Defense Threat Reduction Agency

8725 John J. Kingman Road, MS-6201

Fort Belvoir, VA 22060-6201

Skin Dose Assessment Methodology for 

Military Personnel at McMurdo Station, Antarctica 

(1962-1979)

DISTRIBUTION A. Approved for public release: distribution is unlimited

June 2014

Prepared by:

McMurdo Station Radiation Dose Assessment 

Integrated Project Team

For:

Assistant Secretary of Defense for Health Affairs

and Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Safety

DTRA-TR-14-022

TECHNICAL REPORT
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Skin Dose Assessment Methodology for Military Personnel 

at McMurdo Station, Antarctica (1962-1979)

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6. AUTHOR(S)

McKenzie-Carter, Michael A.

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Leidos, Inc., 11951 Freedom Drive, Reston, VA 20190

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Nuclear Technologies Department, Attn: Dr. Paul Blake 

Defense Threat Reduction Agency 

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13. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

14. ABSTRACT

This report describes an approach to estimating skin doses for McMurdo Station veterans who were present at 

McMurdo Station at any time during 1962-1979. This report is based largely on the information contained in an earlier 

external and internal dose assessment for McMurdo Station veterans (DTRA-TR-12-003). The skin dose assessment 

methods include the use of high-sided estimates of parameters along with uncertainty factors that lead to upper-bound 

doses. In addition to reliance on DTRA-TR-12-003, the methodology includes information, parameters, and values 

contained in applicable Standard Operating Procedures for the Nuclear Test Personnel Review (NTPR) program, and in 

other widely available reference documents. The report includes two examples demonstrating the skin dose 

calculations for all exposure pathways, and Appendices containing tables of relevant parameter values.

15. SUBJECT TERMS

McMurdo Station, Veterans, Skin Dose, Radiation Dose Assessment, Nuclear Test Personnel Review Program

16. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF: 17. LIMITATION OF 

ABSTRACT

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OF PAGES

35 Pages

19a. NAME OF RESPONSIBLE PERSON 

Paul K. Blake, PhD

a. REPORT

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b. ABSTRACT

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c. THIS PAGE

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 (703) 767-3384
UNIT CONVERSION TABLE

U.S. customary units to and from international units of measurement*

U.S. Customary Units Multiply by International Units Divide by†

Length/Area/Volume

inch (in) 2.54 × 10–2 meter (m)

foot (ft) 3.048 × 10–1 meter (m)

yard (yd) 9.144 × 10–1 meter (m)

mile (mi, international) 1.609 344 × 103 meter (m)

mile (nmi, nautical, U.S.) 1.852 × 103 meter (m)

barn (b) 1 × 10–28 square meter (m2)

gallon (gal, U.S. liquid) 3.785 412 × 10–3 cubic meter (m3)

cubic foot (ft3) 2.831 685 × 10–2 cubic meter (m3)

Mass/Density

pound (lb) 4.535 924 × 10–1 kilogram (kg)

atomic mass unit (AMU) 1.660 539 × 10–27 kilogram (kg)

pound-mass per cubic foot (lb ft–3) 1.601 846 × 101 kilogram per cubic meter

(kg m–3)

pound-force (lbf avoirdupois) 4.448 222 newton (N)

Energy/Work/Power

electronvolt (eV) 1.602 177 × 10–19 joule (J)

erg 1 × 10–7 joule (J)

kiloton (kT) (TNT equivalent) 4.184 × 1012 joule (J)

British thermal unit (Btu) (thermochemical) 1.054 350 × 103 joule (J)

foot-pound-force (ft lbf) 1.355 818 joule (J)

calorie (cal) (thermochemical) 4.184 joule (J)

Pressure

atmosphere (atm) 1.013 250 × 105 pascal (Pa)

pound force per square inch (psi) 6.984 757 × 103 pascal (Pa)

Temperature

degree Fahrenheit (oF) [T(oF) − 32]/1.8 degree Celsius (oC)

degree Fahrenheit (oF) [T(oF) + 459.67]/1.8 kelvin (K)

Radiation

curie (Ci) (activity of radionuclides) 3.7 × 1010 s

–1‡

air exposure (roentgen) 2.579 760 × 10–4 coulomb per kilogram

(C kg–1)

absorbed dose (rad) 1 × 10–2 J kg–1§

equivalent and effective dose (rem) 1 × 10–2 J kg–1**

* Specific details regarding the implementation of SI units may be viewed at http://www.bipm.org/en/si/. † Multiply the U.S. customary unit by the factor to get the international unit. Divide the international unit by the factor to get the 

U.S. customary unit.

‡ The special name for the SI unit of the activity of a radionuclide is the becquerel (Bq). (1 Bq = 1 s–1

). § The special name for the SI unit of absorbed dose is the gray (Gy). (1 Gy = 1 J kg–1

). ** The special name for the SI unit of equivalent and effective dose is the sievert (Sv). (1 Sv = 1 J kg–1

).
i

DTRA-TR-14-022: Skin Dose Assessment Methodology for Military Personnel at 

McMurdo Station, Antarctica (1962-1979)

Table of Contents

List of Tables............................................................................................................................. ii

Executive Summary .................................................................................................................. iii

Section 1. Introduction................................................................................................................1

Section 2. Skin Dose from Immersion in Air Containing Radioactive Noble Gases.....................3

Section 3. Skin Dose from Contaminated Soil Groundshine........................................................5

Section 4. Skin Dose from Dermal or Clothing Contamination ...................................................7

Section 5. Uncertainty Considerations.........................................................................................9

Section 6. Example Skin Dose Calculations..............................................................................11

6.1 Example 1: Winter-over during NPP Operational Period ..............................11

6.2 Example 2: Winter-over during Decommissioning Period ............................12

Section 7. References................................................................................................................17

Appendix A. Parameter Values for Skin Dose Assessments ......................................................19

Appendix B. Skin Doses for Standard Height Skin Sites ...........................................................23

Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Unit Symbols...........................................................................27
ii

List of Tables

Table 1. Parameter values applicable to Example 1 ..................................................................11

Table 2. Parameter values applicable to Example 2 ..................................................................13

Table 3. Summary of skin doses for three skin sites of Example 2............................................15

Table A-1. Beta-to-gamma dose ratios for bare skin exposures to mixed fission products at the 

Nevada Test Site.....................................................................................................19

Table A-2. Modification factors for light clothing ....................................................................20

Table A-3. Standard Heights and Corresponding Parameter Values..........................................20

Table A-4. Summary of factors in the calculation of the effective retention factor ....................21

Table A-5. Interception and retention fractions, and effective retention factors.........................22

Table B-1. Standard height external skin doses (mSv) for all applicable exposure pathways and 

DF* tours................................................................................................................25

Table B-2. Upper-bound external skin doses* from skin-specific exposure pathways for all DF 

tours.......................................................................................................................26
iii

Executive Summary

During 1962–1979, an onsite nuclear power plant (NPP) was operated, and eventually 

dismantled and decommissioned at McMurdo Station, Antarctica. A radiation dose assessment 

for U.S. Department of Defense military personnel who were stationed at McMurdo Station from 

1962 to 1979 has been accomplished and documented in a previous report (DTRA-TR-12-003). 

That previous report did not address potential skin doses for these personnel, and to address that 

need the current report describes an approach to estimating skin doses for McMurdo Station 

veterans who were present at McMurdo Station at any time during 1962-1979. The methodology 

is applicable to personnel who were present at McMurdo Station during either a winter-over or 

during an austral summer period.

The skin dose methodology described in this report is based on the exposure pathways, 

radiological data, and exposure parameter values identified in DTRA-TR-12-003. The methods 

include the use of high-sided estimates of parameters along with uncertainty factors that lead to 

upper-bound doses. Equations for skin doses from three exposure pathways are described: 

immersion in outdoor air containing radioactive noble gases; ground shine from spilled 

contaminated soil; and dermal contamination from deposition of suspended contaminated soil on 

the skin or clothing. In addition to the use of information in DTRA-TR-12-003, the methodology 

incorporates relevant information, parameters, and values from applicable Standard Operating 

Procedures for the Nuclear Test Personnel Review program, and in other widely available 

reference documents. 

To illustrate the use of the dose equations, the report includes detailed skin dose 

calculations for two example scenarios covering all exposure pathways. The first example 

addresses the potential skin dose for an individual present at McMurdo Station during a winterover period while the NPP was operational. The upper-bound skin dose for this example is 

6.1 mSv (0.61 rem), and is applicable to any skin site. The second example addresses a winterover period during the time the NPP was being decommissioned. The highest upper-bound skin 

dose calculated in this example is 182 mSv (18.2 rem), calculated for the neck. Because of the 

high interception and retention fraction assumed for the neck, the dose calculated for the skin of 

the neck in the second example will likely bound the potential skin doses for any skin site for all 

McMurdo Station veterans. 
iv

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1

Section 1.

Introduction

During 1962–1979, an onsite nuclear power plant (NPP) was built, operated, and 

eventually dismantled and decommissioned at McMurdo Station, Antarctica. A radiation dose 

assessment for U.S. Department of Defense military personnel who were stationed at McMurdo 

Station during Operation Deep Freeze (DF) from 1962 to 1979 was accomplished in DTRA-TR12-003 (Dunavant et al., 2013). That dose assessment addresses external and internal doses for 

the whole body, thyroid, and red bone marrow. Subsequent to the publication of DTRA-TR-12-

003, the need for potential skin doses for McMurdo veterans was identified. To address that 

need, an approach to estimating skin doses for McMurdo Station veterans was developed and is 

described here.

The assessment of skin doses is based on the exposure pathways, radiological data, and 

exposure parameter values identified in the earlier external and internal dose assessment. The 

objective of that previous dose assessment was to estimate upper-bound external and internal 

radiation doses for McMurdo Station support personnel. This objective resulted in the use of 

high-sided parameter values, selected to represent the top of the range of plausible values. The 

assessment of skin doses in the present document mirrors the approach of the external and 

internal dose assessment, and uses high-sided assumptions, models, and parameter values 

whenever possible that are designed to produce conservative estimates of potential skin doses for 

McMurdo Station veterans. (Dunavant et al., 2013)

Military personnel were assigned to McMurdo Station for as long as a full winter-over 

period (from October to November of the following year), or during all or part of an austral 

summer (October to March). For all DF years, skin doses can be calculated for both winter-over 

or austral summer periods. (Dunavant et al., 2013)

The methodologies described in Dunavant et al. (2013) include general external exposure 

pathways for gamma radiation that can result in doses to the skin. The methodologies described 

in the current report address additional skin-specific exposure pathways that can result in skin 

doses from both beta and gamma radiation, and that are not addressed in the previous report. The 

skin-specific exposure pathways, and the applicable Operation DF periods for each pathway, are:

• Immersion in outdoor air containing radioactive noble gases (DF62–DF73 for both winterover and austral summer personnel)

• Ground shine from contaminated soil spilled on the ground, roads, and loading areas (DF75–

DF79 for both winter-over and austral summer personnel)

• Dermal contamination from deposition of suspended contaminated soil on the skin or 

clothing: 

– During decommissioning, from excavation and removal of backfill at NPP (DF75–DF79

for both winter-over and austral summer personnel).

– From suspended contaminated soil spilled on roadways or the ship loading areas (DF75–

DF79 for both winter-over and for austral summer personnel).
2

An air immersion skin dose from suspended contaminated soil is also a possible exposure 

pathway. This pathway was evaluated during preparation of this report and was found to be 

insignificant (the maximum potential skin dose is less than 0.01 mSv [0.001 rem]).

Specific methods (equations) to calculate skin doses for each of the pathways listed 

above have been developed using methodologies based on information, parameters, and values 

contained in DTRA-TR-12-003, in applicable Standard Operating procedures for the Nuclear 

Test Personnel Review (NTPR) program (DTRA, 2010), and in other widely available reference 

documents (e.g., USEPA, 1993). These methods and parameter values were developed to 

estimate the dose to the basal cell layer of the skin between the epidermis and the dermis, at a 

depth of 70 μm (0.007 cm). Use of this depth as the reference epidermal thickness is consistent 

with relevant guidance, e.g., ICRU (1997), USEPA (1993), ICRP (2002), and USNRC (2013).

The methods described in the following Sections (2–4) for skin-specific exposure 

pathways are designed to be relatively simple and straightforward to use for calculating generic 

high-sided skin dose estimates or high-sided estimates for specific individuals. Specific scenario 

parameter values required to perform an individual skin dose assessment, such as the specific 

skin site location on the body, can typically be obtained from veteran input (i.e., the veteran’s 

case file). Uncertainty considerations associated with the doses are discussed in Section 5. 

Examples of the potential skin doses resulting from the methodologies are provided in Section 6.
3

Section 2.

Skin Dose from Immersion in Air Containing

Radioactive Noble Gases

The reactor at McMurdo Station produced radioactive noble gases during its operation. 

Releases of Ar-41 are of primary concern for environmental exposures. Air containing Ar-41 

was released from the McMurdo Station NPP at concentrations not greater than 370 Bq m−3

(1.0 × 104pCi m−3). All support personnel who were assigned to McMurdo Station while the 

reactor was operational are assumed to have been exposed to this source of external radiation.

(Dunavant et al., 2013)

An estimate of the beta+gamma skin dose for this pathway is based on the information in 

Section 5.1.3 and Appendix B-1.4 of Dunavant et al. (2013), and is implemented using

Equation (1).

Dimm.skin = CNG × DCNG.Sub × Fwind × TNG (1)

where

Dimm.skin = Beta+gamma dose to skin (all skin sites) from air immersion (mSv)

CNG = Concentration of noble gases at accessible locations (Bq m−3)

DCNG.Sub = Noble gas air submersion dose coefficient for skin (mSv h−1

per 

Bq m−3)

Fwind = Wind direction factor (the fraction of time that the wind was blowing 

towards the direction of interest) (unitless)

TNG = Time duration for submersion in air (h) 

For a high-sided default estimate, the method used in Dunavant et al. (2013) for 

estimating the Ar-41 concentration (CNG) at a veteran’s location is used. In that report, the 

airborne concentration of Ar-41 corresponding to the concentration resulting in the maximum 

regulatory permissible dose was used (370 Bq m−3 [1.0 × 104

pCi m−3]). Use of this value

produces a high-sided dose estimate, and also simplifies the calculations because a single dose 

value is used for all winter-over or austral summer periods. 

The value(s) for air submersion dose coefficient(s) for skin (DCNG.Sub) are available from 

Federal Guidance Report (FGR) No. 12 (USEPA, 1993). The default value of 3.64 × 10−7

mSv h−1 per Bq m−3 for Ar-41 is used, consistent with Dunavant et al. (2013). To ensure a highsided dose estimate, there is no accounting for any shielding of beta particles afforded by the 

presence of clothing. To incorporate this clothing shielding, the dose coefficient DCNG.Sub could 

be modified to reduce the beta fraction by a factor that would account for the shielding effect of 

the clothing. This factor is estimated to be on the order of 10-50% (DTRA, 2010, ED03). 

However, this shielding factor is ignored in order to simplify and further high-side the dose 

calculation for this pathway. 
4

A value of 0.5 is used for the wind direction factor (Fwind), as recommended in Dunavant 

et al. (2013). 

The default value for the duration of air submersion (TNG) is 24 h d−1 for the entire 

winter-over or austral summer because noble gases could infiltrate to indoor locations. Using the 

nominal durations for austral summers (6 months) and winter-overs (14 months) yields TNG

values of approximately 4,380 h and 10,220 h for austral summers and winter-overs, 

respectively. (Dunavant et al., 2013)

Similar to the external dose due to immersion in noble gases described in Dunavant et al. 

(2013), the estimation of skin dose from this pathway does not require any veteran input – the 

resulting dose is bounding for all veterans. This means that there will be no exception ratios 

needed for this pathway in order to calculate a veteran-specific dose for any veteran requests 

(NDC, 2013).
5

Section 3.

Skin Dose from Contaminated Soil Groundshine

Personnel could have received skin doses from exposure to residual radiation from bulk 

contaminated soil spilled onto the ground during transport to the ship loading area or during ship 

loading. The dose estimate for this pathway is accomplished by using Equations (2) and (3).

Dsoili = D(x)βgrnd (2)

D(x)βgrnd = Dsoil.ext × R(x,t)βγ × M(x) (3)

where

Dsoili = Beta skin dose to skin site i from contaminated soil on the ground (mSv)

D(x)βgrnd = Beta dose to skin at height x above the ground (mSv)

Dsoil.ext = Gamma dose from exposure to contaminated soil on the ground (mSv)

R(x,t)βγ = Beta-to-gamma dose ratio at height x above an infinite plane source and 

time t following fission (unitless)

M(x) = Clothing modification factor for skin at height x (unitless)

Values for the gamma dose from contaminated soil on the ground (Dsoil.ext) for each DF 

period are obtained from information in Section 5.1.6 and Appendix B-1.7 and Tables 26 and 27

of Dunavant et al. (2013). Doses for all periods vary only slightly, from 0.03–0.04 mSv

(3-4 mrem). These doses are based on the highest level of contamination measured in soil 

samples in 1978 at McMurdo Station. 

Due to the limited ranges and relatively large attenuation of beta particles, beta-to-gamma 

dose ratios (R(x,t)βγ) are highly dependent on the distance and orientation of the skin site relative 

to the source, and the presence of shielding material between the source and the skin. In addition, 

if a mixture of radionuclides is present in the source, the ratio will be subject to variation with 

time. Consequently, the most useful beta-to-gamma dose ratios for McMurdo Station skin 

assessments are those in a form where ratios and the degree of shielding afforded by clothing are 

measured or calculated using the proper orientation and as a function of height and decay time. 

Ratios in this format were not located for power reactor effluents such as might be encountered 

by personnel at McMurdo Station. However, values in this form are available from the Nuclear 

Test Personnel Review (NTPR) Program for mixed fission products at two general sites: the 

Pacific Proving Ground and the Nevada Test Site (Barss and Weitz, 2006; DTRA, 2010-ED03). 

The NTPR values were calculated for various heights and post-fission times for an individual 

standing upright in an infinite planar field of mixed fission product deposition, and they 

incorporate body self-shielding and a film badge equivalency modification, as described in 

Appendix A. Corresponding values at the two sites are generally close to each other, in particular 
6

the values at a post-fission time of 1 year. The Nevada Test Site 1-year values are slightly higher 

than the corresponding values at Pacific Proving Ground, thus they are used as the default set for 

R(x,t)βγ in this skin dose assessment. The Nevada Test Site 1-year values range from about 164 to 

17 for heights from 1 to 200 cm as shown in Appendix A, Table A-1.

The NTS 1-year beta-to-gamma dose ratios are judged to be conservative estimates for 

use at McMurdo Station for several reasons. For example, the ratios were calculated neglecting 

certain items to simplify the calculations and to ensure that the ratios are high-sided. These 

neglected items include self-attenuation of large particles, surface roughness, and various 

weathering phenomena (Barss and Weitz, 2006). In addition, the NTS ratios were compared to 

other available sources of beta-to-gamma dose ratios, to ensure that they are reasonably 

conservative. Survey measurements at various indoor areas at various commercial U.S. reactor 

facilities showed beta-to-gamma dose ratios ranging from 0.1 to 42 at source-to-detector 

distances from 15 feet to 3 inches, although most measurements were made at distances of 

3-6 inches (Rathbun et al., 1984). And surveys done during general decontamination work at the 

Chernobyl site resulted in ratios of total dose (beta+gamma) to gamma dose of 2.5–11 measured 

at “the height of the face” (WHO, 2005). Finally, in the case of a single representative 

radionuclide, a beta-to-photon ratio of 21 was calculated for a point source of Cs-137 at a 

distance of 1 m (ORAU, 2012). Based on comparisons of these values with corresponding values 

from Appendix A, Table A-1, the NTS 1-year ratios represent reasonably conservative values to 

use for R(x,t)βγ.

Values for the clothing modification factor (M(x)), vary from about 0.42 to 0.88 for 

heights from 1–200 cm above the ground, assuming a covering of “light clothing” such as 

coveralls (DTRA, 2010-ED03). Values for M(x) also vary up to about ±10% for various time 

periods up to a year following fission, which is ignored for this analysis (values for post-fission 

time of 1 year are used as default values). A table of values for various heights and time postfission is included in Appendix A, Table A-2.

The skin dose from this pathway can also be estimated using the highest level of 

contamination measured in soil samples in 1978 at McMurdo Station (Dunavant et al., 2013), 

together with the dose coefficient for exposure to contaminated soil on the ground for skin from 

FGR Report No. 12 (USEPA, 1993) and appropriate duration parameter values. Doses from this 

second approach have been estimated and were determined to be lower but comparable to doses 

calculated using the first approach described above.

To incorporate veteran-specific information into the skin dose calculation from this 

pathway, the veteran’s height and skin sites of interest are needed. Also required is information 

regarding any clothing that may have covered the skin site(s). This veteran-specific information 

will determine the values for R(x,t)βγ and M(x) for use in an individual dose assessment.

Heights above the ground for typical skin sites for a “Standard Height” individual (height of 

172.7 cm [68 inches]), as well as other parameters discussed in this section, are listed in 

Appendix A, Table A-3.
7

Section 4.

Skin Dose from Dermal or Clothing Contamination

The skin dose due to the deposition of contaminated soil onto the skin (dermal 

contamination) or onto clothing is described in this section. This dose could result from 

contaminants in soil that are suspended and subsequently deposited directly onto exposed skin or 

onto clothing. Contaminated soil that was spilled onto the ground, roads, and loading areas at 

McMurdo Station could become suspended by wind action or through mechanical disturbances 

(e.g., walking, vehicles), and subsequently deposited onto the skin or clothing. This skin dose 

would presumably be accrued simultaneously with a dose from inhalation of the suspended soil, 

as described in Sections 5.2.2, 5.2.3, B-2.2, and B-2.3 of Dunavant et al. (2013). 

Skin dose estimates for this pathway are accomplished using the methodology used in the 

NTPR program (DTRA, 2010-ED04), together with appropriate values from Dunavant et al. 

(2013). An estimate of the skin dose from dermal contamination due to suspended contaminated 

soil is accomplished by using Equation (4).

Ddermali = ��Fresi × Caero × �

(∆tres)2

2 + ∆tres × ∆twash� × DCFskini × ws × 3600�

n

1

(4)

where:

Ddermali = Skin dose at skin site i from dermal or clothing contamination (mGy)

n = Number of days of exposure to suspended contaminated soil (days)

Fresi = Effective retention factor for soil contaminants at skin site i (unitless)

Caero = Concentration of soil contaminants in air (Bq m-3

)

∆tres = Duration of time spent in the area of contaminated soil (h)

∆twash = Time interval from exiting the area of contaminated soil to removal of 

deposited contaminants from the skin by washing (h)

DCFskini = Skin dose conversion factor for dermal contact or clothing 

contamination at skin site i (mGy h−1 per Bq m−2)

ws = Wind speed (m s−1)

3600 = Seconds in 1 hour (s h−1)

The value of the effective retention factor (Fresi) is dependent on the location of the skin 

site of interest on the body, because different skin sites exhibit different degrees of interception 

and retention of material. Using the deterministic values in Table 2 of ED04 (DTRA, 2010), Fresi

is calculated as 0.02  IRFi/IRFfa, where the interception and retention fraction (IRFi) is for a 

specific bare (or uncovered) skin site location i, and IRFfa is for the reference site (i.e., bare 

forearm). The IRF value for covered skin (all sites) is 0.04 (DTRA, 2010). See Appendix A,
8

Section A-2 for details of the calculation of Fresi. Values used for calculation of Fresi are shown 

in Appendix A, Table A-4, and calculated values for IRFi, IRFfa, and Fresi for various skins sites 

are tabulated in Appendix A, Table A-5.

The concentration of soil contaminants in air (Caero) is used for both the assessment of 

skin dose during decommissioning activities and during exposure to soil spilled on the roads. For 

both estimates, the soil contamination is assumed to consist entirely of Cs-137. For estimates of 

the potential skin dose during decommissioning, the highest measured concentration of 

contaminants in air samples during decommissioning of 0.7 Bq m-3 (20 pCi m-3

) is used

for Caero, as determined in Section 5.2.2 of Dunavant et al. (2013). The duration of exposure to 

suspended contaminated soil during decommissioning (n) is 156 d. (Dunavant et al., 2013)

For dermal or clothing contamination from spilled contaminated soil suspended from 

roads, two different levels of airborne soil contamination are assumed for the period of exposure, 

as described in Sections 5.2.3 and B-2.3 of Dunavant et al. (2013). An initial soil concentration is 

assumed to exist for seven days, after which cleanup of the soil is assumed to result in a lower, 

residual concentration for the following 420 days for winter-over personnel, and the following 

180 days for austral summer personnel. The calculated air concentrations from the initial and 

residual soil concentrations are approximately 2.4 Bq m−3 (65 pCi m−3) and 0.048 Bq m−3

(1.3 pCi m−3

), respectively. (Dunavant et al., 2013)

Values for the duration of time spent in the area of contaminated soil (∆tres) are veterandependent. However a default value for ∆tres is available from Section 5.2.3 of Dunavant et al. 

(2013). The default value for exposure to the initial spilled soil is 10 h d−1 for 7 days (70 h)

followed by exposure to the residual levels (following cleanup) for 4 h d−1 for 420 d (1,680 h) for 

winter-over personnel, and 4 h d−1 for 180 d (720 h) for austral summer personnel. A default 

value of 4 h for the length of time contaminated soil remains on the skin or clothing is used for 

∆twash. 

Values for the skin dose conversion factor (DCFskin) were obtained from information in 

NTPR documentation (DTRA, 2010-ED04). To simplify the calculation, a high-sided default

value of 2.6810−7 mGy h−1 per Bq m−2 is used for all uncovered skin sites (i.e., for dermal 

contamination), and a value of 1.1910−7 mGy h−1 per Bq m−2 is used for all covered skin sites 

(i.e., for clothing contamination). These values were calculated using the nominal timeindependent value of 900 rad h−1 per Ci m−2 (400 rad h−1 per Ci m−2 for clothing contamination) 

and a value of 1.1 to adjust for the minimum skin thickness found at different body locations.

(DTRA, 2010-ED04) 

Suspension of spilled contaminants at McMurdo Station could be due to either wind or 

mechanical disturbances such as walking or shoveling. Consistent with the analysis in Dunavant 

et al. (2013), a high degree of suspension due to wind is assumed. The default value for wind 

speed (ws) of 5.2 m s−1 is based on the average speed of wind observations at McMurdo Station

(Lazzara, 2006).

To incorporate veteran-specific information into the skin dose calculation from this 

pathway, the specific skin site(s) is needed. Also required is information regarding the duration 

of time spent in the area of contaminated soil and how long the contamination remained on the 

skin or clothing, if available.
9

Section 5.

Uncertainty Considerations

The dose methodology described herein, especially when used with the high-sided default 

values, will result in conservative estimates of potential skin doses for McMurdo Station 

veterans. However, certain parameter values applicable to a specific veteran could exceed the 

default values. For example, the wind could be blowing towards the veteran’s location for greater 

than 50% of the time, the veteran may have skin layers that are thinner than those assumed, or 

the veteran may have spent more time near contaminated soil than the default assumptions. In 

addition, other potential sources of uncertainty exist, including measurement, recording, or data 

processing errors, and spatial variability in environmental concentrations of contaminants.

(Dunavant et al., 2013) 

To help ensure that McMurdo Station skin doses are not underestimated, uncertainty 

factors (UF) are described here for use with the skin dose estimates calculated with the 

assessment methodology described. Use of a UF with high-sided skin dose estimates to arrive at 

estimates of upper-bound doses is consistent with the use of a UF with the high-sided external 

and internal dose estimates for McMurdo Station veterans (Dunavant et al., 2013). 

For the purposes of this report, the UF is defined as the ratio of an “upper-bound” dose to 

the estimated high-sided dose. Neither the “upper-bound” nor the high-sided dose are rigorously 

calculated, and so the intent of using a UF with the high-sided skin doses is to obtain estimates of 

upper-bound doses that are not less than the true 95th percentile value for each total skin dose.

For simple skin exposure pathways (air immersion and exposure to contaminated soil on 

the ground), a UF of 3 is recommended. This is based on the use of the same factor for external 

doses in the NTPR program (DTRA, 2010). For the more complex exposure pathway of dermal 

and clothing contamination, UF factors may range from approximately 3 to 14, based on 

experience with skin dose calculations accomplished for the NTPR program (DTRA, 2010). 

Because of the use of high-sided methodologies and parameter values described above, the 

maximum observed UF of 14 is not used, and a UF of 10 is recommended for use with this skin 

dose exposure pathway for McMurdo Station veterans.
10

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11

Section 6.

Example Skin Dose Calculations

To illustrate the use of the skin dose calculation methods, two examples are provided 

below. The first example is representative of any McMurdo Station support veteran present at 

McMurdo Station while the McMurdo Station NPP was operational. The second example is 

representative of any McMurdo Station support veteran present at McMurdo Station after 

operation of the McMurdo Station NPP had ceased and decommissioning activities had started.

6.1 Example 1: Winter-over during NPP Operational Period

The first example is for a hypothetical McMurdo Station support veteran who is assumed 

to have been present at McMurdo Station during the winter-over of DF70. Because the NPP was 

operational in DF70 and decommissioning had not yet started, the only skin-specific exposure 

pathway described above that is applicable to this veteran would be immersion in air containing 

radioactive noble gases. The parameter values used for Example 1 are shown in Table 1. Note 

that veteran-specific information, including the specific skin site, is not necessary to identify 

because the only applicable pathway (immersion in air) does not depend on the skin site.

Table 1. Parameter values applicable to Example 1

Exposure 

Pathway/Parameter Veteran-specific value Comment

1. Air immersion pathway (Equation 1)

CNG 370 Bq m−3

NPP Release concentration for 

Ar-41 (Table 15, Dunavant et al.,

2013)

DCNG.Sub

3.64  10−7

mSv h−1 per Bq m−3

Air submersion dose coefficient for 

Ar-41 (Table III.1, USEPA, 1993)

Fwind 0.5 Dunavant et al. (2013)

TNG 10,220 h Total for 24 h d−1 for 14 months

2. Contaminated soil on 

the ground n/a Decommissioning had not yet started in DF70

3. Dermal and clothing 

contamination n/a Decommissioning had not yet started in DF70
12

Skin dose from air immersion: Using the default parameter values in Section 2 and the 

veteran-specific values above, the skin dose from skin-specific pathways for Example 1 is 

calculated as follows:

Dimm.skin = 370 Bq m−3 × 3.64 × 10−7mSv h−1 per Bq m−3 × 0.5 × 1.02 × 104 h

 = 0.69 mSv

The upper-bound skin dose from this pathway is Dimm.skin × 3 = 2.1 mSv.

The total skin dose for a veteran’s presence during DF70 is the sum of the estimated 

external whole-body gamma dose and the skin dose estimated above. The calculated total

external gamma dose for a veteran who was part of the support personnel during DF70 is 2 mSv

(0.2 rem), with an associated upper-bound estimate of 4 mSv (0.4 rem). This upper-bound 

external dose includes doses from all external gamma sources for DF70 and was obtained from 

(Dunavant et al., 2013). The upper-bound external dose for a specific veteran would be obtained 

using NDC Form 6470/20 (NDC, 2013). The total upper-bound skin dose for Example 1 is 

conservatively estimated to be (4 + 2.1=) 6.1 mSv (0.61 rem) for any skin site. Based on the 

external doses in Dunavant et al. (2013), the default upper-bound skin dose calculated for any 

veteran present at McMurdo Station from DF62 through DF74 would not be higher than the 

6.1 mSv (0.61 rem) estimated for this example.

6.2 Example 2: Winter-over during Decommissioning Period

The second example of a skin dose calculation is for a hypothetical McMurdo Station 

support veteran who is assumed to have been present at McMurdo Station during winter-over of 

DF78. Because the McMurdo Station NPP was no longer operational and decommissioning was 

in progress in DF78, the applicable skin-specific exposure pathways for this example are

exposure to contaminated soil on the ground, and dermal/clothing contamination. The veteran 

has the following relevant characteristics (assumed to be obtained from veteran input):

• Veteran height is 152 cm (5 feet, 0 inches)

• Three veteran skin cancer sites: face (uncovered), neck (uncovered) and forearm (covered)

Based on the above information from the veteran, the heights of the skin cancers are 

141 cm (face), 132 cm (neck), and 87.4 cm (forearm). These were determined by using the 

veteran’s height of 152 cm and ratioing the standard standing heights for his skin sites found in 

Appendix Table A-3. Note that a below-average height is assumed for this example in order to 

demonstrate relatively high ground shine doses. The veteran-specific parameter values applicable 

to the skin dose assessment for Example 2 are shown in Table 2. 
13

Table 2. Parameter values applicable to Example 2

Exposure 

Pathway/Parameter Veteran-specific value Comment

1. Air immersion 

pathway

n/a Exposure pathway is not 

applicable because the NPP was 

not operating in 1976

2. Contaminated soil on the ground (Equations 2 and 3)

Dsoil.ext 0.034 mSv (0.004 rem) Table 26 of Dunavant et al. 

(2013)

R(x,t)βγ

24.0 (face)

25.0 (neck)

31.1 (forearm)

Interpolated using values in 

Appendix Table A-1 (t=1 year)

and Table A-3

M(x) 0.87 (forearm) Appendix Table A-2; a single 

layer of clothing is assumed

3. Dermal and clothing contamination (Equation 4)

Fresi

0.003 (face)

0.3 (neck)

0.008 (covered forearm)

Appendix Section A-2 and

Table A-5

Caerodecom 0.7 Bq m−3 Dunavant et al. (2013)

Caerosoil 2.4 Bq m−3 (first 7 days)

0.048 Bq m−3 (next 420 days) See Section 4

∆tres decom 10 h d−1 Default value for 

decommissioning; see Section 4

∆tres soil

10 h d−1 (first 7 days)

4 h d−1 (next 420 days)

Default values for spilled soil; 

see Section 4

∆twash 4 h Default value; see Section 4

ndecomm

nsoil

156 d

7 d (high conc), 420 d (low conc)

Default values; see Section 4

Skin doses from exposure to contaminated soil: Using the default parameter values in 

Section 3 and the veteran-specific values above, the beta skin doses (Dsoili) from exposure to 

contaminated soil on the ground for Example 2 are calculated as follows:

Dsoilface = 0.034 × 24.0 = 0.82 mSv

Dsoilneck = 0.034 × 25.0 = 0.85 mSv

Dsoilforearm = 0.034 × 31.1 × 0.87 = 0.92 mSv

Skin doses from dermal and clothing contamination during decommissioning: Using the 

default parameter values in Section 4 and the veteran-specific values above, the skin doses from 
14

dermal and clothing contamination during decommissioning for Example 2 are calculated as 

follows:

Ddermaldecom face = �� 0.003 × 0.7 Bq m−3 × �

(10 h)2

2 + 10 h × 4h� ×

2.68 × 10−7mGy h−1 per Bq m−2 × 5.2 m s−1 × 3600 s h−1

�

156

1

= 0.148 mGy

Ddermaldecom neck = �� 0.3 × 0.7 Bq m−3 × �

(10 h)2

2 + 10 h × 4h� ×

2.68 × 10−7mGy h−1 per Bq m−2 × 5.2 m s−1 × 3600 s h−1

�

156

1

= 14.8 mGy

Ddermaldecom forearm = �� 0.008 × 0.7 Bq m−3 × �

(10 h)2

2 + 10 h × 4h� ×

1.19 × 10−7mGy h−1 per Bq m−2 × 5.2 m s−1 × 3600 s h−1

�

156

1

= 0.175 mGy

Dermal and clothing contamination from spilled soil: Using the default parameter values

in Section 4 and the veteran-specific values above, the skin doses from dermal and clothing 

contamination due to suspended spilled soil for Example 2 are calculated as follows:

Ddermalsoil face = �� 0.003 × 2.4 Bq m−3 × �

(10 h)2

2 + 10 h × 4h� ×

2.68 × 10−7mGy h−1 per Bq m−2 × 5.2 m s−1 × 3600 s h−1

�

7

1

+ �� 0.003 × 0.048 Bq m−3 × �

(4 h)2

2 + 4 h × 4h� ×

2.68 × 10−7mGy h−1 per Bq m−2 × 5.2 m s−1 × 3600 s h−1

�

427

8

= 0.030 mGy
15

Ddermalsoil neck = �� 0.3 × 2.4 Bq m−3 × �

(10 h)2

2 + 10 h × 4h� ×

2.68 × 10−7mGy h−1 per Bq m−2 × 5.2 m s−1 × 3600 s h−1

�

7

1

+ �� 0.3 × 0.048 Bq m−3 × �

(4 h)2

2 + 4 h × 4h� ×

2.68 × 10−7mGy h−1 per Bq m−2 × 5.2 m s−1 × 3600 s h−1

�

427

8

= 3.0 mGy

Ddermalsoil forearm = �� 0.008 × 2.4 Bq m−3 × �

(10 h)2

2 + 10 h × 4h� ×

1.19 × 10−7mGy h−1 per Bq m−2 × 5.2 m s−1 × 3600 s h−1

�

7

1

+ �� 0.008 × 0.048 Bq m−3 × �

(4 h)2

2 + 4 h × 4h� ×

1.19 × 10−7mGy h−1 per Bq m−2 × 5.2 m s−1 × 3600 s h−1

�

427

8

= 0.036 mGy

Assuming an equivalency of Gy and Sv (i.e., radiation weighting factor = 1), skin doses 

from the pathways above are shown in Table 3 for each skin site of Example 2. Also shown in 

Table 3 are the upper-bound values for the skin-specific pathways, using UF values from

Section 5. 

Table 3. Summary of skin doses for three skin sites of Example 2

Exposure Pathway Skin doses for each skin site (mSv)

Face Neck Forearm

Skin-specific pathway doses

• Beta ground shine 0.82 0.85 0.92

• Dermal contamination – decommissioning 0.148 14.8 0.175

• Dermal contamination – spilled soil 0.030 3.0 0.036

Skin-specific total doses 1.00 18.6 1.13

Skin-specific upper-bound doses

* 4.2 180 4.9

Whole-body upper-bound external doses

† 2.0 2.0 2.0

Total upper-bound skin doses

‡ 6.2 182 6.9 * Skin-specific upper-bound dose calculated using UF values of 3 and 10 as described in Section 5. † The default whole body upper-bound external dose is obtained from Dunavant et al. (2013). 

‡ Total upper-bound skin dose is the rounded sum of upper-bound doses from ground shine, dermal 

contamination, and external whole body.
16

The generic whole-body external dose for a veteran who was part of the support 

personnel during DF78 was 0.5 mSv (0.05 rem), with an upper-bound estimate of 2 mSv 

(0.2 rem). This upper-bound external dose includes doses from all external gamma sources for 

DF78 and was obtained from (Dunavant et al., 2013). The upper-bound external dose for a 

specific veteran would be obtained using NDC Form 6470/20 (NDC, 2013). Adding the 2 mSv 

(0.2 rem) external dose to the skin doses (ignoring some overlap in the dose calculations) results 

in rounded total upper-bound skin doses for Example 2 of 6.2 mSv (0.62 rem), 182 mSv 

(18.2 rem), and 6.9 mSv (0.69 rem) calculated for the face, neck, and covered forearm, 

respectively; these values are shown in Table 3. Because of the high interception and retention 

fraction for the bare neck, the total upper-bound dose calculated for the bare neck in Example 2 

likely bound the potential skin doses for any skin site for all McMurdo Station veterans.
17

Section 7.

References

Barss, N. M. and Weitz, R. L., 2006. “Reconstruction of External Dose from Beta Radiation 

Sources of Nuclear Weapon Origin.” Health Physics, Volume 91(4), pp. 379–389. 

October.

DTRA (Defense Threat Reduction Agency), 2010. Standard Operating Procedures Manual for 

Radiation Dose Assessment, Revision 1.3/1.3a. DTRA-SOP-10-01, Defense Threat 

Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, VA. January 31/March 31.

Dunavant, J.D., Chehata, M., Morris, W.J., Fairchild, G.R., Blake, P.K., 2013. Upper-Bound 

Radiation Dose Assessment for Military Personnel at McMurdo Station, Antarctica, 

between 1962 and 1979. DTRA-TR-12-003. Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort 

Belvoir, VA. June 1.

ICRU (International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements), 1997. Dosimetry of 

External Beta Rays for Radiation Protection. ICRU Report 56. Bethesda, MD.

ICRP (International Commission on Radiological Protection), 2002. Basic Anatomical and 

Physiological Data for Use in Radiological Protection: Reference Values. ICRP 

Publication 89. Ann.ICRP 32 (3-4). 

Lazzara, M.A., 2006. A McMurdo Station, Antarctica Climatology with Special Emphasis on 

Fog. Antarctic Meteorological Research Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI. 

April 1.

NDC (Naval Dosimetry Center), 2013. McMurdo Station Radiation Dose Assessment 

Questionnaire, Form NDC 6470/20. U.S. Naval Dosimetry Center, Bethesda, MD.

ORAU (Oak Ridge Associated Universities), 2012. Nevada Test Site – Occupational External 

Dose, NIOSH Technical Basis/Site Profile document No. ORAUT-TKBS-0008-6, 

Revision 3, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, November 9.

Rathbun, L.A., Endes, G.W. R., Fox, R.A., Robertson, P.L., Scherpelz, R.I., 1984. Beta Particle 

Measurement and Dosimetry Requirements at NRC-Licensed Facilities, NUREG/CR3544, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, DC. August.

USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), 1993. External Exposure to 

Radionuclides in Air, Water, and Soil, Federal Guidance Report No. 12. EPA 402-R-93-

081. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. September.

USNRC (United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission), 2013. Standards for Protection 

Against Radiation, Title 10, Part 20 of the Code of Federal Regulations, U.S. Nuclear 

Regulatory Commission, Rockville, MD. May 20.

WHO (World Health Organization), 2005. Health Effects of the Chernobyl Accident and Special 

Health Care Programmes, Report of the UN Chernobyl Forum Expert Group “Health” 

(EGH), World Health Organization, Geneva. August 31.
18

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19

Appendix A.

Parameter Values for Skin Dose Assessments

A-1. Parameters used in Contaminated Soil Groundshine Pathway 

Beta-to-gamma dose ratios applicable to bare skin exposure of an individual standing

upright in an infinite planar field of fission product deposition are shown in Table A-1 (DTRA, 

2010, ED03). In deriving the ratios, it was assumed that body self-shielding reduced both 1) the 

beta dose at any target site on the body by a factor of 0.5 from its free field value, and 2) the 

gamma dose recorded on a properly worn film badge to a value of 0.7 times its free-field value.

Table A-1 values for 1 year after fission are used as default values (shaded in table below).

Table A-1. Beta-to-gamma dose ratios for bare skin exposures to

mixed fission products at the Nevada Test Site

Time after Fission Distance from source plane (cm)

1 20 40 80 100 120 160 200

0.5 h 36.0 24.6 18.3 12.4 10.8 9.6 7.6 5.9

1 h 32.2 21.8 16.1 10.8 9.4 8.2 6.4 4.9

2 h 31.6 21.2 15.5 10.3 8.9 7.8 6.1 4.6

4 h 40.1 26.6 19.3 12.7 10.9 9.5 7.3 5.6

6 h 50.5 33.3 24.0 15.7 13.4 11.7 9.0 6.9

12 h 64.7 41.8 29.7 18.7 15.9 13.7 10.2 7.6

1 d 64.2 39.6 26.9 15.9 13.0 10.9 7.7 5.4

2 d 63.4 36.3 23.3 12.7 10.1 8.2 5.4 3.5

3 d 62.0 33.4 20.5 10.7 8.4 6.7 4.2 2.6

1 wk 61.6 30.3 17.5 8.4 6.4 5.0 3.1 1.8

2 wk 64.7 31.9 18.4 8.9 6.8 5.3 3.3 2.0

1 mo 71.6 36.2 21.3 10.7 8.3 6.7 4.3 2.7

2 mo 84.6 41.5 24.3 12.6 10.2 8.5 5.9 3.9

4 mo 89.4 42.2 24.4 13.3 11.1 9.6 7.1 5.0

6 mo 93.4 44.3 26.0 14.6 12.5 11.0 8.5 6.2

9 mo 114.7 56.5 34.3 20.3 17.8 16.0 12.8 9.7

1 y 164.0 84.3 52.9 32.8 29.1 26.5 21.7 16.8

2 y 487.7 260.5 168.1 107.5 96.1 88.1 72.9 57.3

Multiplicative modification factors to account for the presence of clothing over the skin 

are shown in Table A-2 (DTRA, 2010, ED03). The values were derived assuming that the 

individual is standing upright on an infinite plane of deposited fission products, wearing a single 

layer of clothing that is 28 mg cm−2 in density-thickness. This density thickness is representative 

of “coverall” material. For McMurdo Station analyses, values for 1 year after fission are used as 

default values (shaded in table below).
20

Table A-2. Modification factors for light clothing

Time after 

fission

Distance from source plane (cm)

1 20 40 80 100 120 160 200

1 h 0.59 0.74 0.80 0.83 0.84 0.86 0.87 0.87

2 h 0.59 0.73 0.79 0.84 0.84 0.85 0.87 0.87

6 h 0.57 0.72 0.78 0.83 0.84 0.85 0.86 0.87

1 d 0.52 0.67 0.73 0.78 0.80 0.81 0.82 0.83

1 wk 0.40 0.54 0.66 0.71 0.72 0.74 0.74 0.78

2 wk 0.40 0.55 0.66 0.71 0.72 0.73 0.77 0.74

1 mo 0.41 0.56 0.67 0.73 0.74 0.75 0.78 0.77

1 y 0.42 0.62 0.78 0.86 0.87 0.87 0.88 0.88

To demonstrate the use of the beta-to-gamma dose ratios applicable to bare skin exposure

and the clothing modification factors for covered skin sites, values of these parameters applicable 

to a representative list of skin sites for a “standard height” individual are shown in Table A-3. 

The skin site heights listed are based on an individual’s height of 172.7 cm (68 in), and are the 

heights used in the NTPR program (DTRA, 2010). For determining skin site heights for 

individuals other than those individuals that are 172.7 cm in total height, the "Standard Heights" 

value should be multiplied by the ratio of the individual’s height to the standard height (i.e., 

standard height for skin site i  individual's height [cm]/172.7 cm). For McMurdo Station 

veterans, it is expected that only the “Standing” heights will be used because individuals most 

likely did not sit in a chair or on the ground while in any potentially-contaminated areas.

Table A-3. Standard Heights and Corresponding Parameter Values

Skin Site

Standard Heights (cm) Beta-togamma Dose 

Ratio*

[R(x, t)βγ]

Clothing 

Modification 

Factor†

[M(x)]

Standing Sitting 

(chair)

Sitting 

(grnd)

foot/ankle 1.0 1.0 5.1 163.9 0.42

calf or shin 20.3 20.3 15.2 83.4 0.62

knee 40.6 40.6 15.2 52.4 0.78

hand or mid-thigh 71.1 53.1 15.2 35.5 0.84

waist 99.1 56.5 14.0 29.2 0.87

forearm 99.1 56.5 20.3 29.2 0.87

lower back or stomach 119.4 76.8 34.3 26.6 0.87

upper back, upper arm, 

or mid-chest 139.7 97.1 54.6 24.1 0.87

neck 149.9 107.3 64.8 22.9 0.88

face, nose, ear, or head 160.0 117.5 74.9 21.7 0.88

top of head 172.7 130.2 87.6 20.1 0.88 * Beta-to-gamma ratios listed in this table are those values applicable to the standing heights.

† Clothing modification factors shown are for a single layer of clothing with density thickness of 28 mg cm−2

.
21

A-2. Parameters Used in Dermal and Clothing Contamination Pathway 

The effective retention factor (Fres) is calculated as follows:

Fresi = CE ×

IRFi

IRFfa

× PS × EM × EF (A-1)

where:

Fresi = Effective retention factor for soil contaminants at skin site i (unitless)

CE = Collection efficiency (unitless) 

IRFi = Interception and retention fraction for skin site i (unitless)

IRFfa = Reference interception and retention fraction for forearm (unitless)

PS = Particle size factor (unitless)

EM = Moisture factor (unitless)

EF = Enrichment factor (unitless)

Values used for parameters in Equation A-1 are shown in Table A-4 (DTRA, 2010, 

ED04). A discussion of each factor is available in SOP ED04 of DTRA (2010). A summary of 

the interception and retention fractions (IRF), and effective retention factors (Fres) for a 

representative list of uncovered skin sites are shown in Table A-5 (DTRA, 2010, ED04).

Furthermore, the values of IRF and Fres for covered skin (all sites) are 0.04 and 0.008, 

respectively (DTRA, 2010).

Table A-4. Summary of factors in the calculation of the effective retention factor

Parameter Value

Collection Efficiency (CE) 0.02

Ratio of site-specific IRF to forearm (fa) IRF

(IRF/IRFfa) See Table A-5

Particle Size Factor (PS) 1.0

Moisture Factor (EM)

High humidity, e.g. Pacific Ocean 3.0

Low humidity to dry, e.g., McMurdo Station 1.0

Enrichment Factor (EF) 1.0
22

Table A-5. Interception and retention fractions, and effective retention factors

Uncovered Skin Site

Interception and 

Retention Fraction

(IRF)

Effective Retention 

Factor 

(Fres)

foot/ankle 1.5* 0.3

calf or shin 0.1 0.02

knee 0.1 0.02

mid-thigh 0.1 0.02

waist 1.5* 0.3

forearms 0.1 0.02

stomach 0.04 0.008

mid-chest 0.04 0.008

neck 1.5* 0.3

face/head 0.015 0.003

top of head 0.17 0.034 * The foot/ankle, waist, and neck are assumed to represent sites that exhibit enhanced 

collection and retention of particles.

Using Equation A-1 and the parameter values in the tables above, the calculation of Fres

for McMurdo Station veterans can be simplified and calculated as follows:

Fresi = 0.02 ×

IRFi

IRFfa

 = 0.2 × IRFi

(A-2)
23

Appendix B.

Skin Doses for Standard Height Skin Sites

This Appendix contains the calculated external skin doses for a “standard-height” 

individual for the skin-specific pathways described in the main report. Doses are shown for all 

DF periods, for a representative listing of skin sites that are thought to include the most common 

skin dose requests for McMurdo Station veterans.
24

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25

Table B-1. Standard height external skin doses (mSv) for all applicable exposure pathways and DF* tours 

Skin Site

DF62 - DF73

(Operational Period)

DF75 - DF79

(Decommissioning Period)

Winter Summer Winter Summer

Immersion† Immersion

Dermal/Clothing 

deposition

Dermal/Clothing 

deposition

Grnd Shine Dcom‡ Dsoil‡ Grnd Shine Dcom‡ Dsoil‡

foot/ankle

(covered) 0.686 0.294 2.33 0.175 0.036 1.89 0.175 0.031

calf or shin 

(covered) 0.686 0.294 1.74 0.175 0.036 1.42 0.175 0.031

knee

(covered) 0.686 0.294 1.38 0.175 0.036 1.12 0.175 0.031

hand or mid-thigh

(covered) 0.686 0.294 1.01 0.175 0.036 0.819 0.175 0.031

hand or mid-thigh

(bare) 0.686 0.294 1.20 0.985 0.20 0.975 0.985 0.17

waist

(covered) 0.686 0.294 0.858 0.175 0.036 0.699 0.175 0.031

forearm

(covered) 0.686 0.294 0.858 0.175 0.036 0.699 0.175 0.031

lower back or stomach

(covered) 0.686 0.294 0.780 0.175 0.036 0.635 0.175 0.031

upper back, upper arm, 

or chest (covered) 0.686 0.294 0.708 0.175 0.036 0.577 0.175 0.031

neck 

(covered) 0.686 0.294 0.680 0.175 0.036 0.554 0.175 0.031

neck 

(bare) 0.686 0.294 0.773 14.8 3.01 0.630 14.8 2.59

face, nose, ear, or head

(bare) 0.686 0.294 0.732 0.148 0.030 0.596 0.148 0.026

top of head

(bare) 0.686 0.294 0.680 1.67 0.341 0.554 1.67 0.293

* All skin-specific pathway doses during DF 74 are 0 mSv.

† The immersion doses for DF62 Winter tour are slightly lower than what are tabulated here, because the McMurdo Station NPP was operational for only part 

of the DF62 Winter tour. The full-tour immersion doses (i.e., for DF63-73 Winter) are assigned to DF62 Winter as a conservative simplification.

‡ "Dcom" and "Dsoil" are the doses for dermal contamination (for bare sites) and clothing contamination (for covered sites) during decommissioning and from 

spilled soil, respectively.
26

Table B-2. Upper-bound external skin doses* from skin-specific exposure pathways for all DF tours 

Skin Site DF62–DF73† DF74‡ DF75–DF79

Winter Summer Winter/Summer Winter Summer

foot/ankle

(covered) 2.1 0.88 0 9.1 7.7

calf or shin

(covered) 2.1 0.88 0 7.3 6.3

knee

(covered) 2.1 0.88 0 6.3 5.4

hand or mid-thigh 

(covered) 2.1 0.88 0 5.1 4.5

hand or mid-thigh

(bare) 2.1 0.88 0 15 15

waist

(covered) 2.1 0.88 0 4.7 4.2

forearm

(covered) 2.1 0.88 0 4.7 4.2

lower back or stomach

(covered) 2.1 0.88 0 4.5 4.0

upper back, upper arm, or 

chest (covered) 2.1 0.88 0 4.2 3.8

neck 

(covered) 2.1 0.88 0 4.2 3.7

neck 

(bare) 2.1 0.88 0 180 175

face, nose, ear, or head

(bare) 2.1 0.88 0 4.0 3.5

top of head

(bare) 2.1 0.88 0 22 21

* Upper-bound doses are calculated using uncertainty factors discussed in Section 5. † DF62–DF73 doses shown here are due only to Ar-41 air immersion.

‡ There were no skin-specific external skin dose pathways during DF74.
27

Abbreviations, Acronyms, and 

Unit Symbols

Ar Argon

Bq Becquerel

Ci Curie

cm Centimeter

Cs Cesium

d Day

DF Deep Freeze

DTRA Defense Threat Reduction Agency 

FGR Federal Guidance Report

Gy Gray

h Hour

ICRP International Commission on Radiological Protection

m Meter

μm Micrometer

mGy Milligray

mrem Millirem

mSv Millisievert

mo Month

NDC Naval Dosimetry Center

NPP Nuclear Power Plant

NTPR Nuclear Test Personnel Review 

ORAU Oak Ridge Associated Universities

pCi Picocurie

rad Rad (unit of absorbed dose)

rem Roentgen Equivalent Man

s Second

Sv Sievert

TR Technical Report

UF Uncertainty Factor

USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

USNRC United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission

WHO World Health Organization

wk Week

y Year