gas-fired furnaces, oil-fired furnaces, gas-fired boilers, 

oil-fired boilers, rooftop air conditioners, and rooftop heat pumps in 2023

— Portable air conditioners in 2025

• ENERGY STAR continues to raise the bar with revised criteria for:

— Central air conditioners, residential air-source heat pumps, rooftop air conditioners, rooftop heat pumps, 

residential water heaters, and dishwashers in 2023

8

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Note: The previous analysis is available in the EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018) report.
Final

Residential Space Heating and Cooling

9

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Final

1. Typical input capacity is represented in terms of thousand British thermal units (kBtu) per hour (i.e., kBtu/h).

2. Electric consumption, represented in terms of kilowatt hours per year (kWh/y), accounts for the electricity consumption of components such as the furnace fan, draft inducer, and the ignitor. In some high efficiency products, this 

component also includes auxiliary equipment, such as condensate pumps and heat tape.

3. In the Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NOPR) Technical Support Document (TSD), an average lifetime of 22.5 years is calculated for gas-fired furnaces (North). Lifetime range was calculated using the 

Weibull Distribution in the Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR.

Note:

Models on the market can be either weatherized or non-weatherized. The majority (74%) are non-weatherized, and the values in the table use only non-weatherized data.

Electric consumption and cost values for 2022 and beyond are for a national sample and use the Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR Life-Cycle-Cost (LCC) spreadsheet.

Electric consumption and costs for the 2030, 2040, and 2050 high values are estimated based on the maximum-efficiency level analyzed in Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR, which is 98% annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE).

The current standard went into effect in November 2015.

ENERGY STAR V. 4.1 went into effect in February 2013.

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.

Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces (North)

10

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DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

(North) 

V. 4.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h)180 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

AFUE (%) 80 80 80 90 95 99 95 99 95 99 95 99

Electric Consumption (kWh/y)2374 374 386 636 631 725 631 725 631 725 631 725

Average Life (y)3

17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17

26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 1,300 1,300 1,080 1,200 1,220 1,390 1,220 1,390 1,220 1,390 1,220 1,390

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 2,880 2,880 3,690 4,130 4,150 4,320 4,150 4,320 4,150 4,320 4,150 4,320

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 60 60 120 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces (Rest of Country)

11

1. Electric consumption accounts for the electricity consumption of components such as the furnace fan, draft inducer, and the ignitor. In some high efficiency products, this component also includes auxiliary 

equipment, such as condensate pumps and heat tape.

2. In the Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR, an average lifetime of 21.5 years is calculated for gas-fired furnaces (Rest of Country). Lifetime range was calculated using the Weibull Distribution in the 

Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR.

Note:

Models on the market can be either weatherized or non-weatherized. The majority (74%) are non-weatherized, and the values in the table use only non-weatherized data.

Electric consumption and cost values for 2022 and beyond are for a national sample and use the Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR LCC spreadsheet.

Electric consumption and costs for the 2030, 2040, and 2050 high values are estimated based on the maximum-efficiency level analyzed in Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR, which is 98% AFUE.

The current standard went into effect in November 2015.

ENERGY STAR V. 4.1 went into effect in February 2013.

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

(ROC) 

V. 4.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

AFUE (%) 80 80 80 90 90 99 95 99 95 99 95 99

Electric Consumption (kWh/y)1279 279 386 636 636 725 631 725 631 725 631 725

Average Life (y) 2

16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16

25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 1,260 1,260 1,080 1,200 1,200 1,390 1,220 1,390 1,220 1,390 1,220 1,390

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 2,380 2,380 3,690 4,130 4,130 4,320 4,150 4,320 4,150 4,320 4,150 4,320

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 40 40 120 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces

• Current Federal standards for non-weatherized gas furnaces:

— AFUE ≥ 80%

• ENERGY STAR V. 4.1 criteria for gas furnaces:

— South: AFUE ≥ 90%

— North: AFUE ≥ 95%

— Furnaces must be equipped with electronically commutated fan motor and have less than or equal to 2.0% air leakage

• Most efficient unit currently available: 99.0% AFUE. The current market is nearly evenly split between non-condensing units 

(AFUE≤82%) and condensing units (AFUE≥90%).

• The maximum AFUE for non-condensing gas furnaces is 82%; above this level, the potential for exhaust gas condensation 

increases. This condensate is corrosive and requires cost restrictive corrosion resistant venting.

• High-efficiency condensing furnaces typically have high-grade stainless steel (AL 29-4C) heat exchangers.

• Many condensing furnaces are available as direct vent and sealed combustion systems, which do not use room air for 

combustion, but instead draw combustion air directly from outdoors.

• Depending on the location of the home, piping materials in use, and other considerations, condensing furnaces may need an 

acid neutralizer and/or lift pump for the condensate.

• Furnaces may contain permanent split capacitor (PSC) fan motors or electronically commutated motors (ECMs). The type of 

motor affects the electrical consumption of the furnace as well as the seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER) / energy efficiency 

ratio (EER) of the associated air conditioner.

— The 2016 Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Furnace Fans Final Rule requires that all furnaces use ECM fans. 

— Most non-weatherized gas furnaces employ ECMs and can fully modulate rather than cycling on and off. Because they 

modulate, there is an increase in total fan-on time. 

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Final

Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces

Annual shipments reached 3.5 million units in 2005 and then declined each year until 2009, leveling off at about 2.25 

million units. Since 2012, shipments have increased steadily and reached a peak of 4.0 million units in 2021.

Source: Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute (AHRI)

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Final

Residential Oil-Fired Furnaces

14

1. Electric consumption accounts for the electricity consumption of components such as the furnace fan, draft inducer, and the ignitor. In some high efficiency products, this component also includes auxiliary 

equipment, such as condensate pumps and heat tape.

2. Lifetime range was calculated using the Weibull Distribution in Residential Furnaces EERE 2011.

Note:

The current standard went into effect in May 2013.

ENERGY STAR V. 4.1 went into effect in February 2013.

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105

AFUE (%) 83 83 83 85 85 97 85 97 85 97 85 97

Electric Consumption (kWh/y)1477 477 477 466 466 410 466 410 466 410 466 410

Average Life (y)2

20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

2,620 2,620 2,620 2,650 2,650 3,170 2,650 3,170 2,650 3,170 2,650 3,170

3,450 3,450 3,450 3,490 3,490 4,090 3,490 4,090 3,490 4,090 3,490 4,090

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

3,250 3,250 3,250 3,480 3,480 5,140 3,480 5,140 3,480 5,140 3,480 5,140

6,520 6,520 6,520 6,820 6,820 10,110 6,820 10,110 6,820 10,110 6,820 10,110

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 80 80 80 80 80 240 80 240 80 240 80 240
Final

Residential Oil-Fired Furnaces

• Current Federal standards:

— AFUE ≥ 83%

— ≤ 11 watts of electrical power when in standby and off modes (non-weatherized models only)

• ENERGY STAR V. 4.1 criteria: AFUE ≥ 85%

• Since the latent heat content of oil is lower than that for either propane or natural gas, oil-fired appliances can typically 

operate at a higher AFUE rating than comparable gas-fired appliances before condensation issues arise.

• Most efficient unit currently available: 96.7% AFUE – condensing units with tiny market share (<1%), due to market 

acceptance issues. 

• Condensate from condensing oil furnaces is typically even more corrosive than that of gas-fired systems due to the 

higher sulfur content in fuel oil. Hence, condensing oil furnaces also likely require the use of an acid neutralizer.

• Oil-fired furnaces, like gas-fired furnaces, achieve condensing conditions through the use of a secondary heat 

exchanger. Typically, these secondary heat exchangers use a high-grade stainless steel (AL 29-4C).

• Sooting is an issue for all oil-fired appliances, but secondary heat exchangers, with their narrow passages, are even 

more prone to be plugged by soot. Because of this, condensing oil furnaces typically require frequent cleaning and 

maintenance.

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Final

Residential Oil-Fired Furnaces

Annual shipments declined rapidly after 2004, likely due, at least in part, to an increase in fuel oil prices, which more 

than tripled from 2002 to 2008. Since 2012 shipments have largely leveled off.

Source: AHRI

16

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Final

DATA

2015 202012022 203022040220502

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

V. 3.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

AFUE (%) 82 95 84 95 90 96 95 96 95 96 95 96

Electric Consumption (kWh/y)3197 506 282 506 527 502 506 502 506 502 506 502

Average Life (y)

20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 2,540 2,890 1,820 2,890 2,440 3,670 2,890 3,670 2,890 3,670 2,890 3,670

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 7,760 5,940 8,700 5,940 6,700 6,710 5,940 6,710 5,940 6,710 5,940 6,710

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)4110 160 150 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160

Residential Gas-Fired Boilers

17

1. The 2020 AFUE is estimated based on EERE 2022 preliminary analysis, which estimates that gas-fired boilers with the highest market share in 2020 have an AFUE of 95%.

2. The 2030, 2040, 2050 projections are estimated based on the EERE 2022 preliminary analysis, which notes that majority of the market is expected to be condensing, if new standards are not implemented. The 

EERE 2022 preliminary analysis estimates a minimum efficiency of 95% AFUE for condensing units.

3. Electric Consumption accounts for the electricity consumption of auxiliary electrical components including circulating pump, the boiler pump (condensing boilers only), the draft inducer (if present), and the 

ignitor. It also accounts for the electricity consumption of auxiliary equipment such as a condensate pump and heat tape, which are sometimes installed with higher efficiency boilers. Additionally, it accounts 

for the additional cooling load due to heat loss from the boiler and water heater as a result of water heating during the cooling season.

4. Maintenance cost is the routine annual cost to the consumer of general maintenance for product operation. Maintenance cost is higher for condensing boilers for the inspection of condensate system and 

replacement of condensate neutralizer filter.

Note: 

The current standard went into effect in January 2021.

ENERGY STAR V. 3.0 went into effect in December 2013.

Water boilers considered. Steam boilers also exist but make up a small percentage of the market.

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Boilers

• Federal standard for gas-fired hot-water boilers (more common than steam):

— AFUE ≥ 84% 

— Standard went into effect on January 21, 2021

• ENERGY STAR criteria: AFUE ≥ 90%

• Most efficient gas-fired boiler available: 96.4% AFUE

• Gas-fired boilers have lost market share to furnaces and heat pumps over the past 30 years.

• U.S. gas hot water boiler sales are split approximately 60/40 between condensing and non-condensing.1 Condensing 

boilers typically have heat exchangers made of stainless steel, and non-condensing boilers typically have heat 

exchangers made of cast iron.

• Typically, condensing boilers are low-mass in construction with modulating burners, variable-speed inducer fan 

systems or sealed powered direct-vent combustion, multiple sensor technologies, and electronic ignition and control.

• Due to incentives and market pressure, the U.S. boiler industry has been shifting towards also providing condensing 

boilers. Most of these boilers are private-labeled products sourced from Europe, where the hydronic market is much 

bigger and condensing appliances are much more common and/or required by law.

• Most value-added components for condensing boilers are sourced abroad, even when the condensing boiler is 

assembled in North America (e.g., heat exchanger, gas valve, burner, sensors, and/or controls).

18

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Source: EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis TSD, Chapter 3
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Boilers

Annual shipments had a significant decrease following the 2009 financial crisis and a steady recovery in the years 

since.

Source: Boilers EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

19

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Final

DATA

2015 202012022 203022040220502

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

V. 3.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140

AFUE (%) 84 86 86 86 87 88 86 88 86 88 86 88

Electric Consumption (kWh/y)3230 310 310 310 307 305 310 305 310 305 310 305

Average Life (y)4

18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18

28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 4,850 3,590 3,590 3,590 3,680 3,770 3,590 3,770 3,590 3,770 3,590 3,770

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 9,800 5,510 5,510 5,510 5,600 5,690 5,510 5,690 5,510 5,690 5,510 5,690

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)4160 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170

Residential Oil-Fired Boilers

20

1. The 2020 AFUE is estimated based on EERE 2022 preliminary analysis, which estimates that oil-fired boilers with the highest market share in 2020 have an AFUE of 86%.

2. The 2030, 2040, 2050 projections are estimated based on the EERE 2022 preliminary analysis, which notes that majority of the market is expected to be at 86% AFUE, if new standards are not implemented.

3. Electric Consumption accounts for the electricity consumption of auxiliary electrical components including circulating pump, the ignitor, condensate pump, and heat tape, which are sometimes installed with 

higher efficiency boilers. Additionally, it accounts for the additional cooling load due to heat loss from the boiler and water heater as a result of water heating during the cooling season.

4. Maintenance cost is the routine annual cost to the consumer of general maintenance for product operation. 

Note: 

The current standard went into effect in January 2021.

ENERGY STAR V. 3.0 went into effect in December 2013.

Water boilers considered. Steam boilers also exist but make up a small percentage of the market.

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.

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Final

Residential Oil-Fired Boilers

• Federal standard for oil-fired hot-water boilers (more common than steam):

— AFUE ≥ 86% 

— Standard went into effect on January 21, 2021

• ENERGY STAR criteria: AFUE ≥ 87%

• Most efficient oil-fired boiler available: 88% AFUE

• Since the latent heat content of oil is lower than that for either propane or natural gas, oil-fired appliances can typically 

operate at a higher AFUE rating than comparable gas-fired appliances before condensation issues arise.

• Oil boilers have heat exchangers made of cast iron or steel. 

• No condensing oil-fired boilers currently exist in the U.S. market. The high sulfur content in fuel-oil causes heat 

exchanger fouling if the flue gases from an oil-fired boiler were to condense. As a result, condensing oil-fired boilers 

would require more frequent maintenance and repair, if installed.

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Final

Residential Oil-Fired Boilers

Annual shipments declined rapidly after 2004, likely due, at least in part, to an increase in fuel oil prices, which more 

than tripled from 2002 to 2008. Since 2012 shipments have largely leveled off.

Source: Boilers EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

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Final

1. Costs for a 100% AFUE unit are assumed to be equal to the costs of a 98% AFUE unit.

Note:

The current standard went into effect in January 1992.

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.

Residential Electric Resistance Furnaces

23

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DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Current 

Standard Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 68 68 68 68 68 68 68

AFUE (%) 98 98 100 100 100 100 100

Average Life (y)

15 15 15 15 15 15 15

30 30 30 30 30 30 30

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)1760 760 950 950 950 950 950

Total Installed Cost (2022$)11,290 1,290 1,480 1,480 1.480 1,480 1,480

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)150 50 50 50 50 50 50
Final

Residential Electric Resistance Furnaces

• Federal standards for electric furnaces:

— AFUE ≥ 78%

— Standby and off mode power consumption ≤ 10 watts

• According to preliminary Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS) data released May 2022, electric central 

warm-air furnaces are the main source of space heating in approximately 17.5 million U.S. homes or about 14%. 

• Electric furnaces range in capacity from 10 to 25 kW (34 to 85 kBtu/h), with 20 kW (68 kBtu/h) being the typical for 

units on the market.

• Electric resistance furnaces are considered near 100% efficient because there is no flue heat loss, and any jacket losses 

are contained within the home. 

— ASHRAE Standard 103, the test method for furnaces incorporated by reference into the federal test procedure, 

specifies that for electric furnaces AFUE = 100 – 1.7 x jacket losses. Jacket losses can be determined either through 

testing or assumed to be 1%. Thus, the minimum AFUE of electric furnaces is 98.3%.

24

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Final

Residential Electric Resistance Unit Heaters

25

1. Assumes similar lifetime to Electric Furnaces on the basis that both products have heating elements that burn out and lead to product failure.

2. The lower bound of the equipment costs represents the average retail price listed at the typical capacity for electric baseboard heaters through a retailer website. The upper bound represents the 

average retail price for compact recessed electric wall heaters at the same capacity.

3. Range represents the estimated minimum and maximum installation costs. 

4. Maintenance costs are negligible.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA 

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 3.5 3.5 5.1 5.1 5.1 5.1

Efficiency (%) 100 100 100 100 100 100

Average Life (y)1

15 15 15 15 15 15

30 30 30 30 30 30

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)2

90 90 85 85 85 85

240 240 340 340 340 340

Total Installed Cost (2022$)3

150 150 390 390 390 390

320 320 1,190 1,190 1,190 1,190

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)4- - - - - -
Final

Residential Electric Resistance Unit Heaters

• Electric resistance unit heaters include electric wall and baseboard heaters. Plug-in space heaters are not included.

• There are currently no federal efficiency requirements for electric resistance unit heaters.

• According to preliminary RECS data released May 2022, electric resistance unit heaters are the main source of space 

heating in approximately 8.25 million U.S. homes or about 7%. 

• Electric heaters range in capacity from 500 to 2,500 watts (1.7 to 8.5 kBtu/h), with 1,500 watts (5.1 kBtu/h) being the 

most typical for units on the market.

• Electric resistance heating is considered 100% energy efficient; all incoming electric energy is converted to heat.

26

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Final

Residential Central Air Conditioners – North (Not Hot-Dry or Hot-Humid)

27

1. Values shown are for split-system units in the 36 kBtu/h (3-ton) size class. Costs and efficiency levels are for "coil-only" systems, meaning they do not include a blower. Note blower-coil systems were 

analyzed for residential air-source heat pumps, which is why the "High" SEER levels are higher for heat pumps than for air conditioners.

2. In 2023, new energy conservation standards for Residential Central Air Conditioners and Heat Pumps took effect. The new standards specify a different metric for central air conditioners (SEER2). SEER to 

SEER2 conversions were determined using the RESNET website.

3. Annual maintenance include preventative maintenance and services provided by HVAC professionals for maintaining product operation. Examples include, calibrate and level thermostat, clean filters, clean 

indoor and condenser coil, flush/treat condensate drain with anti-algae, inspect condenser coil, monitor operating pressure of refrigerant, inspect fan blade, etc.

Note:

The previous standard went into effect in January 2015. The current standard went into effect in January 2023.

ENERGY STAR V. 5.0 went into effect in September 2015. ENERGY STAR V. 6.1 went into effect in January 2023.

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

High New 

Standard

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity 

(kBtu/h) 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36

SEER112.5 13.9 13.0 14.1 15.0 17.0 14.1 16.0 17.0 14.4 17.0 14.4 17.0 14.4 17.0

SEER2211.9 13.2 NA 13.4 NA 16.2 13.4 15.2 16.2 13.7 16.2 13.7 16.2 13.7 16.2

Average Life (y)

11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11

25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 2,410 2,670 2,580 2,700 3,110 3,950 2,680 3,750 3,950 2,760 3,950 2,760 3,950 2,760 3,950

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 4,000 4,300 5,250 5,320 5,520 5,980 5,310 5,880 5,980 5,350 5,980 5,350 5,980 5,350 5,980

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)3

20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150
Final

Residential Central Air Conditioners – South (Hot-Dry and Hot-Humid)

28

1. Values shown are for split-system units in the 36 kBtu/h (3-ton) size class. Costs and efficiency levels are for "coil-only" systems, meaning they do not include a blower. Note blower-coil systems were 

analyzed for residential air-source heat pumps, which is why the "High" SEER levels are higher for heat pumps than for air conditioners.

2. In 2023, new energy conservation standards for Residential Central Air Conditioners and Heat Pumps took effect. The new standards specify a different metric for central air conditioners (SEER2). SEER to 

SEER2 conversions were determined using the RESNET website.

3. Annual maintenance include preventative maintenance and services provided by HVAC professionals for maintaining product operation. Examples include, calibrate and level thermostat, clean filters, clean 

indoor and condenser coil, flush/treat condensate drain with anti-algae, inspect condenser coil, monitor operating pressure of refrigerant, inspect fan blade, etc.

Note:

The previous standard went into effect in January 2015. The current standard went into effect in January 2023.

ENERGY STAR V. 5.0 went into effect in September 2015. ENERGY STAR V. 6.1 went into effect in January 2023.

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

High New 

Standard

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity 

(kBtu/h) 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36

SEER113.0 14.4 14.0 14.6 15.0 17.0 15.1 16.0 17.0 15.1 17.0 15.1 17.0 15.1 17.0

SEER2212.4 13.7 NA 13.9 NA 16.2 14.3 15.2 16.2 14.3 16.2 14.3 16.2 14.3 16.2

Average Life (y)

11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11

25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 2,410 2,760 2,680 2,850 3,110 3,950 3,110 3,750 3,950 3,190 3,950 3,190 3,950 3,190 3,950

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 4,000 4,390 5,310 5,390 5,520 5,980 5,520 5,880 5,980 5,570 5,980 5,570 5,980 5,570 5,980

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)

20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150
Final

Residential Central Air Conditioners

• The previous standards took effect in 2015; amended standards for all product classes went into effect in January 2023.

— Amended standards are based on new metrics (SEER2, EER2).

— SEER2 values are generally expected to be lower than SEER because a higher external static pressure is required 

during testing, which reduces measured performance.

• Systems installed in the Southwest (CA, AZ, NM, and NV) must also meet an EER standard that varies by cooling 

capacity and system configuration.

29

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Final

Residential Central Air Conditioners

Annual shipments spiked at 6.5 million units in 2005 at the peak of the housing boom and just before more stringent 

Federal standards took effect in 2006. Annual shipments have been steadily increasing since 2010 and have almost 

reached the previous high in 2021. 

Source: AHRI

30

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Final

Residential Room Air Conditioners

31

1. RAC EERE 2022 NOPR has analysis for combined energy efficiency ratio (CEER) of 16 Btu/Wh, which represents variable speed room air conditioners. However, maximum CEER identified in DOE’s 

Compliance Certification Database (CCD) in August 2022 was 15.7 Btu/Wh. Accordingly, the high CEER is estimated to be 15.7 for 2022 and beyond. Cost values for a representative unit with a CEER of 16 

Btu/Wh were used.

2. The 2030, 2040, 2050 projections are estimated based on RAC EERE 2022 NOPR, which notes that in the absence of no new standards, room air conditioners with a CEER of 12 Btu/Wh are expected to have the 

maximum market share.

3. Maintenance costs are negligible per RAC EERE 2011 and RAC EERE 2022 NOPR.

Note: 

All values are for the most common product class, Product Class 3 (without reverse cycle, with louvered sides, and 8,000 to 13,999 Btu/h).

The current standard went into effect in June 2014.

ENERGY STAR V. 4.2 went into effect in October 2015.

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter (for example, installed cost for equipment meeting the federal standard) not the highest and lowest available on the market.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2015 2020 2022 203022040220502

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.2

High1 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10.0 10.0

CEER (Btu/Wh) 10.9 10.9 10.9 12.0 12.0 15.7 12.0 15.7 12.0 15.7 12.0 15.7

Average Life (y)

6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

560 330 330 340 340 450 340 450 340 450 340 450

710 480 480 480 480 590 480 590 480 590 480 590

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

640 490 490 490 490 600 490 600 490 600 490 600

830 630 630 640 640 750 640 750 640 750 640 750

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Final

Residential Room Air Conditioners

• Analyzed the most common type of room air conditioners: louvered sides (window air conditioners) without reverse 

cycle and having cooling capacity of 8,000–13,999 Btu/h (DOE Product Class 3).

• Federal standards for Product Class 3:

— CEER ≥ 10.9 (beginning June 1, 2014)

• CEER incorporates energy use in cooling mode and standby and off modes.

• ENERGY STAR V. 4.2 criteria for Product Class 3:

— CEER ≥ 12.0 (effective October 26, 2015)

• Efficiency improvements in room air conditioners are attained by:

— Higher efficiency compressor and fan motors (including variable speed motors), and

— An increased heat transfer area in the evaporator and condenser using larger heat exchangers, finer fin spacing, 

micro-channel heat exchangers, and similar design options.

32

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Final

Residential Room Air Conditioners

Annual shipments dropped sharply in 2009, likely due to the recession and an unusually cool summer in the 

Northeast. Sales have largely leveled off in the years since, fluctuating between 6 and 8 million.

Source: RAC EERE 2022 NOPR

33

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Final

Residential Portable Air Conditioners

34

1. All values are for the average capacity for single-duct and dual-duct portable air conditioners available on the market.

2. CEER is calculated for typical capacity using the equation provided in PAC EERE 2020.

3. Installation and maintenance costs are negligible.

4. The 2022 Typical estimates are based on PAC EERE 2020, which estimated majority of the market to be at EL1 in 2022 for the no-new standards case, which translates to a CEER of 5.5 for this analysis.

5. All High values are based on the most-efficient models available in the market, as specified in PAC EERE 2020.

Note: 

A final rule for portable air cleaners published in January 2020 with an effective date of January 2025.

Costs are interpolated from the costs presented in PAC EERE 2020.

Range for lifetime represents typical values.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2015 2020 202242025 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High5 New Standard High5 Typical High5 Typical High5 Typical High5

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h)16.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6

CEER25.6 5.6 5.5 7.6 6.7 7.6 6.7 7.6 6.7 7.6 6.7 7.6

Average Life (y)

7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 700 700 700 810 760 810 760 810 760 810 760 810

Total Installed Cost (2022$)3700 700 700 810 760 810 760 810 760 810 760 810

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Final

Residential Portable Air Conditioners

• A final rule establishing new energy conservation standards for portable air conditioners published in January 2020 

with an effective date of January 2025.

• The final rule outlined an equation-based conservation standard (in CEER) for both single-duct and dual-duct portable 

ACs, based on the seasonally adjusted cooling capacity (SACC)

• Efficiency improvements in portable air conditioners are attained by:

— Higher efficiency compressor and fan motors (including variable speed motors), and

— An increased heat transfer area in the evaporator and condenser using larger heat exchangers, finer fin spacing, 

micro-channel heat exchangers, and similar design options.

35

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Final

Residential Portable Air Conditioners

Annual shipments have seen an exponential growth through 2014. Shipments data since 2014 is not publicly available 

but it is expected that portable air conditioners shipments may have increased in recent years in response to indoor air 

quality concerns following COVID-19.

Source: PAC EERE 2020

36

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Final

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Air Flow Rate (CFM) 3,800 3,800 3,800 4,700 3,800 4,700 3,800 4,700 3,800 4,700

Power (Hp) 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/2 1/3 1/2 1/3 1/2 1/3 1/2

Average Life (y)1

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 960 960 960 1,100 960 1,100 960 1,100 960 1,100

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 1,360 1,360 1,360 1,540 1,360 1,540 1,360 1,540 1,360 1,540

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 330 330 330 330 330 330 330 330 330 330

Residential Swamp Coolers

37

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1. Average lifetime provided by major swamp cooler installer in the U.S. Southwest. 

Note:

Efficiency values were determined based on a sample of window-mounted swamp coolers.

Lifetime range represents span of typical values.
Final

Residential Swamp Coolers

• Evaporative cooling (i.e., "swamp coolers") is a technology that takes advantage of water evaporation to cool incoming 

air. Energy is required to change water from a liquid to a vapor (i.e., the heat of vaporization), and in doing so, 

temperature of the air is reduced. Evaporative cooling is best suited for hot, dry climates.

• Swamp coolers come in a variety of different configurations, including centrally ducted units that are mounted outside 

a building or roof; window evaporative coolers that are window-mount units that pull in warm outdoor air, pass it 

through wet media to remove heat, and blow out the cooled air; or portable plug-in units. Window units were 

considered for this analysis due to the high model share count on distributor websites. 

• The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has cautioned against using swamp coolers in wildfire-impacted 

areas in smoky conditions because it can result in more smoke bring brought inside. 

• Swamp coolers are not a DOE-covered product.

• Swamp cooler metrics include power of the fan/blower, measured in horsepower (hp), and air flow rate, measured in 

cubic feet per minute (CFM).

38

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Single-inlet direct swamp cooler. Source: PNNL
Final

Residential Air-Source Heat Pumps

39

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

High New 

Standard

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.1

ENERGY 

STAR Cold 

Climate 

Criteria

High4 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36

SEER (Cooling)113.1 15.3 14.0 15.3 15.0 22.6 15.0 16.0 NA 22.6 16.0 22.6 16.5 22.6 17.0 22.6

SEER2212.4 14.5 NA 14.5 NA 21.5 14.3 15.2 15.2 21.5 15.2 21.5 15.7 21.5 16.2 21.5

HSPF (Heating)17.9 8.6 8.2 8.6 8.5 12.4 8.8 9.2 NA 12.4 9.2 12.4 9.3 12.4 9.3 12.4

HSPF226.7 7.3 NA 7.3 NA 10.6 7.5 7.8 8.1 10.6 7.8 10.6 7.9 10.6 7.9 10.6

Average Life (y) 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$)1 3,290 4,270 3,970 4,270 4,110 6,740 4,110 4,380 4,380 6,740 4,380 6,740 5,000 6,740 5,100 6,740

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$)1 5,790 6,880 6,730 6,880 6,810 8,620 6,810 6,940 6,940 8,620 6,940 8,620 7,240 8,620 7,330 8,620

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)3

20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150

1. Values shown are for split-system units in the 36 kBtu/h (3-ton) size class. Costs and efficiency levels are for "blower-coil" systems, meaning they include a blower. Note coil-only systems were analyzed for residential central air 

conditioners, which is why the "High" SEER levels are higher for heat pumps than for air conditioners. 

2. In 2023, new energy conservation standards for Residential Central Air Conditioners and Heat Pumps took effect. The new standards specify different metrics for Air-Source Heat Pumps (SEER2 and heating seasonal performance 

factor 2 (HSPF2)). SEER to SEER2 and HSPF to HSPF2 conversions were determined using the RESNET website. 

3. Annual maintenance include preventative maintenance and services provided by HVAC professionals for maintaining product operation. Examples include, calibrate and level thermostat, clean filters, clean indoor and condenser 

coil, flush/treat condensate drain with anti-algae, inspect condenser coil, monitor operating pressure of refrigerant, inspect fan blade, etc.

4. High costs derived from developing a cost-efficiency curve between retail/installed costs and SEER.

Note:

The previous standard went into effect in January 2015. The current standard went into effect in January 2023.

ENERGY STAR V. 5.0 went into effect in September 2015. ENERGY STAR V. 6.1 went into effect in January 2023.

Ranges represent the span of typical values for maintenance costs.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (15.88, 2, 1).
Final

Residential Air-Source Heat Pumps

• The previous standards took effect in 2015; amended standards for all product classes went into effect in January 2023.

— Amended standards are based on new metrics (SEER2, EER2, HSPF2).

— SEER2 values are generally expected to be lower than SEER because a higher external static pressure is required 

during testing, which reduces measured performance.

• High efficiency cooling does not necessarily correlate with high efficiency heating. The range of SEER–HSPF 

combinations is very broad.

• Heat pumps are generally sized to meet the cooling load of the house. When the heating load exceeds heat pump 

heating capacity, electric resistance heat is used to supplement.

• Variable-speed compressors improve efficiency of heat pumps by reducing cyclic losses and by operating above their 

nominal speed, boosting heating capacity, and reducing the need for supplementary electric resistance heat.

• In addition to meeting the SEER2 and HSPF2 requirements, air source heat pumps must demonstrate low ambient 

performance to earn the Cold Climate designation by meeting the following:

— Coefficient of Performance (COP) at 5 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) ≥ 1.75, measured in accordance with Appendix M1 

H42test

— Percent of Heating Capacity at 5 °F ≥ 70% of that at 47 °F, with the 5 °F capacity measured per Appendix M1 H42

test and the 47 °F capacity measured as the nominal heating capacity per Appendix M1 (i.e., from the Appendix 

M1 H1N test for units having a variable-speed compressor where the compressor speed shall be the maximum 

speed that the system controls would operate at 47 °F, otherwise from the Appendix M1 H12test) 

— Perform a controls verification procedure (CVP) to confirm that the above performance metrics measured at the 

Appendix M1 low ambient test point at 5 °F are achieved by the native controls operating as they would in a 

customer’s home

40

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Final

Residential Air-Source Heat Pumps

From 2000 to 2005 annual shipments increased nearly 60% to 2.1 million units, then dropped and leveled off around 

1.7 million units. In 2014 annual shipments surpassed the 2005 peak and have been increasing uniformly since then. 

Source: AHRI

41

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Final

Residential Central Air Conditioners and Air-Source Heat Pumps

• Principal energy efficiency drivers for central air conditioners and heat pumps:

— Heat exchanger (surface area, number of tube rows)

— Compressor (type and single-stage vs. two-stage vs. variable-speed operation)

— Fan motor choices (PSC vs. ECM fan motors on inside and outside)

— Control choices (i.e., piston, thermal, and electronic expansion valves)

• When the heat pump or air conditioner’s capacity exceeds the heating or cooling load, the unit starts and stops more 

frequently, causing wear and tear on the components and an overall loss of efficiency. Multi-stage and/or variablespeed compressors can help, as does sophisticated refrigerant management.

• Typical high-efficiency unit (≥ 16 SEER) has very large heat exchanger, ECM evaporator fan motor, and two-stage 

scroll compressor.

• Variable-speed compressor technology typically leads to a significant SEER boost, making possible high-SEER 

condensing units with smaller heat exchangers, and thus, smaller enclosures.

• Efficiency levels > 21 SEER made possible through combining existing large heat exchangers with variable-speed 

compressors, ECM fan motors, and electronic expansion valves.

42

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Final

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h)112 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

SEER 16.0 16.0 21.9 33.1 21.9 33.1 21.9 33.1 21.9 33.1

EER 12.5 12.5 13.0 19.1 13.0 19.1 13.0 19.1 13.0 19.1

HSPF 10.0 10.0 11.1 14.0 11.1 14.0 11.1 14.0 11.1 14.0

Average Life (y)215.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 1,580 1,580 1,580 1,580 1,580 1,580 1,580 1,580 1,580 1,580

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 2,030 2,030 2,030 2,030 2,030 2,030 2,030 2,030 2,030 2,030

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Residential Ductless Mini-Split Air-Source Heat Pumps

43

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1. Representative capacity determined from most frequent capacity in AHRI database

2. Assumed same lifespan and maintenance cost as air-source heat pumps given the technology is similar between air-source and ductless mini-split heat pumps, and ductwork itself is not expected to fail.

3. Annual maintenance covers the same services identified for air-source heat pumps.

Note: 

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (15.88, 2, 1).
Final

Residential Ductless Mini-Split Air-Source Heat Pumps

• Ductless systems can be useful in “spot cooling” certain high-use areas of a home, such as a living room, bedroom, or 

office. 

• Mini-split heat pumps are generally more efficient (often > 20 SEER) and smaller in cooling capacity (often ≤ 24 kBtu/h) 

compared to split-system heat pumps.

— A mini-split heat pump could be equal in capacity and efficiency to a split-system heat pump as there are no 

inherent design changes between split-system and mini-split heat pumps, aside from the ductwork. Mini-split heat 

pumps tend to be more efficient and smaller in capacity due to their prevalence for spot cooling, but the same 

technologies are used between the two product categories.

• Due to the similarities in design, cost estimations were determined based on smaller capacity (24 kBtu/h) split-system 

heat pumps and Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building Construction Costs 2023. Efficiency data was analyzed using the 

AHRI directory, which provides disaggregation of data on the basis of ducted and ductless heat pumps. 

• Annual maintenance covers the same services identified for air-source heat pumps.

44

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Final

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.2

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36

COP (Heating)13.1 3.7 3.2 3.6 3.6 4.5 3.6 4.5 3.6 4.5 3.6 4.5

EER (Cooling)213.3 17.3 14.1 17.3 17.1 22.0 17.3 22.0 17.3 22.0 17.3 22.0

Average Life (y)

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 4,650 5,470 4,820 5,470 5,410 6,530 5,470 6,530 5,470 6,530 5,470 6,530

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

14,060 14,880 14,230 14,880 14,880 15,940 14,880 15,940 14,880 15,940 14,880 15,940

22,290 23,120 22,470 23,120 23,120 24,170 23,120 24,170 23,120 24,170 23,120 24,170

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90

Residential Ground-Source Heat Pumps

45

1. COP values listed are assessed at a "ground loop" test condition, which is representative of closed loop ground source heat pumps (GSHP) operating conditions. However, DOE sets standards at a "water 

loop" test condition. The AHRI directory lists COP ratings at both sets of test conditions and is used to convert between them where necessary. 

2. EER values listed are assessed at a full-load "ground loop" test condition, which is representative of closed loop GSHP operating conditions. However, DOE sets standards at a full-load "water loop" test 

condition. The AHRI directory lists EER ratings at all sets of test conditions and is used to convert between them where necessary.

Note: 

Residential and commercial GSHPs are very similar - the main difference in data presented is the different capacity (3-ton vs. 4-ton) and slightly higher installation costs for commercial GSHP. DOE does not 

distinguish between residential and commercial units in its regulations.

Current standards went into effect on October 9, 2015. COP and EER ratings are converted from the “water loop” test condition to “ground loop.”

ENERGY STAR V. 3.2 went into effect January 1, 2012.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay parameters: (17.04, 1.64, 1).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Ground-Source Heat Pumps

• Heating COP does not correlate with cooling EER.

• The ENERGY STAR criteria for water-to-air ground-source heat pumps are:

• The most common GSHP is a closed-loop system in which water or an anti-freeze solution is circulated through plastic 

pipes buried underground. Open loop systems that employ ground water or surface water (e.g., open well, pond, lake) 

are used in some parts of the country, but water supply and water quality issues impose limitations on such 

applications.

• Installation cost is for a closed loop system and includes necessary accessories. The ground loop heat exchanger 

represents a majority of the installation cost. Installed costs for these systems vary widely. 

• Variable speed ECMs improve performance on high-end models.

46

Type Heating 

COP

Cooling 

EER

Closed Loop 3.6 17.1

Open Loop 4.1 21.1

Direct Expansion 3.6 16

Return to Table of Contents
Final

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 60 60 60 60 60 60

COP (Heating) 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3

COP (Cooling) 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7

Annual Electric Use (kWh/y)1

1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500

Average Life (y)

12 12 12 12 12 12

18 18 18 18 18 18

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)2

12,940 12,940 12,940 12,940 12,940 12,940

14,350 14,350 14,350 14,350 14,350 14,350

Total Installed Cost (2022$)2

14,700 14,700 14,700 14,700 14,700 14,700

17,290 17,290 17,290 17,290 17,290 17,290

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 200 200 200 200 200 200

Residential Natural Gas Heat Pumps

47

Return to Table of Contents

1. Annual electric use accounts for the electricity consumption of components such as the heat pump fan.

Note:

Ranges represent the span of typical values observed in the market.
Final

Residential Natural Gas Heat Pumps

• Residential natural gas heat pumps are not currently subject to DOE regulations. The California Energy Commission’s 

(CEC) Title 24, Part 6 Section 112 does indicate cooling efficiency requirements for natural gas heat pumps.

• Natural gas heat pumps are much more popular in other parts of the world, such as Europe. Gas-fired cooling 

equipment currently comprises less than 1% of the residential air conditioning/heat pump market in the U.S. 

• Currently, Robur is the predominant manufacturer of residential-sized natural gas heat pumps with sales operations 

in the U.S.. Robur units are 5-ton nominal cooling capacity, a size typically associated with larger homes. Since only 

one product is available, no mid-level or high efficiency categories are included in this analysis. 

• The data represents air-source absorption heat pumps. Gas engine-driven vapor compression heat pumps are 

available in other parts of the world; York formerly offered the Triathlon gas engine-driven heat pump in the U.S. It is 

possible to couple either technology to the ground (ground-source) rather than the atmosphere (air-source).

• The absorption heat pump is a gas-fired, ammonia-water absorption cycle, combined with a high-efficiency lowpressure boiler integrated into one outdoor unit.

• The cooling efficiency of a gas-fired air-source absorption heat pump is considerably lower than for an electric airsource heat pump. Heating efficiency of an air-source heat pump (electric or gas-fired absorption) decreases as 

outdoor temperature decreases; however, the gas-fired absorption heat pump recovers waste heat from the 

combustion process to improve heating efficiency.

48

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Final

Residential Cordwood Stoves

49

1. For 2015, assumed EPA default efficiencies, which were used by EPA to approximate the efficiency of stoves before the 2015 EPA rule required efficiency testing.

2. For 2020, assumed same efficiencies as estimated for 2022 given the most recent EPA rule went into effect in May 2020.

3. The 2022 High value is the highest EPA certified efficiency. The 2022 Typical value is the average of EPA certified efficiencies.

4. For 2030-2050, it is assumed that the same conditions as current would persist because no impending efficiency requirements are expected from EPA, given recency of 2020 rulemaking and current market 

factors.

5. Efficiency includes combustion and heat transfer efficiency and is based on the higher heating value (HHV) of the fuel.

6. Installed costs include the cost of hearth and stainless-steel chimney liner - materials and labor.

7. For catalytic stoves, annual maintenance cost includes periodic cost of replacing the catalytic combustor.

Note: 

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

201512020220223203042040420504

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

Efficiency (Non-Catalytic) (HHV)563 71 71 80 71 80 71 80 71 80

Efficiency (Catalytic) (HHV)572 76 76 81 76 81 76 81 76 81

Average Life (y)

12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) (NonCatalytic) 2,880 1,670 1,670 2,300 1,670 2,300 1,670 2,300 1,670 2,300

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) (Catalytic) 3,540 3,040 3,040 3,830 3,040 3,830 3,040 3,830 3,040 3,830

Total Installed Cost (2022$) (NonCatalytic)6 8,290 7,090 7,090 7,710 7,090 7,710 7,090 7,710 7,090 7,710

Total Installed Cost (2022$) (Catalytic)68,950 8,460 8,460 9,240 8,460 9,240 8,460 9,240 8,460 9,240

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) (NonCatalytic)7 190 190 190 190 190 190 190 190 190 190

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 

(Catalytic)7 280 280 280 280 280 280 280 280 280 280
Final

Residential Cordwood Stoves

• Residential cordwood stoves that must meet EPA particulate limits fall into two broad classes based on whether they 

use a catalyst for air treatment. Catalytic wood stoves use a catalytic combustor to reduce emissions from the 

combustion air. Non-catalytic wood stoves use baffles and introduce secondary air above the flames to enable more 

complete combustion and reduce emissions. 

• In 2015, EPA published an update to its New Source Performance Standards (NSPS), decreasing the emissions limit 

(previously set by 1988 EPA rule) to 4.5 grams per hour (g/h) for both catalytic and non-catalytic stoves. The new rule 

did not institute efficiency standards but required that manufacturers test and certify the efficiency of their stoves. This 

standard took full effect on January 1, 2016.

• In 2020, the NSPS limit for new room heaters was lowered to 2.5 g/h if tested with cord wood. 

• Prior to the 2015 rule, manufacturers could either submit efficiency data from laboratory testing or certify with the 

default efficiency value designated by EPA. EPA’s default efficiency values were 63% for non-catalytic wood stoves 

and 72% for catalytic wood stoves. Under this system, few manufacturers submitted efficiency test data to EPA.

• Multiple test standards are commonly used to assess stove efficiency, and data from product literature does not 

generally identify the efficiency test method. 

• It is not possible to determine performance trends based on construction or configuration (e.g., cast iron vs. plate steel, 

powered blowers vs. no blowers, etc.) trends in specific equipment type or construction based on published 

efficiencies. Further, EPA certification data shows no significant relationship between emissions and heating 

efficiency.

• Cordwood stoves require chimneys for venting combustion gases. Whether conventional masonry chimneys are used 

or metal chimney liners, these add considerable cost to the overall system. Accordingly, installed costs can be twice 

that of the wood stove itself. 

50

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Final

Residential Cordwood Stoves

Cordwood stove shipments have averaged 123,000 per year since 1999 and have fluctuated approximately in 

accordance with fuel oil costs.

Source: HPBA, no post-2012 sales data was publicly available at time of publication.

51

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Final

Residential Wood Pellet Stoves

52

1. For 2015, assumed EPA default efficiencies, which were used by EPA to approximate the efficiency of stoves before the 2015 EPA rule required efficiency testing.

2. For 2020, assumed same efficiencies as estimated for 2022 given the most recent EPA rule went into effect in May 2020.

3. The 2022 High value is the highest EPA certified efficiency. The 2022 Typical value is the average of EPA certified efficiencies.

4. For 2030-2050, it is assumed that the same conditions as current would persist because no impending efficiency requirements are expected from EPA, given recency of 2020 rulemaking and current market 

factors.

5. Efficiency includes combustion and heat transfer efficiency and is based on the HHV of the fuel.

6. The annual electric consumption estimates assume 6 months/year @ 100kW/mo based on DOE estimates. 

7. Installed cost includes cost of hearth and vent pipe - materials and labor.

Note: 

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

201512020220223203042040420504

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

Efficiency (HHV)570 73 73 85 73 85 73 85 73 85

Annual Electricity Consumption (kWh)6600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600

Average Life (y)

12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 3,900 3,120 3,120 4,000 3,120 4,000 3,120 4,000 3,120 4,000

Total Installed Cost (2022$)75,550 4,520 4,520 5,400 4,520 5,400 4,520 5,400 4,520 5,400

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 310 310 310 310 310 310 310 310 310 310
Final

Residential Wood Pellet Stoves

• In 2015, EPA published an update to its NSPS, limiting emissions for wood pellet stoves to 4.5 g/h. Prior to the 2015 

EPA rule, most pellet stoves were exempt from EPA’s NSPS requirements. The new rule did not institute efficiency 

standards but required that manufacturers test and certify the efficiency of their stoves. This standard took full effect 

on January 1, 2016.

• Prior to the 2015 rule, manufacturers could either submit efficiency data from laboratory testing or certify with the 

default efficiency value designated by EPA. EPA’s default efficiency values were 63% for non-catalytic wood stoves 

and 72% for catalytic wood stoves. Under this system, few manufacturers submitted efficiency test data to EPA.

• Multiple test standards are commonly used to assess stove efficiency and data from product literature does not 

generally identify the efficiency test method. 

• It is not possible to determine performance trends based on construction or configuration (e.g., cast iron vs. plate steel, 

powered blowers vs. no blowers, etc.) trends in specific equipment type or construction based on published 

efficiencies. Further, EPA certification data shows no significant relationship between emissions and heating 

efficiency.

• Wood pellet stoves may be able to be direct vented to the outdoors, eliminating the need for a chimney. This reduces 

the overall system cost as compared to a cord wood stove. However, they do use electricity to power the pellet feeder, 

the combustion air fan, and the blower. In the event of a power outage, a pellet stove can not operate without some 

back-up source of electricity (e.g., battery) . 

53

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Final

Residential Wood Pellet Stoves

Wood pellet stove shipments grew substantially in the 2005 – 2008 time period but have averaged only 40,000 – 60,000 

units since that time.

Source: HPBA, no post-2012 sales data was publicly available at time of publication.

54

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Final

Residential Water Heating

55

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Storage Water Heaters

56

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.0

High

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (gal) 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40

Uniform Energy Factor (UEF)10.58 0.63 0.61 0.61 0.66 0.84 0.83 0.61 0.84 0.61 0.84 0.61 0.84

Average Life (y) 13 13 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$)

590 880 420 420 490 720 700 420 720 420 720 420 720

650 1,410 990 990 1,110 1,650 1,590 990 1,650 990 1,650 990 1,650

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

1,240 1,650 740 740 800 1,140 1,130 740 1,140 740 1,140 740 1,140

1,240 2,880 1,690 1,690 1,850 3,130 3,160 1,690 3,130 1,690 3,130 1,690 3,130

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)2 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

1. Analysis is based on an average of medium and high draw pattern units, as this is most reflective of the market.

2. Maintenance includes manufacturer recommendation for the water heater to be drained and flushed annually to minimize deposition of sediment, maintain operating efficiency, and prolong product 

life. Available evidence indicates that this is performed in 10% of households.

Note:

Ranges represent the span of typical values.

Current standards went into effect April 16, 2015.

ENERGY STAR V. 4.0 went into effect January 5, 2022.

ENERGY STAR V. 5.0 will go into effect April 18, 2023

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (15.1, 1.76, 1).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Storage Water Heaters

• The equations for Federal Standards and the voluntary ENERGY STAR requirements, if applicable, are:

• There are currently no models on the market above 55 gallons (gal) due to the high UEF, which would require using 

condensing or gas-fired heat pump (e.g., absorption) technology to achieve.

• The cost of installation is typically $600 to $1200, which exceeds that of electric water heaters. This difference can be 

attributed to multiple differences; for example, gas-fired heaters require an extra 1.5 hours of labor for 2 plumbers. 

• Condensing units are high efficiency and use PVC venting instead of stainless-steel. Condensing units also use an 

electrical supply for electronic ignition and power venting. Some building codes require condensate neutralizer filters.

57

Volume 

Range Draw Pattern Federal standard1 Federal minimum UEF for typical sizes

ENERGY 

STAR

≥ 20 gal and ≤ 

55 gal

Very Small UEF=0.3456-(0.002*Gal) No models on the market NA

Low UEF=0.5982-(0.0019*Gal) 0.54 for a 29-gallon water heater NA

Medium UEF=0.6483-(0.0017*Gal) 0.58 for a 38-gallon water heater 0.64

High UEF=0.692-(0.0013*Gal) 0.64 for a 48-gallon water heater 0.68

> 55 gal and ≤ 

100 gal

Very Small UEF=0.647-(0.0006*Gal) No models on the market NA

Low UEF=0.7689-(0.0005*Gal) No models on the market NA

Medium UEF=0.7897-(0.0004*Gal) No models on the market 0.78

High UEF=0.8072-(0.0003*Gal) No models on the market 0.80

1Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Water Heaters. 10 CFR 430.32(d).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

0.000

1.000

2.000

3.000

4.000

5.000

6.000

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Unit Shipments (millions)

Residential Gas-Fired Water Heaters

Residential Gas-Fired Storage Water Heaters

Shipments were flat at 5 million units per year through 2004, then declined gradually over 5 years to a new plateau at 

4 million units until rising again back to 5 million units in 2021.

Source: AHRI

58

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Final

Residential Oil-Fired Water Heaters

59

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (gal) 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32

Uniform Energy Factor10.51 0.67 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.66 0.68 0.66 0.68 0.66 0.68

Average Life (y) 13 13 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.5

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

1,590 1,880 1,380 1,400 1,480 1,400 1,480 1,400 1,480 1,400 1,480

1,710 2,410 2,810 2,870 3,030 2,870 3,030 2,870 3,030 2,870 3,030

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

2,350 2,650 2,620 2,650 2,730 2,650 2,730 2,650 2,730 2,650 2,730

2,470 3,350 4,050 4,120 4,280 4,120 4,280 4,120 4,280 4,120 4,280

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)2210 210 210 210 210 210 210 210 210 210 210

1. Analysis is based on an average of medium and high draw pattern units, as this is most reflective of the market.

2. Oil-fired storage water heaters are typically cleaned and maintained under maintenance contracts. The annual cost of typical maintenance is based on maintenance contract prices from 

different oil-fired product suppliers as specified in the CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis.

Note:

Ranges represent span of typical values.

Current standards went into effect April 16, 2015.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (16.2, 1.70, 1).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Oil-Fired Water Heaters

• The equations for Federal Standards and the voluntary ENERGY STAR requirements, if applicable, are:

• There are no ENERGY STAR requirements for oil-fired storage water heaters.

• Annual shipments of residential oil-fired storage water heaters are approximately 4,000, which is less than 1% of 

shipments of residential gas-fired storage water heaters. 

• Oil-fired storage water heaters often have smaller tanks with larger input ratings relative to natural gas-fired and 

electric storage water heaters.

• No condensing residential oil-fired storage water heaters currently exist in the U.S. market. Condensing oil-fired water 

heaters are generally not considered technologically feasible because the sulfur content in fuel oil leads to the 

condensate becoming corrosive.

• Residential oil-fired water heaters utilize power burners and have at least some level of electrical power consumption. 

• The most efficient models on the market use a proprietary “turbo-flue” design to increase heat transfer to water.

60

Volume 

Range

Draw 

Pattern Federal standard1 Federal minimum UEF for typical sizes

ENERGY 

STAR

≤ 50 gal

Very Small UEF=0.2509-(0.0012*Gal) No models on the market NA

Low UEF=0.533-(0.0016*Gal) No models on the market NA

Medium UEF=0.6078-(0.0016*Gal) No models on the market NA

High UEF=0.6815-(0.0014*Gal) 0.64 for a 29-gallon water heater NA

1Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Water Heaters. 10 CFR 430.32(d).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Oil-Fired Water Heaters

Shipments peaked at about 22,000 units in 2000 and have decreased since then, with an exponential decay occurring 

since 2007. Only about 4,000 units were shipped in 2021.

Source: CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

61

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0

5

10

15

20

25

1997 2002 2007 2012 2017 2022

Unit Shipments (thousands)

Residential Oil-Fired Water Heaters
Final

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (gal) 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36

Uniform Energy Factor10.88 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.93 0.92 0.93 0.92 0.93 0.92 0.93

Average Life (y) 13 13 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

290 350 330 330 600 330 600 330 600 330 600

530 650 760 760 850 760 850 760 850 760 850

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

590 710 500 500 550 500 550 500 550 500 550

940 1,290 1,310 1,310 1,430 1,310 1,430 1,310 1,430 1,310 1,430

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)220 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Residential Electric Resistance Storage Water Heaters

62

1. Beginning in 2016, the efficiency metric for water heaters changed from energy factor (EF) to UEF based on DOE test procedures. The UEF values for the installed base in 2015 are 

converted values equivalent to 0.90 EF. Analysis is based on an average of low and medium draw pattern units, as this is most reflective of the market.

2. Similar to gas-fired and oil-fired storage water heaters, manufacturers recommend that electric storage water heaters be drained and flushed annually to minimize deposition of sediment, 

maintain operating efficiency, and prolong product life. The available evidence indicates that this practice is done in 10% of households.

Note:

Ranges represent span of typical values.

Current standards went into effect April 16, 2015.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (15.7, 1.57, 1).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Electric Resistance Storage Water Heaters

• The equations for Federal Standards and the voluntary ENERGY STAR requirements, if applicable, are:

• The federal standards for residential electric storage water heaters apply to both electric resistance storage water heaters 

and heat pump water heaters.

— The Federal standard levels for the ≤ 55-gallon range are achievable through electric resistance and heat pump 

technology.

— The Federal standards for the > 55-gallon range and all ENERGY STAR levels are only achievable through heat pump 

technology. 

• Typical storage volumes range from 25-55 gallons for electric resistance storage water heaters and 45-80 gallons for heat 

pump water heaters (HPWHs).

63

Volume 

Range

Draw 

Pattern Federal standard1 Federal minimum UEF for typical sizes

ENERGY 

STAR

≥ 20 gal and 

≤ 55 gal

Very Small UEF=0.8808-(0.0008*Gal) No models on the market 2.00

Low UEF=0.9254-(0.0003*Gal) 0.92 for a 27-gallon water heater 2.00

Medium UEF=0.9307-(0.0002*Gal) 0.92 for a 45-gallon water heater 2.00

High UEF=0.9349-(0.0001*Gal) 0.93 for a 50-gallon water heater 2.00

> 55 gal and 

≤ 120 gal

Very Small UEF=1.9236-(0.0011*Gal) No models on the market 2.20

Low UEF=2.0440-(0.0011*Gal) No models on the market 2.20

Medium UEF=2.1171-(0.0011*Gal) 2.05 for a 58-gallon water heater 2.20

High UEF=2.2418-(0.0011*Gal) 2.15 for a 80-gallon water heater 2.20

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Electric Resistance Storage Water Heaters

Shipments peaked in 2006 then dropped a total of 22 percent over three years. Shipments have gradually increased 

since then and were at the highest level in 2021.

Source: AHRI

64

Return to Table of Contents

0.000

1.000

2.000

3.000

4.000

5.000

6.000

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Unit Shipments (millions)

Residential Electric Resistance Water Heaters
Final

Residential Heat Pump Water Heaters

65

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical ENERGY STAR V. 4.0 High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (gal) 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36

Uniform Energy Factor12.05 3.28 3.33 3.30 3.73 3.33 3.73 3.33 3.73 3.33 3.73

Average Life (y) 13 13 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)2

1,290 1,410 630 630 670 630 670 630 670 630 670

1,650 1,760 1,440 1,440 1,670 1,370 1,590 1,300 1,510 1,240 1,430

Total Installed Cost (2022$)2

1,710 1,880 870 870 980 870 980 870 980 870 980

2,940 3,000 2,230 2,230 2,450 2,120 2,330 2,010 2,210 1,910 2,100

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)320 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

1. Analysis is based on an average of low and medium draw pattern units, as this is most reflective of the market.

2. It is expected that costs for HPWHs will decrease over time as these products become more common. This analysis estimates these cost decreases for the higher range of costs.

3. For heat pump water heater design options, DOE assumed higher maintenance cost to take into account annual cleaning of the air filter, preventative maintenance cost to check the evaporator and 

refrigeration system, inspection of the condensate withdrawal system, and replacement of the condensate neutralizer filter, if applicable. However, this maintenance is estimated to occur in only 

10% of households, so overall maintenance cost is similar to that of other electric resistance water heaters. 

Note:

Ranges represent span of typical values.

ENERGY STAR V. 4.0 went into effect January 5, 2022.

Assume same lifetime as electric resistance water heaters.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Heat Pump Water Heaters

• Technology improvements have advanced efficiency and reliability, but the high first-cost and lack of awareness 

among consumers and contractors still precludes high-volume market penetration. 

• New Federal standards that came into effect in April 2015 effectively mandate heat pump technology for electric 

storage water heaters with storage volume > 55 gallons.

• Integrated models are the most common configuration for residential HPWHs. Several major water heater 

manufacturers produce such models, and other competitors offer integrated or add-on units (for existing electric or 

indirect storage water heaters). 

• Sales are estimated to be driven partly by rebates and tax credits at the utility, local, state, and Federal level. 

• Resistive heating elements are virtually 100% efficient, but there is a jump in efficiency when heat pump technology is 

adopted because heat pumps’ COP are usually between 2.5 and 4.

• Heat pumps raise the water temperature more slowly than resistive heating elements, so most models use backup 

resistive elements along with the heat pump when hot water demand is high. Most HPWHs allow the consumer to 

control whether resistive elements are used in periods of high demand (e.g., “hybrid mode” or “heat pump only 

mode”).

66

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Final

Residential Heat Pump Water Heaters

Shipments make up a small portion of electric resistance heaters, with a peak of only about 5,500 units, occurring in 

both 2015 and 2021. 

Source: ENERGY STAR

67

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0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Unit Shipments (thousands)

Residential Heat Pump Water Heaters
Final

Residential Solar Water Heaters

68

1. Capacity selections are based on the range observed from medium draw units in the ENERGY STAR database. Medium draw represented the largest portion of units.

2. An SUEF of 3.0 is the required threshold for ENERGY STAR certification, yet a value of 99 was the most common observed SUEF among medium draw units. Note that an SUEF of 99 indicates that no 

backup heating was required for the applicable draw pattern, and all energy was provided by the solar collector. Since SUEF is a measure of hot water energy out divided by electrical or gas backup 

energy in, it will be infinite for cases where the collector provides all the hot water needed for the draw pattern – the Solar Rating and Certification Corporation’s (SRCC’s) OG-300 software is written 

to assign an SUEF of 99 to this case.

3. Annual maintenance is expected to be 0.5% to 1% of the total installation for 2022, 2030, 2040, and 2050.

Note:

Ranges represent span of typical values.

ENERGY STAR V. 4.0 went into effect January 5, 2022.

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base ENERGY STAR 

V. 4.0 Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (ft2)

1

42 42 40 40 40 40 40

65 65 54.4 54.4 54.4 54.4 54.4

Solar Uniform Energy Factor (SUEF)2 3.0 3.0 3.0 99.0 99.0 99.0 99.0

Average Life (y)

15 15 15 15 15 15 15

30 30 30 30 30 30 30

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 7,710 7,710 6,430 6,430 6,430 6,430 6,430

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 10,650 10,650 8,060 8,060 8,060 8,060 8,060

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Solar Water Heaters

• Solar water heaters are not subject to federal energy conservation standards. The ENERGY STAR requirements are:

• Solar water heaters can be either active or passive. An active system uses an electric pump to circulate the heat transfer 

fluid; a passive system has no pump. Most solar water heaters in the U.S. are the active type.

• Solar water heaters are also characterized as open loop (also called "direct") or closed loop (also called "indirect"). An 

open-loop system circulates household (potable) water through the collector. A closed-loop system uses a heat transfer 

fluid (water or diluted antifreeze, for example) to collect heat and a heat exchanger to transfer the heat to household 

water. Direct systems were observed as the most common product type and subject of this analysis.

• In 2020, stakeholders from the solar thermal industry developed the Solar Uniform Energy Factor (SUEF) Specification 

for solar water heaters to align with the UEF metric used by DOE for other water heating technologies. 

• SUEF is also the metric used by the current ENERGY STAR Specification, and it replaced the Solar Energy Factor (SEF) 

metric. 

• Over two-third of the current solar water heater market is in the southern or western U.S. (including Hawaii). A 

collector area of 42 square feet (ft2) would be typical for these areas. Colder areas of the U.S. would require a larger 

collector (e.g., 65 ft2).

• Installed costs are higher for colder areas where larger collectors are required. Costs also vary widely depending on 

collector quality, type of system, and site-specific characteristics.

69

Applicable 

Products

Backup 

Fuel

ENERGY STAR 

Requirement Test Method

Whole-home 

solar units

Gas SUEF ≥ 3.0 ICC 900/SRCC 300-2020 Solar Thermal System Standard, 

Appendix A: Solar Uniform Energy Factor Procedure for 

Solar Water Heating Systems Electric SEF ≥ 1.8

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Solar Water Heaters

The shipments data below only represents ENERGY STAR-certified solar water heaters, as ENERGY STAR did not 

provide a market penetration rate. Solar water heaters have a small market share, with only 10,000 shipments at the 

peak in 2010 and 2011.

Source: ENERGY STAR

70

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0

2

4

6

8

10

12

2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Unit Shipments (thousands)

Shipments of ENERGY STAR-Certified Residential Solar Water 

Heaters
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters

71

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.0

High

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199

Uniform Energy Factor (UEF)10.81 0.89 0.81 0.92 0.87 0.97 0.95 0.92 0.97 0.92 0.97 0.92 0.97

Average Life (y) 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

1,410 1,180 430 580 580 610 610 580 610 580 610 580 610

1,760 1,410 1,020 1,360 1,350 1,430 1,430 1,360 1,430 1,360 1,430 1,360 1,430

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

2,590 1,760 920 1,070 950 1,090 1,090 1,070 1,090 1,070 1,090 1,070 1,090

3,820 3,350 2,860 3,160 3,140 3,230 3,220 3,160 3,230 3,160 3,230 3,160 3,230

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)2 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90

1. Analysis is based on an average of low, medium, and high draw pattern units, as this is most reflective of the market.

2. Annual maintenance includes deliming to minimize deposition of sediment in the heat exchanger, maintain operating efficiency and prolong product life. Also includes additional tasks, including 

inspection of the ignition device, gas valve, controls, thermostat, and venting.

Note:

Ranges represent span of typical values.

Current standards went into effect April 16, 2015.

ENERGY STAR V. 4.0 went into effect January 5, 2022.

ENERGY STAR V. 5.0 will go into effect April 18, 2023.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (21.3, 1.76, 1).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

• The equations for Federal Standards and the voluntary ENERGY STAR requirements, if applicable, are:

• The ENERGY STAR levels require the use of condensing technology.

• All of the major water heater manufacturers now offer an instantaneous water heater model.

• The maintenance costs include cleaning the water inlet filter and the heat exchanger of mineral deposits and replacing 

the water valve approximately once every five years for all instantaneous water heaters.

• When replacing a storage water heater with an instantaneous water heater, there are significant additional costs to 

upsize the gas supply line to 3⁄4 inch from the typical 1⁄2 inch and change the venting.

Volume 

Range

Draw 

Pattern Federal standard1 Federal minimum UEF for typical sizes

ENERGY 

STAR

<2 gal and 

>50,000 Btu/h

Very Small UEF=0.80 No models on the market 0.87

Low UEF=0.81 No models on the market 0.87

Medium UEF=0.81 0.81 0.87

High UEF=0.81 0.81 0.87

Residential Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters

72

1Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Water Heaters. 10 CFR 430.32(d).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters

Shipments for Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters have grown steadily with nearly no shipments in 2000 and a 

peak of about 850,000 units in 2021.

Source: CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

73

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0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1997 2002 2007 2012 2017 2022

Unit Shipments (thousands)

Residential Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters
Final

Residential Electric Instantaneous Water Heaters

74

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Representative Input Rate (kW) 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5

Uniform Energy Factor (UEF)10.96 0.96 0.91 0.96 0.98 0.96 0.98 0.96 0.98 0.96 0.98

Average Life (y) 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 260 260 260 260 260 260 260 260 260 260 260

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 520 520 520 520 520 520 520 520 520 520 520

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)290 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90

1. Analysis is based on an average of low, medium, and very small draw pattern units, as this is most reflective of the market.

2. Annual maintenance costs not provided in CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis. Maintenance costs determined from the following calculation: GIWH - (GSWH - ESWH) - i.e., the 

difference factor in maintenance between gas and electric storage heat pumps applied to gas instantaneous heat pumps.

Note:

Current standards went into effect April 16, 2015.

Assume same lifetime as gas-fired instantaneous water heaters.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Electric Instantaneous Water Heaters

• The Federal standards are:

• Electric instantaneous water heaters use electric resistance heating elements to heat water when there is a demand. 

Resistive heating elements are virtually 100% efficient, and the small storage capacities of these products means that 

they do not lose significant amounts of heat to the environment.

• The federal standards for these products require UEFs of 0.91 for very small, low, and medium draw pattern models 

and 0.92 for high draw pattern models.

• Most products currently on the market are in the very small draw pattern or the low draw pattern because electric 

resistance elements can only supply a limited quantity of heat on an instantaneous basis due to circuit amperage 

limitations.

• Many products are designed for point-of-use applications, such that the water heater only supplies water to one faucet 

or showerhead.

75

Volume 

Range

Draw 

Pattern Federal standard1 Federal minimum UEF for typical sizes

<2 gal

Very Small UEF=0.91 0.91

Low UEF=0.91 0.91

Medium UEF=0.91 No models on the market

High UEF=0.92 No models on the market

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Final

Residential Appliances

76

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Final

Residential Refrigerator-Freezers (Top)

77

1. Product Class 3 is used for this analysis (Refrigerator-freezers—automatic defrost with top-mounted freezer without through-the-door ice service and all-refrigerator—automatic defrost).

2. The volume shown here is the nominal total volume, not the adjusted volume, which is used to determine compliance with standards. The adjusted volume is equal to the fresh food internal volume plus 

the freezer internal volume times an adjustment factor, which depends on the product type.

3. The 2015 installed base energy consumption value is based on an adjusted volume of 21 cubic feet (ft3). Energy consumption values for the 2020 installed base and 2022 and beyond are based on an adjusted 

volume of 22 ft3, representing the current market.

4. Maintenance costs include cost of repairing integral components (e.g., compressor, evaporator fan, electronics, ice maker), not replaceable components (e.g., water filters).

Note: 

Current standard went into effect in September 2014.

ENERGY STAR V. 5.1 went into effect in September 2014.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (10.26, 1.28, 5.13).

DATA1

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3)

2

19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19

Energy Consumption (kWh/y)3512 401 411 401 370 358 401 358 401 358 401 358

Average Life (y) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 670 750 740 750 760 760 750 760 750 760 750 760

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 670 750 740 750 760 760 750 760 750 760 750 760

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)410 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Refrigerator-Freezers (Side)

78

1. Product Class 7 is used for this analysis (Refrigerator-freezers—automatic defrost with side-mounted freezer with through-the-door ice service).

2. The volume shown here is the nominal total volume, not the adjusted volume, which is used to determine compliance with standards. The adjusted volume is equal to the fresh food 

internal volume plus the freezer internal volume times an adjustment factor, which depends on the product type.

3. Based on an adjusted volume of 32 ft3for all analysis years.

4. Maintenance costs include cost of repairing integral components (e.g., compressor, evaporator fan, electronics, ice maker), not replaceable components (e.g., water filters).

Note: 

Current standard went into effect in September 2014.

ENERGY STAR V. 5.1 went into effect in September 2014.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (10.26, 1.28, 5.13).

DATA1

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3)

2

26 26 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Energy Consumption (kWh/y)3893 693 705 693 635 610 693 610 693 610 693 610

Average Life (y) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 1,400 1,130 1,130 1,130 1,160 1,470 1,130 1,470 1,130 1,470 1,130 1,470

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 1,400 1,130 1,130 1,130 1,160 1,470 1,130 1,470 1,130 1,470 1,130 1,470

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)430 20 20 20 20 30 20 30 20 30 20 30

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Refrigerator-Freezers (Bottom)

79

1. Product Class 5 is used for this analysis (Refrigerator-freezers—automatic defrost with bottom-mounted freezer without through-the-door ice service).

2. The volume shown here is the nominal total volume, not the adjusted volume, which is used to determine compliance with standards. The adjusted volume is equal to the fresh food 

internal volume plus the freezer internal volume times an adjustment factor, which depends on the product type.

3. Based on an adjusted volume of 23 ft3for all analysis years.

4. Maintenance costs include cost of repairing integral components (e.g., compressor, evaporator fan, electronics, ice maker), not replaceable components (e.g., water filters).

Note:

Current standard went into effect in September 2014.

ENERGY STAR V. 5.1 went into effect in September 2014.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (10.26, 1.28, 5.13).

DATA1

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3)

2

19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19

Energy Consumption (kWh/y)3547 473 521 473 469 430 473 430 473 430 473 430

Average Life (y) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 1,190 920 920 920 920 930 920 930 920 930 920 930

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 1,190 920 920 920 920 930 920 930 920 930 920 930

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)430 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Refrigerator-Freezers

• Current Federal standards1:

— Compliance required beginning September 15, 2014

— Models divided into 32 product classes based on size (standard or compact), location of freezer (top, bottom, or 

side), type of defrost (automatic or manual), installation configuration (freestanding or built-in), and presence and 

configuration (through-the-door or inside cabinet) of automatic icemaker

— Limits on annual electricity consumption expressed as functions of adjusted volume2

— New product classes for built-in units

— Amount by which standards are tightened varies by product class

• ENERGY STAR criteria limit annual electricity consumption to 10% less than the Federal standard

• Energy efficiency opportunities for refrigerators include:

— More efficient compressor, including variable speed compressors

— Brushless direct current (DC) fan motor (also known as ECM motor)

— Variable defrost

— Larger condenser

— Dual evaporators

— Vacuum-insulated panels

— Refrigerants (Isobutane vs. R134a)

80

1Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Refrigerators, Refrigerator-Freezers, and Freezers. 10 CFR 430.32(a).

2Adjusted Volume (AV) = (Fresh Volume) + 1.76 × (Freezer Volume)

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Refrigerator-Freezers

81

Source: Appliance Magazine; DOE’s CCD, as of December 2017; ENERGY STAR Unit Shipment Data (2017-2020); Guidehouse analysis. Dashed lines are a 

combination of interpolated and available data.

Annual shipment volumes have rebounded from a sharp decline between 2006 and 2009, 

reaching approximately 11.4 million units in 2020.

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Final

Residential Refrigerator-Freezers

82

Sources: RF EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis; DOE’s CCD, as of December 2017; Guidehouse analysis. Lightly shaded bars indicate interpolated data.

Bottom-mount units have gained market share, surpassing top-mount units since 2016. 

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Freezers (Chest)

83

DATA1

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3

)

2

16 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Energy Consumption (kWh/y)3360 297 297 297 287 297 287 297 287 297 287

Average Life (y) 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 510 590 680 680 690 680 690 680 690 680 690

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 510 590 680 680 690 680 690 680 690 680 690

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)410 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

1. Product Class 10 is used for this analysis (Chest freezers and all other freezers except compact freezers).

2. The volume shown here is the nominal volume, not the adjusted volume, which is used to determine compliance with standards. The adjusted volume is equal to the fresh food internal 

volume (zero for freezers) plus the freezer internal volume times an adjustment factor, which depends on the product type.

3. Based on an adjusted volume of 26 ft3, which is the average adjusted volume for units with a rounded total refrigerated volume of 15 ft3 per the DOE CCD.

4. Maintenance costs include cost of repairing integral components (e.g., compressor, evaporator fan, electronics)

Note:

Current standard went into effect in September 2014.

ENERGY STAR excluded as no products at the typical capacity are ENERGY STAR compliant.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (21.96, 1.83, 1).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Freezers (Upright)

84

1. Product Class 9 is used for this analysis (Upright freezers with automatic defrost).

2. The volume shown here is the nominal volume, not the adjusted volume, which is used to determine compliance with standards. The adjusted volume is equal to the fresh food internal 

volume (zero for freezers) plus the freezer internal volume times an adjustment factor, which depends on the product type.

3. Based on an adjusted volume of 31 ft3, which is the average adjusted volume for units with a rounded total refrigerated volume of 18 ft3 per the DOE CCD.

4. Maintenance costs include cost of repairing integral components (e.g., compressor, evaporator fan electronics).

Note:

Current standard went into effect in September 2014.

ENERGY STAR V. 5.1 went into effect September 2014.

Assume same lifetime as chest freezers.

DATA1

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3

)

2

17 17 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18

Energy Consumption (kWh/y)3615 446 497 493 448 441 493 441 493 441 493 441

Average Life (y) 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 690 880 830 830 830 830 830 830 830 830 830 830

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 690 880 830 830 830 830 830 830 830 830 830 830

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)410 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Freezers

• Current Federal standards1:

— Compliance required beginning September 15, 2014

— Models divided into 10 product classes based on size (standard or compact), orientation (chest or upright), type of defrost 

(automatic or manual), installation configuration (freestanding or built-in), and presence of automatic icemaker

▪ Current analysis focuses on the two representative product classes analyzed in the recent rulemaking, chest and upright 

freezers.

— Limits on annual electricity consumption expressed as functions of adjusted volume2

▪ Chest freezers and all other freezers except compact freezers (PC 9): 9.88AV + 143.7

▪ Upright freezers with automatic defrost (PC 10): 12.43AV + 326.1

• ENERGY STAR criteria limit annual electricity consumption to 10% less than the Federal standard

— No ENERGY STAR compliant products at the typical capacity for chest freezers

• Energy efficiency opportunities for freezers include:

— Higher efficiency and/or variable-speed compressor systems

— Larger heat exchangers

— Permanent-magnet fan motor systems (vs. shaded pole motor (SPM) and PSC fan motors)

— Demand defrost systems

— Vacuum-insulated panels

— Thicker insulation (though at a loss of consumer utility)

— Refrigerants (Isobutane vs. R134a)

— Variable anti-sweat heating

— Use of forced convection condenser (for upright freezers)

85

1Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Refrigerators, Refrigerator-Freezers, and Freezers. 10 CFR 430.32(a).

2Adjusted Volume (AV) = (Fresh Volume) + 1.76 × (Freezer Volume). 

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Freezers

86

Shipment volumes held steady between 2007 to 2016 at about 2 million units per year. 

Shipments jumped to 3 million units in 2020. Chest freezers represent about 60% of the market.

Sources: Appliance Magazine from 2000 to 2016; ENERGY STAR from 2017 to 2021

Return to Table of Contents

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Unit Shipments (millions)

Residential Freezer Shipments

Chest Freezers

Upright Freezers

Total Freezers
Final

Residential Natural Gas Cooktops

87

1. Although there is no performance standard in effect, the test procedure metric has changed from Cooking Efficiency (%) to Integrated Annual Energy Consumption (IAEC) (kBtu/h). The Consumer 

Cooking Products EERE 2020 notice of proposed determination (NOPD) used for 2020 and beyond in this analysis also determined IAEC using a different test procedure than the Consumer Cooking 

Products EERE 2016 SNOPR.

2. Equipment and installed costs are for cooktops only (not combined range units).

3. Annual maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

The range for typical capacity represents the span of typical values.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α) and shape (β) parameters: (14.56, 5.73).

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23

Integrated Annual Energy Consumption 

(kBtu/y)1 1,061 914 914 730 914 730 914 730 914 730

Cooking Efficiency (%) 40 45 45 52 45 52 45 52 45 52

Average Life (y) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)2290 310 310 330 310 330 310 330 310 330

Total Installed Cost (2022$)2420 460 460 480 460 480 460 480 460 480

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3- - - - - - - - - -

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Natural Gas Ovens

88

1. Although there is no performance standard in effect, the test procedure metric has changed from Cooking Efficiency (%) to IAEC (kBtu/y). The 2015 IAEC value is reflective of freestanding 

standard gas ovens, which was previously determined to be the most representative product class. IAEC for 2020 and beyond is reflective of freestanding self-clean gas ovens, which is the 

product class that makes up the majority of historical and projected gas oven shipments.

2. Equipment and installed costs are for ovens only (not combined ranges). Costs are reflective of freestanding self-clean oven units with single oven component, which represent the majority of 

the market.

3. Maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α) and shape (β) parameters: (14.56, 5.73).

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 

16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16

18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18

Typical Cavity Volume (ft3)

4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

Integrated Annual Energy Consumption 

(kBtu/y)1 2,038 1,960 1,960 1,831 1,960 1,831 1,960 1,831 1,960 1,831

Cooking Efficiency (%) 6.6 6.9 6.9 7.3 6.9 7.3 6.9 7.3 6.9 7.3

Average Life (y) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)2740 770 770 810 770 810 770 810 770 810

Total Installed Cost (2022$)2870 920 920 950 920 950 920 950 920 950

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3- - - - - - - - - -

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Natural Gas Ranges

89

1. IAEC of a natural gas range is calculated as the sum of the IAEC for a natural gas cooktop and natural gas oven. IAEC of the oven component is reflective of freestanding self-clean gas ovens, 

which represent the majority of the market. The 2015 IAEC value of the oven component is reflective of freestanding standard gas ovens, which was previously determined to be the most 

representative product class.

2. Retail and installed cost are reflective of a typical unit with standard 30-inch width and 4 to 5 cooking top heating elements. Based on data from DOE rulemakings, Gordian’s RSMeans Data –

Building Construction Costs 2023, and distributors, total installed cost is estimated to be around $150 more than retail equipment cost.

3. Maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α) and shape (β) parameters: (14.56, 5.73).

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity of Cooktop Component 

(kBtu/h) 

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23

Typical Capacity of Oven Component 

(kBtu/h) 

16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16

18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18

Typical Cavity Volume of Oven 

Component (ft3)

4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

Integrated Annual Energy Consumption 

(kBtu/y)1 3,099 2,874 2,874 2,561 2,874 2,561 2,874 2,561 2,874 2,561

Average Life (y) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 2750 770 770 850 770 850 770 850 770 850

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 2900 920 920 1,000 920 1,000 920 1,000 920 1,000

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3- - - - - - - - - -

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Natural Gas Cooktops, Ovens, and Ranges

• DOE analyzes cooktops and ovens separately, although they are often sold together in a single unit that combines both a 

cooktop and an oven into a product referred to as a range. 

• Since January 1, 1990, gas cooking products with an electrical supply cord have been required to not be equipped with a 

constant burning pilot light. This requirement extended to gas cooking products without an electrical supply cord, as of April 

9, 2012.

• DOE published a final rule in 20091in which it determined that no standard for cooking efficiency would be cost-justified.

• DOE initiated a standards rulemaking in 2014 to consider amended standards for cooking products, including gas cooktops 

and ovens2.

• On September 2, 2016, DOE proposed performance-based standards for gas cooktops and ovens that would take effect in 2020, 

if adopted.

• DOE established the new IAEC metric, in kBtu/y, to replace cooking efficiency (%).

• On December 14, 2020, DOE initially determined that amended energy conservation standards for consumer conventional 

cooking products would not be economically justified and would not result in significant conservation of energy3. 

• On February 2, 2023, DOE proposed new and amended energy conservation standards for consumer conventional cooking 

products4.

• The IAEC of a range is calculated as the sum of the IAECs for cooktops and ovens. However, retail and installation costs for a 

range are similar to the cost of an oven.

90

1Energy Conservation Standards for Certain Consumer Products (Dishwashers, Dehumidifiers, Microwave Ovens, and Electric and Gas Kitchen Ranges and Ovens) and for Certain 

Commercial and Industrial Equipment (Commercial Clothes Washers); Final Rule. 74 FR 16040.

2Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Conventional Cooking Products; Supplemental notice of proposed rulemaking (SNOPR). 81 FR 60784.

3Energy Conservation Standards for Consumer Conventional Cooking Products; Notice of proposed determination (NOPD). 85 FR 80982.

4Energy Conservation Standards for Consumer Conventional Cooking Products; SNOPR. 88 FR 6818.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Natural Gas Cooktops, Ovens, and Ranges

91

Shipments have been rising since 2012. In 2020, gas range shipments surpassed the peak 

reached in 2005.

Source: Appliance Magazine and Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2022 SNOPR

Return to Table of Contents

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Units (millions)

Natural Gas Cooktops, Ovens, and Ranges

Ranges, Gas

Cooktops, Gas

Ovens, Gas
Final

Residential Electric Cooktops

92

1. Although there is no performance standard in effect, the test procedure metric has changed from Cooking Efficiency (%) to IAEC (kBtu/y). IAEC was determined using DOE rulemaking data for 

the most representative product class, electric smooth element cooking tops, which covers cooking tops with electric resistance heating elements and cooking tops with induction heating elements.

2. Equipment and installed costs are for cooktops only (not combined range units). Costs were determined using DOE rulemaking data for the most representative product class, electric smooth 

cooking tops, which includes cooking tops with electric resistance heating elements and cooking tops with induction heating elements. A high-end unit with induction technology is expected to 

have a greater retail equipment cost and greater installation cost in order to implement this technology.

3. Maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

The range for typical capacity represents the span of typical values.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α) and shape (β) parameters: (16.88, 6.99).

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (W) 

1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200

3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700

Integrated Annual Energy Consumption 

(kWh/y)1 155 155 155 119 155 119 155 119 155 119

Average Life (y) 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)2470 470 470 810 470 810 470 810 470 810

Total Installed Cost (2022$)2620 620 620 1,230 620 1,230 620 1,230 620 1,230

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3- - - - - - - - - -

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Electric Ovens

93

1. Although there is no performance standard in effect, the test procedure metric has changed from Cooking Efficiency (%) to IAEC (kBtu/y). IAEC was determined using DOE rulemaking data 

for freestanding electric self-clean ovens, which represent the majority of the market.

2. Equipment and installed costs are for ovens only (not combined ranges). Costs are reflective of freestanding self-clean oven units with single oven component, which represent the majority of 

the market.

3. Maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α) and shape (β) parameters: (16.88, 6.99).

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (W) 

2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000

3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400

Typical Cavity Volume (ft3

)

4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

Integrated Annual Energy Consumption 

(kWh/y)1 355 355 355 278 355 278 355 278 355 278

Average Life (y) 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)2630 630 630 730 630 730 630 730 630 730

Total Installed Cost (2022$)2770 770 770 870 770 870 770 870 770 870

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3- - - - - - - - - -

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Electric Ranges

94

1. IAEC of an electric range is calculated as the sum of the IAEC for an electric cooktop and an electric oven. IAEC of the electric cooktop component was determined using DOE rulemaking data for the most 

representative product class, electric smooth element cooking tops, which covers cooking tops with electric resistance heating elements and cooking tops with induction heating elements. IAEC of the 

electric oven component was determined using DOE rulemaking data for freestanding electric self-clean ovens, which represent the majority of the market.

2. Retail and installed cost are reflective of standard units that are 30-inch wide and have 4 to 5 cooking top heating elements. Based on data from DOE rulemakings, Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building 

Construction Costs 2023, and distributors, total installed cost is estimated to be around $140 more than retail equipment cost for a typical unit, and $150 more than retail equipment cost for a high-end unit. 

A high-end unit with an induction cooking top component is expected to have a greater retail equipment cost and greater installation cost in order to implement this technology.

3. Maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α) and shape (β) parameters: (16.88, 6.99).

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity of Cooktop Component 

(W) 

1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200

3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700

Typical Capacity of Oven Component 

(W) 

2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000

3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400

Typical Cavity Volume of Oven 

Component (ft3)

4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

Integrated Annual Energy Consumption 

(kWh/y)1 510 510 510 397 510 397 510 397 510 397

Average Life (y) 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 2630 630 630 900 630 900 630 900 630 900

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 2770 770 770 1,050 770 1,050 770 1,050 770 1,050

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3- - - - - - - - - -

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Electric Cooktops, Ovens, and Ranges

• DOE analyzes cooktops and ovens separately, although they are often sold together in a single unit that combines both 

a cooktop and an oven into a product referred to as a range.

• DOE initiated a standards rulemaking in 2014 to consider amended standards for cooking products, including electric 

cooktops and ovens1.

• On September 2, 2016, DOE proposed performance-based standards for electric cooktops and ovens that would take 

effect in 2020 if adopted.

• DOE established the new IAEC metric, in kWh/y, to replace cooking efficiency (%).

• On December 14, 2020, DOE initially determined that amended energy conservation standards for consumer 

conventional cooking products would not be economically justified and would not result in a significant conservation 

of energy2.

• On February 2, 2023, DOE proposed new and amended energy conservation standards for consumer conventional 

cooking products3.

• The IAEC of a range is calculated as the sum of the IAECs for cooktops and ovens. However, retail and installation 

costs for a range are similar to the cost of an oven.

95

1Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Conventional Cooking Products; Supplemental notice of proposed rulemaking (SNOPR). 81 FR 60784.

2Energy Conservation Standards for Consumer Conventional Cooking Products; Notice of proposed determination (NOPD). 85 FR 80982.

3Energy Conservation Standards for Consumer Conventional Cooking Products; SNOPR. 88 FR 6818.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Electric Cooktops, Ovens, and Ranges

96

Source: Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2022 SNOPR

Shipments of electric cooking products reached a peak in 2006. Shipments of ranges and ovens 

have been rising again since 2012. In 2018, electric range shipments surpassed the peak reached 

in 2006.

Return to Table of Contents

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Units (millions)

Electric Cooktops, Ovens, and Ranges Shipments

Ranges, Electric

Ovens, Electric

Cooktops, Electric
Final

Residential Clothes Dryers (Electric)

97

DATA 

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 1.11

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3) 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 4.5 7.4 4.5 7.4 4.5 7.4 4.5

Combined Energy Factor, D1 

(lb/kWh)2 3.59 3.73 3.73 3.73 NA 3.93 3.73 3.93 3.73 3.93 3.73 3.93

Combined Energy Factor, D2 

(lb/kWh)2 3.59 3.93 3.73 3.93 3.93 11.00 3.93 11.00 3.93 11.00 3.93 11.00

Average Life (y) 

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 580 580 580 580 580 980 580 980 580 980 580 980

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 710 710 710 710 710 1,110 710 1,110 710 1,110 710 1,110

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3- - - - - - - - - - - -

1. ENERGY STAR V. 1.1 applies to vented and ventless standard electric clothes dryers.

2. The efficiency metric changed from EF to combined energy factor (CEF) in 2015. The 2015 Installed Base CEF data accounts for units tested to appendix D1 and appendix D2, because data 

specific to each appendix is not available for that year.

3. Maintenance costs are negligible. DOE estimated that on average 2.7 percent of electric and 3.3 percent of gas residential clothes dryers are repaired each year. (EERE 2014)

Note:

DOE test procedures for consumer clothes dryers appear at title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations part 430, subpart B, appendix D1 and appendix D2. The second test method, appendix D2, 

was finalized in a final rule published by DOE on August 14, 2013. For current standard testing, units must be tested according to either the appendix D1 or the appendix D2 test method. ENERGY 

STAR V. 1.1 requires certified units to be tested according to the appendix D2 test method. The appendix D1 and appendix D2 test methods determine CEF differently.

The current standard went into effect in January 2015.

ENERGY STAR V. 1.1 went into effect in May 2017.

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Clothes Dryers (Gas)

98

DATA 

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 1.11

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3

) 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4

Combined Energy Factor, D1 

(lb/kWh)2 3.18 3.30 3.30 3.30 NA 3.48 3.30 3.48 3.30 3.48 3.30 3.48

Combined Energy Factor, D2 

(lb/kWh)2 3.18 3.48 3.30 3.48 3.48 3.50 3.48 3.50 3.48 3.50 3.48 3.50

Average Life (y) 

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 660 670 660 670 670 670 670 670 670 670 670 670

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 860 870 870 870 870 870 870 870 870 870 870 870

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3- - - - - - - - - - - -

1. ENERGY STAR V. 1.1 applies to vented and ventless standard electric clothes dryers.

2. The efficiency metric changed from EF to CEF in 2015. The 2015 Installed Base CEF data accounts for units tested to appendix D1 and appendix D2, because data specific to each appendix is not 

available for that year.

3. Maintenance costs are negligible. DOE estimated that on average 2.7 percent of electric and 3.3 percent of gas residential clothes dryers are repaired each year. (EERE 2014)

Note:

DOE test procedures for consumer clothes dryers appear at title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations part 430, subpart B, appendix D1 and appendix D2. The second test method, appendix D2, 

was finalized in a final rule published by DOE on August 14, 2013. For current standard testing, units must be tested according to either the appendix D1 or the appendix D2 test method. ENERGY 

STAR V. 1.1 requires certified units to be tested according to the appendix D2 test method. The appendix D1 and appendix D2 test methods determine CEF differently.

The current standard went into effect in January 2015.

ENERGY STAR V. 1.1 went into effect in May 2017.

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Clothes Dryers

• Current standards1in effect since 2015:

— For standard-size electric units : CEF ≥ 3.73 pound per kilowatt hours (lb/kWh)

— For gas units: CEF ≥ 2.30 lb/kWh

— Units may be tested according to the test method in appendix D1 or appendix D2, which was finalized in 2013.

• The main differences between appendix D1 and appendix D2 are:

— Appendix D2 includes test methods that more accurately measure the effects of automatic cycle termination and that may result in

differences in the total measured energy consumption of the test cycle as compared to the test methods in appendix D1. 

— Appendix D2 contains instructions for the testing of timer dryers, which include a lower final moisture content (FMC) of the test 

load as compared to the version of appendix D1 used for the 2011 rulemaking analysis.

• Efficiency improvement technologies for clothes dryers include:

— Multi-step or modulating heat

— Higher efficiency drum motors

— Inlet air pre-heat

— Better control systems for cycle termination

— Heat pump (for electric clothes dryers) 

• EPA developed ENERGY STAR V. 1.1, which became effective in 2017 and requires units to be tested according to the test method in

appendix D2.

• Standard-size heat pump clothes dryers with CEF values up to 11.0 are currently available in the U.S. market. High initial cost has 

limited market penetration, but some utilities are offering rebates to support market penetration. 

99

1Energy Conservation Standards for Consumer Clothes Dryers. 10 CFR 430.32(h).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Clothes Dryers

100

Source: Consumer Clothes Dryers EERE 2022 NOPR

Shipment volumes have been on the rise since 2012. Gas dryers continue to account for about 

one-fifth of the market.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Clothes Washers (Front)

101

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 8.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3) 3.7 4.1 3.4 4.5 4.5 5.0 4.5 5.0 4.5 5.0 4.5 5.0

Integrated Modified Energy Factor 

(ft3/kWh/cycle)1 2.16 2.76 1.84 2.76 2.76 3.10 2.76 3.10 2.76 3.10 2.76 3.10

Integrated Water Factor 

(gal/cycle/ft3)

2 4.7 3.2 4.7 3.2 3.2 2.7 3.2 2.7 3.2 2.7 3.2 2.7

Average Life (y)

6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17

Water Consumption (gal/cycle) 17 14 16 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14

Hot Water Energy (kWh/cycle) 0.21 0.17 0.36 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.12 0.13 0.12 0.13 0.12 0.13

Machine Energy (kWh/cycle) 0.17 0.14 0.15 0.12 0.12 0.17 0.12 0.17 0.12 0.17 0.12 0.17

Dryer Energy (kWh/cycle) 1.31 1.24 1.34 1.17 1.17 1.56 1.17 1.56 1.17 1.56 1.17 1.56

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 735 1,000 705 930 930 950 930 950 930 950 930 950

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 915 1,175 880 1,130 1,130 1,150 1,130 1,150 1,130 1,150 1,130 1,150

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

1. The efficiency metric changed from Modified Energy Factor to Integrated Modified Energy Factor (IMEF) in 2015.

2. The efficiency metric changed from Water Factor to Integrated Water Factor (IWF) in 2015. 

Note:

The current standard went into effect in January 2018.

ENERGY STAR V. 8.1 went into effect in February 2018.

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Clothes Washers (Top)

102

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 8.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3) 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.5 4.4 5.5 3.5 5.5 3.5 5.5 3.5 5.5

Integrated Modified Energy Factor 

(ft3/kWh/cycle)1 1.14 1.57 1.57 1.57 2.06 2.76 1.57 2.76 1.57 2.76 1.57 2.76

Integrated Water Factor 

(gal/cycle/ft3)

2 9.2 6.5 6.5 6.5 4.3 3.2 6.5 3.2 6.5 3.2 6.5 3.2

Average Life (y)

6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17

Water Consumption (gal/cycle) 30 22 23 23 19 18 23 18 23 18 23 18

Hot Water Energy (kWh/cycle) 0.90 0.39 0.41 0.41 0.38 0.24 0.41 0.24 0.41 0.24 0.41 0.24

Machine Energy (kWh/cycle) 0.25 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.13

Dryer Energy (kWh/cycle) 1.73 1.63 1.68 1.68 1.64 1.61 1.68 1.61 1.68 1.61 1.68 1.61

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 590 590 520 520 640 725 520 725 520 725 520 725

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 765 765 715 715 840 920 715 920 715 920 715 920

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

1. The efficiency metric changed from Modified Energy Factor to IMEF in 2015.

2. The efficiency metric changed from Water Factor to IWF in 2015. 

Note:

The current standard went into effect in January 2018.

ENERGY STAR V. 8.1 went into effect in February 2018.

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Clothes Washers

• The analysis treats front- and top-loading models separately due to their different energy use characteristics.

• Federal standards1for standard-capacity clothes washers (≥ 1.6 ft3):

• In 2020, about 40% of top-loading models and almost all front-loading models achieved the ENERGY STAR level.

• Energy efficiency improvement technologies for clothes washers include:

— Higher efficiency motors and higher spin speeds

— Better load sensing for adaptive water fill control

— Reduced water temperature and quantity, while providing equivalent cleaning and rinsing performance

• Maintenance costs include replacement or repair of the drain pump, control board, motor, rubber gaskets, or control 

panel knobs.

• The products on the market with the highest IMEF have significantly larger capacity and therefore use more energy 

per cycle than typical, smaller capacity products but still perform more efficiently on a per volume basis.

103

Integrated Modified Energy Factor Integrated Water Factor

Top-Loading Front-Loading Top-Loading Front-Loading

Current DOE Standard

(effective 1/1/2018) ≥ 1.57 ≥ 1.84 ≤ 6.5 ≤ 4.7

Current ENERGY STAR V. 8.1

(effective 4/22/2021) ≥ 2.06 ≥ 2.76 ≤ 4.3 ≤ 3.2

1Energy Conservation Standards for Consumer Clothes Washers. 10 CFR 430.32(g).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Clothes Washers

104

Source: AHAM Shipment Data; RCW EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis

Shipments have been on the rise since 2012 and reached a peak of about 10 million in 2020. 

Since 2012, top-loading and front-loading units represent approximately 75% and 25% of 

shipments, respectively.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Dishwashers

105

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.0

High

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 7.0

Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Annual Energy Use 

(kWh/y) 295 270 307 270 270 225 240 240 225 240 225 240 225

Water Consumption (gal/cycle) 4.25 3.50 5.00 3.50 3.50 2.40 3.20 3.20 2.40 3.20 2.40 3.20 2.40

Water Heating Energy Use 

(kWh/y)1 154 125 176 123 123 84 112 123 84 123 84 123 84

Average Life (y) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 440 380 310 340 340 500 430 340 500 340 500 340 500

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 840 570 490 520 520 690 610 520 690 520 690 520 690

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)2

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

1. Refers to that portion of "Typical Annual Energy Use" that is the energy used to heat water in a separate water heater before it enters the dishwasher. The energy used to heat water inside 

the dishwasher cannot be disaggregated from the total.

2. Maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

All values in table reflect 215 cycles/year according to the current test procedure at 10 CFR 430 Appendix C1.

The current standard went into effect in May 2013.

ENERGY STAR V. 6.0 went into effect in January 2016.

ENERGY STAR V. 7.0 will go into effect in July 2023.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (15.9, 1.8, 1).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Dishwashers

• Performance criteria for standard-capacity dishwashers (assumes 215 cycles/year):

— Federal Standards:

▪ May 30, 2013: ≤ 307 kWh/y, ≤ 5.0 gal/cycle (DOE Direct Final Rule, published May 2012)

— ENERGY STAR Criteria:

▪ Jan. 29, 2016: ≤ 270 kWh/y (5% allowance for connected), ≤ 3.5 gal/cycle (V. 6.0)

▪ July 19, 2023: ≤ 240 kWh/y, ≤ 3.2 gal/cycle (V. 7.0, effective August 2023)

• ENERGY STAR has maintained a very high market share for several years (93% in 2021), so sales-weighted average efficiency has tracked 

ENERGY STAR levels.

— Due to the historically high market penetration of ENERGY STAR products, it is expected that manufacturers will make the necessary 

adjustments so ENERGY STAR V. 7.0 levels will be typical in future projections.

• Test procedures:

— Accounts for motor, dryer, booster heater (if present), and hot water from separate water heater, as well as standby and off-mode energy.

— ENERGY STAR established a cleaning performance test method. While cleaning performance reporting is currently optional, V. 7.0 requires a 

cleaning index of 65 or higher for ENERGY STAR certification.

— In January 2023, DOE established a test procedure at Appendix C2, which would go into effect at the time of any amended energy 

conservation standards. Appendix C2 establishes a minimum cleaning index threshold of 70 as a condition for a valid test cycle. The cleaning 

index threshold of 70 established by DOE is equivalent to the cleaning index threshold of 65 specified in ENERGY STAR V. 7.0.

• Efficiency improvement technologies for dishwashers include:

— Better soil sensing 

— Control strategies

— Water distribution (small pipes, fine filter, small sump, multiple spray arms, alternating water use) and controls (flow meter, temperature 

sensor)

— Inline water heater (to minimize sump volume)

— Separate drain pump, high-efficiency, variable-speed circulation pump motor

— Condensation drying (rather than power dry)

106

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Dishwashers

107

Source: DW EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

Shipments increased steadily from the early 1990s until the 2008-2009 recession. Shipments 

have resumed similar growth since then. 

Return to Table of Contents

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 2018 2021

Unit Shipments (millions)

Residential Dishwashers Shipments
Final

Commercial Space Heating and Cooling

108

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Furnaces

109

1. In 2023, the new Energy Conservation Standards for Commercial Warm Air Furnaces (CWAF) took effect. These projections reflect the 2023 minimum thermal efficiency requirement for gas-fired furnaces, 

81%.

2. When this analysis was previously conducted in EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018), a typical input capacity of 400 kBtu/h was listed. An updated typical input capacity value of 250 kBtu/h was 

determined through an evaluation of the units in the DOE CCD as of August 2022. CWAF EERE 2015 also listed a representative input capacity of 250 kBtu/h.

3. DOE's efficiency metric for commercial furnaces accounts only for flue losses, not jacket losses.

Note:

The previous standard went into effect in January 1994. The current standard went into effect in January 2023.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2012 2018 2022 202312030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base 

Installed 

Base 

Current 

Standard Typical High New Standard Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h)2400 400 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250

Thermal Efficiency (%)380 80 80 81 81 81 81 81 81 81

Typical Output Capacity (kBtu/h) 320 320 200 203 203 203 203 203 203 203

Average Life (y) 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 1,230 1,230 1,230 1,260 1,260 1,260 1,260 1,260 1,260 1,260

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 2,540 2,540 2,540 2,580 2,580 2,580 2,580 2,580 2,580 2,580

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 8 8 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Furnaces

• Until 2022, the Federal standard required minimum 80% thermal efficiency. This metric, more commonly called 

“combustion efficiency” in other contexts, accounts only for flue losses, not jacket losses.

— The Federal standard applied to all units manufactured on or after January 1, 1994, with maximum rated heat 

input ≥ 225,000 Btu per hour.

— On January 1, 2023, the minimum Federal standard increased to 81% thermal efficiency.

• ASHRAE Standard 90.1, which is used as a commercial building code in many states, stipulates that furnaces that are 

not within the conditioned space shall not have jacket losses exceeding 0.75% of the input rating.

• Commercial furnaces are typically non-condensing with thermal efficiencies ranging from 80% to 81%. Condensing 

commercial furnaces, which can achieve up to 95% thermal efficiency, were previously introduced to the market but 

are not currently available due to cost and reliability concerns. The highest thermal efficiency included in DOE’s CCD 

at this time is 81%. 

• Besides capacity, commercial units can differ from residential furnaces in terms of the control system (i.e., integration 

with a Building Management System, twinning, or other staging strategies). Commercial systems may also use a heat 

recovery system to pre-heat inlet air. 

110

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Furnaces

Annual shipments reached a peak of 235.9 thousand units in 2007. Following a decline in shipments after 2007, 

shipments increased to 188.1 thousand units in 2013. Shipment data after 2013 is not available.

Source: AHRI

111

Return to Table of Contents

0

50

100

150

200

250

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

Unit Shipments (thousands)

Commercial Gas-Fired Furnaces
Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Furnaces

112

1. In 2023, the new Energy Conservation Standards for CWAF took effect. These projections reflect the 2023 minimum thermal efficiency requirement for oil-fired furnaces, 82%.

2. DOE's efficiency metric for commercial furnaces accounts only for flue losses, not jacket losses.

Note:

The previous standard went into effect in January 1994. The current standard went into effect in January 2023.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2012 2018 2022 202312030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base 

Installed 

Base 

Current 

Standard Typical High New Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 400 400 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250

Thermal Efficiency (%)281 82 81 82 85 82 82 85 82 85 82 85

Typical Output Capacity (kBtu/h) 324 328 203 205 213 205 205 213 205 213 205 213

Average Life (y) 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 5,500 5,560 5,500 5,560 6,020 5,560 5,560 6,020 5,560 6,020 5,560 6,020

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 7,740 7,810 7,740 7,810 8,380 7,810 7,810 8,380 7,810 8,380 7,810 8,380

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 24 24 38 38 39 38 38 39 38 39 38 39

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 360 360 360 360 370 360 360 370 360 370 360 370

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Furnaces

• Until 2022, the Federal standard required minimum 81% thermal efficiency. This metric, more commonly called 

“combustion efficiency” in other contexts, accounts only for flue losses, not jacket losses. 

— The Federal standard applied to all units manufactured on or after January 1, 1994, with maximum rated heat 

input ≥ 225,000 Btu per hour.

— On January 1, 2023, the minimum Federal standard increased to 82% thermal efficiency.

• ASHRAE Standard 90.1, which is used as a commercial building code in many states, stipulates that furnaces that are 

not within the conditioned space shall not have jacket losses exceeding 0.75% of the input rating.

• Commercial oil-fired furnaces have thermal efficiencies ranging from 81% to 85% and are non-condensing (i.e., not 

designed for condensation of flue gases).

• Besides capacity, commercial units can differ in terms of the control system (i.e., integration with a Building 

Management System, twinning, or other staging strategies). Commercial systems may also use a heat recovery system 

to pre-heat inlet air.

• The maintenance cost estimate assumes two cleanings per year.

113

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Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Furnaces

Annual shipments for commercial oil-fired furnaces have steadily decreased over time to 2,127 units in 2013. 

Shipment data after 2013 is not available.

Source: AHRI

114

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0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

18000

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

Unit Shipments

Commercial Oil-Fired Furnaces
Final

DATA 

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base: 

Small 

Installed 

Base: Large 

Installed 

Base: 

Small 

Installed 

Base: Large Small Large Small Large Small Large Small Large 

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h)117 170 17 170 17 170 17 170 17 170 17 170

Efficiency (%) 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Average Life (y) 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 1,000 6,320 1,000 6,320 500 4,630 500 4,630 500 4,630 500 4,630

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 1,240 7,470 1,240 7,470 660 5,470 660 5,470 660 5,470 660 5,470

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 73 44 73 44 39 32 39 32 39 32 39 32

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)2- - - - - - - - - - - -

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) - - - - - - - - - - - -

Commercial Electric Resistance Heaters

115

1. Capacity is output.

2. Annual Maintenance Cost is negligible.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Electric Resistance Heaters

• This analysis examined standard suspended electric wall and ceiling unit heaters, which are more common in 

commercial settings than baseboard electric heaters that were considered for the residential analysis.

• Electric unit heaters range in capacity from 2 to 80 kW (7 to 270 kBtu/h), with 5 to 50 kW (17 to 170 kBtu/h) being the 

most typical units on the market.

• Electric resistance heaters are considered near 100% efficient because there is no heat loss through ducts or 

combustion.

• Installation time and costs are estimated to be minimal.

116

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Final

Commercial Electric Boilers

117

1. Capacity is output.

2. Retail and installed costs for 2022 and forecasts for 2030 and beyond are based on Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building Construction Costs 2023. Maintenance costs are same as EIA Technology Forecast Updates 

(2018), updated to reflect 2022$. The costs shown are for one 165kW unit, which would equate to a steady load of approximately 550,000 Btu/h. Annual maintenance in a typical application would include draining 

the unit for removal of any accumulated scale or sludge buildup.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (kW)1165 165 165 165 165 165

Efficiency (%) 98 98 98 98 98 98

Average Life (y) 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)211,620 11,590 9,790 9,790 9,790 9,790

Total Installed Cost (2022$)217,500 13,820 11,950 11,950 11,950 11,950

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 31 25 21 21 21 21

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)2170 130 130 130 130 130

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) - - - - - -
Final

Commercial Electric Boilers

• There are currently no federal standards associated with electric boilers.

• The costs shown are for one 165kW unit, which would equate to a steady load of approximately 550,000 Btu/h.

• Service life is determined mainly by water quality. Water conditioning (e.g., filters, softeners, de-alkalizers, chemical 

feeders) may be necessary for a given application. 

• Annual maintenance in a typical application would include draining the unit for removal of any accumulated scale or 

sludge buildup.

• Minor end-use inefficiencies for electric boilers result from heat loss through the boiler (jacket losses).

118

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Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Boilers

119

1. The standard level shown here is for small (300 kBtu/h to 2500 kBtu/h) gas-fired hot water commercial packaged boilers, which are the most common type of boilers available on the market.

2. DOE's efficiency metric for most boiler types accounts for both flue and jacket losses; previously it did not. DOE continues to uses a combustion efficiency metric instead, for hot water boilers with heat input 

> 2,500,000 Btu/h.

3. Maintenance costs for 2018 and post-2018 are based on Commercial Packaged Boilers EERE 2020. The annualized maintenance costs estimated in the final rule differ for condensing vs. non-condensing 

boilers. Appendix 8E of the Commercial Packaged Boilers EERE 2020 TSD provides additional information on how the values are calculated.

Note: 

The previous standard went into effect in March 2012.

The current standard went into effect in January 2023.

In December 2016, DOE issued a final rule titled Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Commercial Packaged Boilers. This rule published in January 2020 with an effective date for 

January 2023. 

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base 

Installed 

Base 

Current 

Standard1 Typical High New Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800

Thermal Efficiency (%)277 85 80 85 99 84 85 99 85 99 85 99 85 99

Average Life (y) 30 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 15,530 25,910 19,150 25,910 42,670 24,320 25,910 42,670 25,910 42,670 25,910 42,670 25,910 42,670

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 24,600 38,330 30,470 38,330 55,230 35,650 38,330 55,230 38,330 55,230 38,330 55,230 38,330 55,230

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 40 56 48 56 70 53 56 70 56 70 56 70 56 70

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)3 1,710 2,100 2,100 2,100 2,140 2,100 2,100 2,140 2,100 2,140 2,100 2,140 2,100 2,140

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Boilers

• Commercial packaged gas-fired boilers are classified by:

— Heat input capacity

— Produce steam or hot water

— Draft type (natural draft or not) – for steam boilers

• The most common type of commercial gas-fired boilers are small gas-fired hot water boilers with 300,000-2,500,000 

Btu/h rated heat input.

• Similar technologies to those used in the residential gas-fired boilers market can be leveraged in the commercial arena. 

The higher efficiency units typically include electronic ignition, power burners, and improved heat exchangers. Some 

gas-fired boilers also condense water vapor from the flue gases to improve heating efficiency.

• DOE published a final rule for commercial packaged boilers in January 2020 that updated the efficiency ratings of gasfired commercial packaged boilers beginning January 2023.

120

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Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Boilers

Shipments of commercial gas-fired boilers peaked in 2000 and have been steadily declining since 2010. Shipment data 

after 2013 is not available.

Source: Commercial Packaged Boilers EERE 2020

121

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0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

Unit Shipments (thousands)

Commercial Gas-Fired Boilers
Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Boilers

122

1. The standard level shown here is for small (300 kBtu/h to 2500 kBtu/h) oil-fired hot water commercial packaged boilers, which are the most common type of boilers available on the market.

2. DOE's efficiency metric for most boiler types accounts for both flue and jacket losses; previously it did not. DOE continues to uses a combustion efficiency metric instead, for hot water boilers with heat input 

> 2,500,000 Btu/h.

3. Maintenance costs for 2018 and post-2018 are based on Commercial Packaged Boilers EERE 2020. The annualized maintenance costs estimated in the final rule differ for condensing vs. non-condensing 

boilers. Appendix 8E of the Commercial Packaged Boilers EERE 2020 TSD provides additional information on how the values are calculated.

Note:

The previous standard went into effect in March 2012.

The current standard went into effect in January 2023.

In December 2016, DOE issued a final rule titled Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Commercial Packaged Boilers. This rule published in January 2020 with an effective date for 

January 2023. 

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base 

Installed 

Base 

Current 

Standard1 Typical High New Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 1,200 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800

Thermal Efficiency (%)281 85 82 85 97 87 87 97 87 97 87 97 87 97

Average Life (y) 30 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 16,830 26,810 23,190 26,810 51,480 29,730 29,730 51,480 29,730 51,480 29,730 51,480 29,730 51,480

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 22,000 37,240 33,100 37,240 62,910 40,160 40,160 62,910 40,160 62,910 40,160 62,910 40,160 62,910

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 23 55 50 55 81 58 58 81 58 81 58 81 58 81

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)3 1,710 2,690 2,690 2,690 2,690 2,690 2,690 2,690 2,690 2,690 2,690 2,690 2,690 2,690

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 2 4 4 4 3 4 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3
Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Boilers

• Commercial packaged oil-fired boilers are classified by:

— Heat input capacity

— Produce steam or hot water

• The most common type of commercial oil-fired boilers are small hot water boilers with 300,000-2,500,000 Btu/h rated 

heat input.

• The higher efficiency units typically include improved heat exchangers, and multi-step or variable-output power 

burners.

• DOE published a final rule for commercial packaged boilers in January 2020 that updated the efficiency ratings of oilfired commercial packaged boilers beginning January 2023.

123

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Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Boilers

Shipments of commercial oil-fired boilers peaked in 2001 and have been decreasing since then.

Source: Commercial Packaged Boilers EERE 2020

124

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0

1

2

3

4

5

6

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

Unit Shipments (thousands)

Commercial Oil-Fired Boilers
Final

Commercial Centrifugal Chillers (Water-Cooled)

125

1. Capacity is output.

2. ASHRAE 90.1 data are for units larger than 400 tons and for full-load optimized applications (Path A in ASHRAE 90.1-2019). Typical and high efficiency levels are determined based on the range of products 

currently available on the market.

Note: 

For most chillers (including those in single-chiller applications and for peaking units in multi-chiller applications), the seasonal performance (represented by the integrated part-load value (IPLV)) is more 

indicative of annual expected performance than the full-load performance; performance of baseload chillers in multi-chiller applications, which typically operate at full-load, are well represented by the full-load 

efficiency value.

ASHRAE 90.1 went into effect in October 2019.

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2012 2018 202222030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

ASHRAE 

90.1-2019 Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (tons)1

400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400

600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600

Efficiency [full-load] (kW/ton) 0.66 0.53 0.56 0.52 0.45 0.49 0.42 0.46 0.41 0.45 0.40

Efficiency [IPLV] (kW/ton) 0.61 0.37 0.50 0.31 0.30 0.30 0.28 0.29 0.26 0.28 0.25

COP [full-load] 5.4 6.6 6.3 6.8 7.8 7.2 8.4 7.6 8.6 7.8 8.8

COP [IPLV] 5.9 9.5 7.0 11.3 11.7 11.7 12.6 12.1 13.5 12.6 14.1

Average Life (y) 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$/ton) 380 500 480 500 680 590 760 660 780 690 810

Total Installed Cost (2022$/ton)

440 560 480 560 740 640 820 720 840 740 870

500 590 540 590 760 670 830 740 860 760 880

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 39 48 43 48 63 55 69 61 71 63 73

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/ton)

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40

Annual Maitnenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Final

Commercial Centrifugal Chillers (Water-Cooled)

• ASHRAE 90.1-2019 stipulates minimum efficiencies for centrifugal chillers separately from positive displacement water-cooled 

chillers. They are separated into 5 size categories, with categories divided at: 150, 300, 400, and 600 tons; ASHRAE 90.1-2019 

also distinguishes between whether the unit will be optimized for full-load (Path A) or part-load operation (Path B). Data here 

are for Path A; a Path B chiller may have slightly high full-load consumption in exchange for much lower part-load 

consumption. For example, for a 600-ton unit:

— Path A: ≥ 0.56 kW/ton full-load and ≥ 0.50 kW/ton IPLV 

— Path B: ≥ 0.585 kW/ton full-load and ≥ 38 kW/ton IPLV

• Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) recommendations, last updated in 2020, match ASHRAE 90.1-2019. 

• The highest efficiency centrifugal chillers incorporate some of the following:

— Variable speed drive (VSD) compressors

— Dedicated heat recovery (heat pump chiller)

— Magnetic bearing technology (oil-free operation)

— Greater heat exchanger surface areas; enhanced tube configurations (counterflow)

— Optimized fluid flow velocities

— High efficiency electric motors

— Improved turbomachinery design, resulting in higher compressor efficiency

— Better piping and valving, including electronic expansion valves

— Evaporative condenser for the heat rejection equipment

• Installed costs vary widely depending on equipment needed for installation (e.g., crane) and size of system. This is a mature

market with centrifugal chillers representing 75% of commercial chiller sales larger than 200 tons.

• Water-cooled chiller ratings do not include energy consumption of the cooling tower and therefore are not directly comparable 

to rating for air-cooled chillers. Water-cooled centrifugal chillers were selected for analysis due to a higher model share on the 

AHRI directory in comparison to air-cooled chillers.

126

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Final

Commercial Reciprocating Chillers (Air-Cooled Only)

127

1. Capacity is output.

2. ASHRAE 90.1 data are for units larger than 150 tons and for full-load optimized applications (Path A in ASHRAE 90.1-2019). Typical and high efficiency levels are determined based on the range of products 

currently available on the market.

Note: 

This analysis covers air-cooled chillers only.

For most chillers (including those in single-chiller applications and for peaking units in multi-chiller applications), the seasonal performance (represented by the IPLV) is more indicative of annual expected 

performance than the full-load performance; performance of baseload chillers in multi-chiller applications, which typically operate at full-load, are well represented by the full-load efficiency value.

ASHRAE 90.1 went into effect in October 2019.

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2012 2018 202222030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

ASHRAE 

90.1-20193 Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (tons)1

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200

Efficiency [full-load] (kW/ton) 1.26 1.19 1.19 1.15 1.00 1.15 1.00 1.15 1.00 1.15 1.00

Efficiency [IPLV] (kW/ton) 1.13 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.80 0.79 0.80 0.79

COP [full-load] 2.8 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.5 3.1 3.5 3.1 3.5 3.1 3.5

COP [IPLV] 3.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.5 4.4 4.5 4.4 4.5 4.4 4.5

Average Life (y) 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$/ton)

725 820 820 820 1,030 820 1,030 820 1,030 820 1,030

600 730 730 730 880 730 880 730 880 730 880

Total Installed Cost (2022$/ton)

800 880 880 880 1,180 880 1,180 880 1,180 880 1,180

700 760 760 760 1,090 760 1,090 760 1,090 760 1,090

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 63 68 68 68 95 68 95 68 95 68 95

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/ton)

45 45 50 50 50 45 50 45 50 45 50

25 25 30 30 30 25 30 25 30 25 30

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Final

Commercial Reciprocating Chillers (Air-Cooled Only)

• Reciprocating chillers are most cost effective for small loads (30 to 150-ton range). However, reciprocating chiller 

market share continues to be supplanted by screw and scroll chillers. This trend has accelerated with the phase out of 

R-22, which was the refrigerant of choice for reciprocating products, which has in turn driven major manufacturers to 

replace their reciprocating product lines with scroll products (rather than redesign reciprocating products for new 

refrigerants). As a result, product options are very limited.

• Reciprocating chillers can be used in either air-cooled or water-cooled applications. Reciprocating chillers shown in the 

data are air-cooled. Air-cooled chillers are less efficient than the water-cooled models. Listed efficiencies include 

matched condensers and their associated energy use.

• ASHRAE 90.1-2019 stipulates minimum efficiencies for all air-cooled chillers together, including reciprocating chillers, 

while water-cooled chillers are separated by positive displacement (e.g., reciprocating) versus centrifugal models. Aircooled chiller efficiencies are further split by size for more and less than 150 tons. ASHRAE 90.1-2019 also 

distinguishes between whether the unit will be optimized for full-load (Path A) or part-load operation (Path B). Data 

here are for Path A; a Path B chiller may have slightly lower full-load efficiency in exchange for much higher part-load 

efficiency. For example, for a 100-ton unit:

— Path A: ≥ 10.1 EER full-load and ≥ 13.7 IPLV EER

— Path B: ≥ 9.7 EER full-load and ≥ 15.8 IPLV EER

• FEMP (2022) recommendations for air-cooled chillers are:

— Path A (<150 tons): ≥ 10.89 EER full-load and ≥ 13.7 IPLV EER

— Path B (<150 tons): ≥ 9.7 EER full-load and ≥ 16.86 IPLV EER (same as 90.1-2019)

• The highest efficiency reciprocating chillers incorporate some of the following:

— Multiple compressors for staged capacity control

— Improved heat-exchangers

128

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Final

Commercial Screw Chillers (Air-Cooled Only)

129

1. ASHRAE 90.1 data for units larger than 150 tons and for full-load optimized applications (Path A in ASHRAE 90.1-2019).

Note:

For most chillers (including those in single-chiller applications and for peaking units in multi-chiller applications), the seasonal performance (represented by the IPLV) is more indicative of annual expected 

performance than the full-load performance; performance of baseload chillers in multi-chiller applications, which typically operate at full-load, are well represented by the full-load efficiency value.

ASHRAE 90.1 went into effect in October 2019.

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

ASHRAE 

90.1-20191 Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (tons)

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

Efficiency [full-load] (kW/ton) 1.26 1.18 1.19 1.15 0.92 1.13 0.91 1.04 0.86 0.98 0.81

Efficiency [IPLV] (kW/ton) 1.13 0.84 0.86 0.81 0.55 0.79 0.53 0.72 0.49 0.68 0.45

COP [full-load] 2.8 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.8 3.1 3.9 3.4 4.1 3.6 4.3

COP [IPLV] 3.1 4.2 4.1 4.4 6.4 4.5 6.6 4.9 7.2 5.2 7.8

Average Life (y) 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$/ton)

760 970 1,130 1,130 1,230 1,140 1,230 1,180 1,250 1,200 1,270

620 850 770 770 870 780 870 820 890 840 910

Total Installed Cost (2022$/ton)

910 1,150 1,250 1,250 1,350 1,260 1,350 1,300 1,370 1,320 1,390

850 940 820 820 920 830 920 870 940 890 960

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 73 87 86 86 95 87 95 90 96 92 98

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/ton)

50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Final

Commercial Screw Chillers (Air-Cooled Only)

• Screw chillers are common in 150 to 500-ton capacities but are most cost effective for small (<300 tons) loads; screw 

chillers dominate the current market for small to mid-size chillers.

• Screw chillers can be used in either air-cooled or water-cooled applications. Screw chillers shown in the data are aircooled. Air-cooled chillers are less efficient than the water-cooled models. Listed efficiencies include matched 

condensers and their associated energy use.

• ASHRAE 90.1-2019 stipulates minimum efficiencies for all air-cooled chillers together, including screw chillers, while 

water-cooled chillers are separated by positive displacement (e.g., screw) versus centrifugal models. Air-cooled chiller 

efficiencies are further split by size for more and less than 150 tons. ASHRAE 90.1-2019 also distinguishes between 

whether the unit will be optimized for full-load (Path A) or part-load operation (Path B). Data here are for Path A; a 

Path B chiller may have slightly lower full-load efficiency in exchange for much higher part-load efficiency. For 

example, for a ≥ 150-ton unit:

— Path A: ≥ 10.1 EER full-load and ≥ 14.0 IPLV EER

— Path B: ≥ 9.7 EER full-load and ≥ 16.1 IPLV EER

• FEMP recommendations for air-cooled chillers (updated June 2020) are:

— Path A (≥ 150 tons): ≥ 10.7 EER full-load and ≥ 14.0 IPLV EER

— Path B (≥ 150 tons): ≥ 9.7 EER full-load and ≥ 16.4 IPLV EER

• The highest efficiency screw chillers incorporate some of the following:

— Variable speed compressors and/or multiple compressors

— Economizers

— Improved heat-exchangers

130

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Final

Commercial Scroll Chillers (Air-Cooled Only)

131

1. ASHRAE 90.1 data for units less than 150 tons and for full-load optimized applications (Path A in ASHRAE 90.1-2019).

Note:

For most chillers (including those in single-chiller applications and for peaking units in multi-chiller applications), the seasonal performance (represented by the IPLV) is more indicative of annual expected 

performance than the full-load performance; performance of baseload chillers in multi-chiller applications, which typically operate at full-load, are well represented by the full-load efficiency value.

ASHRAE 90.1 went into effect in October 2019.

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

ASHRAE 

90.1-20191 Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (tons)

50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140

Efficiency [full-load] (kW/ton) 1.23 1.16 1.19 1.15 1.07 1.11 1.06 1.07 1.02 1.02 0.97

Efficiency [IPLV] (kW/ton) 0.99 0.77 0.88 0.77 0.70 0.73 0.68 0.71 0.65 0.69 0.62

COP [full-load] 2.9 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.6

COP [IPLV] 3.7 4.6 4.0 4.6 5.0 4.8 5.2 5.0 5.4 5.1 5.7

Average Life (y) 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$/ton)

680 1,000 1,060 1,060 1,160 1,120 1,160 1,150 1,200 1,200 1,240

560 820 530 530 630 590 630 620 670 670 710

Total Installed Cost (2022$/ton)

970 1,210 1,170 1,170 1,270 1,230 1,270 1,260 1,310 1,310 1,350

850 970 860 860 960 920 960 950 1,000 1,000 1,040

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 76 91 85 85 93 90 93 92 96 96 100

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/ton)

60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60

40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Final

Commercial Scroll Chillers (Air-Cooled Only)

• Scroll chillers range in size from ~20 tons to ~200 tons and can be used in either air-cooled or water-cooled 

applications. They are the most common type of chiller for small chiller plants. The scroll chillers shown in the data are 

air-cooled, which is most common. Air-cooled chillers are less efficient than the water-cooled models. Listed 

efficiencies include matched condensers and their associated energy use.

• ASHRAE 90.1-2019 stipulates minimum efficiencies for all air-cooled chillers together, including scroll chillers, while 

water-cooled chillers are separated by positive displacement (e.g., scroll) versus centrifugal models. Air-cooled chiller 

efficiencies are distinct for more and less than 150 tons. ASHRAE 90.1-2019 also distinguishes between whether the 

unit will be optimized for full-load (Path A) or part-load operation (Path B). Data here are for Path A; a Path B chiller 

may have slightly lower full-load efficiency in exchange for much higher part-load efficiency. For example, for a 100-

ton unit:

— Path A: ≥ 10.1 EER full-load and ≥ 13.7 IPLV EER

— Path B: ≥ 9.7 EER full-load and ≥ 15.8 IPLV EER

• FEMP recommendations for air-cooled chillers (updated June 2020) are:

— Path A (< 150 tons): ≥ 10.7 EER full-load and ≥ 13.7 IPLV EER

— Path B (< 150 tons): ≥ 9.7 EER full-load and ≥ 15.9 IPLV EER

• The highest efficiency scroll chillers incorporate some of the following:

— Multiple compressors for staged capacity control

— Improved heat-exchangers

— Variable speed compressor (or other modulation controls)

• With the phase out of R-22, manufacturers have replaced many of their small reciprocating chiller products with 

equivalent scroll products, making them a primary choice for small tonnage applications.

132

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Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Chillers (Water-Cooled, Direct-Fired Only)

133

1. Capacity is output.

Note:

This analysis assumes a water-cooled chiller; both gas-fired chiller types (absorption and engine-driven) are shown. COP values for double-effect absorption chillers are shown.

For most chillers (including those in single-chiller applications and for peaking units in multi-chiller applications), the seasonal performance (represented by the IPLV) is more indicative of annual expected 

performance than the full-load performance; performance of baseload chillers in multi-chiller applications, which typically operate at full-load, are well represented by the full-load efficiency value.

ASHRAE 90.1 went into effect in October 2019.

CA Title 24 went into effect in January 2020.

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base: 

Absorption

Installed 

Base: 

EngineDriven

Installed 

Base: 

Absorption

Installed 

Base: 

EngineDriven

ASHRAE 

90.1-2019 

Absorption

CA Title 24 

– EngineDrivenAbsorption EngineDriven Absorption EngineDriven Absorption EngineDriven Absorption EngineDriven

Typical Capacity 

(tons)1

150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150

1,500 400 1,500 400 1,500 400 1,500 400 1,500 400 1,500 400 1,500 400

COP [full-load] 1.1 1.7 1.2 1.7 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.7 1.3 1.8 1.4 1.8 1.4 1.8

COP [IPLV] NA NA 1.6 2.6 1.0 2.0 1.6 2.6 1.6 2.6 1.6 2.6 1.6 2.6

Average Life (y) 23 25 23 25 23 25 23 25 23 25 23 25 23 25

Retail Equipment 

Cost (2022$/ton)

1,060 1,000 1,060 1,000 1,200 1,000 1,200 1,000 1,200 1,000 1,200 1,000 1,200 1,000

880 880 880 880 870 880 870 880 870 880 870 880 870 880

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/ton)

1,290 1,240 1,180 1,240 1,110 1,240 1,110 1,240 1,110 1,240 1,110 1,240 1,110 1,240

1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 850 1,000 850 1,000 850 1,000 850 1,000 850 1,000

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 95 93 91 93 82 93 82 93 82 93 82 93 82 93

Annual 

Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/ton)

40 60 40 60 40 60 40 60 40 60 40 60 40 60

20 40 20 40 20 40 20 40 20 40 20 40 20 40

Annual 

Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Chillers (Water-Cooled, Direct-Fired Only)

• Gas-fired chillers are available as either air-cooled (~25-50 tons) or water-cooled (150+ tons). This analysis covers only 

water-cooled chillers of two varieties: absorption and engine-driven vapor compression (direct-fired only; indirect 

steam or hot water driven units are excluded).

• Direct gas firing provides high enough temperatures to operate double effect absorption chillers, which operate at a 

50-60% higher COP than single effect systems. Triple effect chillers, though not commercially available, can boost 

cooling COP 30-50% beyond double effect chillers. Some companies have worked on prototype direct-fired triple effect 

absorption chillers, but prohibitively high cost of advanced high heat/corrosion-resistant materials required for triple 

effect absorption chillers suggests that this technology will not likely have an impact on the market in the near-term.

• Gas-fired engine-driven chillers pair conventional vapor compression systems (typically screw or centrifugal 

compressors) with natural gas powered-reciprocating engines. They exhibit higher peak cooling COP than absorbers, 

and engine modulation results in better part-load performance. Future efficiency improvements for engine-driven 

chillers are not anticipated. Engine-driven chillers allow the opportunity to recover waste heat for useful purposes. 

• Maintenance costs for engine-driven chillers are higher than for other chillers because they include all the typical 

components of a vapor compression chiller in addition to an engine; the engine maintenance costs vary depending on 

the annual run hours of the unit. 

• Limited sales data suggest that the U.S. market for gas-fired chillers is very limited and is mostly for replacement 

units, not for new installations. Recent increases in electric chiller efficiency have narrowed the operating cost 

differential with gas chillers. Asia has the majority of the global gas-fired chiller market. 

• Gas-fired chiller installations are particularly valuable in locations where electric rates are high and gas prices are low 

(i.e., low spark spread), where digester or landfill gas sources are available, or where waste heat sources are available 

(e.g., an industrial process or microturbine CHP system) that could be used with a hybrid direct/indirect-fired 

absorption chiller to offset the use of natural gas. 

134

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Final

DATA

2012 2018 202242023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.1

High New 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Output Capacity 

(kBtu/h) 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90

Part Load Efficiency (IEER)112.4 12.9 12.9 12.9 14.0 23.3 14.8 14.8 18.0 23.3 15.1 23.3 15.1 23.3 15.1 23.3

Efficiency (EER)210.6 11.5 11.5 11.5 12.2 12.8 12.2 12.2 12.7 12.8 12.2 12.8 12.2 12.8 12.2 12.8

Efficiency Conversion 3.6 3.8 3.8 3.8 4.1 6.8 4.3 4.3 5.3 6.8 4.4 6.8 4.4 6.8 4.4 6.8

Average Life (y) 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 7,760 8,280 8,280 8,280 9,090 12,210 9,490 9,490 10,340 12,210 9,590 12,210 9,590 12,210 9,590 12,210

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 10,350 11,870 11,870 11,870 13,020 17,600 13,560 13,560 14,970 17,600 13,720 17,600 13,720 17,600 13,720 17,600

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 115 132 132 132 145 196 151 151 166 196 152 196 152 196 152 196

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)3 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

Commercial Rooftop Air Conditioners

135

1. Values shown are for air-cooled small commercial packaged air conditioners with either electric resistance heating or no heating within the same enclosure. DOE published a direct final rule for commercial 

packaged air conditioners and heat pumps in January 2016 with initial standards becoming effective in 2018 and additional standards becoming effective in 2023. As part of this rulemaking, DOE changed the 

regulated metric from EER to integrated energy efficiency ratio (IEER).

2. DOE investigated the relationship between IEER and EER. Because the relationship between IEER and EER is weak, this analysis estimates EER values based on the average of the values seen at a given IEER.

3. Examples of annual maintenance services include, check tensions, condition, and alignment of belts and adjust as necessary; lubricate shaft and motor bearings; replace air filters; clean coils, drain pan and 

piping, blowers, fan motors as required; check refrigerant pressure and compressor oil level; etc.

4. The 2022 typical efficiency is based on the average IEER from DOE’s CCD. The 2022 high efficiency is based on the most-efficient model in DOE’s CCD, but costs are estimated based on the most efficient unit 

analyzed in CUAC EERE 2016, which had an IEER of 21.5.

Note:

EER is the ratio of the cooling capacity (in Btu/h) to the power input (in watts) and provides a measure of the efficiency of equipment operating at full load (i.e., 100 percent cooling capacity) in high-ambienttemperature conditions (i.e., 95 °F). IEER is a single number part-load efficiency based on weighting of EER at various load capacities. Efficiency Conversion is the conversion of IEER from a [(Btu/h)/W] metric to 

a metric in the same units.

The previous standard went into effect in January 2018. The current standard went into effect in January 2023.

ENERGY STAR V. 3.1 went into effect in January 2018. ENERGY STAR V. 4.0 went into effect in January 2023.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Rooftop Air Conditioners

• Air-Cooled Commercial Packaged Air Conditioners

• This analysis focused on small air-cooled commercial packaged rooftop air conditioners (90 kBtu/h or 7.5 tons), though 

there are also standards for many other types of commercial air conditioners.

• Amended standards in terms of IEER for all equipment classes took effect in January 2018. More stringent standards in 

terms of IEER for all equipment classes took effect in January 2023. 

136

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Cooling Capacity 

(kBtu/h) Heating Type

Federal Standard

Effective 1/1/2018 

Min. IEER

Federal Standard

Effective 1/1/2023 

Min. IEER

Small

( ≥ 65 and < 135)

Electric resistance 

or none

12.9 14.8

Any other type 12.7 14.6

Large

(≥ 135 and < 240)

Electric resistance 

or none

12.4 14.2

Any other type 12.2 14.0
Final

DATA

201212018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (tons) 18 11 11 11 11 11

Heating COP 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4

Cooling COP 0.9 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2

Average Life (y) 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost ($/ton) 3,350 2,820 3,710 3,710 3,710 3,710

Total Installed Cost ($/ton) 3,820 3,290 4,110 4,110 4,110 4,110

Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/h) 318 274 343 343 343 343

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 70 70 70 70 70 70

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 6 6 6 6 6 6

Commercial Gas-Fired Engine-Drive Rooftop Air Conditioners

137

1. The 2012 typical capacity and cooling COP were estimated as a simple average between obsolete pre-2003 units and 2013 units, which first became available in 2010; this assumes that each vintage represents 

about half of the installed base.

Note: 

Only one product was available in 2012; the market has grown slightly in years since. Typical capacity and COP for 2018 and later are averages of units available as of 2017.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Engine-Drive Rooftop Air Conditioners

• There are only a few gas-fired engine-driven rooftop units currently available in the U.S. market. The first unit was 

introduced in 2010. It is an 11-ton packaged heat pump with dual scroll compressors, variable refrigerant flow, and a 

variable speed supply fan. Engine coolant heat recovery improves the heating mode COP. 

• There are currently no Federal requirements on gas-fired engine-driven rooftop air conditioners or heat pumps.

• Annual sales of the engine-driven rooftop heat pump are estimated at less than 5,000 units per year.

138

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Final

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.1

High New 

Standard

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90

Part Load Efficiency 

(IEER)1 12.0 11.3 12.2 14.3 12.8 20.3 14.1 15.3 20.3 14.4 20.3 15.3 20.3 15.3 20.3

EER 10.2 11.2 11.3 11.5 11.8 13.0 12.0 11.8 13.0 11.7 13.1 11.7 13.1 11.7 13.1

COP (Heating) 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.7 3.4 3.5 3.7 3.4 3.7 3.5 3.7 3.5 3.7

Average Life (y) 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$) 7,490 7,490 9,000 10,250 9,380 12,920 10,160 10,600 12,920 10,290 12,920 10,600 12,920 10,600 12,920

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$) 9,350 9,350 12,900 14,940 13,530 18,860 14,810 15,520 18,860 15,000 18,860 15,510 18,860 15,510 18,860

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 104 104 143 166 150 210 165 172 210 167 210 172 210 172 210

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$) 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

Commercial Rooftop Heat Pumps

139

1. Values shown are for air-cooled small commercial packaged heat pumps with either electric resistance heating or no heating within the same enclosure. DOE published a direct final rule for commercial 

packaged air conditioners and heat pumps in January 2016 with initial standards becoming effective in 2018 and additional standards becoming effective in 2023. As part of this rulemaking, DOE changed the 

regulated metric from EER to IEER.

Note:

The previous standard went into effect in January 2018. The current standard went into effect in January 2023.

ENERGY STAR V. 3.1 went into effect in January 2018. ENERGY STAR V. 4.0 went into effect in January 2023.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Rooftop Heat Pumps

• Air-Cooled Commercial Packaged Heat Pumps

• This analysis focused on small air-cooled commercial packaged rooftop heat pumps (90 kBtu/h or 7.5 tons), though 

there are also standards for many other types of commercial heat pumps.

• Amended standards in terms of IEER for all equipment classes took effect in 2018. More stringent standards in terms 

of IEER for all equipment classes took effect in 2023. 

140

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Cooling Capacity (kBtu/h) Heating Type

Federal Standard

Effective 1/1/2018 

Min. IEER

Federal Standard

Effective 1/1/2023 

Min. IEER

Small

( ≥ 65 and < 135)

Electric resistance or 

none

12.2 14.1

Any other type 12.0 13.9

Large

(≥ 135 and < 240)

Electric resistance or 

none

11.6 13.5

Any other type 11.4 13.3
Final

1. COP values listed are assessed at a "ground loop" test condition, which is representative of closed loop GSHP operating conditions. However, DOE sets standards at a "water loop" test condition. The AHRI 

directory lists COP ratings at both sets of test conditions and is used to convert between them where necessary. 

2. EER values listed are assessed at a full-load "ground loop" test condition, which is representative of closed loop GSHP operating conditions. However, DOE sets standards at a full-load "water loop" test 

condition. The AHRI directory lists EER ratings at all sets of test conditions and is used to convert between them where necessary.

Note: 

Residential and commercial GSHPs are very similar - the main difference in data presented is the different capacity (3-ton vs. 4-ton) and slightly higher installation costs for commercial GSHP. DOE does not 

distinguish between residential and commercial units in its regulations.

Commercial Ground-Source Heat Pumps

141

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DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48

COP (Heating)1 3.1 3.7 3.2 3.5 3.6 3.5 3.6 3.5 3.6 3.5 3.6

EER (Cooling)2 12.7 17.4 14.1 17.0 21.6 17.0 21.6 17.0 21.6 17.0 21.6

Average Life (y)

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 10,470 6,470 5,590 6,470 7,880 6,470 7,880 6,470 7,880 6,470 7,880

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

19,760 18,230 17,350 18,230 19,650 18,230 19,650 18,230 19,650 18,230 19,650

44,820 26,520 25,580 26,520 27,880 26,520 27,880 26,520 27,880 26,520 27,880

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 673 466 447 466 495 466 495 466 495 466 495

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Final

Commercial Ground-Source Heat Pumps

• The most common commercial ground-source heat pump systems are closed-loop in which water or anti-freeze 

solution is circulated through plastic pipes buried underground. Commercial water-to-air heat pumps (WAHPs) range 

in size from 1 ton or less to over 500 tons depending on whether a distributed or centralized architecture is used. 

Distributed systems are more prevalent.

• Most geothermal WAHPs are rated for capacity and efficiency based on the ISO 13256-1 standard. Heating and cooling 

efficiency measurements under this standard include input energy for fans and pumps on a proportional basis that 

only includes that power required to transport air and liquid through the heat pump. The reason for this method is to 

simplify comparisons between heat pumps and to allow equipment to be optimized for real world conditions without 

suffering rating penalties. Real world energy use will exceed ratings predictions as a result of higher fluid static 

pressure requirements.

• ISO 13256-1 cooling rating conditions require 77 °F entering water temperature and 80.6 °F entering air temperature. 

More typical peak design criteria would be 80-90 °F entering water temperature and 75 °F entering air temperature. As 

a result, ISO 13256-1 rated cooling efficiency would be higher than typical design peak operation.

• Some WAHPs include efficiency data for a part-load operating condition as allowed by ISO 13256-1 for multiple stage 

or variable speed compressors. No seasonal energy efficiency metric (analogous to SEER or IEER) currently applies to 

WAHPs. The annual performance of a geothermal WAHP system can vary more widely than for other system types 

due to the large influence of ground loop design and characteristics.

• The ENERGY STAR criteria for ground-source heat pumps apply only to residential applications.

• Installation cost is for a closed loop system and includes necessary accessories. The ground loop heat exchanger and 

distribution pumping systems represent a majority of the installation cost.

• Low end WAHPs utilize single stage compressors. Higher efficiency units incorporate multiple stage or variable speed 

compressor controls to improve efficiency as well as humidity and temperature control. Variable speed ECM fan 

motors also improve overall energy efficiency.

142

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Final

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High2 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h)19 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

Efficiency (EER) 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 13.1 11.3 13.1 11.3 13.1 11.3 13.1

Efficiency 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.8 3.3 3.8 3.3 3.8 3.3 3.8

Average Life (y) 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 1,460 1,460 1,460 1,460 1,560 1,460 1,560 1,460 1,560 1,460 1,560

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 1,740 1,740 1,740 1,740 1,840 1,740 1,840 1,740 1,840 1,740 1,840

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 193 193 193 193 204 193 204 193 204 193 204

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

Packaged Terminal Air Conditioners

143

1. Typical capacity is representative of units with the most shipments. It was also the representative cooling capacity for DOE's analysis in packaged terminal air conditioners (PTAC) and packaged terminal 

heat pumps (PTHP) EERE 2022 NOPD.

2. High values for 2022 and beyond are based on the max-tech level from PTAC & PTHP EERE 2022 NOPD.

Note: 

The current standard went into effect in January 2017.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Packaged Terminal Air Conditioners

• PTAC are a self-contained, ductless air conditioning system used for commercial applications. 

• Analysis was conducted for the standard equipment class at the representative cooling capacity of 9000 Btu/h. 

144

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Cooling Capacity 

(kBtu/h) Equipment Size Equipment Class

Federal Standard

EER

PTAC Standard

< 7000 11.9

≥7,000 Btu/h and 

≤15,000 Btu/h 14.0 – (0.3 x Cap)

> 15,000 Btu/h 9.5
Final

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical2 High3 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h)19 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

Efficiency (EER) 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 13.1 11.5 13.1 11.5 13.1 11.5 13.1

Efficiency 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.8 3.4 3.8 3.4 3.8 3.4 3.8

COP (Heating) 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.6 3.3 3.6 3.3 3.6 3.3 3.6

Average Life (y) 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 1,620 1,620 1,620 1,620 1,720 1,630 1,720 1,630 1,720 1,630 1,720

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 1,910 1,910 1,910 1,910 2,010 1,910 2,010 1,910 2,010 1,910 2,010

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 212 212 212 212 223 212 223 212 223 212 223

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

Packaged Terminal Heat Pumps

145

1. Typical capacity is representative of units with the most shipments. It was also the representative cooling capacity for DOE's analysis in PTAC & PTHP EERE 2022 NOPD.

2. Typical values for 2022 and beyond are based on the efficiency level that has the largest market share per PTAC & PTHP EERE 2022 NOPD.

3. High values for 2022 and beyond are based on the max-tech level from PTAC & PTHP EERE 2022 NOPD.

Note: 

The current standard went into effect in October 2012.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Packaged Terminal Heat Pumps

• PTHP are self-contained heat pumps primarily used for commercial applications.

• Analysis was conducted for the standard equipment class at the representative cooling capacity of 9000 Btu/h. 

146

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Cooling Capacity 

(kBtu/h) Equipment Size Equipment Class

Federal 

Standard

EER

Federal 

Standard

COP

PTHP Standard

< 7000 11.9 3.3

≥7,000 Btu/h and 

≤15,000 Btu/h 14.0 – (0.3 x Cap) 3.7 – (0.052 x 

Cap)

> 15,000 Btu/h 9.5 2.9

PTHP Non-Standard

< 7000 9.3 2.7

≥7,000 Btu/h and 

≤15,000 Btu/h 

10.8 – (0.213 x 

Cap)

2.9 – (0.026 x 

Cap)

> 15,000 Btu/h 7.6 2.5
Final

Commercial Water Heating

147

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Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Storage Water Heaters

148

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Storage Capacity (gal) 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199

Thermal Efficiency (%)181 82 80 82 94 99 95 99 95 99 95 99

Average Life (y) 13 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

3,870 3,890 3,850 3,890 4,180 4,290 4,200 4,290 4,200 4,290 4,200 4,290

5,170 5,200 5,140 5,200 5,530 5,650 5,550 5,650 5,550 5,650 5,550 5,650

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

5,170 5,190 5,140 5,190 6,630 6,730 6,640 6,730 6,640 6,730 6,640 6,730

8,440 8,460 8,410 8,460 8,590 8,710 8,610 8,710 8,610 8,710 8,610 8,710

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 42 42 43 42 41 39 40 39 40 39 40 39

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)2320 320 320 320 330 330 330 330 330 330 330 330

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1. Different levels of standby loss were not included in this analysis. 

2. Maintenance consists of sediment and scale removal once or twice per year and replacement of miscellaneous components such as gaskets and sealants. Condensing units have an additional cost for replacement of 

condensate neutralizer media every two years.

Note: 

The current standard went into effect in October 2015.

ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 went into effect in October 2018.

The range of retail and installed costs represent the range from replacement market to new construction market.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Storage Water Heaters

• Input capacity > 155 kBtu/h and storage capacity ≤ 140 gal

• Federal standard:

— Minimum thermal efficiency: 80%

— Maximum standby loss (Btu/h) : Input Rate/800 + 110 × (Rated Volume)1/2

• ENERGY STAR requirements:

— Minimum thermal efficiency: 94%

— Maximum standby loss (Btu/h): 0.84 × [(Input Rate/800) + 110 × (Rated Volume)1/2]

• Baseline units are typically constructed similarly to residential units, though with higher input capacities (and often 

higher storage volumes).

• High-efficiency units include condensing heat exchangers (typically stainless or enameled steel) to extract additional 

heat by condensing water vapor in flue gases. Condensing units also include an inducer fan system or power burner. 

The heat exchanger is typically contained within the tank, but some designs consist of an external heating module 

attached to a storage tank. Condensing units are expected to be the majority market share by 2030.

• Maintenance consists of sediment and scale removal once or twice per year and replacement of miscellaneous 

components such as gaskets and sealants. Condensing units have an additional cost for replacement of condensate 

neutralizer media every two years.

149

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Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Storage Water Heaters

Annual shipments have fluctuated from 99,000 units in 2000 to 75,000 units in 2009, back to 99,000 units in 2015 and 

gradually decreasing since then until 2020.

Source: CWH EERE 2022 NOPR and AHRI

150

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0

20

40

60

80

100

120

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Unit Shipments (thousands)

Commercial Gas-Fired Storage Water Heaters
Final

Commercial Electric Resistance Storage Water Heaters

151

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Current 

Standard Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Storage Capacity (gal) 119 119 119 119 119 119 119

Typical Input Capacity (kW)1

18 18 18 18 18 18 18

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 60 60 60 60 60 60 60

Thermal Efficiency (%) 98 98 98 98 98 98 98

Average Life (y) 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

3,180 3,180 3,180 3,180 3,180 3,180 3,180

3,750 3,750 3,750 3,750 3,750 3,750 3,750

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

4,460 4,460 4,460 4,460 4,460 4,460 4,460

4,690 4,690 4,690 4,690 4,690 4,690 4,690

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 76 76 76 76 76 76 76

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1. Different levels of standby loss were not included in this analysis. 

Note: 

No new standards rulemaking has been initiated for commercial electric resistance water heaters since CWH EERE 2016 NOPR. Accordingly, the results are the same as EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018), 

updated to 2022$.

The range of retail equipment and installed costs represents the range from replacement market to new construction market. 

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Electric Resistance Storage Water Heaters

• Federal standard:

— Maximum standby loss (%/h) : 0.30 + 27/Measured Storage Volume

— Minimum thermal efficiency: no standard, but all units have an efficiency ≥ 98%

• Storage capacity: typically, 50 to 120 gallons, though smaller and larger units exist for specialized applications

• Commercial units are typically constructed similar to residential units, though with higher input capacities (and often 

higher storage volumes).

• There is very little variation in thermal efficiency on the market; variation in standby loss is typically due to tank 

design and insulation thickness. 

• Maintenance consists of sediment and scale removal once or twice per year.

152

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Final

Commercial Electric Resistance Storage Water Heaters

Annual shipments increased by almost 50% between 2002 and 2008. After a small dip in shipments in 2009, annual 

shipments have increased by about 173% between 2009 and 2017, stabilizing between 140-150 thousand shipments per 

year since then.

Source: AHRI

153

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0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Unit Shipments (thousands)

Commercial Electric Resistance Water Heaters
Final

Commercial Heat Pump Water Heaters

154

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical ENERGY STAR 

V. 2.0 Typical Typical Typical

Water Flow Rate (gal/min)134 34 34 34 34 34 34

Typical Output Capacity (kW)150 50 50 50 50 50 50

Typical Output Capacity (kBtu/h) 171 171 171 171 171 171 171

Coefficient of Performance (COPh) 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.0 3.9 3.9 3.9

Average Life (y) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)255,406 55,406 55,406 55,406 55,406 55,406 55,406

Total Installed Cost (2022$)259,940 59,940 59,940 59,940 59,940 59,940 59,940

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 351 351 351 351 351 351 351

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)2120 120 120 120 120 120 120

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1. Water flow rate scales with typical capacity. The storage tanks must be purchased and installed separately from the HP unit. The typical output and flow rate provided are near the median of the products 

available on the market currently.

2. Costs are same as EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018), updated to 2022$. Updated representative costs for commercial heat pump water heaters are not available due to the extremely small market for 

these products.

Note: 

ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 went into effect in October 2018.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Heat Pump Water Heaters

• Typical commercial HPWHs (CHPWHs) are add-on units designed to be used with a storage tank(s); integrated 

CHPWHs have emerged on the market (i.e., heat pump module and storage tank combined in one unit) in recent 

years.

• CHPWHs serve only a small portion of the commercial water heating (CWH) market, with the ENERGY STAR 

database listing only two manufacturers, each with one basic model listed.

• CHPWHs can extract heat from either air or water for heating potable water (“air-source” or “water-source”). The 

capacity of air-source CHPWHs falls at lower ambient air temperatures.

• Air-source CHPWHs cool the surrounding air, which can be desirable when installed indoors in applications with a 

year-round cooling load (e.g., a commercial kitchen).

• Output capacities for CHPWHs range from 17 kW to over 70 kW for air-source units and over 600 kW for water-source 

units.

• Some commercial applications require water as hot as 180 °F, such as dishwashing; however, most CHPWHs cannot 

deliver hot water at temperatures higher than 150 °F. 

• There are no current Federal standards for CHPWHs, but DOE prescribes a test procedure for determining COPhfor 

CHPWHs.

• The most recent ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 specification for CWH equipment went into effect in October 2018. It specifies a 

COPhlevel of 3.0 for CHPWHs. 

155

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Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Storage Water Heaters

156

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Storage Capacity (gal) 70 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

Thermal Efficiency (%)179 81 80 81 82 81 82 81 82 81 82

Average Life (y) 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 5,470 5,470 5,470 5,470 5,470 5,470 5,470 5,470 5,470 5,470 5,470

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 6,120 6,120 6,120 6,120 6,120 6,120 6,120 6,120 6,120 6,120 6,120

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 26 25 26 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 210 210 210 210

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1. Different levels of standby loss were not included in this analysis. 

Note: 

The commercial oil-fired water heaters market is very small; currently, there are only 4 basic models in DOE’s CCD. DOE's rulemaking analysis for oil-fired water heaters has not been updated since 2001. The 

retail, installed, and maintenance costs have been updated from EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018) to 2022$.

The current standard went into effect in October 2015.

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Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Storage Water Heaters

• Input capacity > 155 kBtu/h and storage capacity ≤ 140 gal

• Federal standard:

— Minimum thermal efficiency: 80%

— Maximum standby loss (Btu/h) : Input Rate/800 + 110 × (Rated Volume)1/2

• Condensing units do not exist, thus the highest thermal efficiency on the market is 82%.

• Commercial units are typically constructed similar to residential units, though with higher input capacities (and often 

higher storage volumes).

• Maintenance costs include sediment and scale removal once or twice per year. 

• The market for commercial oil-fired storage water heaters is very small; shipments are approximately 3% of shipments 

for commercial gas-fired storage water heaters.

157

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Final

Commercial Electric Booster Water Heaters

158

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (gal)

6 6 6 6 6 6

16 16 16 16 16 16

Typical Output Capacity (kBtu/h) 1,374 1,374 1,374 1,374 1,374 1,374

Thermal Efficiency (%) 98 98 98 98 98 98

Average Life (y)

3 3 3 3 3 3

10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)1

1,530 1,530 1,920 1,920 1,920 1,920

3,290 3,530 4,560 4,560 4,560 4,560

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 1

1,730 1,730 2,120 2,120 2,120 2,120

3,490 3,730 4,760 4,760 4,760 4,760

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 2 2 3 3 3 3

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)2- - - - - -

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) - - - - - -

1. The 2012 and 2018 installed base costs are the same as EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018), updated to 2022$. Retail costs for 2022 and later are based on the range of costs for products on the market 

today. Installed costs assume a $200 installation price.

2. Maintenance costs are negligible.

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Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Booster Water Heaters

159

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Current 

Standard Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (gal)

3 3 3 3 3 3 3

5 5 5 5 5 5 5

Typical Output Capacity (kBtu/h) 500 500 500 500 500 500 500

Thermal Efficiency (%)180 80 80 80 80 80 80

Average Life (y)

5 5 5 5 5 5 5

10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)2

5,530 5,760 7,130 7,130 7,130 7,130 7,130

8,000 9,060 11,120 11,120 11,120 11,120 11,120

Total Installed Cost (2022$)2

5,830 6,060 7,430 7,430 7,430 7,430 7,430

8,300 9,360 11,420 11,420 11,420 11,420 11,420

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 14 15 19 19 19 19 19

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 160 160 160 160 160 160 160

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1. While EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018) included high values reflecting condensing models, models currently available in the market do not exceed 80% efficiency.

2. The 2012 and 2018 installed base costs are the same as EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018), updated to 2022$. Retail costs for 2022 and later are based on the range of costs for products on the market 

today. Installed costs assume a $300 installation price.

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Final

Commercial Booster Water Heaters

• Booster water heaters are installed, often at the point of use, in series with the main service water heating system to 

boost service water temperatures. The main service water heating system may provide 110-140 F water, and the 

booster water heater may increase that temperature to 180-195 F. Typical commercial applications for booster water 

heaters include commercial dishwashers, laundromats, hospitals, and car washes.

• Commercial booster water heaters are regulated by DOE as either storage or instantaneous water heaters, depending 

on the ratio of input capacity to storage volume. Units with input capacity < 4,000 Btu/h per gallon of stored water are 

storage water heaters; all other units are instantaneous water heaters.

• DOE’s regulations do not currently include standards for electric instantaneous water heaters, but standards are 

included for electric storage water heaters, gas-fired instantaneous water heaters, and gas-fired storage water heaters. 

• Condensing gas-fired booster water heaters, those with an efficiency of 90% of more, were analyzed previously. There 

are no condensing units currently on the market. Condensing gas-fired booster water heaters can only operate if the 

incoming water temperature is below 130 F so there is enough heat transfer to condense.

• Booster water heaters typically have short lifetimes because of high usage and extreme temperatures.

• Shipments are small due to the limited number of applications.

160

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Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters

161

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.0

High2 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 

250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250

399 399 399 399 399 399 399 399 399 399 399 399

Thermal Efficiency (%) 80 92 80 92 94 99 96 99 96 99 96 99

Average Life (y)

17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17

25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)1

1,630 1,840 1,630 1,840 1,880 7,990 1,930 7,990 1,930 7,990 1,930 7,990

4,400 8,610 4,400 8,610 9,000 9,990 9,400 9,990 9,400 9,990 9,400 9,990

Total Installed Cost (2022$)1

2,430 3,980 2,430 3,980 4,010 13,000 4,070 13,000 4,070 13,000 4,070 13,000

10,380 13,560 10,380 13,560 13,950 14,950 14,350 14,950 14,350 14,950 14,350 14,950

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 25 29 25 29 29 44 30 44 30 44 30 44

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3

90 100 90 100 100 820 100 820 100 820 100 820

760 820 760 820 820 830 830 830 830 830 830 830

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 2 2 2 2 2 3 1 3 1 3 1 3

1. Commercial gas-fired instantaneous water heaters are categorized into two groups: tankless water heater and hot water supply boiler. Tankless units are similar in design to residential tankless units. The 

hot water supply boiler has a much higher input and is similar in design to boilers. The large variation of total input capacity and design causes a large range of costs. The range of retail, installed, and 

maintenance costs represent the differences in design, as well as the cost ranges arising from replacement versus new construction markets.

2. High efficiency was determined based on DOE's CCD. The most efficient tankless water heater has a thermal efficiency of 96%. The most efficient hot water supply boiler has a thermal efficiency of 99%. 

3. Maintenance consists replacement of miscellaneous components such as gaskets and sealants. Condensing units have an additional cost for replacement of condensate neutralizer media every two years.

Note:

For the installed base, current standard, and typical costs, low values represent costs for tankless water heaters in the replacement market while high values represent costs for hot water supply boilers in the 

new construction market. The range of costs for the High values are estimated costs for hot water supply boilers in the replacement and new construction market.

ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 went into effect in October 2018.

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Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters

• Storage Capacity < 10 gallons and ≥ 10 gallons

• Federal standard:

— Minimum thermal efficiency: 80%

— Maximum standby loss (Btu/h): Input Rate/800 + 110 x (Rated Volume)1/2

• ENERGY STAR requirements:

— Minimum thermal efficiency: 94% 

• Wall-mounted (“tankless”) units typically do not exceed ~400,000 Btu/h and are similar in design to residential 

tankless units. Floor-mounted units (“circulating” or “volume” water heaters) are similar in design to boilers and can 

have input capacities in the millions of Btu/h. Floor-mounted units are typically installed with a storage tank.

• Despite high available input capacities, some installations use multiple units staged together, which may have 

reliability and/or efficiency benefits.

• Similar to storage water heaters, higher efficiencies are achieved with condensing operation, which requires a 

condensing heat exchanger and inducer fan or power burner. Some units include both non-condensing and 

condensing heat exchangers, while others include a single condensing heat exchanger.

• When replacing a storage water heater with an instantaneous water heater, there may be significant additional costs to 

upsize the gas supply line and change the venting.

162

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Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters

Annual shipments for gas-fired instantaneous tankless water heaters have gradually increased since 2000 while those 

for gas-fired instantaneous hot water supply boiler water heaters peaked in 2008 and have been decreasing since then, 

recently stabilizing around 10,000 annual shipments.

Source: CWH EERE 2022 NOPR

163

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0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Unit Shipments (thousands)

Commercial Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heater

Tankless Hot Water Supply Boiler
Final

Commercial Solar Water Heaters

164

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical ENERGY 

STAR V. 4.0

ENERGY 

STAR V. 5.0 Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (sq. ft.)1

85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85

Typical Capacity (m2) 7.90 7.90 7.90 7.90 7.90 7.90 7.90 7.90

Typical Capacity (Input) (kBtu/h) – North 5.05 5.05 5.05 5.05 5.05 5.05 5.05 5.05

Typical Capacity (Input) (kBtu/h) – South 6.74 6.74 6.74 6.74 6.74 6.74 6.74 6.74

Solar Uniform Energy Factor (SUEF)2

3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0

Average Life (y) 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)3

10,470 10,470 10,280 10,280 10,280 10,280 10,280 10,280

Total Installed Cost (2022$)3

14,180 14,180 12,640 12,640 12,640 12,640 12,640 12,640

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) – North 936 936 834 834 834 834 834 834

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) – South 702 702 626 626 626 626 626 626

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)4100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) - North 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) - South 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

1. Typical capacity refers to the solar collector panel area. It was determined using the SRCC database as the average value of the largest bin (in terms of capacity) with the greatest number of units.

2. In 2020, the efficiency metric for solar water heaters changed from SEF to SUEF. There is no equation or scaling factor readily available to translate SEF to SUEF. Accordingly, for the 2012 and 2018 installed 

base, SUEF was determined using the 2020 ENERGY STAR data set assuming the typical SEF/SUEF value was similar between 2012-2020. For 2022 and beyond, due to lack of SUEF data, it is assumed that a 

typical electric backup unit would meet the ENERGY STAR criteria. ENERGY STAR specifies a minimum SUEF of 3.0 for electric backup units and 1.8 for gas backup units.

3. Costs are for an indirect (active closed loop) system, including tank and backup heater. Smaller capacity/cost systems are typical for southern & western states (>two-third of the current market). Higher 

capacity/cost systems are required in colder/cloudier regions. The 2012 and 2018 installed base costs are updated from EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018) to 2022$.

4. Annual maintenance is expected to be 0.5% to 1% of the total installation.

Note: 

ENERGY STAR V. 4.0 went into effect in January 2022. ENERGY STAR V. 5.0 will go into effect in April 2023 but the ENERGY STAR criteria for solar water heaters will remain the same in ENERGY STAR V. 5.0.

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Final

Commercial Solar Water Heaters

• In 2020, a diverse group of stakeholders from the solar thermal industry developed the SUEF Specification for solar 

water heaters. The goal of this specification is to align with the UEF metric used by DOE for other water heating 

technologies. 

• SUEF is also the metric used by the current ENERGY STAR Specification, and it replaced the SEF metric. 

• EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018) presented results using SEF and solar fraction (SF). SEF is currently not used 

in either the ENERGY STAR or SRCC databases; accordingly, this report presents results according to SUEF. SF is the 

portion of the total conventional hot water heating load (delivered energy and tank standby losses). SF varies from 0 to 

1.0. Typical solar fraction values are 0.5–0.75.

• There is no equation or scaling factor readily available to translate SEF to SUEF. Accordingly, for the 2012 and 2018 

installed base, SUEF was determined using the 2020 ENERGY STAR data set assuming the typical SEF/SUEF value 

was similar between 2012-2020. For 2022 and beyond, SUEF is the average SUEF for solar water heaters with a "highusage" draw pattern from the current ENERGY STAR qualified product list.

• Commercial solar water heaters are typically custom designed for a specific installation.

• Commercial solar water heaters may include backup heating, from sources such as electric resistance or hydronic heat 

(supplied from a gas-fired boiler or geothermal heat pump).

• Storage volumes of tanks for commercial solar water heaters can span from 140 gallons to over 2,000 gallons.

• SRCC’s OG-300 can be used to certify commercial systems, but most commercial systems are larger and unique; this 

certification program is mostly used for residential solar water heaters.

— Many incentive programs require that solar collectors for commercial systems be certified to SRCC’s certification 

program for collectors, OG-100.

165

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Final

Commercial Cooking Products

166

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Final

Commercial Natural Gas Range with Griddle and Oven

167

1. ENERGY STAR does not cover combination products that include griddles, ranges, and ovens in one single package. The ENERGY STAR levels provided here reflect specifications for individual products. 

Range tops are not covered by ENERGY STAR.

2. ENERGY STAR V. 3.0 updated the requirements for commercial ovens from V. 2.2, effective January 2023. Data shown is reflective of a standard full-size convection oven that holds 5 or more pans.

3. Combined energy efficiency and combined idle energy rate are calculated as a weighted average of each component using typical daily operating hours sourced from Food Service Technology Center (FSTC). 

Typical daily operating hours are assumed to be 12 hours for the griddle component, 8 hours for the oven component, and 12 hours for the range component.

4. Products in the commercial cooking market generally do not scale in price with relation to cooking efficiency. Distributors also do not provide this information.

5. Maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

ENERGY STAR V. 2.2 went into effect in October 2015. ENERGY STAR V. 3.0 went into effect in January 2023.

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.21

High

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.02

Typical High Typical High Typical High

Griddle - Cooking Energy Efficiency 

(%) 30 30 40 38 69 NA 40 69 40 69 40 69

Oven - Cooking Energy Efficiency (%) 35 35 35 46 69 49 35 69 35 69 35 69

Range - Cooking Energy Efficiency (%) 30 30 30 NA 40 NA 30 40 30 40 30 40

Combined Energy Efficiency (%)331 31 35 NA 58 NA 35 58 35 58 35 58

Griddle - Normalized Idle Energy Rate 

(Btu/h/ft2)

3,000 3,000 3,000 2,650 1,724 NA 3,000 1,724 3,000 1,724 3,000 1,724

Oven - Idle Energy Rate (Btu/h) 18,000 18,000 18,000 12,000 3,516 9,500 18,000 3,516 18,000 3,516 18,000 3,516

Range - Idle Energy Rate (Btu/h) 3,600 3,600 3,600 NA 1,900 NA 3,600 1,900 3,600 1,900 3,600 1,900

Combined Idle Energy Rate (Btu/h)310,350 10,350 10,350 NA 4,178 NA 10,350 4,178 10,350 4,178 10,350 4,178

Average Life (y) 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)48,760 8,760 8,760 8,760 8,760 8,760 8,760 8,760 8,760 8,760 8,760 8,760

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 8,940 8,940 8,940 8,940 8,940 8,940 8,940 8,940 8,940 8,940 8,940 8,940

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 864 864 864 NA 2,140 NA 864 2,140 864 2,140 864 2,140

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)5– – – – – – – – – – – –

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) – – – – – – – – – – – –

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Final

Commercial Electric Range with Griddle and Oven

168

1. ENERGY STAR does not cover combination products that include griddles, ranges, and ovens in one single package. The ENERGY STAR levels provided here reflect specifications for individual products. 

Range tops are not covered by ENERGY STAR.

2. ENERGY STAR V. 3.0 updated the requirements for commercial ovens from V. 2.2, effective January 2023. Data shown is reflective of a standard full-size convection oven that holds 5 or more pans.

3. Combined energy efficiency and combined idle energy rate are calculated as a weighted average of each component using typical daily operating hours sourced from FSTC. Typical daily operating hours are 

assumed to be 12 hours for the griddle component, 8 hours for the oven component, and 12 hours for the range component.

4. No data on electric range top idle energy rates.

5. Products in the commercial cooking market generally do not scale in price with relation to cooking efficiency. Distributors also do not provide this information.

6. Maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

ENERGY STAR V. 2.2 went into effect in October 2015. ENERGY STAR V. 3.0 goes into effect in January 2023.

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.21

High

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.02

Typical High Typical High Typical High

Griddle - Cooking Energy Efficiency 

(%) 65 70 72 70 91 NA 72 91 72 91 72 91

Oven - Cooking Energy Efficiency (%) 65 65 65 71 86 76 65 86 65 86 65 86

Range - Cooking Energy Efficiency (%) 75 75 75 NA 87 NA 75 87 75 87 75 87

Combined Energy Efficiency (%)369 71 71 NA 88 NA 71 88 71 88 71 88

Griddle - Normalized Idle Energy Rate 

(kW/ft2

)

0.44 0.34 0.30 0.32 0.21 NA 0.30 0.21 0.30 0.21 0.30 0.21

Oven - Idle Energy Rate (kW) 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 0.6 1.4 1.5 0.6 1.5 0.6 1.5 0.6

Range - Idle Energy Rate (kW)4 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

Combined Idle Energy Rate (kW)31.7 1.4 1.3 1.4 0.8 NA 1.3 0.8 1.3 0.8 1.3 0.8

Average Life (y) 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)511,230 11,230 11,230 11,230 11,230 11,230 11,230 11,230 11,230 11,230 11,230 11,230

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 11,410 11,410 11,410 11,410 11,410 11,410 11,410 11,410 11,410 11,410 11,410 11,410

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 2,019 2,362 2,533 2,375 4,423 NA 2,533 4,423 2,533 4,423 2,533 4,423

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)6– – – – – – – – – – – –

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) – – – – – – – – – – – –

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Final

Commercial Ranges with Griddle and Oven

• Combined product that typically includes 2-6 range tops, a 24 in. x 24 in. griddle surface, and one or two half- or fullsize ovens. 

• Combined product is not covered by ENERGY STAR. However, the individual product ENERGY STAR V. 2.2 

specifications are provided below.

• ENERGY STAR does not provide certification for range tops.

• There are no Federal standards for commercial cooking products.

• Product pricing in this market do not scale with efficiency, but rather depend on a number of other factors such as 

brand name, aesthetics, and additional features.

169

Product ENERGY STAR V. 2.2 

Requirements Gas Electric

Griddle

Cooking Energy Efficiency ≥ 38% ≥ 70%

Normalized Idle Energy Rate ≤ 2,650 Btu/h per ft2 ≤ 0.320 kW per ft2

Oven

Cooking Energy Efficiency ≥ 46% ≥ 71%

Idle Energy Rate ≤ 12,000 Btu/h Half size: ≤1.00 kW

Full size: ≤1.60 kW

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Final

Commercial Ranges with Griddle and Oven

• ENERGY STAR V. 3.0 requirements for commercial ovens went into effect in January 2023:

170

Product ENERGY STAR 

Requirements Gas Electric

Oven

Cooking Energy Efficiency ≥ 49% Half size: ≥ 71%

Full size: ≥ 76%

Idle Energy Rate ≤ 9,500 Btu/h

Half size: ≤1.00 kW

Full size ≥ 5 Pans: 

≤1.40 kW

Full size ≤ 5 Pans: 

≤1.00 kW

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Final

Commercial Ranges with Griddle and Oven

171

Commercial oven shipments have gradually increased since 2013, decreasing recently, in 2020. Commercial griddle 

shipments have remained steady since 2014.

Source: ENERGY STAR (Unit Shipment Data)

0

50

100

150

200

250

2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Units (thousands)

Commercial Cooking Product Shipments

Commercial Ovens

Commercial Griddles

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Final

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

State 

Standards Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

V. 2.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Interior Volume (ft3)

1

7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8

Maximum Idle Energy Rate (W)2312 312 312 312 168 168 312 168 312 168 312 168

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)31,025 1,025 1,025 1,025 552 552 1,025 552 1,025 552 1,025 552

Average Life (y) 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)43,200 3,200 3,200 3,200 3,800 3,800 3,200 3,800 3,200 3,800 3,200 3,800

Total Installed Cost (2022$)53,200 3,200 3,200 3,200 3,800 3,800 3,200 3,800 3,200 3,800 3,200 3,800

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 8,016 8,016 8,016 8,016 17,677 17,677 8,016 17,677 8,016 17,677 8,016 17,677

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 5– – – – – – – – – – – –

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) – – – – – – – – – – – –

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinets – Small

172

1. Interior volume is characterized by the product size classes reported by ENERGY STAR. The small size class covers units with interior volume less than 13 ft3. Interior volume for the small size class was determined based on 

the units in the ENERGY STAR database, accessed February 2023.

2. Maximum idle energy rate is a function of interior volume. For the small size class, ENERGY STAR and high values were determined for a representative 7.8 ft3 using the ENERGY STAR database, accessed February 2023. 

The typical value was assumed to be equivalent to the state standard for a representative 7.8 ft3 unit. 

3. Annual energy use is determined using the latest FEMP data from December 2021, which assumes that a typical 22.4 ft3 commercial hot food holding cabinet uses an average of 9 hours per day and 365 days per year. The 

small size class is assumed to use the same number of annual usage hours as the medium size class.

4. Retail equipment costs were determined using distributor information for undercounter, half-size, and full-size hot food holding cabinets.

5. Additional installation costs and maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 went into effect in October 2011 and was revised in December 2022. Massachusetts, Nevada, and Rhode Island state standards have adopted the ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 criteria that went into effect in 

October 2011. The majority of state standards (California, Colorado, Connecticut, DC, Maryland, New Hampshire, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Washington) implement the ENERGY STAR V. 1.0 specification that went 

into effect in August 2003, which is recorded in the table. ENERGY STAR V. 1.0 specifies a maximum idle energy rate of 40 W per cubic foot of interior volume.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

State 

Standards Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

V. 2.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Interior Volume (ft3)

1

21.4 21.4 22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4

Maximum Idle Energy Rate (W)2900 856 896 896 299 298 896 298 896 298 896 298

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)32,957 2,812 2,943 2,943 982 979 2,943 979 2,943 979 2,943 979

Average Life (y) 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)42,940 4,530 4,600 4,600 5,000 5,000 4,600 5,000 4,600 5,000 4,600 5,000

Total Installed Cost (2022$)52,940 4,530 4,600 4,600 5,000 5,000 4,600 5,000 4,600 5,000 4,600 5,000

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 2,553 4,136 4,012 4,012 13,078 13,113 4,012 13,113 4,012 13,113 4,012 13,113

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 5– – – – – – – – – – – –

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) – – – – – – – – – – – –

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinets – Medium

173

1. Interior volume is characterized by the product size classes reported by ENERGY STAR. The medium size class covers units with interior volume between 13 ft3to 28 ft3. For the medium size class, the interior volume 

increase from 21.4 ft3to 22.4 ft3in 2022 reflects the current representative product volume reported by FEMP, last updated December 2021.

2. Maximum idle energy rate is a function of interior volume. For the medium size class, the maximum idle energy rate for 2022 onward is reflective of a representative 22.4 ft3 unit, using the latest FEMP data from December 

2021.

3. Annual energy use is determined using the latest FEMP data from December 2021, which assumes that a typical 22.4 ft3 commercial hot food holding cabinet uses an average of 9 hours per day and 365 days per year.

4. Retail equipment costs were determined using distributor information for undercounter, half-size, and full-size hot food holding cabinets.

5. Additional installation costs and maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 went into effect in October 2011 and was revised in December 2022. Massachusetts, Nevada, and Rhode Island state standards have adopted the ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 criteria that went into effect in 

October 2011. The majority of state standards (California, Colorado, Connecticut, DC, Maryland, New Hampshire, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Washington) implement the ENERGY STAR V. 1.0 specification that went 

into effect in August 2003, which is recorded in the table. ENERGY STAR V. 1.0 specifies a maximum idle energy rate of 40 W per cubic foot of interior volume.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

State 

Standards Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

V. 2.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Interior Volume (ft3)

1

44.0 44.0 44.0 44.0 44.0 44.0 44.0 44.0 44.0 44.0 44.0 44.0

Maximum Idle Energy Rate (W)21,333 1,333 1,760 1,333 400 310 1,333 310 1,333 310 1,333 310

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)34,380 4,380 5,782 4,380 1,314 1,018 4,380 1,018 4,380 1,018 4,380 1,018

Average Life (y) 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)45,500 5,500 5,500 5,500 6,000 6,000 5,500 6,000 5,500 6,000 5,500 6,000

Total Installed Cost (2022$)55,500 5,500 5,500 5,500 6,000 6,000 5,500 6,000 5,500 6,000 5,500 6,000

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 3,224 3,224 2,442 3,224 11,723 15,126 3,224 15,126 3,224 15,126 3,224 15,126

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 5– – – – – – – – – – – –

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) – – – – – – – – – – – –

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinets – Large

174

1. Interior volume is characterized by the product size classes reported by ENERGY STAR. The large size class covers units with interior volume greater than or equal to 28 ft3. Interior volume for the large size class was 

determined based on the units in the ENERGY STAR database, accessed February 1, 2023.

2. Maximum idle energy rate is a function of interior volume. For the large size class, ENERGY STAR and high values were determined using the ENERGY STAR database, and the typical value uses the assumption that 

ENERGY STAR units are reported to be 70% more efficient than typical units.

3. Annual energy use is determined using the latest FEMP data from December 2021, which assumes that a typical 22.4 ft3 commercial hot food holding cabinet uses an average of 9 hours per day and 365 days per year. The 

large size class is assumed to use the same number of annual usage hours as the medium size class.

4. Retail equipment costs were determined using distributor information for undercounter, half-size, and full-size hot food holding cabinets.

5. Additional installation costs and maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 went into effect in October 2011 and was revised in December 2022. Massachusetts, Nevada, and Rhode Island state standards have adopted the ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 criteria that went into effect in 

October 2011. The majority of state standards (California, Colorado, Connecticut, DC, Maryland, New Hampshire, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Washington) implement the ENERGY STAR V. 1.0 specification that went 

into effect in August 2003, which is recorded in the table. ENERGY STAR V. 1.0 specifies a maximum idle energy rate of 40 W per cubic foot of interior volume.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinets

• Hot food holding cabinets are used in commercial kitchens to keep food warm until it is served.

• While available in many shapes and sizes, interior volumes around 21.4 ft3 were reported as typical in many settings in 

EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018). FEMP currently lists 22.4 ft3 as a representative unit size.

• Annual unit energy consumption can range from < 1,000 to > 30,000 kWh/y, depending on size, efficiency, and usage.

• Energy performance metric is “Idle Energy Consumption Rate” in Watts, measured using ASTM Standard F2140-11.

• There are no Federal standards for hot food holding cabinets, but seven States have identical standards.

• The first State standard took effect in California in 2006; this standard is now considered the typical or “baseline” 

product. It is also equivalent to the ENERGY STAR V. 1.0 Specification that went into effect in August 2003.

• ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 went into effect in October 2011.

• Maximum Idle Energy Consumption Rate for products 12 ≤ V < 28:

— State standards: ≤ 40 × V (baseline)

— ENERGY STAR V. 2.0: ≤ 2.0 × V + 254 (about 65% below baseline)

where V is interior volume in ft3.

• The most efficient products are about 80% below baseline.

• Energy savings achieved with insulation, automatic door closers, magnetic door gaskets, and Dutch doors (half-doors).

175

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinets

176

Commercial hot food holding cabinet shipments peaked in 2007 at 115,000 units, followed by a peak of 90,000 units in 

2019.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Units (thousands)

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinets

Source: ENERGY STAR (Unit Shipment Data)

Return to Table of Contents
Final

A-1

Appendix A

Data Sources

Guidehouse

1676 International Drive

McLean, VA 22102

And

Leidos

11951 Freedom Drive 

Reston, VA 20190

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Space Heating and Cooling

A-2

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces (North) Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

(North) 

V. 4.1

High Typical / High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR

AFUE (%) CFR DOE CCD

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.1

DOE CCD Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR

Electric Consumption (kWh/y) Residential Furnaces 

EERE 2016 Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR

Average Life (y) Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Residential Furnaces 

EERE 2016 Total Installed Cost (2022$) Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

A-3
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces (Rest of Country) Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

(ROC) 

V. 4.1

High Typical / High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR

AFUE (%) CFR DOE CCD

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.1

DOE CCD Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR

Electric Consumption (kWh/y) Residential Furnaces 

EERE 2016 Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR

Average Life (y) Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Residential Furnaces 

EERE 2016 Total Installed Cost (2022$) Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

A-4
Final

Residential Oil-Fired Furnaces Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.1

High Typical / High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) Residential Furnaces EERE 2011

AFUE (%) CFR DOE CCD

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.1

DOE CCD

Electric Consumption (kWh/y)

Residential Furnaces EERE 2011

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

A-5
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Boilers Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.0

High Typical / High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 

Boilers 

EERE 2016

Boilers EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

AFUE (%) Boilers EERE 2022 

Preliminary Analysis DOE CCD

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.0

Boilers EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

Electric Consumption (kWh/y)

Boilers EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

A-6
Final

Residential Oil-Fired Boilers Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.0

High Typical / High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 

Boilers 

EERE 2016

Boilers EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

AFUE (%) Boilers EERE 2022 

Preliminary Analysis DOE CCD

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.0

Boilers EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

Electric Consumption (kWh/y)

Boilers EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

A-7
Final

Residential Electric Resistance Furnaces Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Current 

Standard Typical Typical

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) Distributors

Guidehouse

AFUE (%) DOE / ASHRAE

Average Life (y) Distributors

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) EIA Technology 

Forecast Updates 

(2018)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building Construction 

Costs 2023 / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Guidehouse

A-8
Final

Residential Electric Resistance Unit Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-9

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) Distributors Utilities/Distributors

Guidehouse

Efficiency (%) DOE DOE

Average Life (y)

Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Distributors

Total Installed Cost (2022$) Home Remodeling Service

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Guidehouse
Final

Residential Central Air Conditioners – North (Not Hot-Dry or Hot-Humid) Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

High New 

Standard

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.1

High Typical / High

Typical Input Capacity 

(kBtu/h) CAC and HP EERE 2016

Guidehouse

SEER CAC and HP EERE 

2016 / Guidehouse CFR DOE CCD

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

CAC and 

HP EERE 

2016

RESNET

CAC and 

HP EERE 

2016

SSER2 RESNET

CAC and 

HP EERE 

2016

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.1

RESNET

Average Life (y)

CAC and HP EERE 2016

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$) CAC and HP EERE 2016 / Less (2021)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$) CAC and HP EERE 2016

A-10
Final

Residential Central Air Conditioners – South (Hot-Dry and Hot-Humid) Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

High New 

Standard

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.1

High Typical / High

Typical Input Capacity 

(kBtu/h) CAC and HP EERE 2016

Guidehouse

SEER CAC and HP EERE 

2016 / Guidehouse CFR DOE CCD

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

CAC and 

HP EERE 

2016

RESNET

CAC and 

HP EERE 

2016

SSER2 RESNET

CAC and 

HP EERE 

2016

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.1

RESNET

Average Life (y)

CAC and HP EERE 2016

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$) CAC and HP EERE 2016 / Less (2021)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$) CAC and HP EERE 2016

A-11
Final

Residential Room Air Conditioners Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed

Base

Installed

Base

Current

Standard Typical

ENERGY

STAR 

V. 4.2

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) Distributors RAC EERE 2022 NOPR

CEER (Btu/Wh) Guidehouse CFR DOE CCD

ENERGY

STAR 

V. 4.2

DOE CCD RAC EERE 

2022 NOPR DOE CCD RAC EERE 2022 NOPR DOE CCD RAC EERE 2022 NOPR DOE CCD

Average Life (y)

RAC EERE 

2011 RAC EERE 2022 NOPR

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

A-12
Final

Residential Portable Air Conditioners Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2025 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High New Standard High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 

PAC EERE 2020/Guidehouse

CEER

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

A-13
Final

Residential Swamp Coolers Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

CFM

Product Literature / Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Power (Hp)

Average Life (y) TLC Plumbing / Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Product Literature / Gordian’s RSMeans Data –

Building Construction Costs 2023 / Guidehouse Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

A-14
Final

Residential Air-Source Heat Pumps Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

High New 

Standard

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.1

ENERGY 

STAR 

Cold 

Climate 

Criteria

High Typical/High

Typical Capacity 

(kBtu/h) CACs and HPs EERE 2016 Direct Final Rule

SEER (Cooling)

CACs and HPs 

EERE 2016 Direct 

Final Rule/ 

Guidehouse

CFR DOE CCD/

Guidehouse

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

CACs and 

HPs EERE 

2016 Direct 

Final Rule

CACs and 

HPs EERE 

2016 Direct 

Final Rule/

Guidehouse

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.1

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.1

CACs and 

HPs EERE 

2016 Direct 

Final Rule

CACs and HPs EERE 2016 Direct 

Final Rule/Guidehouse HSPF (Heating)

Average Life (y)

CACs and HPs EERE 2016 Direct Final Rule Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$)

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$)

Annual Maintenance 

Cost (2022$)

A-15
Final

Residential Ductless Mini-Split Air-Source Heat Pumps Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 

AHRI/Guidehouse

Guidehouse

SEER

EER

HSPF

Average Life (y) CACs and HPs EERE 2016 Direct Final Rule

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building Construction Costs 2023 

/ Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) CACs and HPs EERE 2016 Direct Final Rule

A-16
Final

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.2

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h)

Water-Source Unitary 

Heat Pumps EERE 

2015 Final Rule / DOE 

CCD

Guidehouse

COP (Heating)

AHRI 

Database

AHRI 

Database / 

DOE CCD EER (Cooling)

Average Life (y)

Guidehouse / WaterSource Unitary Heat 

Pumps EERE 2015 

Final Rule 

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Residential Ground-Source Heat Pumps Return to Table of Contents

A-17
Final

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Typical

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) Manufacturer

Guidehouse

COP (Heating)

COP (Cooling) Product Literature

Annual Electric Use (kWh/y)

Average Life (y) Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) PERC

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Guidehouse

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Residential Natural Gas Heat Pumps Return to Table of Contents

A-18
Final

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) Distributors / Product Literature Guidehouse

Efficiency (Non-Catalytic) (HHV)

Guidehouse 

/ Literature EPA Certified Wood Stove Database (Room Heaters)

Efficiency (Catalytic) (HHV)

Average Life (y) Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Product Literature/Dealers

Total Installed Cost (2022$) Dealers Dealers/Guidehouse

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Dealers/Guidehouse

Residential Cordwood Stoves Return to Table of Contents

A-19
Final

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) Distributors / Product Literature Guidehouse

Efficiency (HHV)

EPA 

Default/

Literature/

Guidehouse

EPA Certified Wood Stove Database (Room Heaters)

Average Life (y) Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Product Literature/ Dealers

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 

Dealers/Guidehouse

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 

Residential Wood Pellet Stoves Return to Table of Contents

A-20
Final

Residential Water Heating

A-21

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Storage Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.0

High

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (gal) 

Guidehouse

CWH 

EERE 2010 

Final Rule

/AHRI

CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

Guidehouse

Uniform Energy Factor DOE CCD CWH EERE 2022 

Preliminary Analysis

ENERGY 

STAR

CWH EERE 

2022 

Preliminary 

Analysis

ENERGY 

STAR

Average Life (y) CWH EERE 2010 Final 

Rule

CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Distributors 

CWH 

EERE 2010 

Final Rule

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 

EIA 

Technology 

Forecast 

Updates 

(2018)

CWH 

EERE 2010 

Final Rule

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$) 

CWH EERE 2010 Final 

Rule

A-22
Final

Residential Oil-Fired Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-23

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (gal) AHRI

CWH EERE 

2010 Final 

Rule/AHRI

CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary 

Analysis Guidehouse

Uniform Energy Factor Guidehouse AHRI/DOE 

CCD

Average Life (y)

CWH EERE 2010 Final 

Rule

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 
Final

Residential Electric Resistance Storage Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (gal) AHRI

CWH EERE 

2010 Final 

Rule/AHRI

CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary 

Analysis Guidehouse

Uniform Energy Factor Guidehouse AHRI/

DOE CCD

Average Life (y)

CWH EERE 2010 Final 

Rule

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 

A-24
Final

Residential Heat Pump Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (gal)

Guidehouse

AHRI CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary 

Analysis

Guidehouse

Uniform Energy Factor DOE CCD

CWH EERE 

2022 

Preliminary 

Analysis

ENERGY 

STAR

CWH EERE 

2022 

Preliminary 

Analysis

Average Life (y) CWH EERE 2010 Final 

Rule

CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary 

Analysis

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 

CWH EERE 

2010 Final 

Rule

Distributors

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 

CWH EERE 2010 Final 

Rule

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 

A-25
Final

Residential Solar Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base ENERGY STAR 

V. 4.0 Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (sq. ft.)

SRCC / Guidehouse

ENERGY STAR

Guidehouse

Solar Uniform Energy Factor (SUEF) DOE

Average Life (y) DOE / Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

EIA Technology Forecast Updates 

(2018)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data –

Building Construction Costs 2023

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Guidehouse DOE

A-26
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-27

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

V. 4.0

High

ENERGY 

STAR

V. 5.0

Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) AHRI

CWH 

EERE 2010 

Final Rule

/AHRI

CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

Guidehouse

Uniform Energy Factor Guidehouse DOE CCD CWH EERE 2022 

Preliminary Analysis

ENERGY 

STAR

CWH EERE 

2022 

Preliminary 

Analysis

ENERGY 

STAR

Average Life (y)

CWH EERE 2010 Final 

Rule CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)
Final

Residential Electric Instantaneous Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h)

Guidehouse

CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary 

Analysis

Guidehouse

Uniform Energy Factor CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary 

Analysis/DOE CCD

Average Life (y)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building 

Construction Costs 2023 Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Guidehouse

A-28
Final

Residential Appliances

A-29

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Refrigerator-Freezers (Top)

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3)

RF EERE 

2011 / 

Guidehouse

RF EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

RF EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

Energy Consumption (kWh/y) DOE CCD/ 

Guidehouse CFR DOE CCD ENERGY STAR DOE CCD

Average Life (y)

RF EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

A-30

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Refrigerator-Freezers (Side)

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3)

RF EERE 

2011 / 

Guidehouse

RF EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

RF EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

Energy Consumption (kWh/y) DOE CCD/ 

Guidehouse CFR DOE CCD ENERGY STAR DOE CCD

Average Life (y)

RF EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

A-31

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Refrigerator-Freezers (Bottom)

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3)

RF EERE 

2011 / 

Guidehouse

RF EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

RF EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

Energy Consumption (kWh/y) DOE CCD/ 

Guidehouse CFR DOE CCD ENERGY STAR DOE CCD

Average Life (y)

RF EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

A-32

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Freezers (Chest)

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical / High 

Typical Capacity (ft3

)

RF EERE 2011 / 

Guidehouse

RF EERE Preliminary Analysis 

2021/DOE CCD

Guidehouse

Energy Consumption (kWh/y) Guidehouse

RF EERE 

Preliminary 

Analysis 

2021

RF EERE 

Preliminary 

Analysis 

2021/DOE 

CCD

DOE CCD

Average Life (y)

RF EERE 2011 / 

Guidehouse

RF EERE Preliminary 

Analysis 2021

RF EERE 

Preliminary 

Analysis 

2021

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

RF EERE 

Preliminary 

Analysis 

2021/DOE 

CCD

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

A-33

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Freezers (Upright)

SOURCES

2015 2022 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.1

High Typical / High 

Typical Capacity (ft3

)

RF EERE 2011/ 

Guidehouse RF EERE Preliminary Analysis 2021/ DOE CCD

Guidehouse

Energy Consumption (kWh/y) Guidehouse

RF EERE 

Preliminary 

Analysis 2021

RF EERE 

Preliminary 

Analysis 

2021/

DOE CCD

ENERGY 

STAR DOE CCD

Average Life (y)

RF EERE 2011 / 

Guidehouse RF EERE Preliminary Analysis 2021

RF EERE 

Preliminary 

Analysis 2021

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

RF EERE 

Preliminary 

Analysis 2021/

DOE CCD

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

A-34

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Natural Gas Cooktops

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical High Typical / High 

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) Distributors / Product Literature

Guidehouse

Integrated Annual Energy Consumption (kBtu/y) Guidehouse / Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR

Cooking Efficiency (%) Guidehouse

Average Life (y) Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2020 NOPD

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR / Consumer 

Cooking Products EERE 2020 NOPD

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Guidehouse / Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR

A-35

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Natural Gas Ovens

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR / Product 

Literature

Guidehouse

Typical Cavity Volume (ft3) Consumer 

Cooking 

Products EERE 

2016 SNOPR

Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2020 

NOPD Integrated Annual Energy Consumption (kBtu/y)

Cooking Efficiency (%) Guidehouse

Average Life (y)

Consumer 

Cooking 

Products EERE 

2020 NOPD Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2020 

NOPD Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Consumer 

Cooking 

Products EERE 

2016 SNOPR Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Guidehouse / Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR

A-36

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Natural Gas Ranges

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity of Cooktop Component (kBtu/h) Distributors / Product Literature

Guidehouse

Typical Capacity of Oven Component (kBtu/h) Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR / Product 

Literature

Typical Cavity Volume of Oven Component (ft3)

Consumer 

Cooking Products 

EERE 2020 NOPD

Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2020 

NOPD Integrated Annual Energy Consumption (kBtu/y)

Guidehouse / 

Consumer 

Cooking Products 

EERE 2016 

SNOPR

Average Life (y)

Consumer 

Cooking Products 

EERE 2020 NOPD

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Guidehouse / Distributors / Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building 

Total Installed Cost (2022$) Construction Costs 2023

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Guidehouse / Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR

A-37

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Electric Cooktops

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical High Typical / High 

Typical Capacity (W) Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR / Distributors

Guidehouse

Integrated Annual Energy Consumption (kWh/y)

Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2020 NOPD

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Guidehouse / Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR

A-38

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Electric Ovens

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (W) Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR / Distributors

Guidehouse

Typical Cavity Volume (ft3) Consumer 

Cooking 

Products EERE 

2016 SNOPR

Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2020 

NOPD

Integrated Annual Energy Consumption (kWh/y)

Average Life (y)

Consumer 

Cooking 

Products EERE 

2020 NOPD

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Consumer 

Cooking 

Products EERE 

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 2020 NOPD

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Guidehouse / Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR

A-39

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Electric Ranges

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity of Cooktop Component (W) 

Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR / Distributors

Guidehouse

Typical Capacity of Oven Component (W) 

Typical Cavity Volume of Oven Component (ft3) Consumer 

Cooking 

Products EERE 

2016 SNOPR

Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2020 

NOPD

Integrated Annual Energy Consumption (kWh/y)

Average Life (y)

Consumer 

Cooking 

Products EERE 

2020 NOPD

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Consumer 

Cooking 

Products EERE 

2020 NOPD Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Guidehouse / Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR

A-40

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Electric Clothes Dryers

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2040

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical ENERGY STAR V. 1.1 High Typical / High 

Typical Capacity (ft3) DOE CCD

Guidehouse / 

DOE CCD / 

ENERGY 

STAR

Guidehouse

CEF, D1 (lb/kWh) Consumer 

Clothes 

Dryers EERE 

2022 NOPR / 

Guidehouse

DOE CCD

Consumer 

Clothes 

Dryers EERE 

2022 NOPR

DOE CCD ENERGY 

STAR V. 1.1

DOE CCD

CEF, D2 (lb/kWh) ENERGY 

STAR

Average Life (y) Consumer Clothes Dryers EERE 2022 NOPR

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Consumer Clothes Dryers EERE 2022 NOPR / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Consumer Clothes Dryers EERE 2022 NOPR

A-41

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Natural Gas Clothes Dryers

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical 

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 1.1

High Typical / High 

Typical Capacity (ft3) DOE CCD

Guidehouse

CEF, D1 (lb/kWh) Consumer 

Clothes 

Dryers EERE 

2022 NOPR / 

Guidehouse

DOE CCD

Consumer 

Clothes 

Dryers EERE 

2022 NOPR

DOE CCD ENERGY 

STAR V. 1.1 DOE CCD

CEF2, D2 (lb/kWh)

Average Life (y) Consumer Clothes Dryers EERE 2022 NOPR

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Consumer Clothes Dryers EERE 2022 NOPR / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Consumer Clothes Dryers EERE 2022 NOPR

A-42

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Clothes Washers (Front)

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical ENERGY STAR V. 8.1 High Typical / High 

Typical Capacity (ft3) Guidehouse

DOE CCD / 

Guidehouse

DOE CCD

DOE CCD

DOE CCD

DOE CCD

Guidehouse

Integrated Modified Energy Factor 

(ft3/kWh/cycle) AHAM / 

Guidehouse

RCW EERE 

2021 

Preliminary 

Analysis

ENERGY 

STAR V. 8.1 Integrated Water Factor (gal/cycle/ft3

)

Average Life (y) RCW EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis

Water Consumption (gal/cycle)

Guidehouse / RCW EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis

Hot Water Energy (kWh/cycle)

Machine Energy (kWh/cycle)

Dryer Energy (kWh/cycle)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) EIA 

Technology 

Forecast 

Updates 

(2018)

RCW EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis/ Distributors

Total Installed Cost (2022$) RCW EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis/ Guidehouse 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) RCW EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

A-43

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Clothes Washers (Top)

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical ENERGY STAR V. 8.1 High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (ft3) Guidehouse Guidehouse DOE CCD

DOE CCD

DOE CCD DOE CCD

Guidehouse

Integrated Modified Energy Factor 

(ft3/kWh/cycle) AHAM / 

Guidehouse

RCW EERE 2021 

Preliminary Analysis

ENERGY 

STAR V. 8.1 DOE CCD

Integrated Water Factor (gal/cycle/ft3)

Average Life (y) RCW EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis

Water Consumption (gal/cycle) RCW EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

Hot Water Energy (kWh/cycle)

Guidehouse

RCW EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

Machine Energy (kWh/cycle)

Dryer Energy (kWh/cycle)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) EIA 

Technology 

Forecast 

Updates 

Total Installed Cost (2022$) (2018)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) RCW EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

A-44

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Dishwashers

A-45

Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.0

High

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 7.0

Typical / High 

Typical Annual Energy Use (kWh/y) AHAM 

2014 / DW 

EERE 2012 

Final Rule

Guidehouse 

/ DOE CCD 

/ ENERGY 

STAR

CFR

Guidehouse 

/ DOE CCD 

/ ENERGY 

STAR

ENERGY 

STAR

DW EERE 

2022 

Preliminary 

Analysis

ENERGY 

STAR

Guidehouse

Water Consumption (gal/cycle)

Water Heating Energy Use (kWh/y)

AHAM 

2014 / DW 

EERE 2012 

Final Rule

DW EERE 

2016 Direct 

Final Rule

DW EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

Average Life (y) DW EERE 2016 Direct 

Final Rule/Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) DW EERE 

2012 Final 

Rule

DW EERE 

2016 Direct 

Final Rule Total Installed Cost (2022$)
Final

Commercial Space Heating and Cooling

A-46

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Furnaces Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High New Standard Typical Typical

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 

AHRI

CWAF 

EERE 2015 DOE CCD

Guidehouse

Thermal Efficiency (%) DOE CCD CFR DOE CCD CFR

Typical Output Capacity (kBtu/h) Guidehouse

Average Life (y)

CWAF EERE 2015

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

A-47
Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Furnaces Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High New Standard Typical Typical/High

Typical Input Capacity 

(kBtu/h) AHRI DOE 

CCD

DOE CCD

Guidehouse

Thermal Efficiency (%) 10 CFR 

431.77 DOE CCD 10 CFR 431.77

Typical Output Capacity 

(kBtu/h) Guidehouse

Average Life (y)

CWAF EERE 2015

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

A-48
Final

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Small Large 

Small Large Small Large Small Large Small Large Small Large 

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) Distributors/Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Efficiency (%) Guidehouse/DOE

Average Life (y) Technology Cost and Performance File for Commercial Model for 

AEO2010

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 

EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018)

Gordian’s RSMeans 

Data – Building 

Construction Costs 

2023

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Guidehouse

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Commercial Electric Resistance Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-49
Final

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical

Typical Capacity (kW) BSRIA Guidehouse

Efficiency (%) EERE / Guidehouse

Average Life (y) ASHRAE 2007 HVAC 

Applications

ASHRAE 2015 HVAC 

Applications ASHRAE 2019 HVAC Applications

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building Construction Costs 2023 / 

Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building Construction Costs 2023

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Commercial Electric Boilers Return to Table of Contents

A-50
Final

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base 

Installed 

Base 

Current 

Standard Typical High New Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity 

(kBtu/h) Guidehouse Comm. Packaged Boilers EERE 2020

Thermal Efficiency (%)

ASHRAE 

Standard 

90.1-2004 / 

Guidehouse

Comm. 

Packaged 

Boilers 

EERE 2020 / 

Guidehouse

DOE CCD Comm. Packaged Boilers EERE 2020/Guidehouse

Average Life (y)

Comm. 

Heating, 

AC, WH 

EERE 2009

Comm. Packaged Boilers EERE 2020

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$) EIA 

Technology 

Forecast 

Updates 

(2018)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)

Comm. 

Heating, 

AC, WH 

EERE 2009

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Commercial Gas-Fired Boilers Return to Table of Contents

A-51
Final

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base 

Installed 

Base 

Current 

Standard Typical High New Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity 

(kBtu/h) Guidehouse Comm. Packaged Boilers EERE 2020

Thermal Efficiency (%)

ASHRAE 

Standard 

90.1-2004 / 

Guidehouse

Comm. 

Packaged 

Boilers 

EERE 2020 / 

Guidehouse

DOE CCD Comm. Packaged Boilers EERE 2020/Guidehouse

Average Life (y)

Comm. 

Heating, 

AC, WH 

EERE 2009

Comm. Packaged Boilers EERE 2020

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$) EIA 

Technology 

Forecast 

Updates 

(2018)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)

Comm. 

Heating, 

AC, WH 

EERE 2009

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Commercial Oil-Fired Boilers Return to Table of Contents

A-52
Final

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

ASHRAE 

90.1-2019 Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (tons) IPCC/ARB/TEAP/Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Efficiency (kW/ton) ASHRAE 

90.1-

2010/FEMP/

eSource/

Product 

Literature

ASHRAE 90.1-2019/Product Lit

COP

Average Life (y)

2007 

ASHRAE 

Applications 

Handbook

2015 ASHRAE Applications Handbook A37 

Table 4

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$/ton) EIA 

Technology 

Forecast 

Updates 

(2018)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building Construction 

Costs 2023 Total Installed Cost (2022$/ton)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/ton)

Guidehouse/Alabama Power Annual Maitnenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Commercial Centrifugal Chillers (Water-Cooled) Return to Table of Contents

A-53
Final

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed 

Base

ASHRAE 

90.1-2019 Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (tons) BSRIA/DEER Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Efficiency (kW/ton)

ASHRAE 90.1-

2010/DEER/

FEMP/Product 

Literature

ASHRAE 

90.1-2016 

(>150 TR)

ASHRAE 90.1-2019 Product Lit

COP

ASHRAE 90.1-

2010/DEER/

FEMP/Product 

Literature

ASHRAE 

90.1-2016 

(>150 TR)

Average Life (y) Manufacturers 2015 ASHRAE Applications Handbook A37 

Table 4

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$/ton)

EIA Technology Forecast 

Updates (2018)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building 

Construction Costs 2023 Total Installed Cost (2022$/ton)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/ton)

Guidehouse/Alabama Power Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Commercial Reciprocating Chillers (Air-Cooled Only) Return to Table of Contents

A-54
Final

Commercial Screw Chillers (Air-Cooled Only) Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base ASHRAE 

90.1-2019 Typical High Typical/High

Typical Capacity (tons) Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Efficiency (kW/ton)

Guidehouse ASHRAE 90.1-

2016 (>150 TR)

ASHRAE 90.1-

2019 (>150 TR)

ASHRAE 90.1-

2019 (>150 

TR)/Product 

Lit

Product Lit

COP

Average Life (y) Manufacturers FacilitiesNet 

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$/ton)

EIA Technology Forecast 

Updates (2018)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building 

Construction Costs 2023 / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$/ton)

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/ton)

Guidehouse/Alabama Power

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

A-55
Final

Commercial Scroll Chillers (Air-Cooled Only) Return to Table of Contents

SOURCE

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

ASHRAE 

90.1-2019 Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (tons) Guidehouse/Manufacturers

Guidehouse

Efficiency [full-load/IPLV] 

(kW/ton)

Guidehouse Product Lit/ 

Guidehouse

ASHRAE 

90.1-2019 

(>150 TR)

Product Lit/ 

Guidehouse Product Lit

COP [full-load/IPLV]

Average Life (y) Manufacturers

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$/ton)

EIA Technology Forecast 

Updates (2018)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building 

Construction Costs 2023 / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$/ton)

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/ton)

Guidehouse/Alabama Power

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

A-56
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Chillers (Water-Cooled, Direct-Fired Only) Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base: 

Absorption

Installed 

Base: 

EngineDriven

Installed 

Base: 

Absorption

Installed 

Base: 

EngineDriven

ASHRAE 

90.1-2019 

Absorption

CA Title 24 

– EngineDrivenAbsorption EngineDriven Absorption/Engine-Driven

Typical Capacity (tons) BSRIA/Distributors

Guidehouse

COP [full-load]

Product Literature/

Guidehouse Product Lit

ASHRAE 

90.1-2019 

Direct-fired 

Double 

Effect

CA Title 24 

Gas Engine 

Standard

Product Lit

COP [IPLV]

Average Life (y)

2007 ASHRAE 

Applications 

Handbook/

Distributors

2015 ASHRAE Applications Handbook A37 Table 4

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$/ton)

EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018) Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building 

Construction Costs 2023 / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/ton)

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/ton) Guidehouse/Alabama Power Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

A-57
Final

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.1

High New 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Output Capacity 

(kBtu/h)

AHRI / 

Guidehouse CUAC EERE 2016

Part Load Efficiency (IEER) CUAC EERE 2016 CUAC EERE 2016 / Guidehouse ENERGY 

STAR CUAC EERE 2016 ENERGY STAR

CUAC 

EERE 

2016

Efficiency (EER) CUAC EERE 2016 / Guidehouse

Efficiency Conversion Calculated

Average Life (y) CUAC EERE 2016

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$)

Distributors 

/ 

Guidehouse 

/ DEER, 2008

CUAC EERE 2016

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$) CUAC EERE 2016

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Commercial Rooftop Air Conditioners Return to Table of Contents

A-58
Final

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Typical

Typical Capacity (tons)

EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018)

Guidehouse

Heating COP

Cooling COP

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost ($/ton)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building Construction Costs 2023 / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost ($/ton)

Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Commercial Gas-Fired Engine-Drive Rooftop Air Conditioners Return to Table of Contents

A-59
Final

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.1

High New 

Standard

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity 

(kBtu/h) EECUHP EERE 2016

CUHP EERE 2016 / Guidehouse Part Load Efficiency 

(IEER) CUHP EERE 2016 / Guidehouse ENERGY 

STAR CUHP EERE 2016 ENERGY STAR

CUHP 

EERE 

COP (Heating) 2016

Average Life (y)

EIA 

Technology 

Forecast 

Updates 

(2018)

CUHP EERE 2016

Retail Equipment 

Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$)

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual 

Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)

Annual 

Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Commercial Rooftop Heat Pumps Return to Table of Contents

A-60
Final

Commercial Ground-Source Heat Pumps Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) U.S. DOE/EIA Water-Source Unitary Heat Pumps EERE 2015 

Final Rule

Guidehouse

COP (Heating)

Guidehouse AHRI Database

EER (Cooling)

Average Life (y) Guidehouse / Water-Source Unitary Heat Pumps EERE 2015 Final 

Rule 

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Distributors/G

uidehouse

Water-Source Unitary Heat Pumps 2015 EERE 

Final Rule / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$) U.S. 

DOD/IGSHPA

/MA 

DOER/CEFIA/

ASHRAE

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Geothermal 

Heat Pump 

Consortium, 

Inc. (U.S. DOE 

Contract DEFG07-

95ID13347)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

A-61
Final

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h)

PTAC & PTHP EERE 2022 NOPD PTAC & PTHP EERE 2022 NOPD / Guidehouse

Efficiency (EER)

Efficiency

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Packaged Terminal Air Conditioners Return to Table of Contents

A-62
Final

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h)

PTAC & PTHP EERE 2022 NOPD PTAC & PTHP EERE 2022 NOPD / Guidehouse

Efficiency (EER)

Efficiency

COP (Heating)

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Packaged Terminal Heat Pumps Return to Table of Contents

A-63
Final

Commercial Water Heating

A-64

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Storage Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Storage Capacity (gal)

EIA 

Technology 

Forecast 

Updates 

(2018)

CWH EERE 2022 NOPR

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 

Thermal Efficiency (%) DOE CCD / 

Guidehouse CFR DOE CCD/ Guidehouse

ENERGY 

STAR DOE CCD CWH EERE 2022 NOPR / Guidehouse

Average Life (y) CWH EERE 2022 NOPR

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

CWH EERE 2022 NOPR

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

A-65
Final

Commercial Electric Resistance Storage Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Current 

Standard Typical Typical

Typical Storage Capacity (gal)

Product 

Literature / 

Guidehouse

CWH EERE 2016 NOPR

Guidehouse

Typical Input Capacity (kW) Product 

Literature Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h)

Thermal Efficiency (%) Guidehouse

Average Life (y) CWH EERE 2016 NOPR

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

CWH EERE 2016 

NOPR / 

Guidehouse

CWH EERE 2016 NOPR

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

A-66
Final

Commercial Heat Pump Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical ENERGY STAR 

V. 2.0 Typical Typical Typical

Water Flow Rate (gal/min)

Distributors/Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Typical Output Capacity (kW)

Typical Output Capacity (kBtu/h)

Coefficient of Performance (COPh)

Average Life (y) EERE/Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

EIA Technology Forecast Updates 

(2018) Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Guidehouse

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

A-67
Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Storage Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Current 

Standard Typical High Typical/High

Typical Storage Capacity (gal)

AHRI / 

Guidehouse DOE CCD/Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 

Thermal Efficiency (%) Guidehouse CFR DOE CCD

Average Life (y) Commercial Heating, Air Conditioning and Water Heating Equipment EERE 2001

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Distributors / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

A-68
Final

Commercial Electric Booster Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (gal)

Product Literature / Guidehouse

Typical Output Capacity (kBtu/h)

Thermal Efficiency (%)

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

A-69
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Booster Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Current 

Standard Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (gal)

Product Literature / Guidehouse

Typical Output Capacity (kBtu/h)

Thermal Efficiency (%)

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

A-70
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) DOE CCD

DOE CCD / Guidehouse

Thermal Efficiency (%) Guidehouse/DOE CCD DOE CCD ENERGY 

STAR DOE CCD

Average Life (y)

CWH EERE 2022 NOPR

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

A-71
Final

Commercial Solar Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical ENERGY 

STAR V. 4.0

ENERGY 

STAR V. 5.0 Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (sq. ft.)

SRCC / Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Typical Capacity (m2)

Typical Capacity (Input) (kBtu/h) - North

Typical Capacity (Input) (kBtu/h) - South

Solar Uniform Energy Factor (SUEF) ENERGY STAR / Guidehouse

Average Life (y) SRCC / Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) EIA Technology Forecast 

Updates (2018)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building 

Construction Costs 2023 / Guidehouse Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) - North

Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) - South

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) - North DOE / Guidehouse

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) - South

A-72
Final

Commercial Cooking Products

A-73

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Natural Gas Range with Griddle and Oven

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.2 

High

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.0

Typical/High

Griddle - Cooking Energy Efficiency (%)

Guidehouse FSTC

ENERGY 

STAR / FSTC

ENERGY 

STAR

ENERGY 

STAR

NA

Guidehouse

Oven - Cooking Energy Efficiency (%) ENERGY 

STAR

Range - Cooking Energy Efficiency (%) FEMP / CEC NA FEMP / CEC NA

Combined Energy Efficiency (%) Guidehouse / FSTC

Griddle - Normalized Idle Energy Rate 

(Btu/h/ft2)

Guidehouse FSTC ENERGY 

STAR / FSTC ENERGY 

STAR

ENERGY 

STAR

NA

Oven - Idle Energy Rate (Btu/h) FEMP ENERGY 

STAR

ENERGY 

STAR

Range - Idle Energy Rate (Btu/h) FSTC NA FSTC NA

Combined Idle Energy Rate (Btu/h) Guidehouse / FSTC / Distributors

Average Life (y) FSTC

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Distributors

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

FSTC / Guidehouse Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

FSTC Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

A-74

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Electric Range with Griddle and Oven

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.2 

High

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.0

Typical/High

Griddle - Cooking Energy Efficiency (%)

Guidehouse FSTC

FSTC / 

ENERGY 

STAR / 

Guidehouse

ENERGY 

STAR

ENERGY 

STAR

NA

Guidehouse

Oven - Cooking Energy Efficiency (%) ENERGY 

STAR

Range - Cooking Energy Efficiency (%) NA CEC NA

Combined Energy Efficiency (%) Guidehouse / FSTC

Griddle - Normalized Idle Energy Rate 

(kW/ft2

)

Guidehouse FSTC

FSTC / 

ENERGY 

STAR / 

Guidehouse

ENERGY 

STAR

ENERGY 

STAR

NA

Oven - Idle Energy Rate (kW) ENERGY 

STAR

Range - Idle Energy Rate (kW) NA

Combined Idle Energy Rate (kW) Guidehouse / FSTC / Distributors

Average Life (y) FSTC

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Distributors

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

FSTC / Guidehouse Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost FSTC

(2022$/kBtu/h)

A-75

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinets – Small

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

State 

Standards Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

V. 2.0

High Typical/High

Interior Volume (ft3) FEMP / ENERGY STAR

Guidehouse

Maximum Idle Energy Rate (W) CEE / 

Guidehouse FEMP ASAP

ASAP / 

ENERGY 

STAR

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.0

FEMP / 

ENERGY 

STAR

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)

FEMP

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Distributors / ENERGY STAR Savings Calculator / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

FSTC

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

A-76

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinets – Medium

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

State 

Standards Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

V. 2.0

High Typical/High

Interior Volume (ft3) FEMP / ENERGY STAR

Guidehouse

Maximum Idle Energy Rate (W) CEE / 

Guidehouse FEMP ASAP

ASAP / 

ENERGY 

STAR

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.0

FEMP / 

ENERGY 

STAR

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)

FEMP

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Distributors / ENERGY STAR Savings Calculator / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

FSTC

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

A-77

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinets – Large

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

State 

Standards Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

V. 2.0

High Typical/High

Interior Volume (ft3) FEMP / ENERGY STAR

Guidehouse

Maximum Idle Energy Rate (W) CEE / 

Guidehouse FEMP ASAP

ASAP / 

ENERGY 

STAR

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.0

FEMP / 

ENERGY 

STAR

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)

FEMP

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Distributors / ENERGY STAR Savings Calculator / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

FSTC

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

A-78

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Appendix B

References

Guidehouse

1676 International Drive

McLean, VA 22102

And

Leidos

11951 Freedom Drive 

Reston, VA 20190

B-1

Return to Table of Contents
Final

References

• AHRI. Air Conditioners Monthly Shipments, Retrieved August 2022 from: https://ahrinet.org/statistics

• AHRI. Furnaces Historical Data, Retrieved August 2022 from: https://ahrinet.org/statistics

• Alabama Power (n.d.). Chillers: Compare Maintenance Costs. Retrieved September 2017 from: 

http://www.alabamapower.com/business/ways-to-save/chillers-space-cooling-options/compare-maintenancecosts.html

• ASAP. Hot Food Holding Cabinets. Retrieved October 2022 from https://appliance-standards.org/product/hot-foodholding-cabinets

• ASHRAE. (2004). ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004. ASHRAE, Inc.

• ASHRAE. (2007). ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2007. ASHRAE, Inc.

• ASHRAE. (2016). ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2016. ASHRAE, Inc.

• ASHRAE. (2019). ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2019. ASHRAE, Inc.

• ASHRAE. (2015). 2015 ASHRAE Handbook – HVAC Applications. ASHRAE Inc.

• Building Services Research and Information Association & Ducker Research Company. (1997, 1998). U.S. Market for 

Central Plant Air Conditioning; Market for Ducted Warm Air Central Heating; U.S. Market for Hydronic Heating and 

Burners; U.S. Water Heating Market; U.S. Unitary and Close Control Air Conditioning. 

• California Energy Commission. (2019). Building Energy Efficiency Standards for Residential and Nonresidential 

Buildings.

• CEC. (n.d.). California Energy Commission Appliance Efficiency Database. Retrieved 2004, September 2010, June 2013, 

and October 2022 from: http://www.appliances.energy.ca.gov/AdvancedSearch.aspx

Return to Table of Contents

B-2
Final

References

• CEE. (2009). “Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinets Program Guide.” Consortium for Energy Efficiency. April 2009.

• CFR. (n.d.). National energy conservation standards authorized under the Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 

(EPCA) and codified in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).

• DOE. (n.d.). Estimating the Cost and Energy Efficiency of a Solar Water Heater. Retrieved October 2022 from 

https://energy.gov/energysaver/estimating-cost-and-energy-efficiency-solar-water-heater

• DOE. (n.d.). Solar Water Heaters. Retrieved October 2022 from https://energy.gov/energysaver/solar-water-heaters 

• Distributors. (n.d.). Guidehouse online research and discussions with distributors (e.g., Grainger, Home Depot, 

Lowe’s, Sears, and others).

• EERE. (2001). Energy Efficiency Program for Commercial and Industrial Equipment; Efficiency Standards for 

Commercial Heating, Air Conditioning and Water Heating Equipment; Final Rule.

• EERE. (2007). Energy Conservation Program for Consumer Products: Energy Conservation Standards for Residential 

Furnaces and Boilers; Final Rule. 

• EERE. (2008). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Clothes Washers; Direct 

Final Rule.

• EERE. (2009). Energy Conservation Program for Certain Industrial Equipment: Energy Conservation Standards and 

Test Procedures for Commercial Heating, Air-Conditioning, and Water-Heating Equipment; Final Rule.

• EERE. (2010). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Water Heaters, Direct 

Heating Equipment, and Pool Heaters; Final Rule. 

B-3

Return to Table of Contents
Final

References

• EERE. (2011). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Clothes Dryers and 

Room Air Conditioners; Direct Final Rule.

• EERE. (2011). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Furnaces and Residential 

Central Air Conditioners and Heat Pumps; Direct Final Rule.

• EERE. (2011). Energy Conservation Program: Standards for Residential Refrigerators, Refrigerator-Freezers, and 

Freezers; Final Rule.

• EERE. (2012). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Clothes Washers; Direct 

Final Rule.

• EERE. (2014). Energy Conservation Standards for Residential/Consumer Clothes Dryers.

• EERE. (2014). Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Conventional Cooking Products (Ovens).

• EERE. (2014). Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Furnaces.

• EERE. (2015). Energy Efficiency Program For Consumer Products And Commercial And Industrial Equipment: 

Commercial Warm Air Furnaces.

• EERE. (2015). Final Rule Technical Support Document: Energy Efficiency Program for Small, Large, and Very Large 

Commercial Package Air Conditioners.

• EERE. (2016). Energy Conservation Program for Certain Industrial Equipment: Energy Conservation Standards for 

Small, Large, and Very Large Air-Cooled Commercial Package Air Conditioning and Heating Equipment and 

Commercial Warm Air Furnaces; Direct final rule and Technical Support Document.

• EERE. (2016). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Boilers.

Return to Table of Contents

B-4
Final

References

• EERE. (2016). Final Rule Technical Support Document: Energy Efficiency Program for Residential Central Air 

Conditioners and Heat Pumps.

• EERE. (2016). Energy Conservation Program for Certain Industrial Equipment: Energy Conservation Standards for 

Commercial Water Heating Equipment: Notice of Proposed Rulemaking.

• EERE. (2017). Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Clothes Washers.

• EERE. (2020). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Commercial Packaged Boilers; Final 

rule 

• EERE. (2020). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Portable Air Conditioners.

• EERE. (2020). Final Rule Technical Support Document: Energy Efficiency Program for Consumer Products and 

Commercial and Industrial Equipment: Portable Air Conditioners.

• EERE. (2021). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Refrigerators, Refrigerator-Freezers, 

and Freezers.; Preliminary Analysis

• EERE. (2021). Energy Conservation Program: Product Classes for Residential Dishwashers, Residential Clothes 

Washers, and Consumer Clothes Dryers.

• EERE. (2022). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Boilers; Preliminary 

Analysis.

• EERE. (2022). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Room Air Conditioners; Notice of 

Proposed Rulemaking.

• EERE (2022). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Packaged Terminal Air Conditioners 

and Packaged Terminal Heat Pumps; Notice of Proposed Determination. B-5

Return to Table of Contents
Final

References

• EERE (2022). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Consumer Water Heaters; 

Preliminary Analysis.

• EERE (2022). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Commercial Water Heating 

Equipment; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking.

• EIA – Technology Forecast Updates – Residential and Commercial Building Technologies. (2018). Retrieved August 

2022 from: https://www.eia.gov/analysis/studies/buildings/equipcosts/pdf/appendix-a.pdf

• ENERGY STAR Savings Calculator (n.d.). “Savings Calculator for ENERGY STAR Qualified Commercial Kitchen 

Equipment.” U.S. EPA and DOE. Retrieved June 2013 from 

http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=bulk_purchasing.bus_purchasing

• ENERGY STAR. (n.d.). Retrieved June 2013, September 2017, and October 2022, from ENERGY STAR Products: 

http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=products.pr_find_es_products

• EPA. USEPA Certified Wood Stove Database. Retrieved August 2022 from: 

https://cfpub.epa.gov/oarweb/woodstove/index.cfm?fuseaction=app.search

• FacilitiesNet. (2009). Properly Diagnosing Chiller Life Cycles. Retrieved September 2017 from: 

http://www.facilitiesnet.com/hvac/article/Properly-Diagnosing-Chiller-Life-Cycles--10645

• FEMP. (2012). “Federal Energy Management Program: Covered Product Category: Hot Food Holding Cabinets.” 

Retrieved June 2013 from: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/technologies/printable_versions/eep_hot_food.html

• FEMP. (2016, August). Purchasing Energy-Efficient Air-Cooled Chillers. Retrieved September 2017, from FEMP 

Technologies: https://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/technologies/eep_ac_chillers.html

Return to Table of Contents

B-6
Final

References

• FEMP. (2016, August). Purchasing Energy-Efficient Water-Cooled Electric Chillers. Retrieved September 2017, from 

FEMP Technologies: https://energy.gov/eere/femp/purchasing-energy-efficient-water-cooled-electric-chillers

• FEMP. (2020, June). Purchasing Energy-Efficient Air-Cooled Electric Chillers. Retrieved September 2022, from FEMP 

Technologies: https://energy.gov/eere/femp/purchasing-energy-efficient-air-cooled-electric-chillers

• FEMP. (2020, June). Purchasing Energy-Efficient Water-Cooled Electric Chillers. Retrieved September 2022, from 

FEMP Technologies: https://energy.gov/eere/femp/purchasing-energy-efficient-water-cooled-electric-chillers

• FEMP. (2021, December). Purchasing Energy-Efficient Hot Food Holding Cabinets. Retrieved October 2022 from FEMP 

Technologies: https://www.energy.gov/eere/femp/purchasing-energy-efficient-hot-food-holding-cabinets

• FSTC. (n.d.). Appliance Reports, Rangetop Performance Reports. Retrieved December 2017, from: 

https://fishnick.com/publications/appliancereports/rangetops/

• FSTC. (n.d.). Appliance Reports, Griddle Performance Reports. Retrieved December 2017, from: 

https://fishnick.com/publications/appliancereports/griddles/

• Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building Construction Costs 2023. Copyright RSMeans and Gordian. 30 Patewood Dr. Suite 

350, Greenville, SC, 29615; All rights reserved.

• Guidehouse. (n.d.). In-House Expertise.

• Less et. al. (2021). The Cost of Decarbonization and Energy Upgrade Retrofits for US Homes. Retrieved February 2023 

from: https://eta-publications.lbl.gov/sites/default/files/final_walker_-_the_cost_of_decarbonization_and_energy.pdf

• IGSPHA. (n.d.). International Ground-Source Heat Pump Association. Retrieved 2007 from www.igshpa.okstate.edu

Return to Table of Contents

B-7
Final

References

• International Ground-Source Heat Pump Association (IGSHPA) Conference Proceedings. (2012, October). Measuring 

the Costs & Benefits of Nationwide Geothermal Heat Pump (GHP) Deployment – A Progress Report. Retrieved June 

2013, from IGSHPA: http://www.igshpa.okstate.edu/membership/members_only/proceedings/2012/10-3-2012-0130-

Session-C-Measuring-the-Costs-&-Benefits-of-Nationwide-Geothermal-Heat-Pump-(GHP)-Deployment-A-ProgressReport.pdf

• Manufacturers. (n.d.). Guidehouse discussions with product manufacturers.

• Product Literature. (n.d.). Literature from manufacturers and experts on specific products. 

• Propane Education and Research Council (PERC). (2007). Assessment of Propane Fired Gas Air Conditioning, Heat 

Pumping and Dehumidification Technologies, Products, Markets and Economics

• Residential Energy Services Network. Draft PDS-01, MINHERS Addendum 71, SEER2/HSPF2 Conversions. Retrieved 

February 2023 from: https://www.resnet.us/about/standards/minhers/draft-pds-01-minhers-addendum-71-seer2-

hspf2-conversions/

• Solar Rating and Certification Corporation (SRCC). (n.d.) Solar Uniform Energy Factor Specification. Retrieved 

October 2022 from: https://solar-rating.org/resources/suef/

• Technology Cost and Performance File for Commercial Model for AEO2010. (2009). (E. Boedecker, Compiler)

• U.S. Department of Energy’s Compliance Certification Database. Retrieved August 2022 to February 2023 from: 

http://www.regulations.doe.gov/certification-data/

Return to Table of Contents

B-8
March 2023

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Updated Buildings Sector Appliance and Equipment Costs and Efficiencies 3

APPENDIX B
Final

EIA - Technology Forecast Updates –

Residential and Commercial Building 

Technologies – Advanced Case

Presented to:

U.S. Energy Information Administration

Prepared by: 

Guidehouse

1676 International Drive

McLean, VA 22102

And

Leidos

11951 Freedom Drive

Reston, VA 20190

March 3, 2023
Final

DISCLAIMER

This presentation was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither 

the United States Government, nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, nor any of their contractors, 

subcontractors, or their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or 

responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, 

or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, 

process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its 

endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency, contractor or subcontractor 

thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States 

Government or any agency thereof. 

March 2023
Final Table of Contents

Objective 5

Methodology 6

Advanced Case Assumptions 7

Definitions 8

Market Transformation 9

Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces (North) 11

Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces (Rest of Country) 12

Residential Oil-Fired Furnaces 15

Residential Gas-Fired Boilers 18

Residential Oil-Fired Boilers 21

Residential Electric Furnaces 24

Residential Electric Resistance Heaters 26

Residential Central Air Conditioners (North) 28

Residential Central Air Conditioners (South) 29

Residential Room Air Conditioners 32

Residential Portable Air Conditioners 35

Residential Swamp Coolers 38

Residential Air-Source Heat Pumps 40

Residential Ductless Mini-Split Air-Source Heat Pumps 44

Residential Ground-Source Heat Pumps 46

Residential Natural Gas Heat Pumps 48

Residential Cordwood Stoves 50

Residential Wood Pellet Stoves 53

Residential Gas-Fired Water Heater 57

Residential Oil-Fired Water Heater 60

Residential Electric Resistance Water Heater 63

Residential Electric Heat Pump Water Heater 66

Residential Solar Water Heater 69

Residential Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heater 72

Residential Electric Instantaneous Water Heater 75

Residential Refrigerator/Freezer (Top-Mount) 78

Residential Refrigerator/Freezer (Side-Mount) 79 

Residential Refrigerator/Freezer (Bottom-Mount) 80 

Residential Freezers (Chest) 84 

Residential Freezers (Upright) 85

Residential Natural Gas Cooktops 88

Residential Natural Gas Ovens 89

Residential Natural Gas Ranges 90

Residential Electric Cooktops 93

Residential Electric Ovens 94

Residential Electric Ranges 95

Residential Clothes Dryers (Electric) 98

Residential Clothes Dryers (Gas) 99

Residential Clothes Washers (Front-Loading) 102

Residential Clothes Washers (Top-Loading) 103

Residential Dishwashers 106
Final Table of Contents

Commercial Gas-Fired Furnaces 110

Commercial Oil-Fired Furnaces 114

Commercial Electric Resistance Heaters 116

Commercial Electric Boilers 118

Commercial Gas-Fired Boilers 120

Commercial Oil-Fired Boilers 123

Commercial Centrifugal Chillers 126

Commercial Reciprocating Chillers 128

Commercial Screw Chillers 130

Commercial Scroll Chillers 132

Commercial Gas Fired Chillers 134

Commercial Rooftop Air Conditioners 136

Commercial Gas-Fired Engine-Driven Rooftop Air Conditioners 138

Commercial Rooftop Heat Pumps 140

Commercial Ground-Source Heat Pumps 142

Packaged Terminal Air Conditioners 144

Packaged Terminal Heat Pumps 146

Commercial Gas-Fired Water Heater 149

Commercial Electric Resistance Water Heater 152

Commercial Heat Pump Water Heater 155

Commercial Oil-Fired Water Heater 157

Commercial Electric Booster Water Heater 159

Commercial Gas-Fired Booster Water Heater 160

Commercial Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heater 162

Commercial Solar Water Heater 165

Commercial Gas Range with Griddle and Oven 168

Commercial Electric Range with Griddle and Oven 169

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinet - Small 173

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinet - Medium 174

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinet - Large 175

Data Sources A-1

References B-1
Final

Objective

The objective of this study is to develop baseline and projected performance/cost characteristics for residential and 

commercial end-use equipment.

• Installed base in 2012 and 2018 (for commercial products) or 2015 and 2020 (for residential products) and current 

market (2022)

— Review literature, standards, installed base, contractor, and manufacturer information

— Provide a relative comparison and characterization of the cost/efficiency of a generic product

• Forecast of technology improvements that are projected to be available through 2050

— Review trends in standards, product enhancements, and Research and Development (R&D)

— Project impact of product improvements and enhancement to technology

The performance/cost characterization of end-use equipment developed in this study will assist EIA in projecting 

national primary energy consumption.

5

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Final

Methodology

Input from industry stakeholders, including government, R&D organizations, and manufacturers, was used to project 

product enhancements concerning equipment performance and cost attributes.

• Technology forecasting involves many uncertainties.

• Technology developments impact performance and cost forecasts.

• Varied sources ensure a balanced view of technology progress and the probable timing of commercial availability.

• Only currently published efficiency standards and regulations are considered when predicting technology 

developments; unpublished future regulatory action is not predicted.

• All costs are shown in 2022 dollars (2022$).

• Ranges, when given, represent the span of typical values for a given parameter (e.g., installed cost for equipment 

meeting the federal standard) not the highest and lowest available on the market. 

6

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Final

Advanced Case Assumptions

The Advanced Case and Reference Case both assume current level of effort for standards. However, the Advanced 

Case assumes an increase in market incentive and federal R&D. The general approach for the Advanced Case is 

outlined below. 

• The Advanced Case considers future changes to product groups such as:

— Product or component changes that are fully developed but have not yet been commercialized

— Expected incremental improvements in existing technologies due to increased R&D

— Increased adoption of existing higher efficiency technology options due to increased market incentives

• The Advanced Case did not include future changes to product groups that are due to:

— Prototype technology changes or products that are in preliminary research that may have performance 

improvements but have only been demonstrated in theoretical calculations

Return to Table of Contents

7
Final

Definitions

The following tables represent the current and projected efficiencies for residential and commercial building 

equipment ranging from the installed base in 2012 and 2018 (for commercial products) or 2015 and 2020 (for residential 

products) to the highest efficiency equipment that is expected to be commercially available by 2050, assuming 

incremental adoption. Below are definitions for the terms used in characterizing the status of each technology.

• Installed Base: Efficiency values are for those units installed and “in use” in that year. Cost values are for the typical 

new unit sold in that year.

• Current Standard: The minimum efficiency (or maximum energy use) that is required (allowed) by current U.S. 

Department of Energy (DOE) standards, when applicable.

• ENERGY STAR: The minimum efficiency that is required (or maximum energy use allowed) to meet the ENERGY 

STAR criteria, when applicable. The performance data that are presented are representative of certified products that 

just meet current ENERGY STAR specifications.

• Typical: Efficiency and cost values are for the average, or “typical,” product being sold in the particular timeframe. 

This may represent either the shipments-weighted average product performance or the most common product on the 

market.

• High: Efficiency and cost values are for the product with the highest efficiency available in the particular timeframe.

8

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Final

Market Transformation

The market for the reviewed products has changed since this analysis was previously conducted.1 These changes are 

noted and reflected in the efficiency and cost characteristics.

• In some categories the typical new product purchased today is more efficient than the average product in the installed 

base in 2012 (commercial) or 2015 (residential):

— Residential sector: boilers, central air conditioners, room air conditioners, gas-fired furnaces (North), gas-fired 

furnaces (Rest of Country), oil-fired furnaces, electric resistance furnaces, heat pump water heaters, gas-fired 

instantaneous water heaters, natural gas cooktops, natural gas ovens, refrigerator-freezers, freezers, clothes dryers, 

clothes washers, and dishwashers

— Commercial sector: gas-fired furnaces, oil-fired boilers, commercial rooftop heat pumps, commercial groundsource heat pumps, gas-fired instantaneous water heater, natural gas and electric ranges, griddles, and ovens

• More stringent Federal standards have taken effect for the following products:

— Gas-fired and oil-fired boilers in 2021

— Rooftop air conditioners and rooftop heat pumps in 2018

• Federal standards are slated to take effect in the coming years for the following products:

— Central air conditioners, residential air-source heat pumps, gas-fired furnaces, oil-fired furnaces, gas-fired boilers, 

oil-fired boilers, rooftop air conditioners, and rooftop heat pumps in 2023

— Portable air conditioners in 2025

• ENERGY STAR continues to raise the bar with revised criteria for:

— Central air conditioners, residential air-source heat pumps, rooftop air conditioners, rooftop heat pumps, 

residential water heaters, and dishwashers in 2023

9

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Note: The previous analysis is available in the EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018) report.
Final

Residential Space Heating and Cooling

10

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Final

Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces (North)

11

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DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

(North) 

V. 4.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h)180 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

AFUE (%) 80 80 80 90 95 99 95 99 95 99 95 99

Electric Consumption (kWh/y)2374 374 386 636 631 725 631 725 631 725 631 725

Average Life (y)3

17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17

26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 1,300 1,300 1,080 1,200 1,220 1,390 1,220 1,390 1,220 1,390 1,220 1,390

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 2,880 2,880 3,690 4,130 4,150 4,320 4,150 4,320 4,150 4,320 4,150 4,320

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 60 60 120 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130

Same as Reference Case 

1. Typical input capacity is represented in terms of thousand British thermal units (kBtu) per hour (i.e., kBtu/h).

2. Electric consumption, represented in terms of kilowatt hours per year (kWh/y), accounts for the electricity consumption of components such as the furnace fan, draft inducer, and the ignitor. In some high efficiency products, this 

component also includes auxiliary equipment, such as condensate pumps and heat tape.

3. In the Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NOPR) Technical Support Document (TSD), an average lifetime of 22.5 years is calculated for gas-fired furnaces (North). Lifetime range was calculated using the 

Weibull Distribution in the Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR.

Note:

Models on the market can be either weatherized or non-weatherized. The majority (74%) are non-weatherized, and the values in the table use only non-weatherized data.

Electric consumption and cost values for 2022 and beyond are for a national sample and use the Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR Life-Cycle-Cost (LCC) spreadsheet.

Electric consumption and costs for the 2030, 2040, and 2050 high values are estimated based on the maximum-efficiency level analyzed in Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR, which is 98% annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE).

The current standard went into effect in November 2015.

ENERGY STAR V. 4.1 went into effect in February 2013.

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces (Rest of Country)

12

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DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

(ROC) 

V. 4.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

AFUE (%) 80 80 80 90 90 99 95 99 95 99 95 99

Electric Consumption (kWh/y)1279 279 386 636 636 725 631 725 631 725 631 725

Average Life (y) 2

16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16

25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 1,260 1,260 1,080 1,200 1,200 1,390 1,220 1,390 1,220 1,390 1,220 1,390

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 2,380 2,380 3,690 4,130 4,130 4,320 4,150 4,320 4,150 4,320 4,150 4,320

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 40 40 120 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130

Same as Reference Case

1. Electric consumption accounts for the electricity consumption of components such as the furnace fan, draft inducer, and the ignitor. In some high efficiency products, this component also includes auxiliary 

equipment, such as condensate pumps and heat tape.

2. In the Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR, an average lifetime of 21.5 years is calculated for gas-fired furnaces (Rest of Country). Lifetime range was calculated using the Weibull Distribution in the 

Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR.

Note:

Models on the market can be either weatherized or non-weatherized. The majority (74%) are non-weatherized, and the values in the table use only non-weatherized data.

Electric consumption and cost values for 2022 and beyond are for a national sample and use the Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR LCC spreadsheet.

Electric consumption and costs for the 2030, 2040, and 2050 high values are estimated based on the maximum-efficiency level analyzed in Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR, which is 98% AFUE.

The current standard went into effect in November 2015.

ENERGY STAR V. 4.1 went into effect in February 2013.

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces

13

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• Current Federal standards for non-weatherized gas furnaces:

— AFUE ≥ 80%

• ENERGY STAR V. 4.1 criteria for gas furnaces:

— South: AFUE ≥ 90%

— North: AFUE ≥ 95%

— Furnaces must be equipped with electronically commutated fan motor and have less than or equal to 2.0% air leakage

• Most efficient unit currently available: 99.0% AFUE. The current market is nearly evenly split between non-condensing units 

(AFUE≤82%) and condensing units (AFUE≥90%).

• The maximum AFUE for non-condensing gas furnaces is 82%; above this level, the potential for exhaust gas condensation 

increases. This condensate is corrosive and requires cost restrictive corrosion resistant venting.

• High-efficiency condensing furnaces typically have high-grade stainless steel (AL 29-4C) heat exchangers.

• Many condensing furnaces are available as direct vent and sealed combustion systems, which do not use room air for 

combustion, but instead draw combustion air directly from outdoors.

• Depending on the location of the home, piping materials in use, and other considerations, condensing furnaces may need an 

acid neutralizer and/or lift pump for the condensate.

• Furnaces may contain permanent split capacitor (PSC) fan motors or electronically commutated motors (ECMs). The type of 

motor affects the electrical consumption of the furnace as well as the seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER) / energy efficiency 

ratio (EER) of the associated air conditioner.

— The 2016 Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Furnace Fans Final Rule requires that all furnaces use ECM fans. 

— Most non-weatherized gas furnaces employ ECMs and can fully modulate rather than cycling on and off. Because they 

modulate, there is an increase in total fan-on time. 
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces

Annual shipments reached 3.5 million units in 2005 and then declined each year until 2009, leveling off at about 2.25 

million units. Since 2012, shipments have increased steadily and reached a peak of 4.0 million units in 2021.

Source: Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute (AHRI)

14

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Final

Residential Oil-Fired Furnaces

15

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1. Electric consumption accounts for the electricity consumption of components such as the furnace fan, draft inducer, and the ignitor. In some high efficiency products, this component also includes auxiliary 

equipment, such as condensate pumps and heat tape.

2. Lifetime range was calculated using the Weibull Distribution in Residential Furnaces EERE 2011.

Note:

The current standard went into effect in May 2013.

ENERGY STAR V. 4.1 went into effect in February 2013.

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105

AFUE (%) 83 83 83 85 85 97 85 97 85 97 85 97

Electric Consumption (kWh/y)1477 477 477 466 466 410 466 410 466 410 466 410

Average Life (y)2

20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

2,620 2,620 2,620 2,650 2,650 3,170 2,650 3,170 2,650 3,170 2,650 3,170

3,450 3,450 3,450 3,490 3,490 4,090 3,490 4,090 3,490 4,090 3,490 4,090

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

3,250 3,250 3,250 3,480 3,480 5,140 3,480 5,140 3,480 5,140 3,480 5,140

6,520 6,520 6,520 6,820 6,820 10,110 6,820 10,110 6,820 10,110 6,820 10,110

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 80 80 80 80 80 240 80 240 80 240 80 240

Same as Reference Case
Final

Residential Oil-Fired Furnaces

• Current Federal standards:

— AFUE ≥ 83%

— ≤ 11 watts of electrical power when in standby and off modes (non-weatherized models only)

• ENERGY STAR V. 4.1 criteria: AFUE ≥ 85%

• Since the latent heat content of oil is lower than that for either propane or natural gas, oil-fired appliances can typically 

operate at a higher AFUE rating than comparable gas-fired appliances before condensation issues arise.

• Most efficient unit currently available: 96.7% AFUE – condensing units with tiny market share (<1%), due to market 

acceptance issues. 

• Condensate from condensing oil furnaces is typically even more corrosive than that of gas-fired systems due to the 

higher sulfur content in fuel oil. Hence, condensing oil furnaces also likely require the use of an acid neutralizer.

• Oil-fired furnaces, like gas-fired furnaces, achieve condensing conditions through the use of a secondary heat 

exchanger. Typically, these secondary heat exchangers use a high-grade stainless steel (AL 29-4C).

• Sooting is an issue for all oil-fired appliances, but secondary heat exchangers, with their narrow passages, are even 

more prone to be plugged by soot. Because of this, condensing oil furnaces typically require frequent cleaning and 

maintenance.

16

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Final

Residential Oil-Fired Furnaces

Annual shipments declined rapidly after 2004, likely due, at least in part, to an increase in fuel oil prices, which more 

than tripled from 2002 to 2008. Since 2012 shipments have largely leveled off.

Source: AHRI

17

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Final

DATA

2015 202012022 203022040220502

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

V. 3.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

AFUE (%) 82 95 84 95 90 96 95 96 95 96 95 96

Electric Consumption (kWh/y)3197 506 282 506 527 502 506 502 506 502 506 502

Average Life (y)

20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 2,540 2,890 1,820 2,890 2,440 3,670 2,890 3,670 2,890 3,670 2,890 3,670

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 7,760 5,940 8,700 5,940 6,700 6,710 5,940 6,710 5,940 6,710 5,940 6,710

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)4110 160 150 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160

Residential Gas-Fired Boilers

18

1. The 2020 AFUE is estimated based on EERE 2022 preliminary analysis, which estimates that gas-fired boilers with the highest market share in 2020 have an AFUE of 95%.

2. The 2030, 2040, 2050 projections are estimated based on the EERE 2022 preliminary analysis, which notes that majority of the market is expected to be condensing, if new standards are not implemented. The 

EERE 2022 preliminary analysis estimates a minimum efficiency of 95% AFUE for condensing units.

3. Electric Consumption accounts for the electricity consumption of auxiliary electrical components including circulating pump, the boiler pump (condensing boilers only), the draft inducer (if present), and the 

ignitor. It also accounts for the electricity consumption of auxiliary equipment such as a condensate pump and heat tape, which are sometimes installed with higher efficiency boilers. Additionally, it accounts 

for the additional cooling load due to heat loss from the boiler and water heater as a result of water heating during the cooling season.

4. Maintenance cost is the routine annual cost to the consumer of general maintenance for product operation. Maintenance cost is higher for condensing boilers for the inspection of condensate system and 

replacement of condensate neutralizer filter.

Note: 

The current standard went into effect in January 2021.

ENERGY STAR V. 3.0 went into effect in December 2013.

Water boilers considered. Steam boilers also exist but make up a small percentage of the market.

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.

Return to Table of Contents

Same as Reference Case
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Boilers

• Federal standard for gas-fired hot-water boilers (more common than steam):

— AFUE ≥ 84% 

— Standard went into effect on January 21, 2021

• ENERGY STAR criteria: AFUE ≥ 90%

• Most efficient gas-fired boiler available: 96.4% AFUE

• Gas-fired boilers have lost market share to furnaces and heat pumps over the past 30 years.

• U.S. gas hot water boiler sales are split approximately 60/40 between condensing and non-condensing.1 Condensing 

boilers typically have heat exchangers made of stainless steel, and non-condensing boilers typically have heat 

exchangers made of cast iron.

• Typically, condensing boilers are low-mass in construction with modulating burners, variable-speed inducer fan 

systems or sealed powered direct-vent combustion, multiple sensor technologies, and electronic ignition and control.

• Due to incentives and market pressure, the U.S. boiler industry has been shifting towards also providing condensing 

boilers. Most of these boilers are private-labeled products sourced from Europe, where the hydronic market is much 

bigger and condensing appliances are much more common and/or required by law.

• Most value-added components for condensing boilers are sourced abroad, even when the condensing boiler is 

assembled in North America (e.g., heat exchanger, gas valve, burner, sensors, and/or controls).

19

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Source: EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis TSD, Chapter 3
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Boilers

Annual shipments had a significant decrease following the 2009 financial crisis and a steady recovery in the years 

since.

Source: Boilers EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

20

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Final

DATA

2015 202012022 203022040220502

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

V. 3.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140

AFUE (%) 84 86 86 86 87 88 87 95 87 95 87 95

Electric Consumption (kWh/y)3230 310 310 310 307 305 307 265 307 265 307 265

Average Life (y)4

18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18

28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 4,850 3,590 3,590 3,590 3,680 3,770 3,680 6,890 3,680 6,890 3,680 6,890

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 9,800 5,510 5,510 5,510 5,600 5,690 5,600 11,910 5,600 11,910 5,600 11,910

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)4160 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170

Residential Oil-Fired Boilers

21

1. The 2020 AFUE is estimated based on EERE 2022 preliminary analysis, which estimates that oil-fired boilers with the highest market share in 2020 have an AFUE of 86%.

2. The 2030, 2040, 2050 projections are estimated based on the EERE 2022 preliminary analysis, which notes that majority of the market is expected to be at 86% AFUE, if new standards are not implemented.

3. Electric Consumption accounts for the electricity consumption of auxiliary electrical components including circulating pump, the ignitor, condensate pump, and heat tape, which are sometimes installed with 

higher efficiency boilers. Additionally, it accounts for the additional cooling load due to heat loss from the boiler and water heater as a result of water heating during the cooling season.

4. Maintenance cost is the routine annual cost to the consumer of general maintenance for product operation. 

Note: 

The current standard went into effect in January 2021.

ENERGY STAR V. 3.0 went into effect in December 2013.

Water boilers considered. Steam boilers also exist but make up a small percentage of the market.

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.

Return to Table of Contents

Typical AFUE and costs increase to ENERGY STAR levels. High AFUE and costs increase to condensing units.
Final

Residential Oil-Fired Boilers

• Federal standard for oil-fired hot-water boilers (more common than steam):

— AFUE ≥ 86% 

— Standard went into effect on January 21, 2021

• ENERGY STAR criteria: AFUE ≥ 87%

• Most efficient oil-fired boiler available: 88% AFUE

• Since the latent heat content of oil is lower than that for either propane or natural gas, oil-fired appliances can typically 

operate at a higher AFUE rating than comparable gas-fired appliances before condensation issues arise.

• Oil boilers have heat exchangers made of cast iron or steel. 

• No condensing oil-fired boilers currently exist in the U.S. market. The high sulfur content in fuel-oil causes heat 

exchanger fouling if the flue gases from an oil-fired boiler were to condense. As a result, condensing oil-fired boilers 

would require more frequent maintenance and repair, if installed.

• Advanced Case: Increased incentives move typical efficiency products to ENERGY STAR levels by 2030. The current 

typical efficiency product is at 86% AFUE, while ENERGY STAR is at 87%, with only a small difference in costs. It is 

expected that with more market incentives, manufacturers will produce more products that can be ENERGY STAR 

certified at the 87% level.

• Advanced Case: High efficiencies expected to be at 95% AFUE for condensing oil-fired boilers. These models are 

already seen in Europe and would be expected to re-enter the U.S. market as well.

22

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Final

Residential Oil-Fired Boilers

Annual shipments declined rapidly after 2004, likely due, at least in part, to an increase in fuel oil prices, which more 

than tripled from 2002 to 2008. Since 2012 shipments have largely leveled off.

Source: Boilers EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

23

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Final

Residential Electric Resistance Furnaces

24

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1. Costs for a 100% AFUE unit are assumed to be equal to the costs of a 98% AFUE unit.

Note:

The current standard went into effect in January 1992.

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Current 

Standard Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 68 68 68 68 68 68 68

AFUE (%) 98 98 100 100 100 100 100

Average Life (y)

15 15 15 15 15 15 15

30 30 30 30 30 30 30

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)1760 760 950 950 950 950 950

Total Installed Cost (2022$)11,290 1,290 1,480 1,480 1,480 1,480 1,480

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)150 50 50 50 50 50 50

Same as Reference Case
Final

Residential Electric Resistance Furnaces

• Federal standards for electric furnaces:

— AFUE ≥ 78%

— Standby and off mode power consumption ≤ 10 watts

• According to preliminary Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS) data released May 2022, electric central 

warm-air furnaces are the main source of space heating in approximately 17.5 million U.S. homes or about 14%. 

• Electric furnaces range in capacity from 10 to 25 kW (34 to 85 kBtu/h), with 20 kW (68 kBtu/h) being the typical for 

units on the market.

• Electric resistance furnaces are considered near 100% efficient because there is no flue heat loss, and any jacket losses 

are contained within the home. 

— ASHRAE Standard 103, the test method for furnaces incorporated by reference into the federal test procedure, 

specifies that for electric furnaces AFUE = 100 – 1.7 x jacket losses. Jacket losses can be determined either through 

testing or assumed to be 1%. Thus, the minimum AFUE of electric furnaces is 98.3%.

25

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Final

Residential Electric Resistance Unit Heaters

26

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1. Assumes similar lifetime to Electric Furnaces on the basis that both products have heating elements that burn out and lead to product failure. 

2. The lower bound of the equipment costs represents the average retail price listed at the typical capacity for electric baseboard heaters through a retailer website. The upper bound represents the 

average retail price for compact recessed electric wall heaters at the same capacity.

3. Range represents the estimated minimum and maximum installation costs. 

4. Maintenance costs are negligible.

DATA 

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 3.5 3.5 5.1 5.1 5.1 5.1

Efficiency (%) 100 100 100 100 100 100

Average Life (y)1

15 15 15 15 15 15

30 30 30 30 30 30

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)2

90 90 85 85 85 85

240 240 340 340 340 340

Total Installed Cost (2022$)3

150 150 390 390 390 390

320 320 1,190 1,190 1,190 1,190

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)4- - - - - -

Same as Reference Case
Final

Residential Electric Resistance Unit Heaters

• Electric resistance unit heaters include electric wall and baseboard heaters. Plug-in space heaters are not included.

• There are currently no federal efficiency requirements for electric resistance unit heaters.

• According to preliminary RECS data released May 2022, electric resistance unit heaters are the main source of space 

heating in approximately 8.25 million U.S. homes or about 7%. 

• Electric heaters range in capacity from 500 to 2,500 watts (1.7 to 8.5 kBtu/h), with 1,500 watts (5.1 kBtu/h) being the 

most typical for units on the market.

• Electric resistance heating is considered 100% energy efficient; all incoming electric energy is converted to heat.

27

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Final

Residential Central Air Conditioners – North (Not Hot-Dry or Hot-Humid)

28

1. Values shown are for split-system units in the 36 kBtu/h (3-ton) size class. Costs and efficiency levels are for "coil-only" systems, meaning they do not include a blower. Note blower-coil systems were 

analyzed for residential air-source heat pumps, which is why the "High" SEER levels are higher for heat pumps than for air conditioners.

2. In 2023, new energy conservation standards for Residential Central Air Conditioners and Heat Pumps took effect. The new standards specify a different metric for central air conditioners (SEER2). SEER to 

SEER2 conversions were determined using the RESNET website.

3. Annual maintenance include preventative maintenance and services provided by HVAC professionals for maintaining product operation. Examples include, calibrate and level thermostat, clean filters, clean 

indoor and condenser coil, flush/treat condensate drain with anti-algae, inspect condenser coil, monitor operating pressure of refrigerant, inspect fan blade, etc.

Note:

The previous standard went into effect in January 2015. The current standard went into effect in January 2023.

ENERGY STAR V. 5.0 went into effect in September 2015. ENERGY STAR V. 6.1 went into effect in January 2023.

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

High New 

Standard

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity 

(kBtu/h) 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36

SEER112.5 13.9 13.0 14.1 15.0 17.0 14.1 16.0 17.0 15.0 17.0 15.5 17.0 15.5 17.0

SEER2211.9 13.2 NA 13.4 NA 16.2 13.4 15.2 16.2 14.3 16.2 14.7 16.2 14.7 16.2

Average Life (y)

11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11

25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 2,410 2,670 2,580 2,700 3,110 3,950 2,680 3,750 3,950 2,760 3,950 2,760 3,950 2,760 3,950

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 4,000 4,300 5,250 5,320 5,520 5,980 5,310 5,880 5,980 5,350 5,980 5,350 5,980 5,350 5,980

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)3

20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150

Higher typical efficiencies with the same costs as ref. case despite increased efficiency.
Final

Residential Central Air Conditioners – South (Hot-Dry and Hot-Humid)

29

1. Values shown are for split-system units in the 36 kBtu/h (3-ton) size class. Costs and efficiency levels are for "coil-only" systems, meaning they do not include a blower. Note blower-coil systems were 

analyzed for residential air-source heat pumps, which is why the "High" SEER levels are higher for heat pumps than for air conditioners.

2. In 2023, new energy conservation standards for Residential Central Air Conditioners and Heat Pumps took effect. The new standards specify a different metric for central air conditioners (SEER2). SEER to 

SEER2 conversions were determined using the RESNET website.

3. Annual maintenance include preventative maintenance and services provided by HVAC professionals for maintaining product operation. Examples include, calibrate and level thermostat, clean filters, clean 

indoor and condenser coil, flush/treat condensate drain with anti-algae, inspect condenser coil, monitor operating pressure of refrigerant, inspect fan blade, etc.

Note:

The previous standard went into effect in January 2015. The current standard went into effect in January 2023.

ENERGY STAR V. 5.0 went into effect in September 2015. ENERGY STAR V. 6.1 went into effect in January 2023.

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

High New 

Standard

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity 

(kBtu/h) 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36

SEER113.0 14.4 14.0 14.6 15.0 17.0 15.1 16.0 17.0 15.5 17.0 16.0 17.0 16.0 17.0

SEER2212.4 13.7 NA 13.9 NA 16.2 14.3 15.2 16.2 14.7 16.2 15.2 16.2 15.2 16.2

Average Life (y)

11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11

25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 2,410 2,760 2,680 2,850 3,110 3,950 3,110 3,750 3,950 3,190 3,950 3,190 3,950 3,190 3,950

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 4,000 4,390 5,310 5,390 5,520 5,980 5,520 5,880 5,980 5,570 5,980 5,570 5,980 5,570 5,980

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)3

20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150

Higher typical efficiencies with the same costs as ref. case despite increased efficiency.
Final

Residential Central Air Conditioners

• The previous standards took effect in 2015; amended standards for all product classes went into effect in January 2023.

— Amended standards are based on new metrics (SEER2, EER2).

— SEER2 values are generally expected to be lower than SEER because a higher external static pressure is required 

during testing, which reduces measured performance.

• Systems installed in the Southwest (CA, AZ, NM, and NV) must also meet an EER standard that varies by cooling 

capacity and system configuration.

• Advanced Case: Due to increases in R&D, improvements in current technology (e.g., more cost-effective variable 

speed technology) are expected to increase efficiency without substantially increasing costs.

30

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Final

Residential Central Air Conditioners

Annual shipments spiked at 6.5 million units in 2005 at the peak of the housing boom and just before more stringent 

Federal standards took effect in 2006. Annual shipments have been steadily increasing since 2010 and have almost 

reached the previous high in 2021. 

Source: AHRI

31

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Final

DATA

2015 2020 2022 203022040220502

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.2

High1 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10.0 10.0

CEER (Btu/Wh) 10.9 10.9 10.9 12.0 12.0 15.7 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.5 17.5 18.0

Average Life (y)

6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

560 330 330 340 340 450 450 450 460 460 470 470

710 480 480 480 480 590 590 590 610 610 620 620

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

640 490 490 490 490 600 600 600 610 610 630 630

830 630 630 640 640 750 750 750 760 760 770 770

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Residential Room Air Conditioners

32

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1. RAC EERE 2022 NOPR has analysis for combined energy efficiency ratio (CEER) of 16 Btu/Wh, which represents variable speed room air conditioners. However, maximum CEER identified in DOE’s 

Compliance Certification Database (CCD) in August 2022 was 15.7 Btu/Wh. Accordingly, the high CEER is estimated to be 15.7 for 2022 and beyond. Cost values for a representative unit with a CEER of 16 

Btu/Wh were used.

2. The 2030, 2040, 2050 projections are estimated based on RAC EERE 2022 NOPR, which notes that in the absence of no new standards, room air conditioners with a CEER of 12 Btu/Wh are expected to have the 

maximum market share.

3. Maintenance costs are negligible per RAC EERE 2011 and RAC EERE 2022 NOPR.

Note: 

All values are for the most common product class, Product Class 3 (without reverse cycle, with louvered sides, and 8,000 to 13,999 Btu/h).

The current standard went into effect in June 2014.

ENERGY STAR V. 4.2 went into effect in October 2015.

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter (for example, installed cost for equipment meeting the federal standard) not the highest and lowest available on the market.

Increased efficiency with corresponding cost increases.
Final

Residential Room Air Conditioners

• Analyzed the most common type of room air conditioners: louvered sides (window air conditioners) without reverse 

cycle and having cooling capacity of 8,000–13,999 Btu/h (DOE Product Class 3).

• Federal standards for Product Class 3:

— CEER ≥ 10.9 (beginning June 1, 2014)

• CEER incorporates energy use in cooling mode and standby and off modes.

• ENERGY STAR V. 4.2 criteria for Product Class 3:

— CEER ≥ 12.0 (effective October 26, 2015)

• Efficiency improvements in room air conditioners are attained by:

— Higher efficiency compressor and fan motors (including variable speed motors), and

— An increased heat transfer area in the evaporator and condenser using larger heat exchangers, finer fin spacing, 

micro-channel heat exchangers, and similar design options.

• Advanced Case: Due to increases in R&D, improvements in current technology (e.g., more efficient motors and 

compressors, larger cross-section heat exchangers, adoption of variable speed technologies) are expected to increase 

efficiency with corresponding increases in cost.

33

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Final

Residential Room Air Conditioners

Annual shipments dropped sharply in 2009, likely due to the recession and an unusually cool summer in the 

Northeast. Sales have largely leveled off in the years since, fluctuating between 6 and 8 million.

34

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Source: RAC EERE 2022 NOPR
Final

DATA

2015 2020 202242025 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High5 New Standard High5 Typical High5 Typical High5 Typical High5

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h)16.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6

CEER25.6 5.6 5.5 7.6 6.7 7.6 7.8 8.8 8.9 10.1 10.2 11.6

Average Life (y)

7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 700 700 700 810 760 810 810 810 820 820 830 830

Total Installed Cost (2022$)3700 700 700 810 760 810 810 810 820 820 830 830

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Residential Portable Air Conditioners

35

1. All values are for the average capacity for single-duct and dual-duct portable air conditioners available on the market.

2. CEER is calculated for typical capacity using the equation provided in PAC EERE 2020.

3. Installation and maintenance costs are negligible.

4. The 2022 Typical estimates are based on PAC EERE 2020, which estimated majority of the market to be at EL1 in 2022 for the no-new standards case, which translates to a CEER of 5.5 for this analysis.

5. All High values are based on the most-efficient models available in the market, as specified in PAC EERE 2020.

Note: 

A final rule for portable air cleaners published in January 2020 with an effective date of January 2025.

Costs are interpolated from the costs presented in PAC EERE 2020.

Range for lifetime represents typical values.

Return to Table of Contents

Increased efficiency with corresponding cost increases.
Final

Residential Portable Air Conditioners

• A final rule establishing new energy conservation standards for portable air conditioners published in January 2020 

with an effective date of January 2025.

• The final rule outlined an equation-based conservation standard (in CEER) for both single-duct and dual-duct portable 

ACs, based on the seasonally adjusted cooling capacity (SACC)

• Efficiency improvements in portable air conditioners are attained by:

— Higher efficiency compressor and fan motors (including variable speed motors), and

— An increased heat transfer area in the evaporator and condenser using larger heat exchangers, finer fin spacing, 

micro-channel heat exchangers, and similar design options.

• Advanced Case: Due to increases in R&D, improvements in current technology (e.g., more efficient motors and 

compressors, larger cross-section heat exchangers, adoption of variable speed technologies) are expected to increase 

efficiency with corresponding increases in cost.

36

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Final

Residential Portable Air Conditioners

Annual shipments have seen an exponential growth through 2014. Shipments data since 2014 is not publicly available 

but it is expected that portable air conditioners shipments may have increased in recent years in response to indoor air 

quality concerns following COVID-19.

Source: PAC EERE 2020

37

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Final

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Air Flow Rate (CFM) 3,800 3,800 3,800 4,700 3,800 4,700 3,800 4,700 3,800 4,700

Power (Hp) 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/2 1/3 1/2 1/3 1/2 1/3 1/2

Average Life (y)1

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 960 960 960 1,100 960 1,100 960 1,100 960 1,100

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 1,360 1,360 1,360 1,540 1,360 1,540 1,360 1,540 1,360 1,540

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 330 330 330 330 330 330 330 330 330 330

Residential Swamp Coolers

38

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1. Average lifetime provided by major swamp cooler installer in the U.S. Southwest. 

Note:

Efficiency values were determined based on a sample of window-mounted swamp coolers.

Lifetime range represents span of typical values.

Same as reference case
Final

Residential Swamp Coolers

• Evaporative cooling (i.e., "swamp coolers") is a technology that takes advantage of water evaporation to cool incoming 

air. Energy is required to change water from a liquid to a vapor (i.e., the heat of vaporization), and in doing so, 

temperature of the air is reduced. Evaporative cooling is best suited for hot, dry climates.

• Swamp coolers come in a variety of different configurations, including centrally ducted units that are mounted outside 

a building or roof; window evaporative coolers that are window-mount units that pull in warm outdoor air, pass it 

through wet media to remove heat, and blow out the cooled air; or portable plug-in units. Window units were 

considered for this analysis due to the high model share count on distributor websites. 

• The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has cautioned against using swamp coolers in wildfire-impacted 

areas in smoky conditions because it can result in more smoke bring brought inside. 

• Swamp coolers are not a DOE-covered product.

• Swamp cooler metrics include power of the fan/blower, measured in horsepower (hp), and air flow rate, measured in 

cubic feet per minute (CFM).

39

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Single-inlet direct swamp cooler. Source: PNNL
Final

Residential Air-Source Heat Pumps

40

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DATA

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

High New 

Standard

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.1

ENERGY 

STAR Cold 

Climate 

Criteria

High4 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36

SEER (Cooling)113.1 15.3 14.0 15.3 15.0 22.6 15.0 16.0 NA 22.6 16.5 22.6 17.0 22.6 17.5 22.6

SEER2212.4 14.5 NA 14.5 NA 21.5 14.3 15.2 15.2 21.5 15.7 21.5 16.2 21.5 16.6 21.5

HSPF (Heating)17.9 8.6 8.2 8.6 8.5 12.4 8.8 9.2 NA 12.4 9.3 12.4 9.3 12.4 9.4 12.4

HSPF226.7 7.3 NA 7.3 NA 10.6 7.5 7.8 8.1 10.6 7.9 10.6 7.9 10.6 8.0 10.6

Average Life (y) 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$)1 3,290 4,270 3,970 4,270 4,110 6,740 4,110 4,380 4,380 6,740 4,380 6,740 5,000 6,740 5,100 6,740

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$)1 5,790 6,880 6,730 6,880 6,810 8,620 6,810 6,940 6,940 8,620 6,940 8,620 7,240 8,620 7,330 8,620

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)3

20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150

1. Values shown are for split-system units in the 36 kBtu/h (3-ton) size class. Costs and efficiency levels are for "blower-coil" systems, meaning they include a blower. Note coil-only systems were analyzed for residential central air 

conditioners, which is why the "High" SEER levels are higher for heat pumps than for air conditioners. 

2. In 2023, new energy conservation standards for Residential Central Air Conditioners and Heat Pumps took effect. The new standards specify different metrics for Air-Source Heat Pumps (SEER2 and heating seasonal performance 

factor 2 (HSPF2)). SEER to SEER2 and HSPF to HSPF2 conversions were determined using the RESNET website. 

3. Annual maintenance include preventative maintenance and services provided by HVAC professionals for maintaining product operation. Examples include, calibrate and level thermostat, clean filters, clean indoor and condenser 

coil, flush/treat condensate drain with anti-algae, inspect condenser coil, monitor operating pressure of refrigerant, inspect fan blade, etc.

4. High costs derived from developing a cost-efficiency curve between retail/installed costs and SEER.

Note:

The previous standard went into effect in January 2015. The current standard went into effect in January 2023.

ENERGY STAR V. 5.0 went into effect in September 2015. ENERGY STAR V. 6.1 went into effect in January 2023.

Ranges represent the span of typical values for maintenance costs.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (15.88, 2, 1).

Higher typical efficiencies with the same costs as reference case despite increased efficiency
Final

Residential Air-Source Heat Pumps

• The previous standards took effect in 2015; amended standards for all product classes went into effect in January 2023.

— Amended standards are based on new metrics (SEER2, EER2, HSPF2).

— SEER2 values are generally expected to be lower than SEER because a higher external static pressure is required 

during testing, which reduces measured performance.

• High efficiency cooling does not necessarily correlate with high efficiency heating. The range of SEER–HSPF 

combinations is very broad.

• Heat pumps are generally sized to meet the cooling load of the house. When the heating load exceeds heat pump 

heating capacity, electric resistance heat is used to supplement.

• Variable-speed compressors improve efficiency of heat pumps by reducing cyclic losses and by operating above their 

nominal speed, boosting heating capacity, and reducing the need for supplementary electric resistance heat.

• In addition to meeting the SEER2 and HSPF2 requirements, air source heat pumps must demonstrate low ambient 

performance to earn the Cold Climate designation by meeting the following:

— Coefficient of Performance (COP) at 5 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) ≥ 1.75, measured in accordance with Appendix M1 

H42test

— Percent of Heating Capacity at 5 °F ≥ 70% of that at 47 °F, with the 5 °F capacity measured per Appendix M1 H42

test and the 47 °F capacity measured as the nominal heating capacity per Appendix M1 (i.e., from the Appendix 

M1 H1N test for units having a variable-speed compressor where the compressor speed shall be the maximum 

speed that the system controls would operate at 47 °F, otherwise from the Appendix M1 H12test) 

— Perform a controls verification procedure (CVP) to confirm that the above performance metrics measured at the 

Appendix M1 low ambient test point at 5 °F are achieved by the native controls operating as they would in a 

customer’s home

• Advanced Case: Due to increases in R&D, improvements in current technology (e.g., more cost-effective variable 

speed technology) are expected to increase efficiency without substantially increasing costs.

41

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Final

Residential Air-Source Heat Pumps

From 2000 to 2005 annual shipments increased nearly 60% to 2.1 million units, then dropped and leveled off around 

1.7 million units. In 2014 annual shipments surpassed the 2005 peak and have been increasing uniformly since then. 

42

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Source: AHRI
Final

Residential Central Air Conditioners and Air-Source Heat Pumps

• Principal energy efficiency drivers for central air conditioners and heat pumps:

— Heat exchanger (surface area, number of tube rows)

— Compressor (type and single-stage vs. two-stage vs. variable-speed operation)

— Fan motor choices (PSC vs. ECM fan motors on inside and outside)

— Control choices (i.e., piston, thermal, and electronic expansion valves)

• When the heat pump or air conditioner’s capacity exceeds the heating or cooling load, the unit starts and stops more 

frequently, causing wear and tear on the components and an overall loss of efficiency. Multi-stage and/or variablespeed compressors can help, as does sophisticated refrigerant management.

• Typical high-efficiency unit (≥ 16 SEER) has very large heat exchanger, ECM evaporator fan motor, and two-stage 

scroll compressor.

• Variable-speed compressor technology typically leads to a significant SEER boost, making possible high-SEER 

condensing units with smaller heat exchangers, and thus, smaller enclosures.

• Efficiency levels > 21 SEER made possible through combining existing large heat exchangers with variable-speed 

compressors, ECM fan motors, and electronic expansion valves.

43

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Final

Residential Ductless Mini-Split Air-Source Heat Pumps

44

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DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h)112 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

SEER 16.0 16.0 21.9 33.1 21.9 33.1 21.9 33.1 21.9 33.1

EER 12.5 12.5 13.0 19.1 13.0 19.1 13.0 19.1 13.0 19.1

HSPF 10.0 10.0 11.1 14.0 11.1 14.0 11.1 14.0 11.1 14.0

Average Life (y)215.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3 15.3

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 1,580 1,580 1,580 1,580 1,580 1,580 1,580 1,580 1,580 1,580

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 2,030 2,030 2,030 2,030 2,030 2,030 2,030 2,030 2,030 2,030

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

1. Representative capacity determined from most frequent capacity in AHRI database

2. Assumed same lifespan and maintenance cost as air-source heat pumps given the technology is similar between air-source and ductless mini-split heat pumps, and ductwork itself is not expected to fail.

3. Annual maintenance covers the same services identified for air-source heat pumps.

Note:

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (15.88, 2, 1).

Same as reference case
Final

Residential Ductless Mini-Split Air-Source Heat Pumps

• Ductless systems can be useful in “spot cooling” certain high-use areas of a home, such as a living room, bedroom, or 

office. 

• Mini-split heat pumps are generally more efficient (often > 20 SEER) and smaller in cooling capacity (often ≤ 24 kBtu/h) 

compared to split-system heat pumps.

— A mini-split heat pump could be equal in capacity and efficiency to a split-system heat pump as there are no 

inherent design changes between split-system and mini-split heat pumps, aside from the ductwork. Mini-split heat 

pumps tend to be more efficient and smaller in capacity due to their prevalence for spot cooling, but the same 

technologies are used between the two product categories.

• Due to the similarities in design, cost estimations were determined based on smaller capacity (24 kBtu/h) split-system 

heat pumps and Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building Construction Costs 2023. Efficiency data was analyzed using the 

AHRI directory, which provides disaggregation of data on the basis of ducted and ductless heat pumps. 

• Annual maintenance covers the same services identified for air-source heat pumps.

45

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Final

Residential Ground-Source Heat Pumps

46

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DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.2

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36

COP (Heating)13.1 3.7 3.2 3.6 3.6 4.5 3.6 4.5 3.6 4.5 3.6 4.5

EER (Cooling)213.3 17.3 14.1 17.3 17.1 22.0 17.3 22.0 17.3 22.0 17.3 22.0

Average Life (y)

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 4,650 5,470 4,820 5,470 5,410 6,530 4,920 5,880 4,920 5,880 4,920 5,880

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

14,060 14,880 14,230 14,880 14,880 15,940 13,390 14,350 13,390 14,350 13,390 14,350

22,290 23,120 22,470 23,120 23,120 24,170 20,810 21,750 20,810 21,750 20,810 21,750

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90

1. COP values listed are assessed at a "ground loop" test condition, which is representative of closed loop ground source heat pumps (GSHP) operating conditions. However, DOE sets standards at a "water 

loop" test condition. The AHRI directory lists COP ratings at both sets of test conditions and is used to convert between them where necessary. 

2. EER values listed are assessed at a full-load "ground loop" test condition, which is representative of closed loop GSHP operating conditions. However, DOE sets standards at a full-load "water loop" test 

condition. The AHRI directory lists EER ratings at all sets of test conditions and is used to convert between them where necessary.

Note: 

Residential and commercial GSHPs are very similar - the main difference in data presented is the different capacity (3-ton vs. 4-ton) and slightly higher installation costs for commercial GSHP. DOE does not 

distinguish between residential and commercial units in its regulations.

Current standards went into effect on October 9, 2015. COP and EER ratings are converted from the “water loop” test condition to “ground loop.”

ENERGY STAR V. 3.2 went into effect January 1, 2012.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (17.04, 1.64, 1).

Same typical efficiencies with the lower costs as ref. case despite same efficiency.
Final

Residential Ground-Source Heat Pumps

• Heating COP does not correlate with cooling EER.

• The ENERGY STAR criteria for water-to-air ground-source heat pumps are:

• The most common GSHP is a closed-loop system in which water or an anti-freeze solution is circulated through plastic 

pipes buried underground. Open loop systems that employ ground water or surface water (e.g., open well, pond, lake) 

are used in some parts of the country, but water supply and water quality issues impose limitations on such 

applications.

• Installation cost is for a closed loop system and includes necessary accessories. The ground loop heat exchanger 

represents a majority of the installation cost. Installed costs for these systems vary widely. 

• Variable speed ECMs improve performance on high-end models.

• Advanced Case: GSHP are already highly efficient and have not changed much in terms of efficiency in recent years. 

With increased R&D, it is anticipated that the equipment and installation costs will be reduced over time, but 

efficiency will likely stay the same. 

47

Type Heating 

COP

Cooling 

EER

Closed Loop 3.6 17.1

Open Loop 4.1 21.1

Direct Expansion 3.6 16

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Final

Residential Natural Gas Heat Pumps

48

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DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 60 60 60 60 60 60

COP (Heating) 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3

COP (Cooling) 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7

Annual Electric Use (kWh/y)1

1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500

Average Life (y)2

12 12 12 12 12 12

18 18 18 18 18 18

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)2

12,940 12,940 12,940 12,940 12,940 12,940

14,350 14,350 14,350 14,350 14,350 14,350

Total Installed Cost (2022$)2

14,700 14,700 14,700 14,700 14,700 14,700

17,290 17,290 17,290 17,290 17,290 17,290

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 200 200 200 200 200 200

1. Annual electric use accounts for the electricity consumption of components such as the heat pump fan.

Note:

Ranges represent the span of typical values observed in the market.

Same as reference case
Final

Residential Natural Gas Heat Pumps

• Residential natural gas heat pumps are not currently subject to DOE regulations. The California Energy Commission’s 

(CEC) Title 24, Part 6 Section 112 does indicate cooling efficiency requirements for natural gas heat pumps.

• Natural gas heat pumps are much more popular in other parts of the world, such as Europe. Gas-fired cooling 

equipment currently comprises less than 1% of the residential air conditioning/heat pump market in the U.S. 

• Currently, Robur is the predominant manufacturer of residential-sized natural gas heat pumps with sales operations 

in the U.S.. Robur units are 5-ton nominal cooling capacity, a size typically associated with larger homes. Since only 

one product is available, no mid-level or high efficiency categories are included in this analysis. 

• The data represents air-source absorption heat pumps. Gas engine-driven vapor compression heat pumps are 

available in other parts of the world; York formerly offered the Triathlon gas engine-driven heat pump in the U.S. It is 

possible to couple either technology to the ground (ground-source) rather than the atmosphere (air-source).

• The absorption heat pump is a gas-fired, ammonia-water absorption cycle, combined with a high-efficiency lowpressure boiler integrated into one outdoor unit.

• The cooling efficiency of a gas-fired air-source absorption heat pump is considerably lower than for an electric airsource heat pump. Heating efficiency of an air-source heat pump (electric or gas-fired absorption) decreases as 

outdoor temperature decreases; however, the gas-fired absorption heat pump recovers waste heat from the 

combustion process to improve heating efficiency.

49

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Final

Residential Cordwood Stoves

50

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1. For 2015, assumed EPA default efficiencies, which were used by EPA to approximate the efficiency of stoves before the 2015 EPA rule required efficiency testing.

2. For 2020, assumed same efficiencies as estimated for 2022 given the most recent EPA rule went into effect in May 2020.

3. The 2022 High value is the highest EPA certified efficiency. The 2022 Typical value is the average of EPA certified efficiencies.

4. For 2030-2050, it is assumed that the same conditions as current would persist because no impending efficiency requirements are expected from EPA, given recency of 2020 rulemaking and current market 

factors.

5. Efficiency includes combustion and heat transfer efficiency and is based on the higher heating value (HHV) of the fuel.

6. Installed costs include the cost of hearth and stainless-steel chimney liner - materials and labor.

7. For catalytic stoves, annual maintenance cost includes periodic cost of replacing the catalytic combustor.

Note: 

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.

DATA

201512020220223203042040420504

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

Efficiency (Non-Catalytic) (HHV)563 71 71 80 71 80 71 80 71 80

Efficiency (Catalytic) (HHV)572 76 76 81 76 81 76 81 76 81

Average Life (y)

12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) (NonCatalytic) 2,880 1,670 1,670 2,300 1,670 2,300 1,670 2,300 1,670 2,300

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) (Catalytic) 3,540 3,040 3,040 3,830 3,040 3,830 3,040 3,830 3,040 3,830

Total Installed Cost (2022$) (NonCatalytic)6 8,290 7,090 7,090 7,710 7,090 7,710 7,090 7,710 7,090 7,710

Total Installed Cost (2022$) (Catalytic)68,950 8,460 8,460 9,240 8,460 9,240 8,460 9,240 8,460 9,240

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) (NonCatalytic)7 190 190 190 190 190 190 190 190 190 190

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 

(Catalytic)7 280 280 280 280 280 280 280 280 280 280

Same as reference case
Final

Residential Cordwood Stoves

• Residential cordwood stoves that must meet EPA particulate limits fall into two broad classes based on whether they 

use a catalyst for air treatment. Catalytic wood stoves use a catalytic combustor to reduce emissions from the 

combustion air. Non-catalytic wood stoves use baffles and introduce secondary air above the flames to enable more 

complete combustion and reduce emissions. 

• In 2015, EPA published an update to its New Source Performance Standards (NSPS), decreasing the emissions limit 

(previously set by 1988 EPA rule) to 4.5 grams per hour (g/h) for both catalytic and non-catalytic stoves. The new rule 

did not institute efficiency standards but required that manufacturers test and certify the efficiency of their stoves. This 

standard took full effect on January 1, 2016.

• In 2020, the NSPS limit for new room heaters was lowered to 2.5 g/h if tested with cord wood. 

• Prior to the 2015 rule, manufacturers could either submit efficiency data from laboratory testing or certify with the 

default efficiency value designated by EPA. EPA’s default efficiency values were 63% for non-catalytic wood stoves 

and 72% for catalytic wood stoves. Under this system, few manufacturers submitted efficiency test data to EPA.

• Multiple test standards are commonly used to assess stove efficiency, and data from product literature does not 

generally identify the efficiency test method. 

• It is not possible to determine performance trends based on construction or configuration (e.g., cast iron vs. plate steel, 

powered blowers vs. no blowers, etc.) trends in specific equipment type or construction based on published 

efficiencies. Further, EPA certification data shows no significant relationship between emissions and heating 

efficiency.

• Cordwood stoves require chimneys for venting combustion gases. Whether conventional masonry chimneys are used 

or metal chimney liners, these add considerable cost to the overall system. Accordingly, installed costs can be twice 

that of the wood stove itself. 

51

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Final

Residential Cordwood Stoves

Cordwood stove shipments have averaged 123,000 per year since 1999 and have fluctuated approximately in 

accordance with fuel oil costs.

Source: HPBA, no post-2012 sales data was publicly available at time of publication.

52

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Final

Residential Wood Pellet Stoves

53

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1. For 2015, assumed EPA default efficiencies, which were used by EPA to approximate the efficiency of stoves before the 2015 EPA rule required efficiency testing.

2. For 2020, assumed same efficiencies as estimated for 2022 given the most recent EPA rule went into effect in May 2020.

3. The 2022 High value is the highest EPA certified efficiency. The 2022 Typical value is the average of EPA certified efficiencies.

4. For 2030-2050, it is assumed that the same conditions as current would persist because no impending efficiency requirements are expected from EPA, given recency of 2020 rulemaking and current market 

factors.

5. Efficiency includes combustion and heat transfer efficiency and is based on the HHV of the fuel.

6. The annual electric consumption estimates assume 6 months/year @ 100kW/mo based on DOE estimates. 

7. Installed cost includes cost of hearth and vent pipe - materials and labor.

Note: 

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.

DATA

201512020220223203042040420504

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

Efficiency (HHV)570 73 73 85 73 85 73 85 73 85

Annual Electricity Consumption (kWh)6600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600

Average Life (y)

12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 3,900 3,120 3,120 4,000 3,120 4,000 3,120 4,000 3,120 4,000

Total Installed Cost (2022$)75,550 4,520 4,520 5,400 4,520 5,400 4,520 5,400 4,520 5,400

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 310 310 310 310 310 310 310 310 310 310

Same as reference case
Final

Residential Wood Pellet Stoves

• In 2015, EPA published an update to its NSPS, limiting emissions for wood pellet stoves to 4.5 g/h. Prior to the 2015 

EPA rule, most pellet stoves were exempt from EPA’s NSPS requirements. The new rule did not institute efficiency 

standards but required that manufacturers test and certify the efficiency of their stoves. This standard took full effect 

on January 1, 2016.

• Prior to the 2015 rule, manufacturers could either submit efficiency data from laboratory testing or certify with the 

default efficiency value designated by EPA. EPA’s default efficiency values were 63% for non-catalytic wood stoves 

and 72% for catalytic wood stoves. Under this system, few manufacturers submitted efficiency test data to EPA.

• Multiple test standards are commonly used to assess stove efficiency and data from product literature does not 

generally identify the efficiency test method. 

• It is not possible to determine performance trends based on construction or configuration (e.g., cast iron vs. plate steel, 

powered blowers vs. no blowers, etc.) trends in specific equipment type or construction based on published 

efficiencies. Further, EPA certification data shows no significant relationship between emissions and heating 

efficiency.

• Wood pellet stoves may be able to be direct vented to the outdoors, eliminating the need for a chimney. This reduces 

the overall system cost as compared to a cord wood stove. However, they do use electricity to power the pellet feeder, 

the combustion air fan, and the blower. In the event of a power outage, a pellet stove can not operate without some 

back-up source of electricity (e.g., battery) . 

54

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Wood Pellet Stoves

Wood pellet stove shipments grew substantially in the 2005 – 2008 time period but have averaged only 40,000 – 60,000 

units since that time.

Source: HPBA, no post-2012 sales data was publicly available at time of publication.

55

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Water Heating

56

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Storage Water Heaters

57

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.0

High

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (gal) 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40

Uniform Energy Factor (UEF)10.58 0.63 0.61 0.61 0.66 0.84 0.83 0.78 0.84 0.78 1.33 0.78 1.33

Average Life (y) 13 13 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$)

590 880 420 420 490 720 700 420 720 420 720 420 720

650 1,410 990 990 1,110 1,650 1,590 990 1,650 990 1,650 990 1,650

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

1,240 1,650 740 740 800 1,140 1,130 740 1,140 740 1,140 740 1,140

1,240 2,880 1,690 1,690 1,850 3,130 3,160 1,690 3,130 1,690 3,130 1,690 3,130

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)2 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

1. Analysis is based on an average of medium and high draw pattern units, as this is most reflective of the market.

2. Maintenance includes manufacturer recommendation for the water heater to be drained and flushed annually to minimize deposition of sediment, maintain operating efficiency, and prolong product 

life. Available evidence indicates that this is performed in 10% of households.

Note:

Ranges represent the span of typical values.

Current standards went into effect April 16, 2015.

ENERGY STAR V. 4.0 went into effect January 5, 2022

ENERGY STAR V. 5.0 will go into effect April 18, 2023

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (15.1, 1.76, 1).

Increased typical efficiencies with associated increase in costs to reflect condensing units.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Storage Water Heaters

• The equations for Federal Standards and the voluntary ENERGY STAR requirements, if applicable, are:

• There are currently no models on the market above 55 gallons (gal) due to the high UEF, which would require using 

condensing or gas-fired heat pump (e.g., absorption) technology to achieve.

• The cost of installation is typically $600 to $1200, which exceeds that of electric water heaters. This difference can be 

attributed to multiple differences; for example, gas-fired heaters require an extra 1.5 hours of labor for 2 plumbers. 

• Condensing units are high efficiency and use PVC venting instead of stainless-steel. Condensing units also use an 

electrical supply for electronic ignition and power venting. Some building codes require condensate neutralizer filters.

• Advanced Case: Condensing gas-fired storage water heaters are expected to dominate the market by 2030, with 

corresponding price increases.

58

Volume 

Range Draw Pattern Federal standard1 Federal minimum UEF for typical sizes

ENERGY 

STAR

≥ 20 gal and ≤ 

55 gal

Very Small UEF=0.3456-(0.002*Gal) No models on the market NA

Low UEF=0.5982-(0.0019*Gal) 0.54 for a 29-gallon water heater NA

Medium UEF=0.6483-(0.0017*Gal) 0.58 for a 38-gallon water heater 0.64

High UEF=0.692-(0.0013*Gal) 0.64 for a 48-gallon water heater 0.68

> 55 gal and ≤ 

100 gal

Very Small UEF=0.647-(0.0006*Gal) No models on the market NA

Low UEF=0.7689-(0.0005*Gal) No models on the market NA

Medium UEF=0.7897-(0.0004*Gal) No models on the market 0.78

High UEF=0.8072-(0.0003*Gal) No models on the market 0.80

1Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Water Heaters. 10 CFR 430.32(d).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

0.000

1.000

2.000

3.000

4.000

5.000

6.000

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Unit Shipments (millions)

Residential Gas-Fired Water Heaters

Residential Gas-Fired Storage Water Heaters

Shipments were flat at 5 million units per year through 2004, then declined gradually over 5 years to a new plateau at 

4 million units until rising again back to 5 million units in 2021.

Source: AHRI

59

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Final

Residential Oil-Fired Water Heaters

60

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (gal) 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32

Uniform Energy Factor10.51 0.67 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.66 0.68 0.66 0.68 0.66 0.68

Average Life (y) 13 13 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.5

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

1,590 1,880 1,380 1,400 1,480 1,400 1,480 1,400 1,480 1,400 1,480

1,710 2,410 2,810 2,870 3,030 2,870 3,030 2,870 3,030 2,870 3,030

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

2,350 2,650 2,620 2,650 2,730 2,650 2,730 2,650 2,730 2,650 2,730

2,470 3,350 4,050 4,120 4,280 4,120 4,280 4,120 4,280 4,120 4,280

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)2210 210 210 210 210 210 210 210 210 210 210

1. Analysis is based on an average of medium and high draw pattern units, as this is most reflective of the market.

2. Oil-fired storage water heaters are typically cleaned and maintained under maintenance contracts. The annual cost of typical maintenance is based on maintenance contract prices from 

different oil-fired product suppliers as specified in the CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis.

Note:

Ranges represent span of typical values.

Current standards went into effect April 16, 2015.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (16.2, 1.70, 1).

Same as Reference Case 

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Oil-Fired Water Heaters

• The equations for Federal Standards and the voluntary ENERGY STAR requirements, if applicable, are:

• There are no ENERGY STAR requirements for oil-fired storage water heaters.

• Annual shipments of residential oil-fired storage water heaters are approximately 4,000, which is less than 1% of 

shipments of residential gas-fired storage water heaters. 

• Oil-fired storage water heaters often have smaller tanks with larger input ratings relative to natural gas-fired and 

electric storage water heaters.

• No condensing residential oil-fired storage water heaters currently exist in the U.S. market. Condensing oil-fired water 

heaters are generally not considered technologically feasible because the sulfur content in fuel oil leads to the 

condensate becoming corrosive.

• Residential oil-fired water heaters utilize power burners and have at least some level of electrical power consumption. 

• The most efficient models on the market use a proprietary “turbo-flue” design to increase heat transfer to water.

61

Volume 

Range

Draw 

Pattern Federal standard1 Federal minimum UEF for typical sizes

ENERGY 

STAR

≤ 50 gal

Very Small UEF=0.2509-(0.0012*Gal) No models on the market NA

Low UEF=0.533-(0.0016*Gal) No models on the market NA

Medium UEF=0.6078-(0.0016*Gal) No models on the market NA

High UEF=0.6815-(0.0014*Gal) 0.64 for a 29-gallon water heater NA

1Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Water Heaters. 10 CFR 430.32(d).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Oil-Fired Water Heaters

Shipments peaked at about 22,000 units in 2000 and have decreased since then, with an exponential decay occurring 

since 2007. Only about 4,000 units were shipped in 2021.

Source: CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

62

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0

5

10

15

20

25

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025

Unit Shipments (thousands)

Residential Oil-Fired Water Heaters
Final

Residential Electric Resistance Storage Water Heaters

63

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (gal) 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

Uniform Energy Factor10.88 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.93 0.92 0.93 0.92 0.93 0.92 0.93

Average Life (y) 13 13 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

290 350 330 330 600 330 600 330 600 330 600

530 650 760 760 850 760 850 760 850 760 850

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

590 710 500 500 550 500 550 500 550 500 550

940 1,290 1,310 1,310 1,430 1,310 1,430 1,310 1,430 1,310 1,430

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)220 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

1. Beginning in 2016, the efficiency metric for water heaters changed from energy factor (EF) to UEF based on DOE test procedures. The UEF values for the installed base in 2015 are 

converted values equivalent to 0.90 EF. Analysis is based on an average of low and medium draw pattern units, as this is most reflective of the market.

2. Similar to gas-fired and oil-fired storage water heaters, manufacturers recommend that electric storage water heaters be drained and flushed annually to minimize deposition of sediment, 

maintain operating efficiency, and prolong product life. The available evidence indicates that this practice is done in 10% of households.

Note:

Ranges represent span of typical values.

Current standards went into effect April 16, 2015.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (15.7, 1.57, 1).

Same as Reference Case 

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Electric Resistance Storage Water Heaters

• The equations for Federal Standards and the voluntary ENERGY STAR requirements, if applicable, are:

• The federal standards for residential electric storage water heaters apply to both electric resistance storage water heaters 

and heat pump water heaters.

— The Federal standard levels for the ≤ 55-gallon range are achievable through electric resistance and heat pump 

technology.

— The Federal standards for the > 55-gallon range and all ENERGY STAR levels are only achievable through heat pump 

technology. 

• Typical storage volumes range from 25-55 gallons for electric resistance storage water heaters and 45-80 gallons for heat 

pump water heaters (HPWHs).

64

Volume 

Range

Draw 

Pattern Federal standard1 Federal minimum UEF for typical sizes

ENERGY 

STAR

≥ 20 gal and 

≤ 55 gal

Very Small UEF=0.8808-(0.0008*Gal) No models on the market 2.00

Low UEF=0.9254-(0.0003*Gal) 0.92 for a 27-gallon water heater 2.00

Medium UEF=0.9307-(0.0002*Gal) 0.92 for a 45-gallon water heater 2.00

High UEF=0.9349-(0.0001*Gal) 0.93 for a 50-gallon water heater 2.00

> 55 gal and 

≤ 120 gal

Very Small UEF=1.9236-(0.0011*Gal) No models on the market 2.20

Low UEF=2.0440-(0.0011*Gal) No models on the market 2.20

Medium UEF=2.1171-(0.0011*Gal) 2.05 for a 58-gallon water heater 2.20

High UEF=2.2418-(0.0011*Gal) 2.15 for a 80-gallon water heater 2.20

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Electric Resistance Storage Water Heaters

Shipments peaked in 2006 then dropped a total of 22 percent over three years. Shipments have gradually increased 

since then and were at the highest level in 2021.

Source: AHRI

65

Return to Table of Contents

0.000

1.000

2.000

3.000

4.000

5.000

6.000

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Unit Shipments (millions)

Residential Electric Resistance Water Heaters
Final

Residential Heat Pump Water Heaters

66

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical ENERGY STAR V. 4.0 High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (gal) 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

Uniform Energy Factor12.05 3.28 3.33 3.30 3.73 3.33 3.73 3.33 3.73 3.33 3.73

Average Life (y) 13 13 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)2

1,290 1,410 630 630 670 630 670 630 670 630 670

1,650 1,760 1,440 1,440 1,670 1,370 1,590 1,300 1,510 1,240 1,430

Total Installed Cost (2022$)2

1,710 1,880 870 870 980 870 980 870 980 870 980

2,940 3,000 2,230 2,230 2,450 2,120 2,330 2,010 2,210 1,910 2,100

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)320 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

1. Analysis is based on an average of low and medium draw pattern units, as this is most reflective of the market.

2. It is expected that costs for HPWHs will decrease over time as these products become more common. This analysis estimates these cost decreases for the higher range of costs.

3. For heat pump water heater design options, DOE assumed higher maintenance cost to take into account annual cleaning of the air filter, preventative maintenance cost to check the evaporator and 

refrigeration system, inspection of the condensate withdrawal system, and replacement of the condensate neutralizer filter, if applicable. However, this maintenance is estimated to occur in only 

10% of households, so overall maintenance cost is similar to that of other electric resistance water heaters. 

Note:

Ranges represent span of typical values.

ENERGY STAR V. 4.0 went into effect January 5, 2022.

Assume same lifetime as electric resistance water heaters.

Same as Reference Case 

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Heat Pump Water Heaters

• Technology improvements have advanced efficiency and reliability, but the high first-cost and lack of awareness 

among consumers and contractors still precludes high-volume market penetration. 

• New Federal standards that came into effect in April 2015 effectively mandate heat pump technology for electric 

storage water heaters with storage volume > 55 gallons.

• Integrated models are the most common configuration for residential HPWHs. Several major water heater 

manufacturers produce such models, and other competitors offer integrated or add-on units (for existing electric or 

indirect storage water heaters). 

• Sales are estimated to be driven partly by rebates and tax credits at the utility, local, state, and Federal level. 

• Resistive heating elements are virtually 100% efficient, but there is a jump in efficiency when heat pump technology is 

adopted because heat pumps’ COP are usually between 2.5 and 4.

• Heat pumps raise the water temperature more slowly than resistive heating elements, so most models use backup 

resistive elements along with the heat pump when hot water demand is high. Most HPWHs allow the consumer to 

control whether resistive elements are used in periods of high demand (e.g., “hybrid mode” or “heat pump only 

mode”).

67

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Final

Residential Heat Pump Water Heaters

Shipments make up a small portion of electric resistance heaters, with a peak of only about 5,500 units, occurring in 

both 2015 and 2021. 

Source: ENERGY STAR

68

Return to Table of Contents

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Unit Shipments (thousands)

Residential Heat Pump Water Heaters
Final

Residential Solar Water Heaters

69

1. Capacity selections are based on the range observed from medium draw units in the ENERGY STAR database. Medium draw represented the largest portion of units.

2. An SUEF of 3.0 is the required threshold for ENERGY STAR certification, yet a value of 99 was the most common observed SUEF among medium draw units. Note that an SUEF of 99 indicates that no 

backup heating was required for the applicable draw pattern, and all energy was provided by the solar collector. Since SUEF is a measure of hot water energy out divided by electrical or gas backup 

energy in, it will be infinite for cases where the collector provides all the hot water needed for the draw pattern – the Solar Rating and Certification Corporation’s (SRCC’s) OG-300 software is written 

to assign an SUEF of 99 to this case.

3. Annual maintenance is expected to be 0.5% to 1% of the total installation for 2022, 2030, 2040, and 2050.

Note:

ENERGY STAR V. 4.0 went into effect January 5, 2022.

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base ENERGY STAR 

V. 4.0 Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (ft2)

1

42 42 40 40 40 40 40

65 65 54.4 54.4 54.4 54.4 54.4

Solar Uniform Energy Factor (SUEF)2 3.0 3.0 3.0 99.0 99.0 99.0 99.0

Average Life (y)

15 15 15 15 15 15 15

30 30 30 30 30 30 30

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 7,710 7,710 6,430 6,430 6,430 6,430 6,430

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 10,650 10,650 8,060 8,060 8,060 8,060 8,060

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

Same as Reference Case 

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Solar Water Heaters

• Solar water heaters are not subject to federal energy conservation standards. The ENERGY STAR requirements are:

• Solar water heaters can be either active or passive. An active system uses an electric pump to circulate the heat transfer 

fluid; a passive system has no pump. Most solar water heaters in the U.S. are the active type.

• Solar water heaters are also characterized as open loop (also called "direct") or closed loop (also called "indirect"). An 

open-loop system circulates household (potable) water through the collector. A closed-loop system uses a heat transfer 

fluid (water or diluted antifreeze, for example) to collect heat and a heat exchanger to transfer the heat to household 

water. Direct systems were observed as the most common product type and subject of this analysis.

• In 2020, stakeholders from the solar thermal industry developed the Solar Uniform Energy Factor (SUEF) Specification 

for solar water heaters to align with the UEF metric used by DOE for other water heating technologies. 

• SUEF is also the metric used by the current ENERGY STAR Specification, and it replaced the Solar Energy Factor (SEF) 

metric. 

• Over two-third of the current solar water heater market is in the southern or western U.S. (including Hawaii). A 

collector area of 42 square feet (ft2) would be typical for these areas. Colder areas of the U.S. would require a larger 

collector (e.g., 65 ft2).

• Installed costs are higher for colder areas where larger collectors are required. Costs also vary widely depending on 

collector quality, type of system, and site-specific characteristics.

70

Applicable 

Products

Backup 

Fuel

ENERGY STAR 

Requirement Test Method

Whole-home 

solar units

Gas SUEF ≥ 3.0 ICC 900/SRCC 300-2020 Solar Thermal System Standard, 

Appendix A: Solar Uniform Energy Factor Procedure for 

Solar Water Heating Systems Electric SEF ≥ 1.8

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Solar Water Heaters

The shipments data below only represents ENERGY STAR-certified solar water heaters, as ENERGY STAR did not 

provide a market penetration rate. Solar water heaters have a small market share, with only 10,000 shipments at the 

peak in 2010 and 2011.

Source: ENERGY STAR

71

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0

2

4

6

8

10

12

2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Unit Shipments (thousands)

Shipments of ENERGY STAR-Certified Residential Solar Water 

Heaters
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters

72

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.0

High

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199

Uniform Energy Factor (UEF)10.81 0.89 0.81 0.92 0.87 0.97 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.96 0.97 0.96 0.97

Average Life (y) 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

1,410 1,180 430 580 580 610 610 580 610 580 610 580 610

1,760 1,410 1,020 1,360 1,350 1,430 1,430 1,360 1,430 1,360 1,430 1,360 1,430

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

2,590 1,760 920 1,070 950 1,090 1,090 1,070 1,090 1,070 1,090 1,070 1,090

3,820 3,350 2,860 3,160 3,140 3,230 3,220 3,160 3,230 3,160 3,230 3,160 3,230

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)2 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90

Higher typical efficiency product with the same costs as ref. case despite increased efficiency

1. Analysis is based on an average of low, medium, and high draw pattern units, as this is most reflective of the market.

2. Annual maintenance includes deliming to minimize deposition of sediment in the heat exchanger, maintain operating efficiency and prolong product life. Also includes additional tasks, including 

inspection of the ignition device, gas valve, controls, thermostat, and venting.

Note:

Current standards went into effect April 16, 2015.

ENERGY STAR V. 4.0 went into effect January 5, 2022.

ENERGY STAR V. 5.0 will go into effect April 18, 2023.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (21.3, 1.76, 1).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

• The equations for Federal Standards and the voluntary ENERGY STAR requirements, if applicable, are:

• The ENERGY STAR levels require the use of condensing technology.

• All of the major water heater manufacturers now offer an instantaneous water heater model.

• The maintenance costs include cleaning the water inlet filter and the heat exchanger of mineral deposits and replacing 

the water valve approximately once every five years for all instantaneous water heaters.

• When replacing a storage water heater with an instantaneous water heater, there are significant additional costs to 

upsize the gas supply line to 3⁄4 inch from the typical 1⁄2 inch and change the venting.

• Advanced Case: Increased market incentives are expected to drive further adoption of condensing products, thereby 

raising the typical efficiency, while increased R&D is expected to improve cost.

Volume 

Range

Draw 

Pattern Federal standard1 Federal minimum UEF for typical sizes

ENERGY 

STAR

<2 gal and 

>50,000 Btu/h

Very Small UEF=0.80 No models on the market 0.87

Low UEF=0.81 No models on the market 0.87

Medium UEF=0.81 0.81 0.87

High UEF=0.81 0.81 0.87

Residential Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters

73

1Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Water Heaters. 10 CFR 430.32(d).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters

Shipments for Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters have grown steadily with nearly no shipments in 2000 and a 

peak of about 850,000 units in 2021.

Source: CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

74

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0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1997 2002 2007 2012 2017 2022

Unit Shipments (thousands)

Residential Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters
Final

Residential Electric Instantaneous Water Heaters

75

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Representative Input Rate (kW) 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5

Uniform Energy Factor (UEF)10.96 0.96 0.91 0.96 0.98 0.96 0.98 0.96 0.98 0.96 0.98

Average Life (y) 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 260 260 260 260 260 260 260 260 260 260 260

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 520 520 520 520 520 520 520 520 520 520 520

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)290 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90

1. Analysis is based on an average of low, medium, and very small draw pattern units, as this is most reflective of the market.

2. Annual maintenance costs not provided in CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis. Maintenance costs determined from the following calculation: GIWH - (GSWH - ESWH) - i.e., the 

difference factor in maintenance between gas and electric storage heat pumps applied to gas instantaneous heat pumps.

Note:

Current standards went into effect April 16, 2015.

Assume same lifetime as gas-fired instantaneous water heaters.

Same as Reference Case 

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Electric Instantaneous Water Heaters

• The Federal standards are:

• Electric instantaneous water heaters use electric resistance heating elements to heat water when there is a demand. 

Resistive heating elements are virtually 100% efficient, and the small storage capacities of these products means that 

they do not lose significant amounts of heat to the environment.

• The federal standards for these products require UEFs of 0.91 for very small, low, and medium draw pattern models 

and 0.92 for high draw pattern models.

• Most products currently on the market are in the very small draw pattern or the low draw pattern because electric 

resistance elements can only supply a limited quantity of heat on an instantaneous basis due to circuit amperage 

limitations.

• Many products are designed for point-of-use applications, such that the water heater only supplies water to one faucet 

or showerhead.

76

Volume 

Range

Draw 

Pattern Federal standard1 Federal minimum UEF for typical sizes

<2 gal

Very Small UEF=0.91 0.91

Low UEF=0.91 0.91

Medium UEF=0.91 No models on the market

High UEF=0.92 No models on the market

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Appliances

77

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Refrigerator-Freezers (Top)

78

1. Product Class 3 is used for this analysis (Refrigerator-freezers—automatic defrost with top-mounted freezer without through-the-door ice service and all-refrigerator—automatic defrost).

2. The volume shown here is the nominal total volume, not the adjusted volume, which is used to determine compliance with standards. The adjusted volume is equal to the fresh food internal volume plus 

the freezer internal volume times an adjustment factor, which depends on the product type.

3. The 2015 installed base energy consumption value is based on an adjusted volume of 21 cubic feet (ft3). Energy consumption values for the 2020 installed base and 2022 and beyond are based on an adjusted 

volume of 22 ft3, representing the current market.

4. Maintenance costs include cost of repairing integral components (e.g., compressor, evaporator fan, electronics, ice maker), not replaceable components (e.g., water filters).

Note: 

Current standard went into effect in September 2014.

ENERGY STAR V. 5.1 went into effect in September 2014.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (10.26, 1.28, 5.13).

DATA1

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3)

2

19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19

Energy Consumption (kWh/y)3512 401 411 401 370 358 370 358 370 358 370 358

Average Life (y) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 670 750 740 750 760 760 750 760 750 760 750 760

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 670 750 740 750 760 760 750 760 750 760 750 760

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)410 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Higher typical efficiencies with same costs as reference case despite increased efficiency

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Refrigerator-Freezers (Side)

79

1. Product Class 7 is used for this analysis (Refrigerator-freezers—automatic defrost with side-mounted freezer with through-the-door ice service).

2. The volume shown here is the nominal total volume, not the adjusted volume, which is used to determine compliance with standards. The adjusted volume is equal to the fresh food 

internal volume plus the freezer internal volume times an adjustment factor, which depends on the product type.

3. Based on an adjusted volume of 32 ft3for all analysis years.

4. Maintenance costs include cost of repairing integral components (e.g., compressor, evaporator fan, electronics, ice maker), not replaceable components (e.g., water filters).

Note: 

Current standard went into effect in September 2014.

ENERGY STAR V. 5.1 went into effect in September 2014.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (10.26, 1.28, 5.13).

DATA1

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3)

2

26 26 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Energy Consumption (kWh/y)3893 693 705 693 635 610 635 610 635 610 635 610

Average Life (y) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 1,400 1,130 1,130 1,130 1,160 1,470 1,130 1,470 1,130 1,470 1,130 1,470

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 1,400 1,130 1,130 1,130 1,160 1,470 1,130 1,470 1,130 1,470 1,130 1,470

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)430 20 20 20 20 30 20 30 20 30 20 30

Higher typical efficiencies with same costs as reference case despite increased efficiency

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Refrigerator-Freezers (Bottom)

80

1. Product Class 5 is used for this analysis (Refrigerator-freezers—automatic defrost with bottom-mounted freezer without through-the-door ice service).

2. The volume shown here is the nominal total volume, not the adjusted volume, which is used to determine compliance with standards. The adjusted volume is equal to the fresh food 

internal volume plus the freezer internal volume times an adjustment factor, which depends on the product type.

3. Based on an adjusted volume of 23 ft3for all analysis years.

4. Maintenance costs include cost of repairing integral components (e.g., compressor, evaporator fan, electronics, ice maker), not replaceable components (e.g., water filters).

Note: 

Current standard went into effect in September 2014.

ENERGY STAR V. 5.1 went into effect in September 2014.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (10.26, 1.28, 5.13).

DATA1

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3)

2

19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19

Energy Consumption (kWh/y)3547 473 521 473 469 430 469 430 469 430 469 430

Average Life (y) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 1,190 920 920 920 920 930 920 930 920 930 920 930

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 1,190 920 920 920 920 930 920 930 920 930 920 930

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)430 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Higher typical efficiencies with same costs as reference case despite increased efficiency

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Refrigerator-Freezers

• Current Federal standards1:

— Compliance required beginning September 15, 2014

— Models divided into 32 product classes based on size (standard or compact), location of freezer (top, bottom, or 

side), type of defrost (automatic or manual), installation configuration (freestanding or built-in), and presence and 

configuration (through-the-door or inside cabinet) of automatic icemaker

— Limits on annual electricity consumption expressed as functions of adjusted volume2

— New product classes for built-in units

— Amount by which standards are tightened varies by product class

• ENERGY STAR criteria limit annual electricity consumption to 10% less than the Federal standard

• Energy efficiency opportunities for refrigerators include:

— More efficient compressor, including variable speed compressors

— Brushless direct current (DC) fan motor (also known as ECM motor)

— Variable defrost

— Larger condenser

— Dual evaporators

— Vacuum-insulated panels

— Refrigerants (Isobutane vs. R134a)

• Advanced Case: Increased market incentives will push product sales towards the ENERGY STAR level, but the 

technologies used to meet ENERGY STAR are already well-known and prices will likely not rise as manufacturing 

volumes increase at higher efficiencies. 

81

1Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Refrigerators, Refrigerator-Freezers, and Freezers. 10 CFR 430.32(a).

2Adjusted Volume (AV) = (Fresh Volume) + 1.76 × (Freezer Volume)

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Refrigerator-Freezers

82

Source: Appliance Magazine; DOE’s CCD, as of December 2017; ENERGY STAR Unit Shipment Data (2017-2020); Guidehouse analysis. Dashed lines are a 

combination of interpolated and available data.

Annual shipment volumes have rebounded from a sharp decline between 2006 and 2009, 

reaching approximately 11.4 million units in 2020.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Refrigerator-Freezers

83

Sources: RF EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis; DOE’s CCD, as of December 2017; Guidehouse analysis. Lightly shaded bars indicate interpolated data.

Bottom-mount units have gained market share, surpassing top-mount units since 2016. 

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Freezers (Chest)

84

DATA1

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3

)

2

16 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Energy Consumption (kWh/y)3360 297 297 297 287 297 287 297 287 297 287

Average Life (y) 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 510 590 680 680 690 680 690 680 690 680 690

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 510 590 680 680 690 680 690 680 690 680 690

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)410 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

1. Product Class 10 is used for this analysis (Chest freezers and all other freezers except compact freezers).

2. The volume shown here is the nominal volume, not the adjusted volume, which is used to determine compliance with standards. The adjusted volume is equal to the fresh food internal 

volume (zero for freezers) plus the freezer internal volume times an adjustment factor, which depends on the product type.

3. Based on an adjusted volume of 26 ft3, which is the average adjusted volume for units with a rounded total refrigerated volume of 15 ft3 per the DOE CCD.

4. Maintenance costs include cost of repairing integral components (e.g., compressor, evaporator fan, electronics)

Note:

Current standard went into effect in September 2014.

ENERGY STAR excluded as no products at the typical capacity are ENERGY STAR compliant.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (21.96, 1.83, 1).

Same as Reference Case 

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Freezers (Upright)

85

DATA1

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3

)

2

17 17 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18

Energy Consumption (kWh/y)3615 446 497 493 448 441 448 441 448 441 448 441

Average Life (y) 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 690 880 830 830 830 830 830 830 830 830 830 830

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 690 880 830 830 830 830 830 830 830 830 830 830

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)410 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

1. Product Class 9 is used for this analysis (Upright freezers with automatic defrost).

2. The volume shown here is the nominal volume, not the adjusted volume, which is used to determine compliance with standards. The adjusted volume is equal to the fresh food internal 

volume (zero for freezers) plus the freezer internal volume times an adjustment factor, which depends on the product type.

3. Based on an adjusted volume of 31 ft3, which is the average adjusted volume for units with a rounded total refrigerated volume of 18 ft3 per the DOE CCD.

4. Maintenance costs include cost of repairing integral components (e.g., compressor, evaporator fan electronics).

Note:

Current standard went into effect in September 2014.

ENERGY STAR V. 5.1 went into effect September 2014.

Assume same lifetime as chest freezers.

Higher typical efficiencies with same costs as reference case despite increased efficiency

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Freezers

• Current Federal standards1:

— Compliance required beginning September 15, 2014

— Models divided into 10 product classes based on size (standard or compact), orientation (chest or upright), type of defrost 

(automatic or manual), installation configuration (freestanding or built-in), and presence of automatic icemaker

▪ Current analysis focuses on the two representative product classes analyzed in the recent rulemaking, chest and upright 

freezers.

— Limits on annual electricity consumption expressed as functions of adjusted volume2

▪ Chest freezers and all other freezers except compact freezers (PC 9): 9.88AV + 143.7

▪ Upright freezers with automatic defrost (PC 10): 12.43AV + 326.1

• ENERGY STAR criteria limit annual electricity consumption to 10% less than the Federal standard

— No ENERGY STAR compliant products at the typical capacity for chest freezers

• Energy efficiency opportunities for freezers include:

— Higher efficiency and/or variable-speed compressor systems

— Larger heat exchangers

— Permanent-magnet fan motor systems (vs. shaded pole motor (SPM) and PSC fan motors)

— Demand defrost systems

— Vacuum-insulated panels

— Thicker insulation (though at a loss of consumer utility)

— Refrigerants (Isobutane vs. R134a)

— Variable anti-sweat heating

— Use of forced convection condenser (for upright freezers)

• Advanced Case: Increased market incentives will push product sales of upright freezers towards the ENERGY STAR level, but the

technologies used to meet ENERGY STAR are already well-known and prices will likely not rise as manufacturing volumes increase at 

higher efficiencies. Unlikely to occur for chest freezers due to such a low existing market penetration of ENERGY STAR products.

86

1Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Refrigerators, Refrigerator-Freezers, and Freezers. 10 CFR 430.32(a).

2Adjusted Volume (AV) = (Fresh Volume) + 1.76 × (Freezer Volume). 

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Freezers

87

Shipment volumes held steady between 2007 to 2016 at about 2 million units per year. 

Shipments jumped to 3 million units in 2020. Chest freezers represent about 60% of the market.

Return to Table of Contents

Sources: Appliance Magazine from 2000 to 2016; ENERGY STAR from 2017 to 2021

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Unit Shipments (millions)

Residential Freezer Shipments

Chest Freezers

Upright Freezers

Total Freezers
Final

Residential Natural Gas Cooktops

88

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23

Integrated Annual Energy Consumption 

(kBtu/y)1 1,061 914 914 730 914 730 914 730 914 730

Cooking Efficiency (%) 40 45 45 52 45 52 45 52 45 52

Average Life (y) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)2290 310 310 330 310 330 310 330 310 330

Total Installed Cost (2022$)2420 460 460 480 460 480 460 480 460 480

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3- - - - - - - - - -

Same as Reference Case 

Return to Table of Contents

1. Although there is no performance standard in effect, the test procedure metric has changed from Cooking Efficiency (%) to Integrated Annual Energy Consumption (IAEC) (kBtu/h). The Consumer 

Cooking Products EERE 2020 notice of proposed determination (NOPD) used for 2020 and beyond in this analysis also determined IAEC using a different test procedure than the Consumer Cooking 

Products EERE 2016 SNOPR.

2. Equipment and installed costs are for cooktops only (not combined range units).

3. Annual maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

The range for typical capacity represents the span of typical values.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α) and shape (β) parameters: (14.56, 5.73).
Final

Residential Natural Gas Ovens

89

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 

16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16

18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18

Typical Cavity Volume (ft3)

4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

Integrated Annual Energy Consumption 

(kBtu/y)1 2,038 1,960 1,960 1,831 1,960 1,831 1,960 1,831 1,960 1,831

Cooking Efficiency (%) 6.6 6.9 6.9 7.3 6.9 7.3 6.9 7.3 6.9 7.3

Average Life (y) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)2740 770 770 810 770 810 770 810 770 810

Total Installed Cost (2022$)2870 920 920 950 920 950 920 950 920 950

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3- - - - - - - - - -

Same as Reference Case 

Return to Table of Contents

1. Although there is no performance standard in effect, the test procedure metric has changed from Cooking Efficiency (%) to IAEC (kBtu/y). The 2015 IAEC value is reflective of freestanding 

standard gas ovens, which was previously determined to be the most representative product class. IAEC for 2020 and beyond is reflective of freestanding self-clean gas ovens, which is the 

product class that makes up the majority of historical and projected gas oven shipments.

2. Equipment and installed costs are for ovens only (not combined ranges). Costs are reflective of freestanding self-clean oven units with single oven component, which represent the majority of 

the market.

3. Maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α) and shape (β) parameters: (14.56, 5.73).
Final

Residential Natural Gas Ranges

90

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity of Cooktop Component 

(kBtu/h) 

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23

Typical Capacity of Oven Component 

(kBtu/h) 

16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16

18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18

Typical Cavity Volume of Oven 

Component (ft3)

4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

Integrated Annual Energy Consumption 

(kBtu/y)1 3,099 2,874 2,874 2,561 2,874 2,561 2,874 2,561 2,874 2,561

Average Life (y) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 2750 770 770 850 770 850 770 850 770 850

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 2900 920 920 1,000 920 1,000 920 1,000 920 1,000

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3- - - - - - - - - -

Same as Reference Case 

1. IAEC of a natural gas range is calculated as the sum of the IAEC for a natural gas cooktop and natural gas oven. IAEC of the oven component is reflective of freestanding self-clean gas ovens, 

which represent the majority of the market. The 2015 IAEC value of the oven component is reflective of freestanding standard gas ovens, which was previously determined to be the most 

representative product class.

2. Retail and installed cost are reflective of a typical unit with standard 30-inch width and 4 to 5 cooking top heating elements. Based on data from DOE rulemakings, Gordian’s RSMeans Data –

Building Construction Costs 2023, and distributors, total installed cost is estimated to be around $150 more than retail equipment cost.

3. Maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α) and shape (β) parameters: (14.56, 5.73).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Natural Gas Cooktops, Ovens, and Ranges

91

Return to Table of Contents

• DOE analyzes cooktops and ovens separately, although they are often sold together in a single unit that combines both a 

cooktop and an oven into a product referred to as a range. 

• Since January 1, 1990, gas cooking products with an electrical supply cord have been required to not be equipped with a 

constant burning pilot light. This requirement extended to gas cooking products without an electrical supply cord, as of April 

9, 2012.

• DOE published a final rule in 20091in which it determined that no standard for cooking efficiency would be cost-justified.

• DOE initiated a standards rulemaking in 2014 to consider amended standards for cooking products, including gas cooktops 

and ovens2.

• On September 2, 2016, DOE proposed performance-based standards for gas cooktops and ovens that would take effect in 2020, 

if adopted.

• DOE established the new IAEC metric, in kBtu/y, to replace cooking efficiency (%).

• On December 14, 2020, DOE initially determined that amended energy conservation standards for consumer conventional 

cooking products would not be economically justified and would not result in significant conservation of energy3. 

• On February 2, 2023, DOE proposed new and amended energy conservation standards for consumer conventional cooking 

products4.

• The IAEC of a range is calculated as the sum of the IAECs for cooktops and ovens. However, retail and installation costs for a 

range are similar to the cost of an oven.

1Energy Conservation Standards for Certain Consumer Products (Dishwashers, Dehumidifiers, Microwave Ovens, and Electric and Gas Kitchen Ranges and Ovens) and for Certain 

Commercial and Industrial Equipment (Commercial Clothes Washers); Final Rule. 74 FR 16040.

2Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Conventional Cooking Products; Supplemental notice of proposed rulemaking (SNOPR). 81 FR 60784.

3Energy Conservation Standards for Consumer Conventional Cooking Products; Notice of proposed determination (NOPD). 85 FR 80982.

4Energy Conservation Standards for Consumer Conventional Cooking Products; SNOPR. 88 FR 6818.
Final

Residential Natural Gas Cooktops, Ovens, and Ranges

92

Shipments have been rising since 2012. In 2020, gas range shipments surpassed the peak 

reached in 2005.

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Units (millions)

Natural Gas Cooktops, Ovens, and Ranges

Ranges, Gas

Cooktops, Gas

Ovens, Gas

Return to Table of Contents

Source: Appliance Magazine and Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2022 SNOPR
Final

Residential Electric Cooktops

93

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (W) 

1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200

3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700

Integrated Annual Energy Consumption 

(kWh/y)1 155 155 155 119 155 119 155 119 155 119

Average Life (y) 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)2470 470 470 810 470 810 470 810 470 810

Total Installed Cost (2022$)2620 620 620 1,230 620 1,230 620 1,230 620 1,230

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3- - - - - - - - - -

Same as Reference Case 

1. Although there is no performance standard in effect, the test procedure metric has changed from Cooking Efficiency (%) to IAEC (kBtu/y). IAEC was determined using DOE rulemaking data for 

the most representative product class, electric smooth element cooking tops, which covers cooking tops with electric resistance heating elements and cooking tops with induction heating elements.

2. Equipment and installed costs are for cooktops only (not combined range units). Costs were determined using DOE rulemaking data for the most representative product class, electric smooth 

cooking tops, which includes cooking tops with electric resistance heating elements and cooking tops with induction heating elements. A high-end unit with induction technology is expected to 

have a greater retail equipment cost and greater installation cost in order to implement this technology.

3. Maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

The range for typical capacity represents the span of typical values.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α) and shape (β) parameters: (16.88, 6.99).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Electric Ovens

94

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (W) 

2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000

3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400

Typical Cavity Volume (ft3

)

4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

Integrated Annual Energy Consumption 

(kWh/y)1 355 355 355 278 355 278 355 278 355 278

Average Life (y) 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)2630 630 630 730 630 730 630 730 630 730

Total Installed Cost (2022$)2770 770 770 870 770 870 770 870 770 870

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3- - - - - - - - - -

Same as Reference Case 

1. Although there is no performance standard in effect, the test procedure metric has changed from Cooking Efficiency (%) to IAEC (kBtu/y). IAEC was determined using DOE rulemaking data 

for freestanding electric self-clean ovens, which represent the majority of the market.

2. Equipment and installed costs are for ovens only (not combined ranges). Costs are reflective of freestanding self-clean oven units with single oven component, which represent the majority of 

the market.

3. Maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α) and shape (β) parameters: (16.88, 6.99).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Electric Ranges

95

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity of Cooktop Component 

(W) 

1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200

3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700 3,700

Typical Capacity of Oven Component 

(W) 

2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000

3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400

Typical Cavity Volume of Oven 

Component (ft3)

4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

Integrated Annual Energy Consumption 

(kWh/y)1 510 510 510 397 510 397 510 397 510 397

Average Life (y) 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 2630 630 630 900 630 900 630 900 630 900

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 2770 770 770 1,050 770 1,050 770 1,050 770 1,050

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3- - - - - - - - - -

Same as Reference Case 

1. IAEC of an electric range is calculated as the sum of the IAEC for an electric cooktop and an electric oven. IAEC of the electric cooktop component was determined using DOE rulemaking data for the most 

representative product class, electric smooth element cooking tops, which covers cooking tops with electric resistance heating elements and cooking tops with induction heating elements. IAEC of the 

electric oven component was determined using DOE rulemaking data for freestanding electric self-clean ovens, which represent the majority of the market.

2. Retail and installed cost are reflective of standard units that are 30-inch wide and have 4 to 5 cooking top heating elements. Based on data from DOE rulemakings, Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building 

Construction Costs 2023, and distributors, total installed cost is estimated to be around $140 more than retail equipment cost for a typical unit, and $150 more than retail equipment cost for a high-end unit. A 

high-end unit with an induction cooking top component is expected to have a greater retail equipment cost and greater installation cost in order to implement this technology.

3. Maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α) and shape (β) parameters: (16.88, 6.99).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Electric Cooktops, Ovens, and Ranges

96

Return to Table of Contents

• DOE analyzes cooktops and ovens separately, although they are often sold together in a single unit that combines both 

a cooktop and an oven into a product referred to as a range.

• DOE initiated a standards rulemaking in 2014 to consider amended standards for cooking products, including electric 

cooktops and ovens1.

• On September 2, 2016, DOE proposed performance-based standards for electric cooktops and ovens that would take 

effect in 2020 if adopted.

• DOE established the new IAEC metric, in kWh/y, to replace cooking efficiency (%).

• On December 14, 2020, DOE initially determined that amended energy conservation standards for consumer 

conventional cooking products would not be economically justified and would not result in a significant conservation 

of energy2.

• On February 2, 2023, DOE proposed new and amended energy conservation standards for consumer conventional 

cooking products3.

• The IAEC of a range is calculated as the sum of the IAECs for cooktops and ovens. However, retail and installation 

costs for a range are similar to the cost of an oven.

1Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Conventional Cooking Products; Supplemental notice of proposed rulemaking (SNOPR). 81 FR 60784.

2Energy Conservation Standards for Consumer Conventional Cooking Products; Notice of proposed determination (NOPD). 85 FR 80982.

3Energy Conservation Standards for Consumer Conventional Cooking Products; SNOPR. 88 FR 6818.
Final

Residential Electric Cooktops, Ovens, and Ranges

97

Source: Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2022 SNOPR

Shipments of electric cooking products reached a peak in 2006. Shipments of ranges and ovens 

have been rising again since 2012. In 2018, electric range shipments surpassed the peak reached 

in 2006.

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Units (millions)

Electric Cooktops, Ovens, and Ranges Shipments

Ranges, Electric

Ovens, Electric

Cooktops, Electric

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Clothes Dryers (Electric)

98

DATA 

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 1.11

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3) 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 4.5 7.4 4.5 7.4 4.5 7.4 4.5

Combined Energy Factor, D1 

(lb/kWh)2 3.59 3.73 3.73 3.73 NA 3.93 3.73 3.93 3.73 3.93 3.73 3.93

Combined Energy Factor, D2 

(lb/kWh)2 3.59 3.93 3.73 3.93 3.93 11.00 5.34 11.00 6.48 11.00 7.38 11.00

Average Life (y) 

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 580 580 580 580 580 980 580 980 580 980 580 980

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 710 710 710 710 710 1,110 710 1,110 710 1,110 710 1,110

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3- - - - - - - - - - - -

1. ENERGY STAR V. 1.1 applies to vented and ventless standard electric clothes dryers.

2. The efficiency metric changed from EF to combined energy factor (CEF) in 2015. The 2015 Installed Base CEF data accounts for units tested to appendix D1 and appendix D2, because data 

specific to each appendix is not available for that year.

3. Maintenance costs are negligible. DOE estimated that on average 2.7 percent of electric and 3.3 percent of gas residential clothes dryers are repaired each year. (EERE 2014)

Note:

DOE test procedures for consumer clothes dryers appear at title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations part 430, subpart B, appendix D1 and appendix D2. The second test method, appendix D2, 

was finalized in a final rule published by DOE on August 14, 2013. For current standard testing, units must be tested according to either the appendix D1 or the appendix D2 test method. ENERGY 

STAR V. 1.1 requires certified units to be tested according to the appendix D2 test method. The appendix D1 and appendix D2 test methods determine CEF differently.

The current standard went into effect in January 2015.

ENERGY STAR V. 1.1 went into effect in May 2017.

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.

Return to Table of Contents

Higher typical efficiency product with the same costs as ref. case despite increased efficiency.
Final

Residential Clothes Dryers (Gas)

99

DATA 

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 1.11

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3

) 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4

Combined Energy Factor, D1 

(lb/kWh)2 3.18 3.30 3.30 3.30 NA 3.48 3.30 3.48 3.30 3.48 3.30 3.48

Combined Energy Factor, D2 

(lb/kWh)2 3.18 3.48 3.30 3.48 3.48 3.50 3.48 3.50 3.48 3.50 3.48 3.50

Average Life (y) 

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 660 670 660 670 670 670 670 670 670 670 670 670

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 860 870 870 870 870 870 870 870 870 870 870 870

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3- - - - - - - - - - - -

Same as Reference Case

1. ENERGY STAR V. 1.1 applies to vented and ventless standard electric clothes dryers.

2. The efficiency metric changed from EF to CEF in 2015. The 2015 Installed Base CEF data accounts for units tested to appendix D1 and appendix D2, because data specific to each appendix is not 

available for that year.

3. Maintenance costs are negligible. DOE estimated that on average 2.7 percent of electric and 3.3 percent of gas residential clothes dryers are repaired each year. (EERE 2014)

Note:

DOE test procedures for consumer clothes dryers appear at title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations part 430, subpart B, appendix D1 and appendix D2. The second test method, appendix D2, 

was finalized in a final rule published by DOE on August 14, 2013. For current standard testing, units must be tested according to either the appendix D1 or the appendix D2 test method. ENERGY 

STAR V. 1.1 requires certified units to be tested according to the appendix D2 test method. The appendix D1 and appendix D2 test methods determine CEF differently.

The current standard went into effect in January 2015.

ENERGY STAR V. 1.1 went into effect in May 2017.

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Clothes Dryers

• Current standards1in effect since 2015:

— For standard-size electric units : CEF ≥ 3.73 pound per kilowatt hours (lb/kWh)

— For gas units: CEF ≥ 2.30 lb/kWh

— Units may be tested according to the test method in appendix D1 or appendix D2, which was finalized in 2013.

• The main differences between appendix D1 and appendix D2 are:

— Appendix D2 includes test methods that more accurately measure the effects of automatic cycle termination and that may result in

differences in the total measured energy consumption of the test cycle as compared to the test methods in appendix D1. 

— Appendix D2 contains instructions for the testing of timer dryers, which include a lower final moisture content (FMC) of the test 

load as compared to the version of appendix D1 used for the 2011 rulemaking analysis.

• Efficiency improvement technologies for clothes dryers include:

— Multi-step or modulating heat

— Higher efficiency drum motors

— Inlet air pre-heat

— Better control systems for cycle termination

— Heat pump (for electric clothes dryers) 

• EPA developed ENERGY STAR V. 1.1, which became effective in 2017 and requires units to be tested according to the test method in

appendix D2.

• Standard-size heat pump clothes dryers with CEF values up to 11.0 are currently available in the U.S. market. High initial cost has 

limited market penetration, but some utilities are offering rebates to support market penetration. 

• Advanced Case: Due to increases in market incentives, the residential electric clothes dryers market will see an increase in adoption of 

heat pump dryers that improve the typical efficiency products.

100

1Energy Conservation Standards for Consumer Clothes Dryers. 10 CFR 430.32(h).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Clothes Dryers

101

Shipment volumes have been on the rise since 2012. Gas dryers continue to account for about 

one-fifth of the market.

Return to Table of Contents

Source: Consumer Clothes Dryers EERE 2022 NOPR
Final

Residential Clothes Washers (Front)

102

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 8.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3) 3.7 4.1 3.4 4.5 4.5 5.0 4.5 5.0 4.5 5.0 4.5 5.0

Integrated Modified Energy Factor 

(ft3/kWh/cycle)1 2.16 2.76 1.84 2.76 2.76 3.10 2.76 3.10 2.76 3.10 2.76 3.10

Integrated Water Factor 

(gal/cycle/ft3)

2 4.7 3.2 4.7 3.2 3.2 2.7 3.2 2.7 3.2 2.7 3.2 2.7

Average Life (y)

6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17

Water Consumption (gal/cycle) 17 14 16 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14

Hot Water Energy (kWh/cycle) 0.21 0.17 0.36 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.12 0.13 0.12 0.13 0.12 0.13

Machine Energy (kWh/cycle) 0.17 0.14 0.15 0.12 0.12 0.17 0.12 0.17 0.12 0.17 0.12 0.17

Dryer Energy (kWh/cycle) 1.31 1.24 1.34 1.17 1.17 1.56 1.17 1.56 1.17 1.56 1.17 1.56

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 735 1,000 705 930 930 950 930 950 930 950 930 950

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 915 1,175 880 1,130 1,130 1,150 1,130 1,150 1,130 1,150 1,130 1,150

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

1. The efficiency metric changed from Modified Energy Factor to Integrated Modified Energy Factor (IMEF) in 2015.

2. The efficiency metric changed from Water Factor to Integrated Water Factor (IWF) in 2015. 

Note:

The current standard went into effect in January 2018.

ENERGY STAR V. 8.1 went into effect in February 2018.

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.

Same as Reference Case 

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Clothes Washers (Top)

103

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 8.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3) 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.5 4.4 5.5 3.5 5.5 3.5 5.5 3.5 5.5

Integrated Modified Energy Factor 

(ft3/kWh/cycle)1 1.14 1.57 1.57 1.57 2.06 2.76 1.57 2.76 1.57 2.76 1.57 2.76

Integrated Water Factor 

(gal/cycle/ft3)

2 9.2 6.5 6.5 6.5 4.3 3.2 6.5 3.2 6.5 3.2 6.5 3.2

Average Life (y)

6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17

Water Consumption (gal/cycle) 30 22 23 23 19 18 23 18 23 18 23 18

Hot Water Energy (kWh/cycle) 0.90 0.39 0.41 0.41 0.38 0.24 0.41 0.24 0.41 0.24 0.41 0.24

Machine Energy (kWh/cycle) 0.25 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.13

Dryer Energy (kWh/cycle) 1.73 1.63 1.68 1.68 1.64 1.61 1.68 1.61 1.68 1.61 1.68 1.61

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 590 590 520 520 640 725 520 725 520 725 520 725

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 765 765 715 715 840 920 715 920 715 920 715 920

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

1. The efficiency metric changed from Modified Energy Factor to IMEF in 2015.

2. The efficiency metric changed from Water Factor to IWF in 2015. 

Note:

The current standard went into effect in January 2018.

ENERGY STAR V. 8.1 went into effect in February 2018.

The range for average life represents the span of typical values.

Same as Reference Case 

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Clothes Washers

• The analysis treats front- and top-loading models separately due to their different energy use characteristics.

• Federal standards1for standard-capacity clothes washers (≥ 1.6 ft3):

• In 2020, about 40% of top-loading models and almost all front-loading models achieved the ENERGY STAR level.

• Energy efficiency improvement technologies for clothes washers include:

— Higher efficiency motors and higher spin speeds

— Better load sensing for adaptive water fill control

— Reduced water temperature and quantity, while providing equivalent cleaning and rinsing performance

• Maintenance costs include replacement or repair of the drain pump, control board, motor, rubber gaskets, or control 

panel knobs.

• The products on the market with the highest IMEF have significantly larger capacity and therefore use more energy 

per cycle than typical, smaller capacity products but still perform more efficiently on a per volume basis.

104

Integrated Modified Energy Factor Integrated Water Factor

Top-Loading Front-Loading Top-Loading Front-Loading

Current DOE Standard

(effective 1/1/2018) ≥ 1.57 ≥ 1.84 ≤ 6.5 ≤ 4.7

Current ENERGY STAR V. 8.1

(effective 4/22/2021) ≥ 2.06 ≥ 2.76 ≤ 4.3 ≤ 3.2

1Energy Conservation Standards for Consumer Clothes Washers. 10 CFR 430.32(g).

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Clothes Washers

105

Shipments have been on the rise since 2012 and reached a peak of about 10 million in 2020. 

Since 2012, top-loading and front-loading units represent approximately 75% and 25% of 

shipments, respectively.

Return to Table of Contents

Source: AHAM Shipment Data; RCW EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis
Final

Residential Dishwashers

106

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.0

High

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 7.0

Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Annual Energy Use 

(kWh/y) 295 270 307 270 270 225 240 240 225 240 225 240 225

Water Consumption (gal/cycle) 4.25 3.50 5.00 3.50 3.50 2.40 3.20 3.20 2.40 3.20 2.40 3.20 2.40

Water Heating Energy Use 

(kWh/y)1 154 125 176 123 123 84 112 123 84 123 84 123 84

Average Life (y) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 440 380 310 340 340 500 430 340 500 340 500 340 500

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 840 570 490 520 520 690 610 520 690 520 690 520 690

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)2- - - - - - - - - - - -

1. Refers to that portion of "Typical Annual Energy Use" that is the energy used to heat water in a separate water heater before it enters the dishwasher. The energy used to heat water inside 

the dishwasher cannot be disaggregated from the total.

2. Maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

All values in table reflect 215 cycles/year according to the current test procedure at 10 CFR 430 Appendix C1.

The current standard went into effect in May 2013.

ENERGY STAR V. 6.0 went into effect in January 2016.

ENERGY STAR V. 7.0 will go into effect in July 2023.

Average life is determined using a Weibull distribution characterized by the following scale (α), shape (β), and delay (θ) parameters: (15.9, 1.8, 1).

Return to Table of Contents

Same as Reference Case 
Final

Residential Dishwashers

• Performance criteria for standard-capacity dishwashers (assumes 215 cycles/year):

— Federal Standards:

▪ May 30, 2013: ≤ 307 kWh/y, ≤ 5.0 gal/cycle (DOE Direct Final Rule, published May 2012)

— ENERGY STAR Criteria:

▪ Jan. 29, 2016: ≤ 270 kWh/y (5% allowance for connected), ≤ 3.5 gal/cycle (V. 6.0)

▪ July 19, 2023: ≤ 240 kWh/y, ≤ 3.2 gal/cycle (V. 7.0, effective August 2023)

• ENERGY STAR has maintained a very high market share for several years (93% in 2021), so sales-weighted average efficiency has tracked 

ENERGY STAR levels.

— Due to the historically high market penetration of ENERGY STAR products, it is expected that manufacturers will make the necessary 

adjustments so ENERGY STAR V. 7.0 levels will be typical in future projections.

• Test procedures:

— Accounts for motor, dryer, booster heater (if present), and hot water from separate water heater, as well as standby and off-mode energy.

— ENERGY STAR established a cleaning performance test method. While cleaning performance reporting is currently optional, V. 7.0 requires a 

cleaning index of 65 or higher for ENERGY STAR certification.

— In January 2023, DOE established a test procedure at Appendix C2, which would go into effect at the time of any amended energy 

conservation standards. Appendix C2 establishes a minimum cleaning index threshold of 70 as a condition for a valid test cycle. The cleaning 

index threshold of 70 established by DOE is equivalent to the cleaning index threshold of 65 specified in ENERGY STAR V. 7.0.

• Efficiency improvement technologies for dishwashers include:

— Better soil sensing 

— Control strategies

— Water distribution (small pipes, fine filter, small sump, multiple spray arms, alternating water use) and controls (flow meter, temperature 

sensor)

— Inline water heater (to minimize sump volume)

— Separate drain pump, high-efficiency, variable-speed circulation pump motor

— Condensation drying (rather than power dry)

107

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Dishwashers

108

Shipments increased steadily from the early 1990s until the 2008-2009 recession. Shipments 

have resumed similar growth since then. 

Return to Table of Contents

Source: DW EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 2018 2021

Unit Shipments (millions)

Residential Dishwashers Shipments
Final

Commercial Space Heating and Cooling

109

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Furnaces

110

Return to Table of Contents

1. In 2023, the new Energy Conservation Standards for Commercial Warm Air Furnaces (CWAF) took effect. These projections reflect the 2023 minimum thermal efficiency requirement for gas-fired furnaces, 

81%.

2. When this analysis was previously conducted in EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018), a typical input capacity of 400 kBtu/h was listed. An updated typical input capacity value of 250 kBtu/h was 

determined through an evaluation of the units in the DOE CCD as of August 2022. CWAF EERE 2015 also listed a representative input capacity of 250 kBtu/h.

3. DOE's efficiency metric for commercial furnaces accounts only for flue losses, not jacket losses.

Note:

The previous standard went into effect in January 1994. The current standard went into effect in January 2023.

DATA

2012 2018 2022 202312030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base 

Installed 

Base 

Current 

Standard Typical High New Standard Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h)2400 400 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250

Thermal Efficiency (%)380 80 80 81 81 81 81 95 81 95

Typical Output Capacity (kBtu/h) 320 320 200 203 203 203 203 238 203 238

Average Life (y) 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 1,230 1,230 1,230 1,260 1,260 1,260 1,260 3,340 1,260 3,340

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 2,540 2,540 2,540 2,580 2,580 2,580 2,580 5,230 2,580 5,230

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 6 6 10 10 10 10 10 21 10 21

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 210 200 210

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

High thermal efficiency increase is possible with increased costs.
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Furnaces

• Until 2022, the Federal standard required minimum 80% thermal efficiency. This metric, more commonly called 

“combustion efficiency” in other contexts, accounts only for flue losses, not jacket losses.

— The Federal standard applied to all units manufactured on or after January 1, 1994, with maximum rated heat 

input ≥ 225,000 Btu per hour.

— On January 1, 2023, the minimum Federal standard increased to 81% thermal efficiency.

• ASHRAE Standard 90.1, which is used as a commercial building code in many states, stipulates that furnaces that are 

not within the conditioned space shall not have jacket losses exceeding 0.75% of the input rating.

• Commercial furnaces are typically non-condensing with thermal efficiencies ranging from 80% to 81%. Condensing 

commercial furnaces, which can achieve up to 95% thermal efficiency, were previously introduced to the market but 

are not currently available due to cost and reliability concerns. The highest thermal efficiency included in DOE’s CCD 

at this time is 81%. 

• Besides capacity, commercial units can differ from residential furnaces in terms of the control system (i.e., integration 

with a Building Management System, twinning, or other staging strategies). Commercial systems may also use a heat 

recovery system to pre-heat inlet air. 

• Advanced Case: Increased high efficiencies are feasible due to market incentives to re-introduce condensing 

commercial gas-fired furnaces through additional investment, research, and development. No significant changes 

otherwise.

111

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Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Furnaces

Annual shipments reached a peak of 235.9 thousand units in 2007. Following a decline in shipments after 2007, 

shipments increased to 188.1 thousand units in 2013. Shipment data after 2013 is not available.

Source: AHRI

112

Return to Table of Contents

0

50

100

150

200

250

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

Unit Shipments (thousands)

Commercial Gas-Fired Furnaces
Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Furnaces

113

1. In 2023, the new Energy Conservation Standards for CWAF took effect. These projections reflect the 2023 minimum thermal efficiency requirement for oil-fired furnaces, 82%.

2. DOE's efficiency metric for commercial furnaces accounts only for flue losses, not jacket losses.

Note:

The previous standard went into effect in January 1994. The current standard went into effect in January 2023.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2012 2018 2022 202312030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base 

Installed 

Base 

Current 

Standard Typical High New Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 400 400 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250

Thermal Efficiency (%)281 82 81 82 85 82 82 85 82 85 82 85

Typical Output Capacity (kBtu/h) 324 328 203 205 213 205 205 213 205 213 205 213

Average Life (y) 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 5,500 5,560 5,500 5,560 6,020 5,560 5,560 6,020 5,560 6,020 5,560 6,020

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 7,740 7,810 7,740 7,810 8,380 7,810 7,810 8,380 7,810 8,380 7,810 8,380

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 24 24 38 38 39 38 38 39 38 39 38 39

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 360 360 360 360 370 360 360 370 360 370 360 370

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Same as Reference Case
Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Furnaces

• Until 2022, the Federal standard required minimum 81% thermal efficiency. This metric, more commonly called 

“combustion efficiency” in other contexts, accounts only for flue losses, not jacket losses. 

— The Federal standard applied to all units manufactured on or after January 1, 1994, with maximum rated heat 

input ≥ 225,000 Btu per hour.

— On January 1, 2023, the minimum Federal standard increased to 82% thermal efficiency.

• ASHRAE Standard 90.1, which is used as a commercial building code in many states, stipulates that furnaces that are 

not within the conditioned space shall not have jacket losses exceeding 0.75% of the input rating.

• Commercial oil-fired furnaces have thermal efficiencies ranging from 81% to 85% and are non-condensing (i.e., not 

designed for condensation of flue gases).

• Besides capacity, commercial units can differ in terms of the control system (i.e., integration with a Building 

Management System, twinning, or other staging strategies). Commercial systems may also use a heat recovery system 

to pre-heat inlet air.

• The maintenance cost estimate assumes two cleanings per year.

114

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Furnaces

Annual shipments for commercial oil-fired furnaces have steadily decreased over time to 2,127 units in 2013. 

Shipment data after 2013 is not available.

Source: AHRI

115

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0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

18000

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

Unit Shipments

Commercial Oil-Fired Furnaces
Final

Commercial Electric Resistance Heaters

116

Return to Table of Contents

1. Capacity is output.

2. Annual Maintenance Cost is negligible.

DATA 

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base: 

Small 

Installed 

Base: Large 

Installed 

Base: 

Small 

Installed 

Base: Large Small Large Small Large Small Large Small Large 

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h)117 170 17 170 17 170 17 170 17 170 17 170

Efficiency (%) 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Average Life (y) 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 1,000 6,320 1,000 6,320 500 4,630 500 4,630 500 4,630 500 4,630

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 1,240 7,470 1,240 7,470 660 5,470 660 5,470 660 5,470 660 5,470

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 73 44 73 44 39 32 39 32 39 32 39 32

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)2- - - - - - - - - - - -

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) - - - - - - - - - - - -

Same as Reference Case
Final

Commercial Electric Resistance Heaters

• This analysis examined standard suspended electric wall and ceiling unit heaters, which are more common in 

commercial settings than baseboard electric heaters that were considered for the residential analysis.

• Electric unit heaters range in capacity from 2 to 100 kW (7 to 340 kBtu/h), with 5 to 50 kW (17 to 170 kBtu/h) being the 

most typical units on the market.

• Electric resistance heaters are considered near 100% efficient because there is no heat loss through ducts or 

combustion.

• Installation time and costs are estimated to be minimal.

117

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Final

Commercial Electric Boilers

118

Return to Table of Contents

1. Capacity is output.

2. Retail and installed costs for 2022 and forecasts for 2030 and beyond are based on Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building Construction Costs 2023. Maintenance costs are same as EIA Technology Forecast Updates 

(2018), updated to reflect 2022$. The costs shown are for one 165kW unit, which would equate to a steady load of approximately 550,000 Btu/h. Annual maintenance in a typical application would include draining 

the unit for removal of any accumulated scale or sludge buildup.

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (kW)1165 165 165 165 165 165

Efficiency (%) 98 98 98 98 98 98

Average Life (y) 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)211,620 11,590 9,790 9,790 9,790 9,790

Total Installed Cost (2022$)217,500 13,820 11,950 11,950 11,950 11,950

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 31 25 21 21 21 21

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)2170 130 130 130 130 130

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) - - - - - -

Same as Reference Case
Final

Commercial Electric Boilers

• There are currently no federal standards associated with electric boilers.

• The costs shown are for one 165kW unit, which would equate to a steady load of approximately 550,000 Btu/h.

• Service life is determined mainly by water quality. Water conditioning (e.g., filters, softeners, de-alkalizers, chemical 

feeders) may be necessary for a given application. 

• Annual maintenance in a typical application would include draining the unit for removal of any accumulated scale or 

sludge buildup.

• Minor end-use inefficiencies for electric boilers result from heat loss through the boiler (jacket losses).

119

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Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Boilers

120

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1. The standard level shown here is for small (300 kBtu/h to 2500 kBtu/h) gas-fired hot water commercial packaged boilers, which are the most common type of boilers available on the market.

2. DOE's efficiency metric for most boiler types accounts for both flue and jacket losses; previously it did not. DOE continues to uses a combustion efficiency metric instead, for hot water boilers with heat input 

> 2,500,000 Btu/h.

3. Maintenance costs for 2018 and post-2018 are based on Commercial Packaged Boilers EERE 2020. The annualized maintenance costs estimated in the final rule differ for condensing vs. non-condensing 

boilers. Appendix 8E of the Commercial Packaged Boilers EERE 2020 TSD provides additional information on how the values are calculated.

Note: 

The previous standard went into effect in March 2012.

The current standard went into effect in January 2023.

In December 2016, DOE issued a final rule titled Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Commercial Packaged Boilers. This rule published in January 2020 with an effective date for 

January 2023.

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base 

Installed 

Base 

Current 

Standard1 Typical High New Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800

Thermal Efficiency (%)277 85 80 85 99 84 85 99 93 99 95 99 95 99 

Average Life (y) 30 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 15,530 25,910 19,150 25,910 42,670 24,320 25,910 42,670 37,860 42,670 38,950 42,670 38,950 42,670

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 24,600 38,330 30,470 38,330 55,230 35,650 38,330 55,230 50,410 55,230 51,510 55,230 51,510 55,230

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 40 56 48 56 70 53 56 70 68 70 68 70 68 70

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)3 1,710 2,100 2,100 2,100 2,140 2,100 2,100 2,140 2,140 2,140 2,140 2,140 2,140 2,140

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Higher typical efficiencies with corresponding cost increases
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Boilers

• Commercial packaged gas-fired boilers are classified by:

— Heat input capacity

— Produce steam or hot water

— Draft type (natural draft or not) – for steam boilers

• The most common type of commercial gas-fired boilers are small gas-fired hot water boilers with 300,000-2,500,000 

Btu/h rated heat input.

• Similar technologies to those used in the residential gas-fired boilers market can be leveraged in the commercial arena. 

The higher efficiency units typically include electronic ignition, power burners, and improved heat exchangers. Some 

gas-fired boilers also condense water vapor from the flue gases to improve heating efficiency.

• DOE published a final rule for commercial packaged boilers in January 2020 that updated the efficiency ratings of gasfired commercial packaged boilers beginning January 2023.

• Advanced Case: Condensing gas-fired boilers are expected to dominate the market by 2030, with corresponding price 

increases.

121

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Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Boilers

Shipments of commercial gas-fired boilers peaked in 2000 and have been steadily declining since 2010. Shipment data 

after 2013 is not available.

Source: Commercial Packaged Boilers EERE 2020

122

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0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

Unit Shipments (thousands)

Commercial Gas-Fired Boilers
Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Boilers

123

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1. The standard level shown here is for small (300 kBtu/h to 2500 kBtu/h) oil-fired hot water commercial packaged boilers, which are the most common type of boilers available on the market.

2. DOE's efficiency metric for most boiler types accounts for both flue and jacket losses; previously it did not. DOE continues to uses a combustion efficiency metric instead, for hot water boilers with heat input 

> 2,500,000 Btu/h.

3. Maintenance costs for 2018 and post-2018 are based on Commercial Packaged Boilers EERE 2020. The annualized maintenance costs estimated in the final rule differ for condensing vs. non-condensing 

boilers. Appendix 8E of the Commercial Packaged Boilers EERE 2020 TSD provides additional information on how the values are calculated.

Note:

The previous standard went into effect in March 2012.

The current standard went into effect in January 2023.

In December 2016, DOE issued a final rule titled Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Commercial Packaged Boilers. This rule published in January 2020 with an effective date for 

January 2023.

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base 

Installed 

Base 

Current 

Standard1 Typical High New Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 1,200 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800

Thermal Efficiency (%)281 85 82 85 97 87 87 97 92 97 92 97 92 97

Average Life (y) 30 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 16,830 26,810 23,190 26,810 51,480 29,730 29,730 51,480 29,730 51,480 29,730 51,480 29,730 51,480

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 22,000 37,240 33,100 37,240 62,910 40,160 40,160 62,910 40,160 62,910 40,160 62,910 40,160 62,910

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 23 55 50 55 81 58 58 81 55 81 55 81 55 81

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)3 1,710 2,690 2,690 2,690 2,690 2,690 2,690 2,690 2,690 2,690 2,690 2,690 2,690 2,690

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 2 4 4 4 3 4 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3

Higher typical efficiencies with same costs as reference case despite increased efficiency
Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Boilers

• Commercial packaged oil-fired boilers are classified by:

— Heat input capacity

— Produce steam or hot water

• The most common type of commercial oil-fired boilers are small hot water boilers with 300,000-2,500,000 Btu/h rated 

heat input.

• The higher efficiency units typically include improved heat exchangers, and multi-step or variable-output power 

burners.

• DOE published a final rule for commercial packaged boilers in January 2020 that updated the efficiency ratings of oilfired commercial packaged boilers beginning January 2023.

• Advanced Case: Increased adoption of condensing oil-fired boilers by 2030. However, due to low demand and a 

shrinking market, costs are expected to remain the same.

124

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Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Boilers

Shipments of commercial oil-fired boilers peaked in 2001 and have been decreasing since then.

Source: Commercial Packaged Boilers EERE 2020

125

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0

1

2

3

4

5

6

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

Unit Shipments (thousands)

Commercial Oil-Fired Boilers
Final

DATA

2012 2018 202222030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

ASHRAE 

90.1-2019 Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (tons)1

400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400

600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600

Efficiency [full-load] (kW/ton) 0.66 0.53 0.56 0.52 0.45 0.48 0.42 0.45 0.41 0.44 0.40

Efficiency [IPLV] (kW/ton) 0.61 0.37 0.50 0.31 0.30 0.30 0.28 0.29 0.26 0.28 0.25

COP [full-load] 5.4 6.6 6.3 6.8 7.8 7.3 8.4 7.8 8.6 8.0 8.8

COP [IPLV] 5.9 9.5 7.0 11.3 11.7 11.7 12.6 12.1 13.5 12.6 14.1

Average Life (y) 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$/ton) 380 500 480 500 680 590 760 660 780 690 810

Total Installed Cost (2022$/ton)

440 560 480 560 740 640 820 720 840 740 870

500 590 540 590 760 670 830 740 860 760 880

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 39 48 43 48 63 55 69 61 71 63 73

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/ton)

30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Commercial Centrifugal Chillers (Water-Cooled)

126

1. Capacity is output.

2. ASHRAE 90.1 data are for units larger than 400 tons and for full-load optimized applications (Path A in ASHRAE 90.1-2019). Typical and high efficiency levels are determined based on the range of products 

currently available on the market.

Note: 

For most chillers (including those in single-chiller applications and for peaking units in multi-chiller applications), the seasonal performance (represented by the integrated part-load value (IPLV)) is more 

indicative of annual expected performance than the full-load performance; performance of baseload chillers in multi-chiller applications, which typically operate at full-load, are well represented by the full-load 

efficiency value.

ASHRAE 90.1 went into effect in October 2019.

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Return to Table of Contents

Higher typical efficiencies with same costs as reference case despite increased efficiency
Final

Commercial Centrifugal Chillers (Water-Cooled)

• ASHRAE 90.1-2019 stipulates minimum efficiencies for centrifugal chillers separately from positive displacement water-cooled 

chillers. They are separated into 5 size categories, with categories divided at: 150, 300, 400, and 600 tons; ASHRAE 90.1-2019 

also distinguishes between whether the unit will be optimized for full-load (Path A) or part-load operation (Path B). Data here 

are for Path A; a Path B chiller may have slightly high full-load consumption in exchange for much lower part-load 

consumption. For example, for a 600-ton unit:

— Path A: ≥ 0.56 kW/ton full-load and ≥ 0.50 kW/ton IPLV 

— Path B: ≥ 0.585 kW/ton full-load and ≥ 38 kW/ton IPLV

• Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) recommendations, last updated in 2020, match ASHRAE 90.1-2019. 

• The highest efficiency centrifugal chillers incorporate some of the following:

— Variable speed drive (VSD) compressors

— Dedicated heat recovery (heat pump chiller)

— Magnetic bearing technology (oil-free operation)

— Greater heat exchanger surface areas; enhanced tube configurations (counterflow)

— Optimized fluid flow velocities

— High efficiency electric motors

— Improved turbomachinery design, resulting in higher compressor efficiency

— Better piping and valving, including electronic expansion valves

— Evaporative condenser for the heat rejection equipment

• Installed costs vary widely depending on equipment needed for installation (e.g., crane) and size of system. This is a mature

market with centrifugal chillers representing 75% of commercial chiller sales larger than 200 tons.

• Water-cooled chiller ratings do not include energy consumption of the cooling tower and therefore are not directly comparable 

to rating for air-cooled chillers. Water-cooled centrifugal chillers were selected for analysis due to a higher model share on the 

AHRI directory in comparison to air-cooled chillers.

• Advanced Case: Due to increases in R&D, improvements in current technology are expected to increase efficiency without 

substantially increasing costs.

127

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Final

DATA

2012 2018 20222 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed

Base

ASHRAE

90.1-2019 Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (tons)1

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200

Efficiency [full-load] (kW/ton) 1.26 1.19 1.19 1.15 1.00 1.15 1.00 1.15 1.00 1.15 1.00

Efficiency [IPLV] (kW/ton) 1.13 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.80 0.79 0.80 0.79

COP [full-load] 2.8 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.5 3.1 3.5 3.1 3.5 3.1 3.5

COP [IPLV] 3.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.5 4.4 4.5 4.4 4.5 4.4 4.5

Average Life (y) 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$/ton)

725 820 820 820 1,030 820 1,030 820 1,030 820 1,030

600 730 730 730 880 730 880 730 880 730 880

Total Installed Cost (2022$/ton)

800 880 880 880 1,180 880 1,180 880 1,180 880 1,180

700 760 760 760 1,090 760 1,090 760 1,090 760 1,090

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 63 68 68 68 95 68 95 68 95 68 95

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/ton)

45 45 50 50 50 45 50 45 50 45 50

25 25 30 30 30 25 30 25 30 25 30

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Commercial Reciprocating Chillers (Air-Cooled Only)

128

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1. Capacity is output.

2. ASHRAE 90.1 data are for units larger than 150 tons and for full-load optimized applications (Path A in ASHRAE 90.1-2019). Typical and high efficiency levels are determined based on the range of products 

currently available on the market.

Note: 

This analysis covers air-cooled chillers only.

For most chillers (including those in single-chiller applications and for peaking units in multi-chiller applications), the seasonal performance (represented by the IPLV) is more indicative of annual expected 

performance than the full-load performance; performance of baseload chillers in multi-chiller applications, which typically operate at full-load, are well represented by the full-load efficiency value.

ASHRAE 90.1 went into effect in October 2019.

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Same as Reference Case
Final

Commercial Reciprocating Chillers (Air-Cooled Only)

• Reciprocating chillers are most cost effective for small loads (30 to 150-ton range). However, reciprocating chiller 

market share continues to be supplanted by screw and scroll chillers. This trend has accelerated with the phase out of 

R-22, which was the refrigerant of choice for reciprocating products, which has in turn driven major manufacturers to 

replace their reciprocating product lines with scroll products (rather than redesign reciprocating products for new 

refrigerants). As a result, product options are very limited.

• Reciprocating chillers can be used in either air-cooled or water-cooled applications. Reciprocating chillers shown in the 

data are air-cooled. Air-cooled chillers are less efficient than the water-cooled models. Listed efficiencies include 

matched condensers and their associated energy use.

• ASHRAE 90.1-2019 stipulates minimum efficiencies for all air-cooled chillers together, including reciprocating chillers, 

while water-cooled chillers are separated by positive displacement (e.g., reciprocating) versus centrifugal models. Aircooled chiller efficiencies are further split by size for more and less than 150 tons. ASHRAE 90.1-2019 also 

distinguishes between whether the unit will be optimized for full-load (Path A) or part-load operation (Path B). Data 

here are for Path A; a Path B chiller may have slightly lower full-load efficiency in exchange for much higher part-load 

efficiency. For example, for a 100-ton unit:

— Path A: ≥ 10.1 EER full-load and ≥ 13.7 IPLV EER

— Path B: ≥ 9.7 EER full-load and ≥ 15.8 IPLV EER

• FEMP (2022) recommendations for air-cooled chillers are:

— Path A (<150 tons): ≥ 10.89 EER full-load and ≥ 13.7 IPLV EER

— Path B (<150 tons): ≥ 9.7 EER full-load and ≥ 16.86 IPLV EER (same as 90.1-2019)

• The highest efficiency reciprocating chillers incorporate some of the following:

— Multiple compressors for staged capacity control

— Improved heat-exchangers

129

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Final

Commercial Screw Chillers (Air-Cooled Only)

130

1. ASHRAE 90.1 data for units larger than 150 tons and for full-load optimized applications (Path A in ASHRAE 90.1-2019).

Note:

For most chillers (including those in single-chiller applications and for peaking units in multi-chiller applications), the seasonal performance (represented by the IPLV) is more indicative of annual expected 

performance than the full-load performance; performance of baseload chillers in multi-chiller applications, which typically operate at full-load, are well represented by the full-load efficiency value.

ASHRAE 90.1 went into effect in October 2019.

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

ASHRAE 

90.1-20191 Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (tons)

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

Efficiency [full-load] (kW/ton) 1.26 1.18 1.19 1.15 0.92 1.11 0.91 0.99 0.86 0.93 0.77

Efficiency [IPLV] (kW/ton) 1.13 0.84 0.86 0.81 0.55 0.77 0.53 0.65 0.49 0.61 0.43

COP [full-load] 2.8 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.8 3.2 3.9 3.6 4.1 3.8 4.6

COP [IPLV] 3.1 4.2 4.1 4.4 6.4 4.5 6.6 5.4 7.2 5.7 8.2

Average Life (y) 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$/ton)

760 970 1,130 1,130 1,230 1,140 1,230 1,180 1,250 1,200 1,270

620 850 770 770 870 780 870 820 890 840 910

Total Installed Cost (2022$/ton)

910 1,150 1,250 1,250 1,350 1,260 1,350 1,300 1,370 1,320 1,390

850 940 820 820 920 830 920 870 940 890 960

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 73 87 86 86 95 87 95 90 96 92 98

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/ton)

50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Higher typical efficiencies with same costs as reference case despite increased efficiency
Final

Commercial Screw Chillers (Air-Cooled Only)

• Screw chillers are common in 150 to 500-ton capacities but are most cost effective for small (<300 tons) loads; screw 

chillers dominate the current market for small to mid-size chillers.

• Screw chillers can be used in either air-cooled or water-cooled applications. Screw chillers shown in the data are aircooled. Air-cooled chillers are less efficient than the water-cooled models. Listed efficiencies include matched 

condensers and their associated energy use.

• ASHRAE 90.1-2019 stipulates minimum efficiencies for all air-cooled chillers together, including screw chillers, while 

water-cooled chillers are separated by positive displacement (e.g., screw) versus centrifugal models. Air-cooled chiller 

efficiencies are further split by size for more and less than 150 tons. ASHRAE 90.1-2019 also distinguishes between 

whether the unit will be optimized for full-load (Path A) or part-load operation (Path B). Data here are for Path A; a 

Path B chiller may have slightly lower full-load efficiency in exchange for much higher part-load efficiency. For 

example, for a ≥ 150-ton unit:

— Path A: ≥ 10.1 EER full-load and ≥ 14.0 IPLV EER

— Path B: ≥ 9.7 EER full-load and ≥ 16.1 IPLV EER

• FEMP recommendations for air-cooled chillers (updated June 2020) are:

— Path A (≥ 150 tons): ≥ 10.7 EER full-load and ≥ 14.0 IPLV EER

— Path B (≥ 150 tons): ≥ 9.7 EER full-load and ≥ 16.4 IPLV EER

• The highest efficiency screw chillers incorporate some of the following:

— Variable speed compressors and/or multiple compressors

— Economizers

— Improved heat-exchangers

• Advanced Case: Due to increases in R&D, improvements in current technology are expected to increase efficiency 

without substantially increasing costs. 

131

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Final

Commercial Scroll Chillers (Air-Cooled Only)

132

1. ASHRAE 90.1 data for units less than 150 tons and for full-load optimized applications (Path A in ASHRAE 90.1-2019).

Note:

For most chillers (including those in single-chiller applications and for peaking units in multi-chiller applications), the seasonal performance (represented by the IPLV) is more indicative of annual expected 

performance than the full-load performance; performance of baseload chillers in multi-chiller applications, which typically operate at full-load, are well represented by the full-load efficiency value.

ASHRAE 90.1 went into effect in October 2019.

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Return to Table of Contents

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

ASHRAE 

90.1-20191 Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (tons)

50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140

Efficiency [full-load] (kW/ton) 1.23 1.16 1.19 1.15 1.07 1.08 1.03 1.04 0.99 0.99 0.94

Efficiency [IPLV] (kW/ton) 0.99 0.77 0.88 0.77 0.70 0.71 0.66 0.69 0.63 0.67 0.60

COP [full-load] 2.9 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.6 3.6 3.7

COP [IPLV] 3.7 4.6 4.0 4.6 5.0 5.0 5.3 5.1 5.6 5.3 5.8

Average Life (y) 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$/ton)

680 1,000 1,060 1,060 1,160 1,120 1,160 1,150 1,200 1,200 1,240

560 820 530 530 630 590 630 620 670 670 710

Total Installed Cost (2022$/ton)

970 1,210 1,170 1,170 1,270 1,230 1,270 1,260 1,310 1,310 1,350

850 970 860 860 960 920 960 950 1,000 1,000 1,040

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 76 91 85 85 93 90 93 92 96 96 100

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/ton)

60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60

40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

Higher typical efficiencies with same costs as reference case despite increased efficiency
Final

Commercial Scroll Chillers (Air-Cooled Only)

• Scroll chillers range in size from ~20 tons to ~200 tons and can be used in either air-cooled or water-cooled 

applications. They are the most common type of chiller for small chiller plants. The scroll chillers shown in the data are 

air-cooled, which is most common. Air-cooled chillers are less efficient than the water-cooled models. Listed 

efficiencies include matched condensers and their associated energy use.

• ASHRAE 90.1-2019 stipulates minimum efficiencies for all air-cooled chillers together, including scroll chillers, while 

water-cooled chillers are separated by positive displacement (e.g., scroll) versus centrifugal models. Air-cooled chiller 

efficiencies are distinct for more and less than 150 tons. ASHRAE 90.1-2019 also distinguishes between whether the 

unit will be optimized for full-load (Path A) or part-load operation (Path B). Data here are for Path A; a Path B chiller 

may have slightly lower full-load efficiency in exchange for much higher part-load efficiency. For example, for a 100-

ton unit:

— Path A: ≥ 10.1 EER full-load and ≥ 13.7 IPLV EER

— Path B: ≥ 9.7 EER full-load and ≥ 15.8 IPLV EER

• FEMP recommendations for air-cooled chillers (updated June 2020) are:

— Path A (< 150 tons): ≥ 10.7 EER full-load and ≥ 13.7 IPLV EER

— Path B (< 150 tons): ≥ 9.7 EER full-load and ≥ 15.9 IPLV EER

• The highest efficiency scroll chillers incorporate some of the following:

— Multiple compressors for staged capacity control

— Improved heat-exchangers

— Variable speed compressor (or other modulation controls)

• With the phase out of R-22, manufacturers have replaced many of their small reciprocating chiller products with 

equivalent scroll products, making them a primary choice for small tonnage applications.

• Advanced Case: Due to increases in R&D, improvements in current technology are expected to increase efficiency 

without substantially increasing costs. 

133

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Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Chillers (Water-Cooled, Direct-Fired Only)

134

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DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base: 

Absorption

Installed 

Base: 

EngineDriven

Installed 

Base: 

Absorption

Installed 

Base: 

EngineDriven

ASHRAE 

90.1-2019 

Absorption

CA Title 24 

– EngineDrivenAbsorption EngineDriven Absorption EngineDriven Absorption EngineDriven Absorption EngineDriven

Typical Capacity 

(tons)1

150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150

1,500 400 1,500 400 1,500 400 1,500 400 1,500 400 1,500 400 1,500 400

COP [full-load] 1.1 1.7 1.2 1.7 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.7 1.3 1.8 1.4 1.8 1.4 1.8

COP [IPLV] NA NA 1.6 2.6 1.0 2.0 1.6 2.6 1.6 2.6 1.6 2.6 1.6 2.6

Average Life (y) 23 25 23 25 23 25 23 25 23 25 23 25 23 25

Retail Equipment 

Cost (2022$/ton)

1,060 1,000 1,060 1,000 1,200 1,000 1,200 1,000 1,200 1,000 1,200 1,000 1,200 1,000

880 880 880 880 870 880 870 880 870 880 870 880 870 880

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/ton)

1,290 1,240 1,180 1,240 1,110 1,240 1,110 1,240 1,110 1,240 1,110 1,240 1,110 1,240

1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 850 1,000 850 1,000 850 1,000 850 1,000 850 1,000

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 95 93 91 93 82 93 82 93 82 93 82 93 82 93

Annual 

Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/ton)

40 60 40 60 40 60 40 60 40 60 40 60 40 60

20 40 20 40 20 40 20 40 20 40 20 40 20 40

Annual 

Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4

1. Capacity is output.

Note:

This analysis assumes a water-cooled chiller; both gas-fired chiller types (absorption and engine-driven) are shown. COP values for double-effect absorption chillers are shown.

For most chillers (including those in single-chiller applications and for peaking units in multi-chiller applications), the seasonal performance (represented by the IPLV) is more indicative of annual expected 

performance than the full-load performance; performance of baseload chillers in multi-chiller applications, which typically operate at full-load, are well represented by the full-load efficiency value.

ASHRAE 90.1 went into effect in October 2019.

CA Title 24 went into effect in January 2020.

Ranges represent the span of typical values for a given parameter.

Same as Reference Case
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Chillers (Water-Cooled, Direct-Fired Only)

• Gas-fired chillers are available as either air-cooled (~25-50 tons) or water-cooled (150+ tons). This analysis covers only 

water-cooled chillers of two varieties: absorption and engine-driven vapor compression (direct-fired only; indirect 

steam or hot water driven units are excluded).

• Direct gas firing provides high enough temperatures to operate double effect absorption chillers, which operate at a 

50-60% higher COP than single effect systems. Triple effect chillers, though not commercially available, can boost 

cooling COP 30-50% beyond double effect chillers. Some companies have worked on prototype direct-fired triple effect 

absorption chillers, but prohibitively high cost of advanced high heat/corrosion-resistant materials required for triple 

effect absorption chillers suggests that this technology will not likely have an impact on the market in the near-term.

• Gas-fired engine-driven chillers pair conventional vapor compression systems (typically screw or centrifugal 

compressors) with natural gas powered-reciprocating engines. They exhibit higher peak cooling COP than absorbers, 

and engine modulation results in better part-load performance. Future efficiency improvements for engine-driven 

chillers are not anticipated. Engine-driven chillers allow the opportunity to recover waste heat for useful purposes. 

• Maintenance costs for engine-driven chillers are higher than for other chillers because they include all the typical 

components of a vapor compression chiller in addition to an engine; the engine maintenance costs vary depending on 

the annual run hours of the unit. 

• Limited sales data suggest that the U.S. market for gas-fired chillers is very limited and is mostly for replacement 

units, not for new installations. Recent increases in electric chiller efficiency have narrowed the operating cost 

differential with gas chillers. Asia has the majority of the global gas-fired chiller market. 

• Gas-fired chiller installations are particularly valuable in locations where electric rates are high and gas prices are low 

(i.e., low spark spread), where digester or landfill gas sources are available, or where waste heat sources are available 

(e.g., an industrial process or microturbine CHP system) that could be used with a hybrid direct/indirect-fired 

absorption chiller to offset the use of natural gas. 

135

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Final

Commercial Rooftop Air Conditioners

136

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DATA

2012 2018 202242023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.1

High New 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Output Capacity 

(kBtu/h) 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90

Part Load Efficiency (IEER)112.4 12.9 12.9 12.9 14.0 23.3 14.8 14.8 18.0 23.3 16.0 23.3 16.5 23.3 17.5 23.3

Efficiency (EER)210.6 11.5 11.5 11.5 12.2 12.8 12.2 12.2 12.7 12.8 12.6 12.8 12.6 12.8 12.7 12.8

Efficiency Conversion 3.6 3.8 3.8 3.8 4.1 6.8 4.3 4.3 5.3 6.8 4.7 6.8 4.8 6.8 5.1 6.8

Average Life (y) 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 7,760 8,280 8,280 8,280 9,090 12,210 9,490 9,490 10,340 12,210 9,590 12,210 9,590 12,210 9,590 12,210

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 10,350 11,870 11,870 11,870 13,020 17,600 13,560 13,560 14,970 17,600 13,720 17,600 13,720 17,600 13,720 17,600

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 115 132 132 132 145 196 151 151 166 196 152 196 152 196 152 196

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)3 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

1. Values shown are for air-cooled small commercial packaged air conditioners with either electric resistance heating or no heating within the same enclosure. DOE published a direct final rule for commercial 

packaged air conditioners and heat pumps in January 2016 with initial standards becoming effective in 2018 and additional standards becoming effective in 2023. As part of this rulemaking, DOE changed the 

regulated metric from EER to integrated energy efficiency ratio (IEER).

2. DOE investigated the relationship between IEER and EER. Because the relationship between IEER and EER is weak, this analysis estimates EER values based on the average of the values seen at a given IEER.

3. Examples of annual maintenance services include, check tensions, condition, and alignment of belts and adjust as necessary; lubricate shaft and motor bearings; replace air filters; clean coils, drain pan and 

piping, blowers, fan motors as required; check refrigerant pressure and compressor oil level; etc.

4. The 2022 typical efficiency is based on the average IEER from DOE’s CCD. The 2022 high efficiency is based on the most-efficient model in DOE’s CCD, but costs are estimated based on the most efficient unit 

analyzed in CUAC EERE 2016, which had an IEER of 21.5.

Note:

EER is the ratio of the cooling capacity (in Btu/h) to the power input (in watts) and provides a measure of the efficiency of equipment operating at full load (i.e., 100 percent cooling capacity) in high-ambienttemperature conditions (i.e., 95 °F). IEER is a single number part-load efficiency based on weighting of EER at various load capacities. Efficiency Conversion is the conversion of IEER from a [(Btu/h)/W] metric to 

a metric in the same units.

The previous standard went into effect in January 2018. The current standard went into effect in January 2023.

ENERGY STAR V. 3.1 went into effect in January 2018. ENERGY STAR V. 4.0 went into effect in January 2023.

Higher efficiencies with same costs as reference case despite increased efficiency
Final

Commercial Rooftop Air Conditioners

• Air-Cooled Commercial Packaged Air Conditioners

• This analysis focused on small air-cooled commercial packaged rooftop air conditioners (90 kBtu/h or 7.5 tons), though 

there are also standards for many other types of commercial air conditioners.

• Amended standards in terms of IEER for all equipment classes took effect in January 2018. More stringent standards in 

terms of IEER for all equipment classes took effect in January 2023. 

• Advanced Case: Due to increases in R&D, improvements in current technology (e.g., more cost-effective variable 

speed technology) are expected to increase efficiency without substantially increasing costs. 

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Cooling Capacity 

(kBtu/h) Heating Type

Federal Standard

Effective 1/1/2018 

Min. IEER

Federal Standard

Effective 1/1/2023 

Min. IEER

Small

( ≥ 65 and < 135)

Electric resistance 

or none

12.9 14.8

Any other type 12.7 14.6

Large

(≥ 135 and < 240)

Electric resistance 

or none

12.4 14.2

Any other type 12.2 14.0
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Engine-Drive Rooftop Air Conditioners

138

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DATA

201212018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (tons) 18 11 11 11 11 11

Heating COP 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4

Cooling COP 0.9 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2

Average Life (y) 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost ($/ton) 3,350 2,820 3,710 3,710 3,710 3,710

Total Installed Cost ($/ton) 3,820 3,290 4,110 4,110 4,110 4,110

Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/h) 318 274 343 343 343 343

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 70 70 70 70 70 70

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 6 6 6 6 6 6

1. The 2012 typical capacity and cooling COP were estimated as a simple average between obsolete pre-2003 units and 2013 units, which first became available in 2010; this assumes that each vintage represents 

about half of the installed base.

Note: 

Only one product was available in 2012; the market has grown slightly in years since. Typical capacity and COP for 2018 and later are averages of units available as of 2017.

Same as Reference Case
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Engine-Drive Rooftop Air Conditioners

• There are only a few gas-fired engine-driven rooftop units currently available in the U.S. market. The first unit was 

introduced in 2010. It is an 11-ton packaged heat pump with dual scroll compressors, variable refrigerant flow, and a 

variable speed supply fan. Engine coolant heat recovery improves the heating mode COP. 

• There are currently no Federal requirements on gas-fired engine-driven rooftop air conditioners or heat pumps.

• Annual sales of the engine-driven rooftop heat pump are estimated at less than 5,000 units per year.

139

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Final

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.1

High New 

Standard

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90

Part Load Efficiency 

(IEER)1 12.0 11.3 12.2 14.3 12.8 20.3 14.1 15.3 20.3 14.4 20.3 15.3 20.3 15.3 20.3

EER 10.2 11.2 11.3 11.5 11.8 13.0 12.0 11.8 13.0 11.7 13.1 11.7 13.1 11.7 13.1

COP (Heating) 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.7 3.4 3.5 3.7 3.4 3.7 3.5 3.7 3.5 3.7

Average Life (y) 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$) 7,490 7,490 9,000 10,250 9,370 12,920 10,160 10,600 12,920 10,290 12,920 10,600 12,920 10,600 12,920

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$) 9,340 9,340 12,900 14,940 13,530 18,860 14,810 15,510 18,860 15,000 18,860 15,510 18,860 15,510 18,860

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 104 104 143 166 150 210 165 172 210 167 210 172 210 172 210

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$) 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

Commercial Rooftop Heat Pumps

140

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1. Values shown are for air-cooled small commercial packaged heat pumps with either electric resistance heating or no heating within the same enclosure. DOE published a direct final rule for commercial 

packaged air conditioners and heat pumps in January 2016 with initial standards becoming effective in 2018 and additional standards becoming effective in 2023. As part of this rulemaking, DOE changed the 

regulated metric from EER to IEER.

Note:

The previous standard went into effect in January 2018. The current standard went into effect in January 2023.

ENERGY STAR V. 3.1 went into effect in January 2018. ENERGY STAR V. 4.0 went into effect in January 2023.

Higher efficiencies with same costs as reference case despite increased efficiency
Final

Commercial Rooftop Heat Pumps

• Air-Cooled Commercial Packaged Heat Pumps

• This analysis focused on small air-cooled commercial packaged rooftop heat pumps (90 kBtu/h or 7.5 tons), though 

there are also standards for many other types of commercial heat pumps.

• Amended standards in terms of IEER for all equipment classes took effect in 2018. More stringent standards in terms 

of IEER for all equipment classes took effect in 2023. 

• Advanced Case: Due to increases in R&D, improvements in current technology (e.g., more cost-effective variable 

speed technology) are expected to increase efficiency without substantially increasing costs. 

141

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Cooling Capacity (kBtu/h) Heating Type

Federal Standard

Effective 1/1/2018 

Min. IEER

Federal Standard

Effective 1/1/2023 

Min. IEER

Small

( ≥ 65 and < 135)

Electric resistance or 

none

12.2 14.1

Any other type 12.0 13.9

Large

(≥ 135 and < 240)

Electric resistance or 

none

11.6 13.5

Any other type 11.4 13.3
Final

1. COP values listed are assessed at a "ground loop" test condition, which is representative of closed loop GSHP operating conditions. However, DOE sets standards at a "water loop" test condition. The AHRI 

directory lists COP ratings at both sets of test conditions and is used to convert between them where necessary. 

2. EER values listed are assessed at a full-load "ground loop" test condition, which is representative of closed loop GSHP operating conditions. However, DOE sets standards at a full-load "water loop" test 

condition. The AHRI directory lists EER ratings at all sets of test conditions and is used to convert between them where necessary.

Note: 

Residential and commercial GSHPs are very similar - the main difference in data presented is the different capacity (3-ton vs. 4-ton) and slightly higher installation costs for commercial GSHP. DOE does not 

distinguish between residential and commercial units in its regulations.

Commercial Ground-Source Heat Pumps

142

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DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48

COP (Heating)1 3.1 3.7 3.2 3.5 3.6 3.5 3.6 3.5 3.6 3.5 3.6

EER (Cooling)2 12.7 17.4 14.1 17.0 21.6 17.0 21.6 17.0 21.6 17.0 21.6

Average Life (y)

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 10,470 6,470 5,590 6,470 7,880 6,470 7,880 6,470 7,880 6,470 7,880

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

19,760 18,230 17,350 18,230 19,650 16,410 17,690 16,410 17,690 16,410 16,410

44,820 26,520 25,580 26,520 27,880 23,870 25,090 23,870 25,090 23,870 23,870

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 673 466 447 466 495 420 446 420 446 420 420

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

Same efficiencies with lower costs than reference case despite same efficiency
Final

Commercial Ground-Source Heat Pumps

• The most common commercial ground-source heat pump systems are closed-loop in which water or anti-freeze solution is 

circulated through plastic pipes buried underground. Commercial water-to-air heat pumps (WAHPs) range in size from 1 ton 

or less to over 500 tons depending on whether a distributed or centralized architecture is used. Distributed systems are more

prevalent.

• Most geothermal WAHPs are rated for capacity and efficiency based on the ISO 13256-1 standard. Heating and cooling 

efficiency measurements under this standard include input energy for fans and pumps on a proportional basis that only 

includes that power required to transport air and liquid through the heat pump. The reason for this method is to simplify 

comparisons between heat pumps and to allow equipment to be optimized for real world conditions without suffering rating 

penalties. Real world energy use will exceed ratings predictions as a result of higher fluid static pressure requirements.

• ISO 13256-1 cooling rating conditions require 77 °F entering water temperature and 80.6 °F entering air temperature. More 

typical peak design criteria would be 80-90 °F entering water temperature and 75 °F entering air temperature. As a result, ISO 

13256-1 rated cooling efficiency would be higher than typical design peak operation.

• Some WAHPs include efficiency data for a part-load operating condition as allowed by ISO 13256-1 for multiple stage or 

variable speed compressors. No seasonal energy efficiency metric (analogous to SEER or IEER) currently applies to WAHPs. 

The annual performance of a geothermal WAHP system can vary more widely than for other system types due to the large 

influence of ground loop design and characteristics.

• The ENERGY STAR criteria for ground-source heat pumps apply only to residential applications.

• Installation cost is for a closed loop system and includes necessary accessories. The ground loop heat exchanger and 

distribution pumping systems represent a majority of the installation cost.

• Low end WAHPs utilize single stage compressors. Higher efficiency units incorporate multiple stage or variable speed 

compressor controls to improve efficiency as well as humidity and temperature control. Variable speed ECM fan motors also 

improve overall energy efficiency.

• Advanced Case: Ground-source heat pumps are already highly efficient and have not changed much in terms of efficiency in 

recent years. With increased R&D, it is anticipated that the equipment and installation costs will be reduced over time, but 

efficiency will likely stay the same. 

143

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Final

Packaged Terminal Air Conditioners

144

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DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High2 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h)19 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

Efficiency (EER) 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 13.1 11.3 13.1 11.3 13.1 11.3 13.1

Efficiency 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.8 3.3 3.8 3.3 3.8 3.3 3.8

Average Life (y) 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 1,460 1,460 1,460 1,460 1,560 1,460 1,560 1,460 1,560 1,460 1,560

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 1,740 1,740 1,740 1,740 1,840 1,740 1,840 1,740 1,840 1,740 1,840

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 193 193 193 193 204 193 204 193 204 193 204

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

1. Typical capacity is representative of units with the most shipments. It was also the representative cooling capacity for DOE's analysis in packaged terminal air conditioners (PTAC) and packaged terminal 

heat pumps (PTHP) EERE 2022 NOPD.

2. High values for 2022 and beyond are based on the max-tech level from PTAC & PTHP EERE 2022 NOPD.

Note: 

The current standard went into effect in January 2017.

Same as Reference Case
Final

Packaged Terminal Air Conditioners

• PTAC are a self-contained, ductless air conditioning system used for commercial applications. 

• Analysis was conducted for the standard equipment class at the representative cooling capacity of 9000 Btu/h. 

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Cooling Capacity 

(kBtu/h) Equipment Size Equipment Class

Federal Standard

EER

PTAC Standard

< 7000 11.9

≥7,000 Btu/h and 

≤15,000 Btu/h 14.0 – (0.3 x Cap)

> 15,000 Btu/h 9.5
Final

Packaged Terminal Heat Pumps

146

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DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical2 High3 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h)19 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

Efficiency (EER) 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 13.1 11.5 13.1 12.0 13.1 12.4 13.1

Efficiency 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.8 3.4 3.8 3.5 3.8 3.6 3.8

COP (Heating) 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.6 3.3 3.6 3.4 3.6 3.5 3.6

Average Life (y) 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 1,620 1,620 1,620 1,620 1,720 1,630 1,720 1,630 1,720 1,630 1,720

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 1,910 1,910 1,910 1,910 2,010 1,910 2,010 1,910 2,010 1,910 2,010

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 212 212 212 212 223 212 223 212 223 212 223

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

1. Typical capacity is representative of units with the most shipments. It was also the representative cooling capacity for DOE's analysis in PTAC & PTHP EERE 2022 NOPD.

2. Typical values for 2022 and beyond are based on the efficiency level that has the largest market share per PTAC & PTHP EERE 2022 NOPD.

3. High values for 2022 and beyond are based on the max-tech level from PTAC & PTHP EERE 2022 NOPD.

Note: 

The current standard went into effect in October 2012.

Higher efficiencies with the same costs as ref. case despite increased efficiency
Final

Packaged Terminal Heat Pumps

• PTHP are self-contained heat pumps primarily used for commercial applications.

• Analysis was conducted for the standard equipment class at the representative cooling capacity of 9000 Btu/h. 

• Advanced Case: Due to increases in R&D, improvements in current technology (e.g., more cost-effective variable 

speed technology) are expected to increase efficiency without substantially increasing costs.

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Cooling Capacity 

(kBtu/h) Equipment Size Equipment Class

Federal 

Standard

EER

Federal 

Standard

COP

PTHP Standard

< 7000 11.9 3.3

≥7,000 Btu/h and 

≤15,000 Btu/h 14.0 – (0.3 x Cap) 3.7 – (0.052 x 

Cap)

> 15,000 Btu/h 9.5 2.9

PTHP Non-Standard

< 7000 9.3 2.7

≥7,000 Btu/h and 

≤15,000 Btu/h 

10.8 – (0.213 x 

Cap)

2.9 – (0.026 x 

Cap)

> 15,000 Btu/h 7.6 2.5
Final

Commercial Water Heating

148

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Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Storage Water Heaters

149

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Storage Capacity (gal) 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199

Thermal Efficiency (%)181 82 80 82 94 99 95 99 95 99 95 99

Average Life (y) 13 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

3,870 3,890 3,850 3,890 4,180 4,290 4,200 4,290 4,200 4,290 4,200 4,290

5,170 5,200 5,140 5,200 5,530 5,650 5,550 5,650 5,550 5,650 5,550 5,650

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

5,170 5,190 5,140 5,190 6,630 6,730 6,640 6,730 6,640 6,730 6,640 6,730

8,440 8,460 8,410 8,460 8,590 8,710 8,610 8,710 8,610 8,710 8,610 8,710

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 42 42 43 42 41 39 40 39 40 39 40 39

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)2320 320 320 320 330 330 330 330 330 330 330 330

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1. Different levels of standby loss were not included in this analysis. 

2. Maintenance consists of sediment and scale removal once or twice per year and replacement of miscellaneous components such as gaskets and sealants. Condensing units have an additional cost for replacement of 

condensate neutralizer media every two years.

Note: 

The current standard went into effect in October 2015.

ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 went into effect in October 2018.

The range of retail and installed costs represent the range from replacement market to new construction market.

Return to Table of Contents

Same as Reference Case
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Storage Water Heaters

• Input capacity > 155 kBtu/h and storage capacity ≤ 140 gal

• Federal standard:

— Minimum thermal efficiency: 80%

— Maximum standby loss (Btu/h) : Input Rate/800 + 110 × (Rated Volume)1/2

• ENERGY STAR requirements:

— Minimum thermal efficiency: 94%

— Maximum standby loss (Btu/h): 0.84 × [(Input Rate/800) + 110 × (Rated Volume)1/2]

• Baseline units are typically constructed similarly to residential units, though with higher input capacities (and often 

higher storage volumes).

• High-efficiency units include condensing heat exchangers (typically stainless or enameled steel) to extract additional 

heat by condensing water vapor in flue gases. Condensing units also include an inducer fan system or power burner. 

The heat exchanger is typically contained within the tank, but some designs consist of an external heating module 

attached to a storage tank. Condensing units are expected to be the majority market share by 2030.

• Maintenance consists of sediment and scale removal once or twice per year and replacement of miscellaneous 

components such as gaskets and sealants. Condensing units have an additional cost for replacement of condensate 

neutralizer media every two years.

150

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Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Storage Water Heaters

Annual shipments have fluctuated from 99,000 units in 2000 to 75,000 units in 2009, back to 99,000 units in 2015 and 

gradually decreasing since then until 2020.

Source: CWH EERE 2022 NOPR and AHRI

151

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0

20

40

60

80

100

120

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Unit Shipments (thousands)

Commercial Gas-Fired Storage Water Heaters
Final

Commercial Electric Resistance Storage Water Heaters

152

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Current 

Standard Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Storage Capacity (gal) 119 119 119 119 119 119 119

Typical Input Capacity (kW)1

18 18 18 18 18 18 18

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 60 60 60 60 60 60 60

Thermal Efficiency (%) 98 98 98 98 98 98 98

Average Life (y) 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

3,180 3,180 3,180 3,180 3,180 3,180 3,180

3,750 3,750 3,750 3,750 3,750 3,750 3,750

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

4,460 4,460 4,460 4,460 4,460 4,460 4,460

4,690 4,690 4,690 4,690 4,690 4,690 4,690

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 76 76 76 76 76 76 76

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1. Different levels of standby loss were not included in this analysis. 

Note: 

No new standards rulemaking has been initiated for commercial electric resistance water heaters since CWH EERE 2016 NOPR. Accordingly, the results are the same as EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018), 

updated to 2022$.

The range of retail equipment and installed costs represents the range from replacement market to new construction market. 

Return to Table of Contents

Same as Reference Case
Final

Commercial Electric Resistance Storage Water Heaters

• Federal standard:

— Maximum standby loss (%/h) : 0.30 + 27/Measured Storage Volume

— Minimum thermal efficiency: no standard, but all units have an efficiency ≥ 98%

• Storage capacity: typically, 50 to 120 gallons, though smaller and larger units exist for specialized applications

• Commercial units are typically constructed similar to residential units, though with higher input capacities (and often 

higher storage volumes).

• There is very little variation in thermal efficiency on the market; variation in standby loss is typically due to tank 

design and insulation thickness. 

• Maintenance consists of sediment and scale removal once or twice per year.

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Final

Commercial Electric Resistance Storage Water Heaters

Annual shipments increased by almost 50% between 2002 and 2008. After a small dip in shipments in 2009, annual 

shipments have increased by about 173% between 2009 and 2017, stabilizing between 140-150 thousand shipments per 

year since then.

Source: AHRI

154

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0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Unit Shipments (thousands)

Commercial Electric Resistance Water Heaters
Final

Commercial Heat Pump Water Heaters

155

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical ENERGY STAR 

V. 2.0 Typical Typical Typical

Water Flow Rate (gal/min)134 34 34 34 34 34 34

Typical Output Capacity (kW)150 50 50 50 50 50 50

Typical Output Capacity (kBtu/h) 171 171 171 171 171 171 171

Coefficient of Performance (COPh) 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.0 4 4.2 4.4

Average Life (y) 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)255,406 55,406 55,406 55,406 55,406 55,406 55,406

Total Installed Cost (2022$)259,935 59,935 59,935 59,935 59,935 59,935 59,935

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 350 350 350 350 350 350 350

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)2120 120 120 120 120 120 120

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1. Water flow rate scales with typical capacity. The storage tanks must be purchased and installed separately from the HP unit. The typical output and flow rate provided are near the median of the products 

available on the market currently.

2. Costs are same as EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018), updated to 2022$. Updated representative costs for commercial heat pump water heaters are not available due to the extremely small market for 

these products.

Note: 

ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 went into effect in October 2018.

Return to Table of Contents

Higher typical efficiencies with the same costs as reference case despite increased efficiency
Final

Commercial Heat Pump Water Heaters

• Typical commercial HPWHs (CHPWHs) are add-on units designed to be used with a storage tank(s); integrated 

CHPWHs have emerged on the market (i.e., heat pump module and storage tank combined in one unit) in recent 

years.

• CHPWHs serve only a small portion of the commercial water heating (CWH) market, with the ENERGY STAR 

database listing only two manufacturers, each with one basic model listed.

• CHPWHs can extract heat from either air or water for heating potable water (“air-source” or “water-source”). The 

capacity of air-source CHPWHs falls at lower ambient air temperatures.

• Air-source CHPWHs cool the surrounding air, which can be desirable when installed indoors in applications with a 

year-round cooling load (e.g., a commercial kitchen).

• Output capacities for CHPWHs range from 17 kW to over 70 kW for air-source units and over 600 kW for water-source 

units.

• Some commercial applications require water as hot as 180 °F, such as dishwashing; however, most CHPWHs cannot 

deliver hot water at temperatures higher than 150 °F. 

• There are no current Federal standards for CHPWHs, but DOE prescribes a test procedure for determining COPhfor 

CHPWHs.

• The most recent ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 specification for CWH equipment went into effect in October 2018. It specifies a 

COPhlevel of 3.0 for CHPWHs. 

• Advanced Case: Due to increases in R&D, improvements in current technology (e.g., more cost-effective variable 

speed technology) are expected to increase efficiency without substantially increasing costs. 

156

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Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Storage Water Heaters

157

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Storage Capacity (gal) 70 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

Thermal Efficiency (%)179 81 80 81 82 81 82 81 82 81 82

Average Life (y) 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 5,470 5,470 5,470 5,470 5,470 5,470 5,470 5,470 5,470 5,470 5,470

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 6,120 6,120 6,120 6,120 6,120 6,120 6,120 6,120 6,120 6,120 6,120

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 26 25 26 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 210 210 210 210

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1. Different levels of standby loss were not included in this analysis. 

Note: 

The commercial oil-fired water heaters market is very small; currently, there are only 4 basic models in DOE’s CCD. DOE's rulemaking analysis for oil-fired water heaters has not been updated since 2001. The 

retail, installed, and maintenance costs have been updated from EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018) to 2022$.

The current standard went into effect in October 2015.

Return to Table of Contents

Same as Reference Case
Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Storage Water Heaters

• Input capacity > 155 kBtu/h and storage capacity ≤ 140 gal

• Federal standard:

— Minimum thermal efficiency: 80%

— Maximum standby loss (Btu/h) : Input Rate/800 + 110 × (Rated Volume)1/2

• Condensing units do not exist, thus the highest thermal efficiency on the market is 82%.

• Commercial units are typically constructed similar to residential units, though with higher input capacities (and often 

higher storage volumes).

• Maintenance costs include sediment and scale removal once or twice per year. 

• The market for commercial oil-fired storage water heaters is very small; shipments are approximately 3% of shipments 

for commercial gas-fired storage water heaters.

158

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Final

Commercial Electric Booster Water Heaters

159

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (gal)

6 6 6 6 6 6

16 16 16 16 16 16

Typical Output Capacity (kBtu/h) 1,374 1,374 1,374 1,374 1,374 1,374

Thermal Efficiency (%) 98 98 98 98 98 98

Average Life (y)

3 3 3 3 3 3

10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)1

1,530 1,530 1,920 1,920 1,920 1,920

3,290 3,530 4,560 4,560 4,560 4,560

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 1

1,730 1,730 2,120 2,120 2,120 2,120

3,490 3,730 4,760 4,760 4,760 4,760

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 2 2 3 3 3 3

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)2- - - - - -

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) - - - - - -

1. The 2012 and 2018 installed base costs are the same as EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018), updated to 2022$. Retail costs for 2022 and later are based on the range of costs for products on the market 

today. Installed costs assume a $200 installation price.

2. Maintenance costs are negligible.

Return to Table of Contents

Same as Reference Case
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Booster Water Heaters

160

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Current 

Standard Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (gal)

3 3 3 3 3 3 3

5 5 5 5 5 5 5

Typical Output Capacity (kBtu/h) 500 500 500 500 500 500 500

Thermal Efficiency (%)180 80 80 80 80 91 80

Average Life (y)

5 5 5 5 5 5 5

10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)2

5,530 5,760 7,130 7,130 7,130 9,500 7,130

8,000 9,060 11,120 11,120 11,120 12,500 11,120

Total Installed Cost (2022$)2

5,830 6,060 7,430 7,430 7,430 9,800 7,430

8,300 9,360 11,420 11,420 11,420 12,800 11,420

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 14 15 19 19 19 23 19

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 160 160 160 160 160 160 160

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1. While EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018) included high values reflecting condensing models, models currently available in the market do not exceed 80% efficiency.

2. The 2012 and 2018 installed base costs are the same as EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018), updated to 2022$. Retail costs for 2022 and later are based on the range of costs for products on the market 

today. Installed costs assume a $300 installation price.

Return to Table of Contents

Higher efficiencies with corresponding cost increases
Final

Commercial Booster Water Heaters

• Booster water heaters are installed, often at the point of use, in series with the main service water heating system to 

boost service water temperatures. The main service water heating system may provide 110-140 F water, and the 

booster water heater may increase that temperature to 180-195 F. Typical commercial applications for booster water 

heaters include commercial dishwashers, laundromats, hospitals, and car washes.

• Commercial booster water heaters are regulated by DOE as either storage or instantaneous water heaters, depending 

on the ratio of input capacity to storage volume. Units with input capacity < 4,000 Btu/h per gallon of stored water are 

storage water heaters; all other units are instantaneous water heaters.

• DOE’s regulations do not currently include standards for electric instantaneous water heaters, but standards are 

included for electric storage water heaters, gas-fired instantaneous water heaters, and gas-fired storage water heaters. 

• Condensing gas-fired booster water heaters, those with an efficiency of 90% of more, were analyzed previously. There 

are no condensing units currently on the market. Condensing gas-fired booster water heaters can only operate if the 

incoming water temperature is below 130 F so there is enough heat transfer to condense.

• Booster water heaters typically have short lifetimes because of high usage and extreme temperatures.

• Shipments are small due to the limited number of applications.

• Advanced Case: increased high efficiencies are possible due to market incentives to re-introduce condensing 

commercial gas-fired booster water heaters through additional investment, research, and development. No significant 

changes otherwise.

161

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Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters

162

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.0

High2 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 

250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250

399 399 399 399 399 399 399 399 399 399 399 399

Thermal Efficiency (%) 80 92 80 92 94 99 96 99 96 99 96 99

Average Life (y)

17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17

25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)1

1,630 1,840 1,630 1,840 1,880 7,990 1,930 7,990 1,930 7,990 1,930 7,990

4,400 8,610 4,400 8,610 9,000 9,990 9,400 9,990 9,400 9,990 9,400 9,990

Total Installed Cost (2022$)1

2,430 3,980 2,430 3,980 4,010 13,000 4,070 13,000 4,070 13,000 4,070 13,000

10,380 13,560 10,380 13,560 13,950 14,950 14,350 14,950 14,350 14,950 14,350 14,950

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 25 29 25 29 29 44 30 44 30 44 30 44

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)3

90 100 90 100 100 820 100 820 100 820 100 820

760 820 760 820 820 830 830 830 830 830 830 830

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 2 2 2 2 2 3 1 3 1 3 1 3

1. Commercial gas-fired instantaneous water heaters are categorized into two groups: tankless water heater and hot water supply boiler. Tankless units are similar in design to residential tankless units. The 

hot water supply boiler has a much higher input and is similar in design to boilers. The large variation of total input capacity and design causes a large range of costs. The range of retail, installed, and 

maintenance costs represent the differences in design, as well as the cost ranges arising from replacement versus new construction markets.

2. High efficiency was determined based on DOE's CCD. The most efficient tankless water heater has a thermal efficiency of 96%. The most efficient hot water supply boiler has a thermal efficiency of 99%.

3. Maintenance consists replacement of miscellaneous components such as gaskets and sealants. Condensing units have an additional cost for replacement of condensate neutralizer media every two years.

Note:

For the installed base, current standard, and typical costs, low values represent costs for tankless water heaters in the replacement market while high values represent costs for hot water supply boilers in the 

new construction market. The range of costs for the High values are estimated costs for hot water supply boilers in the replacement and new construction market.

ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 went into effect in October 2018.

Return to Table of Contents

Same as Reference Case
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters

• Storage Capacity < 10 gallons and ≥ 10 gallons

• Federal standard:

— Minimum thermal efficiency: 80%

— Maximum standby loss (Btu/h): Input Rate/800 + 110 x (Rated Volume)1/2

• ENERGY STAR requirements:

— Minimum thermal efficiency: 94% 

• Wall-mounted (“tankless”) units typically do not exceed ~400,000 Btu/h and are similar in design to residential 

tankless units. Floor-mounted units (“circulating” or “volume” water heaters) are similar in design to boilers and can 

have input capacities in the millions of Btu/h. Floor-mounted units are typically installed with a storage tank.

• Despite high available input capacities, some installations use multiple units staged together, which may have 

reliability and/or efficiency benefits.

• Similar to storage water heaters, higher efficiencies are achieved with condensing operation, which requires a 

condensing heat exchanger and inducer fan or power burner. Some units include both non-condensing and 

condensing heat exchangers, while others include a single condensing heat exchanger.

• When replacing a storage water heater with an instantaneous water heater, there may be significant additional costs to 

upsize the gas supply line and change the venting.

163

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Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters

Annual shipments for gas-fired instantaneous tankless water heaters have gradually increased since 2000 while those 

for gas-fired instantaneous hot water supply boiler water heaters peaked in 2008 and have been decreasing since then, 

recently stabilizing around 10,000 annual shipments.

Source: CWH EERE 2022 NOPR

164

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0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Unit Shipments (thousands)

Commercial Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heater

Tankless Hot Water Supply Boiler
Final

Commercial Solar Water Heaters

165

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical ENERGY 

STAR V. 4.0

ENERGY 

STAR V. 5.0 Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (sq. ft.)1

85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85

Typical Capacity (m2) 7.90 7.90 7.90 7.90 7.90 7.90 7.90 7.90

Typical Capacity (Input) (kBtu/h) – North 5.05 5.05 5.05 5.05 5.05 5.05 5.05 5.05

Typical Capacity (Input) (kBtu/h) – South 6.74 6.74 6.74 6.74 6.74 6.74 6.74 6.74

Solar Uniform Energy Factor (SUEF)2

3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0

Average Life (y) 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)3

10,470 10,470 10,280 10,280 10,280 10,280 10,280 10,280

Total Installed Cost (2022$)3

14,180 14,180 12,640 12,640 12,640 12,640 12,640 12,640

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) – North 936 936 834 834 834 834 834 834

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) – South 702 702 626 626 626 626 626 626

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)4100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) - North 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) - South 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

1. Typical capacity refers to the solar collector panel area. It was determined using the SRCC database as the average value of the largest bin (in terms of capacity) with the greatest number of units.

2. In 2020, the efficiency metric for solar water heaters changed from SEF to SUEF. There is no equation or scaling factor readily available to translate SEF to SUEF. Accordingly, for the 2012 and 2018 installed 

base, SUEF was determined using the 2020 ENERGY STAR data set assuming the typical SEF/SUEF value was similar between 2012-2020. For 2022 and beyond, due to lack of SUEF data, it is assumed that a 

typical electric backup unit would meet the ENERGY STAR criteria. ENERGY STAR specifies a minimum SUEF of 3.0 for electric backup units and 1.8 for gas backup units.

3. Costs are for an indirect (active closed loop) system, including tank and backup heater. Smaller capacity/cost systems are typical for southern & western states (>two-third of the current market). Higher 

capacity/cost systems are required in colder/cloudier regions. The 2012 and 2018 installed base costs are updated from EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018) to 2022$.

4. Annual maintenance is expected to be 0.5% to 1% of the total installation.

Note: 

ENERGY STAR V. 4.0 went into effect in January 2022. ENERGY STAR V. 5.0 will go into effect in April 2023 but the ENERGY STAR criteria for solar water heaters will remain the same in ENERGY STAR V. 5.0.

Return to Table of Contents

Same as Reference Case
Final

Commercial Solar Water Heaters

• In 2020, a diverse group of stakeholders from the solar thermal industry developed the SUEF Specification for solar 

water heaters. The goal of this specification is to align with the UEF metric used by DOE for other water heating 

technologies. 

• SUEF is also the metric used by the current ENERGY STAR Specification, and it replaced the SEF metric. 

• EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018) presented results using SEF and solar fraction (SF). SEF is currently not used 

in either the ENERGY STAR or SRCC databases; accordingly, this report presents results according to SUEF. SF is the 

portion of the total conventional hot water heating load (delivered energy and tank standby losses). SF varies from 0 to 

1.0. Typical solar fraction values are 0.5–0.75.

• There is no equation or scaling factor readily available to translate SEF to SUEF. Accordingly, for the 2012 and 2018 

installed base, SUEF was determined using the 2020 ENERGY STAR data set assuming the typical SEF/SUEF value 

was similar between 2012-2020. For 2022 and beyond, SUEF is the average SUEF for solar water heaters with a "highusage" draw pattern from the current ENERGY STAR qualified product list.

• Commercial solar water heaters are typically custom designed for a specific installation.

• Commercial solar water heaters may include backup heating, from sources such as electric resistance or hydronic heat 

(supplied from a gas-fired boiler or geothermal heat pump).

• Storage volumes of tanks for commercial solar water heaters can span from 140 gallons to over 2,000 gallons.

• SRCC’s OG-300 can be used to certify commercial systems, but most commercial systems are larger and unique; this 

certification program is mostly used for residential solar water heaters.

— Many incentive programs require that solar collectors for commercial systems be certified to SRCC’s certification 

program for collectors, OG-100.

166

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Final

Commercial Cooking Products

167

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Natural Gas Range with Griddle and Oven

168

1. ENERGY STAR does not cover combination products that include griddles, ranges, and ovens in one single package. The ENERGY STAR levels provided here reflect specifications for individual products. 

Range tops are not covered by ENERGY STAR.

2. ENERGY STAR V. 3.0 updated the requirements for commercial ovens from V. 2.2, effective January 2023. Data shown is reflective of a standard full-size convection oven that holds 5 or more pans.

3. Combined energy efficiency and combined idle energy rate are calculated as a weighted average of each component using typical daily operating hours sourced from Food Service Technology Center (FSTC). 

Typical daily operating hours are assumed to be 12 hours for the griddle component, 8 hours for the oven component, and 12 hours for the range component.

4. Products in the commercial cooking market generally do not scale in price with relation to cooking efficiency. Distributors also do not provide this information.

5. Maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

ENERGY STAR V. 2.2 went into effect in October 2015. ENERGY STAR V. 3.0 went into effect in January 2023.

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.21

High

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.02

Typical High Typical High Typical High

Griddle - Cooking Energy Efficiency 

(%) 30 30 40 38 69 NA 42 69 44 69 46 69

Oven - Cooking Energy Efficiency (%) 35 35 35 46 69 49 39 69 42 69 47 69

Range - Cooking Energy Efficiency (%) 30 30 30 NA 40 NA 33 40 36 40 39 40

Combined Energy Efficiency (%)331 31 35 NA 58 NA 38 58 41 58 44 58

Griddle - Normalized Idle Energy Rate 

(Btu/h/ft2)

3,000 3,000 3,000 2,650 1,724 NA 2,700 1,724 2,450 1,724 2,200 1,724

Oven - Idle Energy Rate (Btu/h) 18,000 18,000 18,000 12,000 3,516 9,500 16,200 3,516 14,600 3,516 13,150 3,516

Range - Idle Energy Rate (Btu/h) 3,600 3,600 3,600 NA 1,900 NA 3,250 1,900 2,950 1,900 2,650 1,900

Combined Idle Energy Rate (Btu/h)310,350 10,350 10,350 NA 4,178 NA 9,319 4,178 8,431 4,178 7,581 4,178

Average Life (y) 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)48,760 8,760 8,760 8,760 8,760 8,760 8,760 8,760 8,760 8,760 8,760 8,760

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 8,940 8,940 8,940 8,940 8,940 8,940 8,940 8,940 8,940 8,940 8,940 8,940

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 864 864 864 NA 2,140 NA 959 2,140 1,060 2,140 1,179 2,140

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)5– – – – – – – – – – – –

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) – – – – – – – – – – – –

Higher typical efficiencies with the same costs as ref. case despite increased efficiency

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Electric Range with Griddle and Oven

169

1. ENERGY STAR does not cover combination products that include griddles, ranges, and ovens in one single package. The ENERGY STAR levels provided here reflect specifications for individual products. 

Range tops are not covered by ENERGY STAR.

2. ENERGY STAR V. 3.0 updates the requirements for commercial ovens from V. 2.2, effective January 12, 2023. Data shown is reflective of a standard full-size convection oven that holds 5 or more pans.

3. Combined energy efficiency and combined idle energy rate are calculated as a weighted average of each component using typical daily operating hours sourced from FSTC. Typical daily operating hours are 

assumed to be 12 hours for the griddle component, 8 hours for the oven component, and 12 hours for the range component.

4. No data on electric range top idle energy rates.

5. Products in the commercial cooking market generally do not scale in price with relation to cooking efficiency. Distributors also do not provide this information.

6. Maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

ENERGY STAR V. 2.2 went into effect in October 2015. ENERGY STAR V. 3.0 goes into effect in January 2023.

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.21

High

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.02

Typical High Typical High Typical High

Griddle - Cooking Energy Efficiency 

(%) 65 70 72 70 91 NA 74 91 76 91 78 91

Oven - Cooking Energy Efficiency (%) 65 65 65 71 86 76 67 86 69 86 71 86

Range - Cooking Energy Efficiency (%) 75 75 75 NA 87 NA 77 87 80 87 81 87

Combined Energy Efficiency (%)369 71 71 NA 88 NA 73 88 76 88 77 88

Griddle - Normalized Idle Energy Rate 

(kW/ft2

)

0.44 0.34 0.30 0.32 0.21 NA 0.29 0.21 0.28 0.21 0.27 0.21

Oven - Idle Energy Rate (kW) 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 0.6 1.4 1.4 0.6 1.3 0.6 1.2 0.6

Range - Idle Energy Rate (kW)4 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

Combined Idle Energy Rate (kW)31.7 1.4 1.3 1.4 0.8 NA 1.3 0.8 1.2 0.8 1.1 0.8

Average Life (y) 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)511,230 11,230 11,230 11,230 11,230 11,230 11,230 11,230 11,230 11,230 11,230 11,230

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 11,410 11,410 11,410 11,410 11,410 11,410 11,410 11,410 11,410 11,410 11,410 11,410

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 2,019 2,362 2,533 2,375 4,423 NA 2,662 4,423 2,805 4,423 2,964 4,423

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)6– – – – – – – – – – – –

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) – – – – – – – – – – – –

Higher typical efficiencies with the same costs as ref. case despite increased efficiency

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Ranges with Griddle and Oven

• Combined product that typically includes 2-6 range tops, a 24 in. x 24 in. griddle surface, and one or two half- or fullsize ovens. 

• Combined product is not covered by ENERGY STAR. However, the individual product ENERGY STAR V. 2.2 

specifications are provided below.

• ENERGY STAR does not provide certification for range tops.

• There are no Federal standards for commercial cooking products.

• Product pricing in this market do not scale with efficiency, but rather depend on a number of other factors such as 

brand name, aesthetics, and additional features.

170

Product ENERGY STAR V. 2.2 

Requirements Gas Electric

Griddle

Cooking Energy Efficiency ≥ 38% ≥ 70%

Normalized Idle Energy Rate ≤ 2,650 Btu/h per ft2 ≤ 0.320 kW per ft2

Oven

Cooking Energy Efficiency ≥ 46% ≥ 71%

Idle Energy Rate ≤ 12,000 Btu/h Half size: ≤1.00 kW

Full size: ≤1.60 kW

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Ranges with Griddle and Oven

• ENERGY STAR V. 3.0 requirements for commercial ovens went into effect in January 2023:

• Advanced Case: Increased market incentives are expected to drive efficiency improvements. However, because cost 

does not scale with efficiency, there is no significant expected change in cost. 

171

Product ENERGY STAR 

Requirements Gas Electric

Oven

Cooking Energy Efficiency ≥ 49% Half size: ≥ 71%

Full size: ≥ 76%

Idle Energy Rate ≤ 9,500 Btu/h

Half size: ≤1.00 kW

Full size ≥ 5 Pans: 

≤1.40 kW

Full size ≤ 5 Pans: 

≤1.00 kW

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Ranges with Griddle and Oven

172

Commercial oven shipments have gradually increased since 2013, following a peak in 2009. Commercial griddle 

shipments have remained steady since 2014.

Source: ENERGY STAR (Unit Shipment Data)

0

50

100

150

200

250

2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021

Units (thousands)

Commercial Cooking Product Shipments

Commercial Ovens

Commercial Griddles

Return to Table of Contents
Final

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

State 

Standards Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

V. 2.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Interior Volume (ft3)

1

7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8

Maximum Idle Energy Rate (W)2312 312 312 312 168 168 250 168 200 168 200 168

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)31,025 1,025 1,025 1,025 552 552 820 552 656 552 656 552

Average Life (y) 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)43,200 3,200 3,200 3,200 3,800 3,800 3,200 3,800 3,200 3,800 3,200 3,800

Total Installed Cost (2022$)53,200 3,200 3,200 3,200 3,800 3,800 3,200 3,800 3,200 3,800 3,200 3,800

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 8,016 8,016 8,016 8,016 17,677 17,677 10,020 17,677 12,524 17,677 12,524 17,677

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 5– – – – – – – – – – – –

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) – – – – – – – – – – – –

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinets – Small

173

1. Interior volume is characterized by the product size classes reported by ENERGY STAR. The small size class covers units with interior volume less than 13 ft3. Interior volume for the small size class was determined based on 

the units in the ENERGY STAR database, accessed February 2023.

2. Maximum idle energy rate is a function of interior volume. For the small size class, ENERGY STAR and high values were determined for a representative 7.8 ft3 using the ENERGY STAR database, accessed February 2023. 

The typical value was assumed to be equivalent to the state standard for a representative 7.8 ft3 unit. 

3. Annual energy use is determined using the latest FEMP data from December 2021, which assumes that a typical 22.4 ft3 commercial hot food holding cabinet uses an average of 9 hours per day and 365 days per year. The 

small size class is assumed to use the same number of annual usage hours as the medium size class.

4. Retail equipment costs were determined using distributor information for undercounter, half-size, and full-size hot food holding cabinets.

5. Additional installation costs and maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 went into effect in October 2011 and was revised in December 2022. Massachusetts, Nevada, and Rhode Island state standards have adopted the ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 criteria that went into effect in 

October 2011. The majority of state standards (California, Colorado, Connecticut, DC, Maryland, New Hampshire, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Washington) implement the ENERGY STAR V. 1.0 specification that went 

into effect in August 2003, which is recorded in the table. ENERGY STAR V. 1.0 specifies a maximum idle energy rate of 40 W per cubic foot of interior volume.

Return to Table of Contents

Higher typical efficiencies with the same costs as ref. case despite increased efficiency
Final

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

State 

Standards Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

V. 2.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Interior Volume (ft3)

1

21.4 21.4 22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4 22.4

Maximum Idle Energy Rate (W)2900 856 896 896 299 298 717 298 573 298 459 298

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)32,957 2,812 2,943 2,943 982 979 2,355 979 1,884 979 1,507 979

Average Life (y) 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)42,940 4,530 4,600 4,600 5,000 5,000 4,600 5,000 4,600 5,000 4,600 5,000

Total Installed Cost (2022$)52,940 4,530 4,600 4,600 5,000 5,000 4,600 5,000 4,600 5,000 4,600 5,000

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 2,553 4,136 4,012 4,012 13,078 13,113 5,015 13,113 6,269 13,113 7,836 13,113

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 5– – – – – – – – – – – –

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) – – – – – – – – – – – –

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinets – Medium

174

1. Interior volume is characterized by the product size classes reported by ENERGY STAR. The medium size class covers units with interior volume between 13 ft3to 28 ft3. For the medium size class, the interior volume 

increase from 21.4 ft3to 22.4 ft3in 2022 reflects the current representative product volume reported by FEMP, last updated December 2021.

2. Maximum idle energy rate is a function of interior volume. For the medium size class, the maximum idle energy rate for 2022 onward is reflective of a representative 22.4 ft3 unit, using the latest FEMP data from December 

2021.

3. Annual energy use is determined using the latest FEMP data from December 2021, which assumes that a typical 22.4 ft3 commercial hot food holding cabinet uses an average of 9 hours per day and 365 days per year.

4. Retail equipment costs were determined using distributor information for undercounter, half-size, and full-size hot food holding cabinets.

5. Additional installation costs and maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 went into effect in October 2011 and was revised in December 2022. Massachusetts, Nevada, and Rhode Island state standards have adopted the ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 criteria that went into effect in 

October 2011. The majority of state standards (California, Colorado, Connecticut, DC, Maryland, New Hampshire, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Washington) implement the ENERGY STAR V. 1.0 specification that went 

into effect in August 2003, which is recorded in the table. ENERGY STAR V. 1.0 specifies a maximum idle energy rate of 40 W per cubic foot of interior volume.

Return to Table of Contents

Higher typical efficiencies with the same costs as ref. case despite increased efficiency
Final

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

State 

Standards Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

V. 2.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Interior Volume (ft3)

1

44.0 44.0 44.0 44.0 44.0 44.0 44.0 44.0 44.0 44.0 44.0 44.0

Maximum Idle Energy Rate (W)21,333 1,333 1,760 1,333 400 310 1,067 310 853 310 683 310

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)34,380 4,380 5,782 4,380 1,314 1,018 3,504 1,018 2,803 1,018 2,243 1,018

Average Life (y) 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)45,500 5,500 5,500 5,500 6,000 6,000 5,500 6,000 5,500 6,000 5,500 6,000

Total Installed Cost (2022$)55,500 5,500 5,500 5,500 6,000 6,000 5,500 6,000 5,500 6,000 5,500 6,000

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 3,224 3,224 2,442 3,224 11,723 15,126 4,030 15,126 5,037 15,126 6,296 15,126

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 5– – – – – – – – – – – –

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) – – – – – – – – – – – –

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinets – Large

175

1. Interior volume is characterized by the product size classes reported by ENERGY STAR. The large size class covers units with interior volume greater than or equal to 28 ft3. Interior volume for the large size class was 

determined based on the units in the ENERGY STAR database, accessed February 1, 2023.

2. Maximum idle energy rate is a function of interior volume. For the large size class, ENERGY STAR and high values were determined using the ENERGY STAR database, and the typical value uses the assumption that 

ENERGY STAR units are reported to be 70% more efficient than typical units.

3. Annual energy use is determined using the latest FEMP data from December 2021, which assumes that a typical 22.4 ft3 commercial hot food holding cabinet uses an average of 9 hours per day and 365 days per year. The 

large size class is assumed to use the same number of annual usage hours as the medium size class.

4. Retail equipment costs were determined using distributor information for undercounter, half-size, and full-size hot food holding cabinets.

5. Additional installation costs and maintenance costs are negligible.

Note:

ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 went into effect in October 2011 and was revised in December 2022. Massachusetts, Nevada, and Rhode Island state standards have adopted the ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 criteria that went into effect in 

October 2011. The majority of state standards (California, Colorado, Connecticut, DC, Maryland, New Hampshire, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Washington) implement the ENERGY STAR V. 1.0 specification that went 

into effect in August 2003, which is recorded in the table. ENERGY STAR V. 1.0 specifies a maximum idle energy rate of 40 W per cubic foot of interior volume.

Return to Table of Contents

Higher typical efficiencies with the same costs as ref. case despite increased efficiency
Final

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinets

• Hot food holding cabinets are used in commercial kitchens to keep food warm until it is served.

• While available in many shapes and sizes, interior volumes around 21.4 ft3 were reported as typical in many settings in 

EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018). FEMP currently lists 22.4 ft3 as a representative unit size.

• Annual unit energy consumption can range from < 1,000 to > 30,000 kWh/y, depending on size, efficiency, and usage.

• Energy performance metric is “Idle Energy Consumption Rate” in Watts, measured using ASTM Standard F2140-11.

• There are no Federal standards for hot food holding cabinets, but seven States have identical standards.

• The first State standard took effect in California in 2006; this standard is now considered the typical or “baseline” 

product. It is also equivalent to the ENERGY STAR V. 1.0 Specification that went into effect in August 2003.

• ENERGY STAR V. 2.0 went into effect in October 2011.

• Maximum Idle Energy Consumption Rate for products 12 ≤ V < 28:

— State standards: ≤ 40 × V (baseline)

— ENERGY STAR V. 2.0: ≤ 2.0 × V + 254 (about 65% below baseline)

where V is interior volume in ft3.

• The most efficient products are about 80% below baseline.

• Energy savings achieved with insulation, automatic door closers, magnetic door gaskets, and Dutch doors (half-doors).

• Advanced Case: Increased market incentives are expected to drive efficiency improvements. However, because cost 

does not scale with efficiency, there is no significant expected change in cost. 

176

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinets

177

Commercial hot food holding cabinet shipments peaked in 2007 at 115,000 units, followed by a peak of 90,000 units in 

2019.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022

Units (thousands)

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinets

Source: ENERGY STAR (Unit Shipment Data)

Return to Table of Contents
Final

A-1

Appendix A

Data Sources

Guidehouse

1676 International Drive

McLean, VA 22102

And

Leidos

11951 Freedom Drive 

Reston, VA 20190

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Space Heating and Cooling

A-2

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces (North) Return to Table of Contents

A-3

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

(North) 

V. 4.1

High Typical / High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR

AFUE (%) CFR DOE CCD

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.1

DOE CCD Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR

Electric Consumption (kWh/y) Residential Furnaces 

EERE 2016 Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR

Average Life (y) Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Residential Furnaces 

EERE 2016 Total Installed Cost (2022$) Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Furnaces (Rest of Country) Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

(ROC) 

V. 4.1

High Typical / High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR

AFUE (%) CFR DOE CCD

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.1

DOE CCD Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR

Electric Consumption (kWh/y) Residential Furnaces 

EERE 2016 Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR

Average Life (y) Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Residential Furnaces 

EERE 2016 Total Installed Cost (2022$) Residential Furnaces EERE 2022 NOPR

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

A-4
Final

Residential Oil-Fired Furnaces Return to Table of Contents

A-5

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.1

High Typical / High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) Residential Furnaces EERE 2011

AFUE (%) CFR DOE CCD

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.1

DOE CCD

Electric Consumption (kWh/y)

Residential Furnaces EERE 2011

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Boilers Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.0

High Typical / High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 

Boilers 

EERE 2016

Boilers EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

AFUE (%) Boilers EERE 2022 

Preliminary Analysis DOE CCD

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.0

Boilers EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

Electric Consumption (kWh/y)

Boilers EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

A-6
Final

Residential Oil-Fired Boilers Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.0

High Typical / High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 

Boilers 

EERE 2016

Boilers EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

Guidehouse

AFUE (%) Boilers EERE 2022 

Preliminary Analysis DOE CCD

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.0

Boilers EERE 

2022 Preliminary 

Analysis

Electric Consumption (kWh/y)

Boilers EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

A-7
Final

Residential Electric Resistance Furnaces Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Current 

Standard Typical Typical

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) Distributors

Guidehouse

AFUE (%) DOE / ASHRAE

Average Life (y) Distributors

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) EIA Technology 

Forecast Updates 

(2018)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building Construction 

Costs 2023 / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Guidehouse

A-8
Final

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) Distributors Utilities/Distributors

Guidehouse

Efficiency (%) DOE DOE

Average Life (y)

Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Distributors

Total Installed Cost (2022$) Home Remodeling Service

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Guidehouse

Residential Electric Resistance Unit Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-9
Final

Residential Central Air Conditioners – North (Not Hot-Dry or Hot-Humid) Return to Table of Contents

A-10

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

High New 

Standard

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.1

High Typical / High

Typical Input Capacity 

(kBtu/h) CAC and HP EERE 2016

Guidehouse

SEER CAC and HP EERE 

2016 / Guidehouse CFR DOE CCD

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

CAC and 

HP EERE 

2016

RESNET

CAC and 

HP EERE 

2016

SSER2 RESNET

CAC and 

HP EERE 

2016

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.1

RESNET

Average Life (y)

CAC and HP EERE 2016

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$) CAC and HP EERE 2016 / Less (2021)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$) CAC and HP EERE 2016
Final

Residential Central Air Conditioners – South (Hot-Dry and Hot-Humid) Return to Table of Contents

A-11

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

High New 

Standard

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.1

High Typical / High

Typical Input Capacity 

(kBtu/h) CAC and HP EERE 2016

Guidehouse

SEER CAC and HP EERE 

2016 / Guidehouse CFR DOE CCD

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

CAC and 

HP EERE 

2016

RESNET

CAC and 

HP EERE 

2016

SSER2 RESNET

CAC and 

HP EERE 

2016

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.1

RESNET

Average Life (y)

CAC and HP EERE 2016

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$) CAC and HP EERE 2016 / Less (2021)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$) CAC and HP EERE 2016
Final

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.2

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) Distributors RAC EERE 2022 NOPR

CEER (Btu/Wh) Guidehouse CFR DOE CCD

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.2

DOE CCD

Guidehouse

Average Life (y)

RAC EERE 

2011 RAC EERE 2022 NOPR

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Residential Room Air Conditioners Return to Table of Contents

A-12
Final

Residential Portable Air Conditioners Return to Table of Contents

A-13

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2025 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High New Standard High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) 

PAC EERE 2020/Guidehouse Guidehouse

CEER

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)
Final

Residential Swamp Coolers Return to Table of Contents

A-14

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

CFM

Product Literature / Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Power (Hp)

Average Life (y) TLC Plumbing / Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Product Literature / Gordian’s RSMeans Data –

Building Construction Costs 2023 / Guidehouse Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)
Final

Residential Air-Source Heat Pumps Return to Table of Contents

A-15

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

High New 

Standard

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.1

ENERGY 

STAR 

Cold 

Climate 

Criteria

High Typical/High

Typical Capacity 

(kBtu/h) CACs and HPs EERE 2016 Direct Final Rule

SEER (Cooling)

CACs and HPs 

EERE 2016 Direct 

Final Rule/ 

Guidehouse

CFR DOE CCD/

Guidehouse

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

CACs and 

HPs EERE 

2016 Direct 

Final Rule

CACs and 

HPs EERE 

2016 Direct 

Final Rule/

Guidehouse

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.1

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.1

CACs and 

HPs EERE 

2016 Direct 

Final Rule

CACs and HPs EERE 2016 Direct 

Final Rule/Guidehouse HSPF (Heating)

Average Life (y)

CACs and HPs EERE 2016 Direct Final Rule Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$)

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$)

Annual Maintenance 

Cost (2022$)
Final

Residential Ductless Mini-Split Air-Source Heat Pumps Return to Table of Contents

A-16

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 

AHRI/Guidehouse

Guidehouse

SEER

EER

HSPF

Average Life (y) CACs and HPs EERE 2016 Direct Final Rule

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building Construction Costs 2023 

/ Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) CACs and HPs EERE 2016 Direct Final Rule
Final

Residential Ground-Source Heat Pumps Return to Table of Contents

A-17

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.2

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h)

Water-Source Unitary 

Heat Pumps EERE 

2015 Final Rule / DOE 

CCD

Guidehouse

COP (Heating)

AHRI 

Database

AHRI 

Database / 

DOE CCD EER (Cooling)

Average Life (y)

Guidehouse / WaterSource Unitary Heat 

Pumps EERE 2015 

Final Rule 

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)
Final

Residential Natural Gas Heat Pumps Return to Table of Contents

A-18

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Typical

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) Manufacturer

Guidehouse

COP (Heating)

COP (Cooling) Product Literature

Annual Electric Use (kWh/y)

Average Life (y) Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) PERC

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Guidehouse

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)
Final

Residential Cordwood Stoves Return to Table of Contents

A-19

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) Distributors / Product Literature Guidehouse

Efficiency (Non-Catalytic) (HHV)

Guidehouse 

/ Literature EPA Certified Wood Stove Database (Room Heaters)

Efficiency (Catalytic) (HHV)

Average Life (y) Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Product Literature/Dealers

Total Installed Cost (2022$) Dealers Dealers/Guidehouse

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Dealers/Guidehouse
Final

Residential Wood Pellet Stoves Return to Table of Contents

A-20

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) Distributors / Product Literature Guidehouse

Efficiency (HHV)

EPA 

Default/

Literature/

Guidehouse

EPA Certified Wood Stove Database (Room Heaters)

Average Life (y) Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Product Literature/ Dealers

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 

Dealers/Guidehouse

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 
Final

Residential Water Heating

A-21

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Storage Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-22

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.0

High

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.0

Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (gal) 

Guidehouse

CWH 

EERE 2010 

Final Rule

/AHRI

CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

Guidehouse

Uniform Energy Factor DOE CCD CWH EERE 2022 

Preliminary Analysis

ENERGY 

STAR

CWH EERE 

2022 

Preliminary 

Analysis

ENERGY 

STAR

Average Life (y) CWH EERE 2010 Final 

Rule

CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Distributors 

CWH 

EERE 2010 

Final Rule

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 

EIA 

Technology 

Forecast 

Updates 

(2018)

CWH 

EERE 2010 

Final Rule

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$) 

CWH EERE 2010 Final 

Rule
Final

Residential Oil-Fired Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-23

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (gal) AHRI

CWH EERE 

2010 Final 

Rule/AHRI

CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary 

Analysis Guidehouse

Uniform Energy Factor Guidehouse AHRI/DOE 

CCD

Average Life (y)

CWH EERE 2010 Final 

Rule

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 
Final

Residential Electric Resistance Storage Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-24

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (gal) AHRI

CWH EERE 

2010 Final 

Rule/AHRI

CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary 

Analysis Guidehouse

Uniform Energy Factor Guidehouse AHRI/

DOE CCD

Average Life (y)

CWH EERE 2010 Final 

Rule

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 
Final

Residential Heat Pump Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-25

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (gal)

Guidehouse

AHRI CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary 

Analysis

Guidehouse

Uniform Energy Factor DOE CCD

CWH EERE 

2022 

Preliminary 

Analysis

ENERGY 

STAR

CWH EERE 

2022 

Preliminary 

Analysis

Average Life (y) CWH EERE 2010 Final 

Rule

CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary 

Analysis

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 

CWH EERE 

2010 Final 

Rule

Distributors

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 

CWH EERE 2010 Final 

Rule

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 
Final

Residential Solar Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-26

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base ENERGY STAR 

V. 4.0 Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (sq. ft.)

SRCC / Guidehouse

ENERGY STAR

Guidehouse

Solar Uniform Energy Factor (SUEF) DOE

Average Life (y) DOE / Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

EIA Technology Forecast Updates 

(2018)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data –

Building Construction Costs 2023

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Guidehouse DOE
Final

Residential Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-27

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

V. 4.0

High

ENERGY 

STAR

V. 5.0

Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) AHRI

CWH 

EERE 2010 

Final Rule

/AHRI

CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

Guidehouse

Uniform Energy Factor Guidehouse DOE CCD CWH EERE 2022 

Preliminary Analysis

ENERGY 

STAR

CWH EERE 

2022 

Preliminary 

Analysis

ENERGY 

STAR

Average Life (y)

CWH EERE 2010 Final 

Rule CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)
Final

Residential Electric Instantaneous Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-28

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h)

Guidehouse

CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary 

Analysis

Guidehouse

Uniform Energy Factor CWH EERE 2022 Preliminary 

Analysis/DOE CCD

Average Life (y)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building 

Construction Costs 2023 Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Guidehouse
Final

Residential Appliances

A-29

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Refrigerator-Freezers (Top)

A-30

Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3)

RF EERE 

2011 / 

Guidehouse

RF EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Energy Consumption (kWh/y) DOE CCD/ 

Guidehouse CFR DOE CCD ENERGY STAR DOE CCD

Average Life (y)

RF EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)
Final

Residential Refrigerator-Freezers (Side)

A-31

Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3)

RF EERE 

2011 / 

Guidehouse

RF EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Energy Consumption (kWh/y) DOE CCD/ 

Guidehouse CFR DOE CCD ENERGY STAR DOE CCD

Average Life (y)

RF EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)
Final

Residential Refrigerator-Freezers (Bottom)

A-32

Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.1

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (ft3)

RF EERE 

2011 / 

Guidehouse

RF EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Energy Consumption (kWh/y) DOE CCD/ 

Guidehouse CFR DOE CCD ENERGY STAR DOE CCD

Average Life (y)

RF EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)
Final

Residential Freezers (Chest)

A-33

Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical / High 

Typical Capacity (ft3

)

RF EERE 2011 / 

Guidehouse

RF EERE Preliminary Analysis 

2021/DOE CCD

Guidehouse

Energy Consumption (kWh/y) Guidehouse

RF EERE 

Preliminary 

Analysis 

2021

RF EERE 

Preliminary 

Analysis 

2021/DOE 

CCD

DOE CCD

Average Life (y)

RF EERE 2011 / 

Guidehouse

RF EERE Preliminary 

Analysis 2021

RF EERE 

Preliminary 

Analysis 

2021

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

RF EERE 

Preliminary 

Analysis 

2021/DOE 

CCD

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)
Final

Residential Freezers (Upright)

A-34

Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2022 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 5.1

High Typical / High 

Typical Capacity (ft3

)

RF EERE 2011/ 

Guidehouse RF EERE Preliminary Analysis 2021/ DOE CCD

Guidehouse

Energy Consumption (kWh/y) Guidehouse

RF EERE 

Preliminary 

Analysis 2021

RF EERE 

Preliminary 

Analysis 

2021/

DOE CCD

ENERGY 

STAR DOE CCD

Average Life (y)

RF EERE 2011 / 

Guidehouse RF EERE Preliminary Analysis 2021

RF EERE 

Preliminary 

Analysis 2021

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

RF EERE 

Preliminary 

Analysis 2021/

DOE CCD

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)
Final

Residential Natural Gas Cooktops

A-35

Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical High Typical / High 

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) Distributors / Product Literature

Guidehouse

Integrated Annual Energy Consumption (kBtu/y) Guidehouse / Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR

Cooking Efficiency (%) Guidehouse

Average Life (y) Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2020 NOPD

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR / Consumer 

Cooking Products EERE 2020 NOPD

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Guidehouse / Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR
Final

Residential Natural Gas Ovens

A-36

Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR / Product 

Literature

Guidehouse

Typical Cavity Volume (ft3) Consumer 

Cooking 

Products EERE 

2016 SNOPR

Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2020 

NOPD Integrated Annual Energy Consumption (kBtu/y)

Cooking Efficiency (%) Guidehouse

Average Life (y)

Consumer 

Cooking 

Products EERE 

2020 NOPD Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2020 

NOPD Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Consumer 

Cooking 

Products EERE 

2016 SNOPR Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Guidehouse / Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR
Final

Residential Natural Gas Ranges

A-37

Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity of Cooktop Component (kBtu/h) Distributors / Product Literature

Guidehouse

Typical Capacity of Oven Component (kBtu/h) Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR / Product 

Literature

Typical Cavity Volume of Oven Component (ft3)

Consumer 

Cooking Products 

EERE 2020 NOPD

Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2020 

NOPD Integrated Annual Energy Consumption (kBtu/y)

Guidehouse / 

Consumer 

Cooking Products 

EERE 2016 

SNOPR

Average Life (y)

Consumer 

Cooking Products 

EERE 2020 NOPD

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Guidehouse / Distributors / Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building 

Total Installed Cost (2022$) Construction Costs 2023

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Guidehouse / Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR
Final

Residential Electric Cooktops

A-38

Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical High Typical / High 

Typical Capacity (W) Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR / Distributors

Guidehouse

Integrated Annual Energy Consumption (kWh/y)

Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2020 NOPD

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Guidehouse / Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR
Final

Residential Electric Ovens

A-39

Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (W) Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR / Distributors

Guidehouse

Typical Cavity Volume (ft3) Consumer 

Cooking 

Products EERE 

2016 SNOPR

Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2020 

NOPD

Integrated Annual Energy Consumption (kWh/y)

Average Life (y)

Consumer 

Cooking 

Products EERE 

2020 NOPD

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Consumer 

Cooking 

Products EERE 

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 2020 NOPD

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Guidehouse / Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR
Final

Residential Electric Ranges

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity of Cooktop Component (W) 

Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR / Distributors

Guidehouse

Typical Capacity of Oven Component (W) 

Typical Cavity Volume of Oven Component (ft3) Consumer 

Cooking 

Products EERE 

2016 SNOPR

Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2020 

NOPD

Integrated Annual Energy Consumption (kWh/y)

Average Life (y)

Consumer 

Cooking 

Products EERE 

2020 NOPD

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Consumer 

Cooking 

Products EERE 

2020 NOPD Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Guidehouse / Consumer Cooking Products EERE 2016 SNOPR

A-40

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Electric Clothes Dryers

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2040

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical ENERGY STAR V. 1.1 High Typical / High 

Typical Capacity (ft3) DOE CCD

Guidehouse / 

DOE CCD / 

ENERGY 

STAR

Guidehouse

CEF, D1 (lb/kWh) Consumer 

Clothes 

Dryers EERE 

2022 NOPR / 

Guidehouse

DOE CCD

Consumer 

Clothes 

Dryers EERE 

2022 NOPR

DOE CCD ENERGY 

STAR V. 1.1

DOE CCD

CEF, D2 (lb/kWh) ENERGY 

STAR

Average Life (y) Consumer Clothes Dryers EERE 2022 NOPR

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Consumer Clothes Dryers EERE 2022 NOPR / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Consumer Clothes Dryers EERE 2022 NOPR

A-41

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Natural Gas Clothes Dryers

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical 

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 1.1

High Typical / High 

Typical Capacity (ft3) DOE CCD

Guidehouse

CEF, D1 (lb/kWh) Consumer 

Clothes 

Dryers EERE 

2022 NOPR / 

Guidehouse

DOE CCD

Consumer 

Clothes 

Dryers EERE 

2022 NOPR

DOE CCD ENERGY 

STAR V. 1.1 DOE CCD

CEF2, D2 (lb/kWh)

Average Life (y) Consumer Clothes Dryers EERE 2022 NOPR

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Consumer Clothes Dryers EERE 2022 NOPR / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Consumer Clothes Dryers EERE 2022 NOPR

A-42

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Clothes Washers (Front)

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical ENERGY STAR V. 8.1 High Typical / High 

Typical Capacity (ft3) Guidehouse

DOE CCD / 

Guidehouse

DOE CCD

DOE CCD

DOE CCD

DOE CCD

Guidehouse

Integrated Modified Energy Factor 

(ft3/kWh/cycle) AHAM / 

Guidehouse

RCW EERE 

2021 

Preliminary 

Analysis

ENERGY 

STAR V. 8.1 Integrated Water Factor (gal/cycle/ft3

)

Average Life (y) RCW EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis

Water Consumption (gal/cycle)

Guidehouse / RCW EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis

Hot Water Energy (kWh/cycle)

Machine Energy (kWh/cycle)

Dryer Energy (kWh/cycle)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) EIA 

Technology 

Forecast 

Updates 

(2018)

RCW EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis/ Distributors

Total Installed Cost (2022$) RCW EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis/ Guidehouse 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) RCW EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

A-43

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Clothes Washers (Top)

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical ENERGY STAR V. 8.1 High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (ft3) Guidehouse Guidehouse DOE CCD

DOE CCD

DOE CCD DOE CCD

Guidehouse

Integrated Modified Energy Factor 

(ft3/kWh/cycle) AHAM / 

Guidehouse

RCW EERE 2021 

Preliminary Analysis

ENERGY 

STAR V. 8.1 DOE CCD

Integrated Water Factor (gal/cycle/ft3)

Average Life (y) RCW EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis

Water Consumption (gal/cycle) RCW EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

Hot Water Energy (kWh/cycle)

Guidehouse

RCW EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

Machine Energy (kWh/cycle)

Dryer Energy (kWh/cycle)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) EIA 

Technology 

Forecast 

Updates 

Total Installed Cost (2022$) (2018)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) RCW EERE 2021 Preliminary Analysis / Guidehouse

A-44

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Residential Dishwashers

A-45

Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 6.0

High

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 7.0

Typical / High 

Typical Annual Energy Use (kWh/y) AHAM 

2014 / DW 

EERE 2012 

Final Rule

Guidehouse 

/ DOE CCD 

/ ENERGY 

STAR

CFR

Guidehouse 

/ DOE CCD 

/ ENERGY 

STAR

ENERGY 

STAR

DW EERE 

2022 

Preliminary 

Analysis

ENERGY 

STAR

Guidehouse

Water Consumption (gal/cycle)

Water Heating Energy Use (kWh/y)

AHAM 

2014 / DW 

EERE 2012 

Final Rule

DW EERE 

2016 Direct 

Final Rule

DW EERE 2022 Preliminary Analysis

Average Life (y) DW EERE 2016 Direct 

Final Rule/Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) DW EERE 

2012 Final 

Rule

DW EERE 

2016 Direct 

Final Rule Total Installed Cost (2022$)
Final

Commercial Space Heating and Cooling

A-46

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Furnaces Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High New Standard Typical High Typical/High

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 

AHRI

CWAF 

EERE 2015 DOE CCD

Guidehouse

Thermal Efficiency (%) DOE CCD CFR DOE CCD CFR

Typical Output Capacity (kBtu/h) Guidehouse

Average Life (y)

CWAF EERE 2015

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

A-47
Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Furnaces Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High New Standard Typical Typical/High

Typical Input Capacity 

(kBtu/h) AHRI DOE 

CCD

DOE CCD

Guidehouse

Thermal Efficiency (%) 10 CFR 

431.77 DOE CCD 10 CFR 431.77

Typical Output Capacity 

(kBtu/h) Guidehouse

Average Life (y)

CWAF EERE 2015

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

A-48
Final

Commercial Electric Resistance Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-49

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Small Large Small Large Small Large Small Large Small Large Small Large 

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) Distributors/Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Efficiency (%) Guidehouse/DOE

Average Life (y) Technology Cost and Performance File for Commercial Model for 

AEO2010

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) 

EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018)

Gordian’s RSMeans 

Data – Building 

Construction Costs 

2023

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Guidehouse

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Electric Boilers Return to Table of Contents

A-50

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical

Typical Capacity (kW) BSRIA Guidehouse

Efficiency (%) EERE / Guidehouse

Average Life (y) ASHRAE 2007 HVAC 

Applications

ASHRAE 2015 HVAC 

Applications ASHRAE 2019 HVAC Applications

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building Construction Costs 2023 / 

Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building Construction Costs 2023

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Boilers Return to Table of Contents

A-51

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base 

Installed 

Base 

Current 

Standard Typical High New Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity 

(kBtu/h) Guidehouse Comm. Packaged Boilers EERE 2020

Thermal Efficiency (%)

ASHRAE 

Standard 

90.1-2004 / 

Guidehouse

Comm. 

Packaged 

Boilers 

EERE 2020 / 

Guidehouse

DOE CCD Comm. Packaged Boilers EERE 2020/Guidehouse

Average Life (y)

Comm. 

Heating, 

AC, WH 

EERE 2009

Comm. Packaged Boilers EERE 2020

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$) EIA 

Technology 

Forecast 

Updates 

(2018)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)

Comm. 

Heating, 

AC, WH 

EERE 2009

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Boilers Return to Table of Contents

A-52

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base 

Installed 

Base 

Current 

Standard Typical High New Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Input Capacity 

(kBtu/h) Guidehouse Comm. Packaged Boilers EERE 2020

Thermal Efficiency (%)

ASHRAE 

Standard 

90.1-2004 / 

Guidehouse

Comm. 

Packaged 

Boilers 

EERE 2020 / 

Guidehouse

DOE CCD Comm. Packaged Boilers EERE 2020/Guidehouse

Average Life (y)

Comm. 

Heating, 

AC, WH 

EERE 2009

Comm. Packaged Boilers EERE 2020

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$) EIA 

Technology 

Forecast 

Updates 

(2018)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)

Comm. 

Heating, 

AC, WH 

EERE 2009

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Centrifugal Chillers (Water-Cooled) Return to Table of Contents

A-53

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

ASHRAE 

90.1-2019 Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (tons) IPCC/ARB/TEAP/Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Efficiency (kW/ton) ASHRAE 

90.1-

2010/FEMP/

eSource/

Product 

Literature

ASHRAE 90.1-2019/Product Lit

COP

Average Life (y)

2007 

ASHRAE 

Applications 

Handbook

2015 ASHRAE Applications Handbook A37 

Table 4

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$/ton) EIA 

Technology 

Forecast 

Updates 

(2018)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building Construction 

Costs 2023 Total Installed Cost (2022$/ton)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/ton)

Guidehouse/Alabama Power Annual Maitnenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Reciprocating Chillers (Air-Cooled Only) Return to Table of Contents

A-54

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed 

Base

ASHRAE 

90.1-2019 Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (tons) BSRIA/DEER Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Efficiency (kW/ton)

ASHRAE 90.1-

2010/DEER/

FEMP/Product 

Literature

ASHRAE 

90.1-2016 

(>150 TR)

ASHRAE 90.1-2019 Product Lit

COP

ASHRAE 90.1-

2010/DEER/

FEMP/Product 

Literature

ASHRAE 

90.1-2016 

(>150 TR)

Average Life (y) Manufacturers 2015 ASHRAE Applications Handbook A37 

Table 4

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$/ton)

EIA Technology Forecast 

Updates (2018)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building 

Construction Costs 2023 Total Installed Cost (2022$/ton)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/ton)

Guidehouse/Alabama Power Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Screw Chillers (Air-Cooled Only) Return to Table of Contents

A-55

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base ASHRAE 

90.1-2019 Typical High Typical/High

Typical Capacity (tons) Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Efficiency (kW/ton)

Guidehouse ASHRAE 90.1-

2016 (>150 TR)

ASHRAE 90.1-

2019 (>150 TR)

ASHRAE 90.1-

2019 (>150 

TR)/Product 

Lit

Product Lit

COP

Average Life (y) Manufacturers FacilitiesNet 

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$/ton)

EIA Technology Forecast 

Updates (2018)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building 

Construction Costs 2023 / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$/ton)

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/ton)

Guidehouse/Alabama Power

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Scroll Chillers (Air-Cooled Only) Return to Table of Contents

A-56

SOURCE

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

ASHRAE 

90.1-2019 Typical High Typical / High

Typical Capacity (tons) Guidehouse/Manufacturers

Guidehouse

Efficiency [full-load/IPLV] 

(kW/ton)

Guidehouse Product Lit/ 

Guidehouse

ASHRAE 

90.1-2019 

(>150 TR)

Product Lit/ 

Guidehouse Product Lit

COP [full-load/IPLV]

Average Life (y) Manufacturers

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$/ton)

EIA Technology Forecast 

Updates (2018)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building 

Construction Costs 2023 / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$/ton)

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/ton)

Guidehouse/Alabama Power

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Chillers (Water-Cooled, Direct-Fired Only) Return to Table of Contents

A-57

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base: 

Absorption

Installed 

Base: 

EngineDriven

Installed 

Base: 

Absorption

Installed 

Base: 

EngineDriven

ASHRAE 

90.1-2019 

Absorption

CA Title 24 

– EngineDrivenAbsorption EngineDriven Absorption/Engine-Driven

Typical Capacity (tons) BSRIA/Distributors

Guidehouse

COP [full-load]

Product Literature/

Guidehouse Product Lit

ASHRAE 

90.1-2019 

Direct-fired 

Double 

Effect

CA Title 24 

Gas Engine 

Standard

Product Lit

COP [IPLV]

Average Life (y)

2007 ASHRAE 

Applications 

Handbook/

Distributors

2015 ASHRAE Applications Handbook A37 Table 4

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$/ton)

EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018) Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building 

Construction Costs 2023 / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/ton)

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/ton) Guidehouse/Alabama Power Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Rooftop Air Conditioners Return to Table of Contents

A-58

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.1

High New 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Output Capacity 

(kBtu/h)

AHRI / 

Guidehouse CUAC EERE 2016

Part Load Efficiency (IEER) CUAC EERE 2016 CUAC EERE 2016 / Guidehouse ENERGY 

STAR CUAC EERE 2016 ENERGY STAR

CUAC 

EERE 

2016

Efficiency (EER) CUAC EERE 2016 / Guidehouse

Efficiency Conversion Calculated

Average Life (y) CUAC EERE 2016

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$)

Distributors 

/ 

Guidehouse 

/ DEER, 2008

CUAC EERE 2016

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$) CUAC EERE 2016

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Engine-Drive Rooftop Air Conditioners Return to Table of Contents

A-59

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Typical

Typical Capacity (tons)

EIA Technology Forecast Updates (2018)

Guidehouse

Heating COP

Cooling COP

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost ($/ton)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building Construction Costs 2023 / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost ($/ton)

Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Rooftop Heat Pumps Return to Table of Contents

A-60

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.1

High New 

Standard

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 4.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity 

(kBtu/h) CUHP EERE 2016

CUHP EERE 2016 / Guidehouse Part Load Efficiency 

(IEER) CUHP EERE 2016 / Guidehouse ENERGY 

STAR CUHP EERE 2016 ENERGY STAR

CUHP 

EERE 

COP (Heating) 2016

Average Life (y)

EIA 

Technology 

Forecast 

Updates 

(2018)

CUHP EERE 2016

Retail Equipment 

Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$)

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual 

Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)

Annual 

Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Ground-Source Heat Pumps Return to Table of Contents

A-61

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) U.S. DOE/EIA Water-Source Unitary Heat Pumps EERE 2015 

Final Rule

Guidehouse

COP (Heating)

Guidehouse AHRI Database

EER (Cooling)

Average Life (y) Guidehouse / Water-Source Unitary Heat Pumps EERE 2015 Final 

Rule 

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Distributors/G

uidehouse

Water-Source Unitary Heat Pumps 2015 EERE 

Final Rule / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$) U.S. 

DOD/IGSHPA

/MA 

DOER/CEFIA/

ASHRAE

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Geothermal 

Heat Pump 

Consortium, 

Inc. (U.S. DOE 

Contract DEFG07-

95ID13347)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Packaged Terminal Air Conditioners Return to Table of Contents

A-62

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h)

PTAC & PTHP EERE 2022 NOPD PTAC & PTHP EERE 2022 NOPD / Guidehouse

Efficiency (EER)

Efficiency

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Packaged Terminal Heat Pumps Return to Table of Contents

A-63

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h)

PTAC & PTHP EERE 2022 NOPD PTAC & PTHP EERE 2022 NOPD / Guidehouse

Efficiency (EER)

Efficiency

COP (Heating)

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Water Heating

A-64

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Storage Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-65

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Storage Capacity (gal)

EIA 

Technology 

Forecast 

Updates 

(2018)

CWH EERE 2022 NOPR

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 

Thermal Efficiency (%) DOE CCD / 

Guidehouse CFR DOE CCD / Guidehouse

ENERGY 

STAR DOE CCD CWH EERE 2022 NOPR / Guidehouse

Average Life (y) CWH EERE 2022 NOPR

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

CWH EERE 2022 NOPR

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Electric Resistance Storage Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-66

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Current 

Standard Typical Typical

Typical Storage Capacity (gal)

Product 

Literature / 

Guidehouse

CWH EERE 2016 NOPR

Guidehouse

Typical Input Capacity (kW) Product 

Literature Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h)

Thermal Efficiency (%) Guidehouse

Average Life (y) CWH EERE 2016 NOPR

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

CWH EERE 2016 

NOPR / 

Guidehouse

CWH EERE 2016 NOPR

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Heat Pump Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-67

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical ENERGY STAR 

V. 2.0 Typical Typical Typical

Water Flow Rate (gal/min)

Distributors/Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Typical Output Capacity (kW)

Typical Output Capacity (kBtu/h)

Coefficient of Performance (COPh)

Average Life (y) EERE/Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

EIA Technology Forecast Updates 

(2018) Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Guidehouse

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Oil-Fired Storage Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-68

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Current 

Standard Typical High Typical/High

Typical Storage Capacity (gal)

AHRI / 

Guidehouse DOE CCD/Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Typical Input Capacity (kBtu/h) 

Thermal Efficiency (%) Guidehouse CFR DOE CCD

Average Life (y) Commercial Heating, Air Conditioning and Water Heating Equipment EERE 2001

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Distributors / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Electric Booster Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-69

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (gal)

Product Literature / Guidehouse

Typical Output Capacity (kBtu/h)

Thermal Efficiency (%)

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Booster Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-70

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Current 

Standard Typical Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (gal)

Product Literature / Guidehouse Guidehouse

Typical Output Capacity (kBtu/h)

Thermal Efficiency (%)

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Gas-Fired Instantaneous Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-71

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

Current 

Standard Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.0

High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Typical Capacity (kBtu/h) DOE CCD

DOE CCD / Guidehouse

Thermal Efficiency (%) Guidehouse/DOE CCD DOE CCD ENERGY 

STAR DOE CCD

Average Life (y)

CWH EERE 2022 NOPR

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Solar Water Heaters Return to Table of Contents

A-72

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed Base Installed Base Typical ENERGY 

STAR V. 4.0

ENERGY 

STAR V. 5.0 Typical Typical Typical

Typical Capacity (sq. ft.)

SRCC / Guidehouse

Guidehouse

Typical Capacity (m2)

Typical Capacity (Input) (kBtu/h) - North

Typical Capacity (Input) (kBtu/h) - South

Solar Uniform Energy Factor (SUEF) ENERGY STAR / Guidehouse

Average Life (y) SRCC / Guidehouse

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) EIA Technology Forecast 

Updates (2018)

Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building 

Construction Costs 2023 / Guidehouse Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) - North

Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) - South

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) - North DOE / Guidehouse

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) - South
Final

Commercial Cooking Products

A-73

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Natural Gas Range with Griddle and Oven

A-74

Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.2 

High

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.0

Typical/High

Griddle - Cooking Energy Efficiency (%)

Guidehouse FSTC

ENERGY 

STAR / FSTC

ENERGY 

STAR

ENERGY 

STAR

NA

Guidehouse

Oven - Cooking Energy Efficiency (%) ENERGY 

STAR

Range - Cooking Energy Efficiency (%) FEMP / CEC NA FEMP / CEC NA

Combined Energy Efficiency (%) Guidehouse / FSTC

Griddle - Normalized Idle Energy Rate 

(Btu/h/ft2)

Guidehouse FSTC ENERGY 

STAR / FSTC ENERGY 

STAR

ENERGY 

STAR

NA

Oven - Idle Energy Rate (Btu/h) FEMP ENERGY 

STAR

ENERGY 

STAR

Range - Idle Energy Rate (Btu/h) FSTC NA FSTC NA

Combined Idle Energy Rate (Btu/h) Guidehouse / FSTC / Distributors

Average Life (y) FSTC

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Distributors

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

FSTC / Guidehouse Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

FSTC Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Electric Range with Griddle and Oven

A-75

Return to Table of Contents

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base Typical

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.2 

High

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 3.0

Typical/High

Griddle - Cooking Energy Efficiency (%)

Guidehouse FSTC

FSTC / 

ENERGY 

STAR / 

Guidehouse

ENERGY 

STAR

ENERGY 

STAR

NA

Guidehouse

Oven - Cooking Energy Efficiency (%) ENERGY 

STAR

Range - Cooking Energy Efficiency (%) NA CEC NA

Combined Energy Efficiency (%) Guidehouse / FSTC

Griddle - Normalized Idle Energy Rate 

(kW/ft2

)

Guidehouse FSTC

FSTC / 

ENERGY 

STAR / 

Guidehouse

ENERGY 

STAR

ENERGY 

STAR

NA

Oven - Idle Energy Rate (kW) ENERGY 

STAR

Range - Idle Energy Rate (kW) NA

Combined Idle Energy Rate (kW) Guidehouse / FSTC / Distributors

Average Life (y) FSTC

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Distributors

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

FSTC / Guidehouse Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost FSTC

(2022$/kBtu/h)
Final

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinets – Small

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

State 

Standards Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

V. 2.0

High Typical/High

Interior Volume (ft3) FEMP / ENERGY STAR

Guidehouse

Maximum Idle Energy Rate (W) CEE / 

Guidehouse FEMP ASAP

ASAP / 

ENERGY 

STAR

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.0

FEMP / 

ENERGY 

STAR

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)

FEMP

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Distributors / ENERGY STAR Savings Calculator / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

FSTC

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

A-76

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinets – Medium

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

State 

Standards Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

V. 2.0

High Typical/High

Interior Volume (ft3) FEMP / ENERGY STAR

Guidehouse

Maximum Idle Energy Rate (W) CEE / 

Guidehouse FEMP ASAP

ASAP / 

ENERGY 

STAR

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.0

FEMP / 

ENERGY 

STAR

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)

FEMP

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Distributors / ENERGY STAR Savings Calculator / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

FSTC

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

A-77

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinets – Large

SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040

Installed 

Base

Installed 

Base

State 

Standards Typical

ENERGY 

STAR

V. 2.0

High Typical/High

Interior Volume (ft3) FEMP / ENERGY STAR

Guidehouse

Maximum Idle Energy Rate (W) CEE / 

Guidehouse FEMP ASAP

ASAP / 

ENERGY 

STAR

ENERGY 

STAR 

V. 2.0

FEMP / 

ENERGY 

STAR

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)

FEMP

Average Life (y)

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) Distributors / ENERGY STAR Savings Calculator / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

FSTC

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

A-78

Return to Table of Contents
Final

Appendix B

References

Guidehouse

1676 International Drive

McLean, VA 22102

And

Leidos

11951 Freedom Drive 

Reston, VA 20190

B-1

Return to Table of Contents
Final

References

• AHRI. Air Conditioners Monthly Shipments, Retrieved August 2022 from: https://ahrinet.org/statistics

• AHRI. Furnaces Historical Data, Retrieved August 2022 from: https://ahrinet.org/statistics

• Alabama Power (n.d.). Chillers: Compare Maintenance Costs. Retrieved September 2017 from: 

http://www.alabamapower.com/business/ways-to-save/chillers-space-cooling-options/compare-maintenancecosts.html

• ASAP. Hot Food Holding Cabinets. Retrieved October 2022 from https://appliance-standards.org/product/hot-foodholding-cabinets

• ASHRAE. (2004). ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004. ASHRAE, Inc.

• ASHRAE. (2007). ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2007. ASHRAE, Inc.

• ASHRAE. (2016). ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2016. ASHRAE, Inc.

• ASHRAE. (2019). ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2019. ASHRAE, Inc.

• ASHRAE. (2015). 2015 ASHRAE Handbook – HVAC Applications. ASHRAE Inc.

• Building Services Research and Information Association & Ducker Research Company. (1997, 1998). U.S. Market for 

Central Plant Air Conditioning; Market for Ducted Warm Air Central Heating; U.S. Market for Hydronic Heating and 

Burners; U.S. Water Heating Market; U.S. Unitary and Close Control Air Conditioning. 

• California Energy Commission. (2019). Building Energy Efficiency Standards for Residential and Nonresidential 

Buildings.

• CEC. (n.d.). California Energy Commission Appliance Efficiency Database. Retrieved 2004, September 2010, June 2013, 

and October 2022 from: http://www.appliances.energy.ca.gov/AdvancedSearch.aspx

Return to Table of Contents

B-2
Final

References

• CEE. (2009). “Commercial Hot Food Holding Cabinets Program Guide.” Consortium for Energy Efficiency. April 2009.

• CFR. (n.d.). National energy conservation standards authorized under the Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 

(EPCA) and codified in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).

• DOE. (n.d.). Estimating the Cost and Energy Efficiency of a Solar Water Heater. Retrieved October 2022 from 

https://energy.gov/energysaver/estimating-cost-and-energy-efficiency-solar-water-heater

• DOE. (n.d.). Solar Water Heaters. Retrieved October 2022 from https://energy.gov/energysaver/solar-water-heaters 

• Distributors. (n.d.). Guidehouse online research and discussions with distributors (e.g., Grainger, Home Depot, 

Lowe’s, Sears, and others).

• EERE. (2001). Energy Efficiency Program for Commercial and Industrial Equipment; Efficiency Standards for 

Commercial Heating, Air Conditioning and Water Heating Equipment; Final Rule.

• EERE. (2007). Energy Conservation Program for Consumer Products: Energy Conservation Standards for Residential 

Furnaces and Boilers; Final Rule. 

• EERE. (2008). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Clothes Washers; Direct 

Final Rule.

• EERE. (2009). Energy Conservation Program for Certain Industrial Equipment: Energy Conservation Standards and 

Test Procedures for Commercial Heating, Air-Conditioning, and Water-Heating Equipment; Final Rule.

• EERE. (2010). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Water Heaters, Direct 

Heating Equipment, and Pool Heaters; Final Rule. 

B-3

Return to Table of Contents
Final

References

• EERE. (2011). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Clothes Dryers and 

Room Air Conditioners; Direct Final Rule.

• EERE. (2011). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Furnaces and Residential 

Central Air Conditioners and Heat Pumps; Direct Final Rule.

• EERE. (2011). Energy Conservation Program: Standards for Residential Refrigerators, Refrigerator-Freezers, and 

Freezers; Final Rule.

• EERE. (2012). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Clothes Washers; Direct 

Final Rule.

• EERE. (2014). Energy Conservation Standards for Residential/Consumer Clothes Dryers.

• EERE. (2014). Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Conventional Cooking Products (Ovens).

• EERE. (2014). Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Furnaces.

• EERE. (2015). Energy Efficiency Program For Consumer Products And Commercial And Industrial Equipment: 

Commercial Warm Air Furnaces.

• EERE. (2015). Final Rule Technical Support Document: Energy Efficiency Program for Small, Large, and Very Large 

Commercial Package Air Conditioners.

• EERE. (2016). Energy Conservation Program for Certain Industrial Equipment: Energy Conservation Standards for 

Small, Large, and Very Large Air-Cooled Commercial Package Air Conditioning and Heating Equipment and 

Commercial Warm Air Furnaces; Direct final rule and Technical Support Document.

• EERE. (2016). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Boilers.

Return to Table of Contents

B-4
Final

References

• EERE. (2016). Final Rule Technical Support Document: Energy Efficiency Program for Residential Central Air 

Conditioners and Heat Pumps.

• EERE. (2016). Energy Conservation Program for Certain Industrial Equipment: Energy Conservation Standards for 

Commercial Water Heating Equipment: Notice of Proposed Rulemaking.

• EERE. (2017). Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Clothes Washers.

• EERE. (2020). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Commercial Packaged Boilers; Final 

rule 

• EERE. (2020). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Portable Air Conditioners.

• EERE. (2020). Final Rule Technical Support Document: Energy Efficiency Program for Consumer Products and 

Commercial and Industrial Equipment: Portable Air Conditioners.

• EERE. (2021). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Refrigerators, Refrigerator-Freezers, 

and Freezers.; Preliminary Analysis

• EERE. (2021). Energy Conservation Program: Product Classes for Residential Dishwashers, Residential Clothes 

Washers, and Consumer Clothes Dryers.

• EERE. (2022). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Residential Boilers; Preliminary 

Analysis.

• EERE. (2022). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Room Air Conditioners; Notice of 

Proposed Rulemaking.

• EERE (2022). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Packaged Terminal Air Conditioners 

and Packaged Terminal Heat Pumps; Notice of Proposed Determination. B-5

Return to Table of Contents
Final

References

• EERE (2022). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Consumer Water Heaters; 

Preliminary Analysis.

• EERE (2022). Energy Conservation Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Commercial Water Heating 

Equipment; Notice of Proposed Rulemaking.

• EIA – Technology Forecast Updates – Residential and Commercial Building Technologies. (2018). Retrieved August 

2022 from: https://www.eia.gov/analysis/studies/buildings/equipcosts/pdf/appendix-a.pdf

• ENERGY STAR Savings Calculator (n.d.). “Savings Calculator for ENERGY STAR Qualified Commercial Kitchen 

Equipment.” U.S. EPA and DOE. Retrieved June 2013 from 

http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=bulk_purchasing.bus_purchasing

• ENERGY STAR. (n.d.). Retrieved June 2013, September 2017, and October 2022, from ENERGY STAR Products: 

http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=products.pr_find_es_products

• EPA. USEPA Certified Wood Stove Database. Retrieved August 2022 from: 

https://cfpub.epa.gov/oarweb/woodstove/index.cfm?fuseaction=app.search

• FacilitiesNet. (2009). Properly Diagnosing Chiller Life Cycles. Retrieved September 2017 from: 

http://www.facilitiesnet.com/hvac/article/Properly-Diagnosing-Chiller-Life-Cycles--10645

• FEMP. (2012). “Federal Energy Management Program: Covered Product Category: Hot Food Holding Cabinets.” 

Retrieved June 2013 from: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/technologies/printable_versions/eep_hot_food.html

• FEMP. (2016, August). Purchasing Energy-Efficient Air-Cooled Chillers. Retrieved September 2017, from FEMP 

Technologies: https://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/technologies/eep_ac_chillers.html

Return to Table of Contents

B-6
Final

References

• FEMP. (2016, August). Purchasing Energy-Efficient Water-Cooled Electric Chillers. Retrieved September 2017, from 

FEMP Technologies: https://energy.gov/eere/femp/purchasing-energy-efficient-water-cooled-electric-chillers

• FEMP. (2020, June). Purchasing Energy-Efficient Air-Cooled Electric Chillers. Retrieved September 2022, from FEMP 

Technologies: https://energy.gov/eere/femp/purchasing-energy-efficient-air-cooled-electric-chillers

• FEMP. (2020, June). Purchasing Energy-Efficient Water-Cooled Electric Chillers. Retrieved September 2022, from 

FEMP Technologies: https://energy.gov/eere/femp/purchasing-energy-efficient-water-cooled-electric-chillers

• FEMP. (2021, December). Purchasing Energy-Efficient Hot Food Holding Cabinets. Retrieved October 2022 from FEMP 

Technologies: https://www.energy.gov/eere/femp/purchasing-energy-efficient-hot-food-holding-cabinets

• FSTC. (n.d.). Appliance Reports, Rangetop Performance Reports. Retrieved December 2017, from: 

https://fishnick.com/publications/appliancereports/rangetops/

• FSTC. (n.d.). Appliance Reports, Griddle Performance Reports. Retrieved December 2017, from: 

https://fishnick.com/publications/appliancereports/griddles/

• Gordian’s RSMeans Data – Building Construction Costs 2023. Copyright RSMeans and Gordian. 30 Patewood Dr. Suite 

350, Greenville, SC, 29615; All rights reserved.

• Guidehouse. (n.d.). In-House Expertise.

• Less et. al. (2021). The Cost of Decarbonization and Energy Upgrade Retrofits for US Homes. Retrieved February 2023 

from: https://eta-publications.lbl.gov/sites/default/files/final_walker_-_the_cost_of_decarbonization_and_energy.pdf

• IGSPHA. (n.d.). International Ground-Source Heat Pump Association. Retrieved 2007 from www.igshpa.okstate.edu

Return to Table of Contents

B-7
Final

References

• International Ground-Source Heat Pump Association (IGSHPA) Conference Proceedings. (2012, October). Measuring 

the Costs & Benefits of Nationwide Geothermal Heat Pump (GHP) Deployment – A Progress Report. Retrieved June 

2013, from IGSHPA: http://www.igshpa.okstate.edu/membership/members_only/proceedings/2012/10-3-2012-0130-

Session-C-Measuring-the-Costs-&-Benefits-of-Nationwide-Geothermal-Heat-Pump-(GHP)-Deployment-A-ProgressReport.pdf

• Manufacturers. (n.d.). Guidehouse discussions with product manufacturers.

• Product Literature. (n.d.). Literature from manufacturers and experts on specific products. 

• Propane Education and Research Council (PERC). (2007). Assessment of Propane Fired Gas Air Conditioning, Heat 

Pumping and Dehumidification Technologies, Products, Markets and Economics

• Residential Energy Services Network. Draft PDS-01, MINHERS Addendum 71, SEER2/HSPF2 Conversions. Retrieved 

February 2023 from: https://www.resnet.us/about/standards/minhers/draft-pds-01-minhers-addendum-71-seer2-

hspf2-conversions/

• Solar Rating and Certification Corporation (SRCC). (n.d.) Solar Uniform Energy Factor Specification. Retrieved 

October 2022 from: https://solar-rating.org/resources/suef/

• Technology Cost and Performance File for Commercial Model for AEO2010. (2009). (E. Boedecker, Compiler)

• U.S. Department of Energy’s Compliance Certification Database. Retrieved August 2022 to February 2023 from: 

http://www.regulations.doe.gov/certification-data/

Return to Table of Contents

B-8
March 2023 

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Updated Buildings Sector Appliance and Equipment Costs and Efficiencies 4 

APPENDIX C 
Final

EIA - Technology Forecast Updates –

Residential and Commercial Building 

Technologies – Reference Case

Presented to:

U.S. Energy Information Administration

Prepared by: 

Guidehouse

1200 19th Street, NW, Suite 700

Washington, D.C. 20036

And

Leidos

11951 Freedom Drive

Reston, VA 20190

October 14, 2022
Final

DISCLAIMER

This presentation was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither 

the United States Government, nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, nor any of their contractors, 

subcontractors, or their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or 

responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, 

or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, 

process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its 

endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency, contractor or subcontractor 

thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States 

Government or any agency thereof. 

October 2022
Final Table of Contents

Page

Objective

4

Methodology

5

Definitions

6

Calculations

7

Market Transformation

8

Residential Lighting

9

General Service Lamps 10

Reflector Lamps 19 4-foot Linear 2-lamp Lighting Systems 27

Outdoor Lamps 34

Commercial Lighting 45

General Service Lamps 46

Reflector Lamps 52 4-Foot Linear 2 Lamp Lighting Systems 57 8-Foot Linear 2 Lamp Lighting Systems 67

Low Bay Lighting Systems 74

High Bay Lighting Systems 80

Page

Commercial Refrigeration 87

Compressor Rack Systems 88

Condensers 90

Supermarket Display Cases 92

Reach-In Refrigerators 95

Reach-In Freezers 98

Walk-In Refrigerators 101

Walk-In Freezers 105

Ice Machines 109

Beverage Merchandisers 113

Refrigerated Vending Machines 116

Commercial Ventilation 119

Constant Air Volume 120

Variable Air Volume 122

Fan Coil Units 124

Appendix A: Data Sources

A-1

Appendix B: References

B-1
Final Objective

The objective of this study is to develop baseline and projected performance and cost characteristics for residential and 

commercial end-use equipment.

• Examine 2012 and 2018 (commercial) and 2015 and 2020 (residential) baselines, as well as this year’s baseline (2022).

— Review literature, standards, installed base, contractor, and manufacturer information.

— Provide a relative comparison and characterization of the cost and efficiency of a generic product.

• Forecast technology improvements that are projected to be available through 2050.

— Review trends in standards, product enhancements, and research and development (R&D).

— Project impact of product improvements and technology enhancement.

The performance and cost characterization of end-use equipment developed in this study will assist EIA in projecting 

national primary energy consumption.

4
Final

5

Input from industry stakeholders, including government, R&D organizations, and manufacturers, was used to 

project product enhancements concerning equipment performance and cost attributes.

• Technology forecasting involves many uncertainties.

• Technology developments affect performance and cost forecasts.

• Varied sources ensure a balanced view of technology progress and the probable timing of commercial 

availability.

Methodology
Final Definitions

The following tables represent the current and projected efficiencies for residential and commercial building equipment ranging from the installed base in 2012 

and 2018 (for commercial products) and 2015 and 2020 (for residential) to the highest efficiency equipment that is expected to be commercially available by 2050, 

assuming incremental adoption. Below are definitions for the terms used in characterizing the status of each technology.

— Installed Stock Average: the installed and in use equipment for that year. Represents the installed stock of equipment, but does not represent sales.

— Current Standard: the minimum efficiency (or maximum energy use) required (allowed) by current U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) standards, when 

applicable. For lighting, if no product exists at the standard efficiency level, a hypothetical wattage and lumen output is given for the standard’s 

efficiency level.

— ENERGY STAR® : the minimum efficiency required (or maximum energy use allowed) to meet the ENERGY STAR® criteria, when applicable. Presented 

performance data represents certified products just meeting current ENERGY STAR specifications. For lighting, if no products exist at the ENERGY 

STAR efficiency level, a hypothetical wattage and lumen output is given for the ENERGY STAR efficiency level. 

— Low: The minimum efficiency product or product mix available on the market. This rating typically reflects minimal compliance with DOE standards. 

— Typical: the average, or typical, product being sold in the particular timeframe.

— High: the product with the highest efficiency available in the particular timeframe.

— Lumens (lm): the unit for luminous flux used in the SI unit system. This unit is used to indicate a light source’s light output. All reported lumens are 

initial lumens. 1 kilolumen (klm) = 1,000 lumens.

— Correlated Color Temperature (CCT): a specification of the color appearance of the light emitted by a lamp. Note: CCT is not a performance metric.

— Color Rendering Index (CRI): a scale from 0 to 100 percent indicating how accurate a given light source is at rendering color when compared to a 

reference light source. The higher the CRI, the better the color rendering ability.

— British thermal unit (Btu): a measure of the heat content of fuels or energy sources. It is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one 

pound of liquid water by 1°F at the temperature that water has its greatest density (approximately 39 °F ). 1 kBtu = 1,000 Btu.

— Cubic Feet per Minute (CFM): a measure of airflow volume equal to the number of cubic feet of air flowing through a two-dimensional plane in one 

minute. 

— Not Available (N/A): data is not available where indicated. 

6
Final Calculations

The following metrics are commonly referred to throughout the tables to follow. Below are the calculations for each metric

— Lighting

 System Wattage = (Lamp Wattage * Ballast Factor) / Ballast Efficiency

 System Lumens = Lamp Lumens * Ballast Factor

 Lamp Efficacy = Lamp Lumens / Lamp Wattage

 System Efficacy = System Lumens / System Wattage

 Lamp Cost ($/klm) = Lamp Cost / (Lamp Lumens / 1,000)

 Total Equipment Cost = Lamp Cost + Fixture (including ballast) Cost

 System Cost ($/klm) = Total Equipment Cost / (System Lumens / 1,000). l/b/fdenotes that the cost includes the luminaire, the ballast, and the fixture. 

 Total Installed Cost = Total Equipment Cost + Labor Installation Cost

 Ballast Luminous Efficiency (BLE) = A/(1+B*Avg Total Lamp Arc Power^(-C)) where A, B, and C are pre-defined constants by DOE Energy Conservation Standards for Fluorescent Lamp Ballasts.

— Commercial Refrigeration

 Nominal Capacity over Average Input (Btu in / Btu out) = (Cooling or Heat Rejection Capacity)*24*365/(Annual Energy Consumption * 3,412)

 Total Installed Cost = Retail Equipment Cost + Labor Installation Cost

 Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/hour) = Total Installed Cost*1,000 / (Cooling or Heat Rejection Capacity). h used as an abbreviation for hour throughout 

 Annual Maintenance Cost ($/kBtu/h) = Annual Maintenance Cost * 1,000 / (Cooling or Heat Rejection Capacity)

— Ventilation

 CFM out / Btu in / h = System Airflow / (System Fan Power * 3,412)

 Total Installed Cost ($/1,000 CFM) = Total Installed Cost * 1,000 / System Airflow

 Annual Maintenance Cost ($/1,000 CFM) = Annual Maintenance Cost * 1,000 / System Fan Power

7
Final Market Transformation

The market for the reviewed products has changed since this analysis was performed in 2015. These changes are noted 

and reflected in the efficiency and cost characteristics.

• DOE issued federal minimum efficiency standards that have gone into effect for General Service Fluorescent Lamps 

(2012), Incandescent Reflector Lamps (2012), and Fluorescent Lamp Ballasts (2019). 

• In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lumens per watt (lm/W) backstop requirement 

for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and Conservation Act (10 CFR 430, 87 FR 

27439). This action also amended the definition of general service lamps to include previously exempted product 

classes, such as reflector lamps. The rule will go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail 

and distribution in July 2023.

• DOE published a Final Rule updating energy conservation standards for Refrigerated Beverage Vending Machines at 

the end of 2015, effective in 2018. DOE also issued federal minimum efficiency standards that have or will soon go into 

effect for Refrigerated Beverage Vending Machines (2012), Automatic Commercial Ice Makers (2018), Walk-In Coolers 

and Freezers (2017), and Commercial Refrigeration Equipment (2017). 

8
Final

Residential Lighting

9
Final

10

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential General Service Lamps

The residential general service lamps characterized in this report are a 60-watt and a 75-watt medium screw-based (E26) A-type incandescent lamp and their halogen, CFL, and LED equivalents. 

A standard 60-watt incandescent lamp produces approximately 800 – 850 lumens. A standard 75-watt incandescent lamp produces approximately 1,100 lumens. 

Performance: 

• A majority of residential lamps have a nominal CCT rating of 2,700K and give off a warm, yellowish white color, but products with CCTs of 3,000K, 3,500K, 4,100K (neutral white), 5,000K 

(daylight), and 6,500K (blueish white) are also available. Traditional incandescent light bulbs have a nominal CCT of about 2,700K. When replacing a light bulb, it is advised to chose a 

product with a similar CCT value in order to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100. However, CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average around 80. 

CRI values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination. High CRI products are preferable for retail and display applications where improved color quality is of real value. Higher 

CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• Many factors influence the price of LED lamps including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore, typical lamp prices in 2022 reflecting a mix of lamp characteristics and 

features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• Fixture prices and installation costs are not included for the residential sector. Labor costs are assumed to be negligible because homeowners likely replaces lamps themselves as they burn 

out. Therefore, total installed cost is the price of a lamp, and annual maintenance costs are the cost of replacing the lamps, which is a function of lamp life, lamp price, and the annual 

operating hours. 

• Disposal costs are not characterized for residential lighting in this analysis. In residential cases, disposal is done by the occupant. Lamp and product burnout are assumed to result in no 

"added" cost aside from the work performed to install the replacement. 

Legislation:

• The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA 2007) established standards for 60-watt general service lamps, effective in 2014, and 75-watt lamps, effective in 2013. These 

standards cannot be achieved by incandescent bulbs, but can be by halogen, CFL, and LED technologies. 

• In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. This action also amended the definition of general service lamps to include previously exempted product classes, such as reflector lamps. These standards can not be 

achieved by traditional incandescent or halogen technologies currently on the market, and given current and projected trends in industry, they will likely not be met. It is currently assumed 

that industry will increase its investment in LED technology at the expense of incandescent, halogen, and CFL technologies. The rule will go into effect for manufacture and import in 

January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023.

ENERGY STAR:

• For ENERGY STAR qualification, general service omnidirectional lamps must have a minimum lamp efficacy of 70 lm/W for products with CRI ≥ 90 and 80 lm/W for lamps with CRI < 90. 

Additionally, the lamps must have a CRI ≥ 80, nominal CCT of 2,700, 3,000, 3,500, 4,000/4,100, 5,000, or 6,000 K, and rated lifetime ≥ 10,000 hours (ENERGY STAR).
Final

11

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential General Service Lamps

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2030, 2040, and 2050. We assume manufacturers will focus on improving efficacy, lifetime, and price for 

products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of 

conventional lighting technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of 

performance improvement) to the emergence of a new light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent, 

halogen, and fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2019).

• For LED technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2050: 

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Incandescent 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements.

Halogen 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements 

as of 2022.

CFL +0.5% 0% -0.5% Improvements in efficacy can be made by using more rare-earth phosphors in compact fluorescent 

lamps. 
Final

12

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential General Service Incandescent Lamps (60 W)

1. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA 2007) prescribes standards for 60 watt incandescent lamps as of January 1, 2014. Despite the phase out of incandescent 

lamps, these products remain in the installed stock.

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. These 

standards cannot be met with incandescent technologies. 

DATA

20151 20201 20222 20232 20302 20402 20502

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 60.0 60.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A 18.9 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 850 850 N/A N/A N/A N/A 850 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 14.2 14.2 N/A N/A N/A N/A 45.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 100 100 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,700 2,700 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 1.0 1.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 511 511 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$) $0.30 $0.30 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $0.34 $0.34 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $0.30 $0.30 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $0.15 $0.15 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $0.35 $0.35 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.18 $0.18 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Final

13

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential General Service Incandescent Lamps (75 W)

1. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA 2007) prescribes standards for 75 watt incandescent lamps as of January 1, 2013. Despite the phase out of incandescent 

lamps, these products remain in the installed stock.

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. These standards 

cannot be met with incandescent technologies. 

DATA

20151 20201 20222 20232 20302 20402 20502

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 75.0 75.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A 26.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 1,170 1,170 N/A N/A N/A N/A 1,170 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 15.6 15.6 N/A N/A N/A N/A 45.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 100 100 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,700 2,700 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 0.8 0.8 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 511 511 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$) $0.44 $0.44 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $0.38 $0.38 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $0.44 $0.44 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $0.30 $0.30 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $0.38 $0.38 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.26 $0.26 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Final

14

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential General Service Halogen Lamps (60 W Incandescent Equivalent)

1. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA 2007) prescribes standards for 60 watt incandescent lamps as of January 1, 2014. Starting in 2014, 60 watt incandescent 

lamps were replaced by halogen lamps.

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. These standards 

cannot be met with existing halogen lamp technologies. 

DATA

20151 20201 20222 20232 20302 20402 20502

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 43.1 43.1 N/A 43.0 N/A N/A 16.7 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 750 750 N/A 750 N/A N/A 750 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 17.4 17.4 N/A 17.4 N/A N/A 45.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 100 100 N/A 100 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,850 2,850 N/A 2,700 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 1.0 1.0 N/A 1.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 621 621 N/A 621 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$) $2.36 $4.90 N/A $5.92 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $3.15 $6.54 N/A $7.89 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 N/A $0.00 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0 0 N/A 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $2.36 $4.90 N/A $5.92 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $1.47 $3.04 N/A $3.68 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $3.15 $6.54 N/A $7.89 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $1.95 $4.06 N/A $4.90 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Final

15

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential General Service Halogen Lamps (75 W Incandescent Equivalent)

1. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 prescribes standards for current 75 watt incandescent lamps as of January 1, 2013. Starting in 2013, 75 watt incandescent lamps 

were replaced by halogen lamps.

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. These standards 

cannot be met with existing halogen lamp technologies. 

DATA

20151 20201 20222 20232 20302 20402 20502

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 53.0 53.0 N/A 53.0 N/A N/A 19.8 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 1,050 936 N/A 890 N/A N/A 890 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 19.8 17.7 N/A 16.8 N/A N/A 45.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 100 100 N/A 100 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,850 2,950 N/A 2,950 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 1.0 1.0 N/A 1.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 621 621 N/A 621 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$) $2.37 $3.58 N/A $4.06 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $2.26 $3.82 N/A $4.56 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 N/A $0.00 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0 0 N/A 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $2.37 $3.58 N/A $4.06 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $1.47 $2.22 N/A $2.52 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $2.26 $3.82 N/A $4.56 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $1.40 $2.37 N/A $2.83 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Final

16

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential General Service Compact Fluorescent Lamps (60 W Incandescent Equivalent)

1. 2020 data back calculated based on 2022 data and the following assumptions: Efficacy +0.5%/y, Cost -0.5%/y (NCI, 2019)

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. These standards 

can be met with existing CFL products. 

3. Year-to-year price and performance assumptions for incumbent technologies from 2022 to 2050: Efficacy +0.5%/y, Cost -0.5%/y (NCI, 2019)

4. Criteria outlined in ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs): Eligibility Criteria Version 2.1 (Published June, 2017, Revised June 

2020)

DATA

20151 20201 20222 20232 20302 20402 20502

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR4 Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 13.0 13.1 14.0 13.0 13.0 13.8 20.0 12.5 12.5 11.9 11.9 11.3 11.3

Lamp Lumens 825 900 900 900 925 800 900 900 925 900 925 900 925

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 3

63.5 68.5 64.3 69.2 71.2 80.0 45.0 72.0 74.1 75.7 77.8 79.6 81.8

CRI 82 82 82 82 82 80 N/A 82 82 82 82 82 82

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 N/A 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 12.0 10.0 N/A 10.0 12.0 10.0 12.0 10.0 12.0

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 767 767 767 767 767 N/A N/A 767 767 767 767 767 767

Lamp Price (2022$) $2.55 $5.40 $1.50 $5.35 $4.63 N/A N/A $5.14 $4.45 $4.89 $4.23 $4.65 $4.02

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm)3

$3.10 $6.00 $1.67 $5.94 $5.01 N/A N/A $5.71 $4.81 $5.43 $4.57 $5.17 $4.35 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 N/A N/A $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0 0 0 0 0 N/A N/A 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $2.55 $5.40 $1.50 $5.35 $4.63 N/A N/A $5.14 $4.45 $4.89 $4.23 $4.65 $4.02 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $0.20 $0.41 $0.12 $0.41 $0.30 N/A N/A $0.39 $0.28 $0.37 $0.27 $0.36 $0.26 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $3.09 $6.00 $1.67 $5.94 $5.01 N/A N/A $5.71 $4.81 $5.43 $4.57 $5.17 $4.35 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.24 $0.46 $0.13 $0.46 $0.32 N/A N/A $0.44 $0.31 $0.42 $0.29 $0.40 $0.28 
Final

17

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential General Service LED Lamps (60 W Incandescent Equivalent)

DATA

2015 2020 2022 20232 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR1 Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 8.7 9.2 10.0 8.9 8.0 10.0 17.8 7.3 6.6 5.8 5.2 5.0 4.5

Lamp Lumens 656 803 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 75.5 87.1 80.0 90.0 100.0 80.0 45.0 108.9 120.9 138.6 154.0 160.7 178.6

CRI 81 85 80 81 90 80 N/A 81 90 81 90 81 90

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 N/A 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 25 21 15 14 18 15.0 N/A 14 18 14 18 14 18

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 657 657 657 657 657 657 N/A 657 657 657 657 657 657

Lamp Price (2022$) $13.53 $4.56 $6.20 $3.92 $5.32 $6.20 N/A $3.23 $4.39 $2.84 $3.86 $2.46 $3.33

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $20.63 $5.68 $7.75 $4.90 $6.65 $7.75 N/A $4.04 $5.49 $3.56 $4.83 $3.07 $4.17 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 N/A $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 N/A 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $13.53 $4.56 $6.20 $3.92 $5.32 $6.20 N/A $3.23 $4.39 $2.84 $3.86 $2.46 $3.33 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $0.35 $0.15 $0.27 $0.18 $0.19 $0.27 N/A $0.15 $0.16 $0.13 $0.14 $0.11 $0.12 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $20.63 $5.68 $7.75 $4.90 $6.65 $7.75 N/A $4.04 $5.49 $3.56 $4.83 $3.07 $4.17 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.54 $0.18 $0.34 $0.22 $0.24 $0.34 N/A $0.18 $0.20 $0.16 $0.17 $0.14 $0.15 

1. Criteria outlined in ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs): Eligibility Criteria Version 2.1 (Published June, 2017, Revised June 

2020)

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. All LED 

lighting products exceed the new minimum efficacy standards.
Final

18

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential General Service Filament-LED Lamps (60 W Incandescent Equivalent)

1. Criteria outlined in ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs): Eligibility Criteria Version 2.1 (Published June, 2017, Revised June 

2020)

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. All LED 

lighting products exceed the new minimum efficacy standards.

DATA

2015 2020 2022 20232 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR1 Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 9.7 7.1 5.5 6.9 8.0 13.8 17.8 7.0 6.6 5.5 5.2 4.7 4.5

Lamp Lumens 457 650 450 650 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 47.1 91.7 81.8 94.8 100.0 80.0 45.0 114.6 120.9 146.0 154.0 169.3 178.6

CRI 82 84 90 84 80 80 N/A 81 90 81 90 81 90

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 N/A 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 23 21 15 15 15 15 N/A 15 15 15 15 15 15

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 657 657 657 657 657 N/A N/A 657 657 657 657 657 657

Lamp Price (2022$) $15.17 $6.88 $6.25 $5.91 $7.75 N/A N/A $4.87 $6.39 $4.29 $5.62 $3.70 $4.86

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $33.20 $10.58 $13.89 $9.09 $9.69 N/A N/A $6.09 $7.99 $5.36 $7.03 $4.63 $6.07 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 N/A N/A $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 N/A N/A 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $15.17 $6.88 $6.25 $5.91 $7.75 N/A N/A $4.87 $6.39 $4.29 $5.62 $3.70 $4.86 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $0.43 $0.21 $0.27 $0.26 $0.34 N/A N/A $0.21 $0.28 $0.19 $0.25 $0.16 $0.21 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $33.20 $10.58 $13.89 $9.09 $9.69 N/A N/A $6.09 $7.99 $5.36 $7.03 $4.63 $6.07 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.93 $0.33 $0.61 $0.40 $0.42 N/A N/A $0.27 $0.35 $0.23 $0.31 $0.20 $0.27 
Final

19

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Reflector Lamps

The residential reflector lamps characterized in this report are directional lamps that emit approximately 550 – 850 lumens (except for LED PAR38s which have outputs up to 1,700 

lumens). Multiple baseline reflector lamps were analyzed, including 65W Incandescent BR30, Halogen PAR30, Halogen Infrared Reflector (HIR) PAR30, CFL BR30, LED BR30, and 

LED PAR38. 

Performance: 

• A majority of residential lamps have a nominal CCT rating of 2,700K and give off a warm, yellowish white color, but products with CCTs of 3,000K, 3,500K, 4,100K (neutral white), 

5,000K (daylight), and 6,500K (blueish white) are also available. Traditional incandescent light bulbs have a nominal CCT of about 2,700K. When replacing a light bulb, it is 

advised to chose a product with a similar CCT value in order to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100, but for CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average 

around 80. CRI values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination, with high CRI products being preferable for retail and display applications where improved color 

quality is of real value. Higher CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these very specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• Many factors influence the price of LED lamps including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. 

• Fixture prices and installation costs are not included for the residential sector. Labor costs are assumed to be negligible because homeowners likely replaces lamps themselves as 

they burn out. Therefore, total installed cost is the price of a lamp, and annual maintenance costs are the cost of replacing the lamps, which is a function of lamp life, lamp price, 

and the annual operating hours. 

• Disposal costs are not characterized for residential lighting in this analysis. In residential cases, disposal is done by the occupant. Lamp and product burnout are assumed to result 

in no "added" cost aside from the work performed to install the replacement. 

Legislation:

• EPAct92 established minimum performance standards for some reflector lamps and provided exemptions for certain specialty applications (e.g., ER/BR, vibration service, more 

than 5% neodymium oxide, impact resistant, infrared heat, colored). EPAct92 effectively phased-out R-shaped tungsten filament incandescent reflector lamps at certain wattages 

and bulb diameters, replacing them with more efficient and cost effective tungsten-halogen parabolic aluminized reflector (PAR) lamps. EISA 2007 took away certain exemptions 

from EPACT 1992, requiring certain previously exempted lamps to meet EPAct92 minimum performance standards by January 1, 2008. The 65W BR30, a large majority of the 

incandescent reflector lamp market, was still exempted until 2022. 

• In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. This action also amended the definition of general service lamps to include previously exempted product classes, such as reflector lamps. These standards 

can not be achieved by traditional incandescent or halogen technologies currently on the market, and given current and projected trends in industry, they will likely not be met. It 

is currently assumed that industry will increase its investment in LED technology at the expense of incandescent, halogen, and CFL technologies. The rule will go into effect for 

manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023.
Final

20

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Reflector Lamps

ENERGY STAR:

• For ENERGY STAR qualification, general service, reflector lamps must have a minimum lamp efficacy of 61 lm/W for products with CRI ≥ 90 and 70 lm/W for lamps with CRI < 90, 

respectively. Additionally, the lamps must have a CRI ≥ 80, nominal CCT of 2,700, 3,000, 3,500, 4,000/4,100, 5,000, or 6,000 K, and rated lifetime ≥ 10,000 hours (ENERGY STAR).

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2030, 2040, and 2050. We assume manufacturers will focus on improving efficacy, lifetime, and price for 

products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of 

conventional lighting technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of 

performance improvement) to the emergence of a new light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and 

fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2019).

• For LED technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2050. 

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Incandescent 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements.

Halogen 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements 

as of 2022.

CFL +0.5% 0% -0.5% In addition to higher efficiency reflector coatings, improvements in efficacy can be made by using 

more rare-earth phosphors in compact fluorescent lamps. Lifetime improvements can be made by 

improving the compact fluorescent lamp electrodes.
Final

21

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Reflector Lamps (65W BR30 Incandescent)

1. Incandescent BR30 lamps were previously exempted from DOE Incandescent Reflector Lamp standards and the EISA 2007 general service lamp definition until DOE's new final 

rule in 2022. The new definitions go into effect in 2023.

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. This Final Rule 

also amended the definition of GSLs to include previously exempted product classes, including reflector lamps. These standards cannot be met with incandescent technologies. 

DATA

20151 20201 20222 20232 20302 20402 20502

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 65.0 65.0 N/A 65.0 N/A N/A 13.3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 637 637 N/A 602 N/A N/A 600 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 9.8 9.8 N/A 9.3 N/A N/A 45.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 100 100 N/A 100 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,700 2,700 N/A 2,700 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 2.0 2.0 N/A 2.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 621 621 N/A 621 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$) $4.00 $4.00 N/A $3.70 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $6.28 $6.28 N/A $6.15 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 N/A $0.00 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0 0 N/A 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $4.00 $4.00 N/A $3.70 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $1.24 $1.24 N/A $1.15 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $6.28 $6.28 N/A $6.15 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $1.95 $1.95 N/A $1.91 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Final

22

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Reflector Lamps (PAR30 Halogen)

1. Halogen PAR30 lamps were previously exempted from the EISA 2007 GSL definition until DOE's new final rule in 2022. The new definitions go into effect in 2023. Note: product 

offerings are very limited in 2022.

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. This Final Rule 

also amended the definition of GSLs to include previously exempted product classes, including reflector lamps. These standards cannot be met with halogen technologies. 

DATA

20151 20201 20222 20232 20302 20402 20502

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 47.1 38.8 N/A 38.8 N/A N/A 12.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 660 576 N/A 542 N/A N/A 542 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 14.0 14.0 N/A 14.0 N/A N/A 45.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 100 100 N/A 100 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,850 2,850 N/A 2,850 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 1.5 1.5 N/A 1.5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 876 876 N/A 876 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$) $6.77 $8.13 N/A $8.67 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $10.26 $14.12 N/A $16.00 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 N/A $0.00 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0 0 N/A 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $6.77 $8.13 N/A $8.67 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $3.96 $4.75 N/A $5.06 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $10.26 $14.12 N/A $16.00 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $5.99 $8.25 N/A $9.34 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Final

23

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Reflector Lamps (PAR30 Halogen Infrared Reflector (HIR))

DATA

20151 20201 20222 20232 20302 20402 20502

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 38.9 45.5 N/A 48.0 N/A N/A 18.7 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 650 786 N/A 840 N/A N/A 840 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 16.7 17.3 N/A 17.5 N/A N/A 45.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 100 100 N/A 100 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,850 2,850 N/A 2,700 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 4.0 4.0 N/A 4.2 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 876 876 N/A 876 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$) $14.69 $25.62 N/A $29.99 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $22.59 $32.60 N/A $35.70 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 N/A $0.00 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0 0 N/A 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $14.69 $25.62 N/A $29.99 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $3.22 $5.61 N/A $6.26 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $22.59 $32.60 N/A $35.70 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $4.95 $7.14 N/A $7.45 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

1. Halogen PAR30 lamps were previously exempted from the EISA 2007 GSL definition until DOE's new final rule in 2022. The new definitions go into effect in 2023. Note: product 

offerings are very limited in 2022.

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. This Final Rule 

also amended the definition of GSLs to include previously exempted product classes, including reflector lamps. These standards cannot be met with halogen technologies. 
Final

24

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Reflector Lamps (BR30 CFL)

1. 2015 and 2020 data calculated based on 2009 installed stock data and the following assumptions: Efficacy +0.5%/y, Cost -0.5%/y (NCI, 2019)

2. Virtually all manufacturers have discontinued manufacturing of CFL reflector lamps in favor of LEDs. Distributor offerings for CFL reflectors have been eliminated.

3. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. This Final Rule 

also amended the definition of GSLs to include previously exempted product classes, including reflector lamps. Although these standards can be met with CFL technology, 

manufacturers have discontinued manufacturing CFL reflector lamps in favor of LEDs.

4. Criteria outlined in ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs): Eligibility Criteria Version 2.1 (Published June, 2017, Revised June 

2020)

DATA

20151 20201 20222 20233 20303 20403 20503

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR4 Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 15.5 15.1 N/A N/A N/A N/A 16.7 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 750 750 N/A N/A N/A N/A 750 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 48.3 49.5 N/A N/A N/A N/A 45.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 82 82 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,700 2,700 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 8.2 8.5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 913 913 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$) $6.76 $6.59 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $9.01 $8.79 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $6.76 $6.59 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $0.75 $0.71 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $9.01 $8.79 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $1.00 $0.95 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Final

25

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Reflector LED BR30

1. Criteria outlined in ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs): Eligibility Criteria Version 2.1 (Published June, 2017, Revised June 2020)

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. This Final Rule also 

amended the definition of GSLs to include previously exempted product classes, including reflector lamps. All LED lighting products exceed the new minimum efficacy standards.

DATA

2015 2020 20222 20232 20302 20402 20502

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR1 Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 14.2 10.9 11.0 8.8 7.2 10.7 14.4 7.1 6.2 6.2 5.4 5.5 4.8

Lamp Lumens 706 781 800 683 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 49.8 71.5 72.7 78.6 90.3 61.0 45.0 91.7 105.4 104.9 120.5 118.0 135.6

CRI 82 85 92 87 90 80 N/A 87 90 87 90 87 90

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 N/A 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 25 25 25 19 18 15 N/A 19 18 19 18 19 18

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 730 730 730 730 730 N/A N/A 730 730 730 730 730 730

Lamp Price (2022$) $21.40 $15.36 $4.09 $5.01 $5.96 N/A N/A $4.11 $4.89 $3.62 $4.31 $3.14 $3.74

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $30.31 $19.66 $5.11 $7.33 $9.17 N/A N/A $6.32 $7.53 $5.57 $6.64 $4.83 $5.75

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 N/A N/A $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 N/A N/A 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $21.40 $15.36 $4.09 $5.01 $5.96 N/A N/A $4.11 $4.89 $3.62 $4.31 $3.14 $3.74 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $0.63 $0.45 $0.12 $0.20 $0.24 N/A N/A $0.16 $0.19 $0.14 $0.17 $0.12 $0.15 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $30.31 $19.66 $5.11 $7.33 $9.17 N/A N/A $6.32 $7.53 $5.57 $6.64 $4.83 $5.75

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.89 $0.57 $0.15 $0.29 $0.37 N/A N/A $0.25 $0.30 $0.22 $0.26 $0.19 $0.23 
Final

26

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Reflector LED PAR38

DATA

2015 2020 20222 20232 20302 20402 20502

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR1 Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 19.2 15.5 17.0 16.4 17.0 22.0 29.9 14.0 14.6 12.3 12.7 10.9 11.3

Lamp Lumens 1,202 1,211 1,200 1,344 1,700 1,344 1,344 1,344 1,700 1,344 1,700 1,344 1,700

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 62.7 77.9 70.6 82.0 100.0 61.0 45.0 95.7 116.7 109.5 133.5 123.2 150.2

CRI 83 86 82 86 82 80 N/A 86 86 86 86 86 86

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3,000 3,000 2,700 3,000 3,000 3,000 N/A 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 24 27 25 27 25 15 N/A 27 25 27 25 27 25

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 730 730 730 730 730 N/A N/A 730 730 730 730 730 730

Lamp Price (2022$) $35.23 $22.44 $23.71 $23.09 $15.69 N/A N/A $19.40 $13.18 $17.36 $11.79 $15.37 $10.45

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $29.31 $18.54 $19.76 $17.18 $9.23 N/A N/A $14.43 $7.75 $12.91 $6.94 $11.44 $6.14

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 N/A N/A $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 N/A N/A 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $35.23 $22.44 $23.71 $23.09 $15.69 N/A N/A $19.40 $13.18 $17.36 $11.79 $15.37 $10.45 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $1.07 $0.60 $0.69 $0.62 $0.46 N/A N/A $0.52 $0.38 $0.46 $0.34 $0.41 $0.31 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $29.31 $18.54 $19.76 $17.18 $9.23 N/A N/A $14.43 $7.75 $12.91 $6.94 $11.44 $6.14 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.89 $0.49 $0.58 $0.46 $0.27 N/A N/A $0.39 $0.23 $0.35 $0.20 $0.31 $0.18 

1. Criteria outlined in ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs): Eligibility Criteria Version 2.1 (Published June, 2017, Revised June 2020)

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. This Final Rule also 

amended the definition of GSLs to include previously exempted product classes, including reflector lamps. All LED lighting products exceed the new minimum efficacy standards.
Final

27

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential 4-foot Linear 2-Lamp Lighting Systems

This section characterizes commercial linear fixtures that house two 4ft long linear lamps and their integrated luminaire equivalents. The technologies available for this system are linear 

fluorescent and LED. 

• T5 lamps are approximately 40% narrower than T8 lamps and almost 60% narrower than T12 lamps. This narrowness allows T5 lamps to be coated with higher quality, more efficient 

phosphor blends than larger diameter lamps, resulting in a more efficacious lamp. The compact size of T5 lamps also permits greater flexibility in lighting design and construction.

• LED options for linear fixtures include replacement lamps that can fit directly into an existing fixture and fully integratedluminaires that can be used to replace existing fixtures. LED 

replacement lamps are also known as TLEDs. Type A TLEDs can be installed with existing ballasts and Type B and C TLEDs require the ballast to be disconnected. Replacement lamps are 

only sold to go into existing fixtures. If a new fixture is to be installed, a fully integrated LED luminaire is a more cost effective and efficient option. Because LED luminaires are fully 

integrated, they do not have lamp or fixture efficiency losses associated with ballasts and fixture optics. 

Performance: 

• Residential linear lamps often have a nominal CCT rating of 3,500K, but products with CCTs of 3,000K, 4,000K, and 4,100K (neutral white) are also common. 5,000K (daylight) lamps are 

available as well. When replacing a light bulb, it is important to choose a product with a similar CCT value to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100, but for CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average around 80. 

CRI values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination, with high CRI products being preferable for retail and display applications where improved color quality is of real value. 

Higher CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these very specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• Many factors influence the price of LED lamps including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore, typical lamp prices in 2022 reflecting a mix of lamp characteristics and 

features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• The total installed cost is the price of a lamp, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated with the installation, except for in the case of LED replacement lamps, which 

are sold only as a replacement for use in an existing fixture. The LED luminaire is more efficient and cost effective for new installations or fixture retrofits.

• Labor costs for lamp changes are assumed to be negligible because homeowners likely replace lamps themselves as they burn out. Therefore, annual maintenance costs are the cost of the 

replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp life and the annual operating hours for residential linear systems. 

• Disposal costs are not characterized for residential lighting in this analysis. In residential cases, disposal is done by theoccupant. Lamp and product burnout are assumed to result in no 

"added" cost aside from the work performed to install the replacement. 

Legislation:

• Beginning July 14, 2012 (or July 14, 2014, for T8 700-series phosphor lamps), DOE fluorescent lamp standards required a minimum efficacy of 89 lm/W. Although the amended 

performance-based standards do not explicitly prohibit T12 lamps, no T12 lamps met the standard at the time of its announcement. Since then, however, T12 lamps meeting the standard 

have entered the market.

• Beginning November 14, 2014, DOE standards required that the characterized residential ballasts have a minimum BLE = 0.993 / (1 + 0.41 * Avg Total Lamp Arc power ^ (- 0.25)). 

Residential ballasts also must have a minimum power factor of 0.5.

• California's Title 24 mandates the use of electronic ballasts with high efficacy luminaires (including fluorescent) of 13 W or higher (CEC, 2005).

ENERGY STAR:

• ENERGY STAR does not cover linear lamps. (ENERGY STAR, 2020)
Final

28

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential 4-foot Linear 2-Lamp Lighting Systems

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2030, 2040, and 2050. We assume manufacturers will focus on improving efficacy, lifetime, and price for 

products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of 

conventional lighting technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of 

performance improvement) to the emergence of a new light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and 

fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2019).

• For LED technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2050: 

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

T12 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.

T8 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.

T5 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.
Final

29

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Linear Fluorescent Lamp T12

Note: Assume no labor is associated with lamp replacement in the residential sector because residents likely replace the lamps themselves. 

Assume real cost has not changed since 2009 because this product has been phased out.

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 40.0 40.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 2,860 2,860 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 72 72 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage 70.0 82.8 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Lumens 3,890 5,148 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Efficacy (lm/W) 56 62 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) 78% 87% N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 70 70 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4,100 4,100 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 15 15 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 694 694 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$) $1.10 $1.10 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Ballast Price (2022$) $13.31 $13.31 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) $34.67 $34.67 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $0.38 $0.38 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System (lamp, ballast, and fixture (l/b/f)) Cost 

(2022$/klm) $12.90 $12.90 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor System Installation (hours) 0.5 0.5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hours) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $39.71 $39.71 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $1.84 $1.84 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $10.21 $10.21 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.47 $0.47 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Final

30

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Linear Fluorescent Lamp T8

1. Data and assumptions taken from the 2018 SSL Forecast. The report states that efficacy improvements for T8 lamps are not expected in the future, and that the cost for all commercial fixtures is 

expected to decrease between 0.1%-0.6% per year. We use 0.5% per year here.

2. From 2020 to 2050, fixture (and fixture price) includes ballast.

Note: Assume no labor is associated with lamp replacement in the residential sector because residents likely replace lamps themselves.

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 30.8 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0

Lamp Lumens 2,770 2,855 2,450 2,855 3,100 2,855 3,100 2,855 3,100 2,855 3,100

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W)1 90 89 77 89 97 89 97 89 97 89 97

System Wattage 62.1 63.1 63.1 63.1 63.1 63.1 63.1 63.1 63.1 63.1 63.1

System Lumens 4,875 5,082 4,361 5,082 5,518 5,082 5,518 5,082 5,518 5,082 5,518

System Efficacy (lm/W) 78 81 69 81 87 81 87 81 87 81 87

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) 87% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%

CRI 85 87 90 87 85 87 85 87 85 87 85

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4,100 4,100 5,000 4,100 3,500 4,100 3,500 4,100 3,500 4,100 3,500

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 21 31 23 31 40 31 40 31 40 31 40

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 767 767 767 767 767 767 767 767 767 767 767

Lamp Price (2022$) $6.54 $4.12 $3.36 $4.08 $4.32 $3.92 $4.15 $3.73 $3.95 $3.55 $3.75 

Ballast Price (2022$) 2 $19.10 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) $29.23 $76.29 $75.53 $75.53 $75.53 $72.56 $72.56 $69.01 $69.01 $65.64 $65.64 

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $2.36 $1.44 $1.37 $1.43 $1.39 $1.37 $1.34 $1.31 $1.27 $1.24 $1.21 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $12.59 $29.61 $33.57 $29.31 $27.15 $27.19 $25.18 $25.86 $23.95 $24.60 $22.78 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $100.01 $189.07 $179.41 $181.97 $182.82 $171.18 $171.97 $164.42 $165.18 $158.00 $158.71 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $0.48 $0.21 $0.22 $0.20 $0.17 $0.19 $0.16 $0.18 $0.15 $0.18 $0.14 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $20.51 $37.20 $41.14 $35.81 $33.13 $33.68 $31.17 $32.35 $29.93 $31.09 $28.76 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.10 $0.04 $0.05 $0.04 $0.03 $0.04 $0.03 $0.04 $0.03 $0.03 $0.03 
Final

31

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Linear Fluorescent Lamp T5

1. Year-to-year price and performance assumptions for incumbent technologies 2030–2050: Efficacy +0.5%/yr, Life +0.5%/yr, Cost -0.5%/yr (SSL Forecast 2018). 2020 data back calculated using the 

2022 data and these assumptions

2. From 2020 to 2050, fixture (and fixture price) includes ballast.

Note: Assume no labor is associated with lamp replacement in the residential sector because residents likely replace lamps themselves. 

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 27.0 27.5 28.0 27.5 26.0 27.5 26.0 27.5 26.0 27.5 26.0

Lamp Lumens 2,697 2,732 2,530 2,732 2,900 2,732 2,900 2,732 2,900 2,732 2,900

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W)1 100 99 90 99 112 99 112 99 112 99 112

System Wattage 51.5 61.7 62.9 61.7 58.4 61.7 58.4 61.7 58.4 61.7 58.4

System Lumens 4,747 5,464 5,060 5,464 5,800 5,464 5,800 5,464 5,800 5,464 5,800

System Efficacy (lm/W) 92 89 81 89 99 89 99 89 99 89 99

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) 92% 89% 89% 89% 89% 89% 89% 89% 89% 89% 89%

CRI 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4,100 4,100 5,000 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 30 29 36 29 30 29 30 29 30 29 30

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 949 949 949 949 949 949 949 949 949 949 949

Lamp Price (2022$) $7.05 $9.54 $13.76 $9.45 $21.28 $9.08 $20.44 $8.63 $19.44 $8.21 $18.49 

Ballast Price (2022$)2 $31.17 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) $109.93 $170.87 $170.87 $170.87 $170.87 $164.15 $164.15 $156.13 $156.13 $148.50 $148.50 

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $2.61 $3.49 $5.44 $3.46 $7.34 $3.32 $7.05 $3.16 $6.70 $3.01 $6.38 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $32.69 $34.77 $39.21 $34.73 $36.80 $33.37 $35.35 $31.73 $33.62 $30.18 $31.98 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $193.80 $228.57 $231.39 $222.77 $246.43 $215.31 $238.04 $206.40 $228.02 $197.92 $218.48 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $0.45 $0.62 $0.73 $0.62 $1.35 $0.59 $1.29 $0.57 $1.23 $0.54 $1.17 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $40.83 $41.83 $45.73 $40.77 $42.49 $39.41 $41.04 $37.77 $39.31 $36.22 $37.67 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.09 $0.11 $0.14 $0.11 $0.23 $0.11 $0.22 $0.10 $0.21 $0.10 $0.20 
Final

32

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Linear LED Replacement Lamp 2-Lamp System

1. N/A because a fixture and an LED replacement lamp would not be purchased separately for a new installation or retrofit when there are integrated LED luminaires that are more efficient 

and cost effective. These lamps are sold only as replacements to go into existing fixtures. 

Note: Assume no labor is associated with lamp replacement in the residential sector because residents likely replace lamps themselves. 

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 18.5 16.3 16.0 13.7 11.0 11.6 9.3 10.0 8.0 8.8 7.2

Lamp Lumens 2,013 2,130 1,800 1,920 1,800 1,920 1,800 1,920 1,800 1,920 1,800

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 111.0 130.7 112.5 140.1 163.6 166.2 194.1 192.2 224.4 218.0 250.0

System Wattage 36.9 32.6 32.0 27.4 22.0 23.1 18.6 20.0 16.0 17.6 14.4

System Lumens 3,583 4,004 3,384 3,686 3,456 3,686 3,456 3,686 3,456 3,686 3,456

System Efficacy (lm/W) 97.0 122.8 105.8 134.5 157.1 159.6 186.3 184.5 215.4 209.3 240.0

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 83 82 82 81 80 81 80 81 80 81 80

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4,100 3,500 4,100 4,100 5,000 4,100 5,000 4,100 5,000 4,100 5,000

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 55 50 50 54 50 54 50 54 50 54 50

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730

Lamp Price (2022$) $27.00 $12.89 $14.63 $11.11 $4.28 $9.97 $3.84 $9.87 $3.80 $9.77 $3.77 

Ballast Price (2022$)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $13.41 $6.05 $8.13 $5.79 $2.38 $5.19 $2.13 $5.14 $2.11 $5.09 $2.09 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) N/A $6.44 $8.65 $6.03 $2.48 $5.41 $2.22 $5.35 $2.20 $5.30 $2.18 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $54.00 $25.78 $29.26 $22.22 $8.56 $19.95 $7.68 $19.74 $7.60 $19.55 $7.53 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $0.72 $0.38 $0.43 $0.30 $0.12 $0.27 $0.11 $0.27 $0.11 $0.26 $0.11 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $15.07 $6.44 $8.65 $6.03 $2.48 $5.41 $2.22 $5.35 $2.20 $5.30 $2.18 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.20 $0.09 $0.13 $0.08 $0.04 $0.07 $0.03 $0.07 $0.03 $0.07 $0.03 
Final

33

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Linear LED Luminaire

1. N/A because the lamp and fixture are both included in the luminaire.

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage 50.0 43.1 49.0 44.0 35.0 35.6 28.3 29.9 23.8 25.8 20.5

System Lumens 4,615 4,945 5,024 5,302 4,800 5,302 4,800 5,302 4,800 5,302 4,800

System Efficacy (lm/W) 92.3 114.7 102.5 120.5 137.1 148.8 169.3 177.2 201.7 205.5 233.9

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 83 82 80 79 80 79 80 79 80 79 80

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3,838 3,000 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 56 58 54 53 50 53 50 53 50 53 50

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 584 584 584 584 584 584 584 584 584 584 584

Lamp or Luminaire Price (2022$) $181.60 $158.60 $144.85 $152.54 $207.80 $121.11 $164.98 $105.34 $143.50 $90.11 $122.76 

Ballast Price (2022$) 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $78.70 $64.15 $57.66 $57.54 $86.58 $45.68 $68.74 $39.74 $59.79 $33.99 $51.15 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Labor Lamp Change (hours)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $401.81 $355.81 $322.70 $338.08 $448.60 $275.22 $362.97 $243.68 $320.01 $213.23 $278.52 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $2.30 $1.97 $1.92 $2.04 $2.81 $1.70 $2.31 $1.52 $2.06 $1.36 $1.82 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $87.07 $71.95 $64.23 $63.76 $93.46 $51.91 $75.62 $45.96 $66.67 $40.22 $58.03 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.50 $0.40 $0.38 $0.39 $0.59 $0.32 $0.48 $0.29 $0.43 $0.26 $0.38 
Final

34

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Outdoor Lamps

• The residential outdoor lamps characterized in this report include reflector and general service lamps used for security and/or porch lighting that can be switched on from inside 

the home (i.e. parking lot/garage and outdoor common area lighting at multifamily buildings are excluded) with lumen outputs of approximately 1,000 – 1,400 lumens. Multiple 

baseline lamps were analyzed according to estimates of installed base average lumens by lamp type, including: 

Performance: 

• 65W BR30 is the only viable incandescent reflector lamp due to exemption from EISA 2007. The lumen output of this lamp type is well below other reflector lamp technologies 

characterized for residential outdoor spaces, thus its use is limited for this application. This product is, as of 2022, expected to be eliminated by DOE’s 45 lm/W backstop 

requirement.

• A majority of residential lamps have a nominal CCT rating of 2,700K and give off a warm, yellowish white color, but products with CCTs of 3,000K, 3,500K, 4,100K (neutral white), 

5,000K (daylight), and 6,500K (blueish white) are also available. Traditional incandescent light bulbs have a nominal CCT of about 2,700K. When replacing a light bulb, it is 

advised to chose a product with a similar CCT value in order to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100. However, CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average 

around 80. CRI values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination. High CRI products are preferable for retail and display applications where improved color quality is 

of real value. Higher CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• Many factors influence the price of LED lamps including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore, typical lamp prices in 2015 reflecting a mix of lamp 

characteristics and features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• Fixture prices and installation costs are not included for the residential sector. Labor costs are assumed to be negligible because homeowners likely replaces lamps themselves as 

they burn out. Therefore, total installed cost is the price of a lamp, and annual maintenance costs are the cost of replacing the lamps, which is a function of lamp life, lamp price, 

and the annual operating hours for residential reflector lamps. 

• Disposal costs are not characterized for residential lighting in this analysis. In residential cases, disposal is done by the occupant. Lamp and product burnout are assumed to result 

in no "added" cost aside from the work performed to install the replacement. 

Security(Reflector Lamps) Porch (GeneralService Lamps)

Incandescent BR30 IncandescentA-Type

Halogen PAR38 Halogen A-Type

Halogen Infrared Reflector (HIR) PAR38 CFL Bare Spiral

CFL PAR38 LED A-Type Lamp

LED PAR38
Final

35

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Outdoor Lamps

Legislation:

• In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. This action also amended the definition of general service lamps to include previously exempted product classes, such as reflector lamps. These standards 

can not be achieved by traditional incandescent or halogen technologies currently on the market, and given current and projected trends in industry, they will likely not be met. It 

is currently assumed that industry will increase its investment in LED technology at the expense of incandescent, halogen, and CFL technologies. The rule will go into effect for 

manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023.

ENERGY STAR:

• For ENERGY STAR qualification, general service omnidirectional lamps must have a minimum lamp efficacy of 70 lm/W for products with CRI ≥ 90 and 80 lm/W for lamps with 

CRI < 90. 

• For ENERGY STAR qualification, general service reflector lamps must have a minimum lamp efficacy of 61 lm/W for products with CRI ≥ 90 and 70 lm/W for lamps with CRI < 90. 

• Additionally, the lamps must have a CRI ≥ 80, nominal CCT of 2,700, 3,000, 3,500, 4,000/4,100, 5,000, or 6,000 K, and rated lifetime ≥ 10,000 hours (ENERGY STAR).

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2030, 2040, and 2050. We assume manufacturers will focus on improving efficacy, lifetime, and price for 

products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of 

conventional lighting technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of 

performance improvement) to the emergence of a new light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and 

fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2019).

• For LED technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2050. 

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Incandescent 

Omnidirectional

0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements.

Incandescent Directional 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements.

Halogen 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements.

CFL +0.5% 0% -0.5% In addition to benefiting from higher efficiency reflector coatings, improvements in efficacy can be made by using more rareearth phosphors in compact fluorescent lamps. Lifetime improvements can be made by improving the compact fluorescent 

lamp electrodes.
Final

36

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Security: Incandescent BR30 )

DATA

20151 20201 20222 20232 20302 20402 20502

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 65.0 65.0 N/A 65.0 N/A N/A 13.3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 637 637 N/A 602 N/A N/A 600 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 9.8 9.8 N/A 9.3 N/A N/A 45.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 100 100 N/A 100 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature 

(CCT) 2,700 2,700 N/A 2,700 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand 

hours) 2.0 2.0 N/A 2.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 621 621 N/A 621 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$) $4.00 $4.00 N/A $3.70 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $6.28 $6.28 N/A $6.15 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 N/A $0.00 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0 0 N/A 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $4.00 $4.00 N/A $3.70 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $1.24 $1.24 N/A $1.15 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $6.28 $6.28 N/A $6.15 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/klm) $1.95 $1.95 N/A $1.91 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

1. Incandescent BR30 lamps were previously exempted from DOE Incandescent Reflector Lamp standards and the EISA 2007 general service lamp definition until DOE's new final 

rule in 2022. The new definitions go into effect in 2023.

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. This Final Rule 

also amended the definition of GSLs to include previously exempted product classes, including reflector lamps. These standards cannot be met with incandescent technologies. 
Final

37

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Security: Halogen PAR38 )

1. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. This Final Rule 

also amended the definition of GSLs to include previously exempted product classes, including reflector lamps. These standards cannot be met with halogen technologies. 

DATA

2015 2020 2022 20231 20301 20401 20501

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 88.7 78.7 N/A 70.0 N/A N/A 29.1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 1,323 1,316 N/A 1,308 N/A N/A 1,308 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 14.9 16.9 N/A 18.7 N/A N/A 45.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 100 100 N/A 100 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature 

(CCT) 2,900 2,900 N/A 2,900 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand 

hours) 2.4 2.4 N/A 1.4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 876 876 N/A 876 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$) $6.24 $9.15 N/A $10.32 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $4.71 $6.96 N/A $7.89 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 N/A $0.00 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0 0 N/A 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $6.24 $9.15 N/A $10.32 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $2.28 $3.34 N/A $6.62 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $4.71 $6.96 N/A $7.89 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/klm) $1.72 $2.54 N/A $5.06 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Final

38

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Security: HIR PAR38 )

DATA

2015 2020 2022 20231 20301 20401 20501

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 70.0 70.0 N/A 70.0 N/A N/A 28.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 1,407 1,334 N/A 1,260 N/A N/A 1,260 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 20.1 19.1 N/A 18.0 N/A N/A 45.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 100 100 N/A 100 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature 

(CCT) 2,850 2,850 N/A 2,900 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand 

hours) 3.6 3.6 N/A 3.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 876 876 N/A 876 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$) $21.85 $27.31 N/A $29.49 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $15.53 $20.48 N/A $23.40 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 N/A $0.00 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0 0 N/A 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $21.85 $27.31 N/A $29.49 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $5.32 $6.64 N/A $8.61 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $15.53 $20.48 N/A $23.40 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/klm) $3.78 $4.98 N/A $6.83 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

1. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. This Final Rule 

also amended the definition of GSLs to include previously exempted product classes, including reflector lamps. These standards cannot be met with halogen technologies. 
Final

39

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Security: CFL PAR38)

1. 2015 and 2020 data calculated based on 2009 installed stock data and the following assumptions: Efficacy +0.5%/y, Cost -0.5%/y (NCI, 2019)

2. Virtually all manufacturers have discontinued manufacturing of CFL reflector lamps in favor of LEDs. Distributor offerings for CFL reflectors have been eliminated.

3. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. This Final Rule also 

amended the definition of GSLs to include previously exempted product classes, including reflector lamps. Although these standards can be met with CFL technology, manufacturers have 

discontinued manufacturing CFL reflector lamps in favor of LEDs.

DATA

20151 20201 20222 20233 20303 20403 20503

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 23.0 22.4 N/A N/A N/A N/A 28.9 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 1,300 1,300 N/A N/A N/A N/A 1,300 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 56.5 57.9 N/A N/A N/A N/A 45.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 82 82 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,700 2,700 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 10.0 10.3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 913 913 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$) $8.52 $8.31 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $6.55 $6.39 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $8.52 $8.31 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $0.78 $0.74 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $6.55 $6.39 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/klm) $0.60 $0.57 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Final

40

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Security: LED PAR38)

DATA

2015 2020 2022 20231 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR2 Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 19.2 15.5 17.0 16.4 17.0 22.0 29.9 14.0 14.6 12.3 12.7 10.9 11.3

Lamp Lumens 1,202 1,211 1,200 1,344 1,700 1,344 1,344 1,344 1,700 1,344 1,700 1,344 1,700

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 62.7 77.9 70.6 82.0 100.0 61.0 45.0 95.7 116.7 109.5 133.5 123.2 150.2

CRI 83 86 82 86 82 80 N/A 86 86 86 86 86 86

Correlated Color Temperature 

(CCT) 3,000 3,000 2,700 3,000 3,000 3,000 N/A 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000

Average Lamp Life (thousand 

hours) 24 27 25 27 25 15 N/A 27 25 27 25 27 25

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 730 730 730 730 730 N/A N/A 730 730 730 730 730 730

Lamp Price (2022$) $35.23 $22.44 $23.71 $23.09 $15.69 N/A N/A $19.40 $13.18 $17.36 $11.79 $15.37 $10.45

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $29.31 $18.54 $19.76 $17.18 $9.23 N/A N/A $14.43 $7.75 $12.91 $6.94 $11.44 $6.14

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 N/A N/A $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 N/A N/A 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $35.23 $22.44 $23.71 $23.09 $15.69 N/A N/A $19.40 $13.18 $17.36 $11.79 $15.37 $10.45 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $1.07 $0.60 $0.69 $0.62 $0.46 N/A N/A $0.52 $0.38 $0.46 $0.34 $0.41 $0.31 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $29.31 $18.54 $19.76 $17.18 $9.23 N/A N/A $14.43 $7.75 $12.91 $6.94 $11.44 $6.14 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/klm) $0.89 $0.49 $0.58 $0.46 $0.27 N/A N/A $0.39 $0.23 $0.35 $0.20 $0.31 $0.18 

1. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. All LED lighting 

products exceed the new minimum efficacy standards.

2. Criteria outlined in ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs): Eligibility Criteria Version 2.1 (Published June, 2017, Revised June 2020)
Final

41

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Porch: Incandescent A19 )

1. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA 2007) prescribes standards for 75 watt incandescent lamps as of January 1, 2013. Despite the phase out of incandescent 

lamps, these products remain in the installed stock.

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. These standards 

cannot be met with incandescent technologies. 

DATA

20151 20201 20222 20232 20302 20402 20502

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 75.0 75.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A 26.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 1,170 1,170 N/A N/A N/A N/A 1,170 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 15.6 15.6 N/A N/A N/A N/A 45.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 100 100 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,700 2,700 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 0.8 0.8 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 511 511 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$)

$0.44 $0.44 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $0.38 $0.38 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $0.44 $0.44 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $0.30 $0.30 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $0.38 $0.38 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)

$0.26 $0.26 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Final

42

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Porch: Halogen A19)

1. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 prescribes standards for current 75 watt incandescent lamps as of January 1, 2013. Starting in 2013, 75 watt incandescent lamps 

were replaced by halogen lamps.

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. These standards 

cannot be met with existing halogen lamp technologies. 

DATA

20151 20201 20222 20232 20302 20402 20502

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 53.0 53.0 N/A 53.0 N/A N/A 19.8 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 1050 936 N/A 890 N/A N/A 890 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 19.8 17.7 N/A 16.8 N/A N/A 45.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 100 100 N/A 100 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,850 2,950 N/A 2,950 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 1.0 1.0 N/A 1.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y)

621 621 N/A 621 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$) $2.37 $3.58 N/A $4.06 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $2.26 $3.82 N/A $4.56 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 N/A $0.00 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Installation (hours) 0 0 N/A 0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $2.37 $3.58 N/A $4.06 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $1.47 $2.22 N/A $2.52 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

$2.26 $3.82 N/A $4.56 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $1.40 $2.37 N/A $2.83 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Final

43

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Porch: CFL Bare Spiral)

1. 2020 data back calculated based on 2022 data and the following assumptions: Efficacy +0.5%/y, Cost -0.5%/y (NCI, 2019)

2. Criteria outlined in ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs): Eligibility Criteria Version 2.1 (Published June, 2017, Revised June 2020)

3. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. This Final Rule also 

amended the definition of GSLs to include previously exempted product classes, including reflector lamps. CFL products exceedthe new minimum efficacy standards.

4. The market for 75W equivalent bare spiral CFLs is very limited because almost all product lines are discontinued. This trend is expected to continue until no products are offered at this level 

by 2030.

DATA

2015 20201 2022 20233 20304 20404 20504

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR2 Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 18.6 14.6 20.0 18.8 18.0 13.8 26.0 13.9 12.8 13.2 12.2 12.5 11.6

Lamp Lumens 1,216 900 1,100 1,171 1,250 800 1,171 900 925 900 925 900 925

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 65.4 61.8 55.0 62.4 69.4 80.0 45.0 65.0 72.3 68.3 76.0 71.8 79.9

CRI 82 82 85 83 82 80 N/A 83 82 83 82 83 82

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,700 2,700 5,000 2,700 2,700 2,700 N/A 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 10.0 10.0 12.0 10.4 10.0 10.0 N/A 10.4 10.0 10.4 10.0 10.4 10.0

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 767 767 767 767 767 N/A N/A 767 767 767 767 767 767

Lamp Price (2022$) $3.82 $5.33 $9.00 $5.28 $5.91 N/A N/A $5.07 $5.67 $4.82 $5.40 $4.59 $5.13

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $3.14 $5.92 $8.18 $4.51 $4.72 N/A N/A $5.63 $6.13 $5.36 $5.83 $5.10 $5.55 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 N/A N/A $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0 0 0 0 0 N/A N/A 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $3.82 $5.33 $9.00 $5.28 $5.91 N/A N/A $5.07 $5.67 $4.82 $5.40 $4.59 $5.13 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $0.29 $0.41 $0.58 $0.39 $0.45 N/A N/A $0.37 $0.44 $0.36 $0.41 $0.34 $0.39 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $3.14 $5.92 $8.18 $4.51 $4.72 N/A N/A $5.63 $6.13 $5.36 $5.83 $5.10 $5.55 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/klm) $0.24 $0.45 $0.52 $0.33 $0.36 N/A N/A $0.42 $0.47 $0.40 $0.45 $0.38 $0.43 
Final

44

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Porch: LED A-Type)

DATA

2015 2020 2022 20231 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR2 Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 12.9 11.8 13.5 11.9 11.0 13.6 24.4 9.9 9.1 7.7 7.1 6.7 6.2

Lamp Lumens 1,073 1,102 1,100 1,089 1,100 1,089 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 83.1 93.5 81.5 92.2 100.0 80 45.0 111.5 120.9 142.0 154.0 164.6 178.6

CRI 81 85 80 86 80 80 N/A 86 80 86 80 86 80

Correlated Color Temperature 

(CCT) 2,700 2,700 3,000 2,700 2,700 2,700 N/A 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700

Average Lamp Life (thousand 

hours) 25 21 25 18 25 15 N/A 18 25 18 25 18 25

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 657 657 657 657 657 N/A N/A 657 657 657 657 657 657

Lamp Price (2022$) $18.13 $8.48 $4.39 $3.92 $5.29 N/A N/A $3.23 $4.36 $2.84 $3.84 $2.46 $3.31

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $16.90 $7.70 $3.99 $3.60 $4.81 N/A N/A $7.02 $7.02 $3.57 $3.57 $2.38 $2.38

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 N/A N/A $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 N/A N/A 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $18.13 $8.48 $4.39 $3.92 $5.29 N/A N/A $3.23 $4.36 $2.84 $3.84 $2.46 $3.31 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $0.49 $0.27 $0.12 $0.14 $0.14 N/A N/A $0.12 $0.11 $0.10 $0.10 $0.09 $0.09 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $16.90 $7.70 $3.99 $3.60 $4.81 N/A N/A $2.94 $3.97 $2.59 $3.49 $2.23 $3.01 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/klm) $0.45 $0.24 $0.10 $0.13 $0.13 N/A N/A $0.11 $0.10 $0.09 $0.09 $0.08 $0.08 

1. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. All LED lighting 

products exceed the new minimum efficacy standards.

2. Criteria outlined in ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs): Eligibility Criteria Version 2.1 (Published June, 2017, Revised June 2020)
Final

Commercial Lighting

45
Final

46

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial General Service Lamps in Recessed Can Fixtures

This section characterizes commercial omnidirectional incandescent, halogen, CFL, and LED screw-based general service lamps emitting approximately 1,600 lumens (equivalent to a 100W incandescent lamp) used 

in recessed can fixtures. A recessed can is a directional fixture set into the ceiling, in which all of the light is directed downwards from the opening. Therefore, an omnidirectional lamp is not well suited for use in 

such fixtures because light that emits upwards and out of the sides must be reflected downwards and out of the fixture and some light is absorbed in the process. A fixture efficiency of 61% is used to characterize 

these lumen losses for all omnidirectional lamps. For all lamp technologies, an annual fixture renovation rate of 10% (i.e., 10-year fixture service life) is used to reflect the proportion of equipment that retires each 

year.

Performance: 

• A majority of general service lamps have a nominal CCT rating of 2,700K and give off a warm, yellowish white color, but products with CCTs of 3,000K, 3,500K, 4,100K (neutral white), 5,000K (daylight), and 

6,500K (blueish white) are also available. Traditional incandescent light bulbs have a nominal CCT of about 2,700K. When replacing a light bulb, it is advised to chose a product with a similar CCT value in 

order to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100. However, CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average around 80. CRI values of 80 are 

considered suitable for general illumination. High CRI products are preferable for retail and display applications where improved color quality is of real value. Higher CRI is not expected to be a focus for 

future LED products except for these specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• The total installed cost is the price of a lamp, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated with the installation, except for in the case of LED replacement lamps which are sold only as a 

replacement for use in an existing fixture. There are integrated LED luminaires that are more efficient and cost effective for new installations or fixture retrofits. Many factors influence the price of LED lamps 

including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore typical lamp prices in 2015 reflecting a mix of lamp characteristics and features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and 

high efficacy products in the future. 

• Annual maintenance costs are the cost of labor for replacing the lamps and the cost of the replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp life and the annual operating 

hours for commercial general service lamps (DOE SSL Program, 2012a). 

• Commercial lighting disposal costs are estimated to be $0.12 per linear foot of fluorescent lamps, $1.50 per lamp for high intensity discharge (HID) lamps, and $0.50 for CFLs (EPA, 2022).

Legislation:

• The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA 2007) established standards for 100W lamps effective in 2012. These standards cannot be achieved by incandescent bulbs, but they can be met by 

halogen, CFL, and LED technologies from 2012 to 2023.

• In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and Conservation Act. This action 

also amended the definition of general service lamps to include previously exempted product classes, such as reflector lamps.These standards can not be achieved by traditional incandescent or halogen 

technologies currently on the market, and given current and projected trends in industry, they will likely not be met. It is currently assumed that industry will increase its investment in LED technology at the 

expense of incandescent, halogen, and CFL technologies. The rule will go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023.

ENERGY STAR:

• For ENERGY STAR qualification, general service omnidirectional lamps must have a minimum lamp efficacy of 70 lm/W for products with CRI ≥ 90 and 80 lm/W for lamps with CRI < 90. Additionally, the 

lamps must have a CRI ≥ 80, nominal CCT of 2,700, 3,000, 3,500, 4,000/4,100, 5,000, or 6,000 K, and rated lifetime ≥ 10,000 hours (ENERGY STAR).
Final

47

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial General Service Lamps in Recessed Can Fixtures

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2030, 2040, and 2050. We assume manufacturers will focus would be on improving efficacy, lifetime, 

and price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of 

conventional lighting technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of 

performance improvement) to the emergence of a new light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and 

fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2019).

• For LED technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2050.

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Incandescent 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements.

Halogen 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements 

as of 2022

CFL +0.5% 0% -0.5% Improvements in efficacy can be made by using more rare-earth phosphors in compact fluorescent 

lamps. Lifetime improvements can be made by improving the compact fluorescent lamp electrodes.
Final

48

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial General Service 100W Incandescent Lamp in Recessed Can Fixture

1. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA 2007) prescribes standards for 100 watt incandescent lamps as of January 1, 2012. Despite the phase out of incandescent 

lamps, these products remain in the installed stock.

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. These standards cannot be met with incandescent technologies. The rule will go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and 

distribution in July 2023. Note: the 45 lm/W backstop applies to the lamp, not the calculated fixture efficacy. 

3. Based on a fixture efficiency of 61% for an omnidirectional lamp installed in a recessed can fixture. 

DATA

20121 20181 20222 20232 20302 20402 20502

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 100.0 100.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A 36.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 1,620 1,620 N/A N/A N/A N/A 1,620 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 16.2 16.2 N/A N/A N/A N/A 45.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage 100.0 100.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A 36.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Lumens3 988 988 N/A N/A N/A N/A 988 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Efficacy (lm/W) 9.9 9.9 N/A N/A N/A N/A 27.5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 100 100 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,700 2,700 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 0.8 0.8 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,015 4,015 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$) $0.67 $0.67 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) $23.72 $23.72 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $0.41 $0.41 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $24.68 $24.68 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor System Installation (hours) 1.0 1.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.05 0.05 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $101.61 $101.61 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $24.25 $24.25 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $102.83 $102.83 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $24.54 $24.54 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Final

49

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial General Service Halogen Lamp (100W Incandescent Equivalent) in Recessed 

Can Fixture

1. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA 2007) prescribes standards for 100 watt incandescent lamps as of January 1, 2012. Starting in 2012, 100 watt incandescent lamps were replaced by 

halogen lamps.

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and Conservation Act. These 

standards cannot be met with existing commercialized halogen lamp technologies. The rule will go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. Note: the 

45 lm/W backstop applies to the lamp, not the calculated fixture efficacy. 

3. Based on a fixture efficiency of 61% for an omnidirectional lamp installed in a recessed can fixture. 

Additional note: No products are currently marketed specifically as 100W equivalent HIR general service lamps and no available data from manufacturers. It is assumed this market is the same as 100W equivalent 

halogen lamps.

DATA

20121 20181 20222 20232 20302 20402 20502

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 72.0 72.0 N/A 72.0 N/A N/A 33.1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 1,490 1,490 N/A 1,490 N/A N/A 1,490 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 20.7 20.7 N/A 20.7 N/A N/A 45.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage 72.0 72.0 N/A 72.0 N/A N/A 33.1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Lumens3 909 909 N/A 909 N/A N/A 909 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Efficacy (lm/W) 12.6 12.6 N/A 12.6 N/A N/A 27.5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 100 100 N/A 100 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,850 3,000 N/A 3,000 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 1.0 1.0 N/A 1.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,015 4,015 N/A 4,015 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$) $2.33 $5.16 N/A $4.02 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) $23.72 $26.38 N/A $22.07 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $1.57 $3.46 N/A $2.70 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $28.67 $34.71 N/A $28.71 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 N/A $66.00 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor System Installation (hours) 1.0 1.0 N/A 1.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.05 0.05 N/A 0.05 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $103.28 $108.77 N/A $92.09 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $24.87 $36.23 N/A $29.39 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $113.63 $119.67 N/A $101.32 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $27.36 $39.86 N/A $32.34 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Final

50

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial General Service 100W Equivalent CFL Bare Spiral in Recessed Can Fixture

1. Criteria outlined in ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs): Eligibility Criteria Version 2.1 (Published June, 2017, Revised June 2020)

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. These standards can be 

met with existing CFL products. Note: the 45 lm/W backstop applies to the lamp, not the calculated fixture efficacy. 

3. Based on a fixture efficiency of 61% for an omnidirectional lamp installed in a recessed can fixture. 

4. Year-to-year price and performance assumptions 2022 – 2050: Efficacy +0.5%, Equipment Cost -0.5%

DATA

2012 2018 2022 20232 20302 20402 20502

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR1 Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 24.7 24.6 25.0 24.6 26.0 26.0 37.6 23.6 25.0 22.5 23.8 21.4 22.6

Lamp Lumens 1,680 1,680 1,600 1,694 1,835 1,600 1,694 1,694 1,835 1,694 1,835 1,694 1,835

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 68.1 68.2 64.0 68.9 70.6 80.0 45.0 71.7 73.4 75.3 77.2 79.2 81.2

System Wattage 24.7 24.6 25.0 24.6 26.0 26.0 37.6 23.6 25.0 22.5 23.8 21.4 22.6

System Lumens3 1,025 1,025 976 1,033 1,119 976 1,033 1,033 1,119 1,033 1,119 1,033 1,119

System Efficacy (lm/W) 41.6 41.6 39.0 42.0 43.1 37.5 27.5 43.7 44.8 46.0 47.1 48.3 49.5

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 82 82 82 82 82 82 N/A 82 82 82 82 82 82

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3,000 3,000 2,700 3,000 5,000 3,000 N/A 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 N/A 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,745 4,745 4,745 4,745 4,745 N/A N/A 4,745 4,745 4,745 4,745 4,745 4,745

Lamp Price (2022$) 4 $3.08 $6.40 $9.90 $8.62 $9.35 N/A N/A $8.28 $8.98 $7.87 $8.54 $7.49 $8.13

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) 4 $23.72 $26.38 $22.07 $22.07 $22.07 N/A N/A $21.20 $21.20 $20.17 $20.17 $19.18 $19.18

Disposal Cost (2022$) $0.50 $0.50 $0.50 $0.50 $0.50 N/A N/A $0.50 $0.50 $0.50 $0.50 $0.50 $0.50 

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $1.84 $3.81 $6.19 $5.09 $5.10 N/A N/A $4.89 $4.90 $4.65 $4.66 $4.42 $4.43 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $26.15 $31.98 $32.76 $29.70 $28.07 N/A N/A $28.53 $26.97 $27.13 $25.65 $25.81 $24.39 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 N/A N/A $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 N/A N/A 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 N/A N/A 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $104.03 $110.01 $97.97 $96.69 $97.42 N/A N/A $95.48 $96.18 $94.04 $94.71 $92.67 $93.31 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $3.53 $5.11 $6.50 $5.89 $6.24 N/A N/A $5.73 $6.07 $5.54 $5.86 $5.36 $5.66

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $101.48 $107.32 $100.38 $93.57 $87.03 N/A N/A $92.40 $85.93 $91.00 $84.61 $89.68 $83.36 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $3.45 $4.98 $6.66 $5.70 $5.57 N/A N/A $5.55 $5.42 $5.36 $5.23 $5.18 $5.06
Final

51

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial General Service 100W Equivalent LED Replacement Lamp in Recessed Can 

Fixture

DATA

2012 2018 2022 20232 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR1 Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 26.7 14.5 16.0 14.8 13.0 20.0 34.8 12.2 10.8 9.6 8.4 8.3 7.3

Lamp Lumens 1,600 1,528 1,600 1,567 1,600 1,600 1,567 1,567 1,600 1,567 1,600 1,567 1,600

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 60.0 105.1 100.0 106.0 123.1 80.0 45.0 128.2 148.8 163.3 189.5 189.3 219.8

System Wattage 26.7 14.5 16.0 14.8 13.0 20.0 34.8 12.2 10.8 9.6 8.4 8.3 7.3

System Lumens3 976 932 976 956 976 976 956 956 976 956 976 956 976

System Efficacy (lm/W) 36.6 64.1 61.0 64.7 75.1 48.8 27.5 78.2 90.8 99.6 115.6 115.5 134.1

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 80 80 90 84.8 84 80 N/A 84.8 84.8 84.8 84.8 84.8 84.8

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3,000 3,000 2,700 2,700 5,000 N/A N/A 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 22.0 17.9 25.0 16.9 25.0 15.0 N/A 16.9 25.0 16.9 25.0 16.9 25.0

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,928 4,928 4,928 4,928 4,928 N/A N/A 4,928 4,928 4,928 4,928 4,928 4,928

Lamp Price (2022$) $47.45 $11.28 $5.62 $7.04 $3.39 N/A N/A $5.81 $2.80 $5.11 $2.46 $4.41 $2.12

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) $23.72 $26.38 $22.07 $22.07 $22.07 N/A N/A $21.20 $21.20 $20.17 $20.17 $19.18 $19.18

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $25.00 $7.38 $3.51 $4.49 $2.12 N/A N/A $3.71 $1.75 $3.26 $1.54 $2.82 $1.33

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $72.92 $40.40 $28.37 $30.46 $26.09 N/A N/A $28.26 $24.59 $26.45 $23.18 $24.68 $21.83 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 N/A N/A $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 N/A N/A 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 N/A N/A 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $148.39 $114.88 $93.69 $95.11 $91.46 N/A N/A $93.01 $90.00 $91.27 $88.63 $89.59 $87.30 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $11.49 $4.16 $1.76 $3.02 $1.32 N/A N/A $2.66 $1.20 $2.45 $1.14 $2.25 $1.07

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $152.04 $123.25 $95.99 $99.52 $93.71 N/A N/A $97.32 $92.21 $95.51 $90.81 $93.75 $89.45 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $11.77 $4.46 $1.80 $3.16 $1.35 N/A N/A $2.78 $1.23 $2.57 $1.16 $2.35 $1.10

1. Criteria outlined in ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs): Eligibility Criteria Version 2.1 (Published June, 2017, Revised June 2020)

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. All LED lighting 

products exceed the new minimum efficacy standards. Note: the 45 lm/W backstop applies to the lamp, not the calculated fixture efficacy. 

3. Based on a fixture efficiency of 61% for an omnidirectional lamp installed in a recessed can fixture. 
Final

52

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reflector Lamps in Recessed Can Fixtures

This section characterizes commercial halogen, halogen infrared reflector (HIR), and LED screw-based reflector lamps emitting approximately 1400 lumens used in recessed can fixtures. 

• HIR lamps contain a tungsten halogen capsule with a film coating on the inside of the capsule. The coating reflects infrared radiation back into the lamp filament, which forces the filament to 

burn at a higher temperature. This design increases the efficacy of the lamp, without reducing operating life.

• A recessed can is a directional fixture set into the ceiling, in which all of the light is directed downwards from the opening. Therefore, a reflector lamp, which employs reflective coating to 

direct light out in only one direction, is well suited for use in such fixtures. However, some light is not able to escape the fixture, and a fixture efficiency of 93% is used to characterize these 

minimal lumen losses. For all lamp technologies, an annual fixture renovation rate of 10% (i.e., 10-year fixture service life) is used to reflect the proportion of equipment that retires each year.

Performance: 

• A majority of reflector lamps have a nominal CCT rating of 2,700K and give off a warm, yellowish white color, but products with CCTs of 3,000K, 3,500K, 4,100K (neutral white), 5,000K 

(daylight), and 6,500K (blueish white) are also available. Traditional incandescent light bulbs have a nominal CCT of about 2,700K. When replacing a light bulb, it is advised to chose a 

product with a similar CCT value in order to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100. However, CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average around 80. 

CRI values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination. High CRI products are preferable for retail and display applications where improved color quality is of real value. Higher 

CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• The total installed cost is the price of a lamp, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated with the installation, except for in the case of LED replacement lamps which 

are sold only as a replacement for use in an existing fixture. Many factors influence the price of LED lamps including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. 

• Annual maintenance costs are the cost of labor for replacing the lamps and the cost of the replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp life and the 

annual operating hours for commercial reflector lamps (DOE SSL Program, 2012a). 

• Commercial lighting disposal costs are estimated to be $0.12 per linear foot of fluorescent lamps, $1.50 per lamp for HID lamps, and $0.50 for CFLs (EPA, 2022).

Legislation:

• EPAct92 established minimum performance standards for some reflector lamps and provided exemptions for certain specialty applications (e.g., ER/BR, vibration service, more than 5% 

neodymium oxide, impact resistant, infrared heat, colored). EPAct92 effectively phased-out R-shaped tungsten filament incandescent reflector lamps at certain wattages and bulb diameters, 

replacing them with more efficient and cost effective tungsten-halogen parabolic aluminized reflector (PAR) lamps. EISA2007 took away certain exemptions from EPACT 1992, requiring 

certain previously exempted lamps to meet EPAct92 minimum performance standards by January 1, 2008. In 2015, DOE issued a final rule that determined that amending the standards for 

incandescent reflector lamps could not be economically justified. 

• In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and Conservation 

Act. This action also amended the definition of general service lamps to include previously exempted product classes, such as reflector lamps. These standards can not be achieved by 

traditional incandescent or halogen technologies currently on the market, and given current and projected trends in industry,they will likely not be met. It is currently assumed that industry 

will increase its investment in LED technology at the expense of incandescent, halogen, and CFL technologies. The rule will go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for 

retail and distribution in July 2023.
Final

53

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reflector Lamps in Recessed Can Fixtures

ENERGY STAR:

• For ENERGY STAR qualification, general service reflector lamps must have a minimum lamp efficacy of 61 lm/W for products with CRI ≥ 90 and 70 lm/W for lamps with CRI < 90. 

Additionally, the lamps must have a CRI ≥ 80, nominal CCT of 2,700, 3,000, 3,500, 4,000/4,100, 5,000, or 6,000 K, and rated lifetime ≥ 10,000 hours (ENERGY STAR).

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2030, 2040, and 2050. We assume manufacturers will focus would be on improving efficacy, lifetime, 

and price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of 

conventional lighting technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of 

performance improvement) to the emergence of a new light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and 

fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2019).

• For LED technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2050. 

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Incandescent 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements.

Halogen 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements 

as of 2022

CFL +0.5% 0% -0.5% In addition to higher efficiency reflector coatings, improvements in efficacy can be made by using 

more rare-earth phosphors in compact fluorescent lamps. Lifetime improvements can be made by 

improving the compact fluorescent lamp electrodes.
Final

54

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Halogen Reflector Lamp (PAR38) in Recessed Can Fixture

1. Based on a fixture efficiency of 93% for an directional reflector lamp installed in a recessed can fixture. 

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and Conservation Act. 

This Final Rule also amended the definition of GSLs to include previously exempted product classes, including reflector lamps. These standards cannot be met with existing commercialized 

halogen lamp technologies. The rule will go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023.

DATA

2012 2018 2022 20232 20302 20402 20502

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 90.0 87.3 N/A 70.0 N/A N/A 29.1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 1,323 1,323 N/A 1,308 N/A N/A 1,308 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 14.7 15.1 N/A 18.7 N/A N/A 45.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage 90.0 87.3 N/A 70.0 N/A N/A 29.1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Lumens1 1,230 1,230 N/A 1,217 N/A N/A 1,217 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Efficacy (lm/W) 13.7 14.1 N/A 17.4 N/A N/A 41.9 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 100 100 N/A 100 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,850 2,850 N/A 2,850 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 2.4 2.4 N/A 1.4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,052 4,052 N/A 4,052 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$) $4.49 $7.99 N/A $10.32 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) $23.72 $26.38 N/A $22.07 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $3.39 $6.04 N/A $7.89 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $22.93 $27.93 N/A $26.62 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 N/A $66.00 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor System Installation (hours) 1.0 1.0 N/A 1.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.05 0.05 N/A 0.05 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $105.43 $111.59 N/A $98.39 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $14.09 $20.00 N/A $40.40 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $85.69 $90.70 N/A $80.86 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $11.46 $16.26 N/A $33.20 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Final

55

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Halogen Infrared Reflector Lamp (PAR38) in Recessed Can Fixture

1. Based on a fixture efficiency of 93% for an directional reflector lamp installed in a recessed can fixture. 

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and Conservation Act. 

This Final Rule also amended the definition of GSLs to include previously exempted product classes, including reflector lamps. These standards cannot be met with existing commercialized 

halogen lamp technologies. The rule will go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023.

DATA

2012 2018 2022 20232 20302 20402 20502

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 70.0 70.0 N/A 70.0 N/A N/A 28.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 1,407 1,407 N/A 1,260 N/A N/A 1,260 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 20.1 20.1 N/A 18.0 N/A N/A 45.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage 70.0 70.0 N/A 70.0 N/A N/A 28.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Lumens1 1,309 1,309 N/A 1,172 N/A N/A 1,172 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Efficacy (lm/W) 18.7 18.7 N/A 16.7 N/A N/A 41.9 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 100 100 N/A 100 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,850 2,850 N/A 2,850 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 3.6 3.6 N/A 3.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,052 4,052 N/A 4,052 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$) $18.58 $25.12 N/A $29.49 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) $23.72 $26.38 N/A $22.07 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $13.20 $17.86 N/A $23.40 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $32.33 $39.36 N/A $44.00 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 N/A $66.00 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor System Installation (hours) 1.0 1.0 N/A 1.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.05 0.05 N/A 0.05 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $119.52 $128.73 N/A $117.56 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $25.25 $32.62 N/A $44.28 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $91.34 $98.38 N/A $100.32 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $19.30 $24.93 N/A $37.79 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Final

56

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial LED Reflector Lighting (PAR38)

1. Based on a fixture efficiency of 93% for an omnidirectional lamp installed in a recessed can fixture.

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and Conservation Act. 

The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. This Final Rule also amended the definition of GSLs 

to include previously exempted product classes, including reflector lamps. All LED lighting products exceed the new minimum efficacy standards.

3. Criteria outlined in ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs): Eligibility Criteria Version 2.1 (Published June, 2017, Revised June 2020)

DATA

2012 2018 2022 20232 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR3 Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 17.2 16.6 17.0 16.4 17.0 22.0 29.9 14.0 14.6 12.3 12.7 10.9 11.3

Lamp Lumens 1,045 1,210 1,200 1,344 1,700 1,344 1,344 1,344 1,700 1,344 1,700 1,344 1,700

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 60.9 73.0 70.6 82.0 100.0 61.0 45.0 95.7 116.7 109.5 133.5 123.2 150.2

System Wattage 17.2 16.6 17.0 16.4 17.0 22.0 29.9 14.0 14.6 12.3 12.7 10.9 11.3

System Lumens1 972 1,125 1,116 1,250 1,581 1,250 1,250 1,250 1,581 1,250 1,581 1,250 1,581

System Efficacy (lm/W) 56.6 67.9 65.6 76.1 93.0 56.7 41.9 89.0 108.6 101.9 124.2 114.6 139.7

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 83 83 82 86 82 80 N/A 86 82 86 82 86 82

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3,000 3,000 2,700 3,000 3,000 3,000 N/A 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 22 15 25 28 25 25 N/A 28 25 28 25 28 25

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,928 4,928 4,928 4,928 4,928 N/A N/A 4,928 4,928 4,928 4,928 4,928 4,928

Lamp Price (2022$) $61.98 $28.10 $23.71 $23.09 $15.69 N/A N/A $19.40 $13.18 $17.36 $11.79 $15.37 $10.45

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) $23.72 $26.38 $22.07 $22.07 $22.07 N/A N/A $21.20 $21.20 $20.17 $20.17 $19.18 $19.18

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $59.31 $23.23 $19.76 $17.18 $9.23 N/A N/A $14.43 $7.75 $12.91 $6.94 $11.44 $6.14

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $88.18 $48.42 $41.02 $36.13 $23.88 N/A N/A $32.48 $21.75 $30.02 $20.22 $27.64 $18.74 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 N/A N/A $91.40 $91.40 $91.40 $91.40 $91.40 $91.40 

Labor System Installation (hours) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 N/A N/A 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 N/A N/A 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $162.93 $131.71 $111.78 $111.16 $103.76 N/A N/A $132.00 $125.78 $128.92 $123.36 $125.95 $121.02 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $14.75 $10.50 $5.32 $4.64 $3.74 N/A N/A $4.22 $3.50 $3.86 $3.23 $3.51 $2.96

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $167.64 $117.04 $100.16 $88.92 $65.63 N/A N/A $105.59 $79.56 $103.13 $78.02 $100.75 $76.55 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $15.17 $9.33 $4.77 $3.72 $2.37 N/A N/A $3.37 $2.21 $3.09 $2.04 $2.81 $1.87
Final

57

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 4-foot Linear 2-Lamp Lighting Systems

This section characterizes commercial linear fixtures that house two 4ft long linear lamps and their integrated luminaire equivalents. The technologies available for this system are linear 

fluorescent and LED. 

• Linear fluorescent options are T5, T8, and T12 lamps. T5 lamps are approximately 40% narrower than T8 lamps and almost 60% narrower than T12 lamps. This narrowness allows T5 lamps 

to be coated with higher quality, more efficient phosphor blends than larger diameter lamps, resulting in a more efficacious lamp. The compact size of T5 lamps also permits greater flexibility 

in lighting design and construction.

• LED options for linear fixtures include replacement lamps that can fit directly into an existing fixture and fully integratedluminaires that can be used to replace existing fixtures. LED 

replacement lamps are also known as TLEDs. Type A TLEDs can be installed with existing ballasts and Type B and C TLEDs require the ballast to be disconnected. Replacement lamps are 

only sold to go into existing fixtures. If a new fixture is to be installed, a fully integrated LED luminaire is a more cost effective and efficient option. Because LED luminaires are fully 

integrated, they do not have lamp or fixture efficiency losses associated with ballasts and fixture optics. For all lamp technologies, an annual fixture renovation rate of 10% (i.e., 10-year 

fixture service life) is used to reflect the proportion of equipment that retires each year.

Performance: 

• Linear lamps often have a nominal CCT rating of 3,500K, but products with CCTs of 3,000K, 4,000K, and 4,100K (neutral white) are also common. 5,000K (daylight) lamps are available as 

well. When replacing a light bulb, it is important to choose a product with a similar CCT value to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100, but for CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average around 80. 

CRI values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination, with high CRI products being preferable for retail and display applications where improved color quality is of real value. 

Higher CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these very specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• The total installed cost is the price of 2 lamps, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated with the installation, except for in the case of LED replacement lamps, 

which are sold only as a replacement for use in an existing fixture. There are integrated LED luminaires that are more efficient and cost effective for new installations or fixture retrofits. 

Many factors influence the price of LED lamps including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore typical lamp prices in 2022 reflecting a mix of lamp characteristics and 

features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• Annual maintenance costs are the cost of labor for replacing the lamps and the cost of the replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp life and 

the annual operating hours of 4055 hours/year for commercial 4ft linear systems (DOE SSL Program, 2012a). 

• Commercial lighting disposal costs are estimated to be $0.12 per linear foot of fluorescent lamps, $1.50 per lamp for HID lamps, and $0.50 for CFLs (EPA, 2022).

Legislation:

• Beginning July 14, 2012 (or July 14, 2014, for T8 700-series phosphor lamps), DOE fluorescent lamp standards required a minimum efficacy of 89 lm/W. Although the amended performancebased standards do not explicitly prohibit T12 lamps, no T12 lamps met the standard at the time of its announcement. Since then,however, T12 lamps meeting the standard have entered the 

market.

• California's Title 24 mandates the use of electronic ballasts with high efficacy luminaires (including fluorescent) of 13 W or higher (CEC, 2005).

ENERGY STAR:

• ENERGY STAR does not cover commercial linear luminaires (ENERGY STAR, 2020). 
Final

58

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 4-foot Linear 2-Lamp Lighting Systems

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2030, 2040, and 2050. We assume manufacturers will focus on improving efficacy, lifetime, and price for 

products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of 

conventional lighting technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of 

performance improvement) to the emergence of a new light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and 

fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2019).

• For LED technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2050.

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

T8 F32 Commodity 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.

T8 F32 High Efficiency/High Output 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.

T5 F28 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.
Final

59

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 4-ft T8 F32 Commodity in 2-Lamp System

1. Data and assumptions taken from the 2018 SSL Forecast. The report states that efficacy improvements for T8 lamps are not expected in the future and that cost for all commercial 

fixtures is expected to decrease between 0.1%-0.6% per year. We use 0.5% per year here.

2. From 2020 to 2050, fixture (and fixture price) includes ballast.

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average1

Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0 32.0

Lamp Lumens 2,725 2,855 2,450 2,855 3,100 2,855 3,100 2,855 3,100 2,855 3,100

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 85.2 89.0 76.6 89.2 96.9 89.2 96.9 89.2 96.9 89.2 96.9

System Wattage 61.8 62.5 63.1 63.1 63.1 63.1 63.1 63.1 63.1 63.1 63.1

System Lumens 4,796 5,082 4,361 5,082 5,518 5,082 5,518 5,082 5,518 5,082 5,518

System Efficacy (lm/W) 77.7 81.4 69.1 80.6 87.5 80.6 87.5 80.6 87.5 80.6 87.5

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) 91% 91% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%

CRI 83 87 90 87 85 87 85 87 85 87 85

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4,100 4,100 5,000 4,100 3,500 4,100 3,500 4,100 3,500 4,100 3,500

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 24 31 23 31 40 31 40 31 40 31 40

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,055 2,920 2,920 2,920 2,920 2,920 2,920 2,920 2,920 2,920 2,920

Lamp Price (2022$) $7.81 $5.02 $3.36 $4.08 $4.32 $3.92 $4.15 $3.73 $3.95 $3.55 $3.75 

Ballast Price (2022$)2 $19.56 $19.40 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) $29.67 $77.61 $75.53 $75.53 $75.53 $72.56 $72.56 $69.01 $69.01 $65.64 $65.64 

Disposal Costs (2022$) $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $2.86 $1.76 $1.37 $1.43 $1.39 $1.37 $1.34 $1.31 $1.27 $1.24 $1.21 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $13.52 $21.07 $33.57 $29.31 $27.15 $15.91 $14.65 $15.05 $13.94 $14.31 $13.26 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $103.45 $145.67 $179.41 $181.97 $182.82 $113.86 $113.86 $109.47 $109.91 $105.73 $106.15 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $7.89 $3.88 $4.24 $3.28 $2.58 $3.25 $2.55 $3.21 $2.52 $3.18 $2.49 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $21.57 $28.66 $41.14 $35.81 $33.13 $22.41 $20.63 $21.54 $19.92 $20.81 $19.24 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $1.65 $0.76 $0.97 $0.65 $0.47 $0.64 $0.46 $0.63 $0.46 $0.63 $0.45 
Final

60

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 4-ft T8 F28 High-efficiency and High-output in 2-Lamp System

1. Only a typical dataset because provided as these lamps all have similar efficacies.

2. Data and assumptions taken from the 2018 SSL Forecast. The report states that efficacy improvements for T8 lamps are not expected in the future and that cost for all 

commercial fixtures is expected to decrease between 0.1%-0.6% per year. We use 0.5% per year here.

3. From 2018 to 2050, fixture (and fixture price) includes ballast.

DATA1

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average2 Typical Typical Typical Typical

Lamp Wattage 28.0 28.0 28.0 28.0 28.0 28.0

Lamp Lumens 2,560 2,682 2,682 2,682 2,682 2,682

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 91 96 96 96 96 96

System Wattage 55.4 55.4 55.4 55.4 55.4 55.4

System Lumens 4,557 4,774 4,774 4,774 4,774 4,774

System Efficacy (lm/W) 82 86 86 86 86 86

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%

CRI 85 84 84 84 84 84

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4,100 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 24 48 48 48 48 48

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,055 2,920 2,920 2,920 2,920 2,920

Lamp Price (2022$) $11.17 $5.40 $5.29 $5.08 $4.84 $4.60 

Ballast Price (2022$)3 $19.56 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) $35.20 $77.05 $75.53 $72.56 $69.01 $65.64 

Disposal Costs (2022$) $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $4.36 $2.01 $1.97 $1.90 $1.80 $1.71 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $30.12 $32.75 $32.11 $30.85 $29.34 $27.90 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $104.54 $121.06 $113.82 $110.64 $106.85 $103.24 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $9.03 $2.54 $2.26 $2.23 $2.20 $2.17 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $22.94 $25.36 $23.84 $23.18 $22.38 $21.63 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $1.98 $0.53 $0.47 $0.47 $0.46 $0.46 
Final

61

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 4-ft T5 F28 in 2-Lamp System

1. Year-to-year price and performance assumptions for incumbent technologies 2030–2050: Efficacy +0%/y, Life +0%/y, Cost -0.5%/y (SSL Forecast 2018).

2. From 2020 to 2050, fixture (and fixture price) includes ballast.

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 28.0 27.7 28.0 27.5 26.0 27.5 26.0 27.5 26.0 27.5 26.0

Lamp Lumens 2,697 2,732 2,530 2,732 2,900 2,732 2,900 2,732 2,900 2,732 2,900

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 96.3 98.5 90.4 99.3 111.5 99.3 111.5 99.3 111.5 99.3 111.5

System Wattage 62.9 62.3 62.9 61.7 58.4 61.7 58.4 61.7 58.4 61.7 58.4

System Lumens 5,394 5,464 5,060 5,464 5,800 5,464 5,800 5,464 5,800 5,464 5,800

System Efficacy (lm/W) 85.8 87.8 80.5 88.5 99.4 88.5 99.4 88.5 99.4 88.5 99.4

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) 89% 89% 89% 89% 89% 89% 89% 89% 89% 89% 89%

CRI 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4,100 3,500 5,000 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 30 29 36 29 30 29 30 29 30 29 30

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,055 3,176 3,176 3,176 3,176 3,176 3,176 3,176 3,176 3,176 3,176

Lamp Price (2022$)1 $6.54 $6.96 $13.76 $9.45 $21.28 $9.08 $20.44 $8.63 $19.44 $8.21 $18.49 

Ballast Price (2022$)2 $31.94 $22.83 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) $111.59 $83.32 $170.87 $170.87 $170.87 $164.15 $164.15 $156.13 $156.13 $148.50 $148.50 

Disposal Costs (2022$) $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $2.42 $2.55 $5.44 $3.46 $7.34 $3.32 $7.05 $3.16 $6.70 $3.01 $6.38 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $29.03 $21.97 $39.21 $34.73 $36.80 $37.53 $35.35 $31.73 $33.62 $30.18 $31.98 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $195.22 $158.68 $231.39 $222.77 $246.43 $238.04 $238.04 $206.40 $228.02 $197.92 $218.48 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $5.97 $4.93 $4.78 $4.99 $7.33 $4.91 $7.15 $4.81 $6.94 $4.72 $6.74 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $36.19 $29.04 $45.73 $40.77 $42.49 $43.57 $41.04 $37.77 $39.31 $36.22 $37.67 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $1.11 $0.90 $0.94 $0.91 $1.26 $0.90 $1.23 $0.88 $1.20 $0.86 $1.16 
Final

62

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 4-ft Linear LED Replacement Lamp in 2-Lamp System

1. N/A because a fixture and an LED replacement lamp would not be purchased separately for a new installation or retrofit when there are integrated LED luminaires 

that are more efficient and cost effective. These lamps are sold only as replacements to go into existing fixtures.

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 20.8 17.0 16.0 13.7 11.0 11.6 9.3 10.0 8.0 8.8 7.2

Lamp Lumens 2,091 2,003 1,800 1,920 1,800 1,920 1,800 1,920 1,800 1,920 1,800

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 100.5 117.8 112.5 140.1 163.6 166.2 194.1 192.2 224.4 218.0 250.0

System Wattage 41.6 34.0 32.0 27.4 22.0 23.1 18.6 20.0 16.0 17.6 14.4

System Lumens 3,555 3,565 3,456 3,686 3,456 3,686 3,456 3,686 3,456 3,686 3,456

System Efficacy (lm/W) 85.4 104.9 108.0 134.5 157.1 159.6 186.3 184.5 215.4 209.3 240.0

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 86 81 82 81 80 81 80 81 80 81 80

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4,100 4,020 4,100 4,100 5,000 4,100 5,000 4,100 5,000 4,100 5,000

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 50 54 50 54 50 54 50 54 50 54 50

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,055 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541

Lamp Price (2022$) $278.36 $35.06 $14.63 $11.11 $4.28 $9.88 $3.81 $9.66 $3.72 $9.44 $3.64 

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $133.10 $17.50 $8.13 $5.79 $2.38 $5.15 $2.11 $5.03 $2.07 $4.92 $2.02 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $587.35 $70.12 $29.26 $22.22 $8.56 $19.76 $7.61 $19.31 $7.44 $18.89 $7.28 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $47.64 $6.61 $3.93 $3.17 $2.46 $3.01 $2.39 $2.98 $2.38 $2.95 $2.37 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $165.20 $19.67 $8.47 $6.03 $2.48 $5.36 $2.20 $5.24 $2.15 $5.12 $2.11 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $13.40 $1.85 $1.14 $0.86 $0.71 $0.82 $0.69 $0.81 $0.69 $0.80 $0.69 
Final

63

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 4-ft Linear LED Luminaire to Replace 2-Lamp Systems

1. N/A because the lamp and fixture are both included in the luminaire.

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage 51.5 50.0 49.0 44.0 35.0 35.6 28.3 29.9 23.8 25.8 20.5

System Lumens 4,818 4,673 5,024 5,302 4,800 5,302 4,800 5,302 4,800 5,302 4,800

System Efficacy (lm/W) 93.6 93.5 102.5 120.5 137.1 148.8 169.3 177.2 201.7 205.5 233.9

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 84 79 80 79 80 79 80 79 80 79 80

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3,500 3,650 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500

Average Lifetime (thousand hours) 67 53 54 53 50 53 50 53 50 53 50

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,055 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431

Lamp or Luminaire Price (2022$) $723.96 $188.00 $144.85 $152.54 $207.80 $127.58 $173.80 $118.37 $161.25 $109.57 $149.27

Ballast Price (2022$)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $150.25 $40.23 $57.66 $57.54 $86.58 $24.06 $36.21 $22.33 $33.59 $20.67 $31.10

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00

Labor System Installation (hours) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Labor Lamp Change (hours) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $762.57 $226.61 $322.70 $338.08 $448.60 $160.58 $206.80 $151.37 $194.25 $142.57 $182.27

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $46.16 $14.67 $11.30 $12.01 $16.52 $10.40 $14.19 $9.80 $13.33 $9.23 $12.51

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $158.27 $48.49 $64.23 $63.76 $93.46 $30.29 $43.08 $28.55 $40.47 $26.89 $37.97

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $9.58 $3.14 $2.25 $2.27 $3.44 $1.96 $2.96 $1.85 $2.78 $1.74 $2.61
Final

64

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 4-ft T8 F28 High-efficiency and High-output in 2-Lamp System with Occupancy 

Sensor

1. Only a typical dataset is provided because these lamps all have similar efficacies.

2. Data and assumptions taken from the 2018 SSL Forecast. The report states that efficacy improvements for T8 lamps are not expected in the future and that cost for all 

commercial fixtures is expected to decrease between 0.1%-0.6% per year. We use 0.5% per year here.

3. Assumes occupancy sensor reduces hours of use by 36% (NCI, 2019)

DATA1

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average2 Typical Typical Typical Typical

Lamp Wattage 28.0 28.0 28.0 28.0 28.0 28.0

Lamp Lumens 2,560 2,682 2,682 2,682 2,682 2,682

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 91 96 96 96 96 96

System Wattage 50.3 55.4 55.4 55.4 55.4 55.4

System Lumens 4,506 4,774 4,774 4,774 4,774 4,774

System Efficacy (lm/W) 90 86 86 86 86 86

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%

CRI 85 84 84 84 84 84

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4,100 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 24 48 48 48 48 48

Annual Operating Hours (h/y)3 4,055 2,920 1,869 1,869 1,869 1,869

Lamp Price (2022$) $11.17 $5.40 $5.29 $5.08 $4.84 $4.60 

Ballast Price (2022$) $19.56 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) $35.20 $77.05 $75.53 $72.56 $69.01 $65.64 

Occupancy Sensor Price (2022$) N/A N/A $161.34 $161.34 $161.34 $161.34 

Disposal Costs (2022$) $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $4.36 $2.01 $1.97 $1.90 $1.80 $1.71 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $30.12 $32.75 $92.26 $91.00 $89.49 $88.06 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $104.54 $121.06 $275.16 $271.98 $268.19 $264.58 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $9.03 $2.54 $1.44 $1.43 $1.41 $1.39 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $23.20 $25.36 $57.64 $56.97 $56.18 $55.42 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $2.00 $0.53 $0.30 $0.30 $0.30 $0.29 
Final

65

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 4-ft T8 F28 High-efficiency and High-output in 2-Lamp System with Specular 

Reflector

1. Only a typical dataset is provided because these lamps all have similar efficacies.

2. Data and assumptions taken from the 2018 SSL Forecast. The report states that efficacy improvements for T8 lamps are not expected in the future and that cost for all 

commercial fixtures is expected to decrease between 0.1%-0.6% per year. We use 0.5% per year here.

3. Specular reflector is expected to add 12% luminaire efficiency (LRC, 1992).

DATA1

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average2 Typical Typical Typical Typical

Lamp Wattage 28.0 28.0 28.0 28.0 28.0 28.0

Lamp Lumens 2,560 2,682 2,682 2,682 2,682 2,682

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 91.4 95.8 95.8 95.8 95.8 95.8

System Wattage 55.4 55.4 55.4 55.4 55.4 55.4

System Lumens3 4,506 4,774 5,347 5,347 5,347 5,347

System Efficacy (lm/W) 81 86 97 97 97 97

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%

CRI 85 84 84 84 84 84

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4,100 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 24 48 48 48 48 48

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 2,920 4,055 4,055 4,055 4,055 4,055

Lamp Price (2022$) $11.17 $5.40 $5.29 $5.08 $4.84 $4.60 

Ballast Price (2022$) $19.56 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) $35.20 $77.05 $75.53 $72.56 $69.01 $65.64 

Reflector Price (2022$) N/A N/A $44.53 $44.53 $44.53 $44.53 

Disposal Costs (2022$) $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $4.36 $2.01 $1.97 $1.90 $1.80 $1.71 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $30.12 $32.75 $48.71 $47.45 $45.94 $44.51 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $104.54 $121.06 $158.35 $155.17 $151.38 $147.77 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $6.50 $3.53 $3.13 $3.10 $3.06 $3.02 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $23.20 $25.36 $29.62 $29.02 $28.31 $27.64 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $1.44 $0.74 $0.59 $0.58 $0.57 $0.56 
Final

66

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 4-ft T8 F28 High-efficiency and High-output in 2-Lamp System with Occupancy 

Sensor and Specular Reflector

1. Only a typical dataset is provided because these lamps all have similar efficacies.

2. Data and assumptions taken from the 2018 SSL Forecast. The report states that efficacy improvements for T8 lamps are not expected in the future and that cost for all 

commercial fixtures is expected to decrease between 0.1%-0.6% per year. We use 0.5% per year here.

3. Assumes occupancy sensor reduces hours of use by 36% (NCI, 2019). Specular reflector is expected to add 12% luminaire efficiency(LRC, 1992).

DATA1

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average2 Typical Typical Typical Typical

Lamp Wattage 28.0 28.0 28.0 28.0 28.0 28.0

Lamp Lumens 2,560 2,682 2,682 2,682 2,682 2,682

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 91.4 95.8 95.8 95.8 95.8 95.8

System Wattage 50.3 55.4 55.4 55.4 55.4 55.4

System Lumens3 4,506 4,774 5,347 5,347 5,347 5,347

System Efficacy (lm/W) 89.6 86.2 96.6 96.6 96.6 96.6

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%

CRI 85 84 84 84 84 84

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4,100 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 24 48 48 48 48 48

Annual Operating Hours (h/y)3 4,055 2,920 1,869 1,869 1,869 1,869

Lamp Price (2022$) $11.17 $5.40 $5.29 $5.08 $4.84 $4.60 

Ballast Price (2022$) $19.56 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) $35.20 $77.05 $75.53 $72.56 $69.01 $65.64 

Reflector Price (2022$) N/A N/A $44.53 $44.53 $44.53 $44.53 

Occupancy Sensor Price (2022$) N/A N/A $161.34 $161.34 $161.34 $161.34 

Disposal Costs (2022$) $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $4.36 $2.01 $1.97 $1.90 $1.80 $1.71 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $30.12 $32.75 $108.87 $107.61 $106.10 $104.66 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $104.54 $121.06 $319.69 $316.51 $312.72 $309.11 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $9.03 $2.54 $1.44 $1.43 $1.41 $1.39 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $23.20 $25.36 $59.79 $59.20 $58.49 $57.81 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $2.00 $0.53 $0.27 $0.27 $0.26 $0.26 
Final

67

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 8-foot Linear 2-Lamp Lighting Systems

This section characterizes commercial linear fixtures that house two 8ft long linear lamps and their integrated luminaire equivalents. The technologies available for this system are linear 

fluorescent and LED. 

• Linear fluorescent options are T5, T8, and T12 lamps. T5 lamps are approximately 40% narrower than T8 lamps and almost 60% narrower than T12 lamps. This narrowness allows T5 lamps 

to be coated with higher quality, more efficient phosphor blends than larger diameter lamps, resulting in a more efficacious lamp. The compact size of T5 lamps also permits greater flexibility 

in lighting design and construction.

• LED options for linear fixtures include replacement lamps that can fit directly into an existing fixture and fully integratedluminaires that can be used to replace existing fixtures. LED 

replacement lamps are also known as TLEDs. Type A TLEDs can be installed with existing ballasts and Type B and C TLEDs require the ballast to be disconnected. Replacement lamps are 

only sold to go into existing fixtures. If a new fixture is to be installed, a fully integrated LED luminaire is a more cost effective and efficient option. Because LED luminaires are fully 

integrated, they do not have lamp or fixture efficiency losses associated with ballasts and fixture optics. For all lamp technologies, an annual fixture renovation rate of 10% (i.e., 10-year 

fixture service life) is used to reflect the proportion of equipment that retires each year.

Performance: 

• Linear lamps often have a nominal CCT rating of 3,500K, but products with CCTs of 3,000K, 4,000K, and 4,100K (neutral white) are also common. 5,000K (daylight) lamps are available as 

well. When replacing a light bulb, it is important to choose a product with a similar CCT value to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100, but for CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average around 80. 

CRI values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination, with high CRI products being preferable for retail and display applications where improved color quality is of real value. 

Higher CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these very specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• The total installed cost is the price of 2 lamps, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated with the installation, except for in the case of LED replacement lamps 

which are sold only as a replacement for use in an existing fixture. There are integrated LED luminaires that are more efficient and cost effective for new installations or fixture retrofits. 

Many factors influence the price of LED lamps including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore typical lamp prices in 2022 reflecting a mix of lamp characteristics and 

features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• Annual maintenance costs are the cost of labor for replacing the lamps and the cost of the replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp life and 

the annual operating hours of 4147 hours/year for commercial 8ft linear systems (DOE SSL Program, 2012a). 

• Commercial lighting disposal costs are estimated to be $0.12 per linear foot of fluorescent lamps, $1.50 per lamp for HID lamps, and $0.50 for CFLs (EPA, 2022).

Legislation:

• Beginning July 14, 2012 (or July 14, 2014, for T8 700-series phosphor lamps), DOE fluorescent lamp standards required a minimum efficacy of 89 lm/W. Although the amended performancebased standards do not explicitly prohibit T12 lamps, no T12 lamps met the standard at the time of its announcement. Since then,however, T12 lamps meeting the standard have entered the 

market.

• California's Title 24 mandates the use of electronic ballasts with high efficacy luminaires (including fluorescent) of 13 W or higher (CEC, 2005).

ENERGY STAR:

• ENERGY STAR does not cover commercial linear luminaires (ENERGY STAR, 2020). 
Final

68

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 8-foot Linear 2-Lamp Lighting Systems

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2030, 2040, and 2050. We assume the manufacturers will focus on improving efficacy, lifetime, and 

price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of 

conventional lighting technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of 

performance improvement) to the emergence of a new light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and 

fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2019).

• For LED technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2050: 

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

T8 F59 Typical Efficiency 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.

T8 F59 High Efficiency 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.

T8 F96 High Output 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.
Final

69

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 8-ft T8 F59 Typical Efficiency in a 2-Lamp System

1. From 2018 to 2050, fixture (and fixture price) includes ballast.

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 59.0 59.0 59.0 59.0 59.0 59.0 59.0 59.0 59.0 59.0 59.0

Lamp Lumens 5,430 5,788 5,900 5,905 5,950 5,905 5,950 5,905 5,950 5,905 5,950

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 92.0 98.1 100.0 100.1 100.8 100.1 100.8 100.1 100.8 100.1 100.8

System Wattage 106.8 111.6 112.9 112.9 112.9 112.9 112.9 112.9 112.9 112.9 112.9

System Lumens 9,448 10,071 10,384 10,393 10,472 10,393 10,472 10,393 10,472 10,393 10,472

System Efficacy (lm/W) 88.5 90.3 92.0 92.1 92.8 92.1 92.8 92.1 92.8 92.1 92.8

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) 92% 92% 92% 92% 92% 92% 92% 92% 92% 92% 92%

CRI 82 84 85 84 85 84 85 84 85 84 85

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4,100 4,100 3,500 4,100 3,500 4,100 3,500 4,100 3,500 4,100 3,500

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 24 21 24 21 24 21 24 21 24 21 24

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,147 3,066 3,066 3,066 3,066 3,066 3,066 3,066 3,066 3,066 3,066

Lamp Price (2022$) $14.70 $21.80 $23.58 $21.37 $22.84 $20.53 $21.94 $19.53 $20.87 $18.57 $19.85 

Ballast Price (2022$) $23.26 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$)1 $27.20 $117.38 $115.06 $115.06 $115.06 $110.54 $110.54 $105.13 $105.13 $99.99 $99.99 

Disposal Costs (2022$) $0.96 $0.96 $0.96 $0.96 $0.96 $0.96 $0.96 $0.96 $0.96 $0.96 $0.96 

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $2.28 $3.77 $4.00 $3.62 $3.84 $3.48 $3.69 $3.31 $3.51 $3.15 $3.34 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $12.40 $15.99 $15.62 $15.18 $15.35 $14.59 $14.75 $13.87 $14.03 $13.20 $13.34 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 1.0 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $114.60 $238.20 $247.36 $242.94 $245.88 $236.74 $239.56 $229.33 $232.01 $222.28 $224.83 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $8.98 $9.66 $8.51 $9.08 $8.32 $8.83 $8.09 $8.54 $7.82 $8.26 $7.55 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $12.13 $23.65 $23.82 $23.38 $23.48 $22.78 $22.88 $22.07 $22.16 $21.39 $21.47 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.95 $0.96 $0.82 $0.87 $0.79 $0.85 $0.77 $0.82 $0.75 $0.79 $0.72 
Final

70

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 8-ft T8 F96 High-Output in a 2-Lamp System

1. From 2018 to 2050, fixture (and fixture price) includes ballast.

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 86.0 86.0 86.0 86.0 86.0 86.0 86.0 86.0 86.0 86.0 86.0

Lamp Lumens 7600 8134 7710 8134 8200 8134 8200 8134 8200 8134 8200

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 88.4 94.6 89.7 94.6 95.3 94.6 95.3 94.6 95.3 94.6 95.3

System Wattage 148.4 183.6 183.6 183.6 183.6 183.6 183.6 183.6 183.6 183.6 183.6

System Lumens 12,026 15,455 14,649 15,455 15,580 15,455 15,580 15,455 15,580 15,455 15,580

System Efficacy (lm/W) 81.0 84.2 79.8 84.2 84.9 84.2 84.9 84.2 84.9 84.2 84.9

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) 92% 89% 89% 89% 89% 89% 89% 89% 89% 89% 89%

CRI 78 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85 85

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4,100 4,100 3,500 4,100 4,100 4,100 4,100 4,100 4,100 4,100 4,100

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 18 22 18 22 30 22 30 22 30 22 30

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,147 3,066 3,066 3,066 3,066 3,066 3,066 3,066 3,066 3,066 3,066

Lamp Price (2022$) $20.22 $30.62 $16.51 $30.02 $73.42 $28.84 $70.53 $27.43 $67.09 $26.09 $63.81 

Ballast Price (2022$) $18.55 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$)1 $27.20 $117.38 $115.06 $115.06 $115.06 $110.54 $110.54 $105.13 $105.13 $99.99 $99.99 

Disposal Costs (2022$) $0.96 $0.96 $0.96 $0.96 $0.96 $0.96 $0.96 $0.96 $0.96 $0.96 $0.96 

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $2.24 $3.77 $2.14 $3.69 $8.95 $3.55 $8.60 $3.37 $8.18 $3.21 $7.78 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $21.99 $11.56 $10.11 $11.33 $16.81 $10.88 $16.15 $10.35 $15.36 $9.85 $14.61 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 1.0 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $143.19 $255.85 $233.22 $260.24 $347.04 $253.36 $336.75 $245.13 $324.44 $237.31 $312.74 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $13.48 $11.68 $8.94 $11.08 $16.99 $10.75 $16.40 $10.35 $15.70 $9.98 $15.03 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $17.89 $16.55 $15.92 $16.84 $22.27 $16.39 $21.61 $15.86 $20.82 $15.36 $20.07 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $1.12 $0.76 $0.61 $0.72 $1.09 $0.70 $1.05 $0.67 $1.01 $0.65 $0.96 
Final

71

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 8-ft Linear LED Replacement Lamp for a 2 Lamp System

1. N/A because a fixture and an LED replacement lamp would not be purchased separately for a new installation or retrofit when there are integrated LED luminaires that are more 

efficient and cost effective. These lamps are sold only as replacements to go into existing fixtures. 

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage N/A 35.7 34.0 39.0 40.0 32.9 33.7 28.4 29.2 25.1 25.7

Lamp Lumens N/A 3,975 4,200 4,960 5,500 4,960 5,500 4,960 5,500 4,960 5,500

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) N/A 111.2 123.5 127.2 137.5 150.8 163.1 174.4 188.6 197.9 213.9

System Wattage N/A 71.5 68.0 78.0 80.0 65.8 67.5 56.9 58.3 50.1 51.4

System Lumens N/A 7,473 8,064 9,523 10,560 9,523 10,560 9,523 10,560 9,523 10,560

System Efficacy (lm/W) N/A 104.5 118.6 122.1 132.0 144.8 156.5 167.4 181.0 189.9 205.4

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI N/A 80 82 81 82 81 82 81 82 81 82

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) N/A 5,000 4,000 4,000 5,000 4,000 5,000 4,000 5,000 4,000 5,000

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) N/A 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) N/A 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541

Lamp Price (2022$) N/A $89.59 $33.11 $37.22 $41.44 $32.35 $36.02 $31.71 $35.30 $31.11 $34.64 

Ballast Price (2022$) 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) N/A $19.00 $7.88 $7.50 $7.53 $6.52 $6.55 $6.39 $6.42 $6.27 $6.30 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) N/A $23.98 $8.21 $7.82 $7.85 $6.79 $6.82 $6.66 $6.69 $6.53 $6.56 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) N/A $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hours) N/A 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3

Total Installed Cost (2022$) N/A $179.18 $66.22 $74.44 $82.88 $64.70 $72.04 $63.42 $70.61 $62.22 $69.28 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) N/A $14.22 $6.00 $6.58 $7.18 $5.89 $6.41 $5.80 $6.31 $5.71 $6.21 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) N/A $45.08 $8.21 $7.82 $7.85 $6.79 $6.82 $6.66 $6.69 $6.53 $6.56 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) N/A $3.58 $0.74 $0.69 $0.68 $0.62 $0.61 $0.61 $0.60 $0.60 $0.59 
Final

72

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 8-ft Linear LED Luminaire Replacement for a 2-Lamp System

1. N/A because the lamp and fixture are both included in the luminaire.

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage1

N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage N/A 73.0 90.0 78.0 72.0 64.6 59.6 55.2 50.9 48.1 44.4

System Lumens N/A 8,000 8,200 9,465 10,400 9,465 10,400 9,465 10,400 9,465 10,400

System Efficacy (lm/W) N/A 109.6 91.1 121.3 144.4 146.5 174.4 171.6 204.3 196.6 234.0

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI N/A 90 80 81 80 81 80 81 80 81 80

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) N/A 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000

Average Lifetime (thousand hours) N/A 75 50 73 100 73 100 73 100 73 100

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) N/A 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431

Lamp or Luminaire Price (2022$) N/A $759.16 $119.99 $142.48 $153.91 $109.90 $118.71 $96.00 $103.70 $82.68 $89.31 

Ballast Price (2022$)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm)

1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) N/A $80.00 $14.63 $15.05 $14.80 $11.61 $11.41 $10.14 $9.97 $8.73 $8.59 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) N/A $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) N/A 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) N/A $708.20 $206.52 $229.01 $240.44 $196.42 $205.24 $182.53 $190.23 $169.20 $175.83 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) N/A $39.16 $22.40 $17.46 $13.53 $14.40 $11.11 $13.09 $10.08 $11.84 $9.10 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) N/A $88.53 $25.18 $24.20 $23.12 $20.75 $19.73 $19.28 $18.29 $17.88 $16.91 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) N/A $4.89 $2.73 $1.84 $1.30 $1.52 $1.07 $1.38 $0.97 $1.25 $0.87 
Final

73

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Low-Bay Lighting Systems

The commercial low bay lighting characterized in this report is a one-lamp and one-ballast system in a low/high bay fixture that emits between 6,000 and 10,000 system lumens. Low 

bay lighting is defined as “interior lighting where the roof trusses or ceiling height is less than 25ft. above the floor”(IESNA, 2000). For all lamp technologies, an annual fixture 

renovation rate of 10% (i.e., 10-year fixture service life) is used to reflect the proportion of equipment that retires each year.

Performance: 

• Low bay conventional lighting technologies, such as metal halide and sodium vapor lamps, provide higher efficacy ranging from 80 lm/W to 100 lm/W. Older, mercury vapor 

lamps have much lower efficacy at approximately 40 lm/W.

• CCT and CRI values range broadly based on technology type for low bay products.

Cost: 

• The total installed cost is the price of a lamp, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated with the installation, except for in the case of LED luminaires, 

which are sold as one integrated system. Many factors influence the price of LED luminaires, including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore, typical 

luminaire prices in 2022 reflecting a mix of lamp characteristics and features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• Annual maintenance costs are the cost of labor for replacing the lamps and the cost of the replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp 

life and the annual operating hours for commercial low-bay systems (DOE SSL Program, 2012a). 

• Commercial lighting disposal costs are estimated to be $0.12 per linear foot of fluorescent lamps, $1.50 per lamp for HID lamps, and $0.50 for CFLs (EPA, 2022).

ENERGY STAR:

• ENERGY STAR does not cover low/high bay luminaires (ENERGY STAR, 2012). 
Final

74

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Low-Bay Lighting Systems

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2030, 2040, and 2050. We assume manufacturers will focus would be on improving efficacy, lifetime, 

and price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• (Navigant, 2019). Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost 

characteristics of conventional lighting technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in 

terms of performance improvement) to the emergence of a new light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent 

and fluorescent) and established market competitors 

• For LED technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2050. 

Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Mercury Vapor 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.

Metal Halide 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.

Sodium Vapor 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.
Final

75

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Mercury Vapor Low-Bay

1. Only a typical dataset is provided because these lamps all have similar efficacies.

2. EPAct 2005 limited the sale and production of mercury vapor ballasts since 2008, and by 2030 there is no expected market for these products.

DATA1

2012 2018 2022 20302 20402 20502

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Typical Typical Typical Typical

Lamp Wattage 175.0 175.0 175.0 N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 7,400 7,400 7,400 N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 42.3 42.3 44.0 N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage 205.9 205.9 205.9 N/A N/A N/A

System Lumens 7,400 7,400 7,400 N/A N/A N/A

System Efficacy (lm/W) 35.9 35.9 35.9 N/A N/A N/A

Ballast Efficiency 85% 85% 85% N/A N/A N/A

CRI 33 33 33 N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3,700 3,700 3,700 N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 24 24 24 N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 3,687 3,687 3,687 N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$) $13.96 $13.55 $13.80 N/A N/A N/A

Ballast Price (2022$) $51.91 $50.37 $49.48 N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) $38.73 $37.58 $36.83 N/A N/A N/A

Disposal Cost (2022$) $1.50 $1.50 $1.50 N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $1.89 $1.83 $1.86 N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $14.13 $13.72 $13.53 N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 N/A N/A N/A

Labor System Installation (hours) 1.5 1.5 1.5 N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.5 0.5 0.5 N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $220.43 $217.33 $199.11 N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $8.31 $8.24 $7.42 N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $29.79 $29.37 $26.91 N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $1.12 $1.11 $1.00 N/A N/A N/A
Final

76

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Metal Halide Low-Bay

1. Only a typical dataset is provided because these lamps all have similar efficacies.

DATA1

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Typical Typical Typical Typical

Lamp Wattage 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Lamp Lumens 8,084 8,331 8,500 8,500 8,500 8,500

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 80.8 83.3 85.0 85.0 85.0 85.0

System Wattage 113.6 113.6 113.6 113.6 113.6 113.6

System Lumens 7,400 7,400 7,400 7,400 7,400 7,400

System Efficacy (lm/W) 65.1 65.1 65.1 65.1 65.1 65.1

Ballast Efficiency 88% 88% 88% 88% 88% 88%

CRI 80 80 80 80 80 80

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 15 15 15 15 15 15

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 3,760 3,760 3,760 3,760 3,760 3,760

Lamp Price (2022$) $17.97 $17.44 $17.10 $16.43 $15.62 $14.86 

Ballast Price (2022$) $57.97 $56.26 $49.48 $47.54 $45.21 $43.00 

Fixture Price (2022$) $38.73 $37.58 $36.83 $35.39 $33.66 $32.01 

Disposal Cost (2022$) $1.50 $1.50 $1.50 $1.50 $1.50 $1.50 

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $2.22 $2.09 $2.01 $1.93 $1.84 $1.75 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $15.50 $15.04 $13.97 $13.43 $12.77 $12.14 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $230.51 $227.11 $202.41 $198.35 $193.49 $188.87 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $14.56 $14.43 $12.93 $12.76 $12.56 $12.37 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $31.15 $30.69 $27.35 $26.80 $26.15 $25.52 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $1.97 $1.95 $1.75 $1.72 $1.70 $1.67 
Final

77

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Sodium Vapor Low-Bay

1. Only a typical dataset is provided because these lamps all have similar efficacies.

DATA1

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Typical Typical Typical Typical

Lamp Wattage 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Lamp Lumens 8,550 8,550 9,300 9,300 9,300 9,300

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 85.5 85.5 93.0 93.0 93.0 93.0

System Wattage 128.0 128.0 128.0 128.0 128.0 128.0

System Lumens 8,550 8,550 9,300 9,300 9,300 9,300

System Efficacy (lm/W) 66.8 66.8 72.6 72.6 72.6 72.6

Ballast Efficiency 78% 78% 78% 78% 78% 78%

CRI 22 22 22 22 22 22

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,100 2,100 2,100 2,100 2,100 2,100

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 24 24 24 24 24 24

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 3,614 3,614 3,614 3,614 3,614 3,614

Lamp Price (2022$) $54.04 $52.44 $13.14 $12.62 $12.01 $11.42 

Ballast Price (2022$) $56.14 $54.48 $43.26 $41.56 $39.53 $37.60 

Fixture Price (2022$) $128.14 $124.35 $121.88 $117.09 $111.36 $105.92 

Disposal Cost (2022$) $1.50 $1.50 $1.50 $1.50 $1.50 $1.50 

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $6.32 $6.13 $1.41 $1.36 $1.29 $1.23 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $27.87 $27.05 $19.17 $18.42 $17.52 $16.66 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $354.16 $347.10 $277.28 $270.27 $261.90 $253.93 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $14.18 $13.93 $7.17 $7.10 $7.00 $6.91 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $41.42 $40.60 $29.81 $29.06 $28.16 $27.30 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $1.66 $1.63 $0.77 $0.76 $0.75 $0.74 
Final

78

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial LED Low-Bay Luminaire

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage 68.1 84.0 40.0 73.0 76.0 61.2 63.7 52.7 54.9 46.3 48.2

System Lumens 4,877 10,000 5,000 10,000 12,000 10,000 12,000 10,000 12,000 10,000 12,000

System Efficacy (lm/W) 71.6 119.0 125.0 137.0 157.9 163.4 188.4 189.7 218.7 216.0 248.9

Ballast Efficiency N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 85 78 84 81 80 81 84 81 84 81 81

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000

Average Lifetime (thousand hours) 50 74 75 65 60 65 60 65 60 65 60

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042

Lamp or Luminaire Price (2022$) $903.82 $281.00 $63.99 $145.46 $285.89 $123.82 $243.37 $111.24 $218.63 $99.09 $194.75 

Ballast Price (2022$) 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm)

1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $185.31 $28.10 $12.80 $14.55 $23.82 $12.38 $20.28 $11.12 $18.22 $9.91 $16.23

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

Labor Lamp Change (hours) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $865.44 $396.83 $162.99 $244.46 $384.89 $222.82 $342.37 $210.24 $317.63 $198.09 $293.75 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $69.95 $37.02 $12.23 $24.24 $45.18 $21.55 $39.45 $19.99 $36.12 $18.48 $32.90 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $177.44 $39.68 $32.60 $24.45 $32.07 $22.28 $28.53 $21.02 $26.47 $19.81 $24.48 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $14.34 $3.70 $2.45 $2.42 $3.77 $2.16 $3.29 $2.00 $3.01 $1.85 $2.74 

1. N/A because the lamp and fixture are both included in the luminaire.
Final

79

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial High-Bay Lighting Systems

The commercial high-bay lighting characterized in this report is a one-lamp and one-ballast system in a low/high bay fixture that emits greater than 10,000 system lumens. High-bay 

lighting is defined as “interior lighting where the roof trusses or ceiling height is greater than 25ft. above the floor” (IESNA, 2000). For all lamp technologies, an annual fixture 

renovation rate of 10% (i.e., 10-year fixture service life) is used to reflect the proportion of equipment that retires each year.

Performance: 

• High bay conventional lighting technologies, such as metal halide and sodium vapor lamps, provide higher efficacy ranging from 80 lm/W to 100 lm/W. Older, mercury vapor 

lamps have much lower efficacy at approximately 40 lm/W.

• CCT and CRI values range broadly based on technology type for high bay products.

Cost: 

• The total installed cost is the price of a lamp, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated with the installation, except for in the case of LED luminaires, 

which are sold as one integrated system. Many factors influence the price of LED luminaires including, CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore, typical 

luminaire prices in 2022 reflecting a mix of lamp characteristics and features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• Annual maintenance costs are the cost of labor for replacing the lamps and the cost of the replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp 

life and the annual operating hours for commercial high bay systems (DOE SSL Program, 2012a). 

• Commercial lighting disposal costs are estimated to be $0.12 per linear foot of fluorescent lamps, $1.50 per lamp for HID lamps, and $0.50 for CFLs (EPA, 2022).

ENERGY STAR:

• ENERGY STAR does not cover low/high bay luminaires (ENERGY STAR, 2012). 
Final

80

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial High-Bay Lighting Systems

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2030, 2040, and 2050. We assume manufacturers will focus would be on improving efficacy, lifetime 

and price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of 

conventional lighting technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of 

performance improvement) to the emergence of a new light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and 

fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2019).

• For LED technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2050. 

Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Mercury Vapor 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.

Metal Halide 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.

Sodium Vapor 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.
Final

81

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Mercury Vapor High-Bay

1. Only a typical dataset is provided because these lamps all have similar efficacies.

DATA1

2012 2018 2022 20302 20402 20502

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Typical Typical Typical Typical

Lamp Wattage 400.0 400.0 400.0 N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 15,800 15,800 21,000 N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 39.5 39.5 52.5 N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage 449.4 449.4 449.4 N/A N/A N/A

System Lumens 15,800 15,800 21,000 N/A N/A N/A

System Efficacy (lm/W) 35.2 35.2 46.7 N/A N/A N/A

Ballast Efficiency 89% 89% 89% N/A N/A N/A

CRI 50 50 50 N/A N/A N/A

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3,900 3,900 3,900 N/A N/A N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 24 24 24 N/A N/A N/A

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 3,687 3,687 3,687 N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Price (2022$) $23.81 $23.10 $28.93 N/A N/A N/A

Ballast Price (2022$) $55.39 $53.75 $64.35 N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) $106.65 $103.49 $101.43 N/A N/A N/A

Disposal Cost (2022$) $1.50 $1.50 $1.50 N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $1.51 $1.46 $1.38 N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $11.76 $11.41 $9.27 N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 N/A N/A N/A

Labor System Installation (hours) 2.0 2.0 2.0 N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.5 0.5 0.5 N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $340.29 $334.78 $326.71 N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $9.82 $9.71 $9.74 N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $21.54 $21.19 $15.56 N/A N/A N/A

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.62 $0.61 $0.46 N/A N/A N/A
Final

82

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Metal Halide High-Bay

1. Only a typical dataset is provided because these lamps all have similar efficacies.

DATA1

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Typical Typical Typical Typical

Lamp Wattage 400.0 400.0 400.0 400.0 400.0 400.0

Lamp Lumens 32,000 32,972 42,000 42,000 42,000 42,000

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 80.0 82.4 105.0 105.0 105.0 105.0

System Wattage 444.4 444.4 444.4 444.4 444.4 444.4

System Lumens 32,000 32,972 42,000 42,000 42,000 42,000

System Efficacy (lm/W) 72.0 74.2 94.5 94.5 94.5 94.5

Ballast Efficiency 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%

CRI 80 80 80 80 80 80

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 20 20 20 20 20 20

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 3,760 3,760 3,760 3,760 3,760 3,760

Lamp Price (2022$) $34.95 $33.91 $42.15 $40.49 $38.51 $36.63 

Ballast Price (2022$) $55.39 $53.75 $64.35 $61.82 $58.80 $55.92 

Fixture Price (2022$) $248.32 $248.32 $248.32 $238.56 $226.90 $215.80 

Disposal Cost (2022$) $1.50 $1.50 $1.50 $1.50 $1.50 $1.50 

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $1.09 $1.03 $1.00 $0.96 $0.92 $0.87 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $10.58 $10.19 $8.45 $8.12 $7.72 $7.34 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $493.10 $490.43 $486.82 $472.87 $456.21 $440.36 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $14.11 $13.91 $14.41 $14.10 $13.72 $13.37 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $15.41 $14.87 $11.59 $11.26 $10.86 $10.48 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.44 $0.42 $0.34 $0.34 $0.33 $0.32 
Final

83

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Sodium Vapor High-Bay

1. Only a typical dataset is provided because these lamps all have similar efficacies.

DATA1

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Typical Typical Typical Typical

Lamp Wattage 250.0 250.0 250.0 250.0 250.0 250.0

Lamp Lumens 24,300 24,300 28,500 28,500 28,500 28,500

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 97.2 97.2 114.0 114.0 114.0 114.0

System Wattage 297.0 296.6 296.6 296.6 296.6 296.6

System Lumens 24,300 24,300 28,500 28,500 28,500 28,500

System Efficacy (lm/W) 81.8 81.9 96.1 96.1 96.1 96.1

Ballast Efficiency 84% 84% 84% 84% 84% 84%

CRI 22 22 22 22 22 22

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,100 2,100 2,100 2,100 2,100 2,100

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 24 24 24 24 24 24

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 3,614 3,614 3,614 3,614 3,614 3,614

Lamp Price (2022$) $53.71 $52.12 $20.37 $19.57 $18.61 $17.70 

Ballast Price (2022$) $90.16 $87.49 $90.09 $86.55 $82.32 $78.29 

Fixture Price (2022$) $280.71 $272.39 $266.98 $256.49 $243.95 $232.02 

Disposal Cost (2022$) $1.50 $1.50 $1.50 $1.50 $1.50 $1.50 

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $2.21 $2.14 $0.71 $0.69 $0.65 $0.62 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $17.47 $16.95 $13.24 $12.72 $12.10 $11.51 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $579.02 $566.44 $509.44 $494.61 $476.88 $460.02 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $14.13 $13.89 $8.26 $8.14 $8.00 $7.86 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $23.83 $23.31 $17.88 $17.35 $16.73 $16.14 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.58 $0.57 $0.29 $0.29 $0.28 $0.28 
Final

84

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial T5 4xF54 HO High-Bay

DATA1

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 54.0 54.0 54.0 54.0 54.0 54.0 54.0 54.0 54.0 54.0

Lamp Lumens 4,850 4,850 4,273 4,750 4,273 4,750 4,273 4,750 4,273 4,750

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 89.8 89.8 79.1 88.0 79.1 88.0 79.1 88.0 79.1 88.0

System Wattage 233.8 233.8 233.8 233.8 233.8 233.8 233.8 233.8 233.8 233.8

System Lumens 19,400 19,400 17,092 19,000 17,092 19,000 17,092 19,000 17,092 19,000

System Efficacy (lm/W) 83.0 83.0 73.1 81.3 73.1 81.3 73.1 81.3 73.1 81.3

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) 92% 92% 92% 92% 92% 92% 92% 92% 92% 92%

CRI 86 86 86 86 86 86 86 86 86 86

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4,100 4,100 4,100 4,100 4,100 4,100 4,100 4,100 4,100 4,100

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 24 24 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042

Lamp Price (2022$) $8.45 $8.20 $4.70 $13.65 $4.51 $13.11 $4.29 $12.47 $4.08 $11.86 

Ballast Price (2022$) $33.43 $32.44 $32.17 $32.17 $30.91 $30.91 $29.39 $29.39 $27.96 $27.96 

Fixture Price (2022$) $129.23 $125.40 $122.91 $122.91 $118.08 $118.08 $112.31 $112.31 $106.82 $106.82 

Disposal Cost (2022$) $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 $0.48 

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $1.74 $1.69 $1.10 $2.87 $1.06 $2.76 $1.00 $2.63 $0.96 $2.50 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $10.13 $9.83 $10.17 $11.04 $9.77 $10.60 $9.30 $10.08 $8.84 $9.59 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $325.54 $320.47 $291.78 $300.73 $285.50 $294.10 $277.99 $286.17 $270.86 $278.63 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $12.51 $12.35 $8.68 $14.47 $8.56 $14.12 $8.42 $13.71 $8.29 $13.32 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $16.78 $16.52 $17.07 $15.83 $16.70 $15.48 $16.26 $15.06 $15.85 $14.66 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.65 $0.64 $0.51 $0.76 $0.50 $0.74 $0.49 $0.72 $0.48 $0.70 
Final

85

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial LED High-Bay Luminaire

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage 212.2 167.0 150.0 137.8 130.0 115.5 109.0 99.4 93.9 87.4 82.5

System Lumens 18,915 18,797 18,500 18,500 18,900 18,500 18,900 18,500 18,900 18,500 18,900

System Efficacy (lm/W) 89.1 112.6 123.3 134.3 145.4 160.2 173.4 186.0 201.4 211.7 229.2

Ballast Efficiency N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 74 78 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000

Average Lifetime (thousand hours) 70 67 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042

Lamp or Luminaire Price (2022$) $2,842.05 $448.43 $177.54 $195.81 $234.20 $162.12 $193.90 $148.87 $178.06 $136.20 $162.90

Ballast Price (2022$) 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm)

1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $150.25 $23.86 $9.60 $10.58 $12.39 $8.76 $10.26 $8.05 $9.42 $7.36 $8.62

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0

Labor Lamp Change (hours) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $2,996.49 $602.87 $309.54 $327.81 $366.20 $294.12 $325.90 $280.87 $310.06 $268.20 $294.90 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $173.01 $36.40 $12.51 $13.25 $14.80 $11.89 $13.17 $11.35 $12.53 $10.84 $11.92 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $158.42 $32.07 $16.73 $17.72 $19.38 $15.90 $17.24 $15.18 $16.41 $14.50 $15.60 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $9.15 $1.94 $0.68 $0.72 $0.78 $0.64 $0.70 $0.61 $0.66 $0.59 $0.63 

1. N/A because the lamp and fixture are both included in the luminaire.
Final

86

Refrigeration
Final

87

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Compressor Rack Systems

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Total Capacity (kBtu/h)1 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,190 930 N/A 1,190 930 1,190 930 1,190 930

Median Store Size (ft2) 46,500 31,997 35,197 35,197 35,197 N/A 35,197 35,197 35,197 35,197 35,197 35,197

Power Input (kW) 162 155 162 160 125 N/A 160 125 160 125 160 125

Annual Energy Use 

(MMWh/y)2 1,497 1,497 1,305 1,232 1,160 N/A 1,232 1,160 1,232 1,160 1,232 1,160

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.00 1.15 1.21 1.29 N/A 1.21 1.29 1.21 1.29 1.21 1.29

Average Life (years) 15 15 15 15 15 N/A 15 15 15 15 15 15

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $630,000 $630,000 $488,000 $625,000 $630,000 N/A $625,000 $630,000 $625,000 $630,000 $625,000 $630,000 

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) $525,000 $525,000 $406,667 $525,210 $677,419 N/A $525,210 $677,419 $525,210 $677,419 $525,210 $677,419 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)4 $3,400 $3,400 $3,400 $3,400 $3,400 N/A $3,400 $3,400 $3,400 $3,400 $3,400 $3,400 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) $2,833 $2,833 $2,833 $2,857 $3,656 N/A $2,857 $3,656 $2,857 $3,656 $2,857 $3,656

1. The total capacity represents the nominal compressor capacity required for the entire refrigeration system of a typical supermarket. This refrigeration system usually includes 

two low temperature racks and two medium temperature racks. For 2018, a 1,200 MBtu/h total cooling capacity is based on a 200-ton estimate for total capacity–80 tons for the 

medium temperature racks and 20 tons for the low temperature racks.

2. Capacity and annual energy consumption for 2022 and beyond are based on market research and Guidehouse estimates.

3. Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2012 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2012 Energy Use) / (Energy Use).

4. Maintenance cost includes oil changes, bearing lubrication, filter replacement, and system functionality checks-approximately half a day per rack of labor for technician is 

assumed.
Final

88

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Compressor Rack Systems

• Commercial compressor rack systems that serve commercial supermarket display cases and walk-ins consist of a 

number of parallel-connected compressors located in a separate machine room. By modulating compressor capacity, 

these integrated systems provide higher efficiency and mechanical longevity.

• Rack integrators generally supply a packaged compressor rack for which much of the necessary piping, insulation, 

components, and controls are pre-assembled. 

• A typical supermarket will have 10 to 20 compressors mounted in racks in the 3-horsepower (hp) to 15-hp size range. 

Usually, each rack has three to five compressors serve a series of loads with nearly identical evaporator temperature.

• The duty cycle for compressors is usually in the range of 60% to 70%.

• Energy use and capacity for the Reference Case are projected to remain static over the coming decades because 

commercial compressor racks systems are a mature technology. The Reference Case assumes low R&D efforts because 

it is an established technology.
Final

89

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Condensers

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Total Capacity (kBtu/h)1 1,680 1,520 1,440 1,440 1,440 N/A 1,440 1,440 1,440 1,440 1,440 1,440

Median Store Size (ft2

) 46,500 31,997 35,197 35,197 35,197 N/A 35,197 35,197 35,197 35,197 35,197 35,197

Power Input (kW) 25 25 18 18 18 N/A 18 18 18 18 18 18

Annual Energy Use (MMWh/y) 120 120 115 106 86 N/A 106 86 106 86 106 86

Indexed Annual Efficiency2 1.00 1.00 1.04 1.13 1.40 N/A 1.13 1.40 1.13 1.40 1.13 1.40

Average Life (years) 10 10 10 10 10 N/A 10 10 10 10 10 10

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $54,000 $60,000 $54,000 $60,000 $80,000 N/A $60,000 $80,000 $60,000 $80,000 $60,000 $80,000 

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) $32,143 $39,474 $37,500 $41,667 $55,556 N/A $41,667 $55,556 $41,667 $55,556 $41,667 $55,556 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)3 $954 $954 $954 $954 $954 N/A $954 $954 $954 $954 $954 $954 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) $0.57 $0.63 $0.66 $0.66 $0.66 N/A $0.66 $0.66 $0.66 $0.66 $0.66 $0.66

1. Total capacity is the total heat rejected (THR) by condensers comprised of two low temperature condensers (THRL = 240 MBtu/h each, suction temperature= -25°F, 

condensing temperature-110°F) and two medium temperature condensers (THRM = 520 MBtu/h each, suction temperature = 15°F, condensing temperature = 115°F); 

ambient temperature = 95°F. (NCI, 2009). For 2022 and beyond, capacity was estimated by Guidehouse.

2. Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2012 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2012 Energy Use) / (Energy Use).

3. Maintenance cost includes coil cleaning, leak checking, belt replacement as necessary, and system functionality checks.
Final

90

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Condensers

• Condensers are designed with multiple methods of cooling: air-cooled, water-cooled, and evaporative. These units 

can be single-circuit or a multiple circuit.

• Commercial condensers are remotely located, typically installed on the roof of a supermarket. 

• For use with parallel compressors in supermarkets, air-cooled units are the most commonly used condensers. This 

analysis is based on multiple air-cooled condensers connected to a supermarket refrigeration system comprised of 

two low temperature condensers and two medium temperature condensers. 

• Each compressor rack has a dedicated condenser or a separate circuit of a single common condenser. Condenser 

temperatures of multiple racks are often different. 

• The duty cycle for condensers is usually in the range 50%-70%.

• Energy use is projected to remain static over the coming decades because commercial condensers are a mature 

technology. 
Final

91

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Supermarket Display Cases

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h) 17,623 11,850 11,850 11,850 11,850 N/A 11,850 11,850 11,850 11,850 11,850 11,850

Median Store Size (ft2

) 46,500 31,997 35,197 35,197 35,197 N/A 35,197 35,197 35,197 35,197 35,197 35,197

Case Length (ft) 12 12 12 12 12 N/A 12 12 12 12 12 12

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)1,2 13,497 10,506 10,506 9,771 9,087 N/A 9,771 9,087 9,771 9,087 9,771 9,087

Annual Energy Use / Case 

Length (kWh/ft) 1,125 876 876 814 757 N/A 814 757 814 757 814 757

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.28 1.28 1.38 1.49 N/A 1.38 1.49 1.38 1.49 1.38 1.49

Average Life (years) 10 10 10 10 10 N/A 10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) $8,510 $10,650 $7,265 $9,500 $10,680 N/A $9,500 $10,680 $9,500 $10,680 $9,500 $10,680 

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $10,811 $12,650 $9,265 $11,500 $12,680 N/A $11,500 $12,680 $11,500 $12,680 $11,500 $12,680 

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 613 1,068 782 970 1,070 N/A 970 1,070 970 1,070 970 1,070

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)4 $940 $940 $940 $940 $940 N/A $940 $940 $940 $940 $940 $940 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) $53.34 $79.32 $79.32 $79.32 $79.32 N/A $79.32 $79.32 $79.32 $79.32 $79.32 $79.32

1. For 2022 and beyond, energy consumption and cost values were estimated using shipment-weighted averages reported in DOE’s 2014 CRE Final Rule Technical Support Document (TSD) 

for equipment commonly used as display cases. DOE’s updated conservation standard went into effect in 2017, so units sold in 2018 are assumed to comply with this standard. 

2. For consistency with DOE rulemaking practices, Supermarket Display Case Energy Use reported above includes energy use of the compressor racks and condensers. To avoid double 

counting, do not add Energy Use from the Compressor Rack or Condenser Systems tabs if calculating total energy consumption.

3. Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2012 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2012Energy Use) / (Energy Use).

4. Maintenance cost includes preventative maintenance costs such as cleaning evaporator coils, drain pans, fans, and intake screensas well as lamp replacements and other lighting 

maintenance activities. After 2012, these values are based on a reported maintenance and repair cost of $220 per unit for preventative maintenance plus approximately $60 per linear foot 

for additional repair and maintenance.
Final

92

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Supermarket Display Cases

Equipment Description Standards Equation (2012) Standards Equation (2017)

Vertical Open Cooler (VOP.RC.M) 0.82xTDA+4.07 0.64xTDA+4.07

Semi-Vertical Open Cooler (SVO.RC.M) 0.83xTDA+3.18 0.66xTDA+3.18

Horizontal Open Cooler (HZO.RC.M) 0.35xTDA+2.88 0.35xTDA+2.88

Transparent-Doored Cooler (VCT.RC.M) 0.22xTDA+1.95 0.15xTDA+1.95

Deli Display Cooler (SOC.RC.M) 0.51xTDA+0.11 0.44xTDA+0.11

Transparent-Doored Freezer (VCT.RC.L) 0.56xTDA+2.61 0.49xTDA+2.61

Horizontal Open Freezer (HZO.RC.L) 0.57xTDA+6.88 0.55xTDA+6.88

• DOE set federal energy efficiency standards for Commercial Refrigeration Equipment (CRE) in 2009. These standards 

set maximum daily energy consumption levels, in kilowatt-hours per day, for display cases manufactured sold in the 

United States on or after January 1, 2012. 

• DOE updated its Energy Conservation Standards for Commercial Refrigeration Equipment in 2014 for equipment 

sold on or after March 27, 2017. 

• The table below lists equipment used as supermarket display cases and their corresponding Energy Conservation 

Standard levels. The maximum allowable daily energy consumption for each equipment class is a linear function of 

Total Display Area (TDA).
Final

93

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Supermarket Display Cases

• According to CBECS 2018 microdata, the average building size for food sale building type is 31,997.

• Unit energy consumption for 2022 and beyond is estimated using a shipment-weighted average by efficiency level 

and equipment class, using data in DOE’s 2014 CRE Final Rule TSD with updated analysis from Guidehouse in 2016. 

The equipment classes analyzed are listed in the table on the previous slide.

• Supermarket refrigeration systems consist of refrigerated display cases, condensing units, and centralized compressor 

racks.

• A typical supermarket display case contains lighting, evaporators, evaporator fans, piping, insulation, valves, and 

controls. 

• The efficiency of supermarket display cases can be increased through the use of improved evaporator coils, larger 

evaporators, higher efficiency evaporator fan blades, high efficiency doors, LED lighting, and improved insulation.

• Energy use is projected to remain static over the coming decades because supermarket display cases are a mature 

technology. 
Final

94

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reach-In Refrigerators

1. EPACT 2005 energy standards went into effect in 2010. 2022 low efficiency cost and energy consumption values are based on minimum compliance with this standard. Unless otherwise 

noted, all other cases are based on shipment-weighted averages solid- and transparent-doored units reported in the 2014 CRE TSD.DOE’s updated Energy Conservation standards went 

into effect in 2017; therefore, compliance with this standard is assumed for 2022 and beyond. 

2. The ENERGY STAR category is based on a shipment weighted average of solid- and transparent-doored units that are minimally compliant with ENERGY STAR v3, effective October 1, 

2014. Units compliant with ENERGY STAR are found to be the most efficient reach-in refrigeration equipment on the market in 2022.

3. Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2012 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2012 Energy Use) / (Energy Use).

4. Installation cost for 2012 is based on NCI 2009 report that assumes a cost of $863. Installation cost for 2022 and beyond is based DOE’s 2014 CRE Final Rule and additional analysis by 

Guidehouse, which assumes an installation cost of $878 for self-contained equipment.

5. Maintenance costs after 2012 are based on DOE's CRE 2014 Final Rule TSD, which reports $35 annual preventative maintenance, per unit, per year, plus approximately $40 per linear 

foot, per year of additional repair and maintenance costs for the units characterized.

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR2 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h) 2,929 2,400 2,349 2,349 2,349 2,349 2,349 2,349 2,349 2,349 2,349 2,349

Size (ft3) 49 49 46 46 46 47 46 46 46 46 46 46

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y) 2,340 2,222 1,935 1,351 810 810 1,351 810 1,351 810 1,351 810

Annual Energy Use / Volume 

(kWh/y/ft3)

1 48 45 42 29 18 17 29 18 29 18 29 18

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.05 1.21 1.73 2.89 2.89 1.73 2.89 1.73 2.89 1.73 2.89

Average Life (years) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) $2,624 $2,403 $2,728 $2,780 $3,021 $3,021 $2,780 $3,021 $2,780 $3,021 $2,780 $3,021 

Total Installed Cost (2022$)4 $3,454 $3,282 $3,591 $3,643 $3,884 $3,884 $3,643 $3,884 $3,643 $3,884 $3,643 $3,884

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) $1,179 $1,368 $1,529 $1,551 $1,654 $1,654 $1,551 $1,654 $1,551 $1,654 $1,551 $1,654

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)5 $185 $185 $185 $185 $185 $186 $185 $185 $185 $185 $185 $185 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) $63 $77 $79 $79 $79 $79 $79 $79 $79 $79 $79 $79
Final

• The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT 2005) set maximum daily energy consumption levels, in kilowatt-hours per 

day, for commercial reach-in refrigerators that went into effect on January 1, 2010. The daily energy consumption is 

based on the volume of the unit (V) in ft3.

• In 2014, DOE updated its energy conservation standards for reach-in refrigerators, effective March 27, 2017. Both 

standards are reported in the table below.

• In 2013, EPA updated its ENERGY STAR specifications for reach-in refrigerators, effective March 27, 2017. These 

standards are also based on the refrigerated volume of the unit.

95

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reach-In Refrigerators

Reach-In Refrigerator 

Size

0 < V < 15 15 ≤ V < 30 30 ≤ V < 50 50 ≤ V

Solid Door (VCS.SC.M) 0.022xV+0.97 0.066xV+0.31 0.04xV+1.09 0.024xV+1.89

Glass Door (VCT.SC.M) 0.095xV+0.445 0.05xV+1.12 0.076xV+0.034 0.105xV-1.111

Equipment Class EPCA Standard Level (2010) DOE Standard Level (2017)

Solid Door (VCS.SC.M) 0.10xV+2.04 0.05xV + 1.36

Glass Door (VCT.SC.M) 0.12xV+3.34 0.1xV+0.86
Final

• Unit energy consumption for 2012 and beyond was estimated based on shipment-weighted averages by efficiency 

level and equipment class for 49 ft3 VCS.SC.M and VCT.SC.M units reported in DOE’s 2014 CRE Final Rule TSD with 

updated analysis from Guidehouse in 2016. These units were estimated to comprise approximately 85% and 15% of 

total reach-in refrigerator shipments, respectively.

• The efficiency of commercial reach-in refrigerators can be increased through the use of efficient compressors, efficient 

evaporator fans, efficient condenser fans, electric defrost, and more efficient lighting.

• For this referenced scenario, energy use is projected to remain static over the coming decades because reach-in 

refrigerators are a mature technology. 

96

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reach-In Refrigerators
Final

97

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reach-In Freezers

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR2 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h) 4,341 4,340 4,340 4,340 4,340 4,340 4,340 4,340 4,340 4,340 4,340 4,340

Size (ft3

) 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)1 6,023 5,585 5,585 4,847 4,110 4,110 4,847 4,110 4,847 4,110 4,847 4,110

Annual Energy Use / Volume (kWh/y/ft3) 123 114 114 99 84 84 99 84 99 84 99 84

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.08 1.08 1.24 1.47 1.47 1.24 1.47 1.24 1.47 1.24 1.47

Average Life (years) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) $2,886 $2,886 $2,886 $3,175 $3,493 $3,493 $3,175 $3,493 $3,175 $3,493 $3,175 $3,493 

Total Installed Cost (2022$)4 $3,749 $3,749 $3,749 $4,125 $4,443 $4,443 $4,125 $4,443 $4,125 $4,443 $4,125 $4,443

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) $864 $864 $864 $950 $1,024 $1,024 $950 $1,024 $950 $1,024 $950 $1,024

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)5 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) $41.70 $41.71 $41.71 $41.71 $41.71 $41.71 $41.71 $41.71 $41.71 $41.71 $41.71 $41.71

1. A 49 ft3 unit was characterized, because it was the representative size selected for DOE’s rulemaking analysis. 

2. The ENERGY STAR category was based on a solid-doored unit that is minimally compliant with ENERGY STAR v3, effective October 1, 2014.

3. Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2012 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2012 Energy Use) / (Energy Use).

4. Installation cost for 2012 and 2018 is based on DOE’s on-going CRE rulemaking, which assumes a cost of $863 for self-contained equipment and $950 for 2022 and beyond based on 

analysis from Guidehouse.

5. Maintenance costs are calculated based on a $35 per unit annual preventative maintenance cost, plus an additional $45 per linearfoot repair and maintenance cost estimated based on 

values reported in the CRE TSD.
Final

• EPACT 2005 set maximum daily energy consumption levels, in kilowatt-hours per day, for commercial reach-in 

freezers that went into effect on January 1, 2010. The daily energy consumption is based on the volume of the unit (V) 

in ft3. 

• In March of 2017, DOE updated its energy conservation standards for commercial refrigeration equipment, including 

reach-in freezers. Both the EPCA and DOE standards are reported in the table below.

• In 2013, EPA updated its ENERGY STAR specifications for reach-in freezers, effective March 27, 2017. These standards 

are also based on the refrigerated volume of the unit.

98

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reach-In Freezers

Reach-In Freezer Size 0 < V < 15 15 ≤ V < 30 30 ≤ V < 50 50 ≤ V

Solid Door (VCS.SC.L) 0.21xV+0.9 0.12xV+2.248 0.285xV-2.703 0.142xV+4.445

Glass Door (VCT.SC.L) 0.232xV+2.36 0.232xV+2.36 0.232xV+2.36 0.232xV+2.36

Equipment Class EPCA (2010) DOE Standard Level (2017)

Solid Door (VCS.SC.L) 0.4xV+1.38 0.22xV+1.38

Transparent Door (VCT.SC.L) 0.75xV+4.10 0.29xV+2.95
Final

• The commercial reach-in freezer characterized in this report, which is the typical unit according to DOE’s 2014 CRE 

rulemaking, is a 49 cubic ft. solid two-door unit with a nominal compressor size of 4,341 Btu/h. 

• The efficiency of commercial reach-in freezers can be increased through the use of efficient compressors, efficient 

evaporator fans, efficient condenser fans, electric defrost, and more efficient lighting.

• For this referenced scenario, energy use is projected to remain static over the coming decades because reach-in 

freezers are a mature technology. 

99

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reach-In Freezers
Final

100

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Refrigerators

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h)1 37,820 39,422 41,024 41,024 41,024 N/A 41,024 41,024 41,024 41,024 41,024 41,024

Size (ft2

) 305 240 240 240 240 N/A 240 240 240 240 240 240

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)2 30,689 20,040 17,600 16,200 14,800 N/A 16,200 14,800 16,200 14,800 16,200 14,800

Annual Energy Use / Area (kWh/ft2

/y) 101 84 73 68 62 N/A 68 62 68 62 68 62

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.53 1.74 1.89 2.07 N/A 1.89 2.07 1.89 2.07 1.89 2.07

Insulated Box Average Life (years) 12 12 12 12 12 N/A 12 12 12 12 12 12

Compressor Average Life (years) 10 10 10 10 10 N/A 10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) $23,598 $19,847 $16,050 $19,847 $23,644 N/A $16,050 $23,644 $16,050 $23,644 $16,050 $23,644 

Total Installed Cost (2022$)4 $27,012 $23,897 $20,100 $23,897 $27,694 N/A $20,100 $27,694 $20,100 $27,694 $20,100 $27,694 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) $714 $606 $490 $583 $675 N/A $490 $675 $490 $675 $490 $675 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)5 $716 $740 $740 $740 $740 N/A $740 $740 $740 $740 $740 $740

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) $18.93 $18.77 $18.04 $18.04 $18.04 N/A $18.04 $18.04 $18.04 $18.04 $18.04 $18.04

1. Assumes medium temperature units are refrigerators.

2. Average unit energy consumption was adapted from the DOE CRE 2016 report by assuming electronically commutated motor (ECM) evaporator fan motors are required for 

Energy Policy & Conservation Act (EPCA) compliance, as well as ECM condenser fan motors.

3. Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2012 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2012 Energy Use) / (Energy Use).

4. Installation cost for 2012 and beyond is based on DOE’s Walk-In TSD.

5. Maintenance cost includes checking and maintaining refrigerant charge levels, checking settings, and cleaning heat exchanger coils.
Final

101

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Refrigerators

• For 2012 and beyond, the unit characterized was a walk-in storage cooler, based on DOE’s WICF TSD.

• A typical walk-in refrigerator includes:

- insulated floor and wall panels

- merchandising doors, shelving, and lighting (not included in cost estimate)

- semi-hermetic reciprocating compressor

- refrigerant (R404A)

- condenser

- evaporator

• Energy consumption is assumed to scale with the AWEF (Annual Walk-in Energy Factor), defined as the ratio of total 

heat removed from the refrigerated volume per year to the total electrical energy input of refrigeration systems over 

the same time period. 

• The installation cost consists of freight and delivery costs in addition to on-site assembly.
Final

102

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Refrigerators

The Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) of 2007 included prescriptive standards for walk-in refrigerators 

(coolers) that went into effect in 2009. These prescriptive standards, which are included in the analysis for all units for 

2012 and beyond, state that all walk-in refrigerators manufactured after January 1, 2009, must:

• For 2012 and beyond

• have automatic door closers 

• have strip doors, spring hinged doors, or other method of minimizing infiltration when doors are open

• contain wall, ceiling, and door insulation of at least R–25, except for glazed portions of doors and structural members

• use electronically commutated motors or three-phase motors (for evaporator fan motors of under 1 horsepower and 

less than 460 volts)

• use electronically commutated motors, permanent split capacitor-type motors, or three-phase motors (for condenser 

fan motors of under 1 horsepower)

• use light sources with an efficacy of 40 lumens per watt or more, including ballast losses (if any), except that light 

sources with an efficacy of 40 lumens per watt or less, including ballast losses (if any), may be used in conjunction 

with a timer or device that turns off the lights within 15 minutes of when the walk-in refrigerator is not occupied by 

people.
Final

In 2014, DOE updated its energy conservation standards for walk-in coolers and freezers. Minimum AWEF (Annual 

Walk-In Energy Factor) was set for refrigeration systems, as well as upper limits on energy consumption attributable to 

passage, freight, and display doors. DOE elected not to set new standards for the R-value of Walk-In Panels.

103

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Refrigerators

ENERGY CONSERVATION STANDARDS FOR WALK-IN COOLERS AND WALK-IN FREEZERS

Class descriptor Class Standard lev el

Refrigeration Systems Minimum AWEF (Btu/W-h)

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Indoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ......... DC.M.I, <9,000 ... 5.61

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Indoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ......... DC.M.I, ≥ 9,000 ... 5.61

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Outdoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ...... DC.M.O, <9,000 ...7.60

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Outdoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ...... DC.M.O,≥9,000 ...7.60

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Indoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............... DC.L.I, <9,000 ..... 5.93 ⋅ 10¥5 ⋅Q + 2.33

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Indoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............... DC.L.I, ≥9,000 .... 3.10

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Outdoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............. DC.L.O, <9,000 .. 2.30 ⋅ 10¥4 ⋅Q + 2.73

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Outdoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............. DC.L.O, ≥9,000 .. 4.79

Multiplex Condensing, Medium Temperature ........................................................................... MC.M .................. 10.89

Multiplex Condensing, Low Temperature ................................................................................. MC.L ................... 6.57

Panels Minimum R-v alue (h-ft2-°F/Btu)

Structural Panel, Medium Temperature .................................................................................... SP.M .................. 25

Structural Panel, Low Temperature .......................................................................................... SP.L ................... 32

Floor Panel, Low Temperature ................................................................................................. FP.L .................... 28

Non-Display Doors Maximum energy consumption

(kWh/day) **

Passage Door, Medium Temperature ...................................................................................... PD.M .................. 0.05 ⋅And + 1.7

Passage Door, Low Temperature ............................................................................................. PD.L ................... 0.14 ⋅And + 4.8

Freight Door, Medium Temperature ......................................................................................... FD.M .................. 0.04 ⋅And + 1.9

Freight Door, Low Temperature ............................................................................................... FD.L ................... 0.12 ⋅And + 5.6

Display Doors Maximum Energy Consumption (kWh/day) †

Display Door, Medium Temperature ......................................................................................... DD.M .................. 0.04 ⋅Add + 0.41

Display Door, Low Temperature ............................................................................................... DD.L ................... 0.15 ⋅Add + 0.29
Final

104

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Freezers

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h) 22,114 23,500 23,500 23,500 23,500 N/A 23,500 23,500 23,500 23,500 23,500 23,500

Size (ft2

) 1 172 161 161 161 161 N/A 161 161 161 161 161 161

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)2 22,862 22,000 22,000 20,460 19,028 N/A 20,460 19,028 20,460 19,028 20,460 19,028

Annual Energy Use / Area (kWh/ft2

/y) 133 124 124 115 107 N/A 115 107 115 107 115 107

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.04 1.04 1.12 1.20 N/A 1.12 1.20 1.12 1.20 1.12 1.20

Insulated Box Average Life (years) 12 12 12 12 12 N/A 12 12 12 12 12 12

Compressor Average Life (years) 10 10 10 10 10 N/A 10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) $22,008 $21,950 $21,950 $22,850 $23,750 N/A $22,850 $23,750 $22,850 $23,750 $22,850 $23,750 

Total Installed Cost (2022$)4 $24,058 $23,950 $23,950 $24,850 $25,750 N/A $24,850 $25,750 $24,850 $25,750 $24,850 $25,750 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) $1,088 $1,019 $1,019 $1,057 $1,096 N/A $1,057 $1,096 $1,057 $1,096 $1,057 $1,096 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)5 $741 $741 $741 $741 $741 N/A $741 $741 $741 $741 $741 $741

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) $33.51 $31.53 $31.53 $31.53 $31.53 N/A $31.53 $31.53 $31.53 $31.53 $31.53 $31.53

1. Based on DOE's 2014 WICF Final Rule TSD and additional analysis by Guidehouse, the average floor area for a walk-in storage freezer as 161 ft2.

2. EISA 2007 includes prescriptive standards for walk-in freezers that went into effect in 2009. All units for 2012 and beyond include these prescriptive standards. Units for 2022 and beyond 

are characterized using data from DOE’s 2014 WICF rulemaking. All units for 2022 and beyond are assumed to comply with this standard.

3. Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2012 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2012 Energy Use) / (Energy Use).

4. Installation cost for 2012 and beyond is based on DOE’s WICF TSD and additional analysis by Guidehouse. 

5. Maintenance cost includes checking and maintaining refrigerant charge levels, checking settings, and cleaning heat exchanger coils.
Final

105

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Freezers

• The commercial walk-in freezer characterized in this report is a walk-in storage freezer with an area of 161 ft2.

• A typical walk-in freezer includes:

- insulated floor, door, and wall panels

- semi-hermetic reciprocating compressor

- refrigerant (R404A)

- condenser

- evaporator

• Energy consumption is assumed to scale with the AWEF (Annual Walk-in Energy Factor), defined as the ratio of total 

heat removed from the refrigerated volume per year to the total electrical energy input of refrigeration systems over the 

same time period. 

• The installation cost consists of freight and delivery costs in addition to on-site assembly.
Final

106

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Freezers

EISA 2007 included prescriptive standards for walk-in freezers that went into effect in 2009. These prescriptive standards, 

which are included in all units for 2011 and beyond, state that all walk-in freezers manufactured after January 1, 2009, 

must:

• have automatic door closers 

• have strip doors, spring hinged doors, or other method of minimizing infiltration when doors are open

• contain wall, ceiling, and door insulation of at least R–32, except for glazed portions of doors and structural members

• contain floor insulation of at least R–28

• use electronically commutated motors or three-phase motors (for evaporator fan motors of under 1 horsepower and 

less than 460 volts)

• use electronically commutated motors, permanent split capacitor-type motors, or three-phase motors (for condenser 

fan motors of under 1 horsepower)

• use light sources with an efficacy of 40 lumens per watt or more, including ballast losses (if any), except that light 

sources with an efficacy of 40 lumens per watt or less, including ballast losses (if any), may be used in conjunction 

with a timer or device that turns off the lights within 15 minutes of when the walk-in freezer is not occupied by 

people.
Final

107

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Freezers

In 2014, DOE updated its energy conservation standards for walk-in coolers and freezers. Minimum AWEF (Annual 

Walk-in Energy Factor) was set for refrigeration systems, as well as upper limits on energy consumption attributable to 

passage, freight, and display doors. DOE elected not to set new standards for the R-value of Walk-in Panels.

ENERGY CONSERVATION STANDARDS FOR WALK-IN COOLERS AND WALK-IN FREEZERS

Class descriptor Class Standard lev el

Refrigeration Systems Minimum AWEF (Btu/W-h)

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Indoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ......... DC.M.I, <9,000 ... 5.61

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Indoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ......... DC.M.I, ≥ 9,000 ... 5.61

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Outdoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ...... DC.M.O, <9,000 ...7.60

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Outdoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ...... DC.M.O,≥9,000 ...7.60

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Indoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............... DC.L.I, <9,000 ..... 5.93 ⋅ 10¥5 ⋅Q + 2.33

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Indoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............... DC.L.I, ≥9,000 .... 3.10

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Outdoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............. DC.L.O, <9,000 .. 2.30 ⋅ 10¥4 ⋅Q + 2.73

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Outdoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............. DC.L.O, ≥9,000 .. 4.79

Multiplex Condensing, Medium Temperature ........................................................................... MC.M .................. 10.89

Multiplex Condensing, Low Temperature ................................................................................. MC.L ................... 6.57

Panels Minimum R-v alue (h-ft2-°F/Btu)

Structural Panel, Medium Temperature .................................................................................... SP.M .................. 25

Structural Panel, Low Temperature .......................................................................................... SP.L ................... 32

Floor Panel, Low Temperature ................................................................................................. FP.L .................... 28

Non-Display Doors Maximum energy consumption

(kWh/day) **

Passage Door, Medium Temperature ...................................................................................... PD.M .................. 0.05 ⋅And + 1.7

Passage Door, Low Temperature ............................................................................................. PD.L ................... 0.14 ⋅And + 4.8

Freight Door, Medium Temperature ......................................................................................... FD.M .................. 0.04 ⋅And + 1.9

Freight Door, Low Temperature ............................................................................................... FD.L ................... 0.12 ⋅And + 5.6

Display Doors Maximum Energy Consumption (kWh/day) †

Display Door, Medium Temperature ......................................................................................... DD.M .................. 0.04 ⋅Add + 0.41

Display Door, Low Temperature ............................................................................................... DD.L ................... 0.15 ⋅Add + 0.29
Final

108

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Ice Machines

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR6 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Output (pounds [lbs] per day) 1 300 641 700 700 700 700 700 700 700 700 700 700

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h)2 1963 4194 4580 4580 4580 4580 4580 4580 4580 4580 4580 4580

Water Use per Hundred Pounds 

(gal/hundred lbs)3 20 25 25 20 15 15 20 15 20 15 20 15

Energy Use per Hundred Pounds 

(kWh/hundred lbs) 7.7 7.5 7.1 5.8 4.8 4.8 5.8 4.8 5.8 4.8 5.8 4.8

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)4 3,185 2,502 1,675 1,478 1,190 1,190 1,478 1,190 1,478 1,190 1,478 1,190

Indexed Annual Efficiency5 1.00 1.27 1.90 2.15 2.68 2.68 2.15 2.68 2.15 2.68 2.15 2.68

Average Life (years) 8.0 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) $2,146 $2,616 $2,946 $3,020 $3,368 $3,368 $3,020 $3,368 $3,020 $3,368 $3,020 $3,368 

Total Installed Cost (with Bin) $2,441 $3,626 $3,276 $3,350 $3,737 $3,737 $3,350 $3,737 $3,350 $3,737 $3,350 $3,737 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) $1,244 $865 $715 $732 $816 $816 $732 $816 $732 $816 $732 $816 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)7 $826 $826 $800 $800 $800 $800 $800 $800 $800 $800 $800 $800

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) $421 $197 $175 $175 $175 $175 $175 $175 $175 $175 $175 $175

1. Based on the average output from the Compliance Certification Database and values within 2022 Automatic Commercial Ice Maker (ACIM) TSD.

2. Defined as the average heat load to remove the latent and sensible heat required to freeze the daily output capacity of ice.

3. Water use refers to potable water.

4. EPACT 2005 energy standards went into effect in 2010. The 2015 low values are based on this standard. In 2014, DOE set new standards for commercial ice machines, with compliance required by 2018. The unit 

characterized for 2012 and beyond uses data from this rulemaking. All units for 2020 and beyond are assumed to comply with the updated standard.

5. Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2012 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2012 Energy Use) / (Energy Use).

6. The ENERGY STAR category is based on minimum compliance with the ENERGY STAR v3.0 standard, which went into effect on January 28, 2018. According to this analysis, ENERGY STAR certification is 

typical for the small air-cooled ice-making head (IMH) unit characterized.

7. Maintenance cost is based on the average cost of equipment within the 700 lb/day output range and includes cleaning and maintaining refrigerant levels, replacing filters, checking water distribution lines for 

leaks, cleaning, sanitizing, and descaling the bin and water system. Maintenance cost decreases as the size of the ice machine (i.e. output) decreases.
Final

109

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Ice Machines

• Commercial ice machines are typically integrated with an insulated ice storage bin or mounted on top of a separate 

storage bin. The retail equipment cost includes the ice making head and the integrated storage bin. Commercial ice 

machine condensers are either air-cooled or water-cooled. Approximately 90% of all units are the air-cooled type.

• Commercial ice machine maintenance includes periodic cleaning (every 2 to 6 weeks) to remove lime and scale and 

sanitizing to kill bacteria. Some ice machines are self-cleaning/sanitizing.

• ENERGY STAR® updated its maximum energy consumption levels, in kilowatt-hours per 100 pounds of ice, for aircooled ice machines that went into effect on January 28, 2018. These efficiency levels are based on the harvest rate, in 

pounds per 24 hours. (H). Water-cooled ice machines are not eligible for ENERGY STAR certification.

ENERGY STAR Requirements for Air-Cooled Batch-Type Ice Makers

Equipment Type

Applicable Ice 

Harvest Rate Range 

(lbs of ice/24 hrs)

Energy 

Consumption Rate 

(kWh/100 lbs ice)

Potable Water Use 

(gal/hundred lbs

ice)

IMH 200 ≤ H ≤ 1600 ≤ 37.72 * H -0.298 ≤ 20.0

RCU

400 ≤ H ≤ 1600 ≤ 22.95 * H -0.258 + 

1.00 ≤ 20.0

1600 ≤ H ≤ 4000 ≤ -0.00011 * H + 4.60 ≤ 20.0

SCU 50 ≤ H ≤ 450 ≤ 48.66 * H -0.326 + 

0.08 ≤ 25.0

ENERGY STAR Requirements for Air-Cooled Continuous-Type Ice Makers

Equipment Type Energy Consumption Rate 

(kWh/hundred lbs ice)

Potable Water Use 

(gal/hundred lbs ice)

IMH ≤ 9.18 * H -0.057 ≤ 15.0

RCU ≤ 6.00 * H -0.162 + 3.50 ≤ 15.0

SCU ≤ 59.45 * H -0.349 + 0.08 ≤ 15.0
Final

110

EPACT 2005 issued standard levels for commercial ice machines with capacities between 50 pounds and 2500 pounds per 

24-hour period that are manufactured or sold in the United States on or after January 1, 2010. The energy consumption is 

based on the harvest rate in pounds per 24 hours (H). In 2015, DOE finalized new standards for ACIMs extending 

coverage to flake, nugget, and tube-type machines and to capacities up to 4,000 pounds per 24 hours.

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Ice Machines

Water use is for the condenser only and does not include potable water used to make ice.

Equipment Type Type of

Cooling

Harvest Rate

(lbs ice/24 hrs)

Maximum Energy Use

(kWh/hundred lbs ice)

Maximum Condenser Water

Use (gal/hundred lbs ice)

Ice Making Head

Water

<500 7.80-0.0055 H 200-0.022 H

≥500 and <1,436 5.58-0.0011 H 200-0.022 H

≥1,436 4.0 200-0.022 H

Air

<450 10.26-0.0086 H Not Applicable

≥450 6.89-0.0011 H Not Applicable

Remote Condensing

(but not remote compressor)

Air

<1,000 8.85-0.0038 H Not Applicable

≥1,000 5.10 Not Applicable

Remote Condensing

and Remote Compressor

Air

<934 8.85-0.0038 H Not Applicable

≥934 5.3 Not Applicable

Self Contained

Water

<200 11.40-0.019 H 191-0.0315 H

≥200 7.60 191-0.0315 H

Air

<175 18.0-0.0469 H Not Applicable

≥175 9.80 Not Applicable
Final

2014 DOE Standards

111

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Ice Machines

Energy Conservation Standards for Batch-Type Automatic Commercial Ice Makers 

Effective January 2018

Equipment Type Type of Cooling Harvest Rate

lb ice/24 hours

Maximum Energy 

Use

kWh/100 lb ice*

Maximum 

Condenser Water 

Use

gal/100 lb ice**

Ice-Making Head Water

<300 6.88 - 0.0055H 200 - 0.022H

300 and <850 5.80 - 0.00191H 200 - 0.022H

850 and <1,500 4.42 - 0.00028H 200 - 0.022H

1500 and <2,500 4.0 200 - 0.022H

2500 and <4,000 4.0 145

Ice-Making Head Air

<300 10 - 0.01233H Not Applicable

300 and <800 7.05 - 0.0025H Not Applicable

800 and <1500 5.55 - 0.00063H Not Applicable

1500 and <4,000 4.61 Not Applicable

Remote Condensing 

(but not remote 

compressor)

Air

50 and <1,000 7.97 - 0.00342H Not Applicable

1,000 and <4,000 4.55 Not Applicable

Remote Condensing 

and Remote 

Compressor

Air

<942 7.97 - 0.00342H Not Applicable

942 and <4,000 4.75 Not Applicable

Self-Contained Water

<200 9.5 - 0.019H 191 - 0.0315H

200 and <2,500 5.7 191 - 0.0315H

2500 and <4,000 5.7 112

Self-Contained Air

<110 14.79 - 0.0469H Not Applicable

110 and <200 12.42 - 0.02533H Not Applicable

200 and <4,000 7.35 Not Applicable

Energy Conservation Standards for Continuous-Type Automatic Commercial Ice Makers 

Effective January 2018

Equipment Type Type of Cooling Harvest Rate

lb ice/24 hours

Maximum Energy 

Use

kWh/100 lb ice*

Maximum 

Condenser Water 

Use

gal/100 lb ice**

Ice-Making Head Water

<801 6.48 - 0.00267H 180 - 0.0198H

801 and <2,500 4.34 180 - 0.0198H

2,500 and <4,000 4.34 130.5

Ice-Making Head Air

<310 9.19 - 0.00629H Not Applicable

310 and <820 8.23 - 0.0032H Not Applicable

820 and <4,000 5.61 Not Applicable

Remote 

Condensing (but 

not remote 

compressor)

Air

<800 9.7 - 0.0058H Not Applicable

800 and <4,000 5.06 Not Applicable

Remote 

Condensing and 

Remote 

Compressor

Air

<800 9.9 - 0.0058H Not Applicable

800 and <4,000 5.26 Not Applicable

Self-Contained Water

<900 7.6 - 0.00302H 153 - 0.0252H

900 and <2,500 4.88 153 - 0.0252H

2500 and <4,000 4.88 90

Self-Contained Air

<200 14.22 - 0.03H Not Applicable

200 and <700 9.47 - 0.00624H Not Applicable

700 and <4,000 5.1 Not Applicable
Final

112

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Beverage Merchandisers

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR2 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h) 4,689 4,700 4,700 4,700 4,700 4,700 4,700 4,700 4,700 4,700 4,700 4,700

Size (ft3) 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y) 1,829 1,635 1,380 1,141 902 902 1,141 902 1,141 902 1,141 902

Annual Energy Use / Volume 

(kWh/ft3/y)1 68 73 55 35 26 26 35 26 35 26 35 26

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.12 1.33 1.60 2.03 2.03 1.60 2.03 1.60 2.03 1.60 2.03

Average Life (years) 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) $2,382 $2,051 $1,710 $2,762 $3,332 $3,332 $2,762 $3,332 $2,762 $3,332 $2,762 $3,332 

Total Installed Cost (2022$)4 $2,382 $2,051 $1,710 $2,762 $3,332 $3,332 $2,762 $3,332 $2,762 $3,332 $2,762 $3,332 

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) $508 $436 $364 $588 $709 $709 $588 $709 $588 $709 $588 $709 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$) $108 $108 $95 $95 $95 $95 $95 $95 $95 $95 $95 $95

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) $23.03 $22.98 $20.21 $20.21 $20.11 $20.11 $20.21 $20.11 $20.21 $20.11 $20.21 $20.11

1. EPACT 2005 energy conservation standards went into effect in 2010. In 2015, DOE updated its energy conservation standards for commercial refrigeration equipment, including 

transparent-doored refrigerators with pull-down capability. Compliance with this standard is required by 2017. Units characterized for 2018 and beyond use data reported in this 

rulemaking’s TSD. Units sold in 2022 and beyond are assumed to comply with this updated standard.

2. The ENERGY STAR category characterizes a unit that is compliant with ENERGY STAR v4, effective March 2017. This standard does not separately define units with pull-down capability.

3. Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2012 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2012 Energy Use) / (Energy Use). 

4. Beverage merchandisers are shipped ready to be plugged in, so installation costs are assumed to be negligible.
Final

113

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Beverage Merchandisers

• EPACT 2005 sets maximum daily energy consumption levels, in kilowatt-hours per day, for commercial refrigerators with 

transparent doors and self-contained condensing unit designed for pull-down temperature applications (i.e., beverage 

merchandisers) and went into effect on January 1, 2010. 

• In 2014, DOE updated its energy consumption standards for commercial refrigeration equipment, including beverage 

merchandisers, effective March 27, 2015. Both the DOE and EPCA standards are reported below. 

• In 2013, EPA updated its ENERGY STAR specifications for glass-doored commercial refrigerators, which can be used as 

beverage merchandisers, effective October 1, 2014. These standards are also based on the volume of the unit (V). Note that 

ENERGY STAR does not have a separate equipment class for units with pull-down capability. 

Equipment Type EPCA (2010) DOE Standards (2017)

Beverage Merchandisers 

(PD.SC.M)

0.126xV + 3.51 0.11xV+0.81

Beverage 

Merchandiser Size 0 < V < 15 15 ≤ V < 30 30 ≤ V < 50 50 ≤ V

Glass Door 0.118*V + 1.382 ≤ 0.140*V + 1.050 ≤ 0.088*V + 2.625 ≤ 0.110*V + 1.500
Final

114

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Beverage Merchandisers

• The beverage merchandiser characterized in this report, which is the typical unit according to DOE’s 2014 CRE 

rulemaking and additional analysis by Guidehouse, is a 27 cubic foot cooler with a single hinged, transparent door, 

bright lighting, and shelving with a nominal compressor size of 4,700 Btu/h. 

• The efficiency of beverage merchandisers can be increased through the use of more efficient compressors, 

fluorescent lighting with electronic ballasts, LED lighting, and improved insulation.

• For the Reference Case, beverage merchandisers are assumed to be mature technologies with few technology 

advancements in the coming years that would dramatically improve the efficiency. 
Final

115

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Refrigerated Vending Machines

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR2 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h) 1,810 1,707 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810

Can Capacity 470 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500

Size (ft3

) 26 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)1 1,632 1,550 1,550 1,531 1,443 1,443 1,531 1,443 1,531 1,443 1,531 1,443

Annual Energy Use / Volume 

(kWh/ft3

/y) 63 44 44 44 41 41 44 41 44 41 44 41

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.05 1.05 1.07 1.13 1.13 1.07 1.13 1.07 1.13 1.07 1.13

Average Life (years) 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) $3,209 $2,553 $3,059 $3,272 $3,520 $3,520 $3,272 $3,520 $3,272 $3,520 $3,272 $3,520 

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $3,320 $2,705 $3,276 $3,489 $3,737 $3,737 $3,489 $3,737 $3,489 $3,737 $3,489 $3,737 

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) $1,834 $1,585 $1,810 $1,928 $2,065 $2,065 $1,928 $2,065 $1,928 $2,065 $1,928 $2,065

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)4 $270 $270 $333 $333 $333 $333 $333 $333 $333 $333 $333 $333 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) $149 $149 $184 $184 $184 $184 $184 $184 $184 $184 $184 $184

1. Energy use for 2018 and beyond is estimated based on DOE’s 2020 BVM Final Rule and the 2022 Compliance Certification Database.

2. The ENERGY STAR category assumes units are compliant with the ENERGY STAR v4 standard because combination units are currentlynot separately defined by ENERGY STAR. This 

standard went into effect on April 29, 2020. Our analysis finds ENERGY STAR certified equipment to be the most efficient currently available on the market.

3. Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2012 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2012 Energy Use) / (Energy Use).

4. Maintenance cost includes preventative maintenance costs such as checking and maintaining refrigerant charge levels, cleaningheat exchanger coils, and an annualized cost for 

refurbishments/remanufacturing. 
Final

116

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Refrigerated Vending Machines

• DOE set federal energy efficiency standards for refrigerated vending machines. These standards set maximum daily energy 

consumption levels, in kilowatt-hours per day, for commercial refrigerated vending machines manufactured or sold in the 

United States on or after August 31, 2012. The daily energy consumption is based on the volume of the unit (V).

• In December 2015, DOE updated its energy conservation standards for beverage vending machines and defined two new 

product classes for combination vending machines. The energy conservation standard remains the same in the updated 

2022 technical support document for vending machines. Compliance with these standards was required by 2019. For this 

analysis, compliance with these updated standards is assumed for equipment sold in 2022 and beyond. The updated 

standards and DOE equipment definitions are listed in the table below.

Equipment Type Maximum Daily Energy Consumption

Class A (Transparent-Front) MDEC= 0.052 × V + 2.43

Class B (Solid-Front) MDEC = 0.052 × V + 2.20 

Combination A MDEC = 0.086 × V + 2.66

Combination B MDEC = 0.111 × V + 2.04
Final

117

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Refrigerated Vending Machines

Equipment Class Maximum daily energy consumption (kilowatt-hours per day)

Class A – a refrigerated bottled or canned beverage vending machine that is not a 

combination vending machine and in which 25% or more of the surface area on the 

front side of the beverage vending machine is transparent

MDEC = 0.04836 x V + 2.2599

Class B – any refrigerated bottled or canned beverage vending machine that is not 

considered to be Class A and is not a combination vending machine MDEC = 0.04576 x V+1.936

Combination A – a combination vending machine where 25% or more of the 

surface area on the front side of the beverage vending machine is transparent MDEC = 0.07998 x V + 2.4738

Combination B – a combination vending machine that is not considered to be 

Combination A MDEC = 0.09768 x V + 1.7952

ENERGY STAR® updated its maximum daily energy consumption efficiency levels, also in kilowatt-hours per day, for 

refrigerated vending machines that went into effect on April 29, 2020. These efficiency levels are based on refrigerated 

volume.
Final

Commercial Ventilation 

118
Final

119

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Constant Air Volume

1. Based on 3800 operating hours per year (ADL, 1999) and typical zone air flow requirement profile (ASHRAE S45.11-2012)

2. Total installed cost of 16,300 CFM constant air volume (CAV) air handling unit (AHU) and hypothetical supply ductwork layout

3. Based on ASHRAE 90.1-2016 and 2019 fan power limit (Table 6.5.3.1.1-1) with no pressure drop adjustment. Assumed 80% motor load and 91% motor efficiency

4. ASHRAE 90.1-2016 and 2019 Section 6.5.3.2 require minimum two-speed fan control (no longer always constant volume).

5. Two-speed variable frequency drive (VFD)

6. Modulating VFD

7. Modulating custom engineered VFD

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average3

Low4,5 Typical4,6 High4,7 ENERGY 

STAR Typical4,6 High4,7 Typical4,6 High4,7 Typical4,6 High4,7

System Airflow (CFM) 15,000 16,300 16,300 16,300 16,300 N/A 16,300 16,300 16,300 16,300 16,300 16,300

System Fan Power (kW) 11.56 11.56 11.56 10.98 10.78 N/A 10.98 10.78 10.98 10.78 10.98 10.78

Specific Fan Power (W/CFM) 0.771 0.709 0.709 0.674 0.661 N/A 0.674 0.661 0.674 0.661 0.674 0.661

Annual Fan Energy Use (kWh/y)1

43,924 23,038 23,038 21,886 20,792 N/A 21,886 20,792 21,886 20,792 21,886 20,792

Average Life (years) 35 35 35 35 35 N/A 35 35 35 35 35 35

Total Installed Cost (2022$)2

$80,288 $83,083 $83,083 $86,901 $90,651 N/A $86,901 $90,651 $86,901 $90,651 $86,901 $90,651 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 N/A $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/thousand 

cubic feet per minute [CFM]) $5,353 $5,097 $5,097 $5,331 $5,561 N/A $5,331 $5,561 $5,331 $5,561 $5,331 $5,561 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/thousand CFM) $70 $65 $65 $65 $65 N/A $65 $65 $65 $65 $65 $65 
Final

120

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Constant Air Volume

• Constant air volume (CAV) ventilation systems are common, inexpensive, air-side HVAC systems that operate in response to a single control zone. Historically, 

these systems provide a constant flow rate of air (typically a mix of recirculated and outside air) and adjust the supply temperature of that air in order to maintain 

the space temperature setpoint. Beginning with ASHRAE 90.1-2013 and continued in ASHRAE 90.1-2019, new CAV ventilation systems were mandated to have at 

least two fan speed settings with the requirement of a maximum 40% power at 66% flow. Systems with variable speed fans are increasingly popular, making the 

term “constant air volume” somewhat of a misnomer for this system type. This analysis examines only the fan energy of the CAV system.

• There is movement in the industry and in energy codes to reduce fan power. ASHRAE 90.1 includes fan power limits for CAV systems. Fan power can be 

minimized through good design practice (efficient duct layout, low pressure drop ductwork, filters, coils), proper fan selection, and high efficiency type fans. 

ASHRAE 90.1-2019 now requires a minimum fan efficiency grade (FEG, based on AMCA 205-12: Energy Efficiency Classification for Fans) of 67 and a design 

operating fan efficiency within 15% of the maximum fan total efficiency. There are exceptions to this requirement, including packaged systems such as the CAV 

system type considered here. Still the fan power limits are expected to become more stringent, and fan efficiency will become more important throughout the 

industry.

• The unit characterized in this report is a 16,300 CFM CAV system. The average commercial building is approximately 16,300 square feet (CBECS 2018). Assuming 

1 CFM is needed per square foot of floor area results in a 16,300 CFM air handling unit.

• A 16,300 CFM CAV packaged indoor air handling unit with cooling and heating coils can be installed for approximately $71,829 (RS Means 2022). Ductwork 

would cost approximately $9,272 additional ($81,101 total). A two-speed motor (estimated $500 incremental cost) and variable frequency drive (estimated $5,800) 

add cost. Custom engineered variable frequency drives (estimated $9,550) and premium efficiency motors (estimated additional $1,500) add an additional cost to 

the system.

• Annual maintenance cost assumes 8 hours worth of labor by a technician to perform the necessary tasks (e.g., filter replacement, draining condenser water, etc.)

• ASHRAE Standard 90.1, which is used as a basis for most state energy codes, limits the fan power (brake HP or nameplate HP) for CAV systems. The 2016 version 

of Standard 90.1 was used to represent the 2018 minimum efficiency level (state energy codes typically refer to older versions of Standard 90.1 due to code 

revision cycles).

• Fan energy is affected by several factors, including fan type (e.g., centrifugal, axial), fan blade shape (e.g., forward-curved, backward-curved, backward-inclined, 

airfoil), drive type (belt or direct), configuration (plenum or housed centrifugal), system effects, duct design, filter and coil pressure drops, motor efficiency, and 

speed and flow control. 
Final

121

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Variable Air Volume

1. Based on 3800 operating hours per year (ADL, 1999) and typical zone air flow requirement profile (ASHRAE S45.11-2012)

2. Total installed cost of 16,300 CFM VAV AHU, VFD, (10) VAV boxes, (10) VAV controllers with associated space temperature sensor, and hypothetical supply ductwork layout

3. Based on ASHRAE 90.1-2016 and 2019 fan power limit (Table 6.5.3.1.1-1) with no pressure drop adjustment. Assumed 80% motor load and 91% motor efficiency

4. ASHRAE 90.1-2016 and 2019 Section 6.5.3.2 minimum power-flow requirement

5. ASHRAE 90.1-2019 fan power limit and typical VAV power-flow relationship for 40%-100% flow

6. ASHRAE 90.1-2019 fan power limit and typical VAV power-flow relationship for 30%-100% flow

7. High aerodynamic efficiency fan

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average3

Low4 Typical5 High6 ENERGY 

STAR Typical6 High6,7 Typical6,7 High6,7 Typical6,7 High6,7

System Airflow (CFM) 15,000 16,300 16,300 16,300 16,300 N/A 16,300 16,300 16,300 16,300 16,300 16,300

System Fan Power (kW) 15.99 15.99 15.99 15.99 15.99 N/A 15.99 15.19 15.99 15.19 15.99 15.19

Specific Fan Power (W/CFM) 1.066 1.066 0.981 0.981 0.981 N/A 0.981 0.932 0.981 0.932 0.981 0.932

Annual Fan Energy Use (kWh/y)1

24,699 24,082 24,082 22,878 21,734 N/A 22,878 21,734 22,878 21,734 22,878 21,734

Average Life (years) 28 28 28 28 28 N/A 28 28 28 28 28 28

Total Installed Cost (2022$)2

$103,327 $110,414 $118,814 $124,495 $124,995 N/A $124,495 $124,995 $124,495 $124,995 $124,495 $124,995 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 N/A $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/thousand 

CFM) $6,888 $6,774 $7,289 $7,638 $7,668 N/A $7,638 $7,668 $7,638 $7,668 $7,638 $7,668 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/thousand CFM) $70 $65 $65 $65 $65 N/A $65 $65 $65 $65 $65 $65 
Final

122

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Variable Air Volume

• Variable air volume (VAV) ventilation systems are the most common multi-zone system type specified today for conditioning commercial buildings. These systems 

provide conditioned air to multiple zone terminal units (VAV boxes) that use dampers to modulate the amount of cool air to each zone. An individual zone 

thermostat controls the VAV box damper to allow more or less cooling. If a zone requires heating, then the VAV box provides the minimum flow rate and typically 

includes a reheat coil to meet the space temperature setpoint. As VAV box dampers close in the system, a variable frequency drive reduces fan speed and flow 

continuously to meet current requirements.

• This analysis examines only the fan energy of the VAV system. VAV systems vary fan speed and flow to meet space conditioning requirements; minimum flow 

settings apply for DX cooling stages and gas furnace heating stages. Most hours of operation are much lower than full speed, and fan power varies with the cube of 

fan speed according to fan affinity laws. The 2012 ASHRAE Handbook: HVAC Systems and Equipment (p. 45.11) provided the typical flow profile used for this 

analysis. The unit characterized in this report is a 16,300 CFM VAV system. 

• There is movement in the industry and in energy codes to reduce fan power. ASHRAE 90.1 includes fan power limits for VAV systems. Fan power can be minimized 

through good design practice (efficient duct layout, low pressure drop ductwork, filters, coils), proper fan selection, and high efficiency type fans. ASHRAE 90.1-

2019 now requires a minimum fan efficiency grade (FEG, based on AMCA 205-12: Energy Efficiency Classification for Fans) of 67 and a design operating fan 

efficiency within 15% of the maximum fan total efficiency. There are exceptions to this requirement, including packaged systems such as the VAV system type 

considered here. Still the fan power limits are expected to become more stringent, and fan efficiency will become more important throughout the industry.

• A 16,300 CFM VAV packaged indoor air handling unit with cooling and heating coils can be installed for approximately $82,023 (RS Means 2022). Ductwork and (10) 

VAV boxes with reheat would cost approximately an additional $28,272. (10) VAV controllers and the associated space temperature sensor would cost approximately 

$8,400 ($118,695 total). A 15 hp variable frequency drive (estimated $5,800) is an additional cost.

• ASHRAE Standard 90.1, which is used as a basis for most state energy codes, limits the fan power for VAV systems (brake HP or nameplate HP). The 2016 version of 

Standard 90.1 was used to represent the 2018 minimum efficiency level (state energy codes typically refer to older versions of Standard 90.1 due to code revision 

cycles).

• Annual maintenance cost assumes 8 hours worth of labor by a technician to perform the necessary tasks (e.g., filter replacement, draining condenser water, etc.)

• Fan energy is affected by several factors, including fan type (e.g., centrifugal, axial), fan blade shape (e.g., forward-curved, backward-curved, backward-inclined, 

airfoil), drive type (belt or direct), configuration (plenum or housed centrifugal), system effects, duct design, filter and coil pressure drops, and motor VFD 

efficiency. 
Final

123

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Fan Coil Units

1. Based on 2250 operating hours per year (ADL, 1999) and typical zone air flow requirement profile (ASHRAE S45.11-2012)

2. Total installed cost of 2-ton horizontal two-pipe fan coil unit, housing, and controls

3. Based on ASHRAE 90.1-2016 and 2019 fan power limit (Table 6.5.3.1.1-1) with no pressure drop adjustment. Assumed 80% motor load and 91% motor efficiency

4. Based on ASHRAE 90.1-2016 and 2019 Section 6.5.3.6 requirement of electronically commutated or 70+% efficient fan motor

5. Permanent split capacitor fan motor

6. Electronically commutated fan motor (single speed)

7. Electronically commutated fan motor (two-speed)

8. Electronically commutated fan motor (variable speed)

9. High aerodynamic efficiency fan

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average5

Low3 Typical5 High6 ENERGY 

STAR Typical4,6 High4,7 Typical4,7 High4,8 Typical4,8 High4,8,9

System Airflow (CFM) 800 800 800 800 800 N/A 800 800 800 800 800 800

System Fan Power (kW) 0.241 0.241 0.241 0.148 0.148 N/A 0.141 0.134 0.134 0.136 0.136 0.129

Specific Fan Power (W/CFM) 0.302 0.302 0.301 0.185 0.185 N/A 0.176 0.167 0.167 0.170 0.170 0.162

Annual Fan Energy Use (kWh/y)1

543 542 542 333 333 N/A 316 301 301 306 306 291

Average Life (years) 37 37 37 37 37 N/A 37 37 37 37 37 37

Total Installed Cost (2022$)2

$2,845 $2,688 $3,038 $3,521 $3,961 N/A $3,961 $4,161 $3,961 $4,161 $3,961 $4,161 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $117 $117 $117 $117 $117 N/A $117 $117 $117 $117 $117 $117 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/thousand 

CFM) $3,557 $3,360 $3,798 $4,401 $4,951 N/A $4,951 $5,201 $4,951 $5,201 $4,951 $5,201 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/thousand CFM) $146 $146 $146 $146 $146 N/A $146 $146 $146 $146 $146 $146 
Final

124

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Fan Coil Units

• Commercial fan coil units (FCUs) are self-contained, mass-produced assemblies that provide cooling, heating, or cooling and heating, but they do not include the 

source of cooling or heating. The unit characterized in this report is a cooling only (two-pipe), horizontal unit with housing and controls. Fan coil units are 

typically installed in or adjacent to the space being served and have no (or very limited) ductwork. 

• According to manufacturer literature, the cooling capacity for a nominal 800 CFM fan coil unit is about 2 tons. This analysis examines only the fan energy of 

FCUs.

• Fan coil unit fan motors can be shaded pole, a single-phase AC motor with offset start winding and no capacitor; PSC, a single-phase AC motor with offset start 

winding with capacitor; or ECM, an AC electronically commutated permanent magnet DC motor. PSC motors are currently the most common motor type in 

FCUs, but manufacturers also offer single speed, two speed, and ECM motors as an option. ASHRAE 90.1-2019 requires an electronically commutated fan motor 

(or minimum motor efficiency of 70%) for this system.

• There is movement in the industry and in energy codes to reduce fan power. ASHRAE 90.1 includes fan power limits for FCUs. Fan power can be minimized 

through good design practice and high efficiency type fans. ASHRAE 90.1-2019 now requires a minimum fan efficiency grade (FEG, based on AMCA 205-12: 

Energy Efficiency Classification for Fans) of 67 and a design operating fan efficiency within 15% of the maximum fan total efficiency. There are exceptions to this 

requirement, including small systems such as the FCU considered here. Still the fan power limits are expected to become more stringent, and fan efficiency will 

become more important throughout the industry.

• Fan coil units have higher maintenance costs than central air systems due to the distributed nature of the system. For each unit, the filters must be changed, and 

drain systems must be flushed periodically.

• ASHRAE Standard 90.1, which is used as a basis for most state energy codes, limits the fan power (brake HP or nameplate HP). The 2016 version of Standard 90.1 

was used to represent the 2018 minimum efficiency level (state energy codes typically refer to older versions of Standard 90.1 due to code revision cycles).

• Fan energy is affected by several factors, including fan type configuration, filter and coil pressure drops, motor efficiency, and fan speed control. 
Final

Appendix A

Data Sources

A-1

Guidehouse

1200 19th Street, NW, Suite 700

Washington, D.C. 20036

And

SAIC

8301 Greensboro Drive

McLean, VA 22102
Final

Residential Lighting

126
Final

127

Data Sources » Residential General Service Incandescent Lamps (60 watt)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. Case

Assume Unchanged N/A

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) DOE, 2008

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 2016 EIA Ref. Case

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Ref. Case

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

128

Data Sources » Residential General Service Incandescent Lamps (75 watt)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. Case

Assume Unchanged N/A

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) DOE, 2008

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 2016 EIA Ref. Case

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Ref. Case

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

129

Data Sources » Residential General Service Halogen Lamps (60 watt Incandescent Equivalent)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage

2016 EIA Ref. Case Assume Unchanged

N/A

Distributor 

Websites or 

Product 

Catalogs 

N/A

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) DOE, 2008 DOE, 2008

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 2016 EIA Ref. Case Assume Unchanged Distributor 

Websites

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017 DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$) 2016 EIA Ref. Case Calculated Distributor 

Websites

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

N/A N/A

Labor Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

130

Data Sources» Residential General Service Halogen Lamps (75 watt Incandescent Equivalent)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage

2016 EIA Ref. Case Calculated

N/A

Distributor 

Websites or 

Product 

Catalogs 

N/A

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) DOE, 2008 DOE, 2008

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 2016 EIA Ref. Case Distributor Websites 

or Product Catalogs 

Distributor 

Websites

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017 DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$) 2016 EIA Ref. Case Calculated Distributor 

Websites

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

N/A N/A

Labor Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

131

Data Sources » Residential General Service Compact Fluorescent Lamps (60 watt Incandescent Equivalent)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage

2016 EIA Ref. Case

Calculated

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

ENERGY 

STAR, 2020

DOE, 2022

NCI, 2019

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated

CRI

Assume Unchanged Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) Product Catalogs N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 2016 EIA Ref. Case

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Ref. Case Calculated

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

N/A

N/A NCI, 2019

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

N/A N/A

Labor Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Calculated N/A Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

132

Data Sources » Residential General Service LED Lamps (60 Watt Equivalent)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage

Model, Energy Savings 

Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

2020 DOE LED Pricing 

Analysis

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

ENERGY 

STAR, 2020

DOE, 2022

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast 

of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

CRI

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs N/A

Assume Unchanged Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast 

of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

Model Reference 

Scenario, Energy 

Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in 

General Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

2020 DOE LED Pricing 

Analysis

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

N/A Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast 

of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

N/A

Labor Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Calculated N/A Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

133

Data Sources » Residential General Service Filament-LED Lamps (60 Watt Equivalent)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

Model, Energy Savings 

Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

2020 DOE LED Pricing 

Analysis

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

ENERGY 

STAR, 2020

DOE, 2022

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings 

Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General 

Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

CRI

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs N/A

Assume Unchanged Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings 

Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General 

Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

Model Reference 

Scenario, Energy 

Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in 

General Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

2020 DOE LED Pricing 

Analysis

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

N/A Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings 

Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General 

Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated N/A Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

134

Data Sources » Residential Reflector Lamps (65W BR30 Incandescent)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Assume 

Unchanged N/A

Distributor 

Websites or 

Product 

Catalogs 

N/A

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) DOE, 2012(1)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017 DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$) 2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Distributor 

Websites or 

Product 

Catalogs 

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

135

Data Sources » Residential Reflector Lamps (PAR30 Halogen)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock Average

Installed 

Stock Average Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Assume 

Unchanged

N/A

Distributor 

Websites or 

Product 

Catalogs 

N/A

Lamp Lumens Calculated

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

Assume 

Unchanged

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) DOE, 2012(1)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017 DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$) 2016 EIA Ref. 

Case Calculated

Distributor 

Websites or 

Product 

Catalogs 

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

136

Data Sources » Residential Reflector Lamps (PAR30 Halogen Infrared Reflector (HIR)

DATA SOURCES

2009 2020 2015 2023 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock Average

Installed 

Stock Average Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Calculated

N/A

Distributor 

Websites or 

Product 

Catalogs 

N/A

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

CRI

Assume 

Unchanged Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) DOE, 2012(1)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017 DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$) 2016 EIA Ref. 

Case Calculated

Distributor 

Websites or 

Product 

Catalogs 

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

137

Data Sources » Residential Reflector Lamps (BR30 CFL)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. Case / 

Calculated

N/A

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) DOE, 2012(1)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 2016 EIA Ref. Case / 

Calculated

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$) 2016 EIA Ref. Case / 

Calculated Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

138

Data Sources » Residential Reflector LED BR30

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage Model 

Reference 

Scenario, 

Energy 

Savings 

Forecast of 

Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 

2019)

2020 DOE 

LED Pricing 

Analysis

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

ENERGY 

STAR, 2020

DOE, 2022

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings 

Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General 

Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

CRI

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs N/A

Assume Unchanged Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings 

Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General 

Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

Model 

Reference 

Scenario, 

Energy 

Savings 

Forecast of 

Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 

2019)

2020 DOE 

LED Pricing 

Analysis

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs N/A

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings 

Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General 

Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h) N/A Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated N/A Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

139

Data Sources » Residential Reflector LED PAR38

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

Model Reference Scenario, 

Energy Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in 

General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 

2019)

Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs 

ENERGY 

STAR, 2020

DOE, 2022

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

CRI

Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs N/A

Assume Unchanged Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

Model Reference Scenario, 

Energy Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in 

General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 

2019)

Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs N/A

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated N/A Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

140

Data Sources » Residential Linear Fluorescent Lamp T12

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 2016 EIA Ref. Case

Assume 

Unchanged

N/A

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

Calculated System Wattage 

System Lumens 

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) 2016 EIA Ref. Case

Chapter 5; Table 

5.8.16 of GSFL 

Ballast Final Rule 

TSD (DOE, 2020)

CRI

2016 EIA Ref. Case

Assume 

Unchanged

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

Ballast Price (2022$) 2016 EIA Ref. Case

Fixture Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

Labor System Installation (hours) 2016 EIA Ref. Case

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

141

Data Sources » Residential Linear Fluorescent Lamp T8

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage Calculated

Distributor Websites

Calculated Lamp Lumens 2016 EIA Ref. Case

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 2015 GSFL TSD, 

Figure 11.5.4 Calculated

System Wattage 

System Lumens Calculated

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) 2016 EIA Ref. Case Chapter 5; Table 5.8.15 of GSFL Ballast Final Rule TSD (DOE, 2020)

CRI

2016 EIA Ref. Case Distributor Websites

Distributor Websites

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) Calculated

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Ref. Case

Calculated

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A Distributor Websites Calculated

Fixture Price (2022$) Calculated

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

2016 EIA Ref. Case Assume 

unchanged

2022 RS Means Online

Labor System Installation (hours)

Labor Lamp Change (hours) N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

142

Data Sources » Residential Linear Fluorescent Lamp T5

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage Calculated Distributor Websites

Assume unchanged Lamp Lumens 2016 EIA Ref. Case

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 2015 GSFL TSD, 

Figure 11.5.4 Calculated

System Wattage 

System Lumens Calculated

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE)

Chapter 5; Table 

5.3.32 of GSFL IRL 

Final Rule TSD 

(DOE, 2015)

Chapter 5; Table 5.8.6 of GSFL Ballast Final Rule TSD (DOE, 2020)

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2016 EIA Ref. Case Distributor Websites

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Ref. Case

Calculated

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A Distributor Websites Calculated

Fixture Price (2022$) Calculated

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

2016 EIA Ref. Case 2022 RS Means Online Labor System Installation (hours)

Labor Lamp Change (hours) N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

143

Data Sources » Residential Linear LED Replacement Lamp 2-Lamp System

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

LED Webscrape 

Database

DOE Web Scrape 

Database Distributor websites

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume same as 2022 Typical and High

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings 

Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General 

Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

System Wattage 

System Lumens Calculated

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A

CRI 2016 EIA Ref. Case 2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) Distributor Websites Distributor Websites 2016 EIA Ref. Case Distributor 

Websites

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) LED Webscrape 

Database

DOE Web Scrape 

Database

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$) LED Webscrape 

Database

DOE Web Scrape 

Database Distributor Websites

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A N/A Fixture Price (2022$) N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

Labor System Installation (hours) N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

144

Data Sources » Residential Linear LED Luminaire

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

Lamp Lumens N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

LED Webscrape 

Database

DOE Web Scrape 

Database Distributor Websites

Calculated

System Lumens Assume same as 2022 Typical and High

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast 

of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A

CRI

LED Webscrape 

Database

DOE Web Scrape 

Database Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) Distributor Websites Distributor Websites

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp or Luminaire Price (2022$) LED Webscrape 

Database

DOE Web Scrape 

Database Distributor Websites

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Ballast Price (2022$)

N/A Fixture Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

2016 EIA Ref. Case 2022 RS Means Online Labor System Installation (hours)

Labor Lamp Change (hours) N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

145

Data Sources » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Security: BR30 Incandescent)

DATA SOURCES

2009 2020 2015 2023 2020 2030 2040

Installed 

Stock Average

Installed 

Stock Average Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

Same as indoor Residential Incandescent Reflector

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y)

Lamp Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

146

Data Sources » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Security: PAR38 Halogen)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

Interpolation Based on 

Commercial PAR38 Same as Commercial PAR38 Halogen

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y)

Lamp Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

147

Data Sources » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Security: PAR38 HIR)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

Interpolated from 

Commercial PAR38 HIR Same as Commercial PAR38 HIR

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y)

Lamp Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

148

Data Sources » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Security: CFL PAR38)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock Average

Installed 

Stock Average Low Typical High ENERGY STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. Case / 

Calculated

N/A

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) DOE, 2012(1)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 2016 EIA Ref. Case / 

Calculated

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$) 2016 EIA Ref. Case / 

Calculated Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

149

Data Sources » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Security: LED PAR38)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock Average

Installed 

Stock Average Low Typical High ENERGY STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

Same as Residential LED PAR38

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y)

Lamp Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

150

Data Sources » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Porch: A19 Incandescent)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

Same as Residential General Service 75W Incandescent

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y)

Lamp Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

151

Data Sources » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Porch: Halogen A-Type)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

Same as Residential General Service 75W Equivalent Halogen

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y)

Lamp Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

152

Data Sources » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Porch: CFL Bare Spiral)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Calculated Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs 

ENERGY 

STAR, 2020

DOE, 2022

NCI, 2019

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated

CRI

Assume 

Unchanged Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs N/A Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) Product 

Catalogs

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case Calculated

Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs 

N/A

N/A NCI, 2019

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated N/A Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

153

Data Sources » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Porch: LED A-Type)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage Model 

Reference 

Scenario, 

Energy 

Savings 

Forecast of 

Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 

2019)

2020 DOE 

LED Pricing 

Analysis

Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs 

ENERGY 

STAR, 2020

DOE, 2022

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

CRI

Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs N/A

Assume Unchanged Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

Model 

Reference 

Scenario, 

Energy 

Savings 

Forecast of 

Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 

2019)

2020 DOE 

LED Pricing 

Analysis

Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs N/A

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h) N/A Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

Commercial Lighting

154
Final

155

Data Sources » Commercial General Service 100W Incandescent Lamp in Recessed Can Fixture

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Reference Case

N/A

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

System Lumens 

System Efficacy (lm/W)

Ballast Efficiency (BLE)

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) DOE, 2008

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 2016 EIA Reference Case

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Reference Case; 

Calculated

Ballast Price (2022$)

Fixture Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

Labor System Installation (hours) 2016 EIA Reference Case

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

156

Data Sources » Commercial General Service Halogen Lamp (100W Incandescent Equivalent) in 

Recessed Can Fixture

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA 

Reference Case

Assume 

Unchanged

N/A

Product 

Catalogs

N/A

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

System Lumens 

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE)

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) DOE, 2008

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 2016 EIA 

Reference Case

Assume 

Unchanged

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017 DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

2016 EIA 

Reference Case DOE, 2019

Distributor 

Websites

Ballast Price (2022$)

Fixture Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

2016 EIA Reference Case

2022 RS 

Means 

Online

Labor System Installation (hours)

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

157

Data Sources » Commercial General Service 100W Equivalent CFL Bare Spiral in Recessed Can Fixture

DAT A SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low T ypical High ENERGY ST AR Standard T ypical High T ypical High T ypical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Reference 

Case

Calculated / 

Guidehouse

Product Catalogs ENERGY 

STAR, 2020

DOE, 2022

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) NCI, 2019

System Wattage Same as lamp wattage

System Lumens 

System Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated

Ballast Efficiency (BLE)

CRI

Correlated Color T emperature (CCT ) N/A Assume Unchanged 2016 EIA Reference Case

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

N/A

DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Reference Case; Calculated

Distributor Websites

N/A

Ballast Price (2022$) NCI, 2019

Fixture Price (2022$) NCI, 2019

Disposal Cost (2022$) EPA, 2022 EPA, 2022

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated NCI, 2019

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

Labor System Installation (hours) 2016 EIA Reference Case 2022 RS Means Online 2022 RS Means Online

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

158

Data Sources » Commercial General Service 100W Equivalent LED Replacement Lamp in Recessed Can Fixture

DAT A SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low T ypical High ENERGY ST AR Standard T ypical High T ypical High T ypical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Reference 

Case

Model Reference 

Scenario, Energy 

Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting 

in General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs ENERGY 

STAR, 2020 DOE, 2022

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

System Wattage 

Calculated System Lumens 

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE)

CRI Model Reference 

Scenario, Energy 

Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting 

in General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs 

ENERGY 

STAR, 2020

N/A

Assume Unchanged

Correlated Color T emperature (CCT ) N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) ENERGY 

STAR, 2020

Model Reference Scenario, Energy 

Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting 

in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2019) Assume 

Unchanged

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Reference 

Case

Model Reference 

Scenario, Energy 

Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting 

in General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs 

N/A

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A N/A Fixture Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated Calculated

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) 2016 EIA Reference 

Case Labor System Installation (hours) 2022 RS Means Online 2022 RS Means Online

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

159

Data Sources » Commercial Halogen Reflector Lamp (PAR38) in Recessed Can Fixture

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA 

Reference 

Case

2016 EIA 

Reference 

Case / 

Calculated, 

NCI, 2019

N/A

Distributor 

Websites or 

Product 

Catalogs 

N/A

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

System Lumens 

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE)

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017 DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Reference Case; 

Calculated

Distributor 

Websites or 

Product 

Catalogs 

Ballast Price (2022$)

Fixture Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

2016 EIA Reference Case 2022 RS Means 

Online Labor System Installation (hours)

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

160

Data Sources » Commercial Halogen Infrared Reflector Lamp (PAR38) in Recessed Can Fixture

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Reference Case

N/A

Distributor 

Websites or 

Product 

Catalogs 

N/A

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

System Lumens 

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE)

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017 DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Reference Case; 

Calculated

Distributor 

Websites or 

Product 

Catalogs 

Ballast Price (2022$)

Fixture Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

2016 EIA Reference Case 2022 RS Means 

Online Labor System Installation (hours)

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

161

Data Sources » Commercial LED Reflector Lighting (PAR38)

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA 

Reference Case

Model Reference 

Scenario, Energy 

Savings Forecast 

of Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs ENERGY STAR, 

2020 DOE, 2022

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

System Wattage 

Calculated System Lumens

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE)

CRI Model Reference 

Scenario, Energy 

Savings Forecast 

of Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs 

ENERGY STAR, 

2020

N/A

Assume Unchanged

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) ENERGY STAR, 

2020

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings 

Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General 

Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Assume Unchanged

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp P rice (2022$)

2016 EIA 

Reference Case

Model Reference 

Scenario, Energy 

Savings Forecast 

of Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs 

N/A

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Ballast P rice (2022$) N/A N/A Fixture Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated Calculated

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) 2016 EIA 

Reference Case Labor System Installation (hours) 2022 RS Means Online 2022 RS Means Online

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

162

Data Sources » Commercial 4-ft T8 F32 Commodity in 2-Lamp System

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Calculated

Assume same as residential T8

Lamp Lumens 

Assume same 

as residential 

T8

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) SSL Forecast 

for 2018

System Wattage 

System Lumens Calculated

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) Assume 

unchanged Chapter 5; Table 5.8.1 of GSFL Ballast Final Rule TSD (DOE, 2020)

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) Assume same as residential T8

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$) SSL Forecast 

for 2018 Ballast Price (2022$) Assume same as residential T8 Calculated

Fixture Price (2022$)

Disposal Costs (2022$) EPA, 2022

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Calculated System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h) 2016 EIA Ref. 

Case Labor System Installation (hours) 2022 RS Means Online

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

163

Data Sources » Commercial 4-ft T8 F28 High-efficiency and High-output in 2-Lamp System

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Typical Typical Typical Typical

Lamp Wattage 2016 EIA Ref. 

Case Lamp Lumens Distributor Websites

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

System Lumens Calculated

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) Chapter 5; Table 5.8.1 of GSFL Ballast Final Rule TSD (DOE, 2020)

CRI

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Distributor Websites Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

Calculated Distributor 

Websites Ballast Price (2022$) Calculated

Fixture Price (2022$)

Disposal Costs (2022$) EPA, 2022

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

Labor System Installation (hours) 2016 EIA Ref. Case 2022 RS Means Online

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

164

Data Sources » Commercial 4-ft T5 F28 in 2-Lamp System

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Calculated

Assume same as residential T5 Lamp Lumens 

Assume 

same as 

residential 

T5, 2022

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) SSL Forecast 

for 2018

System Wattage 

System Lumens Calculated

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) Chapter 5; Table 5.8.6 of GSFL Ballast Final Rule TSD (DOE, 2020)

CRI

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Assume same as residential T5 Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$) SSL Forecast 

for 2018 Ballast Price (2022$) Assume same as residential T5 Calculated

Fixture Price (2022$)

Disposal Costs (2022$) EPA, 2022

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Calculated

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case Labor System Installation (hours) 2022 RS Means Online

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

165

Data Sources » Commercial 4-ft Linear LED Replacement Lamp in 2-Lamp System

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

LED 

Webscrape 

Database

Distributor websites

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume same as 2022 Typical and High

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

System Wattage 

System Lumens Calculated Calculated

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A

CRI

Distributor websites Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

LED 

Webscrape 

Database

Distributor Websites Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting 

in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A N/A Fixture Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h) Assume 

unchanged Labor System Installation (hours) 2022 RS Means Online

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

166

Data Sources » Commercial 4-ft Linear LED Luminaire to Replace 2-Lamp Systems

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock Average

Installed 

Stock Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Lamp Lumens N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

LED 

Webscrape 

Database

Distributor websites

Calculated

System Lumens Assume same as 2022 Typical and High

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of SolidState Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A

CRI

Distributor websites Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lifetime (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp or Luminaire Price (2022$)

LED 

Webscrape 

Database

Distributor Websites Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in 

General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Ballast Price (2022$)

Fixture Price (2022$) N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

Assume 

unchanged Labor System Installation (hours) 2022 RS Means Online

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

167

Data Sources » Commercial 4-ft T8 F28 High-efficiency and High-output in 2-Lamp System with 

Occupancy Sensor

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Typical Typical Typical Typical

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. Case

Lamp Lumens Distributor Websites

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

System Lumens Calculated

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) Chapter 5; Table 5.8.1 of GSFL Ballast Final Rule TSD (DOE, 2020)

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) Distributor Websites

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$) Calculated Distributor 

Websites Calculated

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) Calculated Distributor 

Websites

Calculated

Occupancy Sensor Price (2022$) N/A Distributor Websites

Disposal Costs (2022$) EPA, 2022

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

2016 EIA Ref. Case

Calculated

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h) Assume 

unchanged Labor System Installation (hours) 2022 RS Means Online

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

168

Data Sources » Commercial 4-ft T8 F28 High-efficiency and High-output in 2-Lamp System with 

Specular Reflector

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Typical Typical Typical Typical

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Lamp Lumens Distributor Websites

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

System Lumens Calculated

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) Chapter 5; Table 5.8.1 of GSFL Ballast Final Rule TSD (DOE, 2020)

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) Distributor Websites

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$) Calculated Distributor 

Websites Calculated

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) Calculated Distributor 

Websites

Calculated

Reflector Price (2022$) N/A Distributor Websites

Disposal Costs (2022$) EPA, 2022

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Calculated System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h) Assume 

unchanged Labor System Installation (hours) 2022 RS Means Online

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

169

Data Sources » Commercial 4-ft T8 F28 High-efficiency and High-output in 2-Lamp System with 

Occupancy Sensor and Specular Reflector

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Typical Typical Typical Typical

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Calculated Distributor 

Websites

Distributor 

Websites

Distributor 

Websites

Distributor 

Lamp Lumens Distributor Websites

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) Websites

System Wattage 

System Lumens Calculated

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) Chapter 5; Table 5.8.1 of GSFL Ballast Final Rule TSD (DOE, 2020)

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) Distributor Websites

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

Calculated

Distributor 

Websites

Ballast Price (2022$) Calculated Calculated Calculated

Fixture Price (2022$)

Reflector Price (2022$) N/A Distributor Websites

Occupancy Sensor Price (2022$)

Disposal Costs (2022$) EPA, 2022

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Calculated System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h) Assume 

unchanged Labor System Installation (hours) 2022 RS Means Online

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

170

Data Sources » Commercial 8-ft T8 F59 Typical Efficiency in a 2-Lamp System

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Calculated Distributor Websites Lamp Lumens Assume same as 2022

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

Calculated System Wattage 

System Lumens Calculated Calculated

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) Assume 

unchanged Chapter 5; Table 5.8.1 of GSFL Ballast Final Rule TSD (DOE, 2020)

CRI

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Distributor Websites Assume same as 2022 Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

Ballast Price (2022$) Calculated Distributor Websites Calculated

Fixture Price (2022$)

Disposal Costs (2022$) EPA, 2022

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Calculated

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h) Assume 

unchanged

2022 RS Means Online

Labor System Installation (hours)

Chapter 8; Table 8.2.4 of GSFL 

IRL Preliminary Analysis TSD 

(DOE, 2013)

Labor Lamp Change (hours) Chapter 8; Table 8.2.4 of GSFL IRL Preliminary Analysis TSD (DOE, 2013)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Calculated

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

171

Data Sources » Commercial 8-ft T8 F96 High-Output in a 2-Lamp System

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Assume same 

as 2022 typical Lamp Lumens Distributor Websites Assume same as 2022

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

System Lumens Calculated

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) Chapter 5; Table 5.3.26 GSFL IRL Final Rule TSD (DOE, 2014)

CRI

Distributor Websites Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

Ballast Price (2022$) Calculated Distributor Websites Calculated

Fixture Price (2022$)

Disposal Costs (2022$) EPA, 2022

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Calculated Calculated System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h) 2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

2022 RS Means Online

Labor System Installation (hours)

Chapter 8; Table 8.2.4 of 

GSFL IRL Preliminary 

Analysis TSD (DOE, 2013)

Labor Lamp Change (hours) Chapter 8; Table 8.2.4 of GSFL IRL Preliminary Analysis TSD (DOE, 2013)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case Calculated Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

172

Data Sources » Commercial 8-ft Linear LED Replacement Lamp for a 2 Lamp System

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

N/A

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case, 2015 

typical

Distributor Websites Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume same as 2022 Typical and High

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

Calculated

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of SolidState Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 

2019)

System Wattage 

System Lumens Calculated Calculated

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A

CRI 2016 EIA Ref. 

Case, 2015 

typical

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) Distributor Websites Assume same as 2022

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case, 2015 

typical

Distributor Websites Calculated

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A Fixture Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h) 2016 EIA Ref. 

Case 2022 RS Means Online

Labor System Installation (hours) N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hours) Chapter 8; Table 8.2.4 of GSFL IRL Preliminary Analysis TSD (DOE, 2013)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

173

Data Sources » Commercial 8-ft Linear LED Luminaire Replacement for a 2-Lamp System

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock Average

Installed 

Stock Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage

N/A

Lamp Lumens N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W)

System Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case, 2015 

typical

Distributor Websites

Calculated

System Lumens Assume same as 2022 Typical and High

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A

CRI 2016 EIA Ref. 

Case, 2015 

typical

Distributor Websites Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lifetime (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp or Luminaire Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case, 2015 

typical

Distributor Websites

Ballast Price (2022$)

Fixture Price (2022$) N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm)

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h) 2016 EIA Ref. 

Case 2022 RS Means Online Labor System Installation (hours)

Labor Lamp Change (hours) N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) Calculated

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

174

Data Sources » Commercial Mercury Vapor Low-bay

DAT A SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock Average Installed Stock Average T ypical T ypical T ypical T ypical

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Reference Case Assume Unchanged

Distributor Websites or 

Product Catalogs 

N/A

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

System Lumens 

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency

Chapter 5; Table 5.7.24 of 

HID Final Determination 

TSD (DOE, 2015)

CRI Distributor Websites or 

Correlated Color T emperature (CCT ) Product Catalogs 

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Chapter 3; Section 3.4.2 of 

HID Final Determination 

TSD (DOE, 2015)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Reference Case; Calculated

Distributor Websites or 

Product Catalogs 

Ballast Price (2022$)

Fixture Price (2022$)

Chapter 7 & Appendix 6A; 

Table 6A.3.4 of HID Final 

Determination TSD (DOE, 

2015), Calculated

Disposal Cost (2022$) EPA, 2022

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

2016 EIA Reference Case

Chapter 9; Section 9.2.2.1 of 

HID Final Determination 

TSD (DOE, 2015)

Labor System Installation (hours) 2022 RS Means Online Labor Lamp Change (hours)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

175

Data Sources » Commercial Metal Halide Low-bay

DAT A SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock Average Installed Stock Average T ypical T ypical T ypical T ypical

Lamp Wattage Assume Unchanged

Distributor Websites or 

Product Catalogs 

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs; Calculated Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

System Wattage 

2016 EIA Reference Case Assume Unchanged

System Lumens 

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency

Chapter 5; Table 5.7.24 of 

HID Final Determination 

TSD (DOE, 2015) Assume Unchanged

CRI Distributor Websites or 

Correlated Color T emperature (CCT ) Product Catalogs 

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Chapter 3; Section 3.4.2 of 

HID Final Determination 

TSD (DOE, 2015)

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017 DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$) Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs ; Calculated

Distributor Websites or 

Ballast Price (2022$) Product Catalogs 

2016 EIA Reference Case; Calculated

Fixture Price (2022$)

Chapter 7 & Appendix 6A; 

Table 6A.3.4 of HID Final 

Determination TSD (DOE, 

2015), Calculated

Disposal Cost (2022$) EPA, 2022

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 2016 EIA Reference Case; Calculated Calculated

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

2016 EIA Reference Case

Chapter 9; Section 9.2.2.1 of HID Final Determination TSD (DOE, 2015)

Labor System Installation (hours) 2022 RS Means Online Labor Lamp Change (hours)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

176

Data Sources » Commercial Sodium Vapor Low-bay

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock Average Installed Stock Average Typical Typical Typical Typical

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Reference Case Assume Unchanged

Distributor Websites or 

Product Catalogs 

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

System Wattage 

System Lumens 

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency

Chapter 5; Table 5.7.24 of HID 

Final Determination TSD 

(DOE, 2015) Assume Unchanged

CRI Distributor Websites or 

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) Product Catalogs 

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Chapter 3; Section 3.4.2 of HID 

Final Determination TSD 

(DOE, 2015)

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017 DOE, 2017

Lamp P rice (2022$)

2016 EIA Reference Case; Calculated

Distributor Websites or 

Product Catalogs 

Ballast P rice (2022$)

Fixture Price (2022$)

Chapter 7 & Appendix 6A; 

Table 6A.3.4 of HID Final 

Determination TSD (DOE, 

2015), Calculated

Disposal Cost (2022$) EPA, 2022

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 2016 EIA Reference Case; Calculated Calculated Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

2016 EIA Reference Case

Chapter 9; Section 9.2.2.1 of HID Final Determination TSD (DOE, 2015)

Labor System Installation (hours) 2022 RS Means Online Labor Lamp Change (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

177

Data Sources » Commercial LED Low-bay Luminaire

DAT A SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low T ypical High T ypical High T ypical High T ypical High

Lamp Wattage 

Lamp Lumens N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

2016 EIA Reference 

Case

Model, Energy 

Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State 

Lighting in General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

N/A

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

System Lumens 

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency N/A N/A N/A

CRI Model, Energy 

Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State 

Lighting in General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

Assume Unchanged Correlated Color T emperature (CCT )

Average Lifetime (thousand hours) Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017 DOE, 2017

Lamp or Luminaire Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Reference 

Case

Model, Energy 

Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State 

Lighting in General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Ballast Price (2022$)

Fixture Price (2022$) N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated Calculated

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

2016 EIA Reference 

Case Labor System Installation (hours) 2022 RS Means Online

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

178

Data Sources » Commercial Mercury Vapor High-Bay

DAT A SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock Average Installed Stock Average T ypical T ypical T ypical T ypical

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Reference Case Assume Unchanged

Distributor Websites or 

Product Catalogs 

N/A

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

System Lumens 

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency

Chapter 5; Table 5.7.24 of 

HID Final Determination 

TSD (DOE, 2015)

CRI

Distributor Websites or 

Correlated Color T emperature (CCT ) Product Catalogs 

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Chapter 3; Section 3.4.2 of 

HID Final Determination 

TSD (DOE, 2015)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017 DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Reference Case; Calculated

Distributor Websites or 

Ballast Price (2022$) Product Catalogs 

Fixture Price (2022$)

Chapter 7 & Appendix 6A; 

Table 6A.3.4 of HID Final 

Determination TSD (DOE, 

2015), Calculated

Disposal Cost (2022$) EPA, 2022

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 2016 EIA Reference Case; Calculated Calculated System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

2016 EIA Reference Case

Chapter 9; Section 9.2.2.1 

of HID Final 

Determination TSD (DOE, 

2015)

Labor System Installation (hours) 2022 RS Means Online Labor Lamp Change (hours)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

179

Data Sources » Commercial Metal Halide High-Bay

DAT A SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock Average Installed Stock Average T ypical T ypical T ypical T ypical

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Reference Case

Assume Unchanged

Distributor Websites or 

Product Catalogs 

Calculated

Lamp Lumens 2016 EIA Reference Case; 

Calculated

Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

System Wattage 

Assume Unchanged

System Lumens 

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency

Chapter 5; Table 5.7.24 of 

HID Final Determination 

TSD (DOE, 2015) Assume Unchanged

CRI Distributor Websites or 

Correlated Color T emperature (CCT ) Product Catalogs 

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Chapter 3; Section 3.4.2 of 

HID Final Determination 

TSD (DOE, 2015)

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017 DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Reference Case; Calculated

Distributor Websites or 

Product Catalogs 

Ballast Price (2022$)

Fixture Price (2022$)

Chapter 7 & Appendix 6A; 

Table 6A.3.4 of HID Final 

Determination TSD (DOE, 

2015), Calculated

Disposal Cost (2022$) EPA, 2022

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 2016 EIA Reference Case; Calculated Calculated Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

2016 EIA Reference Case

Chapter 9; Section 9.2.2.1 of 

HID Final Determination 

TSD (DOE, 2015)

Labor System Installation (hours) 2022 RS Means Online Labor Lamp Change (hours)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

180

Data Sources » Commercial Sodium Vapor High-Bay

DAT A SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock Average Installed Stock Average T ypical T ypical T ypical T ypical

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Reference Case Assume Unchanged

Distributor Websites or 

Product Catalogs 

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

System Wattage 

System Lumens 

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency

Chapter 5; Table 5.7.24 of 

HID Final Determination 

TSD (DOE, 2015) Assume Unchanged

CRI Distributor Websites or 

Correlated Color T emperature (CCT ) Product Catalogs 

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Chapter 3; Section 3.4.2 of 

HID Final Determination 

TSD (DOE, 2015)

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017 DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Reference Case; Calculated

Distributor Websites or 

Product Catalogs 

Ballast Price (2022$)

Fixture Price (2022$)

Chapter 7 & Appendix 6A; 

Table 6A.3.4 of HID Final 

Determination TSD (DOE, 

2015), Calculated

Disposal Cost (2022$) EPA, 2022

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 2016 EIA Reference Case; Calculated Calculated Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

2016 EIA Reference Case

Chapter 9; Section 9.2.2.1 of HID Final Determination TSD (DOE, 2015)

Labor System Installation (hours) 2022 RS Means Online Labor Lamp Change (hours)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

181

Data Sources » Commercial T5 4xF54 HO High-bay

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock Average Installed Stock Average Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Reference Case Assume Unchanged

Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs 

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

System Wattage 

System Lumens 

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) GSFL Ballast Final Rule TSD (DOE, 2020)

Assume Unchanged CRI

Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs 

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017 DOE, 2017

Lamp P rice (2022$)

2016 EIA Reference Case; Calculated

Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs Ballast P rice (2022$)

Fixture Price (2022$)

Chapter 7 & Appendix 6A; Table 6A.3.4 of 

HID Final Determination TSD (DOE, 

2015), Calculated

Disposal Cost (2022$) EPA, 2022

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 2016 EIA Reference Case; Calculated Calculated

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) (Navigant, 2019)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

Labor System Installation (hours) 2016 EIA Reference Case 2022 RS Means Online

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

182

Data Sources » Commercial LED High-bay Luminaire 

DAT A SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low T ypical High T ypical High T ypical High T ypical High

Lamp Wattage 

Lamp Lumens N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

2016 EIA Reference 

Case

Model, Energy 

Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in 

General Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

N/A

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

System Lumens 

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency N/A N/A

CRI

Model, Energy 

Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in 

General Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

Assume Unchanged Correlated Color T emperature (CCT )

Average Lifetime (thousand hours) Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017 DOE, 2017

Lamp or Luminaire Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Reference 

Case

Model, Energy 

Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in 

General Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Ballast Price (2022$)

Fixture Price (2022$) N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated Calculated

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

2016 EIA Reference 

Case Labor System Installation (hours) 2022 RS Means Online

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

Refrigeration

183
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Compressor Rack Systems

A-3

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Total Capacity (kBtu/h) ADL, 1996 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Median Store Size (ft2

) 

Food 

Marketing 

Institute 

(FMI), 2012

CBECS 2018

Power Input (kW) Copeland, 

2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Energy Use (MMWh/y)

ADL, 1996 / 

NCI 

Analysis, 

2015

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Indexed Annual Efficiency Calculated

Average Life (years) KysorWarren, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

NCI, 2009 /

NCI 

Analysis, 

2012

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)

ADL, 1996 / 

NCI 

Analysis, 

2008

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Condensers

A-4

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Total Capacity (kBtu/h)

NCI Analysis, 

2008 / Heatcraft, 

2008 / ADL, 1996

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Median Store Size (ft2) 

Food Marketing 

Institute (FMI), 

2012

CBECS 2018

Power Input (kW)

NCI Analysis, 

2008 / Heatcraft, 

2008 / ADL, 1996

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Energy Use 

(MMWh/y)

NCI Analysis, 

2008 / ADL, 1996 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Indexed Annual Efficiency Calculated

Average Life (years) ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

NCI Analysis, 

2008 / Heatcraft, 

2008 / RS Means, 

2007

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)

NCI Analysis, 

2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Supermarket Display Cases

A-2

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical ENERGY 

STAR High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h) DOE, 2007 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Median Store Size (ft2) 

Food Marketing 

Institute (FMI), 

2012

CBECS 2018

Case Length (ft) DOE, 2016: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Energy Use 

(kWh/y)1,2

DOE, 2007 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Energy Use / Case 

Length (kWh/ft) Calculated

Indexed Annual 

Efficiency3 Calculated

Average Life (years) DOE, 2007 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2016: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$)

DOE, 2007 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022 / The Restaurant Store

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$)

DOE, 2007 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)4

DOE, 2007 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Reach-In Refrigerators

A-7

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h)ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report

Size (ft3) 

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor Web 

Sites

DOE, 2014: CRE Report

Annual Energy Use 

(kWh/y)

ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022 / ENERGY STAR 2022

Annual Energy Use / 

Volume (kWh/y/ft3)

NCI Analysis, 

2012 Calculated

Indexed Annual 

Efficiency Calculated

Average Life (years) Calculated

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$) ACEEE, 2002 DOE, 2014: CRE TSD

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$)

ADL, 1996/ 

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022 / ENERGY STAR 2022 / The Restaurant Store

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Maintenance 

Cost (2022$) Calculated

Annual Maintenance 

Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 

NCI Analysis, 

2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Maintenance 

Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Reach-In Freezers

A-8

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity 

(Btu/h)

ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2016: CRE Report

Size (ft3) 

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor Web 

Sites

DOE, 2016: CRE Report

Annual Energy Use 

(kWh/y)

ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2016: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Energy Use / 

Volume (kWh/y/ft3)

NCI Analysis, 

2012 Calculated

Indexed Annual 

Efficiency Calculated

Average Life (years) ACEEE, 2002 DOE, 2016: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Retail Equipment 

Cost (2022$)

ADL, 1996/ 

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2016: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022 / ENERGY STAR 2022 / The Restaurant Store

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$)

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2016: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Annual Maintenance 

Cost (2022$)

NCI Analysis, 

2008 DOE, 2016: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Maintenance 

Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Walk-In Refrigerators

A-5

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity 

(Btu/h) DOE CRE Report 2016 / CCMS 2022 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Size (ft2) DOE 2014 WICF TSD / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Energy Use 

(kWh/y)

ADL, 1996 / 

PG&E, 2004 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE CRE Report 2016 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Energy Use / 

Area (kWh/ft2/y) Calculated

Indexed Annual 

Efficiency Calculated

Insulated Box 

Average Life (years)

ADL, 1996 / 

PG&E, 2004 DOE CRE Report 2016 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Compressor Average 

Life (years)

ADL, 1996 / 

PG&E, 2004 DOE CRE Report 2016 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Retail Equipment 

Cost (2022$)

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE CRE Report 2016 / Webstaurant 2022 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$)

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE CRE Report 2016 / Webstaurant 2022 / Guidehouse Analysis 2023

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Annual Maintenance 

Cost (2022$)

ADL, 1996 / FMI, 

2005 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE CRE Report 2016 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Maintenance 

Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Walk-In Freezers

A-6

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity 

(Btu/h)

ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE CRE Report 2016 / CCMS 2022 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Size (ft2) ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Energy Use 

(kWh/y)

ADL, 1996 / 

PG&E, 2004 / 

NCI Analysis, 

2008

Guidehouse CRE Report 2016

Annual Energy Use / 

Area (kWh/ft2/y) Calculated

Indexed Annual 

Efficiency Calculated

Insulated Box Average 

Life (years)

ADL, 1996 / 

PG&E, 2004 DOE CRE Report 2016 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Compressor Average 

Life (years)

ADL, 1996 / 

PG&E, 2004 DOE CRE Report 2016 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$)

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE CRE Report 2016 / Webstaurant 2022 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$)

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE CRE Report 2016 / Webstaurant 2022 / Guidehouse Analysis 2023

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Annual Maintenance 

Cost (2022$) DOE CRE Report 2016 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Maintenance 

Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Ice Machines

A-9

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Output (pounds [lbs] per 

day)

ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2022: ACIM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022 / CCMS Database 2022

Water Use per Hundred 

Pounds (gal/hundred lbs)

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor Web 

Sites

DOE, 2022: ACIM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022 / CCMS Database 2022

Energy Use per Hundred 

Pounds (kWh/hundred 

lbs)

ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2022: ACIM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022

Annual Energy Use 

(kWh/y)

ACEEE, 2002 /

NCI Analysis, 

2012

DOE, 2022: ACIM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022 / ENERGY STAR

Indexed Annual EfficiencyCalculated

Average Life (years)

ADL, 1996/ 

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2022: ACIM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$)

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2022: ACIM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022

Total Installed Cost (with 

Bin)

NCI Analysis, 

2008 DOE, 2022: ACIM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)

ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2022: ACIM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Beverage Merchandisers

A-10

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h) DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Size (ft3

) 

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor 

Web Sites

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)

ADL, 1996 / 

NCI 

Analysis, 

2008

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022 / ENERGY STAR 2022

Annual Energy Use / Volume 

(kWh/ft3

/y) Calculated

Indexed Annual Efficiency Calculated

Average Life (years) ACEEE, 2002 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor 

Web Sites

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022 / KaTom Restaurant Supply

Total Installed Cost (2022$) DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Refrigerated Vending Machines

A-11

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h)

DOE, 2015: 

BVM TSD / 

Guidehouse 

Analysis, 

2015

DOE, 2022: BVM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022

Can Capacity DOE, 2015: 

BVM TSD DOE, 2022: BVM TSD

Size (ft3) DOE, 2022: BVM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y) DOE, 2015: 

BVM TSD DOE, 2022: BVM TSD

Annual Energy Use / Volume 

(kWh/ft3/y) Calculated

Indexed Annual Efficiency Calculated

Average Life (years) DOE, 2015: 

BVM TSD DOE, 2022: BVM TSD

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)DOE, 2015: 

BVM TSD DOE, 2022: BVM TSD

Total Installed Cost (2022$) DOE, 2015: 

BVM TSD DOE, 2022: BVM TSD

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)

DOE, 2015: 

BVM TSD / 

Guidehouse 

Analysis, 

2015

DOE, 2022: BVM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) DOE, 2022: BVM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022
Final

Commercial Ventilation 

194
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Constant Air Volume Ventilation

A-12

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock Average

Installed 

Stock Average Low Typical High ENERGY STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

System Airflow (CFM) CBECS 2003 & 

BED 2007 CBECS 2018

System Fan Power (kW) ASHRAE 90.1-

2007

ASHRAE 90.1-

2016

ASHRAE 90.1-

2019 Specific Fan Power (W/CFM) ASHRAE 90.1 2019 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Fan Energy Use (kWh/y)

Average Life (years) ASHRAE: Service Life Database

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 2022 RS Means Online

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 2022 RS Means Online / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$/thousand CFM) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/thousand CFM) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Variable Air Volume Ventilation

A-13

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

System Airflow (CFM) CBECS 2003 

& BED 2007 CBECS 2018

System Fan Power (kW) 

ASHRAE 

90.1-2007

ASHRAE 

90.1-2016

ASHRAE 

90.1-2019 Specific Fan Power (W/CFM) ASHRAE 90.1 2019 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Fan Energy Use (kWh/y)

Average Life (years) ASHRAE: Service Life Database

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 2022 RS Means Online

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 2022 RS Means Online / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$/thousand CFM) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/thousand 

CFM) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Fan Coil Unit

A-14

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

System Airflow (CFM) Product Literature

System Fan Power (kW) 

ASHRAE 90.1-

2007

ASHRAE 90.1-

2016

ASHRAE 90.1-

2019 Specific Fan Power (W/CFM) ASHRAE 90.1 2019 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Fan Energy Use (kWh/y)

Average Life (years) ASHRAE: Service Life Database

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 2022 RS Means Online

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 2022 RS Means Online / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$/thousand CFM) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/thousand CFM) Calculated
Final

Appendix B

References

198

Guidehouse

1200 19th Street, NW, Suite 700

Washington, D.C. 20036

And

Leidos

11951 Freedom Drive 

Reston, VA 20190
Final References

• ASHRAE Service Life and Maintenance Cost Database. (n.d.).

• ASHRAE 90.1-2010, 2016, 2019. Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings

• Appliance Magazine. (2005). Portrait of the U.S. Appliance Industry. Appliance Magazine.

• Arthur D. Little. (1996). Energy Savings Potential for Commercial Refrigeration Equipment.

• DOE SSL Program. (2012a). 2010 U.S. Lighting Market Characterization

• DOE SSL Program. (2012b). Residential Lighting End-Use Consumption Study: Estimation Framework and Initial Estimates

• DOE SSL Program. (2017). 2015 U.S. Lighting Market Characterization

• DOE Appliance and Equipment Standards Program. (2022). The Compliance Certification Database.

• EERE. (2014). Energy Conservation Program for Appliance Standards: Automatic Commercial Ice Makers

• EERE. (2014). Energy Conservation Program for Appliance Standards: Commercial Refrigeration Equipment.

• EERE. (2014). Energy Conservation Program for Appliance Standards: Refrigerated Beverage Vending Machines

• EERE. (2015). Energy Conservation Program for Appliance Standards: Walk-in Coolers and Freezers.

• ENERGY STAR. (n.d.). Retrieved November 2015, from ENERGY STAR Products: 

http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=products.pr_find_es_products

• ENERGY STAR. (2020) from ENERGY STAR Lamps Specification Version 2.1: 

https://www.energystar.gov/sites/default/files/Lamps%20V2.1%20Final%20Specification%20%28Revised%20June%202

020%29_0.pdf

B-1
Final References

• ENERGY STAR. (2014) ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs) Eligibility 

Criteria Version 1.1

• ENERGY STAR. (2012) ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Luminaires (Light Fixtures) 

Eligibility Criteria Version 1.1

• Environmental Protection Agency. (2022). Establishing a Recycling Program for Mercury-Containing Light Bulbs. From: 

https://www.epa.gov/hw/establishing-recycling-program-mercury-containing-light-bulbs

• Federal Standard. (1975). National energy conservation standards authorized under the Energy and Policy 

Conservation Act of 2007 (EPCA 1975).

• Federal Standard. (2005). National energy conservation standards authorized under the Energy Policy Act of 2005 

(EPACT 2005).

• Federal Standard. (2007). National energy conservation standards authorized under the Energy Independence and 

Security Act of 2007 (EISA 2007).

• Food Marketing Institute. (n.d.). Retrieved May 2022, from FMI Supermarket Facts: https://www.fmi.org/ourresearch/supermarket-facts/average-total-store-size-square-feetLighting Research Institute. (1992). Specifier Reports, 

Specular Reflectors.

• KaTom. (n.d.) Retrieved May 2022, From: https://www.katom.com/

• Navigant Consulting, Inc. (2009). Energy Savings Potential and R&D Opportunities for Commercial Refrigeration.

• Navigant Consulting, Inc. (n.d.). In House Expertise.

B-2
Final References

• Navigant Consulting, Inc. (2019). Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications, Model. https://www.energy.gov/eere/ssl/downloads/2019-ssl-forecast-report

• Product Literature. (n.d.). Literature from manufacturers and experts on specific products

• The Restaurant Store. (n.d.). Retrieved May 2022, From: https://www.therestaurantstore.com/

• RS Means Online. (2022). Retrieved June 2022, From: https://www.rsmeansonline.com/

• Webstaurant. (n.d.) Retrieved May 2022, From: https://www.webstaurantstore.com/

B-3
March 2023 

U.S. Energy Information Administration | Updated Buildings Sector Appliance and Equipment Costs and Efficiencies 5 

APPENDIX D 
Final

EIA - Technology Forecast Updates – Residential 

and Commercial Building Technologies –

Advanced Case

Presented to:

U.S. Energy Information Administration

Prepared by: 

Guidehouse

1200 19th Street, NW, Suite 700

Washington, D.C. 20036

And

Leidos

11951 Freedom Drive

Reston, VA 20190

October 14, 2022
Final

DISCLAIMER

This presentation was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United 

States Government, nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, nor any of their contractors, subcontractors, or their employees, 

makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of 

any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference 

herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily 

constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency, contractor or

subcontractor thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States 

Government or any agency thereof. 

October 2022

2
Final Table of Contents

Page

Objective

4

Methodology

5

Definitions

6

Calculations

7

Market Transformation

8

Residential Lighting

9

General Service 10

Reflector Lamps 14 4-foot Linear 2-lamp Lighting Systems 18

Outdoor Lamps 22

Commercial Lighting 26

General Service Lamps 27

Reflector Lamps 30 4-Foot Linear 2 Lamp Lighting Systems 33 8-Foot Linear 2 Lamp Lighting Systems 37

Low Bay Lighting Systems 41

High Bay Lighting Systems 44

Page

Commercial Refrigeration 47

Compressor Rack Systems 48

Condensers 50

Supermarket Display Cases 52

Reach-In Refrigerators 55

Reach-In Freezers 58

Walk-In Refrigerators 61

Walk-In Freezers 65

Ice Machines 69

Beverage Merchandisers 73

Refrigerated Vending Machines 76

Commercial Ventilation 79

Constant Air Volume 80

Variable Air Volume 82

Fan Coil Units 84

Appendix A: Data Sources

A-1

Appendix B: References

B-1
Final

4

Objective

The objective of this study is to develop baseline and projected performance and cost characteristics for residential and 

commercial end-use equipment in an Advanced Case that assumes accelerated adoption of energy-saving technologies 

due to increased R&D funding and market incentives.

• Examine 2012 and 2018 (commercial) and 2015 and 2020 (residential) baselines, as well as this year’s baseline (2022).

— Review literature, standards, installed base, contractor, and manufacturer information.

— Provide a relative comparison and characterization of the cost and efficiency of a generic product.

• Forecast technology improvements that are projected to be available through 2050.

— Review trends in standards, product enhancements, and research and development (R&D).

— Project impact of product improvements and technology enhancement.

The performance and cost characterization of end-use equipment developed in this study will assist EIA in 

projecting national primary energy consumption.
Final

5

Input from industry stakeholders, including government, R&D organizations, and manufacturers, was used to 

project product enhancements concerning equipment performance and cost attributes.

• Technology forecasting involves many uncertainties.

• Technology developments affect performance and cost forecasts.

• Varied sources ensure a balanced view of technology progress and the probable timing of commercial 

availability.

Methodology
Final

The following tables represent the current and projected efficiencies for residential and commercial building equipment ranging from the installed base in 2012 

and 2018 (for commercial products) and 2015 and 2020 (for residential) to the highest efficiency equipment that is expected to be commercially available by 2050, 

assuming incremental adoption. Below are definitions for the terms used in characterizing the status of each technology.

— Installed Stock Average: the installed and in use equipment for that year. Represents the installed stock of equipment, but does not represent sales.

— Current Standard: the minimum efficiency (or maximum energy use) required (allowed) by current U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) standards, when 

applicable. For lighting, if no product exists at the standard efficiency level, a hypothetical wattage and lumen output is given for the standard’s 

efficiency level.

— ENERGY STAR® : the minimum efficiency required (or maximum energy use allowed) to meet the ENERGY STAR® criteria, when applicable. Presented 

performance data represents certified products just meeting current ENERGY STAR specifications. For lighting, if no products exist at the ENERGY 

STAR efficiency level, a hypothetical wattage and lumen output is given for the ENERGY STAR efficiency level. 

— Low: The minimum efficiency product or product mix available on the market. This rating typically reflects minimal compliance with DOE standards. 

— Typical: the average, or typical, product being sold in the particular timeframe.

— High: the product with the highest efficiency available in the particular timeframe.

— Lumens (lm): the unit for luminous flux used in the SI unit system. This unit is used to indicate a light source’s light output. All reported lumens are 

initial lumens. 1 kilolumen (klm) = 1,000 lumens.

— Correlated Color Temperature (CCT): a specification of the color appearance of the light emitted by a lamp. Note: CCT is not a performance metric.

— Color Rendering Index (CRI): a scale from 0 to 100 percent indicating how accurate a given light source is at rendering color when compared to a 

reference light source. The higher the CRI, the better the color rendering ability.

— British thermal unit (Btu): a measure of the heat content of fuels or energy sources. It is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one 

pound of liquid water by 1°F at the temperature that water has its greatest density (approximately 39 °F ). 1 kBtu = 1,000 Btu.

— Cubic Feet per Minute (CFM): a measure of airflow volume equal to the number of cubic feet of air flowing through a two-dimensional plane in one 

minute. 

— Not Available (N/A): data is not available where indicated. 

6

Definitions
Final

The following metrics are commonly referred to throughout the tables to follow. Below are the calculations for each metric

— Lighting

 System Wattage = (Lamp Wattage * Ballast Factor) / Ballast Efficiency

 System Lumens = Lamp Lumens * Ballast Factor

 Lamp Efficacy = Lamp Lumens / Lamp Wattage

 System Efficacy = System Lumens / System Wattage

 Lamp Cost ($/klm) = Lamp Cost / (Lamp Lumens / 1,000)

 Total Equipment Cost = Lamp Cost + Fixture (including ballast) Cost

 System Cost ($/klm) = Total Equipment Cost / (System Lumens / 1,000). l/b/fdenotes that the cost includes the luminaire, the ballast, and the fixture. 

 Total Installed Cost = Total Equipment Cost + Labor Installation Cost

 Ballast Luminous Efficiency (BLE) = A/(1+B*Avg Total Lamp Arc Power^(-C)) where A, B, and C are pre-defined constants by DOE Energy Conservation Standards for Fluorescent Lamp Ballasts.

— Commercial Refrigeration

 Nominal Capacity over Average Input (Btu in / Btu out) = (Cooling or Heat Rejection Capacity)*24*365/(Annual Energy Consumption * 3,412)

 Total Installed Cost = Retail Equipment Cost + Labor Installation Cost

 Total Installed Cost ($/kBtu/hour) = Total Installed Cost*1,000 / (Cooling or Heat Rejection Capacity). h used as an abbreviation for hour throughout 

 Annual Maintenance Cost ($/kBtu/h) = Annual Maintenance Cost * 1,000 / (Cooling or Heat Rejection Capacity)

— Ventilation

 CFM out / Btu in / h = System Airflow / (System Fan Power * 3,412)

 Total Installed Cost ($/1,000 CFM) = Total Installed Cost * 1,000 / System Airflow

 Annual Maintenance Cost ($/1,000 CFM) = Annual Maintenance Cost * 1,000 / System Fan Power

7

Calculations
Final

8

Market Transformation

The market for the reviewed products has changed since this analysis was performed in 2015. These changes are noted 

and reflected in the efficiency and cost characteristics.

• DOE issued federal minimum efficiency standards that have gone into effect for General Service Fluorescent Lamps 

(2012), Incandescent Reflector Lamps (2012), and Fluorescent Lamp Ballasts (2019). 

• In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lumens per watt (lm/W) backstop requirement 

for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and Conservation Act (10 CFR 430, 87 FR 

27439). This action also amended the definition of general service lamps to include previously exempted product 

classes, such as reflector lamps. The rule will go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail 

and distribution in July 2023.

• DOE published a Final Rule updating energy conservation standards for Refrigerated Beverage Vending Machines at 

the end of 2015, effective in 2018. DOE also issued federal minimum efficiency standards that have or will soon go into 

effect for Refrigerated Beverage Vending Machines (2012), Automatic Commercial Ice Makers (2018), Walk-In Coolers 

and Freezers (2017), and Commercial Refrigeration Equipment (2017). 
Final

Residential Lighting

9

Note: More R&D investment and effort in the lighting industry only 

changes projections of LED technologies because additional funding 

and effort will likely not be applied to traditional technologies that 

have been exceeded in performance by their LED counterparts. 

Therefore, the inputs for all non-LED technologies remain unchanged 

from the Reference Case and are not included in this report. 
Final

10

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential General Service Lamps

The residential general service lamps characterized in this report are a 60-watt and a 75-watt medium screw-based (E26) A-type incandescent lamp and their halogen, CFL, and LED equivalents. 

A standard 60-watt incandescent lamp produces approximately 800 – 850 lumens. A standard 75-watt incandescent lamp produces approximately 1,100 lumens. 

Performance: 

• A majority of residential lamps have a nominal CCT rating of 2,700K and give off a warm, yellowish white color, but products with CCTs of 3,000K, 3,500K, 4,100K (neutral white), 5,000K 

(daylight), and 6,500K (blueish white) are also available. Traditional incandescent light bulbs have a nominal CCT of about 2,700K. When replacing a light bulb, it is advised to chose a 

product with a similar CCT value in order to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100. However, CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average around 80. 

CRI values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination. High CRI products are preferable for retail and display applications where improved color quality is of real value. Higher 

CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• Many factors influence the price of LED lamps including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore, typical lamp prices in 2022 reflecting a mix of lamp characteristics and 

features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• Fixture prices and installation costs are not included for the residential sector. Labor costs are assumed to be negligible because homeowners likely replaces lamps themselves as they burn 

out. Therefore, total installed cost is the price of a lamp, and annual maintenance costs are the cost of replacing the lamps, which is a function of lamp life, lamp price, and the annual 

operating hours. 

• Disposal costs are not characterized for residential lighting in this analysis. In residential cases, disposal is done by the occupant. Lamp and product burnout are assumed to result in no 

"added" cost aside from the work performed to install the replacement. 

Legislation:

• The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA 2007) established standards for 60-watt general service lamps, effective in 2014, and 75-watt lamps, effective in 2013. These 

standards cannot be achieved by incandescent bulbs, but can be by halogen, CFL, and LED technologies. 

• In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. This action also amended the definition of general service lamps to include previously exempted product classes, such as reflector lamps. These standards can not be 

achieved by traditional incandescent or halogen technologies currently on the market, and given current and projected trends in industry, they will likely not be met. It is currently assumed 

that industry will increase its investment in LED technology at the expense of incandescent, halogen, and CFL technologies. The rule will go into effect for manufacture and import in 

January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023.

ENERGY STAR:

• For ENERGY STAR qualification, general service omnidirectional lamps must have a minimum lamp efficacy of 70 lm/W for products with CRI ≥ 90 and 80 lm/W for lamps with CRI < 90. 

Additionally, the lamps must have a CRI ≥ 80, nominal CCT of 2,700, 3,000, 3,500, 4,000/4,100, 5,000, or 6,000 K, and rated lifetime ≥ 10,000 hours (ENERGY STAR).
Final

11

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential General Service Lamps

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2030, 2040, and 2050. We assume manufacturers will focus on improving efficacy, lifetime, and price for 

products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of 

conventional lighting technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of 

performance improvement) to the emergence of a new light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent, 

halogen, and fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2019).

• For LED technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2050: 

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Incandescent 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements.

Halogen 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements 

as of 2022.

CFL +0.5% 0% -0.5% Improvements in efficacy can be made by using more rare-earth phosphors in compact fluorescent 

lamps. 
Final

12

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential General Service LED Lamps (60 W Incandescent Equivalent)

Higher efficacy compared with Reference Case

DATA

2015 2020 2022 20232 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR1 Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 8.7 9.2 10.0 8.9 8.0 13.8 17.8 5.7 5.1 4.4 4.0 3.8 3.4

Lamp Lumens 656 803 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 75.5 87.1 80.0 90.0 100.0 80.0 45.0 141.5 157.2 180.2 200.2 209.0 232.1

CRI 81 85 80 81 90 80 N/A 81 90 81 90 81 90

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 N/A 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 25 21 15 14 18 15 N/A 14 18 14 18 14 18

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 657 657 657 657 657 657 N/A 657 657 657 657 657 657

Lamp Price (2022$) $13.53 $4.56 $6.20 $3.92 $5.32 $6.20 N/A $3.23 $4.39 $2.84 $3.86 $2.46 $3.33

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $20.63 $5.68 $7.75 $4.90 $6.65 $7.75 N/A $7.02 $7.02 $3.57 $3.57 $2.38 $2.38

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 N/A $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 N/A 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $13.53 $4.56 $6.20 $3.92 $5.32 $6.20 N/A $3.23 $4.39 $2.84 $3.86 $2.46 $3.33 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $0.35 $0.15 $0.27 $0.18 $0.19 $0.27 N/A $0.15 $0.16 $0.13 $0.14 $0.11 $0.12 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $20.63 $5.68 $7.75 $4.90 $6.65 $7.75 N/A $4.04 $5.49 $3.56 $4.83 $3.07 $4.17 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.54 $0.18 $0.34 $0.22 $0.24 $0.34 N/A $0.18 $0.20 $0.16 $0.17 $0.14 $0.15 

1. Criteria outlined in ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs): Eligibility Criteria Version 2.1 (Published June, 2017, Revised June 

2020)

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy 

and Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. All LED 

lighting products exceed the new minimum efficacy standards.
Final

13

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential General Service Filament-LED Lamps (60 W Incandescent Equivalent)

Higher efficacy compared with Reference Case

DATA

2015 2020 2022 20232 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR1 Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 9.7 7.1 5.5 6.9 8.0 13.8 17.8 5.4 5.1 4.2 4.0 3.6 3.4

Lamp Lumens 457 650 450 650 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 47.1 91.7 81.8 94.8 100.0 80.0 45.0 149.0 157.2 189.8 200.2 220.0 232.1

CRI 82 84 90 84 80 80 N/A 81 90 81 90 81 90

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 N/A 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 23 21 15 15 15 15 N/A 15 15 15 15 15 15

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 657 657 657 657 657 N/A N/A 657 657 657 657 657 657

Lamp Price (2022$) $15.17 $6.88 $6.25 $5.91 $7.75 N/A N/A $4.87 $6.39 $4.29 $5.62 $3.70 $4.86

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $33.20 $10.58 $13.89 $9.09 $9.69 N/A N/A $7.02 $7.02 $3.57 $3.57 $2.38 $2.38

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 N/A N/A $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 N/A N/A 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $15.17 $6.88 $6.25 $5.91 $7.75 N/A N/A $4.87 $6.39 $4.29 $5.62 $3.70 $4.86 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $0.43 $0.21 $0.27 $0.26 $0.34 N/A N/A $0.21 $0.28 $0.19 $0.25 $0.16 $0.21 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $33.20 $10.58 $13.89 $9.09 $9.69 N/A N/A $6.09 $7.99 $5.36 $7.03 $4.63 $6.07 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.93 $0.33 $0.61 $0.40 $0.42 N/A N/A $0.27 $0.35 $0.23 $0.31 $0.20 $0.27 

1. Criteria outlined in ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs): Eligibility Criteria Version 2.1 (Published June, 2017, Revised June 

2020)

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy 

and Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. All LED 

lighting products exceed the new minimum efficacy standards.
Final

14

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Reflector Lamps

The residential reflector lamps characterized in this report are directional lamps that emit approximately 550 – 850 lumens (except for LED PAR38s which have outputs up to 1,700 

lumens). Multiple baseline reflector lamps were analyzed, including 65W Incandescent BR30, Halogen PAR30, Halogen Infrared Reflector (HIR) PAR30, CFL BR30, LED BR30, and 

LED PAR38. 

Performance: 

• A majority of residential lamps have a nominal CCT rating of 2,700K and give off a warm, yellowish white color, but products with CCTs of 3,000K, 3,500K, 4,100K (neutral white), 

5,000K (daylight), and 6,500K (blueish white) are also available. Traditional incandescent light bulbs have a nominal CCT of about 2,700K. When replacing a light bulb, it is 

advised to chose a product with a similar CCT value in order to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100, but for CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average 

around 80. CRI values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination, with high CRI products being preferable for retail and display applications where improved color 

quality is of real value. Higher CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these very specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• Many factors influence the price of LED lamps including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. 

• Fixture prices and installation costs are not included for the residential sector. Labor costs are assumed to be negligible because homeowners likely replaces lamps themselves as 

they burn out. Therefore, total installed cost is the price of a lamp, and annual maintenance costs are the cost of replacing the lamps, which is a function of lamp life, lamp price, 

and the annual operating hours. 

• Disposal costs are not characterized for residential lighting in this analysis. In residential cases, disposal is done by the occupant. Lamp and product burnout are assumed to result 

in no "added" cost aside from the work performed to install the replacement. 

Legislation:

• EPAct92 established minimum performance standards for some reflector lamps and provided exemptions for certain specialty applications (e.g., ER/BR, vibration service, more 

than 5% neodymium oxide, impact resistant, infrared heat, colored). EPAct92 effectively phased-out R-shaped tungsten filament incandescent reflector lamps at certain wattages 

and bulb diameters, replacing them with more efficient and cost effective tungsten-halogen parabolic aluminized reflector (PAR) lamps. EISA 2007 took away certain exemptions 

from EPACT 1992, requiring certain previously exempted lamps to meet EPAct92 minimum performance standards by January 1, 2008. The 65W BR30, a large majority of the 

incandescent reflector lamp market, was still exempted until 2022. 

• In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. This action also amended the definition of general service lamps to include previously exempted product classes, such as reflector lamps. These standards 

can not be achieved by traditional incandescent or halogen technologies currently on the market, and given current and projected trends in industry, they will likely not be met. It 

is currently assumed that industry will increase its investment in LED technology at the expense of incandescent, halogen, and CFL technologies. The rule will go into effect for 

manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023.
Final

15

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Reflector Lamps

ENERGY STAR:

• For ENERGY STAR qualification, general service, reflector lamps must have a minimum lamp efficacy of 61 lm/W for products with CRI ≥ 90 and 70 lm/W for lamps with CRI < 90, 

respectively. Additionally, the lamps must have a CRI ≥ 80, nominal CCT of 2,700, 3,000, 3,500, 4,000/4,100, 5,000, or 6,000 K, and rated lifetime ≥ 10,000 hours (ENERGY STAR).

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2030, 2040, and 2050. We assume manufacturers will focus on improving efficacy, lifetime, and price for 

products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of 

conventional lighting technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of 

performance improvement) to the emergence of a new light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and 

fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2019).

• For LED technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2050. 

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Incandescent 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements.

Halogen 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements 

as of 2022.

CFL +0.5% 0% -0.5% In addition to higher efficiency reflector coatings, improvements in efficacy can be made by using 

more rare-earth phosphors in compact fluorescent lamps. Lifetime improvements can be made by 

improving the compact fluorescent lamp electrodes.
Final

16

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Reflector LED BR30

1. Criteria outlined in ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs): Eligibility Criteria Version 2.1 (Published June, 2017, Revised June 

2020)

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. All LED lighting 

products exceed the new minimum efficacy standards.

Higher efficacy compared with Reference Case

DATA

2015 2020 2022 20232 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR1 Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 14.2 10.9 11.0 8.8 7.2 10.7 14.4 5.5 4.7 4.8 4.1 4.2 3.7

Lamp Lumens 706 781 800 683 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650 650

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 49.8 71.5 72.7 78.6 90.3 61.0 45.0 119.2 137.0 136.3 156.7 153.4 176.3

CRI 82 85 92 87 90 80 N/A 87 90 87 90 87 90

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 N/A 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 25 25 25 19 18 15 N/A 19 18 19 18 19 18

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 730 730 730 730 730 N/A N/A 730 730 730 730 730 730

Lamp Price (2022$) $21.40 $15.36 $4.09 $5.01 $5.96 N/A N/A $4.11 $4.89 $3.62 $4.31 $3.14 $3.74

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $30.31 $19.66 $5.11 $7.33 $9.17 N/A N/A $6.32 $7.53 $5.57 $6.64 $4.83 $5.75

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 N/A N/A $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 N/A N/A 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $21.40 $15.36 $4.09 $5.01 $5.96 N/A N/A $4.11 $4.89 $3.62 $4.31 $3.14 $3.74 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $0.63 $0.45 $0.12 $0.20 $0.24 N/A N/A $0.16 $0.19 $0.14 $0.17 $0.12 $0.15 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $30.31 $19.66 $5.11 $7.33 $9.17 N/A N/A $6.32 $7.53 $5.57 $6.64 $4.83 $5.75

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.89 $0.57 $0.15 $0.29 $0.37 N/A N/A $0.25 $0.30 $0.22 $0.26 $0.19 $0.23 
Final

17

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Reflector LED PAR38

Higher efficacy compared with Reference Case

DATA

2015 2020 2022 20232 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR1 Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 19.2 15.5 17.0 16.4 17.0 10.7 29.9 10.8 11.2 9.4 9.8 8.4 8.7

Lamp Lumens 1,202 1,211 1,200 1,344 1,700 650 1,344 1,344 1,700 1,344 1,700 1,344 1,700

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 62.7 77.9 70.6 82.0 100.0 61.0 45.0 124.5 151.7 142.4 173.6 160.2 195.3

CRI 83 86 82 86 82 80 N/A 86 86 86 86 86 86

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3,000 3,000 2,700 3,000 3,000 2,700 N/A 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 24 27 25 27 25 15 N/A 27 25 27 25 27 25

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 730 730 730 730 730 N/A N/A 730 730 730 730 730 730

Lamp Price (2022$) $35.23 $22.44 $23.71 $23.09 $15.69 N/A N/A $19.40 $13.18 $17.36 $11.79 $15.37 $10.45

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $29.31 $18.54 $19.76 $17.18 $9.23 N/A N/A $14.43 $7.75 $12.91 $6.94 $11.44 $6.14

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 N/A N/A $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 N/A N/A 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $35.23 $22.44 $23.71 $23.09 $15.69 N/A N/A $19.40 $13.18 $17.36 $11.79 $15.37 $10.45 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $1.07 $0.60 $0.69 $0.62 $0.46 N/A N/A $0.52 $0.38 $0.46 $0.34 $0.41 $0.31 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $29.31 $18.54 $19.76 $17.18 $9.23 N/A N/A $14.43 $7.75 $12.91 $6.94 $11.44 $6.14 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.89 $0.49 $0.58 $0.46 $0.27 N/A N/A $0.39 $0.23 $0.35 $0.20 $0.31 $0.18 

1. Criteria outlined in ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs): Eligibility Criteria Version 2.1 (Published June, 2017, Revised June 

2020)

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress presed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023, and for retail and distribution in July 2023. All LED lighting 

products exceed the new minimum efficacy standards.
Final

18

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential 4-foot Linear 2-Lamp Lighting Systems

This section characterizes commercial linear fixtures that house two 4ft long linear lamps and their integrated luminaire equivalents. The technologies available for this system are linear fluorescent and 

LED. 

• T5 lamps are approximately 40% narrower than T8 lamps and almost 60% narrower than T12 lamps. This narrowness allows T5 lamps to be coated with higher quality, more efficient phosphor 

blends than larger diameter lamps, resulting in a more efficacious lamp. The compact size of T5 lamps also permits greater flexibility in lighting design and construction.

• LED options for linear fixtures include replacement lamps that can fit directly into an existing fixture and fully integrated luminaires that can be used to replace existing fixtures. LED replacement 

lamps are also known as TLEDs. Type A TLEDs can be installed with existing ballasts and Type B and C TLEDs require the ballast to be disconnected. Replacement lamps are only sold to go into 

existing fixtures. If a new fixture is to be installed, a fully integrated LED luminaire is a more cost effective and efficient option. Because LED luminaires are fully integrated, they do not have lamp 

and fixture efficiency losses associated with ballasts and fixture optics.

Performance: 

• Residential linear lamps often have a nominal CCT rating of 3500K, but products with CCTs of 3000K, 4000K, and 4100K (neutral white) are also common. 5000K (daylight) lamps are available as 

well. When replacing a light bulb, it is important to choose a product with a similar CCT value to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100, but CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average around 80. CRI values of 

80 are considered suitable for general illumination, with high CRI products being preferable for retail and display applicationswhere improved color quality is of real value. Higher CRI is not 

expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these very specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• Many factors influence the price of LED lamps, including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore, typical lamp prices in 2022 reflecting a mix of lamp characteristics and features 

were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• The total installed cost is the price of a lamp, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated with the installation, except for in the case of LED replacement lamps. which are sold 

only as a replacement for use in an existing fixture. The LED luminaire is more efficient and cost effective for new installations or fixture retrofits.

• Labor costs for lamp changes are assumed to be negligible because homeowners likely replace lamps themselves as they burn out. Therefore, annual maintenance costs are the cost of the 

replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp life and the annual operating hours for residential linear systems. 

• Disposal costs are not characterized for residential lighting in this analysis. In residential cases, disposal is done by theoccupant. Lamp and product burnout are assumed to result in no "added" 

cost aside from the work performed to install the replacement. 

Legislation:

• Beginning July 14, 2012 (or July 14, 2014, for T8 700-series phosphor lamps), DOE fluorescent lamp standards required a minimum efficacy of 89 lm/W. Although the amended performance-based 

standards do not explicitly prohibit T12 lamps, no T12 lamps met the standard at the time of its announcement. Since then, however, T12 lamps meeting the standard have entered the market.

• Beginning November 14, 2014, DOE standards required that the characterized residential ballasts have a minimum BLE = 0.993 / (1 + 0.41 * Avg Total Lamp Arc power ^ (- 0.25)). Residential ballasts 

also must have a minimum power factor of 0.5.

• California's Title 24 mandates the use of electronic ballasts with high efficacy luminaires (including fluorescent) of 13 W or higher (CEC, 2005).

ENERGY STAR:

• ENERGY STAR does not cover linear lamps. (ENERGY STAR, 2020)
Final

19

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential 4-foot Linear 2-Lamp Lighting Systems

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2030, 2040, and 2050. We assume that manufacturers will focus on improving efficacy, lifetime, and 

price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of 

conventional lighting technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of 

performance improvement) to the emergence of a new light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and 

fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2019).

• For LED technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2050: 

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

T12 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.

T8 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.

T5 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.
Final

20

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Linear LED Replacement Lamp 2-Lamp System

1. N/A because a fixture and an LED replacement lamp would not be purchased separately for a new installation or retrofit when there are integrated LED luminaires that are more 

efficient and cost effective. These lamps are sold only as replacements to go into existing fixtures. 

Assume no labor is associated with lamp replacement in the residential sector because residents likely replace the lamps themselves. 

Higher efficacy compared with Reference Case

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 18.5 16.3 16.0 13.7 11.0 8.9 7.2 7.7 7.2 7.7 7.2

Lamp Lumens 2,013 2,130 1,800 1,920 1,800 1,920 1,800 1,920 1,800 1,920 1,800

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 111.0 130.7 112.5 140.1 163.6 216.1 250.0 250.0 250.0 250.0 250.0

System Wattage 36.9 32.6 32.0 27.4 22.0 17.8 14.4 15.4 14.4 15.4 14.4

System Lumens 3,583 4,004 3,456 3,686 3,456 3,686 3,456 3,686 3,456 3,686 3,456

System Efficacy (lm/W) 97.0 122.8 108.0 134.5 157.1 207.4 240.0 240.0 240.0 240.0 240.0

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 83 81 82 81 80 81 80 81 80 81 80

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4,100 3,500 4,100 4,100 5,000 4,100 5,000 4,100 5,000 4,100 5,000

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 55 50 50 54 50 54 50 54 50 54 50

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 584 584 584 584 584 584 584 584 584 584 584

Lamp Price (2022$) $27.00 $12.89 $14.63 $11.11 $4.28 $9.97 $3.84 $9.87 $3.80 $9.77 $3.77 

Ballast Price (2022$)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $13.41 $6.05 $8.13 $5.79 $2.38 $5.19 $2.13 $5.14 $2.11 $5.09 $2.09 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $15.07 $6.44 $8.47 $6.03 $2.48 $5.41 $2.22 $5.35 $2.20 $5.30 $2.18 

Labor Cost (2022$/h)2 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $54.00 $25.78 $29.26 $22.22 $8.56 $19.95 $7.68 $19.74 $7.60 $19.55 $7.53 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $0.57 $0.30 $0.34 $0.24 $0.10 $0.22 $0.09 $0.21 $0.09 $0.21 $0.09 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $15.07 $6.44 $8.47 $6.03 $2.48 $5.41 $2.22 $5.35 $2.20 $5.30 $2.18 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.16 $0.08 $0.10 $0.07 $0.03 $0.06 $0.03 $0.06 $0.03 $0.06 $0.03 
Final

21

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Linear LED Luminaire

1. N/A because the lamp and fixture are both included in the luminaire. 

Higher efficacy compared with Reference Case

DATA

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage 50.0 43.1 49.0 44.0 35.0 27.4 21.8 23.0 19.2 21.2 19.2

System Lumens 4,615 4,945 5,024 5,302 4,800 5,302 4,800 5,302 4,800 5,302 4,800

System Efficacy (lm/W) 92.3 114.7 102.5 120.5 137.1 193.4 220.1 230.4 250.0 250.0 250.0

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 83 82 80 79 80 79 80 79 80 79 80

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3,838 3,000 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 56 58 54 53 50 53 50 53 50 53 50

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730 730

Lamp or Luminaire Price (2022$) $181.60 $158.60 $144.85 $152.54 $207.80 $121.11 $164.98 $105.34 $143.50 $90.11 $122.76 

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm)

1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $78.70 $64.15 $57.66 $57.54 $86.58 $45.68 $68.74 $39.74 $59.79 $33.99 $51.15 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $80.90 $80.90 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Labor Lamp Change (hours)* N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $403.65 $357.65 $322.70 $338.08 $448.60 $275.22 $362.97 $243.68 $320.01 $213.23 $278.52 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $2.89 $2.49 $2.40 $2.56 $3.52 $2.12 $2.89 $1.91 $2.58 $1.70 $2.27 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $87.46 $72.33 $64.23 $63.76 $93.46 $51.91 $75.62 $45.96 $66.67 $40.22 $58.03 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $0.63 $0.50 $0.48 $0.48 $0.73 $0.40 $0.60 $0.36 $0.54 $0.32 $0.47 
Final

22

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Outdoor Lamps

• The residential outdoor lamps characterized in this report include reflector and general service lamps used for security and/or porch lighting that can be switched on from inside 

the home (i.e. parking lot/garage and outdoor common area lighting at multifamily buildings are excluded) with lumen outputs of approximately 1,000 – 1,400 lumens. Multiple 

baseline lamps were analyzed according to estimates of installed base average lumens by lamp type, including: 

Performance: 

• 65W BR30 is the only viable incandescent reflector lamp due to exemption from EISA 2007. The lumen output of this lamp type is well below other reflector lamp technologies 

characterized for residential outdoor spaces, thus its use is limited for this application. This product is, as of 2022, expected to be eliminated by DOE’s 45 lm/W backstop 

requirement.

• A majority of residential lamps have a nominal CCT rating of 2,700K and give off a warm, yellowish white color, but products with CCTs of 3,000K, 3,500K, 4,100K (neutral white), 

5,000K (daylight), and 6,500K (blueish white) are also available. Traditional incandescent light bulbs have a nominal CCT of about 2,700K. When replacing a light bulb, it is 

advised to chose a product with a similar CCT value in order to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100. However, CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average 

around 80. CRI values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination. High CRI products are preferable for retail and display applications where improved color quality is 

of real value. Higher CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• Many factors influence the price of LED lamps including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore, typical lamp prices in 2015 reflecting a mix of lamp 

characteristics and features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• Fixture prices and installation costs are not included for the residential sector. Labor costs are assumed to be negligible because homeowners likely replaces lamps themselves as 

they burn out. Therefore, total installed cost is the price of a lamp, and annual maintenance costs are the cost of replacing the lamps, which is a function of lamp life, lamp price, 

and the annual operating hours for residential reflector lamps. 

• Disposal costs are not characterized for residential lighting in this analysis. In residential cases, disposal is done by the occupant. Lamp and product burnout are assumed to result 

in no "added" cost aside from the work performed to install the replacement. 

Security(Reflector Lamps) Porch (GeneralService Lamps)

Incandescent BR30 IncandescentA-Type

Halogen PAR38 Halogen A-Type

Halogen Infrared Reflector (HIR) PAR38 CFL Bare Spiral

CFL PAR38 LED A-Type Lamp

LED PAR38
Final

23

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Outdoor Lamps

Legislation:

• In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. This action also amended the definition of general service lamps to include previously exempted product classes, such as reflector lamps. These standards 

can not be achieved by traditional incandescent or halogen technologies currently on the market, and given current and projected trends in industry, they will likely not be met. It 

is currently assumed that industry will increase its investment in LED technology at the expense of incandescent, halogen, and CFL technologies. The rule will go into effect for 

manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023.

ENERGY STAR:

• For ENERGY STAR qualification, general service omnidirectional lamps must have a minimum lamp efficacy of 70 lm/W for products with CRI ≥ 90 and 80 lm/W for lamps with 

CRI < 90. 

• For ENERGY STAR qualification, general service reflector lamps must have a minimum lamp efficacy of 61 lm/W for products with CRI ≥ 90 and 70 lm/W for lamps with CRI < 90. 

• Additionally, the lamps must have a CRI ≥ 80, nominal CCT of 2,700, 3,000, 3,500, 4,000/4,100, 5,000, or 6,000 K, and rated lifetime ≥ 10,000 hours (ENERGY STAR).

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2030, 2040, and 2050. We assume manufacturers will focus on improving efficacy, lifetime, and price for 

products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of 

conventional lighting technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of 

performance improvement) to the emergence of a new light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and 

fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2019).

• For LED technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2050. 

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Incandescent 

Omnidirectional

0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements.

Incandescent Directional 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements.

Halogen 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements.

CFL +0.5% 0% -0.5% In addition to benefiting from higher efficiency reflector coatings, improvements in efficacy can be made by using more rareearth phosphors in compact fluorescent lamps. Lifetime improvements can be made by improving the compact fluorescent 

lamp electrodes.
Final

24

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Security: LED Reflector)

Higher efficacy compared with Reference Case

DATA

2015 2020 2022 20232 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR1 Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 19.2 15.5 17.0 16.4 17.0 10.7 29.9 10.8 11.2 9.4 9.8 8.4 8.7

Lamp Lumens 1,202 1,211 1,200 1,344 1,700 650 1,344 1,344 1,700 1,344 1,700 1,344 1,700

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 62.7 77.9 70.6 82.0 100.0 61.0 45.0 124.5 151.7 142.4 173.6 160.2 195.3

CRI 83 86 82 86 82 80 N/A 86 86 86 86 86 86

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3,000 3,000 2,700 3,000 3,000 2,700 N/A 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 24 27 25 27 25 15 N/A 27 25 27 25 27 25

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 730 730 730 730 730 N/A N/A 730 730 730 730 730 730

Lamp Price (2022$) $35.23 $22.44 $23.71 $23.09 $15.69 N/A N/A $19.40 $13.18 $17.36 $11.79 $15.37 $10.45

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $29.31 $18.54 $19.76 $17.18 $9.23 N/A N/A $14.43 $7.75 $12.91 $6.94 $11.44 $6.14

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 N/A N/A $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 N/A N/A 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $35.23 $22.44 $23.71 $23.09 $15.69 N/A N/A $19.40 $13.18 $17.36 $11.79 $15.37 $10.45 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $1.07 $0.60 $0.69 $0.62 $0.46 N/A N/A $0.52 $0.38 $0.46 $0.34 $0.41 $0.31 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $29.31 $18.54 $19.76 $17.18 $9.23 N/A N/A $14.43 $7.75 $12.91 $6.94 $11.44 $6.14 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/klm) $0.89 $0.49 $0.58 $0.46 $0.27 N/A N/A $0.39 $0.23 $0.35 $0.20 $0.31 $0.18 

1. Criteria outlined in ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs): Eligibility Criteria Version 2.1 (Published June, 2017, Revised June 

2020)

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress presed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. All LED lighting 

products exceed the new minimum efficacy standards.
Final

25

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Porch: LED A-Type)

Higher efficacy compared with Reference Case

DATA

2015 2020 2022 20231 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 12.9 11.8 13.5 11.9 11.0 13.6 24.4 7.6 7.0 6.0 5.5 5.1 4.7

Lamp Lumens 1,073 1,102 1,100 1,089 1,100 1,089 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 83.1 93.5 81.5 92.2 100.0 80 45.0 144.9 157.2 184.6 200.2 214.0 232.1

CRI 81 85 80 86 80 80 N/A 86 80 86 80 86 80

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2,700 2,700 3,000 2,700 2,700 2,700 N/A 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 25 21 25 18 25 N/A N/A 18 25 18 25 18 25

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 657 657 657 657 657 N/A N/A 657 657 657 657 657 657

Lamp Price (2022$) $18.13 $8.48 $4.39 $3.92 $5.29 N/A N/A $3.23 $4.36 $2.84 $3.84 $2.46 $3.31

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $16.90 $7.70 $3.99 $3.60 $4.81 N/A N/A $7.02 $7.02 $3.57 $3.57 $2.38 $2.38

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 N/A N/A $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00

Labor Lamp Installation (hours) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 N/A N/A 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $18.13 $8.48 $4.39 $3.92 $5.29 N/A N/A $3.23 $4.36 $2.84 $3.84 $2.46 $3.31 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $0.49 $0.27 $0.12 $0.14 $0.14 N/A N/A $0.12 $0.11 $0.10 $0.10 $0.09 $0.09 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $16.90 $7.70 $3.99 $3.60 $4.81 N/A N/A $2.94 $3.97 $2.59 $3.49 $2.23 $3.01 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/klm) $0.45 $0.24 $0.10 $0.13 $0.13 N/A N/A $0.11 $0.10 $0.09 $0.09 $0.08 $0.08 

1. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress presed in the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. All LED lighting 

products exceed the new minimum efficacy standards.
Final

Commercial Lighting

26

Note: More R&D investment and effort in the lighting industry will 

only change future projections of LED technologies because additional 

funding and effort will likely not be applied to traditional technologies 

that have been exceeded in performance by their LED counterparts. 

Therefore, the inputs for all non-LED technologies remain unchanged 

from the Reference Case and are therefore not included in this report. 

. 
Final

27

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial General Service Lamps in Recessed Can Fixtures

This section characterizes commercial omnidirectional incandescent, halogen, CFL, and LED screw-based general service lamps emitting approximately 1,600 lumens (equivalent to a 100W incandescent lamp) used 

in recessed can fixtures. A recessed can is a directional fixture set into the ceiling, in which all of the light is directed downwards from the opening. Therefore, an omnidirectional lamp is not well suited for use in 

such fixtures because light that emits upwards and out of the sides must be reflected downwards and out of the fixture and some light is absorbed in the process. A fixture efficiency of 61% is used to characterize 

these lumen losses for all omnidirectional lamps. For all lamp technologies, an annual fixture renovation rate of 10% (i.e., 10-year fixture service life) is used to reflect the proportion of equipment that retires each 

year.

Performance: 

• A majority of general service lamps have a nominal CCT rating of 2,700K and give off a warm, yellowish white color, but products with CCTs of 3,000K, 3,500K, 4,100K (neutral white), 5,000K (daylight), and 

6,500K (blueish white) are also available. Traditional incandescent light bulbs have a nominal CCT of about 2,700K. When replacing a light bulb, it is advised to chose a product with a similar CCT value in 

order to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100. However, CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average around 80. CRI values of 80 are 

considered suitable for general illumination. High CRI products are preferable for retail and display applications where improved color quality is of real value. Higher CRI is not expected to be a focus for 

future LED products except for these specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• The total installed cost is the price of a lamp, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated with the installation, except for in the case of LED replacement lamps which are sold only as a 

replacement for use in an existing fixture. There are integrated LED luminaires that are more efficient and cost effective for new installations or fixture retrofits. Many factors influence the price of LED lamps 

including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore typical lamp prices in 2015 reflecting a mix of lamp characteristics and features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and 

high efficacy products in the future. 

• Annual maintenance costs are the cost of labor for replacing the lamps and the cost of the replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp life and the annual operating 

hours for commercial general service lamps (DOE SSL Program, 2012a). 

• Commercial lighting disposal costs are estimated to be $0.12 per linear foot of fluorescent lamps, $1.50 per lamp for high intensity discharge (HID) lamps, and $0.50 for CFLs (EPA, 2022).

Legislation:

• The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA 2007) established standards for 100W lamps effective in 2012. These standards cannot be achieved by incandescent bulbs, but they can be met by 

halogen, CFL, and LED technologies from 2012 to 2023.

• In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and Conservation Act. This action 

also amended the definition of general service lamps to include previously exempted product classes, such as reflector lamps.These standards can not be achieved by traditional incandescent or halogen 

technologies currently on the market, and given current and projected trends in industry, they will likely not be met. It is currently assumed that industry will increase its investment in LED technology at the 

expense of incandescent, halogen, and CFL technologies. The rule will go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023.

ENERGY STAR:

• For ENERGY STAR qualification, general service omnidirectional lamps must have a minimum lamp efficacy of 70 lm/W for products with CRI ≥ 90 and 80 lm/W for lamps with CRI < 90. Additionally, the 

lamps must have a CRI ≥ 80, nominal CCT of 2,700, 3,000, 3,500, 4,000/4,100, 5,000, or 6,000 K, and rated lifetime ≥ 10,000 hours (ENERGY STAR).
Final

28

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial General Service Lamps in Recessed Can Fixtures

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2030, 2040, and 2050. We assume manufacturers will focus would be on improving efficacy, lifetime, 

and price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of 

conventional lighting technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of 

performance improvement) to the emergence of a new light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and 

fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2019).

• For LED technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2050.

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Incandescent 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements.

Halogen 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements 

as of 2022

CFL +0.5% 0% -0.5% Improvements in efficacy can be made by using more rare-earth phosphors in compact fluorescent 

lamps. Lifetime improvements can be made by improving the compact fluorescent lamp electrodes.
Final

29

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial General Service 100W Equivalent LED Replacement Lamp in Recessed Can 

Fixture

Higher efficacy compared with Reference Case

1. Criteria outlined in ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs): Eligibility Criteria Version 2.1 (Published June, 2017, Revised June 2020)

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress presedin the Energy Policy and Conservation Act. The new minimum efficacy 

requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. All LED lighting products exceed the new minimum efficacy standards.

3. Based on a fixture efficiency of 61% for an omnidirectional lamp installed in a recessed can fixture. 

DATA

2012 2018 2022 20232 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR1 Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 26.7 14.5 16.0 14.8 13.0 20.0 34.8 9.4 8.3 7.4 6.5 6.4 6.4

Lamp Lumens 1,600 1,528 1,600 1,567 1,600 1,600 1,567 1,567 1,600 1,567 1,600 1,567 1,600

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 60.0 105.1 100.0 106.0 123.1 80.0 45.0 166.7 193.5 212.2 246.4 246.1 250.0

System Wattage 26.7 14.5 16.0 14.8 13.0 20.0 34.8 9.4 8.3 7.4 6.5 6.4 6.4

System Lumens3 976 932 976 956 976 976 956 956 976 956 976 956 976

System Efficacy (lm/W) 36.6 64.1 61.0 64.7 75.1 48.8 27.5 101.7 118.0 129.5 150.3 150.1 152.5

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 80 80 90 84.8 84 80 N/A 84.8 84.8 84.8 84.8 84.8 84.8

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3,000 3,000 2,700 2,700 5,000 N/A N/A 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,700

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 22.0 17.9 25.0 16.9 25.0 15.0 N/A 16.9 25.0 16.9 25.0 16.9 25.0

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,928 4,928 4,928 4,928 4,928 N/A N/A 4,928 4,928 4,928 4,928 4,928 4,928

Lamp Price (2022$) $47.45 $11.28 $5.62 $7.04 $3.39 N/A N/A $5.81 $2.80 $5.11 $2.46 $4.41 $2.12

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) $23.72 $26.38 $22.07 $22.07 $22.07 N/A N/A $21.20 $21.20 $20.17 $20.17 $19.18 $19.18

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $25.00 $7.38 $3.51 $4.49 $2.12 N/A N/A $3.71 $1.75 $3.26 $1.54 $2.82 $1.33

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $72.92 $40.40 $28.37 $30.46 $26.09 N/A N/A $28.26 $24.59 $26.45 $23.18 $24.68 $21.83 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 N/A N/A $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 N/A N/A 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 N/A N/A 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $148.39 $114.88 $93.69 $95.11 $91.46 N/A N/A $93.01 $90.00 $91.27 $88.63 $89.59 $87.30 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $11.49 $4.16 $1.76 $3.02 $1.32 N/A N/A $2.66 $1.20 $2.45 $1.14 $2.25 $1.07

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $152.04 $123.25 $95.99 $99.52 $93.71 N/A N/A $97.32 $92.21 $95.51 $90.81 $93.75 $89.45 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $11.77 $4.46 $1.80 $3.16 $1.35 N/A N/A $2.78 $1.23 $2.57 $1.16 $2.35 $1.10
Final

30

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reflector Lamps in Recessed Can Fixtures

This section characterizes commercial halogen, halogen infrared reflector (HIR), and LED screw-based reflector lamps emitting approximately 1400 lumens used in recessed can fixtures. 

• HIR lamps contain a tungsten halogen capsule with a film coating on the inside of the capsule. The coating reflects infrared radiation back into the lamp filament, which forces the filament to 

burn at a higher temperature. This design increases the efficacy of the lamp, without reducing operating life.

• A recessed can is a directional fixture set into the ceiling, in which all of the light is directed downwards from the opening. Therefore, a reflector lamp, which employs reflective coating to 

direct light out in only one direction, is well suited for use in such fixtures. However, some light is not able to escape the fixture, and a fixture efficiency of 93% is used to characterize these 

minimal lumen losses. For all lamp technologies, an annual fixture renovation rate of 10% (i.e., 10-year fixture service life) is used to reflect the proportion of equipment that retires each year.

Performance: 

• A majority of reflector lamps have a nominal CCT rating of 2,700K and give off a warm, yellowish white color, but products with CCTs of 3,000K, 3,500K, 4,100K (neutral white), 5,000K 

(daylight), and 6,500K (blueish white) are also available. Traditional incandescent light bulbs have a nominal CCT of about 2,700K. When replacing a light bulb, it is advised to chose a 

product with a similar CCT value in order to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100. However, CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average around 80. 

CRI values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination. High CRI products are preferable for retail and display applications where improved color quality is of real value. Higher 

CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• The total installed cost is the price of a lamp, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated with the installation, except for in the case of LED replacement lamps which 

are sold only as a replacement for use in an existing fixture. Many factors influence the price of LED lamps including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. 

• Annual maintenance costs are the cost of labor for replacing the lamps and the cost of the replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp life and the 

annual operating hours for commercial reflector lamps (DOE SSL Program, 2012a). 

• Commercial lighting disposal costs are estimated to be $0.12 per linear foot of fluorescent lamps, $1.50 per lamp for HID lamps, and $0.50 for CFLs (EPA, 2022).

Legislation:

• EPAct92 established minimum performance standards for some reflector lamps and provided exemptions for certain specialty applications (e.g., ER/BR, vibration service, more than 5% 

neodymium oxide, impact resistant, infrared heat, colored). EPAct92 effectively phased-out R-shaped tungsten filament incandescent reflector lamps at certain wattages and bulb diameters, 

replacing them with more efficient and cost effective tungsten-halogen parabolic aluminized reflector (PAR) lamps. EISA2007 took away certain exemptions from EPACT 1992, requiring 

certain previously exempted lamps to meet EPAct92 minimum performance standards by January 1, 2008. In 2015, DOE issued a final rule that determined that amending the standards for 

incandescent reflector lamps could not be economically justified. 

• In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress prescribed in the Energy Policy and Conservation 

Act. This action also amended the definition of general service lamps to include previously exempted product classes, such as reflector lamps. These standards can not be achieved by 

traditional incandescent or halogen technologies currently on the market, and given current and projected trends in industry,they will likely not be met. It is currently assumed that industry 

will increase its investment in LED technology at the expense of incandescent, halogen, and CFL technologies. The rule will go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for 

retail and distribution in July 2023.
Final

31

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reflector Lamps in Recessed Can Fixtures

ENERGY STAR:

• For ENERGY STAR qualification, general service reflector lamps must have a minimum lamp efficacy of 61 lm/W for products with CRI ≥ 90 and 70 lm/W for lamps with CRI < 90. 

Additionally, the lamps must have a CRI ≥ 80, nominal CCT of 2,700, 3,000, 3,500, 4,000/4,100, 5,000, or 6,000 K, and rated lifetime ≥ 10,000 hours (ENERGY STAR).

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2030, 2040, and 2050. We assume manufacturers will focus would be on improving efficacy, lifetime, 

and price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of 

conventional lighting technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of 

performance improvement) to the emergence of a new light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and 

fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2019).

• For LED technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2050. 

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Incandescent 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements.

Halogen 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature and the technology cannot meet legislative requirements 

as of 2022

CFL +0.5% 0% -0.5% In addition to higher efficiency reflector coatings, improvements in efficacy can be made by using 

more rare-earth phosphors in compact fluorescent lamps. Lifetime improvements can be made by 

improving the compact fluorescent lamp electrodes.
Final

32

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial LED Reflector Lighting (PAR38)

Higher efficacy compared with Reference Case

DATA

2012 2018 2022 20232 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR3 Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 17.2 16.6 17.0 16.4 17.0 22.0 29.9 14.0 11.2 9.4 9.8 8.4 8.7

Lamp Lumens 1,045 1,210 1,200 1,344 1,700 1,344 1,344 1,344 1,700 1,344 1,700 1,344 1,700

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 60.9 73.0 70.6 82.0 100.0 61.0 45.0 95.7 151.7 142.4 173.6 160.2 195.3

System Wattage 17.2 16.6 17.0 16.4 17.0 22.0 29.9 14.0 11.2 9.4 9.8 8.4 8.7

System Lumens1 972 1,125 1,116 1,250 1,581 1,250 1,250 1,250 1,581 1,250 1,581 1,250 1,581

System Efficacy (lm/W) 56.6 67.9 65.6 76.1 93.0 56.7 41.9 89.0 141.1 132.4 161.4 149.0 181.6

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 83 83 82 86 82 80 N/A 86 82 86 82 86 82

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3,000 3,000 2,700 3,000 3,000 3,000 N/A 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 22 15 25 28 25 25 N/A 28 25 28 25 28 25

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,928 4,928 4,928 4,928 4,928 N/A N/A 4,928 4,928 4,928 4,928 4,928 4,928

Lamp Price (2022$) $61.98 $28.10 $23.71 $23.09 $15.69 N/A N/A $19.40 $13.18 $17.36 $11.79 $15.37 $10.45

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) $23.72 $26.38 $22.07 $22.07 $22.07 N/A N/A $21.20 $21.20 $20.17 $20.17 $19.18 $19.18

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $59.31 $23.23 $19.76 $17.18 $9.23 N/A N/A $14.43 $7.75 $12.91 $6.94 $11.44 $6.14

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $88.18 $48.42 $41.02 $36.13 $23.88 N/A N/A $32.48 $21.75 $30.02 $20.22 $27.64 $18.74 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 N/A N/A $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 N/A N/A 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 N/A N/A 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $162.93 $131.71 $111.78 $111.16 $103.76 N/A N/A $106.60 $100.38 $103.52 $97.96 $100.55 $95.63 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $14.75 $10.50 $5.32 $4.64 $3.74 N/A N/A $3.99 $3.25 $3.64 $2.98 $3.29 $2.71

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $167.64 $117.04 $100.16 $88.92 $65.63 N/A N/A $85.28 $63.49 $82.81 $61.96 $80.44 $60.48 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $15.17 $9.33 $4.77 $3.72 $2.37 N/A N/A $3.20 $2.05 $2.91 $1.88 $2.63 $1.71

1. Based on a fixture efficiency of 93% for an omnidirectional lamp installed in a recessed can fixture.

2. In April 2022, DOE codified into the Code of Federal Regulations the 45 lm/W backstop requirement for general service lamps that Congress presedin the Energy Policy and Conservation Act. The new minimum 

efficacy requirements go into effect for manufacture and import in January 2023 and for retail and distribution in July 2023. This Final Rule also amended the definition of GSLs to include previously exempted product 

classes, including reflector lamps. All LED lighting products exceed the new minimum efficacy standards.

3. Criteria outlined in ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs): Eligibility Criteria Version 2.1 (Published June, 2017, Revised June 2020)
Final

33

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 4-foot Linear 2-Lamp Lighting Systems

This section characterizes commercial linear fixtures that house two 4ft long linear lamps and their integrated luminaire equivalents. The technologies available for this system are linear 

fluorescent and LED. 

• Linear fluorescent options are T5, T8, and T12 lamps. T5 lamps are approximately 40% narrower than T8 lamps and almost 60% narrower than T12 lamps. This narrowness allows T5 lamps 

to be coated with higher quality, more efficient phosphor blends than larger diameter lamps, resulting in a more efficacious lamp. The compact size of T5 lamps also permits greater flexibility 

in lighting design and construction.

• LED options for linear fixtures include replacement lamps that can fit directly into an existing fixture and fully integratedluminaires that can be used to replace existing fixtures. LED 

replacement lamps are also known as TLEDs. Type A TLEDs can be installed with existing ballasts and Type B and C TLEDs require the ballast to be disconnected. Replacement lamps are 

only sold to go into existing fixtures. If a new fixture is to be installed, a fully integrated LED luminaire is a more cost effective and efficient option. Because LED luminaires are fully 

integrated, they do not have lamp and fixture efficiency losses associated with ballasts and fixture optics. For all lamp technologies, an annual fixture renovation rate of 10% (i.e., 10-year 

fixture service life) is used to reflect the proportion of equipment that retires each year.

Performance: 

• Linear lamps often have a nominal CCT rating of 3,500K, but products with CCTs of 3,000K, 4,000K, and 4,100K (neutral white) are also common. 5,000K (daylight) lamps are available as 

well. When replacing a light bulb, it is important to choose a product with a similar CCT value to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100, but CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average around 80. CRI 

values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination, with high CRI products being preferable for retail and display applications where improved color quality is of real value. 

Higher CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these very specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• The total installed cost is the price of two lamps, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated withthe installation, except for in the case of LED replacement lamp, 

which are sold only as a replacement for use in an existing fixture. There are integrated LED luminaires that are more efficient and cost effective for new installations or fixture retrofits. 

Many factors influence the price of LED lamps, including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore, typical lamp prices in 2022, reflecting a mix of lamp characteristics 

and features, were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• Annual maintenance costs are the cost of labor for replacing the lamps and the cost of the replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp life and 

the annual operating hours of 4055 hours per year for commercial 4ft linear systems (DOE SSL Program, 2012a). 

• Commercial lighting disposal costs are estimated to be $0.12 per linear foot of fluorescent lamps, $1.50 per lamp for HID lamps, and $0.50 for CFLs (EPA, 2022).

Legislation:

• Beginning July 14, 2012 (or July 14, 2014, for T8 700-series phosphor lamps), DOE fluorescent lamp standards required a minimum efficacy of 89 lm/W. Although the amended performancebased standards do not explicitly prohibit T12 lamps, no T12 lamps met the standard at the time of its announcement. Since then,however, T12 lamps meeting the standard have entered the 

market.

• California's Title 24 mandates the use of electronic ballasts with high efficacy luminaires (including fluorescent) of 13 W or higher (CEC, 2005).

ENERGY STAR:

• ENERGY STAR does not cover commercial linear luminaires (ENERGY STAR, 2020). 
Final

34

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 4-foot Linear 2-Lamp Lighting Systems

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2030, 2040, and 2050. We assume that manufacturers will focus on improving efficacy, lifetime, and 

price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of 

conventional lighting technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of 

performance improvement) to the emergence of a new light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and 

fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2019).

• For LED technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2050. 

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

T8 F32 Commodity 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.

T8 F32 High Efficiency/High Output 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.

T5 F28 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.
Final

35

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 4-ft Linear LED Replacement Lamp in 2-Lamp System

1. N/A because a fixture and an LED replacement lamp would not be purchased separately for a new installation or retrofit when there are integrated LED luminaires that are more efficient 

and cost effective. These lamps are sold only as replacements to go into existing fixtures.

Higher efficacy compared with Reference Case

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 20.8 17.0 16.0 13.7 11.0 8.9 7.2 7.7 7.2 7.7 7.2

Lamp Lumens 2,091 2,003 1,800 1,920 1,800 1,920 1,800 1,920 1,800 1,920 1,800

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 100.5 117.8 112.5 140.1 163.6 216.1 250.0 250.0 250.0 250.0 250.0

System Wattage 41.6 34.0 32.0 27.4 22.0 17.8 14.4 15.4 14.4 15.4 14.4

System Lumens 3,555 3,565 3,456 3,686 3,456 3,686 3,456 3,686 3,456 3,686 3,456

System Efficacy (lm/W) 85.4 104.9 108.0 134.5 157.1 207.4 240.0 240.0 240.0 240.0 240.0

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 86 81 82 81 80 81 80 81 80 81 80

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4,100 4,020 4,100 3,500 5,000 3,500 5,000 3,500 5,000 3,500 5,000

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 50 54 50 54 50 54 50 54 50 54 50

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,055 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541 3,541

Lamp Price (2022$) $278.36 $35.06 $14.63 $11.11 $4.28 $9.88 $3.81 $9.66 $3.72 $9.44 $3.64 

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) $133.10 $17.50 $8.13 $5.79 $2.38 $5.15 $2.11 $5.03 $2.07 $4.92 $2.02 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hours) 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $587.35 $70.12 $29.26 $22.22 $8.56 $19.76 $7.61 $19.31 $7.44 $18.89 $7.28 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $47.63 $6.61 $3.93 $3.17 $2.46 $3.01 $2.39 $2.98 $2.38 $2.95 $2.37 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $165.20 $19.67 $8.47 $6.03 $2.48 $5.36 $2.20 $5.24 $2.15 $5.12 $2.11 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $13.40 $1.85 $1.14 $0.86 $0.71 $0.82 $0.69 $0.81 $0.69 $0.80 $0.69 
Final

36

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 4-ft Linear LED Luminaire to Replace 2-Lamp Systems

Higher efficacy compared with Reference Case

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage 51.5 50.0 49.0 44.0 35.0 27.4 21.8 23.0 19.2 21.2 19.2

System Lumens 4,818 4,673 5,024 5,302 4,800 5,302 4,800 5,302 4,800 5,302 4,800

System Efficacy (lm/W) 93.6 93.5 102.5 120.5 137.1 193.4 220.1 230.4 250.0 250.0 250.0

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 84 79 80 79 80 79 80 79 80 79 80

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 3,500 3,650 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500

Average Lifetime (thousand hours) 67 53 54 53 50 53 50 53 50 53 50

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,055 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431

Lamp or Luminaire Price (2022$) $723.96 $188.00 $144.85 $152.54 $207.80 $127.58 $173.80 $118.37 $161.25 $109.57 $149.27 

Ballast Price (2022$) 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $150.25 $40.23 $57.66 $57.54 $86.58 $24.06 $36.21 $22.33 $33.59 $20.67 $31.10 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Labor Lamp Change (hours) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $762.57 $226.61 $322.70 $338.08 $448.60 $160.58 $206.80 $151.37 $194.25 $142.57 $182.27 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $46.16 $14.67 $11.30 $12.01 $16.52 $10.40 $14.19 $9.80 $13.33 $9.23 $12.51 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $158.27 $48.49 $64.23 $63.76 $93.46 $30.29 $43.08 $28.55 $40.47 $26.89 $37.97 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $9.58 $3.14 $2.25 $2.27 $3.44 $1.96 $2.96 $1.85 $2.78 $1.74 $2.61 

1. N/A because the lamp and fixture are both included in the luminaire.
Final

37

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 8-foot Linear 2-Lamp Lighting Systems

This section characterizes commercial linear fixtures that house two 8ft long linear lamps and their integrated luminaire equivalents. The technologies available for this system are linear 

fluorescent and LED. 

• Linear fluorescent options are T5, T8, and T12 lamps. T5 lamps are approximately 40% narrower than T8 lamps and almost 60% narrower than T12 lamps. This narrowness allows T5 lamps 

to be coated with higher quality, more efficient phosphor blends than larger diameter lamps, resulting in a more efficacious lamp. The compact size of T5 lamps also permits greater flexibility 

in lighting design and construction.

• LED options for linear fixtures include replacement lamps that can fit directly into an existing fixture and fully integratedluminaires that can be used to replace existing fixtures. LED 

replacement lamps are also known as TLEDs. Type A TLEDs can be installed with existing ballasts and Type B and C TLEDs require the ballast to be disconnected. Replacement lamps are 

only sold to go into existing fixtures. If a new fixture is to be installed, a fully integrated LED luminaire is a more cost effective and efficient option. Because LED luminaires are fully 

integrated, they do not have lamp and fixture efficiency losses associated with ballasts and fixture optics. For all lamp technologies, an annual fixture renovation rate of 10% (i.e., 10-year 

fixture service life) is used to reflect the proportion of equipment that retires each year.

Performance: 

• Linear lamps often have a nominal CCT rating of 3,500K, but products with CCTs of 3,000K, 4,000K, and 4,100K (neutral white) are also common. 5,000K (daylight) lamps are available as 

well. When replacing a light bulb, it is important to choose a product with a similar CCT value to achieve the same look. 

• Incandescent and halogen lamps have perfect color rendering with a CRI value of 100, but CFL and LEDs products commonly fall between 70 and 90 CRI, with an average around 80. CRI 

values of 80 are considered suitable for general illumination, with high CRI products being preferable for retail and display applications where improved color quality is of real value. 

Higher CRI is not expected to be a focus for future LED products except for these very specific retail and display applications.

Cost: 

• The total installed cost is the price of two lamps, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated withthe installation, except for in the case of LED replacement lamps, 

which are sold only as a replacement for use in an existing fixture. There are integrated LED luminaires that are more efficient and cost effective for new installations or fixture retrofits. 

Many factors influence the price of LED lamps, including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore, typical lamp prices in 2022 reflecting a mix of lamp characteristics and 

features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• Annual maintenance costs are the cost of labor for replacing the lamps and the cost of the replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp life and 

the annual operating hours of 4147 hours per year for commercial 8ft linear systems (DOE SSL Program, 2012a). 

• Commercial lighting disposal costs are estimated to be $0.12 per linear foot of fluorescent lamps, $1.50 per lamp for HID lamps, and $0.50 for CFLs (EPA, 2022).

Legislation:

• Beginning July 14, 2012 (or July 14, 2014, for T8 700-series phosphor lamps), DOE fluorescent lamp standards required a minimum efficacy of 89 lm/W. Although the amended performancebased standards do not explicitly prohibit T12 lamps, no T12 lamps met the standard at the time of its announcement. Since then,however, T12 lamps meeting the standard have entered the 

market.

• California's Title 24 mandates the use of electronic ballasts with high efficacy luminaires (including fluorescent) of 13 W or higher (CEC, 2005).

ENERGY STAR:

• ENERGY STAR does not cover commercial linear luminaires (ENERGY STAR, 2020). 
Final

38

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 8-foot Linear 2-Lamp Lighting Systems

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2030, 2040, and 2050. We assume that manufacturers will focus on improving efficacy, lifetime, and 

price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of 

conventional lighting technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of 

performance improvement) to the emergence of a new light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and 

fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2019).

• For LED technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2050: 

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

T8 F59 Typical Efficiency 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.

T8 F59 High Efficiency 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.

T8 F96 High Output 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.
Final

39

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 8-ft Linear LED Replacement Lamp for a 2-Lamp System

1. N/A because a fixture and an LED replacement lamp would not be purchased separately for a new installation or retrofit when there are integrated LED luminaires that are more efficient and cost 

effective. These lamps are sold only as replacements to go into existing fixtures.

Higher efficacy compared with Reference Case

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage N/A 35.7 34.0 39.0 40.0 25.3 25.9 21.9 22.4 19.8 22.0

Lamp Lumens N/A 3,975 4,200 4,960 5,500 4,960 5,500 4,960 5,500 4,960 5,500

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) N/A 111.2 123.5 127.2 137.5 196.1 212.0 226.7 245.1 250.0 250.0

System Wattage N/A 71.5 68.0 78.0 80.0 50.6 51.9 43.8 44.9 39.7 44.0

System Lumens N/A 7,473 8,064 9,523 10,560 9,523 10,560 9,523 10,560 9,523 10,560

System Efficacy (lm/W) N/A 104.5 118.6 122.1 132.0 188.2 203.5 217.7 235.3 240.0 240.0

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI N/A 80 82 81 82 81 82 81 82 81 82

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) N/A 5,000 4,000 4,000 5,000 4,000 5,000 4,000 5,000 4,000 5,000

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) N/A 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) N/A 4,147 4,147 4,147 4,147 4,147 4,147 4,147 4,147 4,147 4,147

Lamp Price (2022$) N/A $89.59 $33.11 $37.22 $41.44 $32.35 $36.02 $31.71 $35.30 $31.11 $34.64 

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) N/A $19.00 $7.88 $7.50 $7.53 $6.52 $6.55 $6.39 $6.42 $6.27 $6.30 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

1 N/A $23.98 $8.21 $7.82 $7.85 $6.79 $6.82 $6.66 $6.69 $6.53 $6.56 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) N/A $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours)1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hours) N/A 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3

Total Installed Cost (2022$) N/A $200.80 $84.70 $92.92 $101.36 $83.18 $90.52 $81.90 $89.09 $80.70 $87.76 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) N/A $16.65 $7.02 $7.71 $8.41 $6.90 $7.51 $6.79 $7.39 $6.69 $7.28 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) N/A $50.51 $10.50 $9.76 $9.60 $8.73 $8.57 $8.60 $8.44 $8.47 $8.31 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) N/A $4.19 $0.87 $0.81 $0.80 $0.72 $0.71 $0.71 $0.70 $0.70 $0.69 
Final

40

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial 8-ft Linear LED Luminaire Replacement for a 2-Lamp System

Higher efficacy compared with Reference Case

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage N/A 73.0 90.0 78.0 72.0 49.7 45.9 42.4 41.6 37.9 41.6

System Lumens N/A 8,000 8,200 9,465 10,400 9,465 10,400 9,465 10,400 9,465 10,400

System Efficacy (lm/W) N/A 109.6 91.1 121.3 144.4 190.4 226.7 223.1 250.0 250.0 250.0

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI N/A 90 80 81 80 81 80 81 80 81 80

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) N/A 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000

Average Lifetime (thousand hours) N/A 75 50 73 100 73 100 73 100 73 100

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) N/A 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431 3,431

Lamp or Luminaire Price (2022$) N/A $759.16 $119.99 $142.48 $153.91 $109.90 $118.71 $96.00 $103.70 $82.68 $89.31 

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) N/A $80.00 $14.63 $15.05 $14.80 $11.61 $11.41 $10.14 $9.97 $8.73 $8.59 

Labor Cost (2022$/h) N/A $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) N/A 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3

Labor Lamp Change (hours) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) N/A $708.20 $206.52 $229.01 $240.44 $196.42 $205.24 $182.53 $190.23 $169.20 $175.83 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) N/A $39.16 $22.40 $17.46 $13.53 $14.40 $11.11 $13.09 $10.08 $11.84 $9.10 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) N/A $88.53 $25.18 $24.20 $23.12 $20.75 $19.73 $19.28 $18.29 $17.88 $16.91 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) N/A $4.89 $2.73 $1.84 $1.30 $1.52 $1.07 $1.38 $0.97 $1.25 $0.87 
Final

41

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Low-Bay Lighting Systems

The commercial low bay lighting characterized in this report is a one-lamp and one-ballast system in a low/high bay fixture that emits between 6,000 and 10,000 system lumens. Low 

bay lighting is defined as “interior lighting where the roof trusses or ceiling height is less than 25ft. above the floor”(IESNA, 2000). For all lamp technologies, an annual fixture 

renovation rate of 10% (i.e., 10-year fixture service life) is used to reflect the proportion of equipment that retires each year.

Performance: 

• Low bay conventional lighting technologies, such as metal halide and sodium vapor lamps, provide higher efficacy ranging from 80 lm/W to 100 lm/W. Older, mercury vapor 

lamps have much lower efficacy at approximately 40 lm/W.

• CCT and CRI values range broadly based on technology type for low bay products.

Cost: 

• The total installed cost is the price of a lamp, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated with the installation, except for in the case of LED luminaires, 

which are sold as one integrated system. Many factors influence the price of LED luminaires, including CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore, typical 

luminaire prices in 2022 reflecting a mix of lamp characteristics and features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• Annual maintenance costs are the cost of labor for replacing the lamps and the cost of the replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp 

life and the annual operating hours for commercial low-bay systems (DOE SSL Program, 2012a). 

• Commercial lighting disposal costs are estimated to be $0.12 per linear foot of fluorescent lamps, $1.50 per lamp for HID lamps, and $0.50 for CFLs (EPA, 2022).

ENERGY STAR:

• ENERGY STAR does not cover low/high bay luminaires (ENERGY STAR, 2012). 
Final

42

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Low-Bay Lighting Systems

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2030, 2040, and 2050. We assume manufacturers will focus would be on improving efficacy, lifetime, 

and price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of 

conventional lighting technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of 

performance improvement) to the emergence of a new light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and 

fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2019).

• For LED technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2050. 

Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Mercury Vapor 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.

Metal Halide 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.

Sodium Vapor 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.
Final

43

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial LED Low-Bay Luminaire

Higher efficacy compared with Reference Case

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage 68.1 84.0 40.0 73.0 76.0 47.1 49.0 40.5 48.0 40.0 48.0

System Lumens 4,877 10,000 5,000 10,000 12,000 10,000 12,000 10,000 12,000 10,000 12,000

System Efficacy (lm/W) 71.6 119.0 125.0 137.0 157.9 212.5 244.9 246.7 250.0 250.0 250.0

Ballast Efficiency N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 85 78 84 81 80 81 84 81 84 81 81

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 4,000 4,806 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 4,000

Average Lifetime (thousand hours) 50 74 75 65 60 65 60 65 60 65 60

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042

Lamp or Luminaire Price (2022$) $903.82 $281.00 $63.99 $145.46 $285.89 $123.82 $243.37 $111.24 $218.63 $99.09 $194.75 

Ballast Price (2022$) 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm)

1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $185.31 $28.10 $12.80 $14.55 $23.82 $12.38 $20.28 $11.12 $18.22 $9.91 $16.23

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

Labor Lamp Change (hours) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $865.44 $396.83 $162.99 $244.46 $384.89 $222.82 $342.37 $210.24 $317.63 $198.09 $293.75 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $69.95 $37.02 $12.23 $24.24 $45.18 $21.55 $39.45 $19.99 $36.12 $18.48 $32.90 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $177.44 $39.68 $32.60 $24.45 $32.07 $22.28 $28.53 $21.02 $26.47 $19.81 $24.48 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $14.34 $3.70 $2.45 $2.42 $3.77 $2.16 $3.29 $2.00 $3.01 $1.85 $2.74 

1. N/A because the lamp and fixture are both included in the luminaire.
Final

44

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial High-Bay Lighting Systems

The commercial high-bay lighting characterized in this report is a one-lamp and one-ballast system in a low/high bay fixture that emits greater than 10,000 system lumens. High-bay 

lighting is defined as “interior lighting where the roof trusses or ceiling height is greater than 25ft. above the floor” (IESNA, 2000). For all lamp technologies, an annual fixture 

renovation rate of 10% (i.e., 10-year fixture service life) is used to reflect the proportion of equipment that retires each year.

Performance: 

• High bay conventional lighting technologies, such as metal halide and sodium vapor lamps, provide higher efficacy ranging from 80 lm/W to 100 lm/W. Older, mercury vapor 

lamps have much lower efficacy at approximately 40 lm/W.

• CCT and CRI values range broadly based on technology type for high bay products.

Cost: 

• The total installed cost is the price of a lamp, ballast (if applicable), and fixture plus the cost for labor associated with the installation, except for in the case of LED luminaires, 

which are sold as one integrated system. Many factors influence the price of LED luminaires including, CRI, lifetime, dimming capabilities, and efficacy. Therefore, typical 

luminaire prices in 2022 reflecting a mix of lamp characteristics and features were used as the basis for projections for both typical and high efficacy products in the future. 

• Annual maintenance costs are the cost of labor for replacing the lamps and the cost of the replacement lamp itself. The frequency at which lamps are replaced is a function of lamp 

life and the annual operating hours for commercial high bay systems (DOE SSL Program, 2012a). 

• Commercial lighting disposal costs are estimated to be $0.12 per linear foot of fluorescent lamps, $1.50 per lamp for HID lamps, and $0.50 for CFLs (EPA, 2022).

ENERGY STAR:

• ENERGY STAR does not cover low/high bay luminaires (ENERGY STAR, 2012). 
Final

45

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial High-Bay Lighting Systems

Future Performance Improvements:

• Projections were provided for both typical and high performing products for 2030, 2040, and 2050. We assume manufacturers will focus would be on improving efficacy, lifetime 

and price for products at constant CRI and CCT values. 

• Due to continued R&D investment, competition from LED lighting products, and general market demand for cost-effective lighting, the performance and cost characteristics of 

conventional lighting technologies are expected to improve over the analysis period. However, the ability of these conventional technologies to react rapidly (in terms of 

performance improvement) to the emergence of a new light source such as LED lighting is relatively small because these are mature technologies (particularly incandescent and 

fluorescent) and established market competitors (Navigant, 2019).

• For LED technology, efficacy, lifetime, and price improvements were based on the model described in the Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019). For traditional technologies, the following future improvements were assumed to occur year over year through 2050. 

Efficacy Lifetime Price Potential for Improvements

Mercury Vapor 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.

Metal Halide 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.

Sodium Vapor 0% 0% -0.5% Limited because the technology is mature.
Final

46

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial LED High-Bay Luminaire

Higher efficacy compared with Reference Case

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage1

N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Lumens1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System Wattage 212 167 150 138 130 89 84 76 76 74 76

System Lumens 18,915 18,797 18,500 18,500 18,900 18,500 18,900 18,500 18,900 18,500 18,900

System Efficacy (lm/W) 89 113 123 134 145 208 225 242 250 250 250

Ballast Efficiency N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

CRI 74 78 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000

Average Lifetime (thousand hours) 70 67 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042 4,042

Lamp or Luminaire Price (2022$) $2,842.05 $448.43 $177.54 $195.81 $234.20 $162.12 $193.90 $148.87 $178.06 $136.20 $162.90

Ballast Price (2022$) 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm)

1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) $150.25 $23.86 $9.60 $10.58 $12.39 $8.76 $10.26 $8.05 $9.42 $7.36 $8.62

Labor Cost (2022$/h) $77.22 $77.22 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 $66.00 

Labor System Installation (hours) 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

Labor Lamp Change (hours) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $2,957.88 $564.26 $276.54 $294.81 $333.20 $261.12 $292.90 $247.87 $277.06 $235.20 $261.90 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $170.78 $34.07 $11.18 $11.91 $13.47 $10.55 $11.84 $10.02 $11.20 $9.51 $10.58 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm) $156.38 $30.02 $14.95 $15.94 $17.63 $14.11 $15.50 $13.40 $14.66 $12.71 $13.86 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm) $9.03 $1.81 $0.60 $0.64 $0.71 $0.57 $0.63 $0.54 $0.59 $0.51 $0.56 

1. N/A because the lamp and fixture are both included in the luminaire.
Final

Refrigeration

47
Final

48

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Compressor Rack Systems

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Total Capacity (kBtu/h)1 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,190 930 N/A 1,190 930 1,190 930 1,190 930

Median Store Size (ft2

) 46,500 31,997 35,197 35,197 35,197 N/A 35,197 35,197 35,197 35,197 35,197 35,197

Power Input (kW) 162 155 162 160 125 N/A 160 125 160 125 160 125

Annual Energy Use (MMWh/y)2 1,497 1,497 1,305 1,232 1,160 N/A 1,109 1,044 998 939 898 845

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.00 1.15 1.21 1.29 N/A 1.35 1.43 1.50 1.59 1.67 1.77

Average Life (years) 15 15 15 15 15 N/A 15 15 15 15 15 15

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $630,000 $630,000 $488,000 $625,000 $630,000 N/A $625,000 $630,000 $625,000 $630,000 $625,000 $630,000 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) $525,000 $525,000 $406,667 $525,210 $677,419 N/A $525,210 $677,419 $525,210 $677,419 $525,210 $677,419 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)4 $3,400 $3,400 $3,400 $3,400 $3,400 N/A $3,400 $3,400 $3,400 $3,400 $3,400 $3,400 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) $2,833 $2,833 $2,833 $2,857 $3,656 N/A $2,857 $3,656 $2,857 $3,656 $2,857 $3,656

1. The total capacity represents the nominal compressor capacity required for the entire refrigeration system of a typical supermarket. This refrigeration system usually includes two low 

temperature racks and two medium temperature racks. For 2018, a 1,200 MBtu/h total cooling capacity is based on a 200-ton estimate for total capacity–80 tons for the medium temperature 

racks and 20 tons for the low temperature racks.

2. Capacity and annual energy consumption for 2022 and beyond are based on market research and Guidehouse estimates.

3. Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2012 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2012 Energy Use) / (Energy Use).

4. Maintenance cost includes oil changes, bearing lubrication, filter replacement, and system functionality checks-approximately half a day per rack of labor for technician is assumed.

Lower annual energy use compared with Reference Case 
Final

49

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Compressor Rack Systems

• Commercial compressor rack systems that serve commercial supermarket display cases and walk-ins consist of a 

number of parallel-connected compressors located in a separate machine room. By modulating compressor capacity, 

these integrated systems provide higher efficiency and mechanical longevity.

• Rack integrators generally supply a packaged compressor rack for which much of the necessary piping, insulation, 

components, and controls are pre-assembled. 

• A typical supermarket will have 10 to 20 compressors mounted in racks in the 3-horsepower (hp) to 15-hp size range. 

Usually, each rack has three to five compressors serve a series of loads with nearly identical evaporator temperature.

• The duty cycle for compressors is usually in the range of 60% to 70%.

• Energy use and capacity for the Reference Case are projected to remain static over the coming decades because 

commercial compressor racks systems are a mature technology. The Reference Case assumes low R&D efforts because 

it is an established technology.

• For this Advanced Case, a 10% reduction in energy consumption is assumed to occur over the Reference Case for 

2022 and beyond due to vacuum insulated panel (VIP) adoption by display cases and a relaxation in charge size 

limits for more efficient, low global warming potential (GWP) refrigerants. Also, increased adoption of 

toxic/flammable refrigerants such as ammonia and propane due to improved safety technology such as leak 

detection. 
Final

50

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Condensers

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Total Capacity (kBtu/h)1 1,680 1,520 1,440 1,440 1,440 N/A 1,440 1,368 1,300 1,300 1,235 1,235

Median Store Size (ft2

) 46,500 31,997 35,197 35,197 35,197 N/A 35,197 35,197 35,197 35,197 35,197 35,197

Power Input (kW) 25 25 18 18 18 N/A 18 18 18 18 18 18

Annual Energy Use (MMWh/y) 120 120 115 106 86 N/A 95 77 86 70 77 63

Indexed Annual Efficiency2 1.00 1.00 1.04 1.13 1.40 N/A 1.26 1.55 1.40 1.72 1.55 1.91

Average Life (years) 10 10 10 10 10 N/A 10 10 10 10 10 10

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $54,000 $60,000 $54,000 $60,000 $80,000 N/A $60,000 $80,000 $60,000 $80,000 $60,000 $80,000 

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) $32,143 $39,474 $37,500 $41,667 $55,556 N/A $41,667 $58,480 $46,168 $61,538 $48,598 $64,777 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)3 $954 $954 $954 $954 $954 N/A $954 $954 $954 $954 $954 $954 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) $0.57 $0.63 $0.66 $0.66 $0.66 N/A $0.66 $0.70 $0.73 $0.73 $0.77 $0.77

1. Total capacity is the total heat rejected (THR) by condensers comprised of two low temperature condensers (THRL = 240 MBtu/h each, suction temperature = -25°F, condensing 

temperature-110°F) and two medium temperature condensers (THRM = 520 MBtu/h each, suction temperature = 15°F, condensing temperature = 115°F); ambient temperature = 95°F. 

(NCI, 2009). For 2022 and beyond, capacity was estimated by Guidehouse.

2. Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2012 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2012 Energy Use) / (Energy Use).

3. Maintenance cost includes coil cleaning, leak checking, belt replacement as necessary, and system functionality checks.

Lower annual energy use compared with Reference Case 
Final

51

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Condensers

• Condensers are designed with multiple methods of cooling: air-cooled, water-cooled, and evaporative. These units 

can be single-circuit or a multiple circuit.

• Commercial condensers are remotely located, typically installed on the roof of a supermarket. 

• For use with parallel compressors in supermarkets, air-cooled units are the most commonly used condensers. This 

analysis is based on multiple air-cooled condensers connected to a supermarket refrigeration system comprised of 

two low temperature condensers and two medium temperature condensers. 

• Each compressor rack has a dedicated condenser or a separate circuit of a single common condenser. Condenser 

temperatures of multiple racks are often different. 

• The duty cycle for condensers is usually in the range 50%-70%.

• For this Advanced Case, a 10% reduction in energy consumption and a 5% reduction in required capacity is 

assumed to occur over the Reference Case for 2020 and beyond due to VIP adoption by display cases and a 

relaxation in charge size limits for more efficient, low GWP. Also, increased adoption of toxic/flammable 

refrigerants such as ammonia and propane due to improved safety technology such as leak detection. 
Final

52

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Supermarket Display Cases

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h) 17,623 11,850 11,850 11,850 11,850 N/A 11,850 11,850 11,850 11,850 11,850 11,850

Median Store Size (ft2

) 46,500 31,997 35,197 35,197 35,197 N/A 35,197 35,197 35,197 35,197 35,197 35,197

Case Length (ft) 12 12 12 12 12 N/A 12 12 12 12 12 12

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)1,2 13,497 10,506 10,506 9,771 9,087 N/A 9,282 8,632 8,818 8,201 8,377 7,791

Annual Energy Use / Case 

Length (kWh/ft) 1,125 876 876 814 757 N/A 774 719 735 683 698 649

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.28 1.28 1.38 1.49 N/A 1.45 1.56 1.53 1.65 1.61 1.73

Average Life (years) 10 10 10 10 10 N/A 10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) $8,510 $10,650 $7,265 $9,500 $10,680 N/A $9,500 $10,680 $9,500 $10,680 $9,500 $10,680 

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $10,811 $12,650 $9,265 $11,500 $12,680 N/A $11,500 $12,680 $11,500 $12,680 $11,500 $12,680 

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) 613 1,068 782 970 1,070 N/A 970 1,070 970 1,070 970 1,070

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)4 $940 $940 $940 $940 $940 N/A $940 $940 $940 $940 $940 $940 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) $53.34 $79.32 $79.32 $79.32 $79.32 N/A $79.32 $79.32 $79.32 $79.32 $79.32 $79.32

1. For 2022 and beyond, energy consumption and cost values were estimated using shipment-weighted averages reported in DOE’s 2014 CRE Final Rule Technical Support Document (TSD) 

for equipment commonly used as display cases. DOE’s updated conservation standard went into effect in 2017, so units sold in 2018 are assumed to comply with this standard. 

2. For consistency with DOE rulemaking practices, Supermarket Display Case Energy Use reported above includes energy use of the compressor racks and condensers. To avoid double 

counting, do not add Energy Use from the Compressor Rack or Condenser Systems tabs if calculating total energy consumption.

3. Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2012 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2012Energy Use) / (Energy Use).

4. Maintenance cost includes preventative maintenance costs such as cleaning evaporator coils, drain pans, fans, and intake screensas well as lamp replacements and other lighting 

maintenance activities. After 2012, these values are based on a reported maintenance and repair cost of $220 per unit for preventative maintenance plus approximately $60 per linear foot 

for additional repair and maintenance.

Lower annual energy use, increased installed cost compared with Reference Case 
Final

53

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Supermarket Display Cases

Equipment Description Standards Equation (2012) Standards Equation (2017)

Vertical Open Cooler (VOP.RC.M) 0.82xTDA+4.07 0.64xTDA+4.07

Semi-Vertical Open Cooler (SVO.RC.M) 0.83xTDA+3.18 0.66xTDA+3.18

Horizontal Open Cooler (HZO.RC.M) 0.35xTDA+2.88 0.35xTDA+2.88

Transparent-Doored Cooler (VCT.RC.M) 0.22xTDA+1.95 0.15xTDA+1.95

Deli Display Cooler (SOC.RC.M) 0.51xTDA+0.11 0.44xTDA+0.11

Transparent-Doored Freezer (VCT.RC.L) 0.56xTDA+2.61 0.49xTDA+2.61

Horizontal Open Freezer (HZO.RC.L) 0.57xTDA+6.88 0.55xTDA+6.88

• DOE set federal energy efficiency standards for Commercial Refrigeration Equipment (CRE) in 2009. These standards 

set maximum daily energy consumption levels, in kilowatt-hours per day, for display cases manufactured sold in the 

United States on or after January 1, 2012. 

• DOE updated its Energy Conservation Standards for Commercial Refrigeration Equipment in 2014 for equipment 

sold on or after March 27, 2017. 

• The table below lists equipment used as supermarket display cases and their corresponding Energy Conservation 

Standard levels. The maximum allowable daily energy consumption for each equipment class is a linear function of 

Total Display Area (TDA).
Final

54

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Supermarket Display Cases

• According to CBECS 2018 microdata, the average building size for food sale building type is 31,997.

• Unit energy consumption for 2022 and beyond is estimated using a shipment-weighted average by efficiency level and equipment 

class, using data in DOE’s 2014 CRE Final Rule TSD with updated analysis from Guidehouse in 2016. The equipment classes analyzed

are listed in the table on the previous slide.

• Supermarket refrigeration systems consist of refrigerated display cases, condensing units, and centralized compressor racks.

• A typical supermarket display case contains lighting, evaporators, evaporator fans, piping, insulation, valves, and controls.

• The efficiency of supermarket display cases can be increased through the use of improved evaporator coils, larger evaporators, higher 

efficiency evaporator fan blades, high efficiency doors, LED lighting, and improved insulation.

• For 2020 and beyond, accelerated adoption of energy savings technologies is assumed to take place more than in the Reference 

Case, including accelerated shipments migration to doored over open units, where applicable, as well as vacuum insulated panels.

• The incremental cost of VIPs is assumed to decrease from its present value due to increased R&D funding.

• Projected installed costs for this Advanced Case are higher than the Reference Case, even assuming increased R&D funding. 

Advanced energy-saving technologies are assumed to be made financially viable for operators by increased market incentives such 

as utility efficiency rebate programs and/or carbon pricing.

• This Advanced Case assumes a transition from Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC) to more efficient propane and ammonia refrigerants by 

2040.

• Advanced Case assumes a 5% reduction in energy use per decade based on technology and efficiency improvements.
Final

55

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reach-In Refrigerators

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR2 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h) 2,929 2,400 2,349 2,349 2,349 2,349 2,349 2,349 2,349 2,349 2,349 2,349

Size (ft3) 49 49 46 46 46 47 46 46 46 46 46 46

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y) 2,340 2,222 1,935 1,351 810 810 1,283 770 1,283 770 1,283 770

Annual Energy Use / Volume 

(kWh/y/ft3)

1 48 45 42 29 18 17 28 17 28 17 28 17

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.05 1.21 1.73 2.89 2.89 1.82 3.04 1.82 3.04 1.82 3.04

Average Life (years) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) $2,624 $2,403 $2,728 $2,780 $3,021 $3,021 $3,058 $3,323 $3,323 $3,364 $3,655 $3,655 

Total Installed Cost (2022$)4 $3,454 $3,282 $3,591 $3,643 $3,884 $3,884 $3,932 $4,197 $4,197 $4,238 $4,529 $4,529

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) $1,179 $1,368 $1,529 $1,551 $1,654 $1,654 $1,885 $2,568 $1,885 $2,568 $1,885 $2,568

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)5 $185 $185 $185 $185 $185 $185 $185 $185 $185 $185 $185 $185 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) $63 $77 $79 $79 $79 $79 $79 $79 $79 $79 $79 $79

1. EPACT 2005 energy standards went into effect in 2010. 2022 low efficiency cost and energy consumption values are based on minimum compliance with this standard. Unless otherwise 

noted, all other cases are based on shipment-weighted averages solid- and transparent-doored units reported in the 2014 CRE TSD.DOE’s updated Energy Conservation standards went into 

effect in 2017; therefore, compliance with this standard is assumed for 2022 and beyond. 

2. The ENERGY STAR category is based on a shipment weighted average of solid- and transparent-doored units that are minimally compliant with ENERGY STAR v3, effective October 1, 2014. 

Units compliant with ENERGY STAR are found to be the most efficient reach-in refrigeration equipment on the market in 2022.

3. Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2012 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2012 Energy Use) / (Energy Use).

4. Installation cost for 2012 is based on NCI 2009 report that assumes a cost of $863. Installation cost for 2022 and beyond is based DOE’s 2014 CRE Final Rule and additional analysis by 

Guidehouse, which assumes an installation cost of $878 for self-contained equipment.

5. Maintenance costs after 2012 are based on DOE's CRE 2014 Final Rule TSD, which reports $35 annual preventative maintenance, per unit, per year, plus approximately $40 per linear foot, per 

year of additional repair and maintenance costs for the units characterized.

Lower annual energy use, increased installed cost compared with Reference Case 
Final

• The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT 2005) set maximum daily energy consumption levels, in kilowatt-hours per 

day, for commercial reach-in refrigerators that went into effect on January 1, 2010. The daily energy consumption is 

based on the volume of the unit (V) in ft3.

• In 2014, DOE updated its energy conservation standards for reach-in refrigerators, effective March 27, 2017. Both 

standards are reported in the table below.

• In 2013, EPA updated its ENERGY STAR specifications for reach-in refrigerators, effective March 27, 2017. These 

standards are also based on the refrigerated volume of the unit.

56

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reach-In Refrigerators

Reach-In Refrigerator 

Size

0 < V < 15 15 ≤ V < 30 30 ≤ V < 50 50 ≤ V

Solid Door (VCS.SC.M) 0.022xV+0.97 0.066xV+0.31 0.04xV+1.09 0.024xV+1.89

Glass Door (VCT.SC.M) 0.095xV+0.445 0.05xV+1.12 0.076xV+0.034 0.105xV-1.111

Equipment Class EPCA Standard Level (2010) DOE Standard Level (2017)

Solid Door (VCS.SC.M) 0.10xV+2.04 0.05xV + 1.36

Glass Door (VCT.SC.M) 0.12xV+3.34 0.1xV+0.86
Final

• Unit energy consumption for 2012 and beyond was estimated based on shipment-weighted averages by efficiency level and 

equipment class for 49 ft3 VCS.SC.M and VCT.SC.M units reported in DOE’s 2014 CRE Final Rule TSD with updated analysis 

from Guidehouse in 2016. These units were estimated to comprise approximately 85% and 15% of total reach-in refrigerator 

shipments, respectively.

• The efficiency of commercial reach-in refrigerators can be increased through the use of efficient compressors, efficient evaporator 

fans, efficient condenser fans, electric defrost, and more efficient lighting.

• After 2022, the high efficiency cases are based on solid-doored units rather than shipment-weighted averages due to the 

assumption that stakeholders will increasingly value energy conservation.

• Unit energy consumption is expected to decrease as a result of DOE’s updated energy conservation standards, as well as a 

transition to more efficient propane refrigerant due to compliance with EPA Significant New Alternatives Policy (SNAP).

• For this Advanced Case, the typical unit in 2020 is assumed to comply with DOE’s updated energy conservation standards for 

commercial refrigeration.

• A shipments migration from transparent- to solid-doored units is assumed for the Advanced Case.

• By 2040, the adoption of vacuum insulated panels is assumed to occur, with the aid of decreased incremental costs due to 

increased R&D funding.

• Projected installed costs for this Advanced Case are higher than the Reference Case, even assuming increased R&D funding. 

Advanced energy-saving technologies are assumed to be made financially viable for operators by increased market incentives 

such as utility efficiency rebate programs and/or carbon pricing.

• This analysis finds that with increased R&D and market incentives for energy-efficient technologies, a limit of possible 

efficiency improvements for self-contained, vapor compression refrigeration systems will be reached by 2040. 

57

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reach-In Refrigerators
Final

58

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reach-In Freezers

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR2 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h) 4,341 4,340 4,340 4,340 4,340 4,340 4,340 4,340 4,340 4,340 4,340 4,340

Size (ft3) 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)1 6,023 5,585 5,585 4,847 4,110 4,110 4,362 3,699 3,926 3,329 3,533 2,996

Annual Energy Use / Volume (kWh/y/ft3) 123 114 114 99 84 84 89 75 80 68 72 61

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.08 1.08 1.24 1.47 1.47 1.38 1.63 1.53 1.81 1.70 2.01

Average Life (years) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) $2,886 $2,886 $2,886 $3,175 $3,493 $3,493 $3,493 $3,842 $3,842 $4,226 $4,226 $4,649 

Total Installed Cost (2022$)4 $3,749 $3,749 $3,749 $4,125 $4,443 $4,443 $4,443 $4,792 $4,792 $5,176 $5,176 $5,599

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) $864 $864 $864 $950 $1,024 $1,024 $1,024 $1,104 $1,104 $1,193 $1,193 $1,290

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)5 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 $181 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) $41.70 $41.71 $41.71 $41.71 $41.71 $41.71 $41.71 $41.71 $41.71 $41.71 $41.71 $41.71

1. A 49 ft3 unit was characterized, because it was the representative size selected for DOE’s rulemaking analysis. 

2. The ENERGY STAR category was based on a solid-doored unit that is minimally compliant with ENERGY STAR v3, effective October 1, 2014.

3. Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2012 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2012 Energy Use) / (Energy Use).

4. Installation cost for 2012 and 2018 is based on DOE’s on-going CRE rulemaking, which assumes a cost of $863 for self-contained equipment and $950 for 2022 and beyond based on analysis 

from Guidehouse.

5. Maintenance costs are calculated based on a $35 per unit annual preventative maintenance cost, plus an additional $45 per linearfoot repair and maintenance cost estimated based on values 

reported in the CRE TSD.

Lower annual energy use, increased installed cost compared with Reference Case 
Final

• EPACT 2005 set maximum daily energy consumption levels, in kilowatt-hours per day, for commercial reach-in 

freezers that went into effect on January 1, 2010. The daily energy consumption is based on the volume of the unit (V) 

in ft3. 

• In March of 2017, DOE updated its energy conservation standards for commercial refrigeration equipment, including 

reach-in freezers. Both the EPCA and DOE standards are reported in the table below.

• In 2013, EPA updated its ENERGY STAR specifications for reach-in freezers, effective March 27, 2017. These standards 

are also based on the refrigerated volume of the unit.

59

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reach-In Freezers

Reach-In Freezer Size 0 < V < 15 15 ≤ V < 30 30 ≤ V < 50 50 ≤ V

Solid Door (VCS.SC.L) 0.21xV+0.9 0.12xV+2.248 0.285xV-2.703 0.142xV+4.445

Glass Door (VCT.SC.L) 0.232xV+2.36 0.232xV+2.36 0.232xV+2.36 0.232xV+2.36

Equipment Class EPCA (2010) DOE Standard Level (2017)

Solid Door (VCS.SC.L) 0.4xV+1.38 0.22xV+1.38

Transparent Door (VCT.SC.L) 0.75xV+4.10 0.29xV+2.95
Final

• The commercial reach-in freezer characterized in this report, which is the typical unit according to DOE’s 2014 CRE 

rulemaking, is a 49 cubic ft. solid two-door unit with a nominal compressor size of 4,341 Btu/h. 

• The efficiency of commercial reach-in freezers can be increased through the use of efficient compressors, efficient 

evaporator fans, efficient condenser fans, electric defrost, and more efficient lighting.

• Unit energy consumption for reach-in freezers is expected to decrease as a result of DOE’s updated energy 

conservation standards, as well as a transition to more efficient propane refrigerant due to EPA SNAP compliance. 

• The typical unit in 2020 is assumed to comply with DOE’s updated energy conservation standards for commercial 

refrigeration.

• By 2040, the adoption of vacuum insulated panels is assumed to occur, with the aid of decreased incremental costs 

due to increased R&D funding.

• Projected installed costs for this Advanced Case are higher than the Reference Case, even assuming increased R&D 

funding. Advanced energy-saving technologies are assumed to be made financially viable for operators by increased 

market incentives such as utility efficiency rebate programs.

• This analysis finds that with increased R&D and market incentives for energy-efficient technologies, a limit of 

possible efficiency improvements for self-contained, vapor compression refrigeration systems will be reached by 

2040. 

60

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Reach-In Freezers
Final

61

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Refrigerators

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/hr)

1 37,820 39,422 41,024 41,024 41,024 N/A 41,024 41,024 41,024 41,024 41,024 41,024

Size (ft2

) 305 240 240 240 240 N/A 240 240 240 240 240 240

Annual Energy Use (kWh/yr) 2 30,689 20,040 17,600 16,200 14,800 N/A 14,580 13,320 13,122 11,988 11,810 10,789

Annual Energy Use / Area (kWh/ft2

/yr) 101 84 73 68 62 N/A 61 56 55 50 49 45

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.53 1.74 1.89 2.07 N/A 2.10 2.30 2.34 2.56 2.60 2.84

Insulated Box Average Life (yrs) 12 12 12 12 12 N/A 12 12 12 12 12 12

Compressor Average Life (yrs) 10 10 10 10 10 N/A 10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) $23,598 $19,847 $16,050 $19,847 $23,644 N/A $16,050 $23,644 $16,050 $23,644 $16,050 $23,644 

Total Installed Cost (2022$)4 $27,012 $23,897 $20,100 $23,897 $27,694 N/A $20,100 $27,694 $20,100 $27,694 $20,100 $27,694 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/hr) $714 $606 $490 $583 $675 N/A $490 $675 $490 $675 $490 $675 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)5 $716 $740 $740 $740 $740 N/A $740 $740 $740 $740 $740 $740

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/hr) $18.93 $18.77 $18.04 $18.04 $18.04 N/A $18.04 $18.04 $18.04 $18.04 $18.04 $18.04

1. Assumes medium temperature units are refrigerators.

2. Average unit energy consumption was adapted from the DOE CRE 2016 report by assuming electronically commutated motor (ECM) evaporator fan motors are required for Energy Policy & 

Conservation Act (EPCA) compliance, as well as ECM condenser fan motors.

3. Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2012 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2012 Energy Use) / (Energy Use).

4. Installation cost for 2012 and beyond is based on DOE’s Walk-In Technical Support Document (TSD).

5. Maintenance cost includes checking and maintaining refrigerant charge levels, checking settings, and cleaning heat exchanger coils.

Lower annual energy use compared with Reference Case 
Final

62

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Refrigerators

• For 2012 and beyond, the unit characterized was a walk-in storage cooler, based on DOE’s WICF TSD.

• A typical walk-in refrigerator includes:

- insulated floor and wall panels

- merchandising doors, shelving, and lighting (not included in cost estimate)

- semi-hermetic reciprocating compressor

- refrigerant (R404A)

- condenser

- evaporator

• Energy consumption is assumed to scale with the AWEF (Annual Walk-in Energy Factor), defined as the ratio of total 

heat removed from the refrigerated volume per year to the total electrical energy input of refrigeration systems over 

the same time period. 

• The installation cost consists of freight and delivery costs in addition to on-site assembly.

• This Advanced Case assumes a projected 10% decrease in energy consumption over the Reference Case due to 

adoption of more efficient refrigerants. 
Final

63

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Refrigerators

The Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) of 2007 included prescriptive standards for walk-in refrigerators 

(coolers) that went into effect in 2009. These prescriptive standards, which are included in the analysis for all units for 

2012 and beyond, state that all walk-in refrigerators manufactured after January 1, 2009, must:

• For 2012 and beyond

• have automatic door closers 

• have strip doors, spring hinged doors, or other method of minimizing infiltration when doors are open

• contain wall, ceiling, and door insulation of at least R–25, except for glazed portions of doors and structural members

• use electronically commutated motors or three-phase motors (for evaporator fan motors of under 1 horsepower and 

less than 460 volts)

• use electronically commutated motors, permanent split capacitor-type motors, or three-phase motors (for condenser 

fan motors of under 1 horsepower)

• use light sources with an efficacy of 40 lumens per watt or more, including ballast losses (if any), except that light 

sources with an efficacy of 40 lumens per watt or less, including ballast losses (if any), may be used in conjunction 

with a timer or device that turns off the lights within 15 minutes of when the walk-in refrigerator is not occupied by 

people.
Final

In 2014, DOE updated its energy conservation standards for walk-in coolers and freezers. Minimum AWEF (Annual 

Walk-In Energy Factor) was set for refrigeration systems, as well as upper limits on energy consumption attributable to 

passage, freight, and display doors. DOE elected not to set new standards for the R-value of Walk-In Panels.

64

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Refrigerators

ENERGY CONSERVATION STANDARDS FOR WALK-IN COOLERS AND WALK-IN FREEZERS

Class descriptor Class Standard lev el

Refrigeration Systems Minimum AWEF (Btu/W-h)

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Indoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ......... DC.M.I, <9,000 ... 5.61

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Indoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ......... DC.M.I, ≥ 9,000 ... 5.61

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Outdoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ...... DC.M.O, <9,000 ...7.60

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Outdoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ...... DC.M.O,≥9,000 ...7.60

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Indoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............... DC.L.I, <9,000 ..... 5.93 ⋅ 10¥5 ⋅Q + 2.33

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Indoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............... DC.L.I, ≥9,000 .... 3.10

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Outdoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............. DC.L.O, <9,000 .. 2.30 ⋅ 10¥4 ⋅Q + 2.73

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Outdoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............. DC.L.O, ≥9,000 .. 4.79

Multiplex Condensing, Medium Temperature ........................................................................... MC.M .................. 10.89

Multiplex Condensing, Low Temperature ................................................................................. MC.L ................... 6.57

Panels Minimum R-v alue (h-ft2-°F/Btu)

Structural Panel, Medium Temperature .................................................................................... SP.M .................. 25

Structural Panel, Low Temperature .......................................................................................... SP.L ................... 32

Floor Panel, Low Temperature ................................................................................................. FP.L .................... 28

Non-Display Doors Maximum energy consumption

(kWh/day) **

Passage Door, Medium Temperature ...................................................................................... PD.M .................. 0.05 ⋅And + 1.7

Passage Door, Low Temperature ............................................................................................. PD.L ................... 0.14 ⋅And + 4.8

Freight Door, Medium Temperature ......................................................................................... FD.M .................. 0.04 ⋅And + 1.9

Freight Door, Low Temperature ............................................................................................... FD.L ................... 0.12 ⋅And + 5.6

Display Doors Maximum Energy Consumption (kWh/day) †

Display Door, Medium Temperature ......................................................................................... DD.M .................. 0.04 ⋅Add + 0.41

Display Door, Low Temperature ............................................................................................... DD.L ................... 0.15 ⋅Add + 0.29
Final

65

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Freezers

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h) 22,114 23,500 23,500 23,500 23,500 N/A 23,500 23,500 23,500 23,500 23,500 23,500

Size (ft2

) 1 172 161 161 161 161 N/A 161 161 161 161 161 161

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)2 22,862 17,600 21,400 21,400 21,400 N/A 19,260 19,260 17,334 17,334 15,601 15,601

Annual Energy Use / Area (kWh/ft2

/y) 133 109 133 133 133 N/A 120 120 108 108 97 97

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.30 1.07 1.07 1.07 N/A 1.19 1.19 1.32 1.32 1.47 1.47

Insulated Box Average Life (years) 12 12 12 12 12 N/A 12 12 12 12 12 12

Compressor Average Life (years) 10 10 10 10 10 N/A 10 10 10 10 10 10

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) $22,008 $21,950 $21,950 $22,850 $23,750 N/A $22,850 $23,750 $22,850 $23,750 $22,850 $23,750 

Total Installed Cost (2022$)4 $24,058 $23,950 $23,950 $24,850 $25,750 N/A $24,850 $25,750 $24,850 $25,750 $24,850 $25,750 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) $1,088 $1,019 $1,019 $1,057 $1,096 N/A $1,057 $1,096 $1,057 $1,096 $1,057 $1,096 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)5 $741 $741 $741 $740 $741 N/A $740 $741 $740 $741 $740 $741

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) $33.51 $31.53 $31.53 $31.49 $31.53 N/A $31.49 $31.53 $31.49 $31.53 $31.49 $31.53

1. Based on DOE's 2014 WICF Final Rule TSD and additional analysis by Guidehouse, the average floor area for a walk-in storage freezer as 161 ft2.

2. EISA 2007 includes prescriptive standards for walk-in freezers that went into effect in 2009. All units for 2012 and beyond include these prescriptive standards. Units for 2022 and beyond are 

characterized using data from DOE’s 2014 WICF rulemaking. All units for 2022 and beyond are assumed to comply with this standard.

3. Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2012 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2012 Energy Use) / (Energy Use).

4. Installation cost for 2012 and beyond is based on DOE’s WICF TSD and additional analysis by Guidehouse. 

5. Maintenance cost includes checking and maintaining refrigerant charge levels, checking settings, and cleaning heat exchanger coils.

Lower annual energy use compared with Reference Case 
Final

66

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Freezers

• The commercial walk-in freezer characterized in this report is a walk-in storage freezer with an area of 161 ft2.

• A typical walk-in freezer includes:

- insulated floor, door, and wall panels

- semi-hermetic reciprocating compressor

- refrigerant (R404A)

- condenser

- evaporator

• Energy consumption is assumed to scale with the AWEF (Annual Walk-in Energy Factor), defined as the ratio of total 

heat removed from the refrigerated volume per year to the total electrical energy input of refrigeration systems over the 

same time period. 

• The installation cost consists of freight and delivery costs in addition to on-site assembly.

• This Advanced Case assumes a projected 10% decrease in energy consumption over the Reference Case due to 

adoption of more efficient refrigerants. 
Final

67

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Freezers

EISA 2007 included prescriptive standards for walk-in freezers that went into effect in 2009. These prescriptive standards, 

which are included in all units for 2011 and beyond, state that all walk-in freezers manufactured after January 1, 2009, 

must:

• have automatic door closers 

• have strip doors, spring hinged doors, or other method of minimizing infiltration when doors are open

• contain wall, ceiling, and door insulation of at least R–32, except for glazed portions of doors and structural members

• contain floor insulation of at least R–28

• use electronically commutated motors or three-phase motors (for evaporator fan motors of under 1 horsepower and 

less than 460 volts)

• use electronically commutated motors, permanent split capacitor-type motors, or three-phase motors (for condenser 

fan motors of under 1 horsepower)

• use light sources with an efficacy of 40 lumens per watt or more, including ballast losses (if any), except that light 

sources with an efficacy of 40 lumens per watt or less, including ballast losses (if any), may be used in conjunction 

with a timer or device that turns off the lights within 15 minutes of when the walk-in freezer is not occupied by 

people.
Final

68

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Walk-In Freezers

In 2014, DOE updated its energy conservation standards for walk-in coolers and freezers. Minimum AWEF (Annual 

Walk-in Energy Factor) was set for refrigeration systems, as well as upper limits on energy consumption attributable to 

passage, freight, and display doors. DOE elected not to set new standards for the R-value of Walk-in Panels.

ENERGY CONSERVATION STANDARDS FOR WALK-IN COOLERS AND WALK-IN FREEZERS

Class descriptor Class Standard lev el

Refrigeration Systems Minimum AWEF (Btu/W-h)

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Indoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ......... DC.M.I, <9,000 ... 5.61

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Indoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ......... DC.M.I, ≥ 9,000 ... 5.61

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Outdoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ...... DC.M.O, <9,000 ...7.60

Dedicated Condensing, Medium Temperature, Outdoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ...... DC.M.O,≥9,000 ...7.60

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Indoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............... DC.L.I, <9,000 ..... 5.93 ⋅ 10¥5 ⋅Q + 2.33

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Indoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............... DC.L.I, ≥9,000 .... 3.10

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Outdoor System, <9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............. DC.L.O, <9,000 .. 2.30 ⋅ 10¥4 ⋅Q + 2.73

Dedicated Condensing, Low Temperature, Outdoor System, ≥ 9,000 Btu/h Capacity ............. DC.L.O, ≥9,000 .. 4.79

Multiplex Condensing, Medium Temperature ........................................................................... MC.M .................. 10.89

Multiplex Condensing, Low Temperature ................................................................................. MC.L ................... 6.57

Panels Minimum R-v alue (h-ft2-°F/Btu)

Structural Panel, Medium Temperature .................................................................................... SP.M .................. 25

Structural Panel, Low Temperature .......................................................................................... SP.L ................... 32

Floor Panel, Low Temperature ................................................................................................. FP.L .................... 28

Non-Display Doors Maximum energy consumption

(kWh/day) **

Passage Door, Medium Temperature ...................................................................................... PD.M .................. 0.05 ⋅And + 1.7

Passage Door, Low Temperature ............................................................................................. PD.L ................... 0.14 ⋅And + 4.8

Freight Door, Medium Temperature ......................................................................................... FD.M .................. 0.04 ⋅And + 1.9

Freight Door, Low Temperature ............................................................................................... FD.L ................... 0.12 ⋅And + 5.6

Display Doors Maximum Energy Consumption (kWh/day) †

Display Door, Medium Temperature ......................................................................................... DD.M .................. 0.04 ⋅Add + 0.41

Display Door, Low Temperature ............................................................................................... DD.L ................... 0.15 ⋅Add + 0.29
Final

69

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Ice Machines

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR6 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Output (pounds [lbs] per day) 1 300 641 700 700 700 700 700 700 700 700 700 700

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h)2 1963 4194 4580 4580 4580 4580 4580 4580 4580 4580 4580 4580

Water Use per Hundred Pounds 

(gal/hundred lbs)3 20 25 25 20 15 15 20 15 20 15 20 15

Energy Use per Hundred Pounds 

(kWh/hundred lbs) 7.7 7.5 7.1 5.8 4.8 4.8 5.8 4.8 5.8 4.8 5.8 4.8

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)4 3,185 2,502 1,675 1,478 1,190 1,190 1,330 1,071 1,197 964 1,077 868

Indexed Annual Efficiency5 1.00 1.27 1.90 2.15 2.68 2.68 2.39 2.97 2.66 3.30 2.96 3.67

Average Life (years) 8.0 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) $2,146 $2,616 $2,946 $3,020 $3,368 $3,368 $3,020 $3,368 $3,020 $3,368 $3,020 $3,368 

Total Installed Cost (with Bin) $2,441 $3,626 $3,276 $3,350 $3,737 $3,737 $3,350 $3,737 $3,350 $3,737 $3,350 $3,737 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) $1,244 $865 $715 $732 $816 $816 $732 $816 $732 $816 $732 $816 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)7 $826 $826 $800 $800 $800 $800 $800 $800 $800 $800 $800 $800

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) $421 $197 $175 $175 $175 $175 $175 $175 $175 $175 $175 $175

1. Based on the average output from the Compliance Certification Database and values within 2022 Automatic Commercial Ice Maker (ACIM) TSD.

2. Defined as the average heat load to remove the latent and sensible heat required to freeze the daily output capacity of ice.

3. Water use refers to potable water.

4. EPACT 2005 energy standards went into effect in 2010. The 2015 low values are based on this standard. In 2014, DOE set new standards for commercial ice machines, with compliance required by 

2018. The unit characterized for 2012 and beyond uses data from this rulemaking. All units for 2020 and beyond are assumed to comply with the updated standard.

5. Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2012 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2012 Energy Use) / (Energy Use).

6. The ENERGY STAR category is based on minimum compliance with the ENERGY STAR v3.0 standard, which went into effect on January28, 2018. According to this analysis, ENERGY STAR 

certification is typical for the small air-cooled ice-making head (IMH) unit characterized.

7. Maintenance cost is based on the average cost of equipment within the 700 lb/day output range and includes cleaning and maintaining refrigerant levels, replacing filters, checking water 

distribution lines for leaks, cleaning, sanitizing, and descaling the bin and water system. Maintenance cost decreases as the size of the ice machine (i.e. output) decreases.

Lower annual energy use compared with Reference Case 
Final

70

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Ice Machines

• Commercial ice machines are typically integrated with an insulated ice storage bin or mounted on top of a separate 

storage bin. The retail equipment cost includes the ice making head and the integrated storage bin. Commercial ice 

machine condensers are either air-cooled or water-cooled. Approximately 90% of all units are the air-cooled type.

• Commercial ice machine maintenance includes periodic cleaning (every 2 to 6 weeks) to remove lime and scale and 

sanitizing to kill bacteria. Some ice machines are self-cleaning/sanitizing.

• ENERGY STAR® updated its maximum energy consumption levels, in kilowatt-hours per 100 pounds of ice, for aircooled ice machines that went into effect on January 28, 2018. These efficiency levels are based on the harvest rate, in 

pounds per 24 hours. (H). Water-cooled ice machines are not eligible for ENERGY STAR certification.

• For this Advanced Case, a 10% reduction in energy consumption is projected over the Reference Case due to the 

adoption of more efficient refrigerants such as propane, which, while not currently required by EPA SNAP, are a 

source of possible efficiency improvements.

ENERGY STAR Requirements for Air-Cooled Batch-Type Ice Makers

Equipment Type

Applicable Ice 

Harvest Rate Range 

(lbs of ice/24 hrs)

Energy 

Consumption Rate 

(kWh/100 lbs ice)

Potable Water Use 

(gal/hundred lbs

ice)

IMH 200 ≤ H ≤ 1600 ≤ 37.72 * H -0.298 ≤ 20.0

RCU

400 ≤ H ≤ 1600 ≤ 22.95 * H -0.258 + 

1.00 ≤ 20.0

1600 ≤ H ≤ 4000 ≤ -0.00011 * H + 4.60 ≤ 20.0

SCU 50 ≤ H ≤ 450 ≤ 48.66 * H -0.326 + 

0.08 ≤ 25.0

ENERGY STAR Requirements for Air-Cooled Continuous-Type Ice Makers

Equipment Type Energy Consumption Rate 

(kWh/hundred lbs ice)

Potable Water Use 

(gal/hundred lbs ice)

IMH ≤ 9.18 * H -0.057 ≤ 15.0

RCU ≤ 6.00 * H -0.162 + 3.50 ≤ 15.0

SCU ≤ 59.45 * H -0.349 + 0.08 ≤ 15.0
Final

71

EPACT 2005 issued standard levels for commercial ice machines with capacities between 50 pounds and 2500 pounds per 

24-hour period that are manufactured or sold in the United States on or after January 1, 2010. The energy consumption is 

based on the harvest rate in pounds per 24 hours (H). In 2015, DOE finalized new standards for ACIMs extending 

coverage to flake, nugget, and tube-type machines and to capacities up to 4,000 pounds per 24 hours.

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Ice Machines

Water use is for the condenser only and does not include potable water used to make ice.

Equipment Type Type of

Cooling

Harvest Rate

(lbs ice/24 hrs)

Maximum Energy Use

(kWh/hundred lbs ice)

Maximum Condenser Water

Use (gal/hundred lbs ice)

Ice Making Head

Water

<500 7.80-0.0055 H 200-0.022 H

≥500 and <1,436 5.58-0.0011 H 200-0.022 H

≥1,436 4.0 200-0.022 H

Air

<450 10.26-0.0086 H Not Applicable

≥450 6.89-0.0011 H Not Applicable

Remote Condensing

(but not remote compressor)

Air

<1,000 8.85-0.0038 H Not Applicable

≥1,000 5.10 Not Applicable

Remote Condensing

and Remote Compressor

Air

<934 8.85-0.0038 H Not Applicable

≥934 5.3 Not Applicable

Self Contained

Water

<200 11.40-0.019 H 191-0.0315 H

≥200 7.60 191-0.0315 H

Air

<175 18.0-0.0469 H Not Applicable

≥175 9.80 Not Applicable
Final

2014 DOE Standards

72

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Ice Machines

Energy Conservation Standards for Batch-Type Automatic Commercial Ice Makers 

Effective January 2018

Equipment Type Type of Cooling Harvest Rate

lb ice/24 hours

Maximum Energy 

Use

kWh/100 lb ice*

Maximum 

Condenser Water 

Use

gal/100 lb ice**

Ice-Making Head Water

<300 6.88 - 0.0055H 200 - 0.022H

300 and <850 5.80 - 0.00191H 200 - 0.022H

850 and <1,500 4.42 - 0.00028H 200 - 0.022H

1500 and <2,500 4.0 200 - 0.022H

2500 and <4,000 4.0 145

Ice-Making Head Air

<300 10 - 0.01233H Not Applicable

300 and <800 7.05 - 0.0025H Not Applicable

800 and <1500 5.55 - 0.00063H Not Applicable

1500 and <4,000 4.61 Not Applicable

Remote Condensing 

(but not remote 

compressor)

Air

50 and <1,000 7.97 - 0.00342H Not Applicable

1,000 and <4,000 4.55 Not Applicable

Remote Condensing 

and Remote 

Compressor

Air

<942 7.97 - 0.00342H Not Applicable

942 and <4,000 4.75 Not Applicable

Self-Contained Water

<200 9.5 - 0.019H 191 - 0.0315H

200 and <2,500 5.7 191 - 0.0315H

2500 and <4,000 5.7 112

Self-Contained Air

<110 14.79 - 0.0469H Not Applicable

110 and <200 12.42 - 0.02533H Not Applicable

200 and <4,000 7.35 Not Applicable

Energy Conservation Standards for Continuous-Type Automatic Commercial Ice Makers 

Effective January 2018

Equipment Type Type of Cooling Harvest Rate

lb ice/24 hours

Maximum Energy 

Use

kWh/100 lb ice*

Maximum 

Condenser Water 

Use

gal/100 lb ice**

Ice-Making Head Water

<801 6.48 - 0.00267H 180 - 0.0198H

801 and <2,500 4.34 180 - 0.0198H

2,500 and <4,000 4.34 130.5

Ice-Making Head Air

<310 9.19 - 0.00629H Not Applicable

310 and <820 8.23 - 0.0032H Not Applicable

820 and <4,000 5.61 Not Applicable

Remote 

Condensing (but 

not remote 

compressor)

Air

<800 9.7 - 0.0058H Not Applicable

800 and <4,000 5.06 Not Applicable

Remote 

Condensing and 

Remote 

Compressor

Air

<800 9.9 - 0.0058H Not Applicable

800 and <4,000 5.26 Not Applicable

Self-Contained Water

<900 7.6 - 0.00302H 153 - 0.0252H

900 and <2,500 4.88 153 - 0.0252H

2500 and <4,000 4.88 90

Self-Contained Air

<200 14.22 - 0.03H Not Applicable

200 and <700 9.47 - 0.00624H Not Applicable

700 and <4,000 5.1 Not Applicable
Final

73

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Beverage Merchandisers

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR2 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h) 4,689 4,700 4,700 4,700 4,700 4,700 4,700 4,700 4,700 4,700 4,700 4,700

Size (ft3

) 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y) 1,829 1,635 1,380 1,141 902 902 1,141 902 1,084 857 1,030 814

Annual Energy Use / Volume 

(kWh/ft3

/y)1 68 73 55 35 26 26 35 26 35 26 35 26

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.12 1.33 1.60 2.03 2.03 1.60 2.03 1.69 2.13 1.78 2.25

Average Life (years) 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) $2,382 $2,051 $1,710 $2,762 $3,332 $3,332 $2,762 $3,332 $2,762 $3,332 $2,762 $3,332 

Total Installed Cost (2022$)4 $2,382 $2,051 $1,710 $2,762 $3,332 $3,332 $2,762 $3,332 $2,762 $3,332 $2,762 $3,332 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) $508 $436 $364 $588 $709 $709 $588 $709 $588 $709 $588 $709 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $108 $108 $95 $95 $95 $95 $95 $95 $95 $95 $95 $95

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) $23.03 $22.98 $20.21 $20.21 $20.11 $20.11 $20.21 $20.11 $20.21 $20.11 $20.21 $20.11

1. EPACT 2005 energy conservation standards went into effect in 2010. In 2015, DOE updated its energy conservation standards for commercial refrigeration equipment, including transparentdoored refrigerators with pull-down capability. Compliance with this standard is required by 2017. Units characterized for 2018 and beyond use data reported in this rulemaking’s TSD. Units 

sold in 2022 and beyond are assumed to comply with this updated standard.

2. The ENERGY STAR category characterizes a unit that is compliant with ENERGY STAR v4, effective March 2017. This standard does not separately define units with pull-down capability.

3. Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2012 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2012 Energy Use) / (Energy Use). 

4. Beverage merchandisers are shipped ready to be plugged in, so installation costs are assumed to be negligible.

Lower annual energy use compared with Reference Case 
Final

74

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Beverage Merchandisers

• EPACT 2005 sets maximum daily energy consumption levels, in kilowatt-hours per day, for commercial refrigerators with 

transparent doors and self-contained condensing unit designed for pull-down temperature applications (i.e., beverage 

merchandisers) and went into effect on January 1, 2010. 

• In 2014, DOE updated its energy consumption standards for commercial refrigeration equipment, including beverage 

merchandisers, effective March 27, 2015. Both the DOE and EPCA standards are reported below. 

• In 2013, EPA updated its ENERGY STAR specifications for glass-doored commercial refrigerators, which can be used as 

beverage merchandisers, effective October 1, 2014. These standards are also based on the volume of the unit (V). Note that 

ENERGY STAR does not have a separate equipment class for units with pull-down capability. 

Equipment Type EPCA (2010) DOE Standards (2017)

Beverage Merchandisers 

(PD.SC.M)

0.126xV + 3.51 0.11xV+0.81

Beverage 

Merchandiser Size 0 < V < 15 15 ≤ V < 30 30 ≤ V < 50 50 ≤ V

Glass Door 0.118*V + 1.382 ≤ 0.140*V + 1.050 ≤ 0.088*V + 2.625 ≤ 0.110*V + 1.500
Final

75

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Beverage Merchandisers

• The beverage merchandiser characterized in this report, which is the typical unit according to DOE’s 2014 CRE 

rulemaking and additional analysis by Guidehouse, is a 27 cubic foot cooler with a single hinged, transparent door, 

bright lighting, and shelving with a nominal compressor size of 4,700 Btu/h. 

• The efficiency of beverage merchandisers can be increased through the use of more efficient compressors, 

fluorescent lighting with electronic ballasts, LED lighting, and improved insulation.

• For the Reference Case, beverage merchandisers are assumed to be mature technologies with few technology 

advancements in the coming years that would dramatically improve the efficiency. 

• For this Advanced Case, the typical unit in 2030 is assumed to comply with DOE’s updated energy conservation 

standards for commercial refrigeration

• By 2040, the adoption of vacuum insulated panels is assumed to occur, with the aid of decreased incremental 

costs due to increased R&D funding

• Beverage merchandisers may transition from HFC to more efficient propane.

• Projected installed costs for this Advanced Case are the same as the Reference Case, assuming increased R&D 

funding. Advanced energy-saving technologies are assumed to be made financially viable for operators by 

increased market incentives such as utility efficiency rebate programs and/or carbon pricing.

• This analysis finds that with increased R&D and market incentives for energy efficiency technologies, a limit of 

possible efficiency improvements for self-contained, vapor compression refrigeration systems will be reached by 

2040 and a 5% decrease in energy use from 2030 to 2040. 
Final

76

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Refrigerated Vending Machines

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR2 Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h) 1,810 1,707 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810 1,810

Can Capacity 470 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500

Size (ft3

) 26 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)1 1,632 1,550 1,550 1,531 1,443 1,443 1,455 1,371 1,382 1,302 1,313 1,237

Annual Energy Use / Volume 

(kWh/ft3

/y) 63 44 44 44 41 41 42 39 39 37 38 35

Indexed Annual Efficiency3 1.00 1.05 1.05 1.07 1.13 1.13 1.12 1.19 1.18 1.25 1.24 1.32

Average Life (years) 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$) $3,209 $2,553 $3,059 $3,272 $3,520 $3,520 $3,272 $3,520 $3,272 $3,520 $3,272 $3,520 

Total Installed Cost (2022$) $3,320 $2,705 $3,276 $3,489 $3,737 $3,737 $3,489 $3,737 $3,489 $3,737 $3,489 $3,737 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) $1,834 $1,585 $1,810 $1,928 $2,065 $2,065 $1,928 $2,065 $1,928 $2,065 $1,928 $2,065

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)4 $270 $270 $333 $333 $333 $333 $333 $333 $333 $333 $333 $333 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) $149 $149 $184 $184 $184 $184 $184 $184 $184 $184 $184 $184

1. Energy use for 2018 and beyond is estimated based on DOE’s 2020 BVM Final Rule and the 2022 Compliance Certification Database.

2. The ENERGY STAR category assumes units are compliant with the ENERGY STAR v4 standard because combination units are currentlynot separately defined by ENERGY STAR. This 

standard went into effect on April 29, 2020. Our analysis finds ENERGY STAR certified equipment to be the most efficient currently available on the market.

3. Annual efficiency normalized to the efficiency of the 2012 installed base. Indexed Annual Efficiency = (2012 Energy Use) / (Energy Use).

4. Maintenance cost includes preventative maintenance costs such as checking and maintaining refrigerant charge levels, cleaningheat exchanger coils, and an annualized cost for 

refurbishments/remanufacturing. 

Lower annual energy use compared with Reference Case 
Final

77

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Refrigerated Vending Machines

• DOE set federal energy efficiency standards for refrigerated vending machines. These standards set maximum daily energy 

consumption levels, in kilowatt-hours per day, for commercial refrigerated vending machines manufactured or sold in the 

United States on or after August 31, 2012. The daily energy consumption is based on the volume of the unit (V).

• In December 2015, DOE updated its energy conservation standards for beverage vending machines and defined two new 

product classes for combination vending machines. The energy conservation standard remains the same in the updated 

2022 technical support document for vending machines. Compliance with these standards was required by 2019. For this 

analysis, compliance with these updated standards is assumed for equipment sold in 2022 and beyond. The updated 

standards and DOE equipment definitions are listed in the table below.

Equipment Type Maximum Daily Energy Consumption

Class A (Transparent-Front) MDEC= 0.052 × V + 2.43

Class B (Solid-Front) MDEC = 0.052 × V + 2.20 

Combination A MDEC = 0.086 × V + 2.66

Combination B MDEC = 0.111 × V + 2.04
Final

78

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Refrigerated Vending Machines

Equipment Class Maximum daily energy consumption (kilowatt-hours per day)

Class A – a refrigerated bottled or canned beverage vending machine that is not a 

combination vending machine and in which 25% or more of the surface area on the 

front side of the beverage vending machine is transparent

MDEC = 0.04836 x V + 2.2599

Class B – any refrigerated bottled or canned beverage vending machine that is not 

considered to be Class A and is not a combination vending machine MDEC = 0.04576 x V+1.936

Combination A – a combination vending machine where 25% or more of the 

surface area on the front side of the beverage vending machine is transparent MDEC = 0.07998 x V + 2.4738

Combination B – a combination vending machine that is not considered to be 

Combination A MDEC = 0.09768 x V + 1.7952

ENERGY STAR® updated its maximum daily energy consumption efficiency levels, also in kilowatt-hours per day, for 

refrigerated vending machines that went into effect on April 29, 2020. These efficiency levels are based on refrigerated 

volume.
Final

79

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Refrigerated Vending Machines

• DOE set federal energy efficiency standards for refrigerated vending machines in 2009. These standards set maximum daily energy consumption levels, in kWh/day, 

for commercial refrigerated vending machines manufactured and/or sold in the United States on or after August 31, 2012. The daily energy consumption is based on 

the volume of the unit (V).

• Refrigerated Vending Machines that are fully-cooled (Type A) ≤ 0.055*V + 2.56

• Refrigerated Vending Machines that are zone-cooled (Type B) ≤ 0.073*V + 3.16

• ENERGY STAR® updated its maximum daily energy consumption efficiency levels, also in kWh/day, for refrigerated vending machines, which went into effect on 

March 1, 2013. These efficiency levels are based on refrigerated volume.

• Currently, stakeholders such as Coca Cola have indicated a preference for CO2 refrigerant, which is less efficient. However, this Advanced Case scenario assumes 

a shift to more efficient propane for cost and energy consumption projections due to the superior efficiency of propane refrigerant. 

• By 2040, the adoption of vacuum insulated panels is assumed to occur, with the aid of decreased incremental costs due to increased R&D funding

• Projected installed costs for this Advanced Case are higher than the Reference Case, even assuming increased R&D funding. Advanced energy-saving 

technologies are assumed to be made financially viable for operators by increased market incentives such as utility efficiency rebate programs and/or carbon 

pricing.

• This analysis finds that with increased R&D and market incentives for energy efficiency technologies, a limit of possible efficiency improvements for selfcontained, vapor compression refrigeration systems will be reached by 2040. 

Equipment Type Maximum Daily Energy 

Consumption

Low Power Mode Requirement

Class A (Transparent-Front) MDEC= 0.0523 x V + 2.432 Hard-wired controls and/or software capable 

of placing the machine into a low power 

mode during periods of extended inactivity 

while still connected to its power source Class B (Solid-Front) MDEC = 0.0657 x V + 2.844 
Final

80

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Refrigerated Vending Machines

Equipment Class Maximum daily energy consumption (kilowatt hours per day)

Class A – a refrigerated bottled or canned beverage vending machine that is not a 

combination vending machine and in which 25 percent or more of the surface area 

on the front side of the beverage vending machine is transparent

MDEC = 0.052 x V + 2.43

Class B – any refrigerated bottled or canned beverage vending machine that is not 

considered to be Class A and is not a combination vending machine MDEC = 0.052 x V + 2.20

Combination A – a combination vending machine where 25 percent or more of the 

surface area on the front side of the beverage vending machine is transparent MDEC = 0.086 x V + 2.66

Combination B – a combination vending machine that is not considered to be 

Combination A MDEC = 0.111 x V + 2.04

In December 2015, DOE updated its energy conservation standards for beverage vending machines, and defined two new 

product classes for combination vending machines Compliance with these standards is required by 2019. For this analysis, 

compliance with these updated standards is assumed for equipment sold in 2020 and beyond. The updated standards and 

DOE equipment definitions are listed in the table below.
Final

81

Commercial Ventilation 
Final

82

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Constant Air Volume

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average3

Low4,5 Typical4,6 High4,7 ENERGY 

STAR Typical4,6 High4,7 Typical4,6 High4,7 Typical4,6 High4,7

System Airflow (CFM) 15,000 16,300 16,300 16,300 16,300 N/A 16,300 16,300 16,300 16,300 16,300 16,300

System Fan Power (kW) 11.56 11.56 11.56 10.98 10.78 N/A 10.98 10.78 10.98 10.78 10.98 10.78

Specific Fan Power (W/CFM) 0.771 0.709 0.709 0.674 0.661 N/A 0.674 0.661 0.674 0.661 0.674 0.661

Annual Fan Energy Use (kWh/y)1

43,924 23,038 23,038 21,886 20,792 N/A 20,792 19,752 19,752 18,765 18,765 17,826

Average Life (years) 35 35 35 35 35 N/A 35 35 35 35 35 35

Total Installed Cost (2022$)2

$80,288 $83,083 $83,083 $86,901 $90,651 N/A $86,901 $90,651 $86,901 $90,651 $86,901 $90,651 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 N/A $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/thousand 

CFM) $5,353 $5,097 $5,097 $5,331 $5,561 N/A $5,331 $5,561 $5,331 $5,561 $5,331 $5,561 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/thousand CFM) $70 $65 $65 $65 $65 N/A $65 $65 $65 $65 $65 $65 

1. Based on 3800 operating hours per year (ADL, 1999) and typical zone air flow requirement profile (ASHRAE S45.11-2012)

2. Total installed cost of 16,300 CFM constant air volume (CAV) air handling unit (AHU) and hypothetical supply ductwork layout

3. Based on ASHRAE 90.1-2016 and 2019 fan power limit (Table 6.5.3.1.1-1) with no pressure drop adjustment. Assumed 80% motor load and 91% motor efficiency

4. ASHRAE 90.1-2016 and 2019 Section 6.5.3.2 require minimum two-speed fan control (no longer always constant volume).

5. Two-speed variable frequency drive (VFD)

6. Modulating VFD

7. Modulating custom engineered VFD

Lower annual energy use compared with Reference Case 
Final

83

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Constant Air Volume

• Constant air volume (CAV) ventilation systems are common, inexpensive, air-side HVAC systems that operate in response to a single control zone. Historically, 

these systems provide a constant flow rate of air (typically a mix of recirculated and outside air) and adjust the supply temperature of that air in order to maintain 

the space temperature setpoint. Beginning with ASHRAE 90.1-2013 and continued in ASHRAE 90.1-2019, new CAV ventilation systems were mandated to have at 

least two fan speed settings with the requirement of a maximum 40% power at 66% flow. Systems with variable speed fans are increasingly popular, making the 

term “constant air volume” somewhat of a misnomer for this system type. This analysis examines only the fan energy of the CAV system.

• There is movement in the industry and in energy codes to reduce fan power. ASHRAE 90.1 includes fan power limits for CAV systems. Fan power can be 

minimized through good design practice (efficient duct layout, low pressure drop ductwork, filters, coils), proper fan selection, and high efficiency type fans. 

ASHRAE 90.1-2019 now requires a minimum fan efficiency grade (FEG, based on AMCA 205-12: Energy Efficiency Classification for Fans) of 67 and a design 

operating fan efficiency within 15% of the maximum fan total efficiency. There are exceptions to this requirement, including packaged systems such as the CAV 

system type considered here. Still the fan power limits are expected to become more stringent, and fan efficiency will become more important throughout the 

industry.

• The unit characterized in this report is a 16,300 CFM CAV system. The average commercial building is approximately 16,300 square feet (CBECS 2018). Assuming 

1 CFM is needed per square foot of floor area results in a 16,300 CFM air handling unit.

• A 16,300 CFM CAV packaged indoor air handling unit with cooling and heating coils can be installed for approximately $71,829 (RS Means 2022). Ductwork 

would cost approximately $9,272 additional ($81,101 total). A two-speed motor (estimated $500 incremental cost) and variable frequency drive (estimated $5,800) 

add cost. Custom engineered variable frequency drives (estimated $9,550) and premium efficiency motors (estimated additional $1,500) add an additional cost to 

the system.

• Annual maintenance cost assumes 8 hours worth of labor by a technician to perform the necessary tasks (e.g., filter replacement, draining condenser water, etc.)

• ASHRAE Standard 90.1, which is used as a basis for most state energy codes, limits the fan power (brake HP or nameplate HP) for CAV systems. The 2016 version 

of Standard 90.1 was used to represent the 2018 minimum efficiency level (state energy codes typically refer to older versions of Standard 90.1 due to code 

revision cycles).

• Fan energy is affected by several factors, including fan type (e.g., centrifugal, axial), fan blade shape (e.g., forward-curved, backward-curved, backward-inclined, 

airfoil), drive type (belt or direct), configuration (plenum or housed centrifugal), system effects, duct design, filter and coil pressure drops, motor efficiency, and 

speed and flow control. 

• For this Advanced Case, the projections from 2030 to 2050 for system fan power and annual fan energy use assume a 5% improvement per decade based on 

the assumption that use of variable frequency drives and incremental improvements in technology will increase.
Final

84

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Variable Air Volume

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average3

Low4 Typical5 High6 ENERGY 

STAR Typical6 High6,7 Typical6,7 High6,7 Typical6,7 High6,7

System Airflow (CFM) 15,000 16,300 16,300 16,300 16,300 N/A 16,300 16,300 16,300 16,300 16,300 16,300

System Fan Power (kW) 15.99 15.99 15.99 15.99 15.99 N/A 15.99 15.19 15.99 15.19 15.99 15.19

Specific Fan Power (W/CFM) 1.066 1.066 0.981 0.981 0.981 N/A 0.981 0.932 0.981 0.932 0.981 0.932

Annual Fan Energy Use (kWh/yr)1

24,699 24,082 24,082 22,878 21,734 N/A 21,734 20,647 20,647 19,615 19,615 18,634

Average Life (yrs) 28 28 28 28 28 N/A 28 28 28 28 28 28

Total Installed Cost (2022$)2

$103,327 $110,414 $118,814 $124,495 $124,995 N/A $124,495 $124,995 $124,495 $124,995 $124,495 $124,995 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 N/A $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 $1,054 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/1000 CFM) $6,888 $6,774 $7,289 $7,638 $7,668 N/A $7,638 $7,668 $7,638 $7,668 $7,638 $7,668 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/1000 

CFM) $70 $65 $65 $65 $65 N/A $65 $65 $65 $65 $65 $65 

1. Based on 3800 operating hours per year (ADL, 1999) and typical zone air flow requirement profile (ASHRAE S45.11-2012)

2. Total installed cost of 16,300 CFM VAV AHU, VFD, (10) VAV boxes, (10) VAV controllers with associated space temperature sensor, and hypothetical supply ductwork layout

3. Based on ASHRAE 90.1-2016 and 2019 fan power limit (Table 6.5.3.1.1-1) with no pressure drop adjustment. Assumed 80% motor load and 91% motor efficiency

4. ASHRAE 90.1-2016 and 2019 Section 6.5.3.2 minimum power-flow requirement

5. ASHRAE 90.1-2019 fan power limit and typical VAV power-flow relationship for 40%-100% flow

6. ASHRAE 90.1-2019 fan power limit and typical VAV power-flow relationship for 30%-100% flow

7. High aerodynamic efficiency fan

Lower annual energy use compared with Reference Case 
Final

85

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Variable Air Volume

• Variable air volume (VAV) ventilation systems are the most common multi-zone system type specified today for conditioning commercial buildings. These systems 

provide conditioned air to multiple zone terminal units (VAV boxes) that use dampers to modulate the amount of cool air to each zone. An individual zone 

thermostat controls the VAV box damper to allow more or less cooling. If a zone requires heating, then the VAV box provides the minimum flow rate and typically 

includes a reheat coil to meet the space temperature setpoint. As VAV box dampers close in the system, a variable frequency drive reduces fan speed and flow 

continuously to meet current requirements.

• This analysis examines only the fan energy of the VAV system. VAV systems vary fan speed and flow to meet space conditioning requirements; minimum flow 

settings apply for DX cooling stages and gas furnace heating stages. Most hours of operation are much lower than full speed, and fan power varies with the cube of 

fan speed according to fan affinity laws. The 2012 ASHRAE Handbook: HVAC Systems and Equipment (p. 45.11) provided the typical flow profile used for this 

analysis. The unit characterized in this report is a 16,300 CFM VAV system. 

• There is movement in the industry and in energy codes to reduce fan power. ASHRAE 90.1 includes fan power limits for VAV systems. Fan power can be minimized 

through good design practice (efficient duct layout, low pressure drop ductwork, filters, coils), proper fan selection, and high efficiency type fans. ASHRAE 90.1-

2019 now requires a minimum fan efficiency grade (FEG, based on AMCA 205-12: Energy Efficiency Classification for Fans) of 67 and a design operating fan 

efficiency within 15% of the maximum fan total efficiency. There are exceptions to this requirement, including packaged systems such as the VAV system type 

considered here. Still the fan power limits are expected to become more stringent, and fan efficiency will become more important throughout the industry.

• A 16,300 CFM VAV packaged indoor air handling unit with cooling and heating coils can be installed for approximately $82,023 (RS Means 2022). Ductwork and (10) 

VAV boxes with reheat would cost approximately an additional $28,272. (10) VAV controllers and the associated space temperature sensor would cost approximately 

$8,400 ($118,695 total). A 15 hp variable frequency drive (estimated $5,800) is an additional cost.

• ASHRAE Standard 90.1, which is used as a basis for most state energy codes, limits the fan power for VAV systems (brake HP or nameplate HP). The 2016 version of 

Standard 90.1 was used to represent the 2018 minimum efficiency level (state energy codes typically refer to older versions of Standard 90.1 due to code revision 

cycles).

• Annual maintenance cost assumes 8 hours worth of labor by a technician to perform the necessary tasks (e.g., filter replacement, draining condenser water, etc.)

• Fan energy is affected by several factors, including fan type (e.g., centrifugal, axial), fan blade shape (e.g., forward-curved, backward-curved, backward-inclined, 

airfoil), drive type (belt or direct), configuration (plenum or housed centrifugal), system effects, duct design, filter and coil pressure drops, and motor VFD 

efficiency. 

• For this Advanced Case, the projections from 2030 to 2050 for system fan power and annual fan energy use assume a 5% improvement per decade based on the 

assumption use of variable frequency drives and incremental improvements in technology will increase.
Final

86

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Fan Coil Units

DATA

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average5

Low3 Typical5 High6 ENERGY 

STAR Typical4,6 High4,7 Typical4,7 High4,8 Typical4,8 High4,8,9

System Airflow (CFM) 800 800 800 800 800 N/A 800 800 800 800 800 800

System Fan Power (kW) 0.241 0.241 0.241 0.148 0.148 N/A 0.141 0.134 0.134 0.136 0.136 0.129

Specific Fan Power (W/CFM) 0.302 0.302 0.301 0.185 0.185 N/A 0.176 0.167 0.167 0.170 0.170 0.162

Annual Fan Energy Use (kWh/y)1

543 542 542 333 333 N/A 316 301 301 306 306 291

Average Life (years) 37 37 37 37 37 N/A 37 37 37 37 37 37

Total Installed Cost (2022$)2

$2,845 $2,688 $3,038 $3,521 $3,961 N/A $3,961 $4,161 $3,961 $4,161 $3,961 $4,161 

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) $117 $117 $117 $117 $117 N/A $117 $117 $117 $117 $117 $117 

Total Installed Cost (2022$/thousand 

CFM) $3,557 $3,360 $3,798 $4,401 $4,951 N/A $4,951 $5,201 $4,951 $5,201 $4,951 $5,201 

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/thousand CFM) $146 $146 $146 $146 $146 N/A $146 $146 $146 $146 $146 $146 

1. Based on 2250 operating hours per year (ADL, 1999) and typical zone air flow requirement profile (ASHRAE S45.11-2012)

2. Total installed cost of 2-ton horizontal two-pipe fan coil unit, housing, and controls

3. Based on ASHRAE 90.1-2016 and 2019 fan power limit (Table 6.5.3.1.1-1) with no pressure drop adjustment. Assumed 80% motor load and 91% motor efficiency

4. Based on ASHRAE 90.1-2016 and 2019 Section 6.5.3.6 requirement of electronically commutated or 70+% efficient fan motor

5. Permanent split capacitor fan motor

6. Electronically commutated fan motor (single speed)

7. Electronically commutated fan motor (two-speed)

8. Electronically commutated fan motor (variable speed)

9. High aerodynamic efficiency fan

Same as Reference Case 
Final

87

Performance and Cost Characteristics » Commercial Fan Coil Units

• Commercial fan coil units (FCUs) are self-contained, mass-produced assemblies that provide cooling, heating, or cooling and heating, but they do not include the 

source of cooling or heating. The unit characterized in this report is a cooling only (two-pipe), horizontal unit with housing and controls. Fan coil units are typically 

installed in or adjacent to the space being served and have no (or very limited) ductwork. 

• According to manufacturer literature, the cooling capacity for a nominal 800 CFM fan coil unit is about 2 tons. This analysis examines only the fan energy of FCUs.

• Fan coil unit fan motors can be shaded pole, a single-phase AC motor with offset start winding and no capacitor; PSC, a single-phase AC motor with offset start 

winding with capacitor; or ECM, an AC electronically commutated permanent magnet DC motor. PSC motors are currently the most common motor type in FCUs, 

but manufacturers also offer single speed, two speed, and ECM motors as an option. ASHRAE 90.1-2019 requires an electronically commutated fan motor (or 

minimum motor efficiency of 70%) for this system.

• There is movement in the industry and in energy codes to reduce fan power. ASHRAE 90.1 includes fan power limits for FCUs. Fan power can be minimized 

through good design practice and high efficiency type fans. ASHRAE 90.1-2019 now requires a minimum fan efficiency grade (FEG, based on AMCA 205-12: 

Energy Efficiency Classification for Fans) of 67 and a design operating fan efficiency within 15% of the maximum fan total efficiency. There are exceptions to this 

requirement, including small systems such as the FCU considered here. Still the fan power limits are expected to become more stringent, and fan efficiency will 

become more important throughout the industry.

• Fan coil units have higher maintenance costs than central air systems due to the distributed nature of the system. For each unit, the filters must be changed, and 

drain systems must be flushed periodically.

• ASHRAE Standard 90.1, which is used as a basis for most state energy codes, limits the fan power (brake HP or nameplate HP). The 2016 version of Standard 90.1 

was used to represent the 2018 minimum efficiency level (state energy codes typically refer to older versions of Standard 90.1 due to code revision cycles).

• Fan energy is affected by several factors, including fan type configuration, filter and coil pressure drops, motor efficiency, and fan speed control. 
Final

Appendix A

Data Sources

A-1

Guidehouse

1200 19th Street, NW, Suite 700

Washington, D.C. 20036

And

Leidos

8301 Greensboro Drive

McLean, VA 22102
Final

Residential Lighting

A-2
Final

90

Data Sources » Residential General Service LED Lamps (60 Watt Equivalent)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023** 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

Model, Energy 

Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting 

in General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

2020 DOE LED 

Pricing Analysis

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

ENERGY 

STAR, 2020

DOE, 2022

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated Model DOE Goals Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

CRI

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs N/A

Assume Unchanged Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) Model DOE Goals Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

Model Reference 

Scenario, Energy 

Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting 

in General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

2020 DOE LED 

Pricing Analysis

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

N/A

Model DOE Goals Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h) N/A Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated N/A Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

91

Data Sources » Residential General Service Filament-LED Lamps (60 Watt Equivalent)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023** 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

Model, Energy 

Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting 

in General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

2020 DOE LED 

Pricing Analysis

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

ENERGY 

STAR, 2020

DOE, 2022

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated Model DOE Goals Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

CRI

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs N/A

Assume Unchanged Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) Model DOE Goals Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

Model Reference 

Scenario, Energy 

Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting 

in General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

2020 DOE LED 

Pricing Analysis

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

N/A

Model DOE Goals Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h) N/A Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated N/A Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

92

Data Sources » Residential Reflector LED BR30

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023** 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage Model 

Reference 

Scenario, 

Energy 

Savings 

Forecast of 

Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illuminatio

n 

Application

s (Navigant, 

2019)

2020 DOE 

LED Pricing 

Analysis

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

ENERGY 

STAR, 2020

DOE, 2022

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated Model DOE Goals Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

CRI

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs N/A

Assume Unchanged Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Model DOE Goals Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

Model 

Reference 

Scenario, 

Energy 

Savings 

Forecast of 

Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illuminatio

n 

Application

s (Navigant, 

2019)

2020 DOE 

LED Pricing 

Analysis

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

N/A

Model DOE Goals Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h) N/A Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated N/A Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

93

Data Sources » Residential Reflector LED PAR38

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023** 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

Model Reference 

Scenario, Energy 

Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in 

General Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

ENERGY 

STAR, 2020

DOE, 2022

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated Model DOE Goals Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

CRI

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs N/A

Assume Unchanged Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) Model DOE Goals Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

Model Reference 

Scenario, Energy 

Savings Forecast of 

Solid-State Lighting in 

General Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

N/A

Model DOE Goals Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h) N/A Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated N/A Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

94

Data Sources » Residential Linear LED Replacement Lamp 2-Lamp System

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

LED Webscrape 

Database

DOE Webscrape 

Database Distributor Websites

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Same as 2022 Typical and High

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

System Wattage 

System Lumens Calculated

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A

CRI 2016 EIA Ref. Case Distributor Websites

Distributor Websites Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) 2016 EIA Ref. Case

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) LED Webscrape 

Database

DOE Web Scrape 

Database

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$) LED Webscrape 

Database

DOE Web Scrape 

Database Distributor Websites Calculated

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A Fixture Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

Labor System Installation (hours) N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

95

Data Sources » Residential Linear LED Luminaire

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

Lamp Lumens N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

LED Webscrape 

Database

DOE Web Scrape 

Database Distributor Websites

Calculated

System Lumens Assume Same as 2022 Typical and High

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A

CRI LED Webscrape 

Database

DOE Web Scrape 

Database Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) Distributor Websites Distributor Websites

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp or Luminaire Price (2022$) LED Webscrape 

Database

DOE Web Scrape 

Database Distributor Websites Calculated

Ballast Price (2022$)

N/A Fixture Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

2016 EIA Ref. Case 2022 RS Means Online

Labor System Installation (hours)

Labor Lamp Change (hours) N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

96

Data Sources » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Security: LED PAR38)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023* 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

Same as Residential LED PAR38

Lamp Lumens 

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

CRI

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (1000 hrs) 

Annual Operating Hours (hrs/yr)

Lamp Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

Labor Cost (2022$/hr)

Labor Lamp Installation (hr)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/klm)
Final

97

Data Sources » Residential Outdoor Lamps (Porch: LED A-Type)

DATA SOURCES

2015 2020 2022 2023* 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR* Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage Model 

Reference 

Scenario, 

Energy 

Savings 

Forecast of 

Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 

2019)

2020 DOE 

LED Pricing 

Analysis

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

ENERGY 

STAR, 2020

DOE, 2022

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) Calculated Model DOE Goals Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in 

General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

CRI

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs N/A

Assume Unchanged Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Model DOE Goals Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in 

General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

Model 

Reference 

Scenario, 

Energy 

Savings 

Forecast of 

Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 

2019)

2020 DOE 

LED Pricing 

Analysis

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

N/A

Model DOE Goals Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in 

General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h) N/A Labor Lamp Installation (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

Commercial Lighting

A-10
Final

99

Data Sources » Commercial General Service 100W Equivalent LED Replacement Lamp in Recessed Can Fixture

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA 

Reference Case

Model Reference 

Scenario, Energy 

Savings Forecast 

of Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs ENERGY STAR, 

2020 DOE, 2022

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

System Wattage 

Calculated System Lumens* 

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE)

CRI

Model Reference 

Scenario, Energy 

Savings Forecast 

of Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs 

ENERGY STAR, 

2020

N/A

Assume Unchanged

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) ENERGY STAR, 

2020

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019) Assume Unchanged

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp P rice (2022$)

2016 EIA 

Reference Case

Model Reference 

Scenario, Energy 

Savings Forecast 

of Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019) Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs N/A

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Ballast P rice (2022$) N/A N/A Fixture Price (2022$)*

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated Calculated

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) 2016 EIA 

Reference Case Labor System Installation (hours) 2022 RS Means Online 2022 RS Means Online

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

100

Data Sources » Commercial LED Reflector Lighting (PAR38)

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2023 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low Typical High ENERGY STAR Standard Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA 

Reference Case

Model Reference 

Scenario, Energy 

Savings Forecast 

of Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs ENERGY STAR, 

2020 DOE, 2022

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Unchanged

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

System Wattage 

Calculated System Lumens*

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE)

CRI

Model Reference 

Scenario, Energy 

Savings Forecast 

of Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs 

ENERGY STAR, 

2020

N/A

Assume Unchanged

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) N/A

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) ENERGY STAR, 

2020

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State 

Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019) Assume Unchanged

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp P rice (2022$)

2016 EIA 

Reference Case

Model Reference 

Scenario, Energy 

Savings Forecast 

of Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019) Distributor Websites or Product Catalogs N/A

Model Reference Scenario, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Ballast P rice (2022$) N/A N/A Fixture Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated Calculated

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) N/A N/A

Labor Cost (2022$/h) 2016 EIA 

Reference Case Labor System Installation (hours) 2022 RS Means Online 2022 RS Means Online

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

A-13

Data Sources » Commercial 4-ft Linear LED Replacement Lamp in 2-Lamp System

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

LED 

Webscrape 

Database

Distributor Websites

Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Same as 2022 Typical and High

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting 

in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

System Wattage 

System Lumens Calculated

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A

CRI

Distributor Websites Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

LED 

Webscrape 

Database

Distributor Websites Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting 

in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A Fixture Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h) 2016 EIA Ref. 

Case 2022 RS Means Online

Labor System Installation (hours) N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hours) Assume unchanged

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

A-14

Data Sources » Commercial 4-ft Linear LED Luminaire to Replace 2-Lamp Systems

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case

Lamp Lumens N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage LED 

Webscrape 

Database

Distributor Websites

Calculated

System Lumens Assume Same as 2022 Typical and High

System Efficacy (lm/W) Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting 

in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A

CRI

Distributor Websites Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)

Average Lifetime (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp or Luminaire Price (2022$)

LED 

Webscrape 

Database

Distributor Websites Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting 

in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Ballast Price (2022$)

Fixture Price (2022$) N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h) 2016 EIA Ref. 

Case 2022 RS Means Online

Labor System Installation (hours) 2022 RS Means Online

Labor Lamp Change (hours) N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

A-15

Data Sources » Commercial 8-ft Linear LED Replacement Lamp for a 2-Lamp System

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock Average

Installed 

Stock Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

N/A

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case, 2015 

typical

Distributor Websites Calculated

Lamp Lumens Assume Same as 2022 Typical and High

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

Calculated

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in 

General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

System Wattage 

System Lumens Calculated Calculated

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A

CRI 2016 EIA Ref. 

Case, 2015 

typical

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) Distributor Websites

Average Lamp Life (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case, 2015 

typical

Distributor Websites

Calculated

Ballast Price (2022$) N/A Fixture Price (2022$)

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm)

Labor Cost (2022$/h) 2022 RS Means Online

Labor System Installation (hours) N/A

Labor Lamp Change (hours) Chapter 8; Table 8.2.4 of GSFL IRL Preliminary Analysis TSD (DOE, 2013)

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

A-16

Data Sources » Commercial 8-ft Linear LED Luminaire Replacement for a 2-Lamp System

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock Average

Installed 

Stock Average Low Typical High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Lamp Wattage 

N/A

Lamp Lumens N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case, 2015 

typical

Distributor Websites

Calculated

System Lumens Assume Same as 2022 Typical and High

System Efficacy (lm/W) Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in 

General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A

CRI 2016 EIA Ref. 

Case, 2015 

typical

Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) Distributor Websites

Average Lifetime (thousand hours) 

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017

Lamp or Luminaire Price (2022$)

2016 EIA Ref. 

Case, 2015 

typical

Distributor Websites

Ballast Price (2022$)

Fixture Price (2022$) N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated

Labor Cost (2022$/h) 2016 EIA Ref. 

Case, 2015 

typical

2022 RS Means Online Labor System Installation (hours)

Labor Lamp Change (hours) N/A

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

Total Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

105

Data Sources » Commercial LED Low-Bay Luminaire

DAT A SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low T ypical High T ypical High T ypical High T ypical High

Lamp Wattage 

Lamp Lumens N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

2016 EIA 

Reference Case

Model, Energy 

Savings Forecast 

of Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

N/A

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 

2019)

System Lumens 

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency N/A N/A N/A

CRI

Model, Energy 

Savings Forecast 

of Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

Correlated Color T emperature (CCT ) Assume Unchanged

Average Lifetime (thousand hours) 

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 

2019)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017 DOE, 2017

Lamp or Luminaire Price (2022$)

2016 EIA 

Reference Case

Model, Energy 

Savings Forecast 

of Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 

2019)

Ballast Price (2022$)

N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated Calculated

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 

2019)

Labor Cost (2022$/h)

2016 EIA 

Reference Case 2022 RS Means Online

Labor System Installation (hours)

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Calculated Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

106

Data Sources » Commercial LED High-Bay Luminaire

DAT A SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed Stock 

Average Low T ypical High T ypical High T ypical High T ypical High

Lamp Wattage 

Lamp Lumens N/A

Lamp Efficacy (lm/W) 

System Wattage 

2016 EIA 

Reference Case

Model, Energy 

Savings Forecast 

of Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

N/A

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

System Lumens 

System Efficacy (lm/W) 

Ballast Efficiency (BLE) N/A N/A N/A

CRI Model, Energy 

Savings Forecast 

of Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

Correlated Color T emperature (CCT ) Assume Unchanged

Average Lifetime (thousand hours) 

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Annual Operating Hours (h/y) DOE, 2017 DOE, 2017 DOE, 2017

Lamp or Luminaire Price (2022$)

2016 EIA 

Reference Case

Model, Energy 

Savings Forecast 

of Solid-State 

Lighting in 

General 

Illumination 

Applications 

(Navigant, 2019)

Distributor Websites or Product 

Catalogs 

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019)

Ballast Price (2022$)

N/A N/A

Fixture Price (2022$) N/A

Lamp Cost (2022$/klm) 

System (l/b/f) Cost (2022$/klm) Calculated Calculated

Model, Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination Applications (Navigant, 2019) Labor Cost (2022$/h)

2016 EIA 

Reference Case 2022 RS Means Online

Labor System Installation (hours)

Labor Lamp Change (hours)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$)

Calculated Calculated Calculated Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$)

T otal Installed Cost (2022$/klm)

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/klm)
Final

Refrigeration

A-19
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Compressor Rack Systems

A-3

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Total Capacity (kBtu/h) ADL, 1996 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Median Store Size (ft2

) 

Food 

Marketing 

Institute 

(FMI), 2012

CBECS 2018

Power Input (kW) Copeland, 

2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Energy Use (MMWh/y)

ADL, 1996 / 

NCI 

Analysis, 

2015

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Indexed Annual Efficiency Calculated

Average Life (years) KysorWarren, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

NCI, 2009 /

NCI 

Analysis, 

2012

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)

ADL, 1996 / 

NCI 

Analysis, 

2008

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Condensers

A-4

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Total Capacity (kBtu/h)

NCI Analysis, 

2008 / Heatcraft, 

2008 / ADL, 1996

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Median Store Size (ft2) 

Food Marketing 

Institute (FMI), 

2012

CBECS 2018

Power Input (kW)

NCI Analysis, 

2008 / Heatcraft, 

2008 / ADL, 1996

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Energy Use 

(MMWh/y)

NCI Analysis, 

2008 / ADL, 1996 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Indexed Annual Efficiency Calculated

Average Life (years) ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Total Installed Cost (2022$)

NCI Analysis, 

2008 / Heatcraft, 

2008 / RS Means, 

2007

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)

NCI Analysis, 

2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Supermarket Display Cases

A-2

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical ENERGY 

STAR High Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h) DOE, 2007 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Median Store Size (ft2) 

Food Marketing 

Institute (FMI), 

2012

CBECS 2018

Case Length (ft) DOE, 2016: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Energy Use 

(kWh/y)1,2

DOE, 2007 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Energy Use / Case 

Length (kWh/ft) Calculated

Indexed Annual 

Efficiency3 Calculated

Average Life (years) DOE, 2007 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2016: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$)

DOE, 2007 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022 / The Restaurant Store

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$)

DOE, 2007 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)4

DOE, 2007 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Reach-In Refrigerators

A-7

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h)ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report

Size (ft3) 

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor Web 

Sites

DOE, 2014: CRE Report

Annual Energy Use 

(kWh/y)

ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022 / ENERGY STAR 2022

Annual Energy Use / 

Volume (kWh/y/ft3)

NCI Analysis, 

2012 Calculated

Indexed Annual 

Efficiency Calculated

Average Life (years) Calculated

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$) ACEEE, 2002 DOE, 2014: CRE TSD

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$)

ADL, 1996/ 

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022 / ENERGY STAR 2022 / The Restaurant Store

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h)

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Maintenance 

Cost (2022$) Calculated

Annual Maintenance 

Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) 

NCI Analysis, 

2008 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Maintenance 

Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Reach-In Freezers

A-8

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity 

(Btu/h)

ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2016: CRE Report

Size (ft3) 

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor Web 

Sites

DOE, 2016: CRE Report

Annual Energy Use 

(kWh/y)

ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2016: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Energy Use / 

Volume (kWh/y/ft3)

NCI Analysis, 

2012 Calculated

Indexed Annual 

Efficiency Calculated

Average Life (years) ACEEE, 2002 DOE, 2016: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Retail Equipment 

Cost (2022$)

ADL, 1996/ 

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2016: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022 / ENERGY STAR 2022 / The Restaurant Store

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$)

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2016: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Annual Maintenance 

Cost (2022$)

NCI Analysis, 

2008 DOE, 2016: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Maintenance 

Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Walk-In Refrigerators

A-5

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity 

(Btu/h) DOE CRE Report 2016 / CCMS 2022 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Size (ft2) DOE 2014 WICF TSD / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Energy Use 

(kWh/y)

ADL, 1996 / 

PG&E, 2004 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE CRE Report 2016 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Energy Use / 

Area (kWh/ft2/y) Calculated

Indexed Annual 

Efficiency Calculated

Insulated Box 

Average Life (years)

ADL, 1996 / 

PG&E, 2004 DOE CRE Report 2016 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Compressor Average 

Life (years)

ADL, 1996 / 

PG&E, 2004 DOE CRE Report 2016 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Retail Equipment 

Cost (2022$)

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE CRE Report 2016 / Webstaurant 2022 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$)

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE CRE Report 2016 / Webstaurant 2022 / Guidehouse Analysis 2023

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Annual Maintenance 

Cost (2022$)

ADL, 1996 / FMI, 

2005 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE CRE Report 2016 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Maintenance 

Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Walk-In Freezers

A-6

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity 

(Btu/h)

ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE CRE Report 2016 / CCMS 2022 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Size (ft2) ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Energy Use 

(kWh/y)

ADL, 1996 / 

PG&E, 2004 / 

NCI Analysis, 

2008

Guidehouse CRE Report 2016

Annual Energy Use / 

Area (kWh/ft2/y) Calculated

Indexed Annual 

Efficiency Calculated

Insulated Box Average 

Life (years)

ADL, 1996 / 

PG&E, 2004 DOE CRE Report 2016 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Compressor Average 

Life (years)

ADL, 1996 / 

PG&E, 2004 DOE CRE Report 2016 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$)

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE CRE Report 2016 / Webstaurant 2022 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$)

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE CRE Report 2016 / Webstaurant 2022 / Guidehouse Analysis 2023

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Annual Maintenance 

Cost (2022$) DOE CRE Report 2016 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Maintenance 

Cost (2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Ice Machines

A-9

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Output (pounds [lbs] per 

day)

ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2022: ACIM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022 / CCMS Database 2022

Water Use per Hundred 

Pounds (gal/hundred lbs)

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor Web 

Sites

DOE, 2022: ACIM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022 / CCMS Database 2022

Energy Use per Hundred 

Pounds (kWh/hundred 

lbs)

ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2022: ACIM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022

Annual Energy Use 

(kWh/y)

ACEEE, 2002 /

NCI Analysis, 

2012

DOE, 2022: ACIM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022 / ENERGY STAR

Indexed Annual EfficiencyCalculated

Average Life (years)

ADL, 1996/ 

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2022: ACIM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022

Retail Equipment Cost 

(2022$)

Distributor Web 

Sites / NCI 

Analysis, 2008

DOE, 2022: ACIM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022

Total Installed Cost (with 

Bin)

NCI Analysis, 

2008 DOE, 2022: ACIM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)

ADL, 1996 / NCI 

Analysis, 2008 DOE, 2022: ACIM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Beverage Merchandisers

A-10

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h) DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Size (ft3

) 

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor 

Web Sites

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y)

ADL, 1996 / 

NCI 

Analysis, 

2008

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022 / ENERGY STAR 2022

Annual Energy Use / Volume 

(kWh/ft3

/y) Calculated

Indexed Annual Efficiency Calculated

Average Life (years) ACEEE, 2002 DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)

ADL, 1996 / 

Distributor 

Web Sites

DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022 / KaTom Restaurant Supply

Total Installed Cost (2022$) DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) DOE, 2014: CRE Report / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Refrigerated Vending Machines

A-11

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

Cooling Capacity (Btu/h)

DOE, 2015: 

BVM TSD / 

Guidehouse 

Analysis, 

2015

DOE, 2022: BVM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022

Can Capacity DOE, 2015: 

BVM TSD DOE, 2022: BVM TSD

Size (ft3) DOE, 2022: BVM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022

Annual Energy Use (kWh/y) DOE, 2015: 

BVM TSD DOE, 2022: BVM TSD

Annual Energy Use / Volume 

(kWh/ft3/y) Calculated

Indexed Annual Efficiency Calculated

Average Life (years) DOE, 2015: 

BVM TSD DOE, 2022: BVM TSD

Retail Equipment Cost (2022$)DOE, 2015: 

BVM TSD DOE, 2022: BVM TSD

Total Installed Cost (2022$) DOE, 2015: 

BVM TSD DOE, 2022: BVM TSD

Total Installed Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$)

DOE, 2015: 

BVM TSD / 

Guidehouse 

Analysis, 

2015

DOE, 2022: BVM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022

Annual Maintenance Cost 

(2022$/kBtu/h) DOE, 2022: BVM TSD / Guidehouse Analysis, 2022
Final

118

Commercial Ventilation 
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Constant Air Volume Ventilation

A-12

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock Average

Installed 

Stock Average Low Typical High ENERGY STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

System Airflow (CFM) CBECS 2003 & 

BED 2007 CBECS 2018

System Fan Power (kW) ASHRAE 90.1-

2007

ASHRAE 90.1-

2016

ASHRAE 90.1-

2019 Specific Fan Power (W/CFM) ASHRAE 90.1 2019 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Fan Energy Use (kWh/y)

Average Life (years) ASHRAE: Service Life Database

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 2022 RS Means Online

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 2022 RS Means Online / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$/thousand CFM) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/thousand CFM) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Variable Air Volume Ventilation

A-13

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

System Airflow (CFM) CBECS 2003 

& BED 2007 CBECS 2018

System Fan Power (kW) 

ASHRAE 

90.1-2007

ASHRAE 

90.1-2016

ASHRAE 

90.1-2019 Specific Fan Power (W/CFM) ASHRAE 90.1 2019 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Fan Energy Use (kWh/y)

Average Life (years) ASHRAE: Service Life Database

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 2022 RS Means Online

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 2022 RS Means Online / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$/thousand CFM) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/thousand 

CFM) Calculated
Final

Data Sources » Commercial Fan Coil Unit

A-14

DATA SOURCES

2012 2018 2022 2030 2040 2050

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Installed 

Stock 

Average

Low Typical High ENERGY 

STAR Typical High Typical High Typical High

System Airflow (CFM) Product Literature

System Fan Power (kW) 

ASHRAE 90.1-

2007

ASHRAE 90.1-

2016

ASHRAE 90.1-

2019 Specific Fan Power (W/CFM) ASHRAE 90.1 2019 / Guidehouse Analysis 2022

Annual Fan Energy Use (kWh/y)

Average Life (years) ASHRAE: Service Life Database

Total Installed Cost (2022$) 2022 RS Means Online

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$) 2022 RS Means Online / Guidehouse

Total Installed Cost (2022$/thousand CFM) Calculated

Annual Maintenance Cost (2022$/thousand CFM) Calculated
Final

Appendix B

References

122

Guidehouse

1200 19th Street, NW, Suite 700

Washington, D.C. 20036

And

Leidos

11951 Freedom Drive 

Reston, VA 20190
Final

References

• ASHRAE Service Life and Maintenance Cost Database. (n.d.).

• ASHRAE 90.1-2010, 2016, 2019. Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings

• Appliance Magazine. (2005). Portrait of the U.S. Appliance Industry. Appliance Magazine.

• Arthur D. Little. (1996). Energy Savings Potential for Commercial Refrigeration Equipment.

• DOE SSL Program. (2012a). 2010 U.S. Lighting Market Characterization

• DOE SSL Program. (2012b). Residential Lighting End-Use Consumption Study: Estimation Framework and Initial Estimates

• DOE SSL Program. (2017). 2015 U.S. Lighting Market Characterization

• DOE Appliance and Equipment Standards Program. (2022). The Compliance Certification Database.

• EERE. (2014). Energy Conservation Program for Appliance Standards: Automatic Commercial Ice Makers

• EERE. (2014). Energy Conservation Program for Appliance Standards: Commercial Refrigeration Equipment.

• EERE. (2014). Energy Conservation Program for Appliance Standards: Refrigerated Beverage Vending Machines

• EERE. (2015). Energy Conservation Program for Appliance Standards: Walk-in Coolers and Freezers.

• ENERGY STAR. (n.d.). Retrieved November 2015, from ENERGY STAR Products: 

http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=products.pr_find_es_products

• ENERGY STAR. (2020) from ENERGY STAR Lamps Specification Version 2.1: 

https://www.energystar.gov/sites/default/files/Lamps%20V2.1%20Final%20Specification%20%28Revised%20June%202

020%29_0.pdf

B-1
Final

References

• ENERGY STAR. (2014) ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Lamps (Light Bulbs) Eligibility 

Criteria Version 1.1

• ENERGY STAR. (2012) ENERGY STAR® Program Requirements Product Specification for Luminaires (Light Fixtures) 

Eligibility Criteria Version 1.1

• Environmental Protection Agency. (2022). Establishing a Recycling Program for Mercury-Containing Light Bulbs. From: 

https://www.epa.gov/hw/establishing-recycling-program-mercury-containing-light-bulbs

• Federal Standard. (1975). National energy conservation standards authorized under the Energy and Policy 

Conservation Act of 2007 (EPCA 1975).

• Federal Standard. (2005). National energy conservation standards authorized under the Energy Policy Act of 2005 

(EPACT 2005).

• Federal Standard. (2007). National energy conservation standards authorized under the Energy Independence and 

Security Act of 2007 (EISA 2007).

• Food Marketing Institute. (n.d.). Retrieved May 2022, from FMI Supermarket Facts: https://www.fmi.org/ourresearch/supermarket-facts/average-total-store-size-square-feetLighting Research Institute. (1992). Specifier Reports, 

Specular Reflectors.

• KaTom. (n.d.) Retrieved May 2022, From: https://www.katom.com/

• Navigant Consulting, Inc. (2009). Energy Savings Potential and R&D Opportunities for Commercial Refrigeration.

• Navigant Consulting, Inc. (n.d.). In House Expertise.

B-2
Final

References

• Navigant Consulting, Inc. (2019). Energy Savings Forecast of Solid-State Lighting in General Illumination 

Applications, Model. https://www.energy.gov/eere/ssl/downloads/2019-ssl-forecast-report

• Product Literature. (n.d.). Literature from manufacturers and experts on specific products

• The Restaurant Store. (n.d.). Retrieved May 2022, From: https://www.therestaurantstore.com/

• RS Means Online. (2022). Retrieved June 2022, From: https://www.rsmeansonline.com/

• Webstaurant. (n.d.) Retrieved May 2022, From: https://www.webstaurantstore.com/

B-3