Unclassified 

DRAFT ENVIRONMENTAL IMIPACT STATEMENT 

CLEAN UP, RIHABILITATOOIN, RESETTLEMENT 

OF 

TAK ATOLL - MARSHALL ISLANDS 

SEPT 1974 

DEFENSE NUCLEAR AGENCY 

Washington, DOC. 20305 

DARE Tlacklng 

# 67914 

Volume II of Ill h 

Unclassified 
Pregrred for 

DEPBNSE NUCLEAR AOENCY 

Wer@hlngte~, 0 ,ei, 983063 

blndgr 

Be~treet No, DNA 001073 6.4 66 

A Fle8ouiwe 8sl@no@8company 

Adv%noed Peohnelo~y/ln~/neer/n~/Oonet~lrol/trn/M~lfl@$emeflt/M@lnbn@nee dl Oper@t/0na 

400 EAST ORANBETWOWPE AVENUE 8 ANAHEIMl CALIFORNIA 82801 
DRAFT ENVlRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 

AN UP, R 

OF 

WETAK ATOLL - MARSHALL ISLANDS 

DEFENSE NUCLEAR AGENCY 

Washington, D.C. 20305 

Volume II of Ill 

Unclassified 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

VOLUME I1 - APPENDIX 

TAB 

A ENEWETAK AERIAL RADIOLOGICAL SURVEY, 

EG&G, 1972 

R E P O R T B Y T H E A E C TASKCROUPON 

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CLZANUP AND 

REHABILITATION OF ENEWEfTAK ATOLL, 

JUNE 19, 1974 

SCHEDULE 

ENEWETAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN FOR 

ISLAND REHABILITATION AND RESETTLEMENT, 

VOLUME I, NOVEMBER, 1973 

LETTER FROM TRUST TERRITORY OF THE 

PACIFIC ISLANDS, MARSHALL ISLANDS 

DISTRICT, DISTRICT PLANNING OFFICE, 

MARCH 19, 1974 

TABLE A-1 

CONTOUR MAP KEY 

For Use With the EG&G Aerial Radiological Survey 

Symbol 

Gross Count 

Exposure Rate 

(@Ihr) 

("b" Figures Series) 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 



3"-

., . '! 

*i," 

*"I* 

*, 

;^'F ,. $ 

,A yix F"' . 5 - 4 *2 * 

.. . . 

.. . 

ISLAND NAME 





8 S" 

r) 5,'" ' . 

'd. ,%a 2 3. -,1-h ,. g * 



























































6. !SO-EXPOSURE CONTOURS 50 keV-3 MeV 

I 4,- . ISLAND NAME ELMER 

DATE OF SURVEY 10 NOV 197% 

APPROXIMATE TlME OF SURVEY 1223 HRS. LOCAL TlME 

MEDREN (ELMER) C 





















,rd 

,--

' 

ISO-EXPOSURE CONTOURS 50 keV-3 MeV 

ISLAND NAME 

DATE OF SURVEY 

IRWIN 

18 NOV 1972 

BOKEN (IRWIN) A 







' I,: 



REPORT BY 

THE AEC TASK GROUP ON mCOIQIEIJDATIONS FOR 

CLEANUP AND R~HN3ILITATIOIU'OF ENFMETAK ATOLL 

June 19, 1974 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

The Task Group wishes to thank all those who participated in 

development of input material for this report and particularly 

G: tliL ~i~-v<yGi-.i-AcTA~L~ AnyGtccti~i:4~Lgcilcy, ~ ~ ~ Gz ~ ~ -

the Interior, and Defense Nuclear Agency for their comments 

and suggestions. 

Table of Contents 

. Page 

Introduction ................ ; .... 1 

Task Group Statement Concerning The Radiological 

Assessment of Doses and The Results of Alternative 

Appendix I1 

Enewetak Radiological Survey Report, Summary of 

Findings Chapter .................. 11-1 to 11-69 

Appendix I11 

Review of Radiation Protection Standards ...... 111-1 to 1.1-13 

Attachment I, Relationship Between Resuspended 

Survey Results ................... 2 

Radiation Criteria Recommended By The Task Group ... 4 . 

Corrective Actions ................. 5 

Disposal of Contaminated Material ........... 14 

Task Group Observations and Conclusions ....... 18 

Recommendations ................... 25 

Appendix I 

Enewetak Radiological Survey Report, Abstract ... 1-1 to 1-3 

Plutonium in Air and Plutonium in Soils ...... III-14 to LII-25 

Appendix IV 

Annual Bone and Whole-Body Doses .......... TV-1 to IV-19 

REPORT BY THE TASK CROUP O'i FECO?l?EIlDATIONS FOR 

CLEANUP AID REHAPIILITATION OF E2JEXJETAK ATOLL 

INTRODUCTION 

On September 7, 1972, the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) agreed to 

provide radiological criteria for cleanup and rehabilitation of Enewetak 

Atoll to the Department of Defense (WD) and to the Department of Interior 

(DOI). AEC also agreed to conduct a comprehensive radiological survey. 

The purpose of the survey was to gain a sufficient understanding of the total 

radiological environment of Enewetak Atoll to support judgment as to whether 

all or any part of the atoll can safely be reinhabited and, if so, to describe cleanup actions to be taken by DOD and any constraints. These tasks 

are identical to those performed for cleanup and rehabilitation of Bikini 

Atoll and that experience has greatly aided the development of recommendations 

for Enewetak. 

Radiological survey field operations were conducted between mid-October 

1972 and mid-February 1973. Samples taken in the field have been analyzed 

and complete results of the survey have been published as a Nevada Operations 

Office document (TWO-140), Enewetak Radiological Survey, Vols. I, 11, 111. 

An abstract of PNO-140 is presented as Appendix I of this report, and the 

"Summary of Findings" chapter is reproduced here in Appendix 11. 

In July 1973, a Task Group was established to review the survey findings 

and to prepare cleanup and rehabilitation recommendations for consideration 

by the Commission. Members of this Task Group are: Mr. T. McCraw (Kc/os), 

Dr. W. Nervik (LLL) , Dr. D. Wilson (LLL) , and Mr. IJ. Schroebel (AEC/DBER). 

Advisors and consultants to the Task Group have included Dr. E. Held (AEcIREG), 

Dr. R. Conard (BNL) , Dr. H. Soule (AEC/WT-IT), Dr. N. Barr (AEC/DBER),Dr. R. 

Maxwell (AEC~DBER), [h-. L. J. Deal (AEc/os), and Mr. R. Ray (AEC/NVO). Staff 

liaison representatives from DXA, EPA, and DO1 attended Task Group meetings. 
- - 

The job of the Task Group is to reconmend for consideration by the 

Commission, radiological criteria for cleanup and rehabilitation of Enewetak 

Atoll and to recommend those remedial measures and actions needed to 

reduce exposures of the Enewetak people to levels within these criteria. , 

The objective is to keep exposures as low as practicable. The Task Group, 

advisors, and consultants have carefully reviewed the AEC Radiological Survey 

results; current information on the life style, diet, and rehabilitation 

preferences of the Enewetak people; applicable radiation protection guidance 

established by various national and international radiation standards setting 

bodies; and current laws and regulations pertaining to disposal of radioactive 

waste materials. 

The recommendations that were developed are those that, in the judgment 

of tllc Task Group, advisors, and consultants, are most appropriate for ~he 

U.S. Government to take to provide a radiologlcal.ly acceptable environnent 

for the Enewetak people consideriny, they will be long-term residents on the 

Atoll. Reco:mnended measures for Enewetak Atoll are very simular to those 

that guided cleanup and rehabilitation of Bikini <ltoll. 

TASK GI:OUP S'TA'I'IZIE'iT COUCETSITJG TIIT: JUDTOT,OT,TCNJ SURVE'I' RT<SI?.TS 

After thorough review of the Radiological. Survey Report, the Task Group 

ma1:es the follo~~ingobservations : 

o The survey provides an exceptionally complete data base for 

estimating radiation doses. It includes the results of an 

aerial gamma radiation survey of land area plus radiochenical 

data from the analysis of over 4500 samples of air, soil, vegetation, 

sediment, water, and marine and land. animals. 
e The survey report, plus the Master Plan for Rehabilitation and reI 

settlement of Enewetak Atoll*, provide information on possible 

living patterns and diet of the Enewetak people. 

9 Several important components of the Enewetakese diet are either not 

now available on the Atoll, or are available in quantities which are 

small compared to the needs of the people. Pigs and chickens are not 

available at all, but will be reintroduced. No breadfruit is growing 

now; pandanus and tacca are growing only in scattered locations; and 

coconut is growing in quantity only on the southern islands. Breadfruit, pandanus, tacca, and coconut must be planted and will begin 

to produce crops after about 8 years. Radiation dose estimates for 

these foods have had to be based on correlations with plants and 

animals now present on the Atoll and on inferences drawn from 

earlier surveys on Bikini and Rongelap. There are many data points, 

~"dthlf~t c~:rzl~ti;~; ?~~-iid~: i;le LC~Lilie~ilodcurrenriy avalia~le

for estimating internal exposures. Nevertheless, the method is not 

as reliable as direct measurement of the foods produced in the areas 

of concern. 

a Air sampling at Enewetak, accoaplished largely during a 3 week period 

in December 1972 on uninhabited northern islands, showed extremely 

6 

low levels if airborne radioactivity. Comprehensive air sampling 

during 12 consecutive months under conditions closely approximating 

human habitation and soil disturbance would provide more accurate 

data on which to base inhalation exposure estimates. 

*The report, "Enewetalc Atoll Master Plan for Island Rehabilitation and 

Resettlement ," (3 Vols .) , Holmes and .Narver, Inc., Yov. 19 73, contains 

information on the preferred living pattern for resettlement of Atoll 

obtained prior to completion of the ,UC evaluation of radiological survey 

findings. The people are to be given another opportunity to express their 

views on the remedial actions under consideration by the AEC after they 

have been informed of radiological conditions in the Atoll, and the 

sabjects of radiation exposure, radiation standards, radiation protection 

objectives, and remedial measures and their effectiveness have been discussed. 
- --- - 

s The Enewetak people advise that catchment rainwater is the custonary 

principal source of water for human consumption. Except in 

emergencies, water from underground lenses is not consumed. 

Samples of underground water were not obtained during the survey, 

and radiochemical analytical data on lens water is limited to that 

obtained fron a few samples taken on JANET in 1971. A thorough lens 

water sampling, analysis, and assessment program requires sampling 

through a full rain-dry season cycle, 12 consecutive mor~hs at 

a minimum. Arrangements for sampling fresh water lenses are 

being made. This work will be done by AEC. 

o It is the opinion of the Task C,ro~.lp that the results of additional 

air sampling or lens water snrnp1i.11~probab3.y would not significant1.y 

change the dose estimates in NVO-140 nor change the recommendations 

nf +hi< Tnck Crr\iin 

RADI,\1'1 0'; Ci:TTCpTA RT'Cn'Tcl";DT'Tl BY 1'1IE TAS : CROUP 

A review of the radirition protection standards and guides consldered Fir 

the Tnslr Group to be applicable to rnewetak is presented in Appendix 111. 

This review indicates that the numerical standards and radiation protection 

philosophy of both national ant1 international standards bodies are similar. 

Suirmarij.inr, that dppendix, the specific i;ui dance and criteria used by the 

Txl: Group in its 2s:;ecs:ncnt of t!:? dat' 2,2:! rec~z~endcdfor cleanup an:! 

rehabilitation of t11c ,\to1 1, are as follo~ls: 

o The population dose to the 1:ne:~~tal; people should be kept to the 

minin1:lm practicable level. 

o The Federal RadlaLicn Council (F1:C) Radiation Frotection Guides 

(RPG) for intl ivitlr~n l and gonadal rxposures are recommended as the 

critcrin to bc usecl in evaluntin~ the various radiation exposure 
options. The numerical guidance therein should be reduced by the 

factors of 50 percent for individual exposure and 20 percent for 

gonadal exposure considering that exposures cannot be precisely 

predicted. The detailed rationale for these reductions is provided 

in Appendix 111. The resulting guides for planning cleanup actions 

will then be: 

Whole body and bone marrow - 0.25 Rem/yr 

Thyroid - 0.75 ~em/yr 

Bone - 0.75 Rem/yr 

Gonads - 4 Rem in 30 yr 

o Since there is no adequate scientific information which would support 

general guidance for cleanup of plutonium contaminated soil, 

guidance can only be developed on a case-by-case basis using conservative assumptions and safety factors,. With this in nlind, the 

Task Group recommends the follokring for use in making decisions 

concerning 239~~ cleanup operations at Enewetak:

a. < 40 pCi/gm of soil - corrective action not required. 

b. 40 to 400 pCi/gm of soil - corrective action determined on a 

case-by-case basis* considering all radiological conditions. 

C. > 400 pCi/gm of soil - corrective action required. 

ASSESS?IENT OF DOSES NJD TEIE RESULTS OF ALTEPJJATIVE COFSECTIVE ACTIONS 

The Task Group approach for development of judgments and recommendations 

for the radiological cleanup and rehabitation of Enewetak was to consider 

a number of alternatives for exposure reduction that may be feasible. Basically, 

the procedure involved four steps: 

*See Appendix III for additional guidance. 

i 
e Assessment of doses for a population living on the Atoll in its 

current radiological condition. 

e Assessment of dose reductions that might be expected due to modification of the diet. 

o Assessment of dose reductions that might be expected due to removal 

of contaminated soil. 

e Comparison of these dose assessment matrices with the population dose 

. guidelines used by the Task Group. 

The Enewetak Radiological Survey Report (NVO-140) contains estimates for 

average population doses on the Atoll for 5, 10, 30, and 70 years in its 

current radiological condition and for six living patterns covering a range 

of exposure conditions and including the pattern copsidered to be most 

representative of the ICnewetalc peop1.e 's desi-red life style after they re turn. 

are made for each of these living patterns for each of the fol1owin.y corrective 

actions : 

0 Gravel the vi1la;:e area and plo1.7 the village island. 

e Import pandanus 2nd breadfruit from the southern islands (ALVINKEITH) for inhabitants of the northern islands. 

o Import panda~~us, breadfruit, coconut and tacca from the southern 

islands. 

o Import pandanus, breadfruit, coconut, tacca, and dcmestic meat from 

the southern isl-ands. 

The est:irnates for 30 year wi~ole body doses in the Survey Report are 

sununarizcd i.n Table 1 of tile Task Croup report, and 30-year-bone dose 

e.stini.?tcs ::re siimnlarizecl in T;ill.c 3. ?jete that the option for "Gravel Village 

Arca - I'low Vil-laze Isl.ant1," acilirr-vcs a rninirnnl. reduction in radiation 
exposure of whole body &d bone for all living patterns, and those living on 

JANET would have to import most fcods to avoid exceeding a whole body 

exposure of 4 rems in 30 years. 

Population dose guidelines used by the Task Group inclu'de annual dose 

rates as well as 30 year integrals for genetic doses. Appendix IV provides a 

detailed description of the calculations leading to estimates of maximum annual 

exposure for the critical organ of the segment of the population expected 

to receive the highest exposure. A detailed assessment of dose was made 

considering dietary changes that can be expected to occur wieh time and 

,with age as these would influence dose to the fetus, the newborn, to 

children, and to adults. Estimates are developed both for persons who 

are adults when they return and for children born after return of their 

p a r e n t s - t o t h e Atoll. Dynamic situations were evaluated such that exposures 

in the highest year are predicted. These estimates are not therefore average 

anniinl valiies an" licable over a period of time, and exposures in other 

years should be lower than the predicted dose. 

Conservative values have been selected for variables in models for 

assessment of expected doses. Though conservative, the estimates are not 

considered ultra conservative and do not constitute the theoretical 

maximum credible or worst case exposure. These conservative estimates of 

expected maximum annual exposure presented in Appendix IV are considered by 

the Task Group to be applicable to individuals in the Enewetak population. 

There will be few persons within this population at any one time who are fetus, 

newborn, or infants, believed to be the most sensitive members. Therefore, 

the predicted exposures are judged suitable for comparison with FRC exposure 

guides for individuals within an exposed population. Tables 3 and 4 show 

estimates of the maximum annual whole body and bone dose. 

-7-
... 

In considering the reduction in exposure that may be achievable through 

removal of contaminated soil, the Task Group has taken the position that these 

predicted exposures are approximations only. The .effectiveness of such actions 

to reduce internal exposures that come through the food chain must be confirmed through analysis of test plantings. The Task Group does not favor soil 

removal as a dependable or feasible exposure reduction action for the dietary 

pathway. However, such action is reviewed in the Task Group Report in order 

to present a coelete picture of the various possiblities considered. 

. In its assessment of dose reductions that might be possible due to 

removal of contaminated soil, the Task Group posed the following question: 

"Given the dose estimates of Tables 1-4, and the dose reductions that can 

be expected due to the indicat.ed actions, can equivalent dose reductions 

be achieved by removal of soil and, if so, what volume of soil would have to 

be removed from contaminated islands?'' In order to address this question 

one must know or have estimates of the areas to be used for housing and 

villages, for growing pandanus and breadfruit, for growing coconut, and for 

raising domestic animals. 

Figure 1 shows the Enewetak Atoll Land Use Plan as presented in the 

Enewetak Atoll Master Plan. Of the northern islands only Enjebi (JNJET) 

would be used as a residence and agricultural'island if this were fensibl-e. 

Aej (OLIVE), Lujor (PEARL), Amon (SALLY), Bijile (TILDA), Lojwa (URSULA), and 

Alamebel (VERA) are intended to be used as agricultural islands, and the 

remainder (ALICE, BELLE, CU, DAISY, IFBIE, KATE, LUCY, NARY, NANCY, and 

WILMA) as food gathering and picnic islands. 

Figure 2 sho1.7~ the land use plan for Enjebi Island (JANET), including 

2 14 housing areas (560,000 ft , assuming an airerage housing area to be 200' 

2 

x 200' in size), a community center (200,000 ft ) , suhsistcnce agricultural 

2 2 

areas (1,100,000 ft ), and commercial agricultural areas .(7,300,000 ft ). 
In order to get an approximation of the amount of soil that would have 

to be removed to bring about a given dose reduction, one needs to determine 

the three dimensional distribution of the radioactive contamination. Figure 3 

90 shows the average Sr activities (pCi/gm) i n s o i l samples collected to a 

depth of 15 cm on JANET. Similar figures for 13'~s,60~o, and 239~umay 

be found in Appendix I1 of NVO-140. In addition to the 15 cm deep samples, 

radioactivity distribution as a function of depth ("profile samplesff) was 

measured in fourteen locations on JANET. Data from these profiles are presented 

in Figs. B.8.2.a-n of Appendix I1 of NVO-140. Inspection of these profiles 

indicates that, on the average, about 40 cm of soil would have to be removed 

to reduce the activity in the top 2 cm layer by a factor of 10. In addition, 

as the depth increases the s.lope of the activity-vs-depth curve tends to 

decrease, i.e., the activity levels do not go to zero, even at depths greater 

than 100 cm. Table 5 shoirs pertinent data for P0sr. 

In an attempt to quantify this distribution and obtain an approxirnntion of 

the "average profileff for calculational purposes, 'OS~ and 13'cs data for each 

of the fourteen profile samples have been reproduced in Tables 6 and 7. The 

average values for 'OS~ for each sampling depth are plotted in Fig. 4. It is 

apparent that from the surface to about 30 cm the 'OSL- specific activity is 

decreasing with a "soil half thicknessff of 8.4 cm, while in the 30 to 85 cm 

depth range the half thickness increases to 22 cm. The levels do not get 2s 

low as those found on the southern islands (~0.5 pCi/gm) at any depth dorm to 

180 cm. Those profile samples which lie in or closest to the subsistence 

agriculture areas of Figure 2 have been averaged and plotted in Fig. 5. In 

this set, the half thickness is only 4 cm from the surface to 10 cn, but 

increases to 25.5 cm in the 10 to 85 cm depth range. Similar treatment of the 

13'cs data is plotted' in Figs. 6 and 7. In Fig. 6, where all saiiples are 
averaged, the half thickness is 4.5 cm down to about 10 cm, and 12 cm from 

10 to 85 cm. Levels equal to those found on the southern islands (na0.2 p~F/~m) 

are found at depths below about 100 cm. In Fig. 7, the subsistence agriculture 

case gives a half thickness of 2.7 cm down to 10 cm, and 17.8 cm from 10 to 

85 cm. 

90 137 For both Sr and Cs it is apparent that the profile everaged over all 

samples is more conservative than is the profile for subsistence agricultural 

areas for estimating the effects of soil removal; therefore, the Task Group 

has used Figs. 4 and 6 for estimating dose reductions that might occur due 

to removal of soil. 

In making thcsc dose reduction approxinations, one must keep two things 

in mind; first, that the NVO-140 dose estimates for terrestrial foods zrown on 

an islarld sucll as JANCT are bascd on correlations bet~.reen certain indicator 

plancs and average soll concentrations in the U-15 crn samples (Fig. 3) since 

foods suci~ as pandanus and br-entlfruit srerc. not found on JN.;ET and, second, 

that these concentrations are averazed over the 0-15 cm depth of Figs. 4 and 6. 

Estimates of dose rcd~~ctionsto be evpcctetl due to removal of soil to a given 

depth, therefore, require an estimate of the ratio of the average concentratior! 

of the nuclides of conccrn in the 0-15 cm depth of the newly exposed surface 

to that for the surface which is present now. This approach does not cansider 

the radioactivity in the s~ilcdeener than 15 cm which rtia): be important, 

particularly for plants with roots that penetrate deeply into the soil. Table 8 

presents these average concentrations and ratios for 'OS~ and 137~sfor each 15 

cm incremcnt from the present surface down to 105 crn as derived from Figs. 4 

and 6. The-se estimates indicate, for example, that removal of 15 cm of soil 

may reduce the terrestrial food dcse due to ''~r by a factor of 3.3 md that 
I 

due to 137~sby 3.2. However, such reduction may or may aot be actually 

achieved. The Task Group believes that subsistence crops should not be planted 

on an island if use of the food produced is questionable. I~ieasurements of 

radionuclide content of fruit from test plantings would be needed to determine 

the effectiveness of soil removal actions. 

Using the data of Tz.ble 8, one may assess the dose reductions that might 

occur due to specific cleanup actions on JANET. Table 9 shows the doses 

that might occur due to seven different conditions. Case DI represents 

the contributors to the 80 Rern bone dose of Table 2 using values for 90~rand 

13'cs averaged over all of JANET. Case DI-1 indicates that if subsistence 

agriculture is limited to the area shown in Fig. 2 (i.e., along the lagoon 

90 137 shore) the Sr 2nd Cs levels nay be reduced to such an extent that the 

resulting 30-yr-bone dose becomes 57 Rem. Removal of a half-thickness of 

137~s(4.5 cm) in the residential areas has litfle effect since that action 

influences only the external gamma dose. Removal of successive 15 cm layers 

of soil in the subsistence agricultural areas, however, may reduce the bone 

dose by significant amounts. Removal of the top 15 cm layer, for example, 

may reduce the 30-year-bone dose from 57 Rern to 19 Rem, while removal of an 

additional 15 cm may bring the dose down to 10.7 Rem. 

Since soil removal.--vs-bone dose reduction would possi.bly be most effective 

for pandanus and breadfruit, a variation on the estimates of Table 9 may be 

obtained by preferentially stripping soil in areas where these trees are 

to be grown. For case DI-1, for example, if pandanus and breadfruit are 

grown in the subsistence agricultural areas only in sections from which 15 cm 

of soil have been removed, the resulting bone dose may drop from 57 Ran to 

29.7 Rern (i.e. , 57-33.1 + 1.1.8) . If an additional 15 crn layer is removed, 

the dose may drop to 23.7 Rem. 
Another action that would achieve the maximum dose reduction that can 

be expected is through importation of clean soil from the southern islands or 

90 from outside the Atoll. Sr concentrations in the average prohile (Table 6) 

do not get as low as those on the southern islands even at a depth of 

180 cm. To achieve this maximum effect, however, sufficient clean soil has 

to be imported to encompass the entire root system of the mature trees and 

the water supply for these crops must not have 90Sr levels higher than those 

found in the southern islands. k~yreplacement soil should be coarse and 

granular. Such soil is less Likely to blow away or trash away. Given these 

conditions, the 57 Rem bone dose of case DI-1 may be reduced to 18.9 Rem 

(57-39.1 + 2.1 (0.45) (the 2.1 Rem from Table 241 and 0.45 from Table 243 

of NVO-140). 

As to the question of ~.~hetherquival.cnt dose reductions (equivalent to 

reducti-ons obtained tliroug11 n~odification of the diet) could be obtained 

through removal of cont;minated soil, the Task Group holds the opinion that 

some rc~tlluctionis possil~le. l!owever, the magnitude of this reduction is 

uncertain and can cnly I)c determined relia11l.y througli r;~casure:.!ent of the 

radion~~clidecontent of the important food itens such as pnndznus and brcac!-

fruit [:]-own in the rnodified condition. This would require a research effort 

to grot,] test plantings of the various food crops in the soil renova1 and 

rcplaceriient areas using vari-ous fertilizers and trace mineral.^, and analysis 

of radionuclide content of the fruit protluced. There is the possibility that 

radioactivity in the fruit could be relia!~l.y predicted from analysis of 

stems a:ld leaves of young ant1 as yet unproductive plants. This would require 

additional study. 
In the commercial agriculture areas of JANET and the other northern 

islands the item of concern is the radioactivity level of coconuts i.e., 

"Can the Enewetakese sell their copra?" Data in NVO-140 (pg 560-562) 

indicate that 137~sis the principal man-made radionuclide found in cocon~t 

137 137 meat, with the relationship Cs (copra) = 1.33 Cs (soil) at 137~soil 

40 concentrations greater than 4.7 pCi/gm. NVO-140 also indicates that K is 

found in copra at an average concentration of 6.8 pCi/gm. Since 40~is a 

naturally occurring gamma emitter that has always been present in copra, one 

way to judge the acceptability of copra grown in Enewetak Islands is on the 

137 basis of its Cs content relative to the naturally occurring 40K. If the 

137 137 Cs content in soil is less than 5.2 pCi/gm, for example, the Cs content 

40 of the copra produced may be-less than its K content. One could hold the 

position that marketability should not be affected if the fission product 

137 radioactivity in the product. Table 10 shows the mean Cs soil concentration 

and soil removal actions that may reduce the 13'cs concentration in copra to 

values equal to and twice that of the natural. 40~for all northern islands 

(average profile data for PEARL, ALICE, BELLE, and CLAP&, plotted in Figs. 

8-11 and included in Table 8, were used in the calculations for each of these 

islands) . 

On JhnJET, for c:cample, the comercial agriculture area in its currenr: 

40 condi-tion should yield copra with an average 137~s/K concentration ratio of 

about three. Removal of a 6 cm thick layer of soil may reduce this value 

to two, and removal of 14 cm may result in copra with equal concentrations 

of 137~sand 40~. Note that for islands planned to he used for commercial 

137 agriculture, it is possible that only JhVET and PEML have Cs soil val~~es 

137 40 high enough to yield copra with a Cs/ K raiio greater than 2. Test 
- -- 

1, plantings of coconut would be needed in areas where removal of'soil has 

been conducted and the level of 13'cs in coconut meat analyzed before any 

commitment is made for planting of coconut trees in commercial quantities. 

As previously noted, it may be possible to predict the level of 137~sin 

coconut meat through analysis of stems 2nd leaves of immature trees. This 

would save time. 

The Task Group points out that measurable quantities of tests related 

radioactivity will be found in copra from all islands in the atoll, the highest 

levels from the nothern islands. No quarantee can be given for a level of 

13'cs acceptable in the market place, however, the level of natural 40 K appears 

to be a reasonable guidepost since there has been no requirement to reduce 

the level of naturally occuring radioactivity in copra. 

DISPOSNA OF CONTN.fT?J;\TED !.'ATERIN, 

For disposal of contaminated material, there appear to be several 

categories, each requirine separate consideration: 

1. Contaminated scrap , non-plutonium. 

2. Contaminated soil, non-plutonium. 

3. Contaminatecl scrap, plutoni~lm. 

4. Contaminated soi.1, plutonium. 

5. Pieces o f p l u t o n i ~ i m m e t a l . 

Some of the above are below the ground surface such as in burial sites. 

Some is near the surface such as the pieces of plutonium metal on YVO?PJE. 

With regard to disposal, the Task Group considers it appropriate to cite 

the ol~jectives for disposal, to list possib1.e approaches for disposal, and 

to suggest possible interim measures where appropriate. 
Table 12 and the associated discussion in NV-140, Vol. 1,jcontains 

information on known or suspected burial sites 'for radioactive debris. The 

Holmes and Narver "Engineering Study For A Cleanup Plan, Enewetak Atoll-Ylarshall 

Islands," Hn.-1348.1, contains information on the location and quantity of 

other above ground contaminated scrap. .-

Considering the relative short radiological halftimes for the fission 

products and induced radioactivity found on such scrap and debris, the Task 

Group suggests that the objective for disposal is to make this debris, 

particularly scrap metal, unavailable to the people when they return. 

Possible approaches for disposal are: 

1. Disposal in water filled and underwater craters. 

2. Shallow land burial wherein the radiation level of the scrap 

is not significantly greater than the radiation level on land. 

3. Disposal in deeper portions of the lagoon. It is expected that 

this would be a modest addition to similar material already there 

from past test operations. 

For contaminated soil, other than plutonium, the Task Group has not 

included removal of such soil in its recommendations and therefore there would 

be no requirement to select a method of disposal. If such disposal were 

required, the objective would be to assure that there would be no pathway for 

any exposure of the Enewetak people to this radioactivity and a minimal followup requirement to insure that this situation continues after disposal. 

The Task Group view is that because of its extremely long half-life, disposal 

of plutonium in the form of contaiminated soil and scrap is a problem of greater 

magnitude than for fission products and induced activity. In its deliberations, 

the Task Group has assumed that the disposition of such material will be such 
that there is no potential for exposure of the residents of the Atoll cnce 

cleanup has been completed. This is then the objective for cleanup. 

Recommmendations which follow will treat the questions of how to approach 

recovery of quantities of finely divided plutonium in the form of contaminated 

soil, contminated scrap, and the pieces of plutonium metal where they have 

been found to occur. -4ppendix I11 of this report contains guidance on 

decisions to be made on whether removal of plutonium contaminated soil is 

justifi-ed on various islands. It is the view oi the Task Group that as a 

minimum, cleanup must accomplisl~ the recovery of the plutonium in the form of 

contaminated materials, soil and scrap, from th.e various islands including 

buried scrap. To maintain control of the materials and minimize the spread 

of c~nt~unination,the recovery operations should utilize as few stockpiles 

as necessary. YVONNE may be a suitable site for such a stockpile until 

proper disposal is acconplished. YVOPINE is still under quarantine placed 

in effect in ?,lay 1972, as a result of an AEC survey that indicated pieces 

239 of metal containing millir,rna~s quantities of Pu were on or near the 

surf ace of the island. 

It is the hope of the Task Group that deliberation and decisions on 

disposal of plutonirlnl contaminated soil and scrap will not delay other cleanup 

and rehabilitation actions. 

As for considerin? disposal, there appear to be two possibilities: 

1. Disposal wherein there is an irrevocable comitment of the 

contaninant to the environment. 

2. Disposal wherein, with some difficulty, a later decision could 

change the method of disposal. 
The following ideas have been put forth regarding disposal of plutonium 

contaminated soil and scrap: 

1. Disposal of plutonium contaminated scrap in the deep lagoon or 

deep ocean. 

2. Make the contaminated soil into concrete blocks with disposal in 

deep ocean or through burial on land. 

3. Disposal of contaminated soil in the form of cement poured into 

deep drill holes on land with the scrap added. 

4. Disposal of soil and scrap in the water filled craters on YVONNE with 

a thick concrete cover. 

5. Return of these materials for burial in the U.S. in packaged form or 

as concrete blocks. 

6. An effort be made to find a way to reduce the volume and amount of 

material requiring disposal. 

Any ocean disposal plans must conform with the specific provisions of 

applicable regulations governing such disposal .and must be approved by the 

Environmental Protection Agency. Discussions with the Enewetak people and 

their representatives indicate they strongly oppose disposal of radioactive 

debris on the Atoll. Any plans for burial of cbntaminated debris within the 

Atoll should be discussed with the people. 

It may be possible to reduce the amount of material requiring disposal 

by removal of the plutonium from the most highly contaminated soil. The 

Task Group does not have adequate information to determine whether this may 

be feasible. Research to determine whether this can be accomplished could be 

conducted with YVONNE used as the study site. . 

-17-
TASK GROUP OBSERVATIONS ATSD COYCT,USIONS 

In the radiologically complex Enewetak Atoll environment there are a 

large number of options that may be considered for cleanup and rehabilitation 

of various islands. The Task Group has considered as many of these as I

possible and has attempted to arrive at a consensus of opinion among the drafting I 

group and Its technical advisors. Comments on draft material have been solicited 

from staff of several Federal agencies. Their suggestions have influenced I 

the development of recommendations. Regarding each option, the following have 

been considered. I 

1. Determination of the radiological exposure to be expected and I 

comparison of predicted exposures with accepted radiation exposure 

criteria. 

2. The feasibility of actions or restrictions inherent in the option. 

3. The effcctiveness of the option in bringing exposures within the 

criteria and any uncertainties regarding the etfectiveness. I 

4. The possible impact on the Enewetak people and on the environment. / 

Choice of the best overall metllod for reduction of exposures to the 8

lowest practicable level is a matter of jud1:ment and opj-nion. The Task Group 

has deliberated whether actions of an engineering nature, such as soil removal, I

are preferable to actions that wou1.d restrict use of certain islands for I 

permanent habitation and food production. The adverse impact of engineering 

actions on the Atoll environrner~t and the uncertainties regarding effectiveness I 

have been viewed on the one hand, and the question of the extent to which the 

Encwetak people would comply with restrictions on the other. I

NVO-1.40 and this Task Group report present the radiation doses that may 8 

be associated with a broad range of options and provide data for calculating 

doses for other opt3.on.s for anyone who wishcs to do so. The dose reduction 1 

expected for one optioil can be compared witn that of another. Dollar cost 8 
estimates should be prepared by DNA for the remedial measures recommended by I 

AEC; and the impact and acceptability of restrictions can be evaluated thrcugh 

discussions with the Enewetak Council. 

In NVO-140, and in the previous section of this report, dose estimates -

and therefore options - were considered in matrix form (e.g., living pattern 

vs. diet, or diet source vs. amount of soil removed). While these matrices 

serve to indicate in detail the range of conditions to be found on the Atoll, 

the Task Group feels that its analyses and recommendations are presented 

more effectively in narrative form. 

There are three basic questions to be addressed: 1)"Is the radiation 

environment acceptable or can it be made acceptable for the Enewetak people to 

return to their atoll," 2)"Is the radiation environment on Enjebi acceptable 

or can it be made acceptable for the to return," and 3)"Are there islands 

which are not acceptable for people to conduct their normal agricultural and 

social activities, and, if so, are there any actions that could be taken or 

restrictions imposed that would keep exposures within acceptable criteria?" 

Within this framework of data and basic questions, the Task Group has 

focused attention on the following options (see Fig. 146, page 11-3 

Appendix 11) : 

Option I 4 

a. No return of the Enewetak people. 

b. No radiological cleanup. 

This clearly represents a no-cost, no-radiation-dose option. Just as 

clearly, it runs contrary to the expressed wishes of the Enewetak people. In 

addition, choice of this option cannot be defended using current radiation protection philosophy and standards since the predicted exposures for persons living 

on the southern islands and using agriculture only on these islands are well 

within acceptable standards. 
Option I1 

a. Return to the southern islands (ALVIN-KEITH). . b. Agriculture limited to the southern islands. 

c. Travel restricted to the southern islands. 

d. No restrictions on fishing. 

e. No radiological cleanup. 

This option (Row A of Tables 1-4) has a zero cost for radiological cleanup 

that results in population doses well below the guides. It difiers from 

later options in that it leaves the problems of contaminated scrap in many 

areas of the Atoll, and the Pu in soil on YVONNE, IRENE, and in the burial 

sites on SALLY, plus generally contaminated areas on ALICE, BELLE, CLARA, 

and PEARL, unresolved. Such a choice would establish the need for off-limits 

areas in perpetuity, at least for TNObJLX, since the metallic Pu is expected 

. . . . LU L)C ~JLC~CLL; ULL LLIC ~ULL~LC U; iile isia~~i. ir~riefini~eiyuniess cleanup is 

performed. Under current conditions there is a potential for exposures exceeding 

Federal standards throunh the inhalation pathway and the possibility of spread of 

the contan~inntion if access to the island is not controlled. This accounts for 

the current quarantine of the island. Limiting all agriculture to the southern 

islands is difficult to justify because some of the northern islands are lightly 

contaminated. From Tabl-es 1-4, for example, it can be seen that limiting only 

the growth of pandanus and breadfruit to the southern islands would permit all 

other subsister.ce agricultural practices on JANET-WILMA without the radiation 

exposure criteria being exceeded. Similarly, it is difficult to justify limiting 

travel to the southern islands since the ambient gamma levels on the northern 

islands do not represent a sj.gnificant external exposure potential for 

occasional visitation. 
a. Return to the southern islands (ALVIN-KEITH). 

. b. Subsistence agriculture limited to the southern islands plus JAXET-WIL-XA 

except that pandanus and breadfruit are 1imit:ed to the southern islands. 

c. No restrictions on travel. .. 

d. No restrictions on fishing. 

e. Remove Pu contamination on YVOhTE, IRENE and the SALLY burial sites. 

f. Remove radioactive scrap. .

This is one of the less expensive options in that it requires removal 

of only the most seriously contaminated materials. In practical terms, it 

maximizes unrestricted use of areas of the Atoll having low radioactivity 

levels, leaves no hazardous legacies for the indefinite future, and permits 

living patterns which, with high confidence, are expected to result in population 

doses we1 1 h~l nr~the rpcnmmpnrl~rl radi,atf nn r_rit~rin.

This option does not specify action against radioactivity in soil of the 

islands such as ALICE, BELLE, and CTJtZTJSI, nor does it recommend that residences 

be built on JhWET. By implication, therefore, resettlement of JANET would have 

to wait for radioactive decay and weathering processes to reduce contamination 

levels to acceptable values on these islands. Since the predominant isotopes, 

13'Cs and "~r, each have half-lives of 30 years, the waiting period could 

be slightly nore than one human generation for each factor of two reduction in 

dose. On the other hand the reduction.could proceed at a somewhat faster rate. 

On JANET, reducing the maximum annual child's bone marrow dose from 0.72 rem/yr 

(Table 4, Case D-I) to the guide level of 0.25 rem/yr through natural decay of 

90 the Sr would theoretically require a wait of about 50 years considering only 

radiological decay. It is not expected that such a reduction will actually 

take that long. 
Option IV 

a. All of Option 111 a, c, d, e, and f, plus: 

b. Return to JANET and build residences and community center in locations 

shown on the Master Plan. 

c. Remove a minimum of 30 cm of soil in all areas where pandanus and 

breadfruit are to be grown on JANET; import clean soil in which to 

establish these plants; or import pandanus and breadfruit from the 

southern islands. 

If these actions proved to be as effective as the theoretical predictions, 

this would permit return of the Enjebi people to their island. It should be 

emphasized, however, that even with the above actions, predicted doses are 

at or above the Task Group criteria for annual exposures and also well above the 

30 year gonadal criteria. The levels are expected to be well above those of 

Option 111. 

Option IV c describes three ways in which essentially the same end can 

theoretically be achieved. Importation of food is the most dependable action 

but this imposes a long-term burden on the Enjebi people which they may find 

objectionable. Removal of soil alone is another alternative, but the 

effectiveness of the action is uncertain for reducing population dose since 

90 137 Sr and Cs are found so far below the surface on JRJET. Importing soil for 

areas of subsistence crops such as pandanus and breadfruit would possibly reduce 

the dose from these foods to levels comparable to those found on the southern 

islands, provided that sufficient soil is imported to encompass the entire root 

system of the mature trees. The water supply for these crops must not have 

radioactivity levels higher than those in the southern islands. How this can be 

insured is not obvious at this time. 

-22-
The Task Group considers Option IV a-c, by.itseli, to be unacceptable 

at this time. Even with the actions and restrictions indicated, exposures 

would be too high to provide an acceptable margin with.in the Task Group 

criteria. This is especially true for children born a.t about the time of 

rehabitation. Importation of food from the southern part of the Atoll or 

other sources is believed to represent an impractical solution to the problem 

of excessive internal exposure. Use of a layer of clean soil in areas for food 

production is not known to be effective and may be hard to regulate. Foods 

produced through experiments to determine the effectiveness of this measure 

should not be considered for use by people until the results are carefully 

evaluated. Use of clean soil for subsistence crops may have little effect 

on levels of radioactivity i; domestic animals and coc.onut crabs, which 

range over the entire island. 

Since Uption LV a-c is expected to result in population doses near or 

slightly above the radiation criteria, further dose reduction may possibly 

be achieved by: 

d. Removal of 15 cm of soil in the subsistence agricultural area of Jh?iET. 

e. Removal of 15 cm of soil in the commercial agricultural area of JNJCT. 

These actions result in a theoretical reduction factor of 3 to 4 for 13'cs 

90 and Sr in the remaining top cm layer of soil - or have roughly the same 

theoretical effect as waiting 60 years for radioactive decay to take place. 

Whether food crops would show a similar reduction is uncertain. This action 

would possibly result in an ultimate finding that doses would be below the 

criteria but above that expected for people living on the southern islands. 
I 

Most significantly, however, implementation of Option IV k-e would remove 

a minimum of 15 cm of soil from essentially the entire island of JANET. Since 

the top soil on that island is charitably described as meager, such action 

would leave JANET a sand island. Heroic actions would be required to either 

reconstitute the remaining soil through use of fertilizers and other 

additives, or import topsoil sufficient to support subsistence and commercial 

agriculture. With any of these actions a period of time would be required to 

determine the effectiveness of the action. An additional period would be 

required after a decision to plant subsistence and commercial crops in 

quantity before the island could support its inhabitants. 

Option V 

a. All of Option IV a-e, plus: -

b. Removal of a minimum of 10 cm of soil from PEARL. 

T1 r .1 I

U; buL1 /7 .TT,-.n iili , LrL~iltEEZZZ, #-L. i\ciIiuva~ uI d 1uLlt:lilulil VL 9 Lit1 ~LVIII ~ I ~ L rL

and 10 cm from CTSLM. 

d. If pandanus and breadfruit are to be grown on northern islands other 

than JNIET, the criteria of Option IV'C should apply, i.e., plant in 

9 0 soil having a Sr content of 4.6 pCi/gm or less, or bring clean soil 

to the island with a depth sufficient to contain the roots of these 

4 

trees. 

If these actions achieved a level of exposure reduction zs large as the 

calculational result, this would permit use of the entire Atoll according to 

the Master Plan. This option is clearly much more expensive than other 

options since it requires removal of additional soil and requires reconstitution of soil in the cleared areas. Consideration of these actions as 

a viable option is clouded by uncertainties regarding the exposure reduction 

that can be achieved through partial soil removal aqd by selective soil 

replacement. 
For comparative purposes, population dose estimates for Options I-V are 

presented in Table 11. 

RECOMIEIJDATIONS e 

After careful review of all available radiological data the Task Group 

members' specific recommendations are as follows: 

. .. .., . 

1. The people of Enewetak Atoll may be safety returned to their homeland provided certain actions are taken and precautions observed. 

2. In the interest of achieving a minimum practicable radiation dose 

for the Enewetak people the Task Group recommends that: 

a. The first villages and residences be constructed on EmR, FRED, 

DAVID, or on any of the southern islands (ALVIN-KEITH) that the 

Enewetak people choose. 

b. Growth of all subsistence crops such as pandanus, breadfruit, 

tacca, pigs, chickens, and all other terrestrial food stuffs 

except coconut be limited to islands ALVIN-KEITH. 

c. Subsistence and commercial coconut nay be grown without remedial 

measures on any island in the Atoll except ALICE, BELLE, CLARA, 

DAISY, IRENE, JArJET, and YVONNE. 

d. Fishing be permitted anywhere. 

e. Travel be unrestricted to all islands except YVONNE. When the 

Pu contamination on YVONNE is removed, the restriction of travel 

to that island can be lifted. 

f. Wild birds and bird's eggs be collected anywhere. 

g. Coconut crabs be collected only on the southern islands (ALVIN-KEITH). 

h. Wells which are intended to provide lens water for human consumption 

or for agricultural use be drilled only on the southern islands 

.(ALVIN-KEITH). \hen drilled, water from each well should be checked 

for bacteria, salinity, and radioactivity content before the well is 

approved for use. 

- -25-
3. It is recognized that the people of Enjebi have a strong desire to 

return to live on that island. The island contains three ground zero 

locations from nuclear tests and was within about 3 miles of the 1 

Mike event that had a total yield of about 10 Megatons. According to 

the survey results presented in NV-140, Enjebi was the most heavily # 

contaminated of the larger islands in the Atoll, The Task Group has 

been unable to determine any way in which radiation exposures can be 1

brought within the acceptable criteria, that is both reliable and I 

feasible, in order to resettle Enjebi at the same time as islands 

in the south of the Atoll. It is reasonable to expect that one day ! 

the island can be resettled. There appear to be two possible approaches: 

a. Soil removal followed by studies with test plantings to determine 

whether exposure for Enjebi residents would be within acceptable 

criteria. 

b. Conduct of studies using test plantings to determine when exposures 8 

would be within acceptable criteria but no soil removed. 1 

In either case, housing construction and planting of subsistence and 

commercial crops would be deferred until research with test plantings 

showed acceptably low levels of radioactivity. The Task Group 

recommends the second approach as one,having minimal adverse impact I 

on the island environment. 

4. The research program in 3 above should also include a 

determination of radioactivity levels in coconut and other food crops I 

produced on PEARL, CTAR.4, ALICE, and BELLE. YVONNE should also 

be included after removal of plutonium contaminated soil. I 

5. All radioactive scrap metal and contaminated debris identified during I 

the Holmes and Narver Engineering Survey should be removed. If 
additional contaminated debris is discovered in the course of cleanup 

and rehabilitation operations, it too should be removed. Specifically 

included in this recommendation are the three locations'on SALLY and 

one on ELMER where contaminated debris is known to be buried. This 

debris should be exhumed and removed. 

6. The quarantine of WOIJNE, put into effect by t.he Air Force on 

May 26, 1972, should be continued in effect until the cleanup of 

plutonium contamination on that island has been completed. Should 

any Enewetak people return to the Atoll before cleanup is begun 

or before completion, an authority responsible for enforcement 

of the quarantine should be identified and should be in residence 

in the Atoll when people return. 

7. The distribution of plutonium contamination on YVONNE is sufficiently 

complex that specific recommendations for cleanup cannot be presented. 

It is expected that the true picture of this contamination will unfold 

as the decontamination effort proceeds. The area observed to have 

pieces of plutonium and the highest soil concentrations is the 

interior and shoreline of the island beginning at a line drawn 

from the ocean reef to lagoon 60 meters north of the tower (Hardtack 

Station 1310) to CACTUS Crater. See Fig. 152, page 11-17, Appendix 11. 

Presented are some of the requirements and objectives that will 

establish a background from which plans can be made for recovery of 

plutonium on YVONNE. 

a. A team of experts should be assembled who can make and interpret 

field radiation and radioactivity measurements, advise on cleanup 

actions envol-ving plutonium and other radionuclides, and provide 

' necessary health physics support including protection of worl:ers, 

decontami.nation of workers and equipment,, and packaging and 
handling of collected contaminated materials. A Public Health B 

Service group, which is now part of the En~iroment~al Protection 

Agency, EPA, provided radiological assistance for cleanup of 1

Bikini Atoll. Similar support should be sought from EPA for I 

Enewetak Cleanup. 

b. Decontamination of WOIWE is seen as an iterative process, namely, I 

removal of soil, monitoring of radioactivity levels, and removal 

of more soil. This amounts to a search for the higher plutonium 

levels in soil with removal according to the guidance provided. I 

c. The objectives of the cleanup are two: 

(1) Recovery of the pieces of plutonium that have been observed I 

on or near the island surface. Some contain milligram 

quantities of plutonium metal and are easily detected with 1

field survey instruments such as the FIDLER. 1 

(2) , . Recoverv of ~lutonium contaminated soil. To a first

approximation, the location of the zones of higher Pu concentrations are shown in the survey profile samples. 

d. Recovery of plutonium in soil at concentrations greater than 400 

239,240 

~ci/g Pu at any depth these levels are found. The I 

justification is that plutonium at some depth may one day be at 

the surface. Also, recovery of contaminated soil sufficient to I 

239 ,24OpU reduce surface levels to a value well below 40 pCi/g I 

The justification is to keep air concentrations of resuspended 

plutonium to levels well within national and internatlonal I 

standards. After soil removal, all areas should be resurveyed 

to ensure no pieces or hot spots of plutonium remain. 
8. Plutonium contaminated soil on IRENE should be handled the same as 

on YVONNE and using the same general criterk for removal except it 

is not expected that pieces of plutonium metal will be found. 

9. Since it is recommended that replanting of food crops be limited 

to certain islands, test plantings of pandanus, breadfruit, coconut, 

and arrowroot should be made, as soon as growth can be assured, on 

each of the islands indicated for such crop!; by the Enewetak people. 

As edible parts of these plants become available, their concentrations 

90 137 of Sr, CS , 2399240~uand any other significant radionuclides 

should be measured and compared with the radiological survey predictions. 

These studies will provide for a determination to be made of the 

earliest time at which planting of food and commercial crops can 

be made on islands other than those listed in 2b. and 2c. above. 

10. An underground lens water sampling and anal.ysis program should be 

conducted in which samples are taken over a period of at least 12 

calendar months. Bacterial content, salinity, and radionuclide content 

should be measured, but primary emphasis of the program should be 

placed on development of an understanding of processes which are 

operating - or which can be made to operate - to reduce the ecological 

90 half-life of Sr and 13'cs below the radioactive half-life on the 

northern islands, especially JANET. 
11. A comprehensive air sampling program should be conducted over a period I 

of 12 consecutive months under conditions closely approximating 

human habitation and expected soil disturbance. This would add to 

the body of available information on radioactivity levels in air. 

This program could be conducted coincident with and in support of 

cleanup operations. 

12. Base-line surveys of body burdens and urine content of 13'cs and 

90Sr should be made for the Enewetak people prior to return to 

Enewetak Atoll, after the first year of residence, and as appropriate 

thereafter. Resurveys of the environmental radiation and radioactivity 

levels should be made starting in the first year of return and I 

repeated every other-year. To be determined is the adequacy of the 

diet and the actual average dai1.y diptary intake of radioactivity for 1 

radioactivity levels in water, air, soil, plants, and animals are -

changing with time. (Included should be measurements of radionuclide 

content of air and col.lection of information on the chemical and physical. 

form and size distribution of particles in the air containing 239 Pu.) I

Information from such surveys will provide a continuing check of 

the radiological status of the people and the environment and will 

assure thail the exposure criteria is not being approached or exceeded. I 

13. Considering that the method of disposal of pl.utonium contaminated soil 

and scrap has not yet been decided, that not enouzh information is I 

available to determine whether it is feasible to remove plutoniurn from 1 

the soil to reduce the amount of material requiring disposal, and not 

wanting such problems to delay cl.eanup and rehabililation of the 

Atoll, the Task Group recomnends the following: 
a. As a minimum, cleanup should accomplish the recovery of 

plutonium contaminated soil and scrap into storage on WONYE. 

b. The YVONNE quarantine should remain in effect with access 

controlled and all visitors and workers monitored as for a 

radiation control zone. 

c. If disposal is deferred for further study, such study should be 

planned and conducted promptly. 

14. The cleanup phase of rehabitation, i.e., removal and disposal of 

contaminated scrap, debris, and soil, should be carefully documented 

In a comprehensive final report from those conducting the cleanup 

operation. 

15. The planning and conduct of cleanup, including radiological support 

for cleanup, should be similar to cleanup of Bikini Atoll and 

advantage taken of that experience. As Bikini people were given 

opportunity for employment during cleanup, an equal opportunity 

should be given Enewetak people if they desire. 
I 

TABLE 1. 30 Year Integral i;%ole Eody Dose en) 

-

111 N V

Import Pancianus, ~~ycr-t Pnnaenus, I 

Current Condition Gravel Village Import Breadfruit, BreadfruFt, 

Living (no corrective Area - Plow Pandsnus and Coconut, and Coccnat, Tacca, 

Pattern acticn) Vill~ge - Island Ereadfruit Tacca ar.d Meat

Livinc Pattern Village Island A5riculture Visitat icn I 

P~HEL)/'ELP.IL'H/'UAV11) ALVIII through KXITH Southern Isl~!:rjs 

FRED/ELI~R/DAVID KATE through TEU4A Northern Icla~ds 

plus LeRoy 

JAIU'ET KATE througn hTI.-54 Northern Isl??d s 

plus LeRoy 

JANET JANET Northern Islaxi s 

JANET ALICE through TP.EE Northern Isla:? s 

F (4) BELLE Northern Isla ~d s 

1 

I 

I. 

1 
- - - - - 

I TABLE 2. 30 Year Integral Bone Dose e em) 

I I1 I11 IV v 

Import Pandanus, Im~ort Paiidanus, 

Current Condition Gravel Village Import Breadfruit, Breadfruit, 

Living (no corrective Area - Plow Pandanus and Coconut and Coconut, T~cc~ 1 Pattern action) Village Island Breadfruit -

Tacca and Meat
i 

TEiBLE 5. I.laximGa f'xr.l;al !;:%ole Body Dose em) 

V 

Import Import Import Pendanus, 8

Current Ccndition Gravel Village Pzndanus Pandanus, Breadfruit, 

(no ccrrective ~:'ea - Plow and Ereadfruit, Coconut, Tzcca, 

action) Villege Islznd Ereadfruit Coconut.Tccca and :+lest 

4 .!. '6. 

0.039/0.035 

'::Values not significantly- different from Column I 
TABLE 4. Maximum Annual Bone Marrow Dose e em) 

1 

0 / Import Import Import Pacdanus, .. , 

Current Condition Gravel village Fa nd anus Panclancs, Breedfruit, 

Living (no corrective Area - Plow and Breadfruit, Coconut, Tacca, 

Pattern 'action) Village Island Breadfruit Ccconut.Tacca 2nd >::e?.t 

0.04~/0.04~*" 

t-:Values not significantly different from Column I. 

f*~hild/~dult- both starting Jan. 1974. 
TABLE 5. %~rFrofile Sample Data on JANET I 

I 

I I 

Depth to Reduce 

Profile Sample Act. by Factor "~r ~ct.in gO~rAct. I

Number of 10 Top 2 cm Top 15 cm Below 100 cm 

(cm) (PCI/~~) Max. (p~i/gm) nAv." I 

3.6 (loo cm) 3.5 1 

46 (120 cm) 10.5 

2.4 (100 cm) 1 

0.7 (100 cm) 0.3 

0.6 (160 cm) 0.3 I 

* 

(NO. 10G and 30. 901 

excluded) 

Mean 90~rconcentration in top 15 cm samples: 

JANET: 44 p~i/gm 

Southern islands: 

DAVID, ELMER, li'RED: 0.41 p~i/gm 

All others except 

4 

C4 

C, 

r\ 

(U 

0 

rl 

C". 

0 

\D 

"2 

0 

d 

CU 

? 

0 

n 

CU 

0 

+ 

1 

0 

. . d C-=r 

G 0 

h- d N n 

0 0 

t- CN. oN. G 

t- C\ f. \ C \ 

0 0 

* a3 n x 

3 C 

'.s r- c-- '27 

0 0 

n r, 

9 C, 

d Pi 

c3 !- ". u? 

4 -4 

O\ Ln 

-9 N 

Cd 

'0 0: c' cu 

rl 

4 

n; 

In 4 

LT. 'U. 

t- 

(0 

r\ a3 w - 0 Ln 9 ? '9 '3 C. 

0 0 0 0 0 0 

cn r- d d C U fn o o . Ln 994 "9% rl d 0 0 0 0 000 

m 4m1n m m * o 

S ? "2 -? ??? d d 000 0 000 

r- LC In * CJ r( 

?fly C". "2 *. ? ? O O d 0 0 000 

Ln rr\ * Ln Q N * 

??? "f Cs?? d d 000 0 0 000 

e 

c: 

3 

c 

0 

- 

CD no3 r- r-22 

1 4'19: "99 010000 000 

\D d (U 

N dnnmtnw N N 

9 ??C".11? ??? rl d 0 000000 000 

m 

0, n n r- nV3V3rlV3cn 4Nrl r( ri. ???c".9'U. "99 rl d 0 000000 0 0 0 

0 

w 

PI 

A 

4 

b# 0 

c4 

(U 03 m V3 FrnOInf-InKInnFNd 

?1?1p:???%~9? t A m.4 61 0 0 0 0 0 0 Q 0 0 0 0 0 

(U In d ul 03r-cn CDFt-r- CU N 

?+.?????N.???1 

000000000d00 

c ,, N, 4 -I 2, m C" "' c - r4 

01 

c: 

0 

-4 

4-I 

m 

i 3 

c' 

c 

0, 

C 

C 

0 

U 

U 

U 

r- 

)F\ 

4 

tU 

A 

P 

a 

k- 

'a n A,I rW.?q:.:o:lNm.O:: r! ?J O r l Q O I n d N O I n W d O N d 

In dCUtr r, Ln OI . Q ? 4 rl 

I N Ln 

rld0 ,*'1co. Nh'\DrlNV\*LTrtrn~CO 

2 

<I 

r( 

;1 

ti 

u 

c; 

I ?.Ir:'?.???? nil\ ?-,I O d 0 0 0 0 0 0 O d 0 0 

r- ul r, (UCDO\\Dn I . . . . . s PI 000000300~00 

N NmInT\FP1 CJ In c- 

&;N.a.N.?'a,"q-,y"d.w. 

000000d00CUd00 

In 

F d r( n 03 (U + I 'U.??C".':????K;?*. 5' :I 00d000~i00*~00 

V3 In n N In Ln 

".'C.C1N"?ri?" ?"=?". O O N O O r t r t O A I n M 0 0 0 

d In (U 

rt 40:??1p . ul In??? 

ri0.?l'-"rt3ccO 
Table U. Concentrations of rV~rand L''~s in each 15 cm incre~entbelow 

the surface for the "Average Profile Sea~les" 

JANET 

Depth Av. "5, conc. Ratio to -1 Av . 'j7cs con.. Ratio to 1

cm top 15 cm Ratio (PCI/~~) top 15 cx 33tio -. (PCi/gd 

CLARA 

0-15 26 1.0 1.0 

15-30 . 6-5 0.25 4.0 

30- 45 . 1.6 0.063 16 

45-60 - 0.42 0.016 64 
Tabel 9. Effect of so11 removal on 30 year integral bone lose on JANET, case DI, Table 2. 

Bone Dose (~3rn) Due To ~~-1 Av. Est. y 

Soil - 

90~, CO~C Bone Exposl~re Soil Renwal Action 'Jolume Pandanus C xonut Meat Dose External Marine TOTAL 

(I?ci/gm) Rates Breadfruit Tacca 

(15 cm aver.) 

DI Av. for JAR! 

Current condition 44 0 55-5 6.8 1.2 75 40 &hr 4.0 0.84 

DI- 1Sub;is tance 

Agrlc. area 31 0 39.1 4.8 9.3 53.2 28 3.3 0.84 57% 

I 

DI-2 Remove 4.5 cm in 3.2~1031~13 . 39.1 4.8 52.8 

Residential area 3 1 

51-3a Remove 15 cm in 9-4 1.5~10 m 3 11.8 1.5 2.7 16 

Subsistence Agric.Area 

DI-3b Rexove 30 crn 4.6 3.GxlO 5 -8 0.7 1.3 7.8 4 

DI-3c Remove 45 cm 2 9 4.5~10 3 -7 0.4 0.8 4.9 4 

Dl-3d Remove 60 cm 1.8 6.0~10 2 *3 0.3 4 0.5 3.1 

-- - 

80 
Table 10. Soil removal actions to reduce 

'j7cs co~centratians in copra 

Mean current 127 

AJ C s I conc. in Soil to be removed to 

1 Island soil (p~i/gm in achieve: 

1. 

Comm. Agr. 15 cm samples) 

Area Thickne ss Volume Thickness Volune 

5 2 JANET 6.9~10 m 

OLIVE 7 65 1.h105 

5 12.4 1.5~10 

I VERA 

Food Gathering and Picnicinq 

4 2 ALICE 36 9.3~10 m 

CLARA 26 1.9 

DAISY 11 5.6 

IRENE 3 2 -

LUCY 

MARY 9.9 5.6 

NANCY 12 8.4 

WILMA 1.3 -
I 

\ 

Table 11. Population Dose Estimates fop Various Cleanup 

and Rehabilitation Options on Enewetak Atoll. 

30 p whole 30 yr htegral Max annaal whole Max annual dcse to 

body dose ern) bone dose (Rern) body dose ern) red bone merrc-d (?ee-) 

OPTION 

(same as N e) b > 

LAND USE PLAN - ENJEBI ISLAND 

i Fig. 2. 

~UIU~IU

I 
0 h 

a

CV P -'G- 0 / 

c-i a0

a d. 

r9 F- P ' 
DEPTH (CM) 

FIG 4. 90~r (AVERAGE OF ALL PROFILE SAMPLES ON JANET) 
DEPTH (CM) 

FIG 5. 'OS~ (AVERAGE OF "SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE" 

PROFILE SAhlPLES ON JANET) 
FIG 6. 13'cs (AVERAGE OF ALL PROFILE S,IMPLES ON JANET) 
100 -

-

-

-

-

-

1 -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

100 

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

- 10 -

-

-

-

-

-

- pC11grn

-

- 1

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

0.1 - I I I I I I > 01 

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 

DEPTH (CM) 

FIG 7. 13'cs (AVERACiE OF "SUCSISTFNCE AGRICULTURE" 

PROFILE SAIL'IPLES ON JANET) 
DEPTH (CM) 

FIG 8. 13'cs (AVERAGE OF ALL PROFILE SAMPLES ON PEARL) 
DEPTH ICM) 

FIG 9. 13'cs (AVERAGE OF ALL PROFILE SAMPLES ON ALICE) . . 
DEPTH (CM) . 

FIG 10. 13'cs (AVERAGE OF ALL PROFILE SAMPLES ON BELLE) 
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 

DEPTH (Chi) 

FIG 11. 13'cs (AVERAGE OF ALL PROFILE SAMPLES ON CLARA) 

Appendix I 

Enewetak Radiological Survey Report 

Abstract 

The AEC has conducted a survey of 

the total radiological environment of Enewetak Atoll in order to provide data for 

judgments as to whether or not all or any 

part of the Atoll can be safely reinhabited. 

More than 4500 samples from all parts of 

the marine, terrestrial, and atmospheric 

components of the Atoll environment were 

analyzed by instrumental snd radiochem i -

cal methods. In addition, an aerial survey for gamma-radiation levels was conducted over all land areas. 

S r, 13ks, 60~o,and 239~uare the 

predominant radioactive isotopes now 

present, but their distribution is far from 

uniform. Islands on the southern half of 

tho Atoll from AT .VTN to KRTTH have levels of contamination comparable to or 

less than those due to world-wide fallout 

in the United States. On the northern 

half, islands ALICE to IRENE are most 

heavily contaminated, KATE to WILMA 

are least contarninated, and JANET is at 

an intermediate level. 

These radiological data have been combined with the best information currently 

available on the expected diet of the Enewetak people to estimate p'btential wholebody and bone doses to the population for 

six living patterns at 5-, lo-, 30-, and 

70-yr intervals after return. Thirtyyear integral dose estimates for unmodified (i.e., current) conditions are shown 

in Table A,. 

Table A. The 30-yr integral dose fcr six living patterns, assuming unmodified conditions. 

30-year integral dose, rem 

Unmodified conditions 

External 

Living Inhalation -=Terrestrial Llarine Total 

pattern w x g Liver W. B. W.B. Bone . 6. Bone Ki3. ' Bone 

Vl C.090 0.11 0.049 4.4 9.6 130 0.053 0.84 14 !35 

Living 

pattern Village island Aqricultare Visitation 

I FRED/E l.,MER/DAVID ALVIN through KEiTH S o u t h e r n i s l a n d s 

I1 FRED/ELIZ.IER/DAVID KATE through WILMA Northern islands 

plus LERC>\' 

JANET Northern islands 

BE I,I,E Northern ~slands 

V JANE?' KATE through W 1L,iLlA 

plus LEROY Northern islands 

VI JANET ALICE throclgh IRENE Northern ~slantfs 
The main contribution to the population 

dose comes through the terrestrial food 

pathway, followed in decreasing order of 

significance by the external gamma dose, 

marine, and inhalation pathways. In the 

terrestrial food pathway, the main contribution to both whole-body and bone 

dose is due to pandanus and breadfruit. 

Percentage contributions to the 30-yr 

integral dose for each of the terrestrial 

food items for a population engaged in 

agriculture on JANET are shown in 

Table B. 

Corrective actions to reduce population doses will be most beneficial if they 

are directed at the primary contributors, 

i.e., pandanus and breadfruit in the diet 

and external gamma dose in the residence 

areas. Since neither pandanus nor breadfr17it =re nnw ?rowin? on the Atoll in sufficient amounts to provide a significant 

dietary component, control of the location 

and manner in which they are reestablished will have a direct influence on the 

population doses from these fruits. If 

their growth were limited to the southern 

islands, for example, and the population 

living on JANET were to import them 

Table B. Percentage of total 30-yr terrestrial food dose to a population engaged in agriculture en 

JANET. 

Food 

'OS~ dose 

to bone, 

'70 

13'cs dose 

to who'e 

'70 

bodyn 

Domestic meat 17 26 

Pandanus frult 4 0 3 5 

Breadfruit 34 29 

Wild birds 0.005 0.003 

Bird eggs 0.05 0.002 

Arrowroot 2 0.3 

Coconut meat 6 9 

Cocor..;t milk 0.9 1 

rather than'grow them locally, the espected 30-yr bone dose would be reduced 

from 8Ot0 25 rem and the whole-body 

dose. from 11 to 6.5 rem. Similar results 

would be obtained if uncontaminated soil 

were imported to JANET for the establishment of these plants. Attempts to 

obtain the same results by removal of 

"~r-and 137~s-contaminated soil from 

JANET would require denuding of the 

entire island because of the relatively 

uniform distribution of these isotopes 

over the land surface. 

Significant reduction of the external 

gamma dose may be achieved by placing 

a 2-in. layer of clean gravel in the vlllage areas and by plowing the agricultural 

areas. On JANET, for example, use of 

these procedures reduces the expected 

30-yr external dose from 4.0 to 1.7 rem. 

Thus, from Table A it is clear that a 

very broad range of popu!ation doses may 

be expected, depending on village isla~d, 

agricultural island, and iiving pattern. It 

is equally' clear that substantial reductions of the higher d o s e s c a n b e achieved 

through relatively simple modification of 

the agricultural practices and of the soil. 

Table C s'ummarizes the reduction that 

could be expected from these actions for 

a population living on JAXET. 

The island of YVONNE presents a 

unique hazard on Enewetak Atoll. Pure 

plutonium particles are present on or 

close to the ground surface, randomly 

scattered in "hot spots" over most of the 

area from the tower to CACTUS crater. 

Examination of these "hot spots1' has 

revealed the presence of occasional 

milligram-size pieces of plutonium metal, 

as well as smaller pieces which are physically indistinguishable in size from the 
-- 

surrounding coral matrix. Given these 

current conditions, it must be assumed 

that pure plutonium particles of respirable size are now also present on the surface or may be present in the future as 

weathering effects oxidize and break . . down the larger particles. Lung dose 

assessments for this area, therefore, 

must be based on inhalation of pure plutonium particles rather than those having the average plutonium content of the 

soil. 

The potential health hazard via the 

inhalation pathway is sufficiently great to 

dictate two basic alternatives for rem-edial action for this island: (1) Make the 

entire island an exclusion area-off limits to all people, or (2) conduct a cleanup 

campaign which w;ll eliminate the "hotspot1' plutonium problem and remove 

whatever amount of soil is necessary to 

reduce the soil plutonium concentration 

to a level comparable to other northern 

islands. As an indication of the volumes 

of soil involved, removal of a 10-cm 

thick layer of topsoil in the area ~n which 

"hot spots" have been detected involves 

approximately 17,000 xi3 of material. 

Further removal of soil to reduce the 

maximum plutonium contamination levels 

to 50 pCi/g or less involves an additional 

3 25,000 m of material. 

Table C. 30-yr integral doses from all pathways compared to U. S. external background dose. 

Location 

Enewetak Atoll living 

pattern 111 (JANETcurrent conditions) 

Enewetak Atoll living 

pattern 111 (JANETpandanus and breadfruit imported) 

Enewetak Atoll living 

pattern 111 (JANETall agriculture confined to southern 

islands 

Enewetak Atoll living 

pattern I (southern 

islands) 

U. S. background onlyC 

30-yr i,ntegral dose, rema 

Unmodified soil case Modified soil caseu 

W. B. Bone LV. B. Hone 

11 80 

6.5 25 

3.0 3.0 

asurn of all pathways for the Enewetak living patterns (i.e., external, inhalation, 

marlne, and terrestrial). 

b~oilmodified by placing 2 in. of clean gravel in the village area and plowing the 

agricultural area. 

CBased upon background of 100 mrem/yr at sea level. 

Appendix 11 

Enewetak Radiological Survey Report 

Summary of Findings Chapter 

W. Nervik, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, Lirrcrmore, Cal~fornia . 

INTRODUCTION 

It has been the purpose of this survey 

to gain a sufficient understanding of the 

total radiological environment of Enewetak 

Atoll to permit judgments as to whether 

or not all or any part of the Atoll can 

safely be reinhabited and, if so, what 

preliminary steps toward cleanup should 

be taken and what post-rehabilitation constraints must be imposed. 

Enewetak Atoll has an extremely 

broad range of radiological conditions in 

a small land mass. To gain an understanding of the details of this range of 

conditions, it has been necessary to obtain 

and analyze a very large number of samples from all components of the environment. To gain an equivalent understanding of the implications of this range of 

conditions for rehabilitatiorl of the 

Enewetak people, it has been necessary 

to postulate population distributions, life 

styles, and dietary habits - an endeavor 

fraught with uncertainties under the best 

of circumstances, but particularly so for 

the current, rapidly changing Marshallese 

culture. 

This section is a summary of the data 

obtained from the Survey, the postulates 

used, and the population dose assessments 

derived from data plus postulates. The 

reader is caationed ag2inst expecting or 

using a "simple" description of the radiological condition of Enewetak Atoll, because no single value of any component of 

the radiological condition is applicable to 

the entire Atoll without being misleading. 

CURRENT RADIO1,OGICAL CONDITION 

OF THE ATOLL 

External Gamma Radiation Levels 

Three independent techniques were 

used to measure external gamma radiation levels on the Atoll: 

e LiF and CaF2 thernwluminescent 

dosimeters (TLDs) were exvosed 

for 3q months on seven of the 

northern islands. 

A.measurement using a BairdAtomic survey instrument was 

made at each soil-sampling location on each island. 

o An aerial survey with NaI detectors 

L~A~A~L~LC: Ci-LF :kf ,-?t:l~

surface area of every ~sland. 

All three techniques yield results 

which agree to within about 10%. "CCJ 

and 13'cs cofitribute most of the total 

exter~algamma radiation, with the 

remainder due to small amounts of other 

155 

gamma emitters such as 125~b, Eu, 

and 241~m. The amount of 60~orelative to 137~svaries throughout the Atoll, 

with a range of values from about 0.5 on 

JANET to greater than 14 on ,JARlES. 

Average values for each isotope on cach 

island are given in Table 214. For reference, a map of the Atoll is shown in 

Fig. 146. 

Southern islands (SAM to KEITfI) arc 

characterized by low and more or less 

uniformly distributed gamma-radiation 

levels over the area of each island. .As 

exposure levels increase, exposure gradients becorne severe, with beaches 
Table 214. Summary of average exposure rates for islands in Enewetak Atoll. 

Average exposure rate, jiR/hr at 1 ma 

13'rC Island 

ALICE 

BELLE 

CLARA 

DAISY 6.8 

EDNA 2.8 

IRENE 

JANET 

KATE 11 

LUCY 6 

PZRCY 2 

MARY 5.5 

NANCY 6 

OLIVE 

PEARL 

RUBY 

SALLY 

TILDA 4 

URSULA 

VERA 

WILhllA 

YVONNE 

. SAM 

TOM 

URIAH 

VAN <0.3 (0.08) 

A L V IN 

BRUCE 

CLYDE <0.3 (0.04) 

DAVID N. D. (0.21) 

REX 

ELMER 

WA I,T 

FRED 

GLENN 0.4 (0.33) 

HENRY 

IRWIN 

KE IT 1-1 c0.3 (0.15) 

1,EROY 2.8 

60~o 

14.4 

2.4 

7 

7 

2 

4 

5 

2 

<0.6 (0.25) 

cO.6 (0.11) 

N. D. (0.10) 

c0.6 (0.20) 

cO.6 (0.49) 

4.8 

TotaI y 

(0-3 MeV) . b

Range 

21.3 

6 

19 

10 

12 

. 

5- 140 

5-8 

3-22 

2-12 

1-50 

6 2-11 

cO.9 

c0.9 

c0.9 

0 - 1 

0- 1 

0-5 

c0.9 0-1 

c0.9 

7.6 

0-2 

3-8 

a~veragcdose rates given are der~ved from aerial survey data. On lslands where activity 

levels art- at the lower 11m1tot sensltlvlty of the zerlal survey equipment, dose rates derived 

from the so11 sample data are glven In parentheses. 

b~s mcasured with the !?a~rd-Atorr;~c Instrument.
. -

Fig. 146. Islands (those circled) requested as village locations by the Enewetak people. 

generally at or very near expected back- Radioactivity Levels in Enewetak 

I -Soil ground levels; the highest levels are 

. 

I 

found in heavy vegetation at island centers Approximately 3000 samples of 

or near ground zero sites. ".4veraget' Enew-etak soil were analyzed by germanivalues for islands with relatively high um gamma-spectroscopic (GeLi) ar.d 

dose levels include a broad range of values wet-chemistry techniques to determine 

I for specific areas and should therefore be the distribution of radioactive species on 

used w itl-i caution. islands in the -4toll. Sanlples were taken 
on every island, but emphasis was given 

to - and proportionately larger numbers 

of samples taken on -those islands which 

were known to have been sites for nuclear 

testing activity or to have been subjected 

to large amounts of fallout from such 

activity. 

Two types of soil samples were taken 

on each island: "surface" and "profile." 

At "surface" sampling locations, two 

samples were taken - one a 10-cm2 X 15-

cm-deep core, and the second a composite 

2 of two 30-cm X 5-cm-deep cores. At 

2 ''profile" sampling locations, 100-cm 

samples were taken from the side wall 

of a trench dug for the purpose. Nominal 

depth increments for the profile samples 

were0 to2, 2 to 5, 5 to 10, 10 to 15,15 

to 25, and 25 to 35 cm, and at 10-cm 

increments to total depth. 'Total depth 

for profile samples varied from 35 to 

185 cm, depending on the distribution expected from the testing history of the 

island being sampled. 

In general, the predominant species -

found in the soil samples are 'OS~, 137~s, 

239~u, and 60~o. 4dK, 55~e, lolFlh, 

102m~h, 125~b, 133~a, 134~s, 152 Eu, 

154~, 55~u, 2 0 7 ~ i , 2 2 6 ~ a , 235u, 

238~~, and 241~rn are also present in

some or all of the samples. As was the 

case for external gamma levels, small 

amounts of radioactive species on the 

southern islands (SAM to KEITH) are 

distributed more or less uniformly over 

the entire land area. On islands where 

larger amounts of activity are present, 

the highest levels of all species are found 

at the island zenters or in proximity to 

ground-zero sites, usually related in a 

direct way to the vegetation density in the 

immediate area. As an example of the 

I 

kind of data obtained for. cach of the predominant isotopes on each of the islands, 

'OS~ values for 0-15 crn core samples on 

JANET are plotted in Fig. 147. 

Table 215 presents geometric mean 

values and ranges for the four predominant 

radionuclides on islands from ALICE 

through WILMA. On islands where there 

are significant differences in activity 

levels between densely and sparsely 

vegetated areas, data for both are given. 

Similar data for groups of southern islands 

are shown in Table 216. 

"Profile" samples showed a wide range 

of activity distributions as a function of 

depth on different parts of the Atoll. Examples of the types found are given in 

Figs. 148- 151. Althoilgh generalizations 

in this area are not very meaningful, 

Fig. 148 shows the profile distribution 

normally found on the southern islands. 

Here the activity levels are usually low 

through the full range of depths sampled. 

Sotne sampling locations show concentrations decreasing somewhat from the surface through the first 10 or 20 cm of soil. 

Figure 149 shows the type of distribution 

often found inland on islands subjected 

to fallout, but not to construction or other 

ground-zero earthtnoving activities -i. e., 

a rapid and fairly steady decrease of 

activity levels from the surface to total 

depth. Figure 150 shows the distribution 

found on beaches and exposed areas on 

these same islands -i. e., uniform oislowly decreasing activity levels from 

the surface to total depth. Figure 151 

shows a distribution pattern found occasionally on islands which have been the sites 

for tests or have been subjected to construction and earthmoving activities 

(primarily IRENE, .JANET, PEARL, 

Table 215. Enewetak soil data, "northern islands" (pCi/g in top 15 cm). 

137cs - - 239~u 60 co 

Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range 

BELLE Dense 

Sparse 

CLARA 

DAISY Dense 

Sparse 

EDNA 

IRENE 

JANET 

KATE Dense 

Sparse 

LU CY 

MARY 

NANCY 

PERCY 

OLIVE Dense 

Sparse 

PEARL Hot spot 

Remainder 

RUBY 

' SALLY 

TILDA Dense 

Sparse 

URSULA 

VERA 

WILMA 

Southern 

YVONNE 

Northern 

Beaches 

YVONNE - Because of the complex distribution Uf activities on Northern YVONNE no 

single mean value for an isotope can be used for the island as a whole without being misleading. Readers should consult the YVONNE discussion in 

this section and the detailed data in Appendix I1 for information pertinent to 

their interests. 

SALLY, and YVONNE). In these locations, bution" can be formulated which is 

activity levels below ground level are applicable to the Atoll as a whole. 

significantly higher than at the surface. The land area which has the most 

Because of the observed variety of profile severely nonuniform distribut~on of 

distributions, no "average vertical distri- radioactive species on the Atoll is that 
Table 216. Enewetak soil data, southern islands (pCi/g in top 15 cm). 

-- - -~ -

Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range 

Group A 

(DAVID, 

ELMER, 

FRED) 0.4 1 0.02-4.8 0.21 0.01-2.1 0.04 0.004-0.31 0.03 0.01-0.15 

Group B 

(All others 

except 

LEROY)~ 0.52 0.03-3.9 0.14 0.004-1.8 0.07 0.004-1.1 0.06 0.007-63 

Group C 

(LEROY) 11 1.6-34 3.2 0.5-10 0.63 0.02-2.0 0.58 0.04-5.0 

aSAM, TOM, URIAFI, VAN, ALVIN, BRUCE, CLYDE, REX, WALT, GLENN, 

HENRY. IRWIN, JAMES and KEITH. 

part of YVONNE which lies north of the 

tower (Sta. 1310). This area includes 

the highest external gamma levels found . 

on the Atoll, with levels of 500-750 pR/hr 

found over a five-acre site just south of 

the CACTUS crater. In addition, pieces 

of plutonium metal weighing as much as 

several milligrams are randomly 

scattered on or near the ground surface 

over most of the area from CACTUS 

crater to a line drawn across the island, 

about 60 m north of the tower. Construction and earthmoving activities during the 

testing period, for which we have no 

reliable record, servecl to redistribute the 

radioactivity in such a way that it is 

esse~ltially impossible to get an accurate, 

detailed, three-dimensional survey of 

radioactive species present in this area 

now. Four hundred meters north of the 

tower, for about 100 m along the cceanside embankment, for example, there is 

a visible layer of dark soil roughly 20 cm 

thick, 10 to 20 cm below the surface, 

which co~tainshigh ioncentrat ions of 

plutonium i3200 pCi/g in one sample). 

In an effort to obtain a reasonable 

estimate of the three-dimensional distribution of radioactive material in this area, 

45 profile locations (show2 in Fig. 152) 

were sampled to 150-crn depths. Plutonium data for the profiles along the center 

of the island, and across the island at the 

position of the plutonium-bearing layer, 

are shown in Figs. 153-156. Data from 

all of the profile samples lead to the 

following observations: 

a There were no large plutonium 

particles analyzed in any of these 

sampies since the maximum 

specific activity found was -8Cln 

pCi/g. 

e Except for the area in the general 

vicinity of the exposed plutonium 

layer, there were few profile 

sampling locations where plutonium 

concentrations exceeded 100 pCi/g 

at any depth. Of the f~urthat clitl, 

two had the high concentration in 

the top 10 cm of soil. Profile 

sampling locations where plutonium 

concentratioi.,~ greater than 109 

II-
pCi/g were found at any depth are 

enclosed in cross-hatched areas in 

Fig. 152. 

Thus it seems likely that soil bearing 

high concentrations of plutonium - as 

opposed to pieces of plutonium -is largely 

limited to a band roughly 350 m wide 

across the island, centered on the visible 

plutonium soil layer. Within this band, 

plutonium concentrations are greatest on 

the ocean side, less on the lagoon side, 

and least in the island center - a finding 

consistent with historical data which indicate that debris was bulldozed away 

from the shot point toward both shorelines after the event which produced these 

plutonium particles. 

Except for this band across the icsland, 

there is no evidence which indicates that 

plutonium particles on or near the ground 

surface in the larger area shown in 

Fig. 152 are also found at any significant 

depth below the surface. Because of the 

discrete nature and random distribution 

of these particles, of course, the only way 

that their distribution could be further 

established would be by analysis of very 

large volumes of soil. 

Radioactivity Levels in Enewetak 

Laeoon 

Approxinlately 858 samples taken from 

the Enewetak lagoon environment were 

analyzed by germanium gammaspectroscopic (GeL,i) and wet-chemistry 

techniques to determine the distribution 

of radioactive species in the lagoon, including 345 sediment and bottom cores, 

82 seawater and seawater filters, 21 algae, 

plankton, or coral. and 410 fish samples. 

Figure 157 shows the major sampling 

locations for this marine program. 

Analysis,of the sediment and core 

samples indicates the preslnce of 40~. 

60~o,'OS~, lol~h, 102m ~h, lo6~u, 

155 27~b, 137 cs, 52~u, 54r:u, Eu, 

207Bi, 235U, 23gpU, 239,240pU, and 

241~min some, but not necessarily all 

of the samples. Each nuclide is Ronuniformly distributed over the lagoon 

floor, with the highest levels generally 

found in the northwest part of the lagoon, 

2-3 km southeast of the islands ALICE 

through IRENE; the next highest levels arc 

found in the area southwest of YVONNI?; 

and the lowest levels are found south of a 

line extending across the lagoon from the 

Southwest Passage to TOM. Figure 158, 

for example, shows the distribution pattern for 90~r.Similar figures have been 

prepared for each of the predominant 

species found. 

Many of the radionuclidcs found in the 

marine sediment and c o r e s a m p l e s w e r e 

not detected in the water samples, in10 2 m 10 6 125 eluding Rh, Ru, Sb, 152~~, 

and 235~. In only 15 samples from the 

northern art of the la~oonwere 60~~, <, 

155~u, 2d7~i, and 241L4m detected. 

137~~ and 239*240~~ were positively

identified in all samples. Table 217 gives 

the mean surface water concentration of 

137~s and 239,240~u in the four quadrants 

of the lagoon, in the ocean close to the 

east side of the lagoon, and for several 

areas in other parts of the world for 

comparative purposes. 

In the planirton samples, the most 

abundant isotooes observed were 

207Bi 

(av 0.86 pCi/g, wet wt) and 

(0.83 pCi/g), followed in decreasing order 

of abundance by 'OCO (0.68 pCi/g), 

2391240~u. (0.39 pCi/g), 155~u(0.24 

pCi/g), 241~m(0.23 pCi/g), and 137~s 
Depth - cm 

Fig. 148. Activities of selected radionuclides as a function of soil depth. 

Depth -cm 

Fig. 149. Activities of selected radionuclides as a function of soil depth. 

Depth - cm 

Fig. 150. Activities of selected radionuclides as a function of soil depth. 

Depth - cm 

Fig. 151. Activities of selected radionuclides as a.function of soil depth. 


- - 

Depth -

cm 100 100 

. 10

Surface r 1 I A 

174 -CC 

0'05 

0.62 6.7 0.02 -

024 0.02 - 0.68 - 0.06 - 1.1 - 0.03 0.007 -

0.04 - 0.02 - 0.03 - 0.44 0.07 0.07 0.009 0.68 - 0.03 60 0.04 0.01 0x1 0.008 0.4 - 0 -3.2 70 031 - 0.007 0x3 - 0.01 - 0.07 0.03 80 0 03 031 - 0.08 9.6 0.05 0.03 0.02 OS8 0T2 90 2 

0 03 0.02 0.0 1 0.22 0.35 - - 0.06 - 0.05 100 

-

0 008 0x8 0.02 0.46 - ,L0.4 0.04 0.01 - 0.08 - 0.03 - 110 0 003 032 0.01 2.9 - - 0.05 - - 027 0.01 120 

- - -

Profile location number 

Fig. 153. Plutonium profile data, Locations 101-103,105, 109, 114, 119, 124, and 

129, YVONNE. 

Profile location number 

Fig. 154. Plutonium profile data, Locations 132-142, YVONNE. 

(0.07 pCi/g). Comparison of these data lagoon with mean residence half-times 

with similar data obtained in 1954 indi- of 3.3 and 4.1 yr, respectively, while 

cates that, in addition to physical decay, '07E3i appears to he decreasirlg at approxi60~3and 137~~ are being lgst from the mately its radioactive decay rate. 90~r, 
- - - - - 

Depth, 

crn 

100 100 

Surface 

120 180 A 

lo - i-50 1.9 20 -

170 30 -

340 0.59 40 0.44 

OJ3 

0.007 

0 .n2 90 --

50 - 620 100 - 0.05 

0508 - -

-

- -

1 I, I 

113 114 115 116 

Ocean Profile location number Lagoon 

Fig. 155. Plutonium profile data, Locations 112- 116, YVONNE. 

Depth, 

CACTUS Crater Profile location number Lagoon 

Fig. 156. Plu+.onium profile data, Locations 142-146, YVONNE. 

2.9 

239,230 MI,lS5~u,and 241~rnwere not thls survey were chosen for one or more 

reported ~n 1064. of the follo\tr~ng reasons: (1) They arc. 

Of the more than 700 specie.; of fish at comrnoniy eaten bj thc llarshallesc; (2) 

Enewetak Atoll, the species selected for they arc rclat~vely abundant at most of the 
Sample types 

9 Sediment and cores 

* Reef species 

)Plonkton 

A Water 

Deep Southwest 

Passage Passage 

8 

Wide 

Passage 

Fig. 157. Enewetal: marine program sampling locations. 

collection sites; (3) they are representative detritus feeder), convict surgeon (a 

of a feeding habit; or (4) there is previous grazing herbivore), goatfish (a bottornrelevant radiometric information about feeding carnivore), and parrotfish (a coral 

the species. The species of reef fishes eater). The tunas, jacks, acd dolphins -

selected as being representative of feeding pelagic fish - and the snappers and 

habits include the mullet (a plankton and groupers - benthic fish - which were also 

8 
Fig. 158. Activity levels of 'OS~ deposited in the sediments of Enewetak Lagoon. 

collected are carnivores of high order in 

the food chain leading to man. 

The number and kind of marine organisms collected at near-shore sites at 

Enewetak Atoll. and at Kwajalein Atoll, 

where "control." samples were taken, arc! 

shown in Table 21 8. Similar information 

for the carnivorous fish is given in 

Table 219. 

40~,55~e, and G O ~ ~ were the predominant radioactive nuclides found in all 

1;5 fish, althouch Zn, Sr, 101~h,102tn ~h, 14"N 180°W (1972) 

Table 217. Concentration oi 137~sand 

239~~ in comparative, surface water samples. 

Location 

Enewetak Lagoon 

SE quadrant 

NE quadrant 

NW quadrant 

SW quadrant 

Ocean, east of Enewetak Atoll 

Lake Michigan (197 1) 

Humboldt Bay, Calif. (1973) 

Concentratton, 

fCi/lit~r 

137cs 2311~" 

226 9.1 

334 -12.6 

579 33.4 

332 21.6 

89 0.3 

88 1.1 

300 

143 0.44 

IOEitn 123sb 137 152 lZaN 170°E, (1972) 170 0.35 Ag, cs, Eu, 55Eu, 

207 ' Windscale \?cinity (1969) 105.000 

n1, 239,240~~,and 241.4m were also 

Mean surface. Atlantlc 

present in some or all samples. 0-31°N (1968) 0.7 
I 

I I Table 218. Number of organisms collected at Enewetak Atoll and ~wajalje~nAtoll nearshore sites, October to December 1972. ' 

Orc.1111im 

011 3 r~ 011it.r- I 

Collert ton Ci~n;.~cr y.~rr.nr - . ~-,.,,j \t..i I I - \I'~I'L". 

hi1 (l \lullet C;i>.it ltsh ;u r~t.on ilih (1-11 TricI.trn.1 ~,it(.t~ r~~l>c,r,~ l1r.11 cs 101 .$I

Knewetnk :\to11 

L) GI~~~~X-iIl~Sf~~ - 25 11 - 50 2 10 ti 4 I I4

Table 219. 

shore 

Number 

lagoon 

of carni\,c)rous 

s~tc,-,, Oct ober 

fish collectcci 

to I)cccmbcr 

from 

1972. 

the Encwetak and K~valaleln of!'- I

Collcction l'cllowfin Orpanism 

site tuna Skip,~rick hlackerel I)olphin Snapper Grouper Llua .I7otal 

Enewetak 2 

Kwa~alein 3 

Tutn! 

Figures 159-161 show the average con- jack collected in !,lnewetak lagoon - -

are 

centrations of predominant radionuclides shown in Fig. 162. In general, 55 Fe levels 

found in convict surgeon samples taken in the large pelagic fist1 were higher than 

at each of the collection sites around the levels found in other fish types, whi!e I

lagoon. Similar data were obtained from other nuclides lvere present at levels 

the mullet, goatfish, and parrotfish comparable to or iower than those found I 

samples. in the reef fish. 

Average raclionuclide content of light Of the samples collected at Kwalalc~n, 

muscle, dark muscle, and !iver of skip- 'OK was present at normal backgrouncl 
- - - 

Column legend 

A 55~e - eviscerated whole fish 

B 55~e- viscera 

c 60~o- viscera 

D 'OCO - eviscemted whole fish I 

Collection site 

40 55 Fig. Fe, 'OCO concentratijn i convict surgeon from Enelvetat 159. Average K, t o Atoll, October to I)ecember, 1972. The K value is the mean for all convict surgeon samples. 

Table 220. Comparison of 60~oand 20713i in the viscera of convict surgeon collected 

in 1964 and 1972. 

60~oin pCi/g, dry 207~iin pCi,/g, dry 

Fraction Fraction 

Island 1964 1972 remaining 1964 1972 remaining 

BELLE 120 16 0.13 8.0 2.0 0.25 

JANET 8.3 0.96 0.12 1.2 0.2 0.17 

GLENN 19 3.3 0.17 2.6 0.7 0.27 

1,EROY 56 . 3.4 0.06 5.2 3.1 0.59 

YVONNE 64 5.2 0.08 

Average 0.1 1 0.32 
----- 

[Meon 40~concentration 

10 - d

Column legend 

A 137~s -

B 155~u- C 155~uD 207~i -

-

entire fish 

eviscerated whole fish 

viscera 

viscera 

E 207~ieviscerated whole fish 

BELLE IRENE JANET URSULA YVONNE DAVID FRED HENRY LEROY 

Collection site 

Fig. 160. Average 137~s,155~u, and 207~i concentration in convict surgeon from 

Enewetak Atoll, October to Ilect:mber, 1972. The 40~value is the mean for 

all convict surgeon samples. 

60 levels (av 15 pCi/g). No Co, 207~i, 

155 137 

or ELIwere observed, but 55~e, cs, 

'Osr, and 2391240~~ were found in some 

or all of the samples, usually at levels 

comparable to the lower values found at 

Enew etak. 

As with the plankton, comparison of 

data obtained from this survey with similar 

data from samples taken in 1964 indicates 

that, for some nuclides at least, there are 

processes operating to reduce concentrations in the lagoon faster than is expected 

from radioactive decay alone. Table 220, 

for example, presents a comparison of 

60~oand 207~idata for the two collection 

periods. The effective half-life of 2.7 yr 

for 60~o(radioactive decay half-life 

5.24 yr) and 5.1 yr for 207~i(radioactive 

decay half-life 30 yr) implies an effective 

half-life in the ecosystenl for both isotopes 

of about 5-6 yr. 

Of the marine invertebrates present at 

Enewetak, tridacna clams, ,sea cucumbers, spiny lobster, and top snails were 

collected and analyzed. In the tridacna, 

'OCO was the most abundant radioisotope 

found, and it was present in higher 

amounts in the kidney than in the viscera, 
Column legend 

A. 90~r- eviscerated whole fish 

B 90~r- viscera 

C 2391240~u- eviscerated whole fish 

D 239t240~u- viscera 

BELLE IRENE JANET URSULA YVONNE DAVID FRED GLENN LEROY 

Collection site 

Fig. 161. Average 90~r and 239'240~ concentrat~on In convkcr surgcon from Cntlvrtak

Atoll, October to December, 1972. 

vict surgeon samples. 

mantle, or muscle. F:gu res 163-165 

present the average radionucllcle concentrations of these tissues for thc Enewetnk 

locat~onsat which tridacna s a m p l e s w e r e 

taken. 

Radionucllde dlstr~butions for sea 

cucumbers, splnv iobstcrs, and top sna~ls 

were slmllar to those Sound for the 

tridacna, except that high concentrations 

were not obscrved in the kldney. 

The 40~value is the mean for all tunRadioactivity L,c!.~els in Enewetak 

Terrestrial Uiota 

The terrestrial biota survey had as its 

objective the collection and analysis of all 

available terrestrial vegetation and 

animal species :vhich could be useti as ~i 

basis for estimating population d0sc.s 

through.dietary pathivays. Not all vcgctable and anitnal ccrnponents of the 

Enewetakese diet nrc currently a\.ail:lt~lc 

Column legend concentrat ion 

A 55~e 

BELLE JANET KATE WALT GLENN HENRY LERGY 

Collection site 

Fig. 163. Average 40~,55 Fe, 60~o,md 207~iconcentration in the kidney of Tridacna 

c!ams collected at Ecewetak Atoll, October to December, 1972. The 40~ 

value is the mean of ali Tridacna samples. 
I Column legend . I 

A 55~e- mantle PIUSmuscle 

B 55~e- viscera 

[Mean 40~concentration 

c 'OCO - viscera 

Collection site 

Fig. 164. Average 40~, 55~e,and 60~oconcentration in the viscera, mantle, and 

muscle of Tridacna clams collected at Enewetak Atoll, October. to 

December. 1972. The 40~vdue is the mean of all Tridacna samples. 

on the Atoll; of those that are, not all are 

available on every isiand. 

A total of 1103 specimens were collected in the field as part of the terrestrial 

biota survey, distributed as follows: 

Soils 4 2 

Plants 20 8 

Birds 116 

Eggs 217 

Rats 24 9 

Crabs -27 1

Total 1103 

The geographical distribution of 

specimen collection sites is shown in 

Pig. 166 and the types of edible sample 

collected on each island are listed in 

Table 221. 

'OS~ and 137~~ were observed in 

essentially all of the plant, rat, and crab 

samples and in many of the bird and egg 

239, 24OpU samples. 55~e, 'OCO, and 

were observed less frequently, and 

isotopes such as 207~i, 152~u, and 

l5'.Srn were observed occasionally. 
10 

5 

3 

\".-

%. 

I 

;1.0 "7.-

C 

X 

L 

-0 

-5 0.5 C 

0.-

C 

+

2 0.3 C 

al 

U 

C 

8 

al 

-

2

y u. l 

.-S 

u 

2 

0.05 

0.03 

0.01 

i 

Mean 40~concentration 

---L-----------

- v 

-

-

-

-

n 

Column legend - A 90~r- mantle plus muscle 

B 90~r- viscera -

c 239f240~u- mantle plus muscle 

D 239~240~w- viscera 

I iinL I: 

-

BELLE JA NtT KATE WA LT GLENN HENRY LEROY 

Collection site 

Fig. 105. Avcroge "51- and 23P~240~u concenfratlon in tl~e IISCC~I, mantle, .inil

muscle of l'ridacna clams collected at l:ne~vetak Atoll, October to 

December, 1972. The 40~value 1s the mean for all -1'rldacna samplcs. 
Tahle 221. Terrestrial biota survey. Edible plants and edible animals sampled. 

Island Coconut Coconut Pandanus Pandanus Tacca Bird Coconut 

No. Island meat milk fruit leavesa corm Birds eggs crab Rat 

I. ALICE x 

2. BELLE x x 

4. DAISY x 

9. IRENE x 

10. JANET x 

12. LUCY 

14. MARY 

15. NANCY 

1G. OLIVE 

17. PEARL 

19. SAI,LY 

20. TILDA 

21. URSUJ-A 

22. VERA 

24. YVONNE 

29. V.W 

30. ALVIN 

3 1. 13ltuCL: 

32. CLYDE 

33. I)k1VII) 

34. REX 

35. ELh41?;1< 

37. FKED 

38. GLENN 

39. IICNRY 

40. IRWIN 

41. JAMES 

42. KEITIl 

43. LEROY 

a~>atldanusleaves are not cnten but serve as indicators for pandanus fruit. 

bltat:i are not eaten but serve as indicators for poultry and swine. 
Sample type 

Birds 

A Crabs 

0 Mamma Is 

* Vegetation 

Fig. 166. Terrestrial biota program sampling locations. 

For a given sample type, the radio- Fig. 167 and it is apparent that concennuclide content generslly corresponded trations are sig~ificantly higher on the 

with ledels of soil contamination found northern islands (islands 1-24) than on 

on the toll. Data fcr 90~rand 137~sin those on the southern part of the Atoll. 

coconut meat qersus island sampling Since the main vegetation compcnents 

location, for example, are plotted in in the human diet (coconut, pandanus, 

11-31 
I 

I 

and breadfruit) are not growing now on 

all of the northern islands, the ubiquitous 

Messerschmidia and Scaevola were 

sampled and analyzed extensively with the 

intent that they be used as "indicator 

species" for estimating doses from the 

edible plants should they become available. The correspondence between 

137~s activity in coconut meat and 

Messerschmidia and/or Scaevola from the 

same location is shown in Fig. 168. 

To increase accuracy, dose estimates 

to the human population through the 

terrestrial vegetation pathway should be 

based on the geographical distribution of 

radionuclides. In order to do this, how-

. ever, a correlation between nuclide 0.01 

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 content of vegetation and nuclide conte~lt 

Island number of soil must be established. As an esample of the ccrrclati~nsthat have been 

Fig. 167. Concentrations of 'OS~ and 137~s developed, darn for 137~sin 

in coconut meat. Messerschmidia and Scacvola vs 137~~ 

in soil are shown in Fig. 169. 

Similarly, data obtained from rats -

the only mammals no\v foufid on the Atoll -

were found to correlate with the vegetation radionuclide levels. For example, 

correlations for 137~sin rat muscle \is 

r A Messerschmidia Messer~chmidia/Scatvolaare shown in

Fig. 170, and for "~rin rat bone vs 

Messerschmidia /'Scaevola are shown in 

Fig. 171. 

Three classes of data obtaixed frorr: 

the terrestrial biota survey, therefore, 

have been nsed to estimate potcntiai 

human doses throt!gh the terrestrial food 

pathway: 

U Concentration in indicator plant - e Data obtained from the edible 

pCi/g, dry organisms \.:here they were availFig. 168. tatistical correlation between able. 

837Cs in coconut meat and 

a, Data obtained from the correlation l37~sin Messerchmidia and 

Scaevola. between edible plants -indicator 

0 
1000 I I I I 

A Messerschmidia 

Scaevola 

t. 100 - - 73 

. 

0) 

\

.- 0 

U, 

I 

C 

C 

-

0

a 

s 0 0 

% 

V

.- 10 -

2.-

C.- 0 A C 

0

.-

& 

e 

& 

LT 

al 

U 

C

0 

U 

1 .o 

0 

A 

/

/ 

I I I 0.1 

0.1 1.o 10 100 

Concentration in soil - pCi/g, dry 

Fig. 169. qt tistical correlation betwisen '37~sin Messerschmidia and Scaevolz ar.d 

3'~s in soil. 

plants - soil and applied to the plant Radioactivity Levels in Enewetak Air 

component of the diet. 

I>ata obtained from thg correlation -4 total of 32 samples of airborne 

between rats -indicator plants - Enewetak particulate debris have been 

soil and applied to the meat com- analyzed to determine inhalation exposures 

ponent of the diet. likely to be encountered by residents of 
- 1000 i A Messerschmidia 

0 Scaevola \" 

5 

.-

u, loo 

I 

B 

aJ 

10 

.-C 

.-: 

5 - * 1.0 C 

0, 

d 

U 

O. b. 1 1 .o 10 100 1000 

Concentration in indicator plant - pCi /g , dry 

Fig. 170. Statistical correlation between 

90~rin rat bone and YO~r in 

Messerschmidia and Scaevola. 

the Atoll. Samples were taken using the 

following three twes of equipment: 

e Ultra I-Tigh-Volume Air Sampler 

(UINS) - Used to sample large 

volumes of air in snort time intervals. Typical samples were taken 

3 at a rate of 2000 m /hr for a continuous 24-hr period. 

e Low-Volume Air Sampler (VCS) -

Used to sample for extended periods. 

Typical samples were taken at a 

3 rate between 8 and 20 m /hr for a 

continuous 7-day period. 

e Anderson Cascade Impactors (AC1)- 

Used to obtain data on the particlesize distribution of airborne radioactivity. These samplers operated -

3 

at a throughput rate of 34 m /hr, 

sampled for 7- to 10-day periods, 

and separated each sample into the 

following particle-size ranges: 

0.1-1.1, 1.1-2.0, 2.0-3.3, 3.3-7.0, 

and >7 pm. 

- 10,000 0, 

3 

. 

0) 

1,000

Ua 

-

I 

0) 100 z 

z 

* 

e lo 

.

C

-

C 

0

.-

L 

P 1.0 & 

C al 

C

0 

"

U 

0.1 

0.1 1 .o 10 100 1,000 10,000 

Concentration in indicator 

plant - pCi/g, dry 

Fig. 17 1. Statistical correlation between 

137~sin rat muscle and 137~~ 

in Messerschmidia and 

Scaevola. 

Air samples were taken on FRED, 

DAVID, SALLY, JANET, and YVO?J>!f7. 

which are islands that include the full 

range of airborne activity levels likely to 

be found on the Atoll. 

A number of radionuclides were de-

'/ tected in the surface air, including Be 

9 (53 day), 40~(1.25 X 10 yr), 54~n 

(303 day), 95~r(65 day), '03~u (39.6 

day), lo6~u(i.0 yr). 125~b(2.7 yrj, 

137~s(30 yr), 144~e(285 day), 239~u 

4 (2.4 X 10 yr), 238~u(86 yr), and 

241~m(458 yr). 7~e and 40~are 

naturally occurring activities. 54h'In, 

95~r, lo3~u, lo6nu, lZ5sb, and 144~e 

are intermediate-life activation and 

fission products found in current worldwide fallout, but present in Enewetak 

soils in'only very reduced quantities due 

to radioactive decay in the long inter~~al 

since testing ended. Longer-life 137~~, 
Table 222. 3 Comparison of radionuclides in surface air (fCi/m ) on Eoewetak, 

Livermore, California, and Balboa, Panama. 

Nuclide YVONNE 

Remainder of 

Enewetnk 

Atoll 

Livermore, 

Calif. , 1972 

Balboa, Pananla, 

YON 79"W, 

1972-1973 

125~b < 0. 27-9. 27a NDET 0.04-0.23 % -

24 '~m < 0.3-0. 3oa NDET 

aDetected only one sample. 

b~otdetected. 

COct. -Dec. 1972 range. 

238P~, 2S9P~, and 241~min air could be 

from either local resuspension or frorri 

worldwide fallout. A comparison of 

activity levels at Enewetak with those observed at I,ivermore, California, and 

Balboa, Panama is shown in Table 222. 

1.t appears that, with the exception of the 

single sample on which 5.5 fci/m3 of 

lo3~uwas observed, the only airbornct 

radionuclides present at levels cbnsistently higher than those at the other two 

locations were the Pu- Am species on 

YVONNI<?, a result not too surprising, 

considering the known soil contamination 

levels on that island. 

Of the 32 air samples, four were 

taken in October 1972 before typhoon 

Olga struck, and the remainder were 

. NDET NDET 

taken between November 28 and December 

19, 1972. Wind speeds were almost 

always greater than 10 knots and of en 

greater than 20 knots at all sampllng 

locatioris. In additicn, frequent light 

rain showers served to keep the ground 

surface damp. Table 223 presents 

climatological data which have been published for Enewetak and Kwajalein, It is 

apparent that December represents a 

fairly average month as far as total rainfall and rainfall frequency are concerned, 

while average windspeeds are higher than 

those observed most of the year. 

Radioactive Scrap and Buried Debris 

Holmes and Narver, Inc., as part of 

the engineering survey they conducted 
-- 

---- -- 

--- 

Table 223. Climatological data for Kwajalein and Enewetak. a 

Percentage of total time at each wind-speed interval 

Jan Feb Mar Apr 3June .July .4ug Sept Oct Ncv Dec .4v 

Wind speed, knots b 

0-3 1 1 10 1 16 10 16 9 3 14.2 

4-10 15 12 22 20 27 27 49 60 59 63 42 20 34.7 

11-21 68 80 70 75 69 70 44 29 24 28 53 70 56.7 

22-33 1577532 1 1 1 0 2 9 4.4 

>33 1000000000000 

Prevailing wind 

direction and NE NE NE NE NE NE E/NE E NE NE NE NE --

frequencyb 86% 87% 81% 77% 67% 64% 36% 31% 27% 3370 55% 74% -- each -

\r. 01 

~reci~ltat~on~ Yr record 

Av. amount, tn. 1.02 1.84 1.86 1.28 4.57 3.37 6.45 6.81 6.24 9.09 6.30 2.63 51.46 30 

Greatest amount, 1.95 10.21 7.33 3.86 8.38 7.03 15.35 14.41 13.17 18.07 17.38 9.18 69.86 13 

in,. 

Least amount,in 0.12 0.40 0.37 0.49 0.37 1.33 1.36 4.22 1.53 2.60 1.94 0.86 24.42 13 

Mean number of 

days, 0.01 in. or 11 10 13 13 16 16 21 21 20 21 21 16 198 10 

more. 

aU. S. Hydrographic Office, Sailinq Dirtctions for the Pacific Islands, H. 0. Pub. NO. 82, 

Vol. 1, Seccnd Edition (1064), updated to Dec. 5. 1970. 

!wind data for Kwa~alcin. 

'Preclpltatlon data tor Enewetak. 

for DNA, estimated that there were on the other northern islands (KATE, 

3 approximately 7200 yd of contaminated LUCY, MARY, NANCY, OLIVE, 

metal and concrete present on E~lewetak URSULA, VERA, and WILMA), even 

Atoll in December 1972. AEC radiation though none of them contains ground-zero 

monitors accompanied the H&N crews in sites, and neither the aerial radiological 

order to identify the radioactive material. survey nor the ground survey parties 

Table 224 shows the distribution of this detected this type of debris. 

debris on islands where this type of On the southern islands, there were 

survey was conducted. The amounts of four locations where radioactive scrap 

material listed should be taken only as - m a t e r i a l w a s found: 

an approximate lower limit, particularly On the north end of ELMER (ir, the 

on islands such as PEARL, where very "C" level area of Fig. B.37.1.b in 

heavy underbrush prevented the survey Appendix 11) there are several 

party from covering all parts of the pieces of scrap iron with activity 

island. In addition, it is conceivable that levels above local background. 

radioactive scrap material m8.y be found e In the central part of ELMER (the 

large "En level area of Fig. >:c 

Engineering Sv~dy for a Cleanup Plan, B.39.l.b) a partially shielded 60~o 

Enewetak Atoll- Marshall Islands, source was found in a small storage Holmes and Narver, Repts. HN- 1348.1 

and HN-1348.2 (1973). bu ilding. 

11-36 
Table 224. Contaminated metal and concrete scrap on Enewetak Atoll. 

Approximate scrap 

Island quantities 

ALICE 

BELLE Small 

(< 10 yd3) 

CLARA Small 

(< 10 yd3) 

DAISY Small 

(< 10 yd3) 

EDNA None 

IRENE 

JANET 

PEARL 

RUBY 

SALLY 

TILDA 

YVONNE 

3 

Total 7262 yd 

a

Reference does not identify volume. 

In the south-central part of ELMER 

(the small "E" level area of 

Fig. H.39.l.b) there appears to be 

scrap metal or other radioactive 

debris on, or just below, the ground 

surface in heavy underbrush. 

a On the north-central shore of 

GLENN (the "C" area of Fig. 

R.48.l.b) there is a derelict barge 

which is contaminated with detectable amounts of 207~i. 

Remarks 

Background is up to 170 pR/hr. An IVI-boat 

wreck on beach reads 8 mR/hr. 

Background up to 250 ~R/hr. 

Background up to 100 ~R/hr. 

Background up to 140 ~Rlhr. 

Sandbar 

Up to 1.2 mr/hr. 

Activated scrap metal in all sizes can be 

found in piles or individcal pieces scattered 

over the island at levels up to 8 mr/hr. 

Confined to SGZ area. Levels up to 5 rnr/hr. 

Scrap- metal activity levels up to 0.12 rnr,/hr. 

A1 ha levels on concrete surfaces up to 

10f; dpmj50 cm2. 

Activity levels up to 60 mr/hr. 

Because of the extremely low ambient 

radiation levels on the southern islands 

and the sensitivity of the aerial survey 

equipment, we can be reasonably confident that we have found all material 

above ground with activity levels greater 

than a few microroentgens per hour. On 

FRED,. for example, the highest radiation 

level found (the "!I" area in Fig. G.36.l.b) 

proved to be corning from barrels of fly 

ash stored in a warehouse intended to be 
Table 225. Living patterns describing the geographical locations for activities 

involved in daily living. 

Pattern I Pattern 1f 

Residence FRED, ELMER, or DAVID FRED, ELMER, or DAVID 

Agriculture ALVIN through KEITH KATE through WILMA + LEROY 

Fishing Entire Atoll Entire Atoll 

Pattern 111 Pattern IV 

Residence- JANET BELLE 

Agriculture .JANET BELLE 

Fishing Entire Atoll Entire Atoll 

Pattern V Pattern VI 

Residence JANET JANET 

Agriculture KATE through WI1,h'IA + LEROY ALICE through IREKE 

Fishing Entire Atoll Entire Atoll 

used for PACE dril!ing operations. 

Similarly, the nearby "C" level area 

proved to be a 6 0 ~ ~ source stored in a 

lead container in a locked building properly 

labeled, but of which we were unaware before the survey started. 

POPULATION DOSE ASSESSMENT 

The total radiation dose to the 

Enewetak people returning to Enewetak 

Atoll is determined by the sum of the contributions of each of the exposure pathways; i. e., 

Dose = D.lnhaiation + Dexternai gamma 

+ Drnarine food chain 

+ Dterrestrial food chain 

The contribution of each ~athwayto the 

total dose for an individual depends on 

living patterns and diet. Six living patterns, shown in Tables 225 and 226, have 

been selected for the dose assessment on 

the basis of statements made by the 

Enewetak people as to how and where 

they would like to live after they return. 

Similarly, the diets shown in Table 227 

have been selected cn the basis of the 

'best current information on the dietary 

habits of the Enewetak people, the current 

distribution of edible species on the Atoll, 

and growth periods before harvest for 

edible species which will have to be 

established 2.fter return. In addition, 

these assessments assume that the 

Enewetak people will continue their current practice of using catchment rainwater for drinking and that underground 
Table 226a. Estimated time distribution (in percent) for men, women, children, 

and infants, with emphasis on residence island. Pattern A. 

Village area Beaches 

Men 5 0 5 

Women 60 10 

Children 5 5 10 

Infants 85 5 

lens water, where available, will not be a 

significant part of the diet. 

Dinhalation 

239' 240~~ has been fo~nd to be the

only significant contributor to inhalation 

doses on Eneivetak Atoll. Airborne 

radioactive species observed during the 

survey, how eve^-, were ~clentificdas 

originating almost entirely from worldwide fallout or cosrnlc-ray activity. In 

order to make a conservative estimate 

of inhalation dosages, it has becn 

assumed that the returning population will 

be exposed to air with an average &st 

3 loading of 100 pg/m , with the same 

239'240~~content as the local soil, all 

0.4 Hm in diameter and lo\{! in solubility. 

23 9, 24OPu Using these assumptions and 

concentrations obtained from the soil 

tnterior Lagoon 0th& islands 

15 

10 

15 

0 

10 

0 

5 

0 

2 0 

20 

15 

10 

samples, inhalation doses to bone, liver, 

and lung for each of the six living patterns 

have been estimated and are shown in 

Tables 228-230. 

The "unmodified" cases represent 

calculations based on the 239,240pU content of the top 2 cm of soil, while the 

"modified" cases represent calculations 

based on the average 23 99 240pU 

of the top 15 cm of soil. The latter 

condition would obtain if the soils were 

plowed or mixed during the replanting 

operations. 

external gamma -

Using gamma levels obtained from 

the aerial survey, estimates of the external gamma dose associated with each 

of the living patterns have been calculated 

(Table 231). In this table the "unmodified" 

Table 226b. Estimated time distribution (in percent) for men, women, children, 

and infants wit11 empllasis on additional time spent on nonresidence 

islands. Pattern B. 

Villagc area Beaches Interior Laeoon Other islands 

Men 40 5 2 0 10 2 5 

Infants 7 0 5 5 0 20 
Table 227. Postulated diet for the returnine adult Enewetak population for time of 

return and for 10 yr after initial return. 

Diet, g/day 

Food item At time of return, 10 yr after return 

Fish 600 600 

Domestic meat 60 100 

Pandanus fruit 0 200 

Breadfruit 0 150 

Wild birds 100 20 

Bird eggs 

Arrowroot 

Coconut 100 100 

Coconut milk 100 300 

Coconut crabs 2 5 25 

Clams 25 2 5 

Garden vegetables 0 0 

Imports 200-1000 200- 1000 

1030 plus imports 1570 plus imports 

Table 228. Cumulative rems to organs from 239r240p~ via inhalation pathway, bone. 

PC l/G EXPOSED 

LIVIHt PRTERN !N SOIL 5 YRS 10 YR5 30 YRS 50 YRS 70 YRS 

1I. MODIFIED 

IV. RODlF IED 15.00 0 .a009 0.0063 0.03 15 8.2780 0.540@ 

UNMODIFIED 17.60 

VI. tlODIFIED 
Table 229. Cumulative rems to organs from 239'240~~ viainhalation pathway, liver.

P C I'G EVF'DSED 

LIVING PQTTEFN Itl 50 IL 5 'I'FS 10 'I'P'~ 30 YRS 50 'ITS 70 YFT 

I. MODIFIED 9.05 0.080Zl 0.0000 0. ~QO? 0.01205 0. OQO::: 

UNmODIF IED 9.13 9.0000 0.0000 0.0004 0.130 1 1 o.OO2O 

11. MODIFIED 2.09 0. 009 1 0.0005 0.8066 0.0 136 9.0349 

UN~ODIFIED 4.70 0.no02 o .oo ii o. a iss o .0477 11.0;93 

111. MODIFIED 7.30 0.0003 i1.001~ 3.0241 0.ng;l a. 1241 

. ---- UNtlOD IF IED 17 .On 0.0007 0.8041 0.056 1 ,It. 153 1 kj. ::=:?id 

IV. ~DIFIED 15.00 o.0006 0.013:6 0.0495 12. 1395 [I. 25512 

UNMODIFIED 7'7.00 0.13~31 0.01~5 11.2541 13.7161 1 .3091Il 

UNMODIFIED 17.60 c?.nr?97 n.ng42 ,7.05g1 7.7 ;-.--.-lq"' 

VI. MODIFIED 3.50 0.0004 fl.gi?23 .13.0:13 17.1:1832 O. iGi5 

case represents the current conditions; I = food intake, g/day, 

"village graveled" shows the effect of = fraction of nuclide ingested man 

placing a 5-cm gravel layer in the village reaching the organ of 

area; and " plowed" indicates reference, 

the effect of thoroughly mixing the top C = concentration of nuclide in 

30 cm of soil in the specified area. food product, pCi/g, (i. e., 

fish, shellfish, coconut, land 

Drnarine food chain crab, etc.), 

Doses via the marine and terrestrial M = mass of the organ of referfood chains were estimated using the ence, (g), 

following differential equation to describe 

and the intake and retention by man: 

= effective elimination rate of A man - 1 

,dCman -* fman c - nuclide from man, (day ). 

dt M 'man 'man (3) 

('man = 'biological + 'radioactive 1

where 

= concentration of nuclide in The concentration C in the food products 'man 

man, pCi/g is calculated assunling that the nuclide 

11-4 1 
Table 230. Currulative rems to organs from 2391240~~ via inhalation pathway, lung. 

PL I ,,G E: F05Er1 

L :.'I~Iszqi~g~p( IH SOIL 5 YPS 10F 3r3YRS 56YR5 70YRS 

IdlIrm_nIF IED n. ir 0.813~1 

111. 

IJtlflOD IF IED 

MODIFIED 

4.70 

7.38 

0.0048 

0.0063 

IV. tIODIFIED 

Ut{MODIF IED 

15.00 

77.00 

0.0123 

0.0652 

VI. 

Ut4:IOD IF IED 

MODIF IED 

17.60 

9.50 

0.0151 

0.0082 

disappears only by radioactive decay, 

i. e., that no other processes are in 

operation which reduce the nuclide availability in the food chain. Therefore 

C = ~ ~ e - ~ where C ~ is~ the concentra- , 0 

tion observed at the time of the survey 

and X is the radioactive decay constant. 

r 

The concentration in man at anv time t 

after initial consumption of the food is: 

-X 

(e-Art - e man t, , pCi/g. (4) 

The dose at any time t after initial con0.0003 0.000? R .no 16 0.0022 

0.0 l0i 8.6357 9.06 1 1 0.0846 

0.0161 9.0555 0.0949 0.1314 

0.0330 0.1140 6.1356 6.2760 

0. 1634 0.5852 1.06 10 1.3866 

9.0387 0.1335 0.2288 0.3168 

0.0209 0.0722 0. 1235 0. 1710 

Dose(rem)=KE dt 

r 

I 

,

fman = , X 

man r' 

where K is a conversion constant from 

pCi/g to rem and equals 5.1 X lod5 

disintegrations- g. rem and E is the dis- pCi. MeV. day 

integration energy of the nuclide in MeV, 

inc1uding.a factor for reiative biological 

effectiveness (RBE). The final dose is 

then determined from the integration of 

sumption is the equation, i. e., I 
-- - -- - - - 

statistically significant differences for 

dose estimation purposes between samples 

taken in different parts of the lagoon. 

-A The radionuclide concentration, Co, used 

- --3;---,rem. (6) in the marine food chain dose assessment, r - man 4 

therefore, is the average value for all 

Table 232 lists the fman (FMAN), fish from the entire Atoll determined from 

the survey and is listed in Tables 233 and 'radioactive (LR)s 'man (LMAN), and 

disintegration energy (E) values for all 234 for each nuclide. The average values 

of the isotopes in the dose calculations. for radionuclide concentrations listed in 

Fish and marine organism data from the tables are in pCi per gram dry weight, 

the survey have been found not to have any with data corrected to pCi per gram wet 

Table 23 1. Estimated integral external free-air gamma doses. 

Gamma dose. rad 

Time interval. vr 

Case Living pattern 5 10 3 0 7 0 

I Village: P"IED/ ELMER/ IIAVID 

Visits to ALVIN-KEITH 

Time distrih*~tion Tnhl~1 17 

Unmodified 0. 14 0.28 0.83 1.92' 

II Village: FIIED! ELMER/ ])AVID 

Visits to AL,ICE-!YILMA 

Time distribution: Table 137 

Unmodified 

3. Northcrn islands plowed 

I11 Village: JANET 

No visits to other islands 

Time distribution: Table 137 with "other 

isla~ds" time spent in interior of JANET 

Unmodified 0.94 1.71 3.95 6.66 

1. Village graveled (0.82) (1.49) (3.48) (5.96) 

2. JANET plowed (0.36) (0.68) (1.70) (3.24) 

IV Village: BELLE 

Visits to ALICE-WILMA 

Time distribution: Table 137 

Unmodified 2.72 4.78 10.06 15. 50 

I. Village graveled (1.78) (3. 14) (6.69) (10. 53) 

2. Plus BELLE plowed {O. 83) (1.47) (3. 26) (5.47) 

3. Plus Northern islands plowed (0.68) (1. 23) (2. 77) (4.76) 
- -- 

Table 231 !cor,tinued). 

V Village: JANET 

Visits to KATE- WILM.4 

Time distribution: Table 137 

Unmodified1. Village graveled 

2. Plus JANET plowed (0. 36) (0. GG) (1. 59) ( 3 . 0 2 ) 

3. Plus KATE- WII,M-4 plowed (0.29) (0.54) (1.36) (2.71) 

Gamma dose, rad 

Time interval, yr 

Case Living pattern 5 10 30 7 0 

VI Village: JANET 

Visits to ALICE- IREN E 

Time distribution: Table 1-37 

Unmodified 

1. Village graveled 

2. Plus .JANET plowed 

3. Plus A1,ICE-IRENE plowed 

VIa Village: JANET 

Visits to ALICE-WILMA 

Time distribution: Table 136 

Unrnotlifit-!cl 0. 76 1. 37 3. 12 5. 33 

1. Village ~ravolecl (0.62) (1. 12) ( 2 . 5 8 ) (4. 51) 

2. Plus Ji\N,:ErI' plowed (0.41) (0.75) (1.77) (3.27) 

3. Plus Northern islands plowed (0. 30) (0. 56) (1.40) (2.76) 

VIb Village: .JANET 

Visits to ALVIW-KEIT [-I 

Time distribution: Table 136 

Unmndificd 

1. Village graveled 

3. Plus J.4NET plowed 

Mean population dose 

(Average of C'nscs I, 11, 111, V, and VI) 

Unmodified 0.66 1. 20 2. 74 4.75 

1. Village graveled (0. 59) ( 1 . 0 7 ) E.46) (4. 33) 

,2. Plus .Ji\iYET plowctl (0.3 1) (0.74) (1. 75) (3. 2'5) 

3. J)lus All Yorthern i.;lnncls i~lo~,l:ecl (0. 3:') (0.,54) (1. 31i) (2. 70) 

Sca Ic\~cxl,4;.S. -4. 
-- - 

- --- 

Table 232. The disintegration energy E and the radioactive half-life LR are listed for each 

radionuclide. The effective bi~l~~gical half-time LMan and the fraction of 

ingested isotope reaching the org;an of reference FMan are listed for three 

receptor. organs, bone, liver, at~d whole bcdy. 

NUCL IDE E LF -;-tlrit{- -FIN I - -Lllfil.l- -FllCifl- -LtltiI- -FrSll-

- ... 

, .-,, 1 5-;, :, ! .;12 I;, .;-I ,> , -

. .,- !.,.:.i - I-. . 1, I,,

, :- ! ,. -. s- . . . 

- .:-.<I:- 8 ? 

,-

T' . . 8.. . .. --

.. t. 

.-?' I c-I-.,: 

! , ;{y,.-r.- - - a .. .

;: ,,:,

-7..-6.: 

.--,-, C - " -.. 1z -.-*-5,g ,:,,-,;- 1-,-. -, C

. . - - - 5 ' . I.. I 

I - cc-,-,> 1 - ,-, ., * - -

_ .. '-.L L:- .. . - ,.,L 

I. . :,:: .:-I:, - t ,:,F-,-l; t . - -.

.:. 7: ,-E-l:T 

1. ;6GE-i.3 , E-,-' 7 :, , , t: ., 
'U % 

-

y- - -I- r..ln -rr*irr8 Q r,,s ,: c.5 ?;i.3 L-!c r~t~ 78 & bI'I I -:-+t ! 1111 I Ill 

Uisi WLII~JLII!II WUI W Id! 1,!111 U1~1111

*; , 4 , 8 , , ,. u-, c.;., "1 -. ,. 1 -, -* -- cz '. -I j fi -8 I ('I - CT. TI -* I . -i -. 1-

>C ................... ac;. r1----oc~clrir,-0ri3-~u13r;lU,C~ 

TII-'I~I 

r:, ,ZI~i 

I I I 

LII LLJ LII -1 11, L; ,: !.., -: ,- 10 -1 ... 

,.J -.-,z,,z, .--, -r'! 

,x, ,:, L, ,I,4:-8 I ,: ,:-8 

.- p, -.,z, -, . -- a ,:I ,:., I:., ,::r:, 8-:, 8.; C.8 78 

1+tit+1 l+illl I+, tl l 

~1l~Li!wU~i!:L~!I.~i:!u: L?'LII;II.~!~~LIJIII~'I~~! r.7, p - ,:, ' - -, 1 .,.;, 1, 8 8.8 83. -.k~, , ,-, I t . ,, ,: , : $2247,,..,, . , .: , , , , 4 I:, 8: , r. I.! , - --, ,~1 -:, -. , r,: - SL, (1, , "-, ,-.1 , . tz, ,x8 -+ 

i.80 8.r) ? ,-,I ~-t -!.- c:, 

................... 

p.. ,i\j p-, t.-, .- 8-, 1,.-,,-, 1 C.1 I.@p- ,-,: I:,l2-J ,-.,I r 1 ,iu- .CC! 

--. c, c,(1,CI 

I I I 

ill1,) PI A, I'i, p-, ,-., 8-, , 70) ,:I:! 

~~uDCIn~r\,~~~~r.-~~~.;rr~ut I. ~~?CIIC~I~~ kk Q q "7 8 i l C~C, CJ-(.,I :.-I r.? XI L<- L-I CI r., CI 1'8 r -- f 

63 CI q r., '~i.----- ------ -r.1 r.1 CT r'l r? X - u,IU 1.- (0 q u-, CI? - C3 U2 03 P7 M 1.7 r'l 7 7 il~l 

63 -N PI 1.1 q 1'r m m ut UJ mo o:, o', m ot 
Table 234. Radionuclide concentrations in'fish (January 1972)., 

Concentration, pCi/g dry weiqht 

Nuclide Sample No. of Samples Average High Low 

137~s All fisha 128 0.39 6.8 0.026 

60~o All fisha 128 2.0 3 8 0.041 

All fisha 125 0. 16 1.5 0.0010 

'Osr Eviscerated 74 

whole fish 

'Osr Fish muscle 5 1 

only 

a~llfish includes eviscerated whole fish and those fish where muscle was 

separated from bone and only the muscle was analyzed. 

weight for use in the dose code by dividing 

by 3.5, the average wet-to-dry ratio for 

fish from the Atoll. 

Integral doses calculated from the 

marine survey data are listed in Table 

235 for the whole body and bone for 5. 

10, 30 and 70 yr. The major contribution 

to the whole-body dose comes from 137~s 

and "CO, while the bone dose comes 

from 'OS~, as well as from 137~s and 

60~o. The third line of the table gives 

the summation of the dose to each organ 

from the three isotopes. The bottom entry 

in the table lists the dose from all radionuclides listed in the Table 235 footnote. 

Dterrestrial food chain 

Evaluation of the potential dose to the 

returning population via the terrestrial 

food chain has been structured on the 

basis of the living patterns in Table 225. 

The quantity of radionuclides ingested via 

terrestrial foods was computed from the 

measured and predicted concentration of 

activities according to the expected daily 

diets listed in Table 227. Except for 

coconut and nrr-owroot, the daily intake 

of the food items listed in this table refers 

to g/day of fresh food. The g/day intakes 

listed for coconut and arrowroot refer 

to the dry weight intake of coconut meat 

(copra) and processed arrowroot starch. 

Inferred initial ingestion rates assuming 

the diet at time of return are shown in 

Table 236. This diet contains only foods 

that are available on islands of the group 

at the time of return, i. e., domestlc 

meat, birds, bird eggs, coconut crabs, 

and, in the case of the southern islands, 

coconut meat and coconut milk. 

The 30- and 70-yr integral doses were 

calculated assuming the 10-yr postreturn diet. In addition to the foods that 

are available at the time of return, the 

10-yr post-return diet includes pandanus 

fruit, breadfruit, arrowroot, coconut 

meat, and coconut milk for all islands. 

The initial rates of ingestion for each 

island group assuming the 10-yr postreturn diet are listed in Table 237. These 

values are presented in two parts; the rates 

of ingestion for the foods immediately 

available are presented on the left side of 

Table 237 under Jafiuary 1, 1974, whlle 

the rates' of ingestion for the foods that 

are to become ava~lable8 yr after return 
Table 235. Integral dosea for 5, 10, 30, and 70 yr from the marine food chain. 

b Integral dose, rem 

5 Yr 10 yr 30 yr 70 yr 

Nuclide \.V. B. Bone W. B. Bone 15'. B. Bone w'.B. Bone 

. Sum 0. 014 0. 14 0. 024 0. 33 0. 047 0. 82 0.066 1.4 

A1 1 

nuclidesC 0. 016 0. 14 0. 028 0. 34 0. 053 0. 84 0.089 1.6 

aThe dose is bascd upon the average concentration for fish from the entire 

Atoll and upon a dietary fish intake of 600 g/day. These dcses apply to all 

six living patterns. 

b~hecunccntration data were corrected to January 1974, the earliest possible I

return date to the Atoll; all integl.21 doses are calculated for periods which 

beg~non ,January 197.1. 

C Isotopes included in the "All nuclides" calculation: 

are presented on the right side of In computing the bone dose, the wholeTable 237 under the 8-yr post-return date, body dose from 137~s and the other nonJanuary 1, 1982. In essence, the foods bone seekers has been added to the bone 

immccliately available are assumed to dose from 90~r and 239~240~~. The

contribute to diet beginning Jan~iary 1, whole-body dose has been computed as the 

1974, and the edible plants that art yet to sum of the whole-body dosages from the 

be established are assumed to contribute non-bone seekers. 

to the diet beginning .January 1, 1982. Similarly, integral 30- and 70-yr 

doses have been calculated assuming the lls~ngthese data, plus the Integrated 

dose per unit rate of ~ngestionto whole 10-yr post-return diet (Table 240). 

body and bone shown In Table 238, the Total Dose 

integral 5- and 10 -yr doses shown In The total 30-yr integral dose preTable 239 have been calculatcld. The dicted for whole body and for bone for 

5- and 10-yr dosaqes parl~cularly relare the six living patterns are listed in 

to the s~tuat~ondurine; the Inltial few Table 231. This table includes the conyears follow rng return. tributions from each pathway and, for 
Table 236. Rate of ingestion of radionuclides from terrestrial foods assuming diet 

at time of return (Jan. 1. 1974). 

Ingestion rate, pCi/day 

Food item 3~ 55~e 60~o 90~r 137~s 239, 240h 

A. Island group ALICE -IRENE 

Pork and chicken 185 3100 

Wild birds 

Bird eggs 

Total 1050 6.35 187 3100 0.150 

B. Island group BEL,LE 

Pork and chicken 

Total 

I C. Island group JANET 

Pork and chicken 10 8 2320 

Wild birds 1800 7.70 0.29 2. 5 0.100 

Bird eggs 17 1 <O. 39 0.97 0.6 0.074 

Total 1970 7.89 109 2320 0. 174 

I D. Island group KATE-WILMA, LEROY 

Pork and chicken 47.4 8 58 

I Wild birds 1800 7.70 0. 29 2.50 0.100 

Bird eggs 113 <O. 28 0.02 <O. 25 0.077 

Coconut crabs 0.480 1.03 1. 96 7.59 0.0035 

1 Total 0.480 1900 8.87 49.7 86 8 0.180 

I E. Island group ALVIN-KEITH 

Pork and chicken 6. 18 50. 9 

Wild birds 1700 6.41 0.37 2. 55 0.704 

I Bird eggs 131 <O. 35 0.02 <O. 35 0.003 

Coconut 29.3 <23 c2.9 3.35 68.7 <0.259 

Coconut milk 14.9 <11 c1.42 0.17 3.44 <O. 129

I Coconut crabs 2.91 4.23 2. 58 9.31 0.023 

Total 47.1 1850 13.7 12.7 135 0.99 
c-, .G 

1

I 

-0 

c 

4 

oocomo 

00"?;3dO + ' I' eo-cc-t- m Or- 9. N 4 4 d 0 

a 

L 

;f. 

0 

,-I M

r: .d 

E 

3 

rn 

m 

l-d 

-0 

m 

2

i. 

-

0 -" 

b 0 .-

t-wm 4 = ... l-d m ,m o .+ 

L 2 N m m 

4 

(0 

-

a2 

wt-.? C1 0 

0 0 

L 

m j I-0

Wj 

- T3 u,

2 i U 

3 

c: 33 

0 0 .d m -0 

l-d 

L 

ru 

0 

C 

0 

.d 

+J 

m 

a, 

M C.+ C1 ctr ?, 

0 5 a, -.. c-, + cd W iz L' 

a 

4 

C 

."42 -2-

C 

3 

c .O V) ffi C 

3

- in C - 0 -

ffi 

G 

c

4 

2 6 a 

., 
-- 

Table 237 (Continued). 

Inqestlon rate, pCi/day 

January 1, 1974 January 1, 1982 

1 37cs 2 1!1,240 1 37cs 239, 24OpU Frmd item FI 55~e G o ~go~, ~ I>u 3~ 55~e G o ~go~, 

D. Island group KATE-WILR1.4 + LEROY 

Domestic meat 

Pandanus fruit 

Breadfruit 

Lt'ild birds 360 

.BII,~eggs 56 

Arrowroot 

Coconut meat 

Coconut milk 

Coconut crabs 0.480 

Tc~tal 0.480 416 

E. Island group ALVIN-KEITH 

Domestic meat 10.3 84. 9 

Pandanus fruit 

Breadfruit 

Wild birds 

Bird eggs 65 <O. 17 0.009 <O. 17 9.002 

Arrowroot Not available 

Coconut meat 29.3 <23 C2.9 3.35 68.7 .:O. 259 

Coconut milk 44.6 <33 c4.2 0. 50 10. 3 .:O. 386 

Coconut crabs 2.91 4.23 2. 58 9. 3 0.023 

Total 76.8 433 9.17 15.8 174 0.488 
------ 

------ 

hhhhhh 

r-r-LON-rrn 

---I--

IIIIII 

--Ah--

P-r-LOFJV-3' 

----IIIIIII 

,-4nImm,-4m 

LOmmmc--'

. . .... m-T(DcDrf'm 

---,-..---

r-c'-rnN.$LCI 

IIIIII 

LnmLO30" 

wr-CO~COr-

. . . . . -+m*CI1--lm 

hhhhhh 

Fr-mNmCD 

IIIIII 

~mCOCOFJ0 

omcnoc~m 

...... 

71FJN"cno 

Table 239 (Continued). 

5-yr dose, rem 10-yr dose, rem 

Isotope Whole body Bone Whole body Bone 

C. Island group JANET 

Fe 4.6(-4) 

137~s 0.223 0.831 

239, 240m 1.6(-6) 7.6(-6) 

Subtotal 0.224 1. 18 0.932 5. 88 

Total 5-yr whole-body dose 0. 22 rem Total 10-yr whole-body dose 0.93 rem 

Total 5-yr bone dose 1.40 rem Total 10-yr bone dose 6.82 rem 

D. Island group KATE-WILMA + LEROY 

137~s 0.0835 0.350 

239, 240h 1.7(-6) 1.4(-5) 

Subtotal 0.0842 0. 536 0. 351 2.62 

Total 5-yr whole-body dose 0.084 rern Total 10-yr whole-body dose 0. 351 rern 

Total 5-yr bone dose 0.620 rem Total 10-yr bone dose 2. 97 rem 

-
Table 239 (Continued) 

5-yr dose, rem 10-yr dose, rem 

Isotope Whole -bodyRGe Whole body Bone

E. Island group ALVJN-KEITH 

90~r. 0. 137 0.355 

137~s 0.0130 0.0311 

239, 24OPu s

9.3(-6) 0.0324 3.7(-5) 

Subtotal 0.0138 0. 137 0.0324 0.303 

Total 5-yr whole-body dose 0.014 rem Total 10-yr whole-body dose 0.032 rem 

Total 5-yr bone dose 0. 151 rem Total 10-yr bone dose 0.387 rem 

aThe number within parentheses denotes the power of 10. Thus, :!.5(-4) is a contraction of 2. 5 X 

- - 

--- 

maw 

I I I 

omm 
0 LL 

a N ? ? . 00 

0 r-l-
Table 241. The 30-yr integral dose for the six living patterns assuming unmodified conditions. 

30-yr integral dc.se, reln 

Unmodified conditions 

Living 

pattern Bone 

Inhalation 

Lung Liver 

External 

a Bone, 

W. B. 

b Terrestrial 

W. B. Bone 

b Marine 

W.B. Bone 

Total 

W. B. Bone 

- -- - -

Living pattern Village island Visitation 

I 

I1 

I11 

IV 

V 

VI 

Enewetak-Parry 

Enewetak-Parry 

JANET 

BELLE 

JANET 

JANET 

AL VIN-KEITH 

KATE-VrILMA + LEROY 

JANET 

BELLE 

KATE-VrILhlIA + LEROY 

AL[CE-IRENE 

Southern Is. 

Northern Is. 

Northern Is. 

Northern Is. 

Northern Is. 

Northern Is. 

a~akenfrom the chapter on external dose estimates, Table 22. 

b~asedupon diet 10 yr after return, as described in the dic,tary and living patterns chapter. 
the external dose assessment, is based 

upon the unmodified conditions for the 

village island. The largest contribution 

to the whole-body and bone doses comes 

from the terrestrial food chain, the external dose pa~hwayis the next highest 

contributor, and the mlrine food chain 

and inhalation pathway contribute the 

least.'" The relative contributions of each 

diet component to the terrestrial pathway 

dose is shown in Tablcs 242 and 243. 

In general, living on <JANET, visiting 

northern islands, and maintaining 

agriculture on northern islands (living 

patterns 111, V, and VI) lead to significantly higher doses than ,f the village and 

agriculture are located on islands in the 

southern half of the Atoll (living pattern 

I). Doses for these same patterns have 

been calculated for 5, 10, and 70 yr and 

are shown in Table 234. 

The most significant contribution via 

the terrestrial food chain is the dose to 

bone resulting from gost-uptake via 

'AS igdicated earlier, these dose calculations assunle that the Enewetak people v:ill continue their current practice of 

using c.atr:hrnent rain watr:r for drinking 

and that the underground lens water supply will not be a part of their diet. An 

indication of doses that are f.o be expected 

from lens water may be obtaineci irorn 

four water samples taken on .JANET in 

July 1971. These samples, tv~oeach 

from each of two 2.5-m-deep holes about 

100 ni from thc lagoon shore, gave avera c concentratiofis of 130 pCi /liter for 

gtSr, and 100 pC~/liLer for. l'j7~s. 239~u 

concentrations were scattered (~0.03, 21, 

<0,03, and 17 p(li/liter) but, for our current purpose, we 1.vill assume an average 

value of 20 pCi/liter. 

Using these concentrations, and 

assuming an average daily i11Lake of 

100 n~l of lcns water, the result~nq 30-yr 

doses would be 0.83-ren~ due to LiG~r, 

0.019 rern due to ~~LCS, and 0.00082 rern 

due to 23Sl'u. 

pandanus fruit and breadfruit. For living 

pattern 111, for example, the total 

terrestrial bone dose is 75 .rem, of which 

74% is derived from the intake of breadfruit and pandanus. It is important to note, 

however, that the large contribution to 

the bone dose via these fruits occurs only 

when they are grown on northern islands. 

Pandanus and breadfruit grown on the less 

contaminated southern islands lead to 

much lower dose cornmitm~nts. 

Table 245 shows the 30-yr integral 

dose for the six living patterns for the 

modified soil condition, 1. e., where the 

village area has 5 cm of gravel and the 

village island is plowed. Table 246 

shows the 5-, lo-, 30-, and 70-yr dose 

estimates for the same conditions. 

Table 247 shows the additional effect 

on the 30-yr integral dose of limiting 

growth of pandanus, breadfruit, coconut, 

and tacca to the southern islands, while 

Table 248 shows the effect of limiting all 

terrestrial foods to the southern islands. 

The effect of the combination of these preventive measures reduces the dose for 

living pattern I11 from 11 rem to 1.9 rem 

for whole body and from SO to 4.7 rem 

for bone. 

A comparison of the 30-yr integral dose 

for living patterns I and 111 relative to the 

average United States external backgi-ound 

'dose over 30 yr is shown in Table 249. 

Plutonium isotopes, because of their 

long half-lives, will still be present 

when the other major isotopes observed 

at the Atoll have decayed away; therefore, 

Tables 250 and 251 are included to show 

the predicted doses from plutonium to 

the three major receptor organs (lung, 

liver, and bone) via the three relevant 

exposure pathways. 
\ 

The island of YVONNE presents a 

unique hazard on Enew etak Atoll, Pure plu -

tonium particles are present on or close to 

the ground surface, randomly scattereci in 

"hot spots" over most of the area fromthe 

tower to CACTUS crater. Examination of 

these "hot spots" has revealed the presence 

of occasional milligram-size pieces of plutonium metal, as well as smaller pieces 

which are physically indistinguishable in 

size from the surrounding coral matrix. 

Given these current conditions, it must be 

assumed that pure plutonium particles of 

respirable size are nDw also present onthe 

surface or may be present in the future as 

weathering effects oxidize and break down 

the larger particles. Lung dose assessments for this area, therefore, must be 

based on inhalation of pure plutonium . 

particles rather than those having the ;IVerage plutonium content of the soil. 

The potential health hazard via the 

inhalation pathway is sufficiently great 

to dictate two basic alternatives for 

remedial action for this island: (1) Make 

the entire island an exclusion area - off 

limits to all people, or (2) conduct a 

cleanup campaign which will eliminate 

the "hot-spot" plutonium problem and 

remove whatever amount of soil is 

necessary to reduce the soil plutonium 

concentration to a level comparable to 

other northern islands. As an indication 

of the volumes of soil involved, removal 

of a 10-cm-thick layer of topsoil in the 

area in which "hot spots" have been 

detected involves approximately 17,000 

m3 of material. Further removal of soil 

to reduce the maximum plutonium contamination levels to 50 pCi/g or less 

3 involves an additional 25,000 m of 

material. 

Table 242. Relative contributions of terrestrial foods to the integral dose assuming 

diet at time of return. 

Food item 

A. Island group ALICE -IRENE 

Domestic meat 

Pandanus fruit 

Breadfruit 

Wild birds 

Bird eggs 

Arrowroot 

Coconut meat 

Coconut milk 

B. Island group BELJI..E 

Domestic meat 

Pandanus fruit 

Breadfr~it 

Arrowroot 

Coconut meat 

Coconut milk 

-

Percer,tagr3 of total 5-yr

90~rdose 

to bone 

98. 9 

0. 65 

0. 24 

100 

137~s dose 

whole body 

100 

, 

<O. 08 

<O. 008 

100 

Percentage of total 10-yr 

'OS~ dose 13'cs dose 

to bone whole body 

43. 9 46. 9 

26. 8 24. 7 

23. 1 21. 1 

0. 29 0. 04 

0. 11 0. 004 

1. 3 0. 20 

3. 9 6 . 2 

0. 57 0. 93 

44. 2 47. 1 
Table 242 (continued) 

Percentage of total 5-yr Percentaqc of total 1U-i I' 

Food item 90~rdose 13'cs dose "~r dose 137Cs tiosc 

to -bone whole body to bonc whole boclv 

C. Island group JANET 

Domestic meat 99. 1 100 43. 9 47. 0 

Pandanus fruit 26. 9 24, 8 

Breadfruit 22. 9 20. 8 

Wild birds 0. 12 0. 05 

Bird eggs 

Arrowroot 

Coconut meat 

Coconut milk 

C. Island group ICATE-WILMA + LEROY 

Domestic meat 95. 4 98. 8 43. 1 46. 3 

Pandanus fruit 26. 4 24. 7 

Breadfruit 22. 7 21. 1 

Wild birds 0. 58 0. 29 0. 26 0. 14 

Bird eggs 0. 04 <O. 03 0. 02 0. 01 

. n A nn A1 I-UIYI UUL I, Y u. u w 

Coconut meat 3. 8 G. 2 

Coconut milk 0. 57 0. 93 

Coconut crabs 3. 9 0. 87 2. 4 0. 4i 

E. Island group ALVIN-ICEIT[-I 

Domestic meat 48.7 37. 7 41. 5 

Pandanus fruit 7. 6 

Breadfruit 

Wild birds 

Bird eggs 

Arrowroot 

Coconut meat 26. 4 50. 9 22. 6 41. 8 

Coconut milk 1. 4 2. 5 I. 1 2. 1 

Coconut crabs 20. 3 6. 9 17.4 5. fi 
Table 243. Relative contributions of terrestrial foods to Ihe integral dose assuming 10-yr post-return diet. 

Percentaqe of total 30-yr dose Percentage of total 70-yr dose 

'OSr dose to 137~s dose ti, 'OSr dose to 137~s dose to

bone n hole body bone whole body 

Commencement date Commcnceme,lt date Commencement date Commencement date 

Food item 1/1/74 1/1/82 1/1/74 1/ ,182 1/1/74 1/1/82 1/1/74 1/1/82 

A. Is1 and group ALICE-IRENE 

Domestic meat 16.7 

Pandanus fruit 

Breadfruit 

Wild birds 

Bird eggs 

Arrowroot 

Coconut meat 5.8 E.7 5.9 9.1 u 

Coconut milk 0.85 0.88 1.4 W 

C, --1.3 . -- Subtotal ' 17 8 3 2 6 74 14 8 6 2 2 7 8 

B. Island group BELLE 

Domestic meat 16.7 25.4 14.3 22. 3 

Pandanus fruit 40.2 34.5 41.5 36.1 

I3 readfruit 34.5 25.6 35.6 31.0 

Arrowroot 2.0 C.27 2. 1 0. 29 

Coconut meat 5.8 E.7 6.0 9.0 

Coconut milk 0.86 --1.3 0.89 --1.4

Subtotal 17 83 25 7 E 14 8 6 22 78 _-
- - 

Table 243 (Continued). 

Percentage of total 30-yrd~se Percentage of total 70-yrdose 

90

Sr dose to 137~s d=se to 90~r dose to 137~sdose to

bone whole I~ody bone whole body 

Commencement date Commencement date Commencement date Con~mencement date 

Food item 1/1/74 1/1/82 1/1/74 1/1/82 1/1/74 1/1/82 1/1/74 1/1/82 pp~-- -

C. Island group JANET 

Domestic meat 16.7 

Pandanus fruit 

Breadfruit 

Wild birds 

Bird eggs 

Coconut meat 

Coconut milk 

Subtotal 17 

' D. Island group KATE-WILMA + LEROY 

Domestic meat 16.fj 25.2 14.2 22.0 

l'andanus fruit 39. 8 34.8 41. 2 36.2 

I3readfrult 34.2 29.7 35.4 30. 9 

15'1ld birds 0.01 0.009 0.01 0.008 

Rircl eggs 0.002 0.003 0.002 0.002 

Arrowroot 2.0 0.28 2.0 0.29 

Coronut meat 5.7 8.7 5.9 9.0 

Coconut milk 0.86 1.3 0. 89 1.4 

Coconut crabs 0.41 0. 13 0.35 0.12 

Subtotal 17 83 2 5 75 15 85 22 7 8 
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APPENDIX 111 

REVIEW OF RADIATION PROTECTION STANDARDS 

The Task Group has considered a number of concepts in devising an 

approach to guidance for cleanup and rehabilitation of Enewetak Atoll, 

accepting some and rejecting others. Notably, the concept that AEC 

reconlmendations should consist of a series of alternatives or fall 

back positions with the degree or level of radiation exposure reduction 

ultimately determined by some later deliberation based on factors 

such as availability of funds was rejected. The consensus of the 

Task Group opinion was that these recommendations should be 

specific and unequivocal, and should establish a clear position on 

what is needed. To do less would be unfair to the Federal agencies 

who have accepted responsibilities to perform the rehabilitations and to 

the Enewetak people who are looking to this agency for advice. 

The judgement of the Task Group is that rehabilitation must conform 

with current radiation standards applicable for normal operations (not 

for accidents or for radiation w(>rkers) and with goocl hcalth physics 

practice in implementing these standa rds. A su-iary of current radiatior, protection standal-ds and material related to health risks that may be 

associated with the standards rcviewed and radiation criteria recommended 

by the Task Group follows. 

A. Federal Radiation Council (FRC) 

Basic FRC numerical guidance and health protection philosophy 

are similar to those of the ICliP and KCRP. Radiation Protection Guides (RPGts)arc proxided which deal with exposures 

of indisiduals and of population groups. Actions are to be directed primarily toward control of the sources of radioactivity to 

restrict entry into the envlronincnt but also toward control of 

radioactive rsaterials after entry into the environmat in order 

to limit intake by humans. The RPG's express the dose that 

should not bc exceeded witbout c arciul consideration of the 

reasons for doing so. Ex .ry eflort should be maclc to encourage 

the maintenance of radiation doscs as far below this guide as 

practicable. The RPGts ?re intcnded for use 114th normal peace- t 

time operations. Therc siloulcl be no man-lnada: radiation exposure 

without e?ipectclt-io~-r of ben ,fits f roll? such e>:~x~s;lre.Considering 

such benefits, exposure at the level of the RPG is considered as 

an acceptable risk for a liietime. The RFG'sfor the population 

are expressed in terms of annual exposure, c-rce~tfor the gonads, 

where the ICRP recomlr,e,~ded value of five rems in 30 years is 
used. FRC states that the operational mechanism described 

for application of criteria to limit the whole body dose for 

individuals to 0. 5 rem per year and to limit esposure of a 

suitable sample of the population to 0. 17 rem per year is 

likely to assure that the gonadal exposure guide will not be 

exceeded. 

The child, infant, and. unborn infant are identified as being more 

sensitive to radiation than the adult. Exposures to be compared 

with the guidance are to be derived for the most sensitive members 

in thc population. The guide for the individual applies when individual expo sure s a re known; otherwise, the guide for a suitable 

sample (one-third the guide for the individual) is to be used. 

This operational technique may be modified to meet special 

situations. 

The FRC primary numerical guides, expressed in rem, are 

pro\?dec! in two reports, FRC Nos. 1 and 2, summarized in 

Table I. Secondary numerical guides developed by FRC are 

expressed in terms of daily intalce of specific radionuclides 

corres?~n:iii~gto the annual RPG's. Consideration is given 

to all raclionuclidcs through a11 pathways to derike a total 

annual exposure for comparison vLth FRC guides. However, for 

many practical situations, relatively few radionuclides yield the 

nla jor cofitribution to total exposure; by comparison, exposures 

from others are very small. 

1 / FRC RADL.1-TION PROTECTION GUIDES -

skeleton 

INDIVIDUAL POPUTJ~?I~IONGROUP 

lirhcle body 0.5 remlyr 0. I? remlyr 

Gon;id s 

Ihyroid 2/- - 1.5 rems /yr 

5 remsl30 yrs 

0. 5 rernlyr 

Bone 12-,arrow 0.5 rcm/yr 0. 17 rcm/yr 

Eone 3 / Bone (aiternate -

I. 5 rcrnslyr 

0. 003 ~*gof 

0.5 relnlyr 

guide) 

I 

2i6~n in adult 0. 001 irg of 226~a 

in ndult skeleton 

1 / For conditions and qualificatiolis see FRC Report Kos. 1 and 2. -

2/ Eased unon a child's thyroid, 2 gtns in -.$-eight and other factors - listed in pnrarrl-aplls 2. 10-2. 1.1 c,f FRC Repart No. 2. 

31 Or the biolcgical equii-alcnt; of these amounts of 22S~a. -
B. The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) 

The ICRP originated in the Second International Congress of 

Radiology in 1928. It has been looked to as the appropriate 

body to give general guidance on widespread use of radiation 

sources caused by rapid developments in the field of nuclear 

energy. ICRP recommendations deal with the basic principles 

of radiation protection. 7-0 the various national protection 

bodies is left the responsibility for introducing the detailed 

technical regulations, recommendations, or codes of practice 

best suited to their countries. Recollimendations are intended 

to guide the experts responsible for radiation protection practice. 

ICKP states that the objectives of radiation protection are to 

prevent acute radiation effects and to limit the risks of late effects 

to an acceptable level. It holds that it is unknown whether a 

threshold exists, and it is assumed that even the sn~allestdoses 

insvolve a proportionately srnall risk. No practical alternative 

was found to z.ssuminc a linear relationship behveen dose and 

effect. This implies that there is no wholly "safe" dose of 

radiation. 

Esposure to natural background radiation carries a probability 

of causing soli;c sor~~atic orhereditary injury. However, the

Co:-nmission belie\-es that the risk resulting from esposures 

received from natural background should not affect the justification 

of an additional risk from man-made esposures. Accordingly, 

any dose limitations reconlmended by the Coinmis sion refer only 

to exposure resulting from technical practices that add to natural 

background r~idiation. Thrse dose limitations exclude exposures 

received in tile course of medical procedures. (These same 

qualifications s~ithregard to natural background and medical 

procedures are applied tc NCRP and FRC recommendations.) 

ICRP desrelop~d thc concept of "acceptzble risk. " Unless man 

wishes to disnense with activitj es inrrol\ing esposures to ionizing 

radiation, he must recognize that there is a decrrce of risk and 

must limit thc radiation dose to a lesrel at IT-hicl~t11~assumed 

risk is deemed to be accci)table to the indiliduai and to society 

in view of thc bcne;its derived from such actis11't' les.

For planned or co~ltrolled exposures oi indibiduals and populations, 

the ICRP has recon-.mended the term "dose limit. I' Recolnrnended 

dose limits are thought to be associateci with a very low degree of 

risk. For unplanned exposures from uncontrollecl sources 
the term "action level" is recommended. In general it 

will be appropriate to institute countermeasures only 

when their social cost and risk will be less than those resulting 

from the exposure. Setting of action levels is the responsibility 

of national authorities. 

It is not desirable to espos e members of the public to doses as 

high as those considered to be acceptable for radiation workers 

because children are involved, n~embers of the public do not 

make the clloice to be exposed, and members of the public are 

not subject to selection, supervision and monitoring, and are 

esposed to the rislcs of their own occupations. For planning 

purposes, dose limits for members of the public are set a 

factor of ten below those for radiation workers. 

The ICRP close limits for individual members of the public are 

presented in Table 11. No maximum "somatically significant" 

dose for a population is given. The genetic dose to the population 

should be kept to the minimum amount consistent with necessity 

and should not exceed 5 rems in 30 years from all sources other 

than natural background and medical procedures. No single type 

of population expo sure should take up a disproportionate share 

of the total of the recommended dose limit. 

TABLE II 

11 ICRP DOSE LIMITS -

Individuals Population 

Gonads, red 

bone -marrow 

Skin, bone, 

thyroid 

Hands and forearms; 7.5 rernslyr 

feet and ankles 

Other single organs 1.5 rems/yr -

3/ Genetic dose - - 5 remsl30 yrs 

1 / For conditions and qualifications see ICRP Pablication 9. -

2/ 1. 5 remsjyr to thyroid of children up to 16 years of age. -

31 See paragraphs S 4, S5, and 86, ICIXP Publication 9. -
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements':' (NCRP) 

The NCRP position is that the rational use of radiation should conform 

to levels of safety to users and the public which are at least as 

stringent as those achieved for other powerful agents. Continuing 

and chronic exposure attributable to peaceful uses of ionizing 

radiation are assumed. 

The NCRP has adopted the as sumption of no-threshold dose - effects 

relationship and uses the term "dose limits" in providing guidance 

on population exposures. All radiation exposures are to be kept 

as low as practicable. The numerical values of exposure as presented are to be interpreted as recommendations, not regulations. 

Use of the no-threshold concept involves the thesis that there is 

no exposure limit free from some degree of risk. 

To establish criteria, NCRP uses the concept of "acceptable risk" 

(where the risk is compensated by a demonstrable benefit) broken 

down to fit classes of indik-iduals or population groups exposed 

for vzrious purposes to different quantities of radiation. Kumerical 

recommendations for dose limits are necessarily arbitrary because 

of their mixed technical value-jud~ement foundation. The dose limits 

for individual merribers of ihe public and for the average population 

recommended by NCRP represent a level of risk considered to be 

so small compared with other hazards of life, and so well offset 

by perceptible benefits when used as intended, that p~blicapprobation will be achieved when the informed public review process is 

completed. 

For peaceful uses of radiation, NCRP provides yearly numerical 

dose limits for indi~~idual nlembers of the public, considering

possible somatic effects, and strongly advocates maintenance of 

lowest practicable esposure levels, especially for infants and the 

unborn. NCRP also recor,:mends yearly dose limits for the 

average population based 1:pon somatic and genetic considerations 

ancl rzcolnmcnds the same value as ICRP of 5 rcms in 30 years for 

gonadal exposure of the U. 3. population. Table III contains a 

summary of recommended values. NCRP Report No. 39 entitled, "Basic Radiation Protectio~~Criteria, " dated January 15, 

1971, contains the most rcccnt ~pdatingof NCRP rzcomrnendations 

for protection of the public. 

:::Formerly 'known as the National Comnlittee on Radiation Protection 

and Measurements. 

1 
TABLE III 

1 1 NCRP DOSE LJIMITSIndividual Population 

Whole body 0.5 remIyr 0.17 remlyr 

2 1 Gonads - 0.17 remlyr -

3 1 Gonads (alternative - 5.0 remsl30 yrs 

objective) 

D. Criteria -4~ainstIIrhich Survev Findings and Alternative Measures 

\Vill Be Elvaluated 

The Task Group approached the question of radiation dose criteria 

from two directions. First, FRC, ICRP, and KCRP recommendations 

rcx-iewed above were judged as to applicability in this situation. 

Second, a risk approach xva s reviewed using information from 

ICRP, UXSCEAT:, anr! the Xational Academy of Science BEIR 

Committee. Ti~cresults of this latter effort ai-e summarized 

in Part F which fol1o~-so 

The radiological sur\-ey of Enewetak Atoll proxides a comprehensive 

data base needed to dcri;re recommendations relative to the 

radiologically safe return of the Enewetak peoplc. These recornrnendations are to be based on an el-aluation of the significance of all 

radioacti.i.ity on the Atoll in terms of the total exposure to be expected in the returning population, and on consideration of those 

reasonable actions and constraints which, where made, will result 

in minimum exposures. 

The guidelines uscd in deriving these recommendations can be 

sun~rnarizedas two interdependent considerations: 

1. Expected csposures should bc 113inimizc:d and should fall in a 

range consistent wit11 guidance put forward by the Federal 

Racliation Council (FRC). 

I / For conditions ancl qualifications on application, see NCRP - Report No. 39, "I\a sic Radiation Protection Criteria. " 

2/ To be applietl as the average yearly value for the population of - the Un.itct1 States :!s a wh(>le. Sce paragraph 247, NCRP 

Report No. 39. 

3/ See paragraph 247, NCRP Report No. 39. -
2. Actions taken to reduce exposures should be those which 

show promise of significant exposure reduction when 

weighed against total espected exposures and the "costs" 

of the actions. "Costs, It in this context, are measured 

primarily in terms of costs to the Enewetak people as 

constraints on their activities or as dollar costs for 

cleanup or remedial action. 

In these evaluations, it should be emphasized that dosages 

through various pathways are estimated on the basis of 

environmental data and considerations of expected living 

patterns and dietary habits. While "radiation standards" 

do not exist for environmental contamination levels in substances such as soil and foodstuffs, there is general agreement i n t e r m s of conservative models of these pathways and 

the relationships between s certain level in the environment 

and the likely dose to result from the pathway exposure. 

The area of plutonium in soils, however, is one for which 

there is no general agreement as to the quantitative relationship 

between levels in soils ancl dosages to be expected through the 

inhalation pathway, the primary one through which man can 

receive a sig~xificant dose from plutonium. The ICRP recommends 

a l la xi mum permissible average concentration (MPC) of 1 

picocurie per cubic rrleter (p~i/m3)of air for "insoluble" 

plutonium and 0.06 p~i/rn3for "soluble" plutonium for unrestricted areas. mile the plutonium in the soil at Enewetak 

is thought to be typical of world-wide fallout, and therefore 

insoluble, 0.06 p~i/m3will be used for the sake of conservatism. 

Appendix A of Enenretak Radiological Survey, hTVO-140, presents 

two possible methods for tleriki~ingthe exposures that may occur 

through the inhalation pathway for plutonium in soil. (This is 

the pathway of interest for the present although i t i s recognized 

that for the very distant future, ingestion may become more 

important by comparison. Table 250 of ilppendix I1 shows that 

exposure to bone, liver, a nd lung from Z3YPu i c expected to 

be a few hundredths of a rcm in 30 years fo~pathways other than 

inhalation.) This lmaterini is produced as Attachment I of this 

section. The two nlethods presented are the "resuspension-factor" 

app~oachand the h a os -lo;, ding1' approach. Soil coi~centrations 

of ~~9Pu that would be associated \:-it11 the standard for 239~u

in air (0.06 p~i/rn3)by the hvo methods are: 
Resuspension-factor approach ......... . . .. 1,000 ~~i/g 

A recent report, A Proposed Interim Standard for Plutonium 

in Soils LA5483-blS, presents recommendations derived 

from estimates of expo sure through inhalation considering 

the concentration of 239F'u in the very top surface soil. 

The following values were' recommended: 

400 pCi/g - For all particle sizes provided no more than 

200 pCi/g in < I OO/mm size fraction. 

A revised Maximllm Permissible Concentration, MPC, of 

0. 3 p~i/m-?for indi~4dual.swas used in these determinations. 

The estimates apply to large area contamination. Levels 

several times larger could be permitted for localized deposition. 

The Task Grol~p recognizes that the islands of Enemetak Atoll 

are sn~alland that the arcas of hig1:est 239- in soil 011 these 

islands are smaller still. On the other hand the people live 

close to the soil. It is also recognized that esperts are not 

in ayreement as to the c r i t i c a l o r g a n f o r inhaled plutonium, 

whether to use an average dose for this organ, or the model 

to be csed to predict dose. It is the ~iewof the Task Group 

that availnble biolosical and ens6ronnlental information is 

not adequate to establish general gufdallce for cleanup of 

plutonium contaminated soil. I-Ion-e\~er, guidance for a 

particular set of circumstances or conditions can be des-eloped 

011 a case-by-case basis using conser7.lative assumptions 

and safety factor. ?'he following guidance is recornmended 

only for use i:l malcing decisions ccncerning plutonium clea.nup 

operations on islands of Enewetali Atoll: 

1. Any areas or locati(;ns \\.here soil concer,trations of 239-

are greater ti~:.n 400 pCi/g sl:oulti recei~~e corrective action

with conta~~linatcdsoil renloved for disposal. 
2. Situations with soil levels in the 40 to 400 pCi/g range may 

receive corrective action with each area or location evaluated 

on,a case-by-case basis. 

The following guidance is provided for this evaluation: 

a. Islands with soil levels in the above range may be divided 

into two categories, those of sufficient size for construction 

of permanent houses, and those that are not. 

2 39 be Removal of Pu contaminated soil is better justified within 

the range above for the larger islands such as-JANET or 

SALLY where permanent housing may someday be located and 

for near surface locations on the larger islands. 

C. The smaller islands may be considered of less concern. Their 

long-term outlook is uncertain since they are sometimes increasing in size and sometimes erroding away. Small islands 

may be washed over by storm waves and are not a safe site 

for permanent housing. From that viewpoint, they are in 

the same category as unnamed sandbars along the reef where 

other islands may have disappeared or be forming. 

d. The amount of effort that properly may be given to soil removal in this range increases as the soil concentration 

increases. 

e. Once an action is taken, the objective is to achieve a substantial reduction in plutonium soil concentrations, and 

further, to rcduce concentrations to the lowest ~racticablelevel, 

not to reduce them to some prescribed numerical value. 

3. Areas or locations showin2 less than 40 pCi/g do not require 

corrective action because ;f the presence of plutonium alone. 

E. Recomnlended Guides 

The standards issued by FRC are recommend as the basic guidance 

for evaluation of exposures to indiliduals to Enewetak. 
This is recommended with provisos that: 

I. Thc full amount of the numerical values should not be used for 

evaluating csposures from a single man-made source, in this 

case radioactivity from weapons tests. This is applied so 

that the Enewctak people mill not be denied benefits of future 

nuclear technology because they are receiving exposures from 

man-made radiation at the maximum level of acceptable standards. 

2. Environmental followup surveys and studies of radioactivity 

levels in people are performed such that the full range of 

radiation exposures of indisridual members of the Enewetak 

population will be known. 

3. Esposures of the Enewetali people are kept to the minimum 

practicable level. 

Survev, Cleanup, and Rehabilitation El~aluation 

It is recommended in this context that: 

1. The FRC Radiation Protection Guide (RPG's) for individuals should 

be used as the basic standard. The requirement is to assure 

that esposurcs for continuous residence in Enewetali Atoll will 

be well within the annual and 30-year criterion. 'A7hile these 

are co~lservati-gestandards from a health view point, there is 

no built-in conscrz-atism to account for uncert-zinty in predictiorl of annual exposures to incliziduals. Because of the 

complcs circumstances of exposure and the many pathways, 

each with its uncertainty, the Task Group recommends use 

of 50 percer~t of the FRC annual standards for evaluation of 

the many cleanup and rehabilitation alternatives at Enewetak 

Atoll. This is not to be siewed as an attempt to establish new 

standards but is considered to be a necessary precaution in 

the application of current standards. The fo!loning values apply 

for evziiuation of a ltcrnatives: 

l\%ole body ......................0.25 ~enl/yr 

Cnne marrow ....................O. 25 Rem/yr 

Bone.. ..........................0.75 I?elr,lyr 

Thyroid .........................O. 75 Rern/~r 
2. The Task Group recommends use of 100 percent of the FRC 

RPGf s to evaluate post-cleanup and rehabilitation and postreturn conditions wherein direct measurement of levels 

of radiation and radioactivity in foods and in people are 

made. Under such conditions, dose estimates should be 

subject to much less uncertainty. The requirement is to 

assure that exposures are well within the FRC standards. 

See Section A. of this Appendix for the FRC RPGfs. 

3. The criteria for evaluating gonadal exposures at Enewetak 

Atoll should be 4 rems in 30 years. The requirement is to 

assure that long-term exposures will be well within this 

criteria. The Task Group feels justified in using 80 percent 

rather than 50 percent of the FRC standard since there will 

be ample time to verify exposure estimates using actual 

sampling of the diet and time to follow the changing pattern 

of exposures of people. 

4. The recolnmended guidance for cleanup of 239Pu in soil 

at Enewetak Atoll is: 

a. < 40 pCi/g - corrective action not required. 

b. 40 to 400 ~~i/g - corrective action may be needed. Action 

to be taken should be determined on a 

case-by-case basis. 

c. > 400 pCi/g - corrective action required. 

In applyilig the criteria for bone and bone marrow in part 1 

above, it is assul-r?ed that if annual exposurcs do not exceed 

the applicable criteria in the year of highest dose, there will 

not be a requirement for limiting longer ter:m cumulative 

exposures. On tile other hand, implementation of the 

"lowest practicable" concept will require considerations of 

effectiveness of rcn~edialmeasures to reduce both annrial and 

longer term exposures to the e-dent practicable. 

F. -Risk Considerations

The Taslc Group and its technical advisors have reviewed the 

available information from ICRP, TJ'T.:SCE:IR, and the National 

Academy of Science BEIR Committee that could be used to 
estimate the health risk that may be associated with long-term 

exposures at the level of the radiation dose and soil removal 

criteria being recommended. It is clear from this review that 

l<nowlcdge of thc relationship between radiation dose and effects 

of that dose on man as characterized in dose-effect curves is 

incomplete even for external radiation exposures. For internal 

emitters and particularly for plutonium, the situation is even 

less satisfactory. UNSCEXR has summarized their findings 

by stating that one should not extrapolate in a linear fashion 

from effects seen at high doses and dose rates to effects at 

low doses and dose rates since there is strong likelihood of 

recovery and repair. The BEIR Cornmittee, using only human 

data, concluded that since the low dose data were incolnplete, 

one should conservatively assume a linear no-threshold dose-effect 

curve drawn through data obtained at high doses and dose rates. 

The committee further suggested that if this linear no-threshold 

curve is assumed to be correct, it follows that 6,000 cases of 

cancer would be produced each year i n a population of 200,000,000 

people exposed at a rate of 0. 17 Remlyr. (This is the FRC RPG 

for population groups - see Table I, ) For the Enewetak population 

of less than 500 exposed at the same level, one can make the 

following estimate: 

3 - 2 6 X 10 cases/\-r X 500 people = 1.5 X 10 cases of cancerlyr 

2 X 10b people 

Using a linear close-effect curve, exposure at the level of the 

recommended criterion of 0. 25 Rerr~/~r mould gtve 2. 2 X loe2 

cases per year. The Task Group vie\* this as a pessimistic 

upper limit of risli. Jt could be inferred that there may be 

between zero and three cases of cancer in 100 years if the 

entire Enewei;al:< population were continuously exposed to 

0. 25 Rem/yr over that time period. 

h4ost of the csposure to whole body, at Enewctak, and in fact, 

to all organs cS11 come from internal cll~ittcrs. The shape of the 

close-effect curi.~for exposures from internal el~?ittersis most 

uncertain bcc3use of lack of expericncc and lscl; oi coniidence 

in cstrnpolation of Iligh dose and dose rate effects into the very 

low dose and low dose r?.te situation. A lack of confidence in 

I 
the statistics and risk estimate drawn therefrom has therefore 

led the Tnslc Group to have serious reservations about their 

validity. The Task Group holds the opinion that such estimates 

cannot be used in any dcfi~litive way to draw conclusions on 

whether current radiation standards are too high or too low 

or as a basis for decision-making relative to resettlement of 

Enewetak Atoll. M'hile the risk associated with doses at the 

level of current standards is possibly not zero, it is viewed 

as being very low as described by FRC, ICRP, and NCRP. 

The basic FRC standards, conservatively applied, are viewed 

as suitable for Enewetak rehabilitation provided there is also 

a serious and concerted effort to keep exposures as low as 

practicable. 
ATTACHMENT I 

PELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FSSUSPELQED PLUTONIUM 

IN AIR AND PLUTONIUM IN SOILS 
Relationship Between Rcsusnended 

l'lutonium in thr and lJi~lton:urnin Soil 

L. R. hnspaugh 

La\vrence Livermore Laboratory 

Livermore, California 

There are. no general models that may 

be used with confidcnce to predict the 

rcsuspcnded air activity in the vicinity of 

an area contaminated with plutonium. 
Ilo\vcver, tic:) ::lrprnvirnci!c methods may 

bc u5t.d -the. re.-;u.c:pc,nslon factur ap-

;?ro:!c-h and :in cii-gumc,nt based upon 

ambient air psrtic.ulclte concentt.ations, 

u.itt~the a.ssumption that thc particulates 

are derived from the conta~iinatedsurface. The former method has been frequently used, hut almost always in the 

contest of a fresh surface deposit. The 

lattcr mcthod is inappropriate to the 

fresh deposit situation, but should be 

reasonably va!id after enough tlmc has 

elapsed for the surface-deposited materizl to become fairly well rnived with a 

fexs. centimeters of the soil surface. 

!:csuspencion Factor :l~prozch 

The resuspension factor, K, is defined 

.4ir conccnt.rai ion (~i,/ rns) K = 3 9

Surface dcposi~lon(Ci/ m-) 

arid tk.us has mits of m-l. It is almost . 

always implied that both measurements 

2r.e made at thr. sane location. The difficalties with this approach are fairly 

obvious - no allowance is made for the 

gcornctrical configuration of thc source, 

the parlicle-size clistributio~sof the contaminant anti the srril surface, vi~~"tation 

2 cover, etc. stewzrtl and hlishima 

hr5i.e tahulatecl \.Aces of I< from many 

e:.;pc.riments including those in\-ol.:ing 

1aS:)ratol-y flocr,s as well as native soils. 

.%its u,ould be e>:pected, the tabulnted 

values cover an enc3rmous range and vary - 7 

frum 10 - to iU - 13 n. ?.lost of t!;e high 

... :?:<, ho.:. (.-:.:;, arc c!r.:.ivf:d iron esperin~entsultil 1hLor.nr~r-yfloor s~r-iacc:s andl 

or v;ith artificial cjisturbance. 

1 For outdour sitilations, Str:\ art st!fizests as a g~i!!~for planting purposes 

that a value :or K of 10-'/m be lised 

"under quiescent con;litions, or after 

admil~istrative cc~ntrol has been established 

in the cast? of an accident. " A value of 

- 5 10 /m is suggested under conditions of 

moderate activity. Steivart states, however, that exceptionally higher values 

- 5 (mean of 10 /m) were observed during 

the Hurricane Trial (nlonte Bello Islands) 

and credited this to the nature of the 

small islands exposed to sea breezes. 

Values approaching li3/m when dust is 

raised by pedestrians and vehicles are 

also reported by Stewart. 

3 Kathren has aiso considcred the resuspension factor approach and has 

- 4 recommended the use of 10 /m as a 

conservative but appropriate value for 

setting standards for PuO surface con- 2 

taminztion. 

~an~harn~''has suggested that a 

vdue of 10-~/mis a reason~ble average 

value to use in estimatizg the potential 

hazard of occupancy of a plutoniumcontaminated area. .4t the same time, 

however, Langham notes that many 

-5 .

measured values lie in the range of 10 

- 7 

to 10 /m and reports that his own 

measurements in 1956 produced a value 

of 7 x 1~-~/rn. 

These recommended values, however, 

are all intc:r,ded ior. 3ppl:cation during tile 

time licriod imrnedintc;l;: r oiloiving deposi1, 5-8 tion. Iiurnerous studies have sho\r!n 

that air ci)iicc~.trationsr3i rc>suspended 

materials decrcase \:.iti? :in:;.. \V;th the 

~S-~I:I?.;.,!~O? f!14t ?!!i: 'ir'tra~:~~~ can be

~1: ;:\ t-,:~.;,c.~~cntizl 

tion, hr?lf-ti:nes of' 3: to 70 days have 

rtmi!~'c,;c.z<;:d!-I\. :t ft:i-,c-

- 7 , 

been rrFortcd3' " . This ilccrense in 

tilr zctivity is not c:.:;~iri~:~:iiilc by the 

rc1:itively 1-2:no;- lu:;; o:' inritcrial frorn 

the ~nitial site of dcpasiti.onl' ',but is 
presumably causcd by the migration of 

the initial s~!rfac:c-dcpos~tcdmaterial 

into the soil. 

Attcrnpts to use tlic, resuspension 

factor approach to di:rive acceptable 

levels of soil surface coniaminaiion have 

included this "attenuation factor1' as a 

simple esponential function with halftimes of 35 or 45 days314. There are 

major uncertainties in such a formulation, 

however. The longest study of this decrease with time extended to only' 11 mo 

8 following the initial deposition , which 

is extremely short compared to the half23gpU. life of a radionuclide such as 

There are also published reports which 

indicate on experimental and theoretical 

bases that the decrease ~vithtime will 

not be adequately represented by a single 

exponential function, but that the rate of 

decrease itself will also decrease with 

time1' 6. Fortunately, the exact nzture 

of this time drpendencc is not critical in 

determining the integrated exposure from 

the time of initial deposition due to the 

fairly well-documented rapid decrease at 

early times. Ilowever, it is i~bviously 

the controlling factor for questions concerning the reoccupation of areas many 

years after the contaminating event. 

As an illustration, the most conserva- 7 

tive published mudc.1 (1<:ithrend) may be 

used to calculate a rr-suspension rate for. 

material 15 yr n:'tcr dtbposition: , 

If, ho\r.cvcr, the rcsusl~,,nsionrzt~ 

asymptoticall? al~j)l'oac.ht5dsoriii. finite 

vduc of the urrginnl, tl~entlic rcauspension rate 15 yr' later ~vould o!~viously 

be 10-~~/rn.11vevr, the total inte-

-rated air activity (from t = 0 to 4 for 

;39 Pu wotlld bt changed only by 

which is an increase of 207rj, and more 

importantly, cannot be accumulated during an individual s life span. 

Because the functional nature of the 

decrease in resuspension rate with time 

cannot be confidently extrapolated, previously published models should not be 

applied to the reoccupation of areas many 

years after the contaminating event. 

The resuspension-factor a-pproach can 

be applied in an approximate way, however, if resuspension factors are used 

which were deriveu from measurements 

over aged sources. Perhaps the most 

relevant data arc unpublished results 

from current resuspension experiments 

at the Gh.IX site in Area 5 of the Nevada 

Test Site. The 239~~ at'this location 

was deposited fol?o\ving 22 high-esplosive 

detonations during the period from 

December 1954 to February 1956. 

bIeasuremcnts of resuspended air sctivity 

levels at this site during 1971-1973 

appear to be the only available data concerning resuspension of 239~ufrom a 

source of this acc. 

Ihta irom I.!: (J t],.pcs c< measurcrnt.r.?s 

are available and ccln be used to der:i'e 

average rcsuspcnsi~?nfactors. Tt~c first 

typo r,: rncziurrmrnt9 ,:;as ;cco=pli.shcl 

by plscing five i?iqh-:.clurne cascade 

irnp:ic!orr;10 ii~t!li:i the most highly csntami~;r?tcd area, and running them for 
36 days, from July 7 to .c\ugust 12, 1972. 3 '2 q he collected 240~uactlvity \vas 

distributed lognorrzally Lvith particle 

size with an activity median aerodynamic 

diameter (:lhI.-LD) of 3.0 pm and a geometric standard deviation of 8. 2. The 

2398 240~concentration varied from 

3 1.0 x 10-l4 to 3.,9 x pCi/cm , 3 

with an average of 2. 3 X 10-l4 uCi/crn 

for the five samplers. -4t the present 

time only limited data are available regarding the soil activity in the area. ' 

Four soil samples of depth 0-3 cm from 

approximately the same location have 

been analyzed nith results1' of 2060 to 

3550 dpm/g, with a mean of 2700 dpm/g. 

Profile daia from other locations at the 

same general site indicate that about 90% 

of the total deposition is contained within 

I2 the top 2. 5 cm of the soil . Measurements of sqil density in the area average 

1.8 g!cm3 The resuspension factor 

is therefore 

3 2.3 x lo-14 pCi -E c m X --- cmJ 2700 dpm 1.8 g 

Additional air samples were taken by 

the Rcynolds Electrical and Engineering 

Co. (Kl?ECo) on the edge of thc contaminated nrca during the pc~iod of L7ebrunry 

197 1 to July 1272, -.:ith a sampling t~me 

13 of approxinlately hr . hlea5urcnicnts 

were rnade at four. locations, but the 

no st pcrtincnt is the orle v:h.ich v;as most 

frcquen!.ly in the direct~onof st.rong iifinds 

from thc strc)ngly contaminated area and 

v:here the highest air activities T.vere 

rccordcd. ilcre, 254 individu~l airfi!ter .;an~plcs \vcrc coll(..cted and detec239, XOpU table results reported for 236. - 17 

concentrations ranged from 3. 5 X 10 

3 to 6. 3 X pCi/crn , Lvith arithmetic 

and geometric means of 6.6 X 10-l5 and 

3 7.9 X 10-l6 pCi/cm , respectively. Results for four soil samples taken from 

approximately the same location range 

from 128 to 202 dpm/g, with a mean of 

11 160 dpm/g . Because the arithmetic 

mean is a better representation of average 

lung exposure, it is used to derive a resuspension factor at this site: 

6.6 x 10-15 CiX---iL- Xcm 3

crnJ 160 dpm 1.8 g 

2 6 0. 9 10 cm 2. 32 X 10 dpm X-3 crn m pCi 

This value is nearly an order of magnitude higher than the one previously calculated, and reflects some of the inherent 

difficulties in the resuspension-factor 

approach, i. e., that no alloivance is made 

for the geometrical configuration of the 

source and that higher ground activities 

may be present upwind. 

It is obvious that this approach is subject to major uncertainties,. but does 

serve as an order-of-magnitude indication 

of the resuspended air activities that may 

arise from a 239' 240~~ contaminated 

area which has \yeathered for 15 to 20 yr. 

The data discussed above also demonstrate 

une:~uivocally that rer;uspension of t 

230, 240 Pu does in fact occur from such 

aged deposits and at le\,c.ls many orc!ers 

;,:^rnzgriit-~dc'i;::!?r than ivould bt. e:ipectfti if tkc. often ncted decrcase with 

time \:?ere represented by 2 single exponentisl function \:.ith a half-time of 35 to 70 

days. 
klnss- I.on(11n< Apl>rc);ich 

Thc ot11c.r aj)prc)unlate prc-diction 

method is bascd upon measured or 

assumed lcbvcls of partl~.ulate matter In 

ambient air 1~1ththe assumption that this 

material 1s derived fru~n. the contaminated 

soil. For fresh depos~ts this approach is 

not valid because the freshly deposited 

debris is much more llkely to be resuspcnded than the remainder of the 

weathel-cd soil surface. After many 

years oi weathering slnce the initial 

deposition, however, the contaminating 

material should be reasonably well mixed 

with a centimeter or two of soil, such 

that the contaminant activity per gram of 

airborne particulate should approximate 

that in the upper soil. However, a major 

difficulty could arise if, for example, 

239' 240~~ were preferentially associated 

with the smaller particle sizes more 

likely to become airborne. For the 

Nevada Test Site, such is not the case as 

detern~incd by soil analyaes14 and by the 

high-volume cascade impactor study. 

The latter study found an =1;1IXD of 3.0 pm 

for 239* 240~u,tvhereas the total mass 

median aerodynamic d~ameterwas 1.7 pm. 

The specific activity of the material collected on each stage c m also be examined 

for a preferential a.isocia!ion of plutonium 

tvith particle size. :liverage data from all 

five samplers are: 

Size, pm 

>7 

3.3 to 7 

2.0 to 3. 3 

1.1 to 2.0 

0.01 to 1.1 

All stages 

(Soil) 

+Uthou&hthere is considerable sprcad 

in these data, there is no indication of a 

preferential association of 239, 24OpU 

with a particular particle size; as would 

be expected as a res~ltof dilution by inert 

aerosol, the specific activity is lower 

than that of the soil. 

If we assume that this is generally 

true, a general and conservative. method 

of predicting resuspended air concentrations of contaminants would be to simply 

multiply the ambient air mass loading by 

the contaminant concentration in soil. A 

factor of some uncertainty for a specific 

calculation is what value to use for-the 

ambient air mass loading in the absence 

of specific data. This becomes even 

more uncertain because of the possibility 

that the people involved may be highly 

correlated with the source in the sense 

that children playing in sand, adults cultivating crops, etc., may generate their 

own "ambient air" which contains much 

more mass than would be recorded by a 

remote stationary sampler. 

The lower and upper bounds of ambient 

air mass loading can be fixed rather 

easily for any site. There has been considerable interest in establishing a 

"background level '! of mass loading, and 

this is generally believed to be about 

lo ~g/m (l'! The upper bound can be 

' established in a reasonable wzy by the 

levels found in rnine atmospheres \$:hick 

have led to a consid~rable prevalence of 

!E pneumoconi~si.iin ti:? a!'!'ectc:d \\.:~riic:r-~ . 

Examination of' ti-;cse data indicate that 

curre:it standards fcjr ciccupational dust 

exposure (- 1 - i O n?s,'~~3i have a \,cry 

small, or' pc,r.haps no margin of safcty, 

such that a reas-;onable upper bound can 

3 be taken as 1 n;f;,/r~. Qritish data 17 
indicate that if the general public were 

exposed to dust lcvels in esccss of 

3 1 rng/m , the public health prol~lem from 

the dust alone might be enormous. The 

reasonableness of the upper limit value 

of 1 m6/m3 is also demonstrated by data 

which indicate that nonurban ambient air 

mass concentrations this high are usually, 

associated with conditions described as 

18.19 dust storrns 

Measurements of ambient air mass 

loading can be used to further define a 

reasonable estimate for predictive purposes. The National Air Surveillance 

Ketwork (NASZ) has reported suchresults 

for several years. ~ata~' for 1966 show 

that there nJere 217 urbsn and 30 nonurban 

stations reporting. 'The annual arithmetic 

average for the urban stations ranged 

from 33 (St. Pctersburg, Florida) to 

3 254 pg/rn (Steubenville, Ohio), v;ith a 

mean arithmetic average for all 217 

3 stations of 102 pg/m . For the nonurban 

stations, the range \':as from 9 (\irhitc 

Prne County, Kcvada) io 79 pg,!rn3 (Cllrry 

County, Oregon), with a mean i~rithrnetic 

3 

average for all 30 stations of 3:: p2/1n . No data in this report arc available for 

nonurban locations on small islands similar to the Ene\vetaE: group; perhaps the 

closest analog is the urban station at 

IIonblulu, Ii>:s.aii, which hzd a:] annual 

arithmetic average of 35 pg/m3 

. 

3Iore pertinent, but limited, c!r?t2 na1.e 

rixccntl:; been put11ishc.d for thc islanc! of 

li:i?..c!ll'"1, '2. ~j;lt3 ;i\.ei, :,!: t:ir'.sp 

1ui.ations: l!c!uii:i 1-c)a C?bs~r~..z!or~~ 

1occtl.ed :~t a !icigllt of 3.100 in, Cr!;)e 

I<~!!nukahi,2nd ttii. (,it? or !lil(r. SASN 

are given as 16 ,ug,/rnJ , and ilc.;~ii$;lon:cter 

3 rneasureri~cnts: var~ed from IS ~gim 

during the day to 26 pS,'rn3 at night. At 

Cape Kurnukahi the ncphelometer measure3 men1 was 9.2 wg/m . The grcatest amount 

of data is available for hlauna Loa Obsermtory. Here, the NASN measurement was 

3 3 pg/m , and the nephelometer measure3 ments varied from 1. 7 pg/ m at night to 

3 6. 5 pg/m during the day. Additional 

measurements made by the USAEC Health 

and Safety Laboratory (I-IXSL) were 

3 3 pg/m . It is of interest in the present 7 7 

contest that Simpsonu- made the following 

comment concerning the H-4SL measurements: "The H&SL filter samples contain 

3 substantial dust (3-5 pg/m of air sampled) 

because of the fact that the filter was 

located less than one meter above the 

ground surface near zreas with substantial 

personnel activity at the observatory site. " 

Thus, \i.hile this method of measurement 

may not have coincided i:rith Simpson' s 

interest, it does indicate that ambient 

air mass loadings may be very low on 

such remote islands even when considerable human activity is occurring nearby. 

On the basis of the above data, it 

would appear reason~bleto use a value of 

100 ug/m3 as an average ambient air 

mass loading for predictive gurposes. 

Indications are that this valae should be 

quite conservative for the Enewetak 

Islands, and therefor.. allocs room for 

the uncertainty invol\.ed because the people 

thernsclqv*esma;; ge3crate a significant 

:'ra:!ion of t!?e total ri:?ro5ol. Therefore, 

a statlonary sampler. 

3 . Sur>r)or:inz r~~:~tjcncc~ that 100 "1 13 

a rc:l.<ci:~:iblt value t.o u.-.i for pred~crii-e 

purl)~j,;c..;is prn\.idcd 132. thc National 

23 :bibicnt :iir Ql~nlit; :j.t:inda:.ds . fiere 
amhicnt air is defined 3s "...that portion 

of the atmosphcrc, c~stcrnalto buildings, 

to which the general public has access. " 

The primary anlbient nir standards define 

I I

levels which. .. art? necessary, with an 

adcquate margin of safc,ty, to protcct the 

public health. I' The secondary standards

define "levels which.. . (are)...necessary 

to protect the public welfare from any 

known or anticipated adverse effects of a 

pollutant. " These standards for particulate matter are given below: 

National ambient air quality standards

3 for particulate matter, ~g/m. Annual 

geometric 

mean 

Alax. 24-hr crrrentration 

not to he esceeded more 

tb.an once a year 

Primary: 

7 5 260 

Secondary: 

60 

Data to support these standards in terms 

of health effects, visibility restrictions, 

24 etc. have been provided . An arithmetic mean would be more 

desirable for predictive purposes. Data 

from 1966" for nonurban locations indicate that the annual arithmetic mean is 

(on the average) 120% of the annual 

geometric mean. 

Representative Calculations 

Because one of the primary objects is 

to derive an acceptable soil level for the 

Enewetak Islands, the approaches developed above were used to derive such 

levels for both soluble and insoluble 

233~u. The derived values are given in 

Table 151, The tv;o methods agree within 

. a factor of two, at least for soil distributions like those found at the Eevada Test 

Site. The ambient air mass loading at 

239 Table 151. Acceptable soil levels of PLIfor a source which has weathered for 

several years. Values are appr3sirnate and are scb1,ect to uncertainty. 

F-'ermissible Concentration in Alr ior 160-hr occupational exposure 

(MPCa)25. 

-

3 Acceptable air concentration, pCi/ cm 

Resuspenqion-factor epnroach 

Assumed resusptnsion factor, - 1 

m 

a 2 Acceptable soil depos~tion, pCi/ m 10 6 0 

Acceptnblc sol1 concentrationb, nCi/g 20 1 

.4ssumed mass loading, ~lg/mJ 

Acccl~tatle soil ~oncentr~ltion, nCi/g 

b 239 z~.ss~~nl~bs 5-ir.1~ tiistrit)ution of I'u with depth and soil dcnszt~.as measured a t

the Neva(1n 'i't'st Site. 
X'TS durinq the c-a:sc~,2c.irnpactor run was 

3 mcasrircd to be 70 ~ig' m . Such dcrivetl ~:?.lur~smust, of cour~e, 

be used with a grc.c;; deal of discretion. 

They arc based on .inl.j)!e mudcl systems 

which are belie~~edto be gezcrally conservative, but individual situations can be 

imagined which could exceed the predictions. 

Other Considerations 

The above calculations relate only to 

the resuspended air activity in ambient 

air. and do not consider the additional 

problcnis of res11;pension of material 

from contaminated clothing or the resuspension of material which has been transferred to homes. 

1-1eal~~~ has considered these and

other problems, and has provided tables 

of "decision levels" for surface contamination levels and home transfer levels. A 

decision level is based upon National 

Council on Radiation Protection and 

hleasurements (ECRP) recommended 

dose limitations. Because the derivations 

Table 152. Decision levels 26 for soluble 239~u,and their equivalent in soil mass 

based apon :he "acccptat)lc soil conccntrztion" from Table 151. 

Pathway Decision level Xlass equivalent 

A. Direct pel-sonal contamination 

a 2 2 I)i!-ect jn!~alation 2 x n~i/ crn I x g/cm 

2 2 Di:.e::t ingestionb 0.2 nCi/cm 0.2 g/cm 

Skin absorptionC 8 x Dci 0.8 g 

B. Transfer (to homes) levels 

d Rcsuspension 

Direct in5alation 

Direct ingestion 

S!:in absorption 

a11The contaminatim !PI-el on clot11ir.g and sl-:in that could result in ir~halstion of air 

at the ii?PC ior the public. 1126 

a 

b"~he cont?.n;in?.ric:cc le-:cl on skin or clot!-::cr; that could result in ingestion of a 

qilantib of r.n:iic,scris.c n,atc,rial rq~~ivalent to ~hcingestion of xater at thc ~vIPC,~ 

. . !,2G for an inrli\.i~!azI;n the public. Cl, ?'he total quan[i:y of rauioxct.i-.re n~ateri~l rnnint:tinctl on tnc skin .'or. 24 h/day that 

could result in r.!~i,!-ptior. of 3. qunr,tity c:q112lto that t::i-~icii ivo~~lci be sbscrbed froin 

the GI tract if -.;.-;t?r at the h?PCw igr "soliiblcl' isotopes for an indi:;ic!l.ial in r!ie 

pi-:Slit v:ere ingr tt:.cl. l!?G 

a ,I Tile am~1.1ntt:-;in>fcrred per d:ij. ;):at (:ou;<l :-e.cult in sir c.c)r,ccr?tratic~nl;dl~et:, . . resuspcnsion ir. 3 7:-.ti;ium-sized home ac-::.a=in< 31 tl;e ?,lfJC_ 'L [or an i!idividual in 

,126 the public. 
are rather tenuous, Healy has used the 

phrase decision level and states that its 

use is to servc as a s1gna1 that further 

careful invest~gation is ttarranted. 

Healy' s decision levels for soluble 

23g~uare given in column 1 of nble 152. 

The values in column 2 are derived from 

these and an acceptable soil concentration 

of 1 nCi/g from Table 151 to give equivalent dirt (soil) contamination and transfer 

levels. The results are interpreted as 

indicating that the patential exists for 

grcater dose contributions from these infrequently considered pathways than from 

the usually cons~dcred pathway of resuspension as calculated for ambient air. 

This conclusion would be the same for 

insoluble 239~u. Therefore, if dose 

calculations based oh the usual resuspension pathway should appear limiting 

compared to other pathways such as foodchain transfer, these pathways considered 

by Healy need to be carefully evaluated 

for the specific Encwetak situation. 
---- - 

Refcrcnces 

1. Ste\vart, "The liesuspc.nsion of I'articulatc ILlateria1 from Surfaces," in 

Surface Contnrninntion. R. R. Fish, Ed., (Pcrgamon Press, New York, 

19G4), pp. G3-74. 

2. J. hlishimr~,:Ilie\ric.~v of Research on 171utonlum Rclcnscs Durinc Overheatin2 

and Fires, IIanford L,abc>ratories, Itlc hlanci, Rept. HIV-83GGG ( 1964). 

3. R. L. Kathren, "Towards Interlm Acccptablc Surface Contamination Levels 

ior En\.ironmental PLIO," in Radio1n::ical !'rottctinn of the Public in a - Nuclear hlass Dir;nstcr (I3DRlZ, Bern, l!I(iS), pp. 4GO-470. 

4. W. 

Nuclear 

H. Langl~arn,

IVnrhcads, 

1 

Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, Rept. UCRL-50639 

(19G9). 

5. W. II. Langham, "Plutonl~rm Dlstl-ibution as a Problem in Environmental 

Science," in Proceedinns of !2n:ironr;1ental Plutonium Svm;~osiurn,E. B. 

Fowler, R. IV. Ilenderson, and bl. I'. Milligan, Eds., Lcs Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Rept. L12-4'756 (1071 ), pp. 3 - 11. 

6. J. D. Shrcve, ,Jr., Surnniarv ITenort, Test GI-oup 57, Sandia Corporation, 

Albuquerque, Iiept. ITR-1515-DEL(1958). 

7. R. 13. :\*il.;on, R. G. Thomas, and J. Y. Sis:!nard, Ei~rnedicd anri Aerosol 

- Studit:.< :\.;soc.i;..ter! y:.-it!l n i:if.ld i?+:.lt:.2scof Plutonium, [Jniversity of Roc:hester, 

8. L. R. Xnspa:?qh, P. L. T'helps, N. C. Icennedy, and 3.G. Cooth, "I5'ind-Driven 

Redistribution of Surface-Dc~ositcd iladioactixrity, " In Environmental 

B~hai-iorof Rariionucllri,es r\;l.!ezseri in the Tuclear Industr-,:, LYE-\, Vienna 

(in press). 

9. L. R. .Anspau%h 2nd P. L. Phelps, La~vrence Livernore Laboratory, 

unpublished data. 

10. 0. L. 1i.ood and C. H. Ericksnn, "Si::irig of rltmospheriz Particulhtes with a 

IIigh 1701ume Cascade In;pactor," Ci!,nos::!?ere 3, 77 (1073). 

11. I,. I*. Eb:>rh~rdt and R. 0.Gilbert, C'r;.::,-::<,;il An;?l..sis ij!'S~ilFlutonium 

Stu<iies, >:c\-,-.rln Test Sir?, Rattclle ;'nci!'ii. Northv:est Laboratories, 

I:iciila:~ti, ilcpt. T2,>:\'b i.,-l;-?l? (197'2). 

J,zs I7ecns, private cclrnr-nun:c~tic:~x(1!'73). 

14. T. Tamara, "Distribution of P.:in Soil Size Fractions," rrc.scr?tation 3t the 

Sc.\.n.?ri :'iy;;>licti Ecology G!-o.lp PI-it:-iniurnir:f;~r.i~:atlon .'~.Ii.ecing, L2s I'egzs, 

15. \V. :.:. Parch, R. .J. C:harlsc)n, and I-. F. Radke, "A?mos?hcrir. :lerosol 

Does a Backgrcund Lcvcl Exist?", S::icnce -

170, 315 (1970).
- -- - 

-- - 

- - 

16. W. 11. Walton, Ed. , Inhnl(,d Pnr.ticlcs 111, (Unwin Brothers, Ltd., The Gresham 

I'rcss, Old LVohiilg, Sul-rcg, 1:riqland 11)70), Vol. 2. 

17. M. .lncobsc.n, S. Rnc., \V. 11. Walton, and J. hl. Rogan, "New Dust Standards 

for British Con1 hlines," Xnture -227, 145 (11170).

18. It. Spirtas and H. J. Lcvin, Charactcristics of Particulntc Patterns 1957- 1966, 

National Air Pollution Control .Administration, Raleigh, N. C., Publication 

No. AP-61 (1970). 

19. I,. J. Ilagrn and N. P. lT;oodruff, "-4ir Pollution from Duststorms in the Great 

Plains, " Atmos. l:n\.iron. 7, 323 (1973). 

20. Air Quality Data from the ~aGonnl.41r Survc~ll,?nceNetworks and Contributing 

State and 1,ocal Networks, 1966 Edition, National Air Pollution Control 

Administration, Durham, N. C., P~blicationNo. APTD 68-9 (1968). 

21. R. F. Pueschel, B. A. Bodhaine, and 13. G. hlendonca, "The Proportion of 

Volatile -4erosols on the Island of Hawaii," J. Appl. illctcorol. 12, 308 (1973). 

22. 11. J. Simpson, "Aerosol Cations at hlauna Loa Observatory, I' J. Geophys, Res. 

-

77, 5266 (1972).

23. Ehvironmcntal Protection Agency, -Fed. Rerrister 36, - 22384 (1971).

24. 3. T. ?Uiddleton, Chairman, Kational Air Quality Criteria Advisory Committee, 

Air Quality Criteria for Particulate hlatter, Sational Air Pollution Control 

Administration, YVaskington, D. C. , Publication No. AP-49 (1969). 

25. "Report of ICRP Comrr.ittee I1 on Permissible Dose for Internal Radiation (l959), 

26. J. LV. IIcaly, Surface Concamination: Decisicn Levels, L,os Alamos Scientific 

Laboratory, Rcpt. LA-4 558-hlS (1971). 

Ai?PZi~DC(IV 

Annual 23n+2and !*/h31~ -bdy Doses

Villian L. Rgbis3n9 ?lilliam A. Philliss, 

Yook C. Bg, Dan E. Jones, ana Ora A. Loi:e 
1. Intrsd.~ction 

The purp3se of this a~szndixis ta evaluate the ~~teztial arinual

bone d3s?s far adults and children f3r t5e six livins setterns considered 

in the Enewetzk Radiolozical Sunre? Zsprt (:;YO-140). The bone doses 

presented in 170-140 were calculatecl f3r xineral b~nei'zr adults as 

integrated d~ses fcr 5-, lCl-, 30-, znd 7C-yr prigds. 23ne and whglebody doses t3 children y~.erenzt co~lsidered separately tecause in rcost 

cases the doses predicted f3r adults are usually a g39d estirrate of the 

dose to children. For cxm~le, the e:i.ter~al o221.ra 

- c3ntribut~.s sinilarlj 

to both adult; and cfiil~~ren.Str;ntiur.-3Ct and 137~sczritribute aver 95; 

. . of the I~3i-chsindsse znci th52.e is .z7,,i2cnce t3 sP,z,;i tk-_.-td3ses to 

children frsn inzestion 3f 137Csa:.: uzcally less thsn th.=;e t2 adults. 

177 

r - i I ir ' Cs. U11;ez t= chilirsn czn rr:ceed adult 

doses; h3i;evr3r, the auaiti,~1?1 c3;s incrlr.-??.t t3 chiisren sq*rer the fir;+, 

only a few cercent. Siith the uncertai~~tls;in-~olvecir 2ther carts 3f 

the doa? a;ze;sc:-c-nt, fzr e:ier:.~le tht- actual diet at tiz? of return, the 

differentiaticn betvc??n chiiG and &Cult integrated acses ilas nat included 

in the tablzs. 

- . Beczuse of the cn~nitude of ;an:-. of the 30-yr Inte~r?.~ Dcne doses, it

was decided that ar.nuai bclrie d3ses zhpuld be evaluated t3 indicate the 

living att terns and agricultural s;:u?ti~na which are -.;L;hin TZC guises 

for annuzl t=ne c~s~s. The :-.ore at-tailec! assess~centof bone dsses is 

directe? at estixtlng the dose to the crltical c e l l ~ c c u l z t i 3 nat risk 
in bone - the bone mrrow - rather than to the entire bone mss, as was 

calculated in the orizinal rezort (:X~-lk0). L? adoptins this approach, 

we are following the recomendati2ns 3f the ICRP (ICRP-11) ad the ac~rgach

of Spiers used by miSCLIR (22). 

The followins text considers the inf~rmation available for estixmtinz 

the doses to the fetus, the nexbarn, and children relative to adults, and 

also the dietary chan3es xhich are assmed far children. 

2. Dose to Fstus and :?;:b?rn Enl~ti~e t3 Adults

The sr/~a ratio in the fetus a~din m2therst milk is determined by 

the sr/Cs ratio in th? csternal bl3td. ~r/~a discrimination acr~ss the

placentel barri?r and acr3ss the r'~~~5r- gland is cearij the sa.se. 1,2

fetus 3r ~3th'r:' r<lk In fact, the ot served rstig 02 ;-Lternal oi~oc 

(r~i- ~3) . z r (OR = 1 i; -,2.5. 1-3 Therel3re, the (&<i YL~~,~ ,221 2..Ler52L ~~~~28

sr/Ca rati~3f the Tetus 3r ne;<~orn is very sisiiar t2 that of the 

mothers' milk. 

There is considerabl? e-rliience ta show that the 03 ~i~/diet for 

huran breast milk is 5n the rznge zf 0.1 tc, 0.16.~'~The sme obsenrod 

ratio exists Icr the fetus and newbcn relatibe to the adult diet. 132 

This ratio has been observed directl- and can also be caiculated fron 

1.6 data which indicate that the average 03 tg~~/d:et for adsits is 0.25; -

when this is cocbined with a further discrimination 03 epprz~xi~atelya 

factor of 2 across the placental sr Tamary nembrane, the rage of values 

of 0.1 to 0.16 for milk or fetus is obtained. 
-- 

I 

As a result, the ~r/~a ratio in the fetus and newborn is approxircately

1/8to 1/10 that of the adult, ad the resulting dose to the fetus is less 

than thst to adults. 

The dose tz~a young infant being breast fed will of course also be less 

than that calculated for ahlts. The OR body/diet for ysung infants is 

o.~;~,~ tliit is, the young in5'ant nearly equilibrates with his diet.

Hoxever, the =13therst rolll-,, as discussed ~revio.osly, has a ~r/~a ratio 

- 0.1 that of the aault diet. The 03 bocyldiet then decreases to 0.5 for 

a 1-year-2li and by apr,r:~k.:t?ly 3 3r 5 years of age has reached. the adult 

2,4,6 value of 0.25. 

Sinillr data availqhle f3r 13?~;;.Cesium-13'7 is zetabolized and 

7,e turned over more' rapidly in ~regnant wsn;.n than in nonr;reznant w~n!en. 

. 137- . Ab d LC~LIL, LS 1:icsr;o1at13n In tn.3 letus ana zne resulting exposure 

are 1e;s then would be e x ~ s c t e d f r 3 s narcal retentisn tires observed for 

- adults . ~~~?rL.r.ental date further in5ic3te that for the fetus and for 

breast-f?e infznts the c~ncentratizn31 137~iend the resulting dsse never 

9,lO exceeds thst cf the nother zr of other aSults. Theref~re, as indicated 

9 1 0 in rep-rts by liunb, 1 t a . and C3ok and Snyder: l1the dose 

calculated fir an adult far 137~sis a conservative esticate for the fetus 

and the newbarn. 

3. Dose to Cyildren 2clztiv:: t3 Aeult; 

137~s - A considerable bo&~ of evidcnce is availajle which indicates 
- - 

be the order of 10-15 2ays for 1- to 2-year-3ld children and increases to 

-- 100 days by ase 20. It then retains reasonably cm.stzr,t throughcut 

adult life. Thb bod;i ass is 12;s for the younger age ZrouFs, and these 

two factors tend ts 2ffset each other in dose calcu1ati;ns. Doses to 

children are generally less than far adults as a resxlt of the cozbination 

of these txa oi'r'setting factors. Jhen the relative ~i~.tar-- intake i s

included, children receive a lesser dose than adults. Therefore, dose 

esti~ates far adults are i~suailya conservative estixte for children. 

-

"Sr - Rs:=rts by hutit, 15 Isnnett, 16 and 3ivera17 indicate that the

pCi 9G~r/ZC1 in hurm b~ne is ;rester fsr ages 1-5 tkzn for age; greeter 

than 6 yr, includinz-sriultz. A~-~.ever,' the turn3ver rzte is ,rich 23re 

ra~idand thc retcntim ti~ecuch rh2Yter fzr 90Sr in a,?s 1-5. The 

coxbination sf these t;.;~fzctzz.; 5t.tsr:r.ines th? bone 'cur,5en, the annual 

dase, and the dc;e czr,~;i.tr.ent re;u.Ltir!; fr-3 a s~lcifLe5 ingestian cf 

90~r.Fcr child~ec, th2;e t;;s fcctx; tmd tz c3"tt rzch sther; the 

resultins dzse t3 chllb"n, theref~r?, is n3t straig5t?;rxard and is 

1 deyendefit u;-sn the reiativ? interacti~nof these ti;= ?rct.srs. Pay 

I compariscn with a&dlts z.ust therefxe take into accocrt the age dependence 

of these factors, as xell as the difference in dieteri iinake. The nodel

I reparted cy 3enne:t 16 iz therzfcre used far estixati~gt\e doses to children 

4. D3se 142dbls an6 355 

-

'Osr - Plsdels deralzged ty ICF2 for es~imtingthe bsne dose from

18-20 ingested "Sr are considered to be age invariant. A recent model fran 

16 Bennett does muel thc child separately frpn the aiult, an2 this mdel is 

applied f3r estizatingthr bsne doses ta children. 
The bme-narrow dose-rates to children are calculated ky cmbining 

2 1 Bennett's m~del for chilciren xith eke ap~r2ach devel3~ed by Spiers 

22 and used in the U;;SCZ@3reFort f3r estimtin~bone-r;arro7d dcse from 

the mineral or ~atrixb~ne dose. The values used f~r converting D 

0 

doses, to boce-marrow and endasteal cell dc~ses, are 0.314 and 0.434 

respectively. Eennett's nociel a153 ~xtrs~3latest3 the adult case and 

is corbin2d with the S2iers aF~r3ach f2r gredicti~z ths bone- arrow 

doses to adults. 

The bone nass is asswed to cerrelate directlJr xith boiy Eass, and 

2 1 these data as a functisn ~f age are tsken fr3~Ssiers. These bzdy 

masses are based u;:erl a7;craze data Yrx the U.S. &>~ulz',i3nand a fact3r 

of 0.55 wzs incory~rstedt~ accsunt far the s~allersize of the 

Ene',~ecakese. The czlciun c9ncentrsti~n in b3ne ($a/'% bone) as a r 

16 functi2n of aqe is tak.33 fr3n Bennett . 

.- In calculatinz the fiiceral ta~e22se (2 d~se)in ,,VO-lk0, the 

3. 

18 rp~roach of ICW -,\.es foll>.,.:ed, z?'-.-a 23 = l a:!n = 5. The d~ses 

calculated fren this ::.zdel ?re ccr.p?red to the 3-rer/;rr @ids (IC- 9)2 3 

for bone i"?r general bublic. Es:<e7isr, in asaess5ng ths a;:riual dose tc 

both children and aduits, the borie xarrsw is teken as the critical organ, 

74 and the recsrr~endatims in ICIW 11- are used. 

In this nsdel the quality factcr is still one (3= l), and the "n" 

factor is nJ lori~er applicable. The bone rarroi; is cor~sidered in the 

category of sensitive bl~od-for~insorgans, and the correspnding dose 

guide for such argans is 0.5 renjyr rather than the 3 rein/p- for 

mineral b3ne . 
137~.s- In the dose model for 137~s, it is assumed that the loss of 

137~sfrom the bs* can be described as an exp~nentialless with a 

10- 14 

turnover tire that varies es a function of age. Th? annual dose 

is calculated, always takinz int3 account the residual bady burden frm 

the previcus year. Body wss as a functim 3f age is taken fr2m Spiers. 21 

Inititil dietary intakes are calculated and d3ses are ~redicted, based 

upon the initial intake and the expanential 1355 5f 137~~in the diet at 

a rate equal t3 the ~hysical half-ti!.? of U7, S. 

-

Diet - The diet for adults is that listed In the original report

IWO-140. Fsr children fr~ma.$es 1 thrmgh 18, the ir-teke sf coconut 

ilk anu cscznut r.~atIs dcubled to 600 acd 253 5/cay, res~ectively. 

These ti;o ~roducts ?re the st likely t2 be c3nscr.2d in greater quantity 

by children thm by atiults. The rest of the diet f3r children is assured 

to be one-half 3f the adult diet. 

At 2ce 10, it is assucnd that the child is on the fa11 adult diet. 

From infarrr.ati2n available, this is a c~nservative assu,nl;tisn in thzt 

childr2n are not usu?ll;r considered t3 reach the a-:erase adult intak? 

until age 13 or 15. Lmever, bec?c;e of the diet chznses -*,hich occur 

at 10 yr (i.e., &anZanus, breadi'ruit, cxonut, etc., xhich becone 

available) it is ccnvenient t3 use this point for adjustin; the child to 

the aduit diet, end if anything, this adjustzant pr3auces a slightly 

corlservativf dose estirate for the children due to the high 90~rcoctant 

in the adult diet. 
5. Results 

The results of the calculsti~ns based ucon the models described abwe 

and uFon the diets listed in :NO-16s and altered lor children as previously 

discussed, are listed in Tables 1-8. The data are resented as naximm 

annual bane-rrarrow anci ~hole-b3+y d3ses. The livins _catterns are listed 

after Tables 1 and 6 for convenier-ce of reference; they are the sane as 

those listed in IWO-140. 

The annual doses for external e:<pssure and for food chain expasure 

from 137~s and 90~rare cvlsulated fsr 73 yr, beginning at either age 

1cr as? 2C. The three different c----9- -..;,,..- ~tsc~ntributir::.; to thz dose 

produce a zaximro dsse st dil'ferent ",iz.-s. r?ihe e:cter~zlc~~Fsnent,for 

instance, is ~~.u.izus at 1yr and aecr3z;ss t5creafter -dith the thysical 

127 6" 

I - 3' - s I C3; th? e:'fecti7i? decay de_ceT'~~3n the ~articular 

~ercente~e~r' eech is=ts;e In the s2ii. Str3nti~~.-.;.u? d-lis-2rs its rr.axiz.-un

d3s5 z?-~erhiyeers dter intgie 3f the nuclLce 5e~in.s. The year 3f 

~axir,aSzs~geciecen2s ug=n whether an adult or ehlld is csnsidered and 

up3n .*,het5er or n3t e diet change is ir-dolved at s5r.e ;oict in time. The 

dosase frsn 137~s bcarpsrat,ed in ri? via fosd chains tends to peak early 

and decreases expcnectially thereeiter. The amual dose is then selected 

for the years at which the sum of these three coxpnents xas rnaximm. 

The m.xhurn ermual bane-~arrw bses are listed in Ta'cle 1for the 

case where no restrictions Lre _clsce< uc2n the locati~aof agriculture =arid 

source of the diet and n3 ~sdificationsare mde for external gaa on the 

q~illage island. Table 2 Lists the results for the case where no restrictiocs 
are placed upon the diet but where the village is la^? tls keen modifiee 

by plowing and gravelinz. Livins Psctern 1, where the hme island and 

agriculture are on ;3uthe1-n islands, is the only living att tern for th?se 

two situati~nswhere the total b3ne-mrrw dc~ses do n3t exceed 5@ of the 

FRC guide; in this instance, it is less by a factgr 29 5. All other 

living patterns lead to an annl~al d3se xhich f3r at ieast 1yr, and i n .' 

most cases several years, excssds the FRC guide. 

The results also indicate that there is not a srszt deal 3f difference 

between the predicted child arid ac',ult r%~ir;urn.ennual ?sl:?s. This is due 

y2 in prt t3 the a~sui~~cd diets 2: a2ults and children exd the large S r

and 137C; intake vi3 the f3zd chains for such 1;r3duc:; as szndanus, 

t~rt:adl':uit, cslccnut, and reat. r"2r c3ccnut xiL! anci ,-sconut ,-,eat,the 

children are assur:?d t3 have 29 Lnt??.,? tvice thst 2' tt-2 azults, but 

until 25.2 1C the rfst of the u i ~ : t z ~ - j i n t a k ? is Essuze5 t3 be me-half 

that of the adult:. 

Table 3 lists the results :~rthe si~,livinz patsern: when panclncs 

and br-;.e5fruit 21.~2 ;:rr?./:n - an szuthcrn islanes o2ly. -3 a result of this 

actior, three living ~attzrnsfall xithin 5~5of thc F'SC 9iCz - Psttsrns 1, 

2, and 5. When pendsnu:, breadZruit, coccnut, and tzcca er? all confined 

to southern islenris, then Livi-5 Pattgrn 3 also falis xithin the guide 

(~abie4). If the tstel diet is csnfined t3 the soutk.ern islands, then 

all 1S.ving ptterr,~ are vithin FiiC guide, and the onl; iiarietion ac?r,g 

living pattfcrns is thc result of the difference in external expasure for 

each of the situatio:i.; able 5). For all the cases -*,here $here is a 

restri-,ti;n 2n the ,i;~.icultur-. cn2 diet, it is ass~re: the illag age islane 

will bc pl~wed and craveled. 
Similar results for wh3le-SoQ exposure for the four different 

agricultural situations are presezted in Tables 6-10. With no 

restrictions 2n the diet, Living Pstterns 1, 2, and 5 are under PRC 

guides. Thersfore, the bsne- arrow is the more liniting feature. When 

the other agricultur~lconditims are used, the living patterns which 

fall below the FRC guide are the saEe as those for the bone-carrow d~se. 
- -- - 

-- 

- - 

--- 

- - - 

1. C. L. Conar, K. K-stial, X. Gruden, end G. 8. Ezrrison, ":.:etab~lism 

of Strantim. in the I:ewc3rn," I:.:iilth Fhy:;ics -11. 6;3 (1965).

2. F. J. Bqsnt 2nd J. F. Lautit, "The Zntry 25 Str=ntiu-30 into 

Hurcan Bone," Prgc. ??:;a1 S2c. L:rri-n 1'3, k!+3 (156L). 

3. S. A. Lguzh, G. !:. Z=.ada, and C. L. Cxar, "Secr?ticn of Dietary 

-

la, 194 (1560).

4. S. A. Lou-h, J. Rivers, and C. L. Corar, ".5stcnti;.n 3" Strontiur, 

Calciun anJ Fh2;: h3ru: in 5ucsn Infants 7 " &.--- 2-- S~C.Zsp. Bi3l.

b!cd. 112, L~L(1,953). 

5. A. A?. Ja~-*-is,J. R. Zroiin, nnci 3. Ti;.fenb?ch, IT 23-ar nzA gosT Le-,qclr 

Ass. J. t.~,l:-:f,jllS3). 

an2 Calciu- in th.:ir ~zss--7 LC t lq7--w.,A.l Diet t3 the Csne :,f A< 1.:2~,," 4 

ii:aturc -153, 246 (1><2).

7. W. S. Zuncii.1, F'. 3. Tyler, C. >i. 1-:ays, 3. D. Llc?;id, :.F. ;.J. klagner, l 

and 3. C. Mndl~;t,:n, "Shsrt Half-?ices of 13'cs in Pregnant './-men," 

Nzture -221, ?? (1(?63).

8. T. Ns::a.i, T. A. Iinu:n, Pi. Uchiyz::a, T. Izhip:ira, S. Yashiro, and 

J. Stern!,er,:, "?,a.ii3~3ntrnina'iiotl of the Pnvirar~ent and its Effects 

on the >:athex. end Pctu;. 111 Part 11. Rctenti2n 3f 137~sby 

Pregnant ;;T=:r.cn, PI.acentae, and Infants," Int. J. A-rpl. Eadiat . Is~tor. 

-

21, 363 (197~).
--- 

- -- - - 

- - 

9. J. Rucda, "Fall-Out 137~s in Sresit- and B9ttle-Fed Infante." Eealth 

10. T. A. Iinura, S. Yashira, T. Ishicara, 1.1. Uchijrsm, T. I!agai, and 

N. Yazagata, "Es~i~atiancf hlternal hse to Hunan Fetus and Nexborn 

Infants Due to Fall3ut Cesiw-137," in Paiiati-n ?iol?.:;i 9f the Fetal 

and Juvenile I'..:z::zl, "zc. )-yn. E2pif3rj C_i-lx~r>-'-': -L -J -..>. , ?tk,

M. R. Sikw and D. D. 1-Iehlum, Si. (1963). 

. . . CXit2~i~2ti2EIn '/:irl-.,u: ~?:-~.S~IJI'?: in T;.r?.; -,I'T>:zl 3,;;" f3r 

Vari?u.; L3- -.,.2 .; . .G.?e Grrc: 2 TI2 - ..,+_ tl:n, 62;: zicze I;ati,nzl L~b3ratcr1, 

Oak fiici~e,Tezn. , :?.?i- t . 3:<;~-$316 ( 1?,,8) . 

12. P. S. :./en2 and \,'. :*:.Eec?s.er, "ct.:;Fc:::-137 T;'urr,21~~r ?,-tes in 2un;an 

Subjects 3f Dirf-rent i?.<rz, 'I - - - ,-4, ::.:.i.Ith ;-!?.;sics 25, 6~~ ,-,2 (3P72) ,\LY . 

13. R. D. L1;5.d, "Cesic,-,-137 i-:~l~-T11~.ns in i-;ur.a::s," g-:ezlth ?;;sics -

25,

6c5 (1373). 

14. A. L. Eoni, "Varistiz:~~in the ;<!tterlti-r! and ~:<creti?,l~f c?sic:r,-137 

with Age and Sex," I;?.tur? 222. 11E,? (1'>69). 

15. J. F. Lgutit, IISt~:;iti~. in I.!r-n ,Ir in zrJvir-.rn.-ntal ~:?ts.-:ir.zti:g -

.2;:

Radif2scti-ge I.Izteri?-l.l::. cd,u...Aner -..-: :.n A~ricult1;rrl ar,d P;;;jlic

Health Azzect; 2;' ?:!.:Lrz:?rr,::;tal Cantsr,.inati,n 'cyg I;,aAl?scti~~el.I=.teriels 

held in Vierinn, 2-:-2:->I.lzr.ch 17.1'). (L~LJ-,vienna: 1969, r;p. 27-35. 

16. B. G. Bennett, St~:r?+-.---- bl~,..-$.~ ir! i:u.-z? >,-,ne 1972 ?..-r-sl;its f3r i;e.~iycrk

City and 333 Pr2ricisc:), :?alth and saiety Labcrzt3ry, US)zC, New York, 

Rept . WL-274 (1973). 

IV- 12 
- 

I 

I 

I 

17. J. Rivera, "Str?ntiun-9O in Sl-yan Vertebrae, 1966," aadi:l-sical 

1 Zeait3 C3f,a 22:: 3.::.,- L-. -

E, C.2; (1567).

. . . . 18. A~~.IL~P-::.:,:r::r-;:: ::: in AC>:I :.:%n, I C ablicati:r. ~ 20 (1973).

19. K'vnlust iZn -;' A . -, :-.. . A - .:J- ..".r ,-,-.-. E :.:.:.; t3 E?,-i;; rL,LscFs - ,-,- <,--- - - ... Lnter~al

Co:lt3?.in'lLi,-!? ;.;.. t -, O::,z:i: 2; i.-~- ....- 7.':. A~.. ;3~yc, ICm y-,;jlicat-y?n 10 I-' 

(1968).

I 

I 

F J. Sir, ?:t 1 t 1 ;: : -!-.-.-;ic312xd 

I .. Eiol-:-izal .:: :ct.: (>.csd;.r:ic ~T.~.;L;,lit:,d yCrk, 12.::). 

-4 7'. - - 9 . LL,.L1:: LL.?,! -.,.? :-! -. . . , , 7.J -.-. ,A" ... ,. -.A"-- ...> r.tir'ic C -:::::i .:-: cn t53 z<lnCt3 I .- .. ,. . * .. f . .. .>-.: 1 . - -.,v.:ji;; T-. :-.: .- - , - , 3

- :I .. - - --. .. , ., . -) 

-.: ,-, . .- I~:-,.. A-.-- - -..-.---L --...

L:,.;:?l . --,Js:% z ::>J :.A A .. :.t.;(!!~j.t?2 I::i: ::IS, ;;cY,, y3r):, 137: ) . 1 -

1 
Table 1. biaximum annual bonemarrow dose (rem) . 

No restrictions on diet 

Village island unmodified for external gamma 

Start Januarv 1974 Start January 1953 

a a Living Pattern Child Adult Child Adult 

- Living Pattern \:illage island :!griculturc Visitation 

1 (A) Encwc t ak - Parry .ALVIS-KEITii Southern Is. 

2 (B) Ene\ietak- Plrry KATE -1i'ILLLI+ LE!IOY Sorthern Is . 

3 (n JANET JANET Northern Is. 

4 (F) BELLE BELLE Northern Is. 

5 (c) JANET KATE-IVILILI + LEIiOY Yorthern Is. 

6 (E) JMrET ALICE-IRENE Northern Is. 

a Diet change at 10 yr., i.e., 1984. 

Diet change at 10 yr., i.e., 1994. 
A~ULCL. rlaxlnum annual DonemarroLG dose (rem) . 

No restrictions on diet 

Village island graveled and plowed 

Start January 1974 Start January 1953 

a Living Pattern Child a Adult Child Adult 

Table 3. ?laxinurn :innual bonemarro:<: dose (rea) . 

Pandanus and breadfruit iron southe~nislands 

Village island sravelcd and plowed 

Start Januxrv 1974 Start January 1951 

Livirlg Pattern Child 3 Adul t n Child b Adult 

a Diet change at 10 'yr., i,e., 1984. 

Diet change at 10 yr., i.e., 1994. 

IV- 15 
Table 4. ?laximux annual boneaarrow dose (rem) . 

Pandanus, breadfruit, coconut, tacca from ~outhern~islands 

Village island graveled and plo\%-ed 

Start January 1974 Start January 1984 

a a childb Living Pattern Chi ld Adult Adu 1t 

Table 5. >laxinun annual bone=arro\i dose (rern) . 

Total diet from southern islands 

Village island graveled and plolied 

Start Januar?. 19-i Start Januarv 1934 

a Living Pattern Chi 1.d a Adu 1t Child b Adult 

a Diet change at 10 yr., i.e., 1984. 

Diet change at 10 yr., i.e., 1994. 
Table 6. Makimur. annual whole- body dose (rem). 

No restrictions on diet 

Village island unmodified for external gamma 

Start January 1974 Start Januarv 1031 

h Living Pattern childa ~dult~ Child Adult 

Living Psttcrn Villn~qc. island Agriculture Visitation 

I (A) Encwets1.r-Parry ALVIX-KEITH Southern Is. 

2 (B) EneweLali- Par;y KATI'E-1VILh:X t LEROY Northern IS. 

3 (Dl JANET JAXET Northern Is. 

4 (F) BELLE BELLE Northern Is. 

5 (c) JANET KATE-1VILh,IA f LEROY Northern Is. 

6 (El JANET ALICE-LREP;;l7 Northern Is. 

a 

Diet change at 10 yr., i. e., 1984. 

b

Diet change at 10 yr., i. e., 1994. 
Table 7. Mzximum annual whole-body dose (rem). 

No restrictions on diet i 

! 

Village island graveled and plowed 

S t a r t J a n u a r v 1974 S t a r t J a n u a r y 1981 

a b 

Living Pattern childa Adult Child Adult 

Table 8. blasimum annu21 ~vhole-body dose (rem). 

Pandanus and breadfruit from scuthern islands 

Village island graveled and plowed 

-

Start Januar.: 1974 Start Januarv 1"S-I 

Living Pattern chllda Adulta . childb iiduit 

6 0.350 0. 367 0. 330 9. 363 

a Diet change at 10 yr., i. e., 1484. 

b~ictchange at 10 yr., i. e., 1991. 
--- 

Table 9. Maximum annual whole-body dose (rem). 

Pandanus, breadfruit, ioconut, and tacca from southern islands 

Village island graveled and plovied 

Start Januarv 1974 Start Januarv 19S4 

a b Living Pattern child2 Adult Child Adult 

Table 10. h.1axirr1un-1 annual \r,hole-body dose (renl). 

Total diet frorn soutt:crn islands 

Village island ~ravcled and plo~ved 

Start jsnuarv 1971 Start January 1?M 

a a b 

Living Pattern C !li ld Adult Child Adult 

1 0.0-10 0. 039 0.039 0.039 

2 0.093 0. CS3 0.065 0.066 

3 0.087 0. 097 0.070 0. 076 

4 0.1.92 0.191 0.126 0.126 

5 0.089 0.094 0.066 0. 071 

a

Dict chnrlyc at 10 yr. , i. c., 19S-l. 

b 

Diet change at 10 yr. , i. e. , 1?14. 



ENEWETAK ATOLL 

MASTER PLAN 

for island rehabilitation 

and resettlement 

VOLUME 1 

NOVEMBER 1973 

HOLMES 

-

& NARVER,INC. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

Holmes & Narver, Inc,, wishes to express their deep appreciation to the 

fo:llowing for their assistance and guidance in the preparation of this 

master plan: 

e, The Enewetak people and their Planning Council for their 

active participation and cooperation during preparation of 

this master plan and for whom this plan was specifically 

prepared. 

e Mr. Oscar DeBrunl, District Administrator, Marshall.:; 

District, Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, for his 

assistance and unending confidence. 

e Mr. Dennis P. McBreen, District Planner, Marshalls 

District, Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, for his 

assistance and guidance. 

o Dr. Jack A. Tobin, Community Development Advisor, 

Marshalls District, Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, 

for his guidance and perimission for use cf his doctora'l 

thesis and his many other informative writings of 

Marshallese history, culture, and needs. 

Q Dr. Robert C. Kiste, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Minnesota, for use of information contained 

in his evaluation of the Environmental Impact Statement. 

e Mr. David H. Butcha.rt, Agriculturalist, for his overview 

of the overall agricultural requirements. 

e Mr. Manuel A. Tenorio, Agriculturalist, for his detailed 

and knowledgeable agricultural information. 

t~ Mr. W. Carleton Hawpe, Architect, for establishing a 

close working relationship with the Enewetak people and 

their Planning Council, for his architectural efforts in 

planning and design of the houses, and his knowledge and 

use of the Marshallese language which was invaluable. 

iii 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Section Page 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

1 INTRODUCTION 

1. 1 Authority and Purpose 

1. 2 Scope 

1.3 Summary 

HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND 

2. 1 Anthropology 

2.2 Culture and Economy 

2. 2. 1 Sociopolitical Pattern 

2.2.2 Church and Religion 

2.2. 3 Land 

2. 3 Relocation of the Enewetak People 

2.4 Comparison of Ujelang and Enewetak 

2. 5 Living Conditions on Ujelang 

2.6 Demography 

3 PHYSICAL DESC NPTION OF ENEWETAK ATOLL

3. 1 Location and Physiography 

3. 2 Climate 

3. 3 Water Resources - Rainwater and Wells 

3.4 Existing Conditions - Enewetak Atoll 

4 ELEMENTS OF THE PLAN 

4. 1 Land Use 

4.2 Island Communities 

4. 3 Residential Development 

4. 3. 1 Housing Plans and Concepts 

4. 3. 2 Description of Housing 
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) 

Section Page 

4.4 Community Center Development 

Schools 

Dispensaries 

Council Hous es 

Cooperatives 

Churches 

Recreation 

Cemeteries 

Agricultural Stations 

4. 5 Utilities Plan 

4.5. 1 Water Supply 

4. 5. 2 Waste Disposal 

4. 5.3 Energy 

4. 5.4 Existing Utilities on Enewetqk Isl~nd 

4.6 Circulation Patterns 

4. 6. 1 Vehicular 

4. 6.2 Pedestrian 

4.7 Transportation 

4. 7. 1 Inter atoll Shipping 

4. 7.2 Docking Facilities 

4. 7. 3 Intraatoll Marine Traffic 

4. 7.4 Air Traffic 

4.8 Agricultural Development Plan 

4.8. 1 Types of Plants 

4.8.2 Land Clearing and Preparation 

4.8. 3 Planting Plan 

4.8.4 Maintenance Plan 

4.8. 5 Planting Locations 

4. 8. 6 Agricultural Summary 

REVIEW OF POTENTIALS FOR ECONOMIC 

DEVELOPMENT 

5. 1 Overview 

5. 2 Existing Salvageable Assets 

5 
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) 

Section Page

5. 3 Agriculture 

5.3.1 Copra 

5.3.2 Breadfruit, Pandanus, Banana, 

and Papaya 

5. 3. 3 Vegetables 

5. 3.4 Hydroponics 

5. 3. 5 Farm Animals 

5. 4 Institutional Use ). . 

5. 5 Fisheries 

5. 5.1 Sharks 

5.5.2 Tuna 

5. 5. 3 Rabbitfish 

5. 5.4 Other Fish 

5.5.5 Sea Cucumbers 

5.5.6 Clams 

5. 5. 7 Lobster 

5. 5. 8 Turtles 

5. 5. 9 Oysters 

5. 5. 10 Fish Waste Products 

5. 5. 11 Ciguatera 

5. 6 Business Structure and Initiation Plan 

5. 6. 1 Enewetak Peoples Inc. 

5.6. 2 Enewetak Island Development Co. 

5. 6.3 Initiation Plan 

5.7 Basic Plan for Enewetak Island 

5.8 Residual Rights 

MASTER PLAN IMPLEMENTATION 

6. 1 Recommendations 

6. 2 Cultural Considerations 

6. 3 On- The- Job Training 

6.4 Construction Schedule Resettlement Program 

and Integration With Cleanup Operation 

7 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
LIST OF TABLES AND PLATES 

Table Page 

Land Areas - Enewetak Atoll 

Climate Data for Enewetak 

Island Development Priorities 

Approximate Food Intake of Enewetak People 

Tree Yield As Basis For Copra Production 

Island Summary - Planting Requirements 

Plate 

Regional Map - Pacific Area 

Enewetak Atoll - Political Division 

Ujelang Atoll - Political Divisions 

Population - 1920 to 1972 - Enewetak Atoll 

Enewetak Projected Population Growth 

Comparison Population Pyramid 

Ujelang Atoll - 1973 

Regional Map of Western Marshall Islands 

Wind Rose - Enewetak Atoll 

Mean Monthly Rainfall - Enewetak Atoll 

Post Cleanup Condition - Enjebi Island 

Post Cleanup Condition - Medren Island 

Post Cleanup Condition - Enewetak Island 

Post Cleanup Condition - Japtan Island 

Land Use Plan - Enewetak Atoll 

Land Use Plan - Enjebi Island 

Land Use Plan - Medren Island 

Land Use Plan - Enewetak Island (Alternate) 

Land Use Plan - Japtan Island 

Land Tenure Plan - Enjebi Island 

Land Tenure Plan - Medren Island 

Land Tenure Plan - Enewetak Island 

Temporary Living Area 

Japtan Island 

Representative Cluster Plan 

Housing Cluster Perspective 

Model A 

Model B 

Model C 

Model D 

vii 
LIST OF TABLES AND PLATES (continued) 

Plate Page 

Model E 

Model F 

Work/Storage Shed and Privy 

Enjebi Community Center 

Medren Community Center 

Enewetak Community Center 

Typical Housing Cistern - Consumption Versus 

Replenishment 

Typical Family Water Usage 

Typical Planting Pattern 

Optimum Planting Period 

Basic Land Use Plan - Enewetak Island 

Enewetak Atoll Rehabilitation Schedule 

viii 
1, INTRODUCTION 

1. INTRODUCTION 

1.1 AUTHORITY AND PURPOSE 

Authority for preparation of the Enewetak Atoll Master Plan for 

Island Rehabilitation and Resettlement of the Enewetak people was 

granted by the Government of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands 

to Holmes & Narver, Inc., through an agreement dated June 13, 1973. 

The purpose of this master plan is to provide an in-depth study 

to be used as a basis for developing both immediate and long range 

programs for the rehabilitation and resettlement of Enewetak Atoll. 

It has involved the Enewetak people, through their planning council, 

in the various decision-making processes to the maximum extent 

possible. It will provide cost estimates to be used by the Department 

of Interior and the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands in budgeting 

for the programs. The plan also contains a preliminary study of long 

range market areas that can be developed to broaden the economic 

base of the Enewetak people. It also develops information for the 

Environmental Impact Statement for the cleanup and rehabilitation 

of Enewetak Atoll. 

1.2 SCOPE 

The scope of work in preparation of the master plan includes 

the following items of work: 

a, Master LandUsePlans 

a Conceptual Plans and Models for Residences and Community 

Buildings 
Agricultural Plans 

Utilities Plan 

e Industrial Facilities Plan 

Preliminary Study of Potential Market Areas for Commercial 

Development 

e In-Depth Review of Existing Facilities and Assets 

e Budget Estimates 

1.3 SUMMARY 

This report has been prepared in accordance with the Scope of 

Work contained in the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands Contract 

agreement dated June 13, 1973. In the course of preparing the report, 

it was necessary to make certain assumptions due to the absence of the 

United States Atomic Energy Commission's radiological survey report 

which is not due for completion until approximately December, 1973. The 

assumptions made are as follows: 

e Enewetak Atoll can be sufficiently cleaned up of all radiological 

hazards. 

e Enjebi Island can be made radiologically safe for habitation. 

e The normal food chain is safe for human consumption. 

e The fresh or brackish water lenses on islands to be inhabited 

can be utilized for human use as required. 

e The fresh or brackish water lenses can be used for irrigation 

of both subsistence and cash crops when required on both the 

inhabited and agricultural islands. 

Other assumptions upon which this plan is based are: 
e Prior to atoll rehabilitation the condition of the islands will 

reflect the degree of cleanup depicted by Case IV A of the 

Preliminary Draft Environmental Impact Statement. 

a Enewetak Island will be utilized for commercial development 

and as such will not be inhabited by the driEnewetak who will 

reside on Medren. 

a Development of Enewetak Island for use as an inhabited 

island is an alternate to the basic plan. 

The plan presents all necessary elements required for the orderly 

development of Enewetak Atoll and encompasses the desires of the 

Ujelang people as discussed with them during a field trip in July 1973. 

It covers all aspects of residential, island community, and agricultural 

requirements and presents a review of potentials for economic 

development of Enewetak Atoll. Recommendations for implementation 

of the plan along with a preliminary construction schedule for 

rehabilitation and a budget estimate are included. 
REGIONAL MAP-PACIFIC AREA 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

ENEWETAK ATQLL MASTER PLAN 

HOLIES& MR.INC 

..,'MI 

-,CllK,, Cc+....l

.. <-...c-..."<..-
2. XISTORICAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND 

2. HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND 

2.1 ANTHROPOLOGY 

Most anthropologists are of the opinion that the Marshalls and other 

islands of Micronesia were settled by peoples who migrated from the area 

of Indonesia and into the insular Pacific centuries ago. Reflecting the 

ancient migration patterns in Oceania, the Marshallese language belongs 

to the large Malayo-Polynesian language family which is spread from 

Madagascar, through the Indonesian area, and across Micronesia, Polynesia, 

and most regions of Melanesia. With regard to physical type, Marshallese 

are relatively short in stature and of slender build. They have brown skin, 

brown eyes, broad flat noses, straight to curly black hair, and sparse 

body hair. 

According to their own oral traditions, the people of Enewetak had 

always lived on Enewetak Atoll prior to their relocation to Ujelang; in their 

own words: "We were there from the beginning. " Because of Enewetak 

Atoll's isolated location in the northwestern region of the Marshalle se 

archipelago, the people had relatively little contact with others prior to 

the European era. As a consequence, the language and culture of the 

Enewetakes e became differentiated from those of other Mars hall Islanders, 

and the people did not identify themselves with the others. Rather, they 

thought of themselves as a people who were separate and unique, "the 

people of Enewetak" as opposed to the islanders to the east and south. 

The past and current accomplishments of the Enewetakese reflect 

intelligence and qualities of ingenuity, self-reliance, and hardiness of the 

Marshallese which have allowed them to meet the challenge of the atoll 

environment which is quite restrictive in comparison to the high volcanic 

islands of Oceania. Long before the advent of Europeans, the Marshallese 

had developed a culture which represented a sophisticated adaptation to 
their ecological setting. They were skilled navigators (an art which has 

been lost with the availability of travel on the vessels of foreigners); they 

remain expert builders of sailing canoes and are among the world's best 

fishermen. In response to traders, missionaries, and the successive 

colonial governments which have dominated the islands over the past 

century, they have been quick to learn and adjust to the different categories 

of outsiders. Today, they have achieved a good understanding of the 

behavior and values of Americans, and several have distinguished themselves in government and mission schools. 

2.2 CULTURE AND ECONOMY 

Throughout the Mar shall Islands, the traditional forms of settlement 

patterns and exploitation of the natural re sources are characterized by 

several general features. First, the people of an atoll reside on one or 

more of its largest islands. Secondly, the people are quite mobile as a 

nonintensive type of agriculture, and various fishing and collecting 

activities are extended to embrace every niche of the environment. 

Regular expeditions are made to all islands in an atoll to make copra and 

collect coconuts, breadfruit, pandanus, arrowroot, and other vegetable 

foods in season. Clearing of brush and planting are done during these 

visits. The marine resources are also exploited, and a wide variety of 

marine animals are utilized. Special expeditions are made to catch fish, 

collect shellfish, capture turtles, and gather their eggs. Several species 

of birds are also captured as a food source. The Enewetak people may be 

expected to continue this way of life to some degree when they return to 

their home atoll, as influenced by their contacts with Western culture. 

2. 2. 1 Sociopolitical Pattern 

Before their relocation to Ujelang, the Enewetakese were divided 

into two separate and distinct communities (community is defined as "the 

maximal group of persons who normally reside together in face-to-face 
association") which were located on the two largest islands of the atoll. 

One was situated on Enjebi Island on the northern rim, and the other was 

located on Enewetak Island across the lagoon in the southeast quadrant 

of the atoll. The traditional settlement pattern of both communities was 

dispersed; residences were located on separate land parcels and were 

scattered along the length of the lagoon beach. 

Members of the two communities intermarried and cooperated in 

certain economic activities. Each functioned, however, as a separate 

sociopolitical unit, and its members had their own identity. In contrast 

to the identity of "the people of Enewetak" by which they defined themselves 

in reference to all other populations, the people of the Enjebi community 

were identified as driEnjebi, "the people of Enjebi Island," and those of 

the Enewetak community were driEnewetak, "the people of Enewetak 

Island. I' (See Plate #2. ) (J. A. Tobin, 1973) 

The sociopolitical structure of the two communities was identical. 

Each was headed by a hereditary iroij or chief, and succession to the 

office was patrilineal. Chiefs directed the affairs of their respective 

communities, arbitrated disputes, and consulted one another with regard 

to concerns of the entire atoll and the total population's relations with 

outsiders. Each of the chiefs had authority over one of the two domains 

into which the atoll was divided. The domain of the Enewetak chief began 

with the Islands of Kidrenen, Ribewon, Boken, Mut, and Ikuren in the 

atoll's southwest quadrant; extended counterclockwise around the atoll's 

south and western rims up to and including Runit Island; and also included 

Aomon on the northeast rim. With the exception of Aomon, the Enjebi 

chief's domain began north of Runit with Billae Island and extended counterclockwise around the atoll's northern and western rims up to and including 

Biken Island. 

Ocean 

Ocean 

Lagoon 

MILEAGE TABLE 

Nautical Miles From Dock To Dock ) 

0 1 2 3 4 5 

Lagoon Nautical Miles 

ENEWETAK ATOLL -POLITICAL DIVISION 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

ENEWETAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN 

HOLMES & NARVER, INC. 

Relations between the two communities and the traditional dispersed 

pattern of residence were altered with the invasion of Enewetak Atoll. 

Because Enewetak and Enjebi Islands were devastated by the warfare, 

the U. S. Navy resettled all of the people in a compact village on small 

Aomon Island which, as indicated above, fell within the domain of the 

Enewetak Island chief. After several months, the Enjebi people moved 

to the nearby and adjacent Bijile Island which was within the domain of 

their own chief. With these relocations within Enewetak Atoll, the Enjebi 

and Enewetak peoples were no longer separated by the atoll's large lagoon; 

and while retaining their dual political structure, they in fact became a 

s ingle community. 

The consolidation of the population into one community and the new 

compact settlement pattern were perpetuated with the islanders resettle - ment on Ujelang Atoll. It has only one sizeable island, Ujelang Island; 

and the entire population was resettled there. Navy officials established 

a dividing line at the midpoint of the island and allotted the western half 

to the Enjebi people and the eastern half to the Enewetak people. A compact village was constructed in the middle of the island with the Enjebi 

and Enewetak peoples occupying houses on their respective sides of the 

dividing line. Later, each group divided the land on its portion of the 

island. At a still later date, other islands in the atoll were divided among 

members of the two groups. 

During the initial years on Ujelang, and traditional political structure remained intact. The chiefs functioned in their accustomed roles, 

and they resisted American efforts to introduce democratic institutions. 

(According to American designs, each atoll population was to be governed 

by an elected council of elders headed by an elected magistrate. ) By the 

early 1960s, however, some change was observable. Both chiefs were by 

then aged men; and being men who matured in a former era, some contemporary problems required that the decision-making process be opened to 
include younger men who had attended schools and/or had some other 

experiences with the American administration. Meetings of all males 

were occasionally held, and some decisions about community affairs 

were decided by a majority vote. The authority and status of the chiefs 

further declined in the latter 1960s when the old Enjebi chief died and 

was succeeded in office by his younger brother who was also an aged 

man and suffered the disadvantage of frequent poor health. 

The combination of the above events precipitated a major transformation of the political structure. The chiefs yielded to younger men 

who desired and had been gaining a greater voice in community affairs. 

Then, in 1968, a magistrate and a council of 12 men were elected; 

reflecting the traditional division of the population, the Enjebi people 

elected six councilmen from among their ranks, and the Enewetak people 

elected six. The magistrate became the head of the entire community, 

and the council became the legislative body governing the people's affairs. 

In a very recent election, however, the 12 councilmen were elected from 

the population at large and not from the two groups. Thus, the current 

council reflects a demise of the traditional system and indicates that the 

old division between Enjebi and Enewetak peoples has lost much of its 

meaning. The council is now a representative body drawn from the entire 

population and reflects a unified community with acknowledged common 

goals. The chiefs, however, remain important figures as advisors and 

men of influence. 

2.2.2 Church and Religion 

The church is the focal point for many community social activities 

of the Enewetak people. The prevailing religious system is a conservative type of Protestantism in which church services, Bible classes, 

church group meetings, and hymn singing have replaced traditional 

intertribal wars, sports, games, and dancing. 
The minister is the spiritual leader of the community and is 

supported and assisted by the chiefs of the clans. The church functions 

are time consuming and require a considerable effort from the membership. Sundays in particular are devoted almost entirely to church services 

and related activities. From this it is apparent that the church influences 

the life of the Enewetakese to a great degree (J. A. Tobin, 1967). 

2.2. 3 Land 

The atoll soil is poor, thus agriculture is limited. For centuries 

subsistence has been marginal and precarious for the island inhabitants 

despite hard work. Nevertheless, the residents have always maintained 

a deep emotional attachment to their home islands and ancestral land. 

The land parcels, or watos, on Enewetak Atoll were like those found 

elsewhere in the Marshalls. Most commonly, each was a strip of land 

stretching across an island from lagoon beach to ocean reef and varying 

in size from about 1 to 5 acres in extent. The resources of all ecological 

zones were thus available to the individuals who held right to the land. 

Less commonly, a parcel was divided into two or more portions with 

transverse boundaries. This usually occurred when an island, Enjebi 

for example, was very wide. Boundaries were usually marked by slashes 

on the trunks of coconut trees, or less commonly, ornamental plants. 

Also, other features of the natural topography, e. g. , large boulders on 

the ocean reef and the very configuration on an island, were used to fix 

the position of landholdings. The latter type of markers have been employed 

by the Bikini people after all other markings had been obliterated. 

One facet of Enewetak Atoll culture that differed from that of the 

rest of the Marshalls was the system of land tenure and inheritance. In 

contrast to the rest of the Marshalls where matrilineal descent groups 

known as bwij or lineage constitute landholding corporations, the land 

tenure system at Enewetak was in ideal and in practice a bilateral one. 
In most cases, a married couple divided the land they had each inherited 

among their children, and a child usually received some land from both 

his father and mother. As younger islanders matured, they worked the 

land with their parents. As the parental generation died and as members 

of the next generation married and produced children, the process was 

repeated with parents allocating land among their offspring. 

The islanders resided upon their landholdings on Enjebi and Enewetak 

Islands. Households were either extended or nuclear family groupings. 

In most cases, households were headed by males and were situated upon 

land held by them. Ideally, residence was patrilocal, i. e. , upon marriage, 

females moved to their husband's households, although exceptions to the 

rule did occur. 

Every individual possessed rights to some land on islands away from 

the settlements on Enewetak and Enjebi. All land in the atoll was held by 

someone with the exception of one parcel on Enewetak Island which was 

donated to the mission. 

2.3 RELOCATION OF THE ENEWETAK PEOPLE 

After the capture of Enewetak Atoll in 1944, the U. S. Forces removed 

the Enewetak people from their homes on Enjebi and Enewetak Islands and 

placed them on Aomon. Later the Enjebi community moved (at their own 

request) to Bijile Island because the latter was under the authority of the 

Chief of the Enjebi community. Thus, the Enjebi people were moved twice 

(Enjebi to Aomon to Bijile) whereas, the Enewetak people were moved once 

(Enewetak to Aomon) prior to relocation to Ujelang. In 1946, when nuclear 

testing was first considered for Enewetak, the Enewetakese were moved 

to Meik Island in Kwajalein Atoll. Their stay there was short, and they 

were again moved back to Aomon where they remained almost a year. 

Late in 1947, they were again moved, this time to Ujelang Atoll where 

they are at the present time. 
2.4 COMPARISON OF UJELANG AND ENEWETAK 

Ujelang lies 124 miles southwest of Enewetak. In preEuropean 

times, Ujelang was inhabited by a Marshallese population, In the late 

1800s a typhoon decimated the atoll and killed all but a handful of people 

who moved to the southern Marshalls. The atoll was then developed as 

a commercial copra plantation during the German and Japanese colonial 

eras. During the plantation period, a small group of islanders from the 

Eastern Carolines served as wage laborers on the atoll. It was abandoned, however, during World War I1 and was thus uninhabited. As U. S. 

Government property, inherited from the ~a~anese, it was available for 

the relocation of the Enewetakese. 

Ujelang also is much smaller than Enewetak, both in size of the 

lagoon and in the total dry land area. (See Plate #3. ) A comparison of 

both atolls in square miles of area shows: 

Lagoon Dry Land 

Ujelang Atoll 25.47 0. 6 7"' 

. Enewetak Atoll 387.99 

From this comparison, it is apparent that the potential for production 

of food from the reefs and lagoon is considerably less on Ujelang than it 

is on Enewetak. The limited food potential on Ujelang has made it necessary 

to import more commodities than would normally be required on Enewetak. 

2.5 LIVING CONDITIONS ON UJELANG 

The U. S. Navy had constructed a village on the main island of 

Ujelang for the displaced Enewetakese and a brush clearing program 

was in progress when they arrived on the atoll. Coconut trees planted 

during German and Japanese administrations were still standing and 

4. 

" J. A. Tobin, 1967. .t, .,. .I..,.

Holmes & Narver, Inc., 1973. 

2-9 

:; :; 
BOKANELAP 

BOKANEIBEB 

BOKANJUAKAK 

UJELANG ATOLL- POLITICAL DIVISIONS 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

ENWETAS ATOLL MASTER PLAN 

HOLMES-;+- & NARVER.INC. 

..I.DY.CI 1c1,.<,1 10"P4*. 

.,...-, **. .cm.... ",.-. .-- <".-. 
bearing. Seedlings of breadfruit and pandanus were brought ashore and 

planted. After the Enewetak people had settled in, the Navy departed. 

There was no U. S. official remaining on the atoll, nor was there any 

radio communication with the outside world. 

While on Ujelang, the people have been housed, supplied with a 

water system (including numerous rain catchments), a church, a council 

hall, a school, and a dispensary. Supply ships have brought in tools, 

clothing, and food to supplement the meager natural resources (Tobin, 

1967). 

The people ~racticea nonintensive type of agriculture but utilize 

the environment to the maximum, using the plants that can survive and 

produce in the atoll environment. Coconut is converted to copra for cash 

sale to the visiting Trust Territory supply ship. Consumer goods are 

purchased from the ship with the proceeds of the copra sales. The interest 

payments from the trust funds provided by the TTPI administration also 

help buy needed commodities. Rice, flour, sugar, canned meats, and 

other canned goods are staple items of the diet and have been for many 

years. Fish, clams, lobster, turtles (flesh and eggs), seabirds (flesh 

and eggs), chickens, and pigs provide protein in the diet. The marine 

resources are extremely important in the diet of these people. 

Coconuts, pandanus, breadfruit, and arrowroot are the main 

vegetable products used. Bananas, papayas, and squash are used to a 

lesser extent, probably due to the relative scarcity of the banana and 

papaya which do not seem to grow well on Ujelang. 

The former Enewetak inhabitants attempted to adjust to their new 

location, They had, and still have, several formidable problems with 

which to cope. The most obvious problem, and one which they have uppermost in their minds, is the great disparity in the size of Ujelang and that 
of Enewetak. The traditional Marshallese pattern of habitation is for 

family units to live on their land parcels, not in a village cluster. While 

it is common for community buildings, church, school, dispensary, and 

warehouse to be centralized for convenience and access to all, dwellings 

are usually dispersed over the length of the lagoon beach of an island. 

This pattern is obviously desirable from the point of view of environmental 

sanitation and public health. As described, the traditional settlement 

pattern of the Enewetakese was disrupted because of their relocation. 

2.6 DEMOGRAPHY 

It is estimated that nearly all of the Enewetak people want to return 

to the atoll as their leaders have stated on several occasions. The few 

who have jobs and interests elsewhere may leave the atoll after a visit, 

but it is expected that they will want to reestablish old land claims and 

see how the atoll has changed in twenty-five years. These people will 

visit the atoll at intervals, just as they visit Ujelang today, and will 

eventually retire on Enewetak. Present planning anticipates the return 

of all the Enewetak people. 

Plate #4 follows the growth trend of the Enewetakese from 1920 to 

1972. The fluctuation in population between 1930 and 1947 can be explained 

partially by the fact that members of the community left the atoll for 

extended periods at different times to work on the copra plantations on 

Ujelang and to visit the administrative headquarters on Ponape. Subsequent 

increases in population also can be attributed to the return of the Ujelang 

workers accompanied by Ujelang spouses. It should be noted that the TTPI 

official census of 281 taken in 1971 and the 1972 census of 340 taken by 

J. A. Tobin include only those Enewetakese in residence on Ujelang at the 

time. The 1972 figure of 432 includes these people as well as those residing 

elsewhere (from Tobin, 1973). 
( I) Japanese Consul - General, Honolulu (1966). 

(2) U.S. NAVY (at the time of relocation to Ujelang). 

(3) J.A.Tobin (on Ujelang), 

(4) T TPI Official Census (on Ujelang only). 

(5) J. A. Tobin (Total - Ujelang 8, elsewhere). 

(6) J. A. Tobin (on Ujelang only). POPULATION-1920 to 1972 - ENEWETAK ATOLL 

Data from J.A.Tobin - 1973. 

TRUST TERRITORV OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

EMEWETAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN 

HOLIES & NARVER.INC. 
Estimates based on available census data indicate a growth rate of 

the Enewetakese people from 1948 to 1973 of approximately 6 percent per 

year. It is anticipated that population growth on the long term will not 

exceed that rate, and in all probability will slow to a more moderate rate. 

Plate #5 establishes projected population growth curves based on rates of 

growth of 3 percent, 5 percent, and 7 percent as being the most probable 

range and indicates that in 1978 the population of Enewetak Atoll may be 

between 530 to 650 persons, and in 1983 may be between 600 and 900 persons. 

Limitations on food supply or other resources may, of course, reduce 

population growth below the maximum limits of the graph, particularly 

in the latter half of the time period. However, the graph does indicate 

some parameters of population growth that may be useful in planning 

future food requirements on a gross basis. At some future time, the 

growth curve will tend to stabilize; but at this time, there is insufficient 

data for an accurate projection. 

The population pyramids in Plate #6 were prepared from a census 

taken on Ujelang in July, 1973. The pyramids separate the driEnjebi from 

the driEnewetak and provide classification by sex and age group. One 

factor that points up a growth trend in the population is the high percentage 

of people under 30 years of age. Approximately 80 percent of the total 

population falls within the 0 to 29 age group. This also is apparent in the 

case of each of the two communities. One other indicator is the number 

of children under ten years of age representing both the driEnjebi and the 

driEnewetak. Plate #6 shows 157 in that age group, or about 35 percent 

of the total population. This also indicates a probable rapid increase in 

the population over the next five to ten years. 
=m-m==-=== 

ENEWETAK 

"3 P 

d y 

2- Ad 

df 

1-

i 

1947 ' ' 19'70 f1 72 h k 75 76 97 78 79 19'80 $1 82 83 8'4 d5 86 

Y E A R S 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

ENEWETAK ATOLL MASER PLAN 

IUXJWESE NARVER.INC. 

. ===+=== M.0v.C' .c..-,.c-. ,c,.<,s =-A" - -.a.-
DRI-ENEWETAK 

MALE FEMALE AGE MALE FEMALE 

COMPARISON POPULATION PYRAMID 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS Uj elang Atoll - 1973 ENEWETAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN fi 

HOWlES& NARVER.INC. . ..---+- . ..'.,".C, -,," tX ?>" ,... ,..-" ".. ..e.,..,.. *. ....- .*,*-
3. PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF ENEWETAK ATOLL 

3. PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF ENEWETAK ATOLL 

3.1 LOCATION AND PHYSIOGRAPHY 

Enewetak Atoll is located at approximately 1 1°2 1 IN and 16~~21'~ 

in the northwestern portion of the Marshall Islands, 600 miles from the 

District Headquarters at Majuro. (See Plate #7. ) 

The atoll encompasses about 388 square miles of lagoon area 

surrounded by 39 small islets with a total dry land area of about 2.75 

square miles (see Table 3-1). The nearest neighboring atoll is Ujelang, 

where the Enewetakese people were evacuated prior to the atomic testing program and where most of them now reside. The relative isolation 

of Enewetak and Uj elang from the rest of the Marshall Island group, 

which limits normal transportation links, and the marginal soils, 

marginal rainfall, and limited land area of Enewetak Atoll place severe 

constraints on the ability of the atoll to provide both subsistence crops 

to directly support the people and cash crops to provide for import of 

supplies and materials necessary to the health and economy of the 

people . 

The soils at Enewetak are basically coral rock and coraline sands 

with minimal organic content and little or no fertility reserve. Almost 

the entire life cycle of the atoll is tied into a narrow pattern of the living 

plant, the debris of leaves and other fallen material, and the extremely 

limited humic content of the top few inches of the coral sands. Rainfall 

is limited and is the only source of fresh water. The soils have limited 

water holding capacity, and there is virtually no economic justification 

for large-scale irrigation even if water supplies were available. 
I I 

1 Site 

ENEWETAK 

E NJEBI 

MEDREN 

AOMON 

RUNIT 

JAPTAN 

LU JOR 

BIJILE 

IKUREN 

LO JWA 

AEJ 

MUT 

BOKEN 

ALEMBEL 

BOKOMBAKO 

BOKEN 

ANANIJ 

KIDRENEN 

BOKOLUO 

LOUJ 

KIDRINEN 

FUBEWON 

MI JIKADREK 

BILLAE 

BIKEN 

BOKENELAB 

ELLE 

BOKINWOTME 

KIRUNU 

VAN 

JEDROL 

BOKAIDRIK 

TAIWEL 

ELELERON 

INEDRAL 

JINIMI 

JINEDROL 

MUNJUR 

TOTAL 

39 Sites 

TABLE 3-1 

LAND AREAS - ENEWETAK ATOLL 

Square Feet 

14,019,200 

12,657,600 

9,574,200 

4,323,600 

3,975,390 

3,430,400 

2,358,000 

2,263,500 

1,803,900 

1,762,200 

1,758,600 

1,758,600 

1,733,700 

1,645,200 

1,328,400 

1,247,740 

1,108,000 

1,059,300 

974,700 

924,300 

884,725 

818,875 

692,475 

630,000 

590,475 

505,625 

480,600 

429,300 

298,800 

285,825 

231,775 

220,000 

209,400 

167,300 

167,150 

134,100 

95,025 

80,000 

39,350 

76,667,330 Square Feet 

(2.75 Square Miles) 

Acres 

1,760 Acres 
REGIONAL MAP 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THC rAcIFIc ISLANDS WESTERN MARSHALL ISLANDS ENEW~AK ATOLL MASTER PLAN 

m]LMeS&IWRMRIK ===@-= 

.----. w.-. --.--.-

t m-
The main islands within the atoll were subjected to severe 

aerial and ship bombardment and damage in the American landings 

during World War 11. Again, in 1958, many of the islands and islets 

of the atoll were subjected to ecological outrage and damage when 

utilized as a test range for nuclear devices. With exception of the 

island of Japtan (David), and three or four minor islands in the 

southwestern sector, there is little recognizable agricultural base 

remaining within the confines of the atoll. 

3.2 CLIMATE 

Despite an average annual precipitation ranging from 50 to 60 

inches, Enewetak Atoll is considered arid due to the limited water 

capacity of the soil and the effects of windborne salt spray on the 

local vegetation. Reliable weather data are available for Enewetak 

from 1941 (U. S. Navy and U. S. Weather Bureau sources), and the 

basic data for rainfall, day length, daylight hours, and mean monthly 

temperature are shown in Table 3-2. Temperatures are quite uniform, 

ranging from a mean annual of 82.5 0

F to a mean minimum of 

approximately 790

F and a mean maximum of approximately 860F. 

The atoll is subject to the Pacific trade winds, generally from ENE to E, 

which during the period December to April average 18 mph, and from 

May to November average 12 mph (see Plate #8). Occasional westerly 

storms are experienced, although these are seldom destructive. The 

area is subject to infrequent hurricanes or typhoons, which can cause 

severe damage to plants and crops, and also may damage or destroy 

buildings and other facilities. 
TABLE 3-2 

CLIMATE DATA FOR ENEWETAK 

Mean Day % Sun- Evapotranspiration Potential 

Temp. Length light 

Month OF (Min) Days Length (Consumptive Use) (Deficit) 

January 81. 2 68 3 31 8.67 4.22 0.99 3.23 

February 80. 9 702 2 8 8.05 3.91 1.88 2.03 

March 81. 3 72 2 31 9.16 4.47 1.78 2.69 

April 82. 1 742 30 9.11 4.49 1.66 2.83 

May 82.4 760 31 9.85 4.87 5.11 to. 24 

June 82.8 770 30 9.46 4.70 4.11 0.59 

July 82. 8 766 31 9.72 4.83 7.37 t2.54 

August 83.0 751 31 9.53 4.74 7.22 t2.48 

September 83. 3 732 30 8.99 4.49 7.16 t2.67 

October 83.0 710 31 9.01 4.49 9.90 t5.41 

November 82.6 692 30 8.49 4.21 6.37 t2. 16 

December 82. 0 682 31 8.65 4.26 3.45 0.81 

53.68 57.00 t3.32 

k = 0.6 1 approximate 

U. S. Weather Bureau Climate Data 
P-I 10% of readings 

1 7 11-21 knots 

22 knots 

WIND DIRECTION AN0 VELOCITY 

ANNUAL AVERAGE 

WIND ROSE - ENEWETAK ATOLL 

,TRUST TERRlTORV OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

EMWETAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN 

HOLMES & NARVER.INC. 1-:.-

."',c.,r ,<,,..<S row..". 

.<. .-- ,"*--
The most limiting factor for agriculture is rainfall, which 

averages 57 inches per year, ranging from a recorded low of 24.4 

inches in 1953 to a high of 73.9 inches in 1971. 

WATER RESOURCES - RAINWATER AND WELLS 

The mean monthly rainfall for Enewetak has been calculated and 

is shown in Plate #9. Potential evapotranspiration (PET) for this area 

has also been estimated by the Blaney-Criddle Method, which gives a 

reasonable approximation of the consumptive use of water by plants 

within the ecology. These results have also been shown on Plate #9. 

The combined rainfall and PET parameters define the probable 

periods during the year of water deficit and water availability and 

thus indicate the optimum periods for tree planting and vegetative 

rehabilitation of the atoll. 

Although little or no serious investigation has been reported, 

the limited records of current and past use of shallow wells on some 

islands in the atoll suggest that shallow basal lenses of brackish water 

exist under some of the larger islands. The extent of these basal lenses 

is not known at this time, but verbal reports of inhabitants at U j elang 

suggest that shallow wells were regularly utilized as domestic sources 

principally for washing clothes, etc., and in times of severe shortage, 

for drinking. It is suggested that careful investigation and cautious 

exploitation of this water resource may provide irrigation for limited 

areas of some valuable crops. Overutilization of this extremely 

limited water source may destroy it through intrusion of saltwater 

from the surrounding ocean; thus, great care must be exercised in 

both investigations and use of the basal water. 
.............. .............. .............. 

.............. 

.............. 

.............. 

- - 

t- 12 1 

..............

.............. ..............

.............. Indicates Water Deficir .............. ................... 

10- \ 

4 RAINC'ALL8

4 

LL 

Z

-

4 

(Y 

8 6 

V) 

LU 

X 

U 

2

- 4 

i 

2 

0 I 

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALL 

ENE WITAK ATOLL 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

ENWETAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN 

HOUVsES & NARVER.INC. .-I-.+ 

..lrnWI sr.,. 8% rO",.-

....-~o' 

--..<-. ..... r".-
A survey of the hydrological conditions on those islands designated 

for growing subsistence crops (Engebi, Medren, Japtan, and Enewetak) 

is essential. The available brackish groundwater will largely determine 

the extent and method of subsistence agricultural development. Such a 

survey would be performed by utilizing a small, mobile drill rig to drill 

shallow holes (deep enough to penetrate the water table) along transecting 

lines which would be determined by the size and shape of the particular 

island. Water samples would be taken from each drill hole to determine 

salinity, alkalinity, and other properties. The limits of the brackish 

water lens would be defined by abrupt changes in the saline content 

of the individual samples. 

In the event that groundwater sources prove infeasible, it is 

suggested that suitable water catchments and a water reservoir with 

a holding capacity of 50, 000 to 75,000 gallons be constructed for 

irrigation of plant nurseries and areas of especially valuable or desirable 

crops. 

Should Enewetak Island be leased for commercial development, 

it is probable that fresh water in large quantities will be required. It 

is feasible to consider a rainwater catchment system in the airport 

runway area as the basic source of fresh water, since approximately 

120 acre-feet of water can be accumulated in this area in a year's time. 

3.4 EXISTING CONDITIONS - ENEWETAK ATOLL 

The post cleanup condition of all the islands in the atoll will 

directly affect the magnitude of the rehabilitation in such activities as 

land clearing, slab removal, and general demolition work. The 

conditions on Enj ebi and Medren will be of special concern as they are 

designated as the sites for the two permanent communities. Enewetak, 
which is an alternate community island, and Japtan, where the council 

and work force will be housed during the cleanup and rehabilitation 

operations also will require attention. 

There will be a number of concrete slabs and concrete structures 

remaining on Enjebi following the cleanup. Approximately seven acres 

of land will be denuded and plowed to reduce residual radiation levels. 

Those slabs which are obstructions to the agricultural development of 

the island will be removed during the rehabilitation operation. The 

concrete structures remaining after cleanup will be left in place. Plate 

# 10 shows the conditions on Enjebi following the cleanup. 

On Medren numerous concrete slabs will remain in place after the 

cleanup operation and some metal buildings will be left. Of these, 

Building No. 1209 will be used in place for the school and part of 

Building No. 1437 will become the recreation facility. Building No. 1453, 

a concrete block structure formerly used as a computer center, will 

become the council house. In addition to meeting rooms, it will contain 

the magistrate's office and the radio transceiver and weather equipment. 

Other buildings in the community center complex will be erected on 

existing concrete slabs. Several of the metal buildings will be salvaged 

and used for community facilities on Enjebi. The slabs and structures 

remaining in place after cleanup are shown on Plate # 11. 

Enewetak Island will be the headquarters for the cleanup 

operation. Therefore, the major portion of the existing buildings 

and facilities will remain in place following the cleanup operation. 

Since these structures and equipment will have been rehabilitated for 

use as a support camp during cleanup, they should be in reasonably 

good condition. If Enewetak is used as the base for commercial 

Ocean 

0 200 400 600 It. 

POST CLEANUP CONDITION - ENJEBI ISLAND Lagoon TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

ENEWETAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN F 

HOLMES E NARVER.INC. /-=+-=c

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POST CLEANUP CONDITION - MEDREN ISLAND 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS '

ENEWETAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN 'late No.

HOUMES E NARVER, INC. I 1 "IIOYICL -ICI.C,S CO"*.*, 

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development, it is conceivable that a number of these facilities can 

be used. However, if the island is used for residential purposes 

most of the existing facilities will have to be cleared away. Plate #12 

shows the conditions which will exist on Enewetak Island after the 

cleanup operation. 

Japtan will be used as a temporary community site for the 

Enewetak planning council and work force and their families during 

both the cleanup operation and the atoll rehabilitation program. 

All of the existing metal buildings and the concrete block MILS 

building will be rehabilitated for use during this period. In the event 

that additional housing is required, salvaged buildings from Medren 

and Enewetak will be erected. All except a few of the concrete slabs 

on the island will be removed during the cleanup. Plate #13 shows 

the post cleanup conditions on Japtan. 



Ocean 


I Slab or Structure to Remain 

Slab or Structure to be Removed 

I POST CLEANUP CONDITION - ENEWETAK ISLAND 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

ENEWETAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN Fl 

HOlMES & NARVER,INC. i 12 ..e,o"#cc w sc,,*<,3 C0"P.M. 

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Lagoon 

Typical Slab or Structure 

To Remain 
-- 

Ocean 

POST CLEANUP CONDITION - JAPTAN ISLAND 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

~BEACOHi'CnR EN€WmAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN 

\ 

HOLMES&NARvER.INC 

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3. 

4. ELEMENTS OF THE PLAN 

4. ELEMENTS OF THE PLAN 

4.1 LAND USE 

The master plan divides the islands of the atoll into three categories reflecting the prirnary functional use of each island. The islands 

designated as inhabited, agricultural and food gathering, and picnic sites 

were decided upon by the Enewetak people. Table 4- 1 lists the islands 

under each of these headings and Plate #14 shows their spatial arrangement in the atoll. 

The first group of islands, those designated as centers of habitation, include Enjebi, Medren, Japtan, and Enewetak (as an alternate 

to Medren). Enjebi and Medren will serve as permanent residential 

sites, while Japtan will be used for temporary quarters during cleanup 

and rehabilitation. Enewetak Island will replace hledren as the home 

of the driEnewetak, if plans for its economic development do not mature. 

Extensive agricultural planting will complement th,e community development on these islands. Details of land use on these four islands are 

shown on Plates #15, #16, #17, and #18. 

Of the eight islands selected for agricultural usage only two, 

Runit and Ananij, are in the southern sector of the atoll. The others 

in the northern sector include Alembel, Aomon, Bfijile, Lojwa, Lujor, 

and Aej. The apparent imbalance between the larger number of 

agricultural islands in the north and the two in the south is offset to a 

degree by the relatively larger areas on Japtan, Medren, and Enewetak 

which will be under cultivation. 

The Enewetakese anticipate using the remaining 27 islands for 

hunting and fishing, as well as for recreational purposes. No 

permanent habitations are planned for these islands. 
TABLE 4-1 

ISLAND DEVELOPMENT PRIORITIES'I: 

Estimated Acreage 

Total Usable 

I. Major Inhabited Islands 

Enj ebi 291 210 

Medren 2 20 193 

Enewetak 322 166 

Japtan 79 63 

11. Intensive Agricultural Uses 

Runit 9 1 41 

Alembel 38 23 

Lojwa 40 25 

Aomon 99 126 

Bijile 52 34 

Lujor 52 38 

A e j 40 28

Ananij 25 13 

111. Food Gathering and Temporary Uses 

Elle 11 

Bokenelab 12 

Kidrinen 24 

Mijikadrek 16 

IV. Food Gathering and Temporary Uses 

Biken 14 

Kidrenen 19 

Ribewon 19 

Boken 29 

Mut 40 

Ikur en 4 1 

V. Food Gathering and Temporary Uses 

Louj 2 1 

Kirunu 7 

Bokombako 3 1 

Bokoluo 22 

VI. Food Gathering and Temporary Uses 

All other islets 64 

:;:NOTE: Priorities expressed by Enewetakese in residence at 

Ujelang on August 2, 1973. 








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Typical Housing Area 

US COAST GUARD 

LORAN FACILITY 

-Commercial Agriculture

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Community Center 

Commercial Facilities 

1 Commercial Development 

Aircraft Runway Clear Area 

LAND USE PLAN - ENEWETAK ISLAND 

( ALTERNATE) 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

ENEWETAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN Plate NoHOMES& NARMR,INC. 17 ..#IWC< 

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Commercial Agriculture I I , I

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Community Center 

i-- Commercial Facilities 

AND USE PLAN - JAPTAN ISLAND 

RUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

HOLMESENARMR.INC. 

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--.-..,.."<.. -.- NOV. lD73 
It should be noted that agriculture on the inhabited islands in 

Group 1 will consist of both subsistence and cash crops, while the 

agricultural islands in the second group will be devoted almost entirely 

to cash crops. 

4.2 ISLAND COMMUNITIES 

The Enewetak people through their planning council have chosen 

Enjebi and Medren islands as the sites of the: two permanent communities. They also have indicated that Enewetak Island should be developed 

for commercial use if possible. However, in the event that the planned 

development for Enewetak Island fails to materialize, the driEnewetak 

have expressed the desire to settle there, rather than on Medren. 

The preliminary master plan includes an alternate for the community 

development of Enewetak. The plan also co~lsiders the development of 

Japtan as a temporary community for the Enewetakese people who have 

expressed a desire to participate in the cleanup and rehabilitation of 

the atoll. 

wato plans for Enjebi, Medren, and Enewetak are outlined in this 

section. Residential housing and community facilities are discussed in 

this section as well as in Sections 4. 3 through 4. 7 of this document. 

Plans for the development of agriculture on the community islands are 

discussed in detail in Section 4.8. 5. 1. 

Tentative plans have been prepared which delineate the wato 

boundaries on Enjebi, Medren, and Enewetak. These were determined 

in meetings with the Enewetak people on Ujelang in July, 1973. Field 

confirmation of the watos by on-site surveys will be required prior to 

construction. 

Plate #19 shows the watos on Enjebi with the number of houses 

on each ~atoas indicated by the Enewetak people. Plates #20 and #21 

depict the witos and housing density on Medren and Enewetak islands, 

respectively. There is no wato plan for Japtan although it is understood 

to be of multiple ownership as are all of the smaller islands. On Japtan, 

existing metal buildings augmented by additional structures as required 

will be modified to accommodate workerst farnilities. Plate #22 indicates 

the proposed arrangement, 

4.3 RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT 

The island residences are arranged in clusters with houses of the 

extended family on each ~atogrouped around a common courtyard. 

This courtyard acts as a focal point for social intercourse among the 

family groups for it is here that the younger children play, Kiemem(s) 

(1 st year birthday party) and other celebrations are given, and daily 

gossip exchanged. The number of houses in any one cluster grouping 

varies, but in cases where there are eleven or twelve families living 

on one wito, two clusters of five or six houses each are provided. 

Plate #23 shows a representative housing cluster plan. A perspective 

sketch showing a typical common courtyard with surrounding houses is 

shown on Plate #24. 

The clusters are situated along the lagoon side of the island just 

off the main road which runs parallel to the shoreline and about 350 feet 

inland, except for Enewetak Island where the road is between the lagoon 

and the clusters. Food gathering would take place in and around the 

immediate area of the housing clusters, in the strip of land between the 

road and the lagoon. Privies (benjos), gardens, and animal pens are 

located around the periphery of the clusters. 


Ocean 

0 ZOO 400 60011. 

Lagoon LAND TENURE PLAN - ENlEBl ISLAND 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

ENEWETAKATOLL MASTER PLAN 

HOLMB& WWER. INC. 

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Lagoon 
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LAND TENURE PLAN - MEDREM ISLAND 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

ENEWETAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN 

HOLMES & NARVER.INC. 

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TYPICAL HOUSING UNIT I 

WASHINGTYPICAL 

LIVING UNIT 

I TEMPORARY LIVING AREA 

JAPTAN ISLAND 

TTUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

WEWETAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN fil 
TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

ETAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN 

HOMES 

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HOUSING CLUSTER 

PERSPECTIVE 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

WEWETAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN 

The housing density on Enjebi indicates a double residential cluster 

on the Tuwon wato, while the other ~atoswill contain single clusters; 

and the housing density on Medren Island indicates that multiple 

residential clusters will be required on at least three, and possibly 

four, witos. 

The housing density for the alternate cornmulaity location on 

Enewetak Island indicates the need for a residential cluster complex 

only on the Kabnem wato, at the southwest end of the island. All other 

housing can be grouped in single clusters. 

4. 3. 1 Housing Plans and Concepts 

4. 3. 1. 1 Cultural Aspects. According to information obtained from the 

Enewetak Planning Council during the Ujelang Fieltl Trip of July, 1973, 

the Enewetak people have decided to depart from the separated structures 

concept which traditionally have housed individual ir esidential functions. 

In the past, separate buildings were utilized for cooking, sleeping, 

washing, and sanitary purposes. The space between the separate 

structures, which was usually sheltered by shade trees, became the 

living area. Roofs and walls served only as protection from the 

elements and intruders. Most of these buildings were of wood construction with metal or thatched roofs and provided doubtful security for the 

inhabitants during severe storms. 

The new housing proposed for Enewetak collects these separated 

functions into unified arrangements under one roof, with the exception 

of the toilets which are housed in separate privies. The type of 

construction which is proposed will afford the inhabitants better 

protection from the elements as well as from unwa:nted visitors. The 

residential clusters on the ~atoswill vary in size -with the requirements 

of the families. The central courtyard contains shade trees as well as 

subsistence vegetation, and a brackish water well for use of all families 

in the area. 

In a further break with tradition, the planning council has requested 

that some furniture, mainly tables and chairs for the dining and living 

areas, be provided for the houses. This is indicative of change in the 

peoples' living patterns, as furnishings in the past have been limited to 

pandanus sitting and sleeping mats and foot lockers for clothes. The 

sleeping areas will not require furniture as mats or mattresses on the 

floor are preferred, as are foot lockers in lieu of closets. 

4. 3. 1. 2 Environmental Considerations. Although the yearly climate and 

temperature around Enewetak remains relatively constant, consideration must be given to seasonal extreme conditions with high wind, rain, 

and solar radiation. Even though Enewetak is out of the typhoon belt, 

it is nevertheless susceptible to them and buildings will be designed 

accordingly. The people with first-hand knowledge of these conditions 

have requested the houses to be of concrete for greater resista.nce to 

typhoons. A minimum design load of 35 psf on walls and roofs will be 

required to achieve this. To avoid water damage during such storms 

the ground floors are raised approximately 2 feet off grade using a 

perimeter wall footing with slab on fill. 

Window openings are designed for maximum flexibility of ventilation, with a full floor to ceiling height and 6-foot width. The window 

unit itself consists of wood-louvered shutters set above a 2-foot 6-inch 

balustrade. Sliding vertical slats under the balustrade provide 

ventilation at floor level and also prevent entry of animals as well as 

night prowlers and demons. No glass is recommentled in the window 

areas and louvers, slats, and hardware must be of sturdy construction 

for minimum maintenance. Individual requirements and siting 
conditions may alter window placement and frequency from unit to unit, 

but window type and dimensions would remain constant. 

Bolted-on sun shades over windows project a minimum of 3 feet 

from the outside walls. The bolted-on sun shades would be preferable 

during storm conditions since their loss would not affect the basic roof 

structure. 

4. 3.1. 3 Economics. Three types of residential construction have been 

investigated. The types of construction are: masonry block, reinforced 

concrete cast in place, and modular reinforced concrete construction 

called the W-panel System. 

The W-panel System is recommended since it most closely 

satisfies all design criteria. The panel itself is a welded steel wire 

3-dimensional space frame 4-feet by 8-feet by 2-inches thick. The 

center of the modular space frame is filled with plastic foam leaving the 

face frame wire revealed approximately one-half inch from the face of 

its foam core on either side. These panels weigh only 25 pounds each, 

permitting easy handling at the construction site. 

The erection procedure is relatively simple and consists of setting 

the panels in place and hand wiring them together, then sealing the 

vertical joint between the plastic foam edges with a bead of mastic. 

When complete, the resulting structure is then coated with a 1-inch 

thick layer of Portland cement plaster on both sides using a plaster 

spray gun or hand plastering methods. This coating completes the 

structural composite of wire reinforcing, foam insulation, and cement 

plaster. 

Roofs as well as walls can be constructed using this method 

resulting in the building becoming a true monolithic structure. Ceilings 
are not required since the plastic foam core in the :roof panels contains 

adequate insulation. Some advantages of this type clf construction are: 

a Elimination of formwork. 

e Long range structural life of reinforced cement construction. 

o High insulation factor due to plastic foam core. 

a Fire resistance. 

a Low maintenance requirement for cement plaster. 

e Waterproof. 

e Impervious to termite, fungus, dry rot. 

e Durability and adaptability to use of esthetically desirable 

finishes and textures or cement plaster. 

e Excellent resistance to typhoons, earthquakes, and floods. 

o Anticipated lower construction cost. 

4. 3. 2 Descri~tionof Housing 

4. 3.2.1 Modular Approach. There are six different house types 

(Plates #25, #26, #27, #28, #29, and #30), which are based on the same 

space designations and sizes but with different plan arrangements to 

accommodate individual tastes and needs. Included a.re two 2-story, 

two l-story single unit, and two l-story split unit designs. All designs 

are based on a 12-foot building module and contain the same amount of 

usable space. 

The number of residents per house to be constructed at Enewetak 

Atoll averages only four, a relatively low number for a typical 

Mar shallese household. However, it is anticipated that population 

growth will be rapid and that the number of occupants per house could 

double in the next ten to twenty years. Therefore, provisions fo:r 

altering room sizes and uses and future expansion of enclosed space 

have been considered. To maintain flexibility in multiuse of spaces, 

=r-1 

EATING 

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COOKING LIVING SLEEPING SLEEPING 

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PANTRY I 

SECOND FLOOR PLAN 

--

gross area 1626SF 

enclosedarea 

first floor 732SF 

second flomr 407SF 

FIRST FLOOR PLAN 

FRONT ELEVATION RIGHT SIDE ELEVATION 

MODEL A I I 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

ENEWETAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN Fl 1 

I HOLMES& NARVER.INC. 

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WASHING 

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LIVING EATING i..] 

SLEEPING SLEEPING COOKING 

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SECOND FLOOR PLAN 

gross area 1626SF 

enclosed area 

firstf floor 48 7SF 

second floor 487SF FIRST FLOOR PLAN 

FRONT ELEVATION RIGHT SIDE ELEVATION 

HOLMES& NARVER.INC. L.z=s-r 

LIVING EATING 

gross area 1463SF 

enclosed area 

first floor 9 76SF 

FLOOR PLAN 

FRONT ELEVATION RIGHT SIDE ELEVATION 

MODEL I C 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

ENEWETAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN 

HOLMES E NARVER.INC. 



SLEEPING SLEEPING 1. 

SLEEPING 

gross area 1300SF 

enclosed area 

first floor 9769 

FLOOR PLAN 

FRONT ELEVATION RIGHT SIDE ELEVATION I 

MODEL E 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

ENEWETAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN Fl 

HOLMES ENARVER.INC. zzz=a-c 

TOILET I D n I 

SLEEPING 

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grossarea 1138SF 

enclosed area 

firstfloor 976SF 

FLOOR PLAN 

FRONT ELEVATION RIGHI SIDE ELEVATION 

MODEL F 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

ENEWETAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN 

HOLMES ENARVER.INC. 

dividing walls between rooms are Shoji-type sliding panels 3 to 4 feet 

wide permitting these rooms, which are basically rninimurn size, to 

be enclosed or enlarged to suit the purpose. Typical space allocations 

are as follows: 

Parents' sleeping room - 144 square fee.t (12' x 12'). 

Boys' sleeping room - 144 square feet (12' x 12'). 

Girls' sleeping room - 144 square feet (l2' x 12'). 

Utility core - cooking - food storage - 144 square feet 

(12' x 12'). 

Living - 144 square feet (12' x 12'). 

Eating - 144 square feet (12' x 12'). 

General purpose porch - 288 square feet (12' x 24'). 

Cistern - 72 square feet (6' x 12'). 

Stair - 72" square feet (6' x 12'). 

Washing porch - 144" or 72 square feet (12' x 12' or 6' x 12'). 

The total square footage for a 1-story house is 1,296 square feet 

and for a 2-story house, 1,440 square feet. In eac:h case there are 864 

square feet of enclosed area, while porches, cistern, and stairs 

occupy the rest of the roofed area. The cooking area includes a counter 

top and sink for washing and a storage shelf underneath. A screened 

4-foot by 4-foot pantry also is provided for food storage. A separate 

144-square-foot work shed is provided with each house. (See Plate #31. ) 

4. 3. 2. 2 Utilities. No electricity is provided for the residences in the 

initial stage. Kerosene will be used for lamps and stoves. Rainwater from 

the individual roofs will drain into a 3,780-gallon cistern. A supplemental 

3,200-gallon cistern will be provided with each house to guarantee an 

.v, *,-

On 2-story only. 

FRONT ELEVATION RIGHT SlDE ELEVATION 

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storage 

WORK ISTORAGE SHED 

FLOOR PLAN 

I FRONT ELEVATION RIGHT SIDE ELEVATION SECTION 

PRIVY 

I TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

EMEWETAM ATOLL MASTER PLAN FLOOR PLAN HOLMES & NARVER.IN€. 

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adequate water supply. A system for rationing water during dry spells consists of faucets located at three different levels on the cistern. As water 

level decreases, the user is made aware of the situation when the highest 

faucet goes dry. In this way, water consun~ptioncan be regulated and 

supplemented with well water when required. A corrlmon well serves each 

cluster (see Plate #23); and while the water may be too brackish for drinking, 

it would be adequate for washing clothes and dishes and for bathing. Plumbing 

fixtures in the house are limited to a sink in the kitchen, a lavatory and 

shower head for the shower room, and a utility sink on the washing porch. 

The shower floor is depressed 1 foot below finished floor permitting the 

installation of a shower head fed from the top of the cistern. 

Toilets are provided in the form of privies (benjos) (see Plate #31), 

one for each house and located not more than 200 feet away. Toilet 

fixtures will be the sitdown type and a hand pump or a bucket will be 

provided for flushing and cleaning purposes. The oilthouse effluents will 

be piped to central septic tanks with adequate drainfields to dissipate the 

effluents. Septic tanks will be located a minimum of 75 yards from any 

wells. 

4.4 COMMUNITY CENTER DEVELOPMENT 

Community centers are planned for Enjebi and Medren islands 

with an alternate arrangement for Enewetak Island. In most instances, 

existing metal buildings will be utilized to house the community functions, 

some in place and other relocated to suit the arrangements. However, 

churches and houses for ministers and teachers will be of new construction. Community center facilities include a four- cla.s sroom school; 

a two-bed dispensary and health aid quarters; an open-sided recreation 

building; a play field; a cooperative store; a council house containing the 

magistrate's office, radio transceiver equipment, weather office, and 

meeting hall; an open nursery and storage sheds; aind a berm enclosed 

POL yard. Rainwater storage and water wells will be located in these 

areas for community use. 

Plate #32 shows the community center arrangement on Enjebi 

completely contained on the Tuwon wito. The Medren community 

facilities are shown on Plate #33. In this arrangement the existing 

concrete block computer building located on the Lornke ~atois used as 

the council house, while the remainder of the facilities are on the 

Akadre WE&. Portions of the old administration complex are used for 

the new recreation and school buildings; and existing slabs provide 

flooring for the church, cooperative store, and dispensary. 

The community center in the alternate plan for Enewetak Island 

has been located on the Mwillimor wato since there is insufficient area 

in the Lositak wato where it had been previously located. All community 

buildings require new concrete slabs to suit the arrangement shown on 

Plate #34. 

4.4. 1 Schools 

Each community is provided with a four-classroom school building 

totaling about 3, 600 square feet. On Enjebi, the school is housed in a 

metal building relocated from Medren, whilk existing Building 1209 on 

Medren becomes the school. The school for Enewetak utilizes a 

relocated metal building. 

4.4. 2 Dispensaries 

Small dispensaries are located on Enjebi, Meclren, and if required, 

on Enewetak. Relocated metal buildings are used in each instance to 

provide a two-room, two-bed facility with health aid quarters. The 

total area required for each facility is approximately 1, 200 square feet. 

LAGOON 

EXISTING 

DOCK 

LAGOON 

4.4.3 Council Houses 

The typical council house contains a meeting room, magistrate's 

office, radio and weather equipment, as well as necessary powergenerating equipment. The council house on Enjebi consists of two 

metal buildings placed side by side. On Medren, the existing masonry 

block computer building (No. 1453) is to be modified to suit the functions. 

One necessary modification provides windows in the blank walls for 

ventilation and light. The council building on Ehewetak is a relocated 

metal building similar to the one for Enjebi. 

4.4.4 Cooperatives 

There are two cooperatives which will handle the copra trading, 

one on Enjebi and the other on Medren. These functions are housed 

in relocated metal buildings. A small 2, 200- square-foot warehouse 

consisting of a metal building located adjacent to the pier provides 

storage space for copra. The cooperative on Medren occupies an 

existing concrete slab, while the one on Enjebi requires a new slab as 

would the cooperative on Enewetak. 

4.4. 5 Churches 

The churches on Enjebi and Medren will he of new construction, 

functionally designed and built to resist extremes in the weather, They 

will be located in the community centers and will be of sufficient size to 

accommodate the present congregations, as well as the projected 

increase in the near future. Should Enewetak Island become a community 

island, it is doubtful that the existing church would be used due to its 

remote location. Therefore, a new church would be required there as 

well. 
4.4. 6 Recreation 

The community centers provide both indoor and outdoor recreational 

facilities. The outdoor facility consists of a playfield large enough for 

softball. Indoor facilities for games such as basketball include the 

modification of part of Building 1437 on Medren and the relocation of 

the remainder to Enjebi. The building modifications consist of removing 

the sidewall panels to provide ventilation and more light. If a similar 

facility is required for Enewetak, an existing building would either be 

designated or relocated to suit the arrangement. 

4.4. 7 Cemeteries 

Burial facilities will be in family plots on the respective ~atos. 

In accordance with the request of the Enewetak people there are no 

community cemeteries planned for either Enjebi or Medren. 

4.4.8 Agricultural Stations 

A small agricultural station is planned for both Enjebi and Medren. 

These will probably be manned by a representative of the District 

Agricultural Department, alternating between the two locations. The 

station on Enjebi consists of a small metal building located near the 

community nursery. On Medren the station is housed in the council 

building. 

4.5 UTILITIES PLAN 

4. 5. 1 Water Supply 

The inhabitants of the atoll will have two sources of water from 

which to draw their daily requirements. Rainwater drained from roof 

catchment systems into cisterns for storage is considered the primary 

source. Brackish water wells located in the communities are expected 

to augment these supplies. 
Each residence will be equipped with a primary cistern of approximately 3,800 gallons storage capacity. During dry periods, the types of 

rainwater usage would be curtailed commensura.te with the receding 

water level, i. e., when the level reaches the lower third of the cistern, 

rainwater would be used only for drinking and cooking. Based on an 

initial daily requirement of 20 gdlons per person, decreasing to 3 gallons 

per person as the supply diminished, a residential cistern would supply 

water to a family of 4 for 168 days without being replenished (see 

Plates #35 and #36). An additional 3, 200-gallon capacity cistern will be 

provided for each house to augment the available: water supply. Both 

cisterns will be positioned so as to more efficiently collect runoff 

from the entire roof area and will double the available supply of water 

indicated on Plates #35 and #36. Locations of the cisterns will be 

determined in the final design phase. 

Rainwater from community building roof catchments will be stored 

in larger cisterns (- 10,000-gallon capacity). These will provide water 

to irrigate the plants in the community nursery and also will serve as a 

reserve water supply for the village. At the present time there is a 

200,000-gallon capacity water storage tank located on Enewetak and 

a 100,000-gallon tank on Medren. These will provide additional reserve 

rainwater storage capacity for the atoll. Since Enjebi does not have a 

similar water storage facility, a rainwater catchment and storage 

system will be constructed on the island to provide a 100,000-gallon 

reserve storage capacity. Rainwater catchments and reservoirs are 

planned for Runit, Japtan, Lojun, Aomon, and other islands where 

agricultural development is planned. 

Brackish water wells are planned to provide a supplementary 

source of water to the rainwater catchment syste:ms. The wells will be 
5,000 

/-REPLENI~HMENT 

4,000 

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4 

4 2,000 

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1,000 

0 

TYPICAL HOUSING CISTERN 

CONSUMPT1ONws. REPLEN ISHMENT 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

ETAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN 

HOWES & M R . INC 

.... -0"-, ,c,,.c,, CW,." 
TOTAL CAPAC lTY 

3,784 GALLONS 

1,360 GALLONS OF WATER PROVIDES A 

FAMILY OF FOUR 80 GALLONS PER DAY 

FOR 17 DAYS 

816 GALLONS OF TER PROVIDES A 

FAMILY OF FOUR GALLONS PER DAY 

1,608 GALLONS OF WATER PROVIDES A 

GALLONS PER DAY 

FOR 134 DAYS 

TYPICAL FAMILY WATER USAGE 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THC PACIFIC tSLANDS 

ENEWETAM ATOLL MASTER PLAN 

HOMES & iWMR.IMC. 

.",',?".r, -,C,,WC,' <O"?.*. 

.cm,e 

--.c*..,."<.,-. c".- NOV. 1973 
located adjacent to the residential housing clusters and the community 

facilities, and normally would provide water for sanitary purposes. 

However, when rainwater supplies are low, well water can be used for 

washing and bathing and, if the situation requires it, for drinking and 

cooking. The community wells would supply additional water for 

agricultural use as required. The feasibility of windmill-driven 

mechanical pumps as a means of pumping water for agricultural 

irrigation shouid be studied. In addition, other pumping applications, 

such as conventional power-driven pumps, wave pumps, and windpowered electric pumps will be studied. 

4. 5.2 Waste Disposal 

Each residence has its own privy separately located to the rear of 

the house (see Plates #23 and #3 1). Each privy will be equipped with a 

water seal toilet, for which a bucket of brackish water or a hand pump 

drawing from a brackish water source can be used to maintain the water 

seal in the fixture. The water closets discharge into septic tanks behind 

the privies with as many as three closets interconnected to discharge 

into one tank. The septic tank leaching fields are located beyond the 

tanks. Privies and septic tanks also are planned for the community 

facilities for operation in the same manner, as those in residential areas. 

Other organic waste, such as garbage, will be disposed of by 

burial in pits located near the housing clusters. These pits can become 

a source of compost for agricultural use. 

Nonbiodegradable waste, including glass, plastic, and metal cans, 

either will be collected periodically and dumped into a predesignated 

deep-water location or buried in pits. If the burial method is used, one 

pit would be required for each residential cluster and could be located 

near the housing area. A central disposal area is also planned for 

Enjebi and Mindren. 
Energy 

Electrical power requirements for the villages on Medren and 

Enjebi islands will be limited to the operation of a radio transceiver and 

a low level of lighting in the school, recreational building, and cooperative store. The dispensary, due to the possibility of emergency use, 

and the council house which contains the radio equipment and is used 

for community business, will require more lig:hting than the other 

buildings. The total power and lighting load for each island can be 

supplied with a 2 kw generator unit, powered with either a diesel or 

gasoline engine. Due to the distances between the generator location 

and the furthest community building (600 feet) on Medren, a 11 0-volt 

system should be planned. The community builldings on Enjebi are 

closer together and thus more suitable for a lower voltage system. 

However, in order to conserve on repair parts and maintenance, a 

110-volt system should be planned for instaYlat!ion there as well. 

Investigations will be made into the possibility of erecting winddriven generator and battery systems to deliver power at 110 volts 

in both community locations. Equipment is presently available with 

capacities up to 2 kw and, if installed, could serve as the main power 

sources for the two islands. The engine-driven generators could be 

connected into the battery system through transfer switches and would 

then provide a back-up power source as well as a means of recharging 

the batteries during calm periods. 

While present planning considers only the electrical requirements 

of community facilities, it is possible that future plans will include 

residential requirements. Lf wind-generator units are successfully 

operated and maintained as the main community power source, similar 

units might well be used in the future to provide lighting for the island 

residences. 
4. 5.4 Existing Utilities on Enewetak Island 

In the event that the island of Enewetak is leased to outside 

interests for cornrnercial/industrial development, serious consideration 

must be given to utilities requirements. At the conclusion of the atoll 

cleanup program, all existing utilities systems on the island, including 

salt and fresh water, power generation, and distribution and sanitary 

sewer, will be left in operable condition. These systems will be 

available as required to serve the institutional, industrial, and way 

station areas indicated on Plate #38 (Section 5). 

It is not expected that the entire power-generating capacity of 

3, 000 kva or the freshwater distillation capability of 43, 200 gallons per 

day will be required to support these activities. However, it is probable 

that utilization of a portion of these capabilities would be advantageous. 

In addition, the saltwater systems used for fire protection, freshwater 

distillation, and sanitary purposes, as well as the hydropneumatic 

freshwater system would be valuable assets. 

If the freshwater distillation process should prove to be economically infeasible, a rainwater catchment system utilizing the airport 

runway could be combined with the existing freshwater storage and 

distribution systems as the primary freshwater source. The distillation equipment then could be retained as back-up for use in emergencies. 

The degree of performance required of the utilities will be 

determined by the manner in which the island is developed and the extent 

of development. 

4.6 CIRCULATION PATTERNS 

4.6. 1 Vehicular 

Road systems linking residential clusters with community centers 

and commercial areas will be provided on Medren, Enjebi, and Japtan. 
The alternate plan for Enewetak also includes a similar network. There 

will be approximately 12 miles of roads capable of sustaining light 

vehicular traffic on these four islands. 

The 3.0 miles of roads on Enjebi will be new and generally follow 

the shore line, although located some distance inland. Plate # 15 shows 

the main road which parallels the lagoon shore and connects the 

residential areas with the community center. .A road passing in front 

of the community center connects the lagoon segment with the island 

loop on the east side. 

On Medren some existing roads in the vicinity of the community 

center will be utilized, but the major portion of: the planned 3. 0 miles of 

roads will be new. Plate #16 shows the road network on Medren with 

the main access road running parallel to the lagoon shore line and 

separating the residential and commercial facility areas from the 

commercial agricultural areas. Two loop roads parallel the ocean 

shore and join together at the community center. 

The alternate plan for Enewetak shown on Plate #17 provides for 

the use of the existing 4.7-mile road network. The majority of these 

roads are paved and will require a minimum eff:ort to maintain them 

in a serviceable condition. If the island is utilized for commercial 

purposes rather than residential, it is expected that the existing road 

network would remain in service. 

The existing road network on Japtan will be used during the period 

of the island's occupancy by the work force and upgraded as required. 

The network indicated in Plate #18 contains 1.6 miles of roads and links 

the living and commercial areas with the counci:l house and the nursery. 
4.6. 2 Pedestrian 

It is expected that paths for pedestrian traffic will be established 

by the inhabitants of all islands during the course of their daily routines. 

Undoubtedly, these will link the residential clusters with the community 

centers and with the agricultural areas. No attempt has been made to 

indicate footpaths on the island plates as the routings will depend 

largely upon the detailed plans for agricultural planting on each island. 

4.7 TRANSPORTATION 

4. 7. 1 Interatoll Shipping 

Copra exported from Enewetak will be carried on Trust Territory 

supply ships (field ship vessels). These ships make scheduled stops at 

the atolls throughout the Marshalls, carrying staples to trade for copra, 

as well as carrying passengers. They perform a necessary economic 

function as trading vessels and also are the most popular method of 

interatoll travel. Over the years the island people have become 

dependent on the visits of the field trip ships for subsistence items as 

well as for luxury goods. 

This dependency on outside transportation may decrease as it has 

been proposed that the Enewetak people obtain a vessel of their own. 

Tentative plans are centered around a 65-foot diesel-powered boat, 

rigged for an auxiliary set of sails. The vessel would be capable of 

voyages to Ujelang, Ponope, and other nearby atolls carrying copra 

directly to market. There also would be accommodations for a small 

number of passengers aboard in addition to the cargo space. 

The field trip ships and the locally owned vessel comprise the 

entire interatoll marine traffice which can be expected to dock at 

Enewetak Atoll. 
4. 7. 2 Docking Facilities 

Presently there are not atoll docking facilities capable of 

accommodating field trip motor vessels. Existing pier locations on 

Enewetak, Medren, and Enjebi islands, where ,water depths are 

sufficient for shallow draft vessels or landing craft, are insufficient for 

vessels of deeper draft (field trip ships). 

To accommodate Trust Territory vessels such as the Militobe and 

Truk Islander with a draft of 9 feet or the Yap Islander with a draft of 

10 feet, it will be necessary to rebuild and/or extend existing piers at 

all three islands. Channel blasting or dredging is not considered 

feasible due to the constant requirement of maintaining the channel due 

to silting. A depth of 15 feet at low tide should be planned since it is 

known that some ships in field trip service draw as much as 12 feet of 

water. 

The cargo pier at Enjebi is completely destroyed and will require 

rebuilding at the old location which is on the same ~atoas the community 

center. A 250-foot pier (mole) should be planned for this location to 

accommodate the field trip ships. 

The cargo pier at Medren is partially damaged by erosion from 

wave action and requires rebuilding. A 200-foot: extension is required 

to reach the depth of 15 feet of water at low tide. 

Should it be decided to utilize the existing cargo pier at Enewetak 

for field trip ships, a 75-foot extension will be required to reach a depth 

of 15 feet of water at low-tide. 

The above pier extensions are estimated figures only, due to the 

absence of hydrographic information in those areas. Hydrography will 

be required to properly design these facilities. 
4. 7. 3 Intraatoll Marine Traffic 

Most of the intraatoll (or interisland) marine traffic will consist 

of small boats generally less than 20 feet in length. It is expected that 

the majority of these will be privately owned outboard motorboats used 

mainly for fishing and visiting other islands around the atoll. In 

addition to these craft, the two island communities will probably obtain 

small cargo boats for hauling copra. These are furnished to communities 

or island cooperatives through a Trust Territory Grant-In-Aid program, 

with a 30 percent cash contribution by the recipients. The boats are 

utilitarian in design, about 22 feet long, and powered by small inboard 

diesel engines. Distances between major islands of the atoll are shown 

on Plate #2, Section 2. 

Marinas are planned for docking the small boats on each of the 

three islands. A small rip- rap breakwater will be constructed extending 

leeward from each cargo pier, running parallel to the shore line, thus 

forming a sheltered enclosure. The marinas also can serve as unloading 

points for the small copra boats whose cargo could be discharged directly 

onto the piers adjacent to the copra warehousing facilities. 

4. 7. 4 Air Traffic 

Air traffic at Enewetak is expected to' be very light since the 

majority of the flights will be in support of either the U. S. Coast Guard 

or the EMBL and probably will not exceed a biweekly flight schedule. 

In the event that commercial activities are established at Enewetak, it 

is possible that flight frequency could increase to a weekly schedule. 

Assuming that Enewetak Island is developed as the commercial 

center for the atoll, the present airport facilities would be available for 

use. The extent to which they will be utilized will depend largely upon 

the requirements. For example, if it is feasible to maintain and operate 
the control tower and air terminal, as well as the hangar for maintenance work, these facilities should be utilized to the extent required. 

However, if the island is not commercially developed and becomes 

the village site for the driEnewetak, the airport should be relegated to 

the status of an emergency landing strip, The airport buildings should 

be razed and most of the paved areas back of a ;!50-foot clearance line 

on either side of the runway center line removed and replaced with 

village facilities and agricultural planting as shown on Plate #17, 

Alternate Land Use Plan - Enewetak Island. 

4.8 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN 

The immediate purpose of agricultural rehabilitation is to provide 

for the subsistence and cash crop requirements of the Enewetak 

people returning from Ujelang. Coconut, breadfruit, and pandanus, the 

principal crops, all require from five to seven years to come into 

bearing after being planted. This time estimate can be significantly 

delayed by adverse weather conditions, inadequate care of the developing 

orchards, or poor selection of seed sources. The initial agricultural 

development, including land preparation and planting, is estimated to 

take from 16 months to 24 months for completion.. In the interim, the 

population must subsist on existing subsistence crop plants which can be 

rehabilitated, suitable short term crops planted following their return, 

and on imported foods. Dependence on imported foods may be lessened 

and additional copra production encouraged if the Enewetak people 

following their return are provided with suitable ocean transportation 

and encouraged to return periodically to Ujelang to forage and harvest 

copra and other food crops for use by the population of Enewetak. 
Future land use within Enewetak Atoll will be conditioned on the 

initial success with which the main inhabited islands can be rehabilitated 

and planted. Later the secondary or agricultural islands can be planted, 

thus providing additional sources of foods and copra for export (see 

Plate #40 in Section 5). Also, to be considered are factors such as real 

population growth (compared to current gross estimates) and the pressures 

this growth will place- on available resources. In real terms, as 

additional population pressures are exerted on the limited resources, 

more and more of the resources will be consumed directly in support 

of the population and less will be available to generate income from 

outside the atoll. As more of the people have been exposed to education 

away from Enewetak and as they have developed strong tastes for 

imported foods and other luxuries, additional internal pressures may 

develop to turn the present situation more from a cash subsistence 

crop economy to a more total cash crop pattern, with the basic food 

requirements of the population being provided essentially with imported 

foodstuffs (which is the present situation at Ujelang). 

A recent inquiry at Ujelang among the Enewetak people has 

indicated subsistence food intakes as shown in Table 4-2. These data 

must be used -with caution inasmuch as there is little supportive data on

record as to the exact dietary patterns of these people. 

Analysis of the data in Table 4-2, together with information from 

other sources (published and unpublished), provide a means of estimating 

probable crop requirements to meet the basic subsistence requirements 

of the population on their return to the atoll and also to meet the 

anticipated population growth. 
TABLE 4-2 

APPROXIMATE FOOD INTAKE OF ENEWETAK PEOPLE 

~stimated(l) 

Type of Food Grams Per Day 

Fish 600 

Local Meats (Pork and Chicken) 60 

Wild Birds 10 

Bird Eggs 5 

Coconut Crabs 0 to 5 

Clams 25 

Coconut 112 Ripe Nut 100 

Coconut Milk 1-1/2 to 2 Green Nuts 300 (0 to 1, 500) 

Coconut Cream 1/2 Ripe Nut 100 

p read fruit(^) 2 00 

Pandanus Fruit 100 (200 to 400 for 

children) 

Arrowroot 40 

Vegetables 200 

Imported Foods (4) 0 to 1, 600 

TOTAL -! 1,900

(1) Assuming little or no availability of imported foods. 

(2) Equivalent to 4 to 5 coconuts for direct consumption. 

(3) Seasonal from May to September. 

(4) When available, imported foods such as rice, flour, tea, sugar, 

canned meats, and fish, etc., may reach 80 percent of total diet. 

L 
Types of Plants 

Agricultural rehabilitation and development of the atoll must 

consider two basic elements: first, the basic subsistence requirements 

of the people returning to the atoll; and second, production of some type 

of cash crop which will generate income for the local economy. One 

crop, the coconut, is common to both these elements. Two other crops, 

the breadfruit and pandanus, are essential in the subsistence dietary, 

while other plant foods such as the banana, sweet potato, arrowroot, 

squash, vegetables, papaya, and lime are utilized when available. 

4.8. 1. 1 Subsistence Crops. The coconut, Cocos nucifera, is the staff 

of life of many peoples of the world, and certainly of people within the 

Central Pacific areas. This palm not only provides one of the most 

important foods directly consumed in the economy, but also is utilized 

for timber, cordage, thatching, firewood, matting, fiber, handicrafts, 

and medicine. There is hardly an area of the native life which this 

ubiquitous plant does not touch. 

The dwarf coconut, locally called --Ni Karu, has also gained 

prominence in Marshallese communities. Due to its shortness in growth, 

it is grown essentially for drinking and cooking and also for the making 

of coconut toddy called "jakaru. " This varikty also provides a decent 

landscaping material aside from its other uses and is thus recommended 

for this purpose and not as a plantation material. 

The breadfruit, Artocarpus incisa, of which there are numerous 

varieties within the Pacific Islands, is utilized in the Marshall Islands 

as a major source of carbohydrate foodstuffs. Most varieties are 

cooked prior to eating, and one or two of the varieties are preserved 

as "bwiro. I' Breadfruit is seasonal in production, which would limit its 
utilization but for the fact that methods of preservation and storage of the 

ripe fruit are known and utilized by the Enewetakese people. 

The pandanus, Pandanus tectorius, is grown for its edible fruit, 

which provides sugars and starches in the dietary, and also is a good 

source of vitamin C. There are a number of varieties used for this 

purpose within the Marshall Islands, and a suitable selection should be 

made of planting material to ensure the variability that the Enewetakese 

people may require. Pandanus leaves also are utilized for thatching 

materials, weaving sleeping mats, and other articles. Nonbearing 

varieties can be utilized in plantation windbreaks. 

The arrowroot, Tacca leontopetalioides (L),

-. var. , was once used 

as a major source of starch for food in the Pacific Islands and is still so 

utilized in many atoll areas. However, it is a food item that requires 

some effort to prepare for human consumption. Often it is utilized in 

times of food storage resulting from storm damage and during periods 

of extended drought. Although it may not be uti1i:zed regularly in the 

modern Enewetakese dietary, it should be planted widely as a regular as 

well as emergency source of food. It spreads rapidly and requires very 

little care. 

4.8. 1.2 Commercial Crops. The commercial or cash crops of choice, 

and of necessity, is the coconut; also it is the subsistence base of the 

~eople. The produce of commerce is the dried meat of the mature 

coconut, known in the trade as copra. Copra is the major source of 

coconut oil, one of the important world sources of edible oils; and also 

is a source of oil for soap manufacture. World production of copra 

entering the marketplace exceeds a million tons per year. ~ocal 

consumption in the form of edible oils and other products probably 

equals this production. The U. S. Trust Territories are reported to 
have approximately 76, 000 acres devoted to copra production and this is 

one of the major exports of the Trust Territories. Production from 

Enewetak Atoll will be handled through the normal commercial channels 

in the Marshall Islands. 

Copra, or coconut production, is extremely difficult to predict 

because of two basic variables: one is the anticipated yield of coconuts 

per palm at full bearing which depends on soil capability, weather 

conditions, and the genetic quality of the seed sources, all of which 

affect both the quantity of nuts produced per tree and the number of 

coconuts required to produce a ton of copra. The second variable is the 

quantity of coconuts required to meet the subsistence requirements of 

the inhabitants of the atoll which come from the same general plantation 

resource. Table 4-3 represents an effort to indicate the absolute range 

of potential copra production from the atoll as a whole. The analysis 

assumes a total of approximately 60,000 coconut palms bearing within 

all islands of the atoll. The range of nut production per tree is from 10 

to 100, with the most probable yield range from 40 to 60. One level of 

subsistence consumption is shown, the equivalent of 10, 000 palms. The 

probable range of production of copra for the entire atoll is between 333 

tons and 600 tons per year, with the highest probability at about 450 tons. 

The range of income to the atoll for copra production is between $30, 000 

and $54, 000 with a high probability of a return of about $40, 000 per year 

from this source. 

4.8. 1. 3 Medicinal Plants. A number of endemic and introduced plants 

are utilized for medicinal purposes. Prominent among these are the 

Morinda citrifolia, or "nen;" Scaevola taccada (sericea), or "kunat;" 

Mes serschmidia agentea, or 'fkirin;" Guettarda speciosa, or "wiittlomar ;I' 

Dodder or Cuscuta sanwhichiana; Triurnfetta; Allophylus; and the papaya 
No. of Nuts 

Per Tree 

Average 

10 

20 

30 

40 

5 0 

6 0 

70 

80 

9 0 

100 

TABLE 4-3 

TREE YIELD AS BASIS FOR COPRA PRODUCTION 

NO. of ~uts 

Per Acre 

Average 

700 

1,400 

2,100 

2,800 

3,500 

4,200 

' 4,900 

5,600 

6,300 

7,000 

50,000 Trees 60,000 Trees 

copra(') Copra 

Potential potential Income 

Tons Total Tons Potential 

83 $ 7,470 100 $ 9,000 

167 15,030 200 18,000 

250 22, 500 3 00 27,000 

333 29, 970 400 36, 000 

417 37, 530 500 45,000 

500 45,000 600 54,000 

58 3 42,470 700 63,000 

667 60, 030 800 72,000 

750 

833 

67, 500 

74, 970 1,000 900 I 81,000 

90, 000 

(1) Based on average of 6,000 coconuts per ton of copra. 

(2) Based on current copra prices Enewetak of $90.00 per ton. 
Carica papaya. Other plants also are used within the native pharmacopaea, 

but due to the secretive nature of such use and treatment of illness, little 

is known of this element. 

4.8. 1.4 Exotic Plants. The Enewetak people at Ujelang have 

apparently become acquainted with and indicate a desire to utilize a 

number of exotic or introduced plant species within their dietary. These 

include such plants as papaya, banana, citrus (lime), squash, and other 

vegetables. The regular or even occasional use of these foods would 

enhance and add balance to the normal dietary of this area. It should be 

noted, however, that soils and climate are likely to be marginal for 

production of these plants without irrigation and intensive horticultural 

care. Inputs of labor and limited water resources may not justify 

planting of these crops uriless individuals or families wish to do so 

independently. 

4.8. 1. 5 Aesthetic Plants. Other plants which are considered of 

aesthetic value and cultural significance should not be left out of the 

planting program. These plants, some of which are utilized as local 

medicines and some of which are maintained for their landscaping and 

social values, are as follows: Morinda or "nen" (Morinda citrifolia), 

Guettarda or "wut" (Guettarda speciosa), bird's nest fern or I1kartep" 

(Asplenium nidus), ground fern or "kino" (Microsorium scolopendria), 

syn. & phymatodes, P.- scolopendria (Burm), spider lily or "~iob" 

(Crinum asiaticum), False Kamani or "kodal" (Terminalia catappa), 

Kamani or "lwuiweji" (Calophyllum inophyllum). Most of these plants 

could be located growing in virgin areas especially, although some may 

have to be introduced from other sources. Mes serschmidia, Scaevola, 

and Vigna also are important cultural plants, although these are found 

in practically all areas of the atoll. 
4.8.2 Land Clearing and Preparation 

4.8.2. 1 Removal of Undesirable Facilities. Undesirable buildings, 

structures considered dangerous to the returning people, broken concrete 

slabs, and other debris will be removed from all islands within the atoll 

during the major cleanup operation and will cant-ribute to making full use 

of all agriculturally useful lands. Land clearing in preparation for 

agricultural development will consist primarily of removal of existing 

concrete slabs and buildings remaining after cleanup operations, trees, 

brush and shrubs, and ground cover which would prevent or substantially 

reduce optimum land use. Much of this work will be carried out with 

medium bulldozers preferably equipped with rake blades rather than 

straight blades. Every effort must be made to minimize damage to 

the soil profile and all organic material must be conserved for incorporation in the soil. 

All organic material of suitable size will be shredded or chopped 

into compost for incorporation in planting holes and for general spreading 

over the ground surface. The land to be planted will be selectively 

cleared with great care taken to retain valuable trees and food plants and 

to retain existing windbreak areas. A typical planting pattern with 

windbreak area is shown on Plate #37. 

Land leveling or grading will be required only in those areas where 

initial clearing operations have left the land in a rough condition, to level 

old sand and gravel stockpiles, and to fill old borrow pits. Some minor 

leveling can be carried out during the brush remov-al phases. 

4.8. 2.2 Soil Replenishing and Field Mulching. Agricultural rehabilitation 

of the islands, and particularly those islands where heavy construction 

and movement of heavy vehicles has destroyed or disturbed the normal 

soil profile, absolutely will require replenishment of the organic 
A non- bearing pandanus(w ild) 

VY PI CAL PLANTING IPATTERN 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

HOMES 

. -

& NARVER.INC. 

.csc.,.c, ,c C.', C0"P.W. 

,<.- oa .ca., ."< .. -".* 
(humic) content of the soil. The soils in these low atolls are essentially 

coral sands and coraline soils. Inherent soil fertility is low at best and 

is held almost entirely within the organic fraction of the top few inches 

of the soil which is subject to very rapid breakdown when exposed. 

Organic replenishment of the soils could be carried out through 

natural means, e. g., by allowing a slow accumulation of material 

through the natural growth and spread of trees and shrubs. However, 

this process is extremely slow, involving many years, and any crop 

yields during this period would be marginal at best. 

Trees, branches, shrubs, and all available plant material can be 

shredded, chopped, or disintegrated by rakes and shredders, and 

stockpiled for incorporation into the planting holes. In fact, this 

process is advocated for the three or four residentiallagricultural 

islands, and also for those islands intended for intensive agricultural 

use. However, it is doubtful that sufficient plant cover to adequately 

replenish the needed organic material for all potential agricultural 

areas presently exists on all islands (or even on all areas of each 

island). Therefore, it is recommended that serious consideration be 

given to importation from other areas, possibly the Pacific Northwest, 

of large quantities of organic matter (bark, wood chips, sawdust, etc. ) 

for incorporation into deficient soil areas. 

Planting Plan 

4.8. 3. 1 Plant Selection and Sources. The major seed require.ment will 

be approximately 100, 000 selected seed coconuts. This estimate is 

based on the anticipation that failure or slow germination and culling of 

seedlings in the plant nurseries will eliminate up to 40 percent of the 

total nuts obtained. Other plant material requirements will include 

approximately 2, 300 rooted breadfruit plants and 3,450 pandanus 
cuttings. Other materials such as lime plants, banana suckers, papaya 

seeds, and similar materials will also be required but in lesser 

quantities. Utmost care should be taken in selecting the sources of 

these seed requirements since poor seed will produce plants of inherently 

poor yields. 

Table 4-3, which analyzes the potential copra yields of the atoll, 

also indicates the extreme importance of careful seed selection. Soil 

and climatic factors establish the potential productivity of any area, but 

only plants derived from high yielding parentage will achieve the highest 

potential yields within the environment. Table 4-3 shows how the number 

of nuts produced by coconut trees will control the ultimate copra 

production of the atoll. 

High yielding coconuts and other selected plants such as breadfruit 

and pandanus have been introduced into the Marshall Islands and other 

areas of the Trust Territories. Seed coconuts of the desirable "Tifu" 

and "Nugget" varieties could be obtained from both Jaluit and Namorik 

atolls in sufficient quantities. Rooted cuttings of breadfruit, on the other 

hand, should be purchased primarily from Lae and Ujae atolls. Due to 

incidence of the so-called "Pingelap" disease in the southern atolls 

(Namorik, Kili, Jaluit, Mili, Ebon, and possibly Majuro), no breadfruit 

propagative materials should be purchased from these areas. Pandanus, 

commonly propagated by cuttings (from branches which have formed 

aerial roots), could also be purchased from both Lae and Ujae. 

Should high quality seed stocks of sufficient quantity not be 

available from relatively close sources, no hesitation should be made 

at going further. Seed stocks obtained outside of the Marshall Islands 

will be subject to strict quarantine surveillance. Similarly, great 

efforts are justified in obtaining the highest quality and best yielding 
breadfruit and pandanus cuttings and rooted pla-nts, since the long term 

yields will justify considerable additional cost of obtaining and transporting the best available seed. 

Strict control should be imposed and quarantine measures taken 

for all planting material (and organic material of all kinds) brought into 

Enewetak. Propagative materials apparently in.fes ted with ins ects should 

be disinfected accordingly or properly discarded. A close watch should 

be kept for possible introduction of the scale insect (Cocus elongatus) 

and others of the family Coccidae. These insects are pests in many 

atolls and attack pandanus, breadfruit, banana, and many other plants. 

4. 8. 3. 2 Nursery Care. Plant nurseries will be established on all four 

of the major islands, e. g. , Enjebi, Japtan, Medren, and Enewetak, 

which are intended for residential/agricultural utilization, where seeds 

and developing plants can be given good care and where supplemental 

irrigation is good. These nurseries will accommodate coconuts, 

breadfruit, and pandanus; and they also will maintain sources of banana, 

citrus, papaya, and other introduced plants for use by individuals as 

may be desired. Ornamentals also may be maintained in the nurseries 

to meet the desires of the people. 

Nurseries will not require large areas of land since an acre will 

accommodate up to 40, 000 seed coconuts. Japtan, for example, would 

require little more than one-third of an acre for this purpose. Each 

nursery should be adequately fenced to protect growing plants from pigs 

and poultry. A source of water should be available to provide supplemental irrigation of the nurseries during dry periods without adequate 

rain. Nursery areas should be kept free of weeds and carefully mulched 

to conserve water and for protection of the plants from excessive heat and 

drying out. Breadfruit seedlings should be provided with partial shade 
for protection from excessive heat and sunlight. The nurseries should 

be established approximately 6 months prior to the planned planting 

date to ensure plants of the proper size and vigor at time of final planting. 

Final planting operations must be scheduled to conform with the periods 

of adequate rain as shown in Plate #38. 

4.8. 3. 3 Planting and Mulching of Plants. Planting plans must be 

prepared in detail for all islands and should indicate all phases of the 

development program: 

e Clearing. 

e Grading and leveling. 

e Survey and layout of planting areas (including both subsistence 

crop areas and copra areas). 

e Preparation of planting holes (including placement of plastic 

liner and replenishment of organic matter). 

e Lifting, transporting, and planting of seedlings. 

e Watering in. 

e Mulching of newly planted seedlings. 

4.8. 3.4 Planting. The planting of coconut involves essentially the 

placing of the seedling in t*he prepared hole and burying it with sand to 

about the base of the growing portion of the-plant. Where wind is 

prevalent, a wooden stake is required to secure the young seedlings. 

The planting of breadfruit requires overhead shade to protect the 

growing plant from direct sunlight. The whole box should be planted 

along with the breadfruit plant as transplanting (from box to hole) would 

damage delicate root hairs necessary for growth. A wooden stake is 

also required for securing the breadfruit plant against heavy winds. 

Pandanus plants are hardier than breadfruit and should be planted in 

the same manner as coconut seedlings. The use of a wooden stake is 

normally not required. 

Lagoon 

Ocean 
-- -- 

-

Lagoon 

-. . 

.............. ..........^.....:._ .: ...<".. .................. ...................... .... ... .................... .......................................... 

I 

Ocean 

I 

i 

I 

I 

I 
0 400 800 1200 ft. 

I -

U S COAST GUARD 

LORAN FACILITY -\ 

LI Way Station 

Industrial & Maintenance 

Utilities [-I B .. .. .. . uffer or Recreational 

0Housing & lnstitutional/~ommercial 

Leased Area 

BASIC LAND USE PLAN - ENEWETAK ISLAND 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

ENEWETAK ATOCL MAS- PLAN ate 

Ha_MeSENACNERRW. 38 .-----..--.-

-

-. --"- m.1973 
4.8.3. 5 Mulching. The mulching of individual plants after they are 

placed in the ground is suggested here as a means of ground moisture 

conservation and weed control. A utilization of polyethylene clear 

plastic spread 2-112 to 3 feet in diameter around each plant is suggested. 

This method should be used primarily on breadfruit and coconut plants 

and as deemed necessary on pandanus. 

4.8. 3.6 Planting of Ground Cover. The planting of ground cover utilizing 

Vigna marina, a leguminous vine, in the coconut groves is recommended. 

Growth of Vigna marina should be encouraged in the field and in areas 

where it does not interfere with the growing food plants. This plant 

functions not only as a moisture conservation agent (ground cover), but 

also enriches soil fertility and therefore is considered an extremely 

valuable plant in atoll agriculture. 

4.8.4 Maintenance Plan 

The proper maintenance of the growing p1ant:s is considered the 

most important aspect of the planting program. Although initial planting 

would commence during the wet season (midMay to December), irrigation 

of the growing plants at least for the first year after initial planting, and 

especially during the dry season, would be required. The spot or direct 

irrigation method is recommended as opposed to an overhead sprinkler 

s ys tem. 

As no hydrological study of Enewetak is available at this writing, 

it is recommended that rainwater be utilized as the sole source of 

irrigation water. Construction of water reservoirs with a minimum 

capacity of 50,000 gallons in areas where planting is to take place is 

suggested. Judicious use of irrigation water is very important and 

should be constantly borne in mind. 

4. 8.4. 1 Fertilization. There is a definite need :€or the use of 

commercial fertilizers. The selection of commercial fertilizers should 

be made only after the fertilization requirements of the soils have been 

determined. It i's possible that some of the results obtained from 

experiments and fertilization studies on coconut seedlings and palms 

conducted by the Philippine Coconut Research Center may be applied to 

the planting on Enewetak. (See "Fertilization Studies on Coconuts at 

the Philippine Coconut Research Institute, 'I by A. M. R. Mendoza and 

R. L. Prudente, 1972. ) Addition of trace elements in the chelate form, 

especially magnesium and iron chelates, also is suggested. 

4.8.4. 2 Grove Maintenance. Adequate maintenance of the coconut, 

breadfruit, and pandanus plantings is mandatory to avoid competition of 

weeds with the growing plants. At least a monthly cutting down of weeds 

and other unwanted vegetation in the coconut groves is recommended. 

The use of herbicide or weedicide for weed control also is 

suggested but with limitations. The herbicide 2, 4-D is suggested for 

use in the control of broad leaf weeds only around coconut and pandanus 

plantings, but 'should never be used around breadfruit plantings as they 

are highly susceptible to the chemical. Hand weeding or brushing of 

crawling weeds should be done around breadfruit plantings as required. 

The use of the chemical 2, 4-D should be carried out only by personnel 

familiar with the chemical, and the manufacturer' s instructions should 

always be followed. 

The polyethylene mulch on individual plants should be properly 

maintained. 

4.8.4. 3 Rat Control. An effective rat control program should be 

initiated and continued throughout the development and mature phase of 
the agricultural plan. Adequate information on successful methods for 

rat eradication can be obtained elsewhere in the Marshalls. 

4.8. 5 Planting Locations 

4. 8. 5. 1 Populated Islands. In view of the limited resources available 

within the atoll for residential and community needs, for subsistence 

and for the production of cash crops, it is essential that maximum use 

be made of the land. However, there also is a need to provide for the 

psychological and cultural requirements of the people, and this must 

modify the purely agricultural or economic solutions to the major 

problem. 

Four of the major islands of the atoll will be utilized for 

residential/agricultur al use, with emphasis being placed on the development of Enjebi and Medren as centers of population. Initially Japtan will 

be developed and utilized as a temporary base for the Enewetak 

people who have requested participation in the rehabilitation effort. 

Following completion of the initial phases of the development of the four 

major islands and agricultural development of the remaining twelve 

islands, Japtan may revert to utilization principally as an agricultural 

resource with minimal residential use. Alternatively, Enewetak Island 

may be utilized as a residential/agriculturaI site in place of Medren. 

Agricultural development must be carried on in close relationship 

with the village and community plans, with the residential clusters of 

the ~atoas the focus of the plan. The residential cluster will be placed 

inland from the lagoon beach, and will be protected from exposure by 

plantings of pandanus, breadfruit, and coconuts, which will provide 

windbreaks, storm shelter, shade, food, and firewood. There may also 

be planted, dependent on individual desire and inclination, bananas, 

lime, and vegetable gardens, and ornamental plants such as spider lily, 
eroton, hibiscus, and plumeria. In effect the village areas are wholly or 

partially surrounded with subsistence crops. The commercial plantings, 

solely of coconuts, will be placed to the interior of the island and toward 

the ocean. There should be no clear-cut and permanent boundary 

delineating the residential clusters, village centers, subsistence crops, 

and commercial crops; but instead, these areas will blend almost 

imperceptably from one area of emphasis to another. 

4. 8. 5. 1. 1 Enjebi (see Plate #15). Enjebi Island is the second largest island 

in the atoll and falls in the driEnjebi area of the Erlewetak Atoll political 

land division. The island encompasses a total land mass of 291 acres, 

210 acres of which are considered suitable for agricultural development. 

The topography of the island has been severely altered and with the 

exception of several pits and depressions, the island is practically level. 

Many wild shrubs, primarily Mes serschmidia argentia, Scaevola 

frutescens, Guettarda speciosa, weeds, and ground cover (hpomea 

pescaprea), are found growing throughout the island. A narrow coral 

airstrip running southwesterly across the island is also covered by wild 

vegetation. A good deal of ground breaking will be required in preparation 

for planting in this area. 

The island traditionally consists of 15?watos, and the area 

considered suitable for agricultural plantings could accommodate 

approximately 14,000 to 15,000 new coconut plantings. A minimum of 

10 breadfruit trees, 15 pandanus trees of the edible species, and 15 

coconuts of the dwarf variety per wato is recommended. Pandanus of 

the textile variety will be planted in the windbreak areas. 

The bulk of work anticipated for Enjebi would involve massive land 

clearing and compost making. Existing vegetation (with the exception of 
vegetation to be reserved as windbreak) will be utilized as compost 

material during the initial cleaning phase. 

4.8. 5. 1.2 Medren (see Plate #16). Medren Island is the third largest 

island in the atoll with a total land area of 220 acres. Unlike Enjebi, 

Medren is longer than it is wide and tapers off at the south end of the 

island. The estimated suitable acreage for agricultural plantings is 

approximately 193 acres. 

Medren has been changed from mass construction activities and 

the soil profile has been severely altered. The island is leveled off and 

dotted with concrete slabs and other construction remains. Although no 

extensive leveling work will be required, considerable work will be 

involved in brushing and cleanup of abandoned concrete slabs, buildings, 

and other construction debris. Future use of some existing buildings 

and possibly concrete slabs for copra drying should be considered prior 

to initial cleanup of the island. 

The land area considered suitable for agricultural development will 

accommodate approximately 12,000 to 13,000 new coconut plantings. 

Coconut trees currently growing and in good condition should be left in 

place and properly cultivated and/or thinned where necessary. The 

island with its 12 ~atoswould require a minimum of 120 breadfruit and 

180 pandanus trees of the recommended varieties and at least 180 

plantings of the dwarf coconut variety. 

4.8. 5. 1. 3 Enewetak Island (see Plate #17). Enewetak Island is the 

largest single island in the atoll and possibly the least important of the 

four main islands in terms of potential agricultural usage (from a cost 

standpoint). The island has a total land area of approximately 322 acres 

(a little over half a square mile), of which approximately 193 acres could 

be of some agricultural value. This area would accommodate approximately 10, 000 new coconut trees. The island with its 30 ~atoswould 
require approximately 300 breadfruit and 450 pandanus trees and at least 

180 plantings of the dwarf coconut variety. 

The 193 acres of agriculturally usable land on Enewetak Island 

can be obtained only by extensive removal of existing paved taxiways, 

aircraft parking areas, buildings, and concrete slabs. Results of 

planting in an area under those conditions are unknown with the possible 

exception of the coconut plantation along the old runway at Majuro which 

was planted with poor results in 1959. 

The Enewetak people should be encouraged to inhabit Medren in 

lieu of Enewetak which could be developed for some commercial use as 

indicated in Section 5. However, the island should have an agricultural 

economy regardless of the outcome of its use for commercial purposes. 

The runway in its entirety will be retained along with the usable buildings 

and facilities in the main camp area near the north end of the island. 

4.8. 5. 1.4 Japtan (see Plate #18). Japtan Island with a total land area 

of 79 acres is the fifth largest island in the atoll. Approximately 63 

acres are considered suitable for agricultural planting. Unlike most of 

the larger islands in the atoll, Japtan did not incur extensive damage 

from occupation. A portion of the western section of the island is still 

in its natural state, hosting a variety of indigenous plants such as 

Guettarda speciosa ("wut"), Morinda citrifolia ("nen"), and Pisonia 

prandis ("kangae"), aside from the common shrubs Messerschmidia 

("kirin1I), and Scaevola (I1kunat"). A considerable portion of the eastern 

part of the island, however, has been leveled off and the soil much 

disturbed from construction activities. 

Japtan will be a staging center for the Enewetak workers. The 

island hosts a good number of bearing coconut trees, making it a 

desirable site for a staging camp. The land area considered suitable 
for agriculture would accommodate 3, 700 to 3,800 new coconut 

plantings. The existing coconut trees should be encouraged, thinned 

out where needed, and maintained. A minimum of 100 breadfruit, 

300 pandanus, and 300 dwarf coconut trees is recommended for 

additional planting. 

Some leveling work on the island would be required, especially 

on the western portion of the island. A few stands of Guettarda speciosa 

and Morinda citrifolia, plants of cultural significance, should be 

preserved and used as possible future propagative sources for islands 

lacking them. Other vegetation should be converted to compost during 

the initial clearing. The construction of a water reservoir for irrigation 

purposes is recommended. 

4.8. 5.2 Nonpopulated Agricultural Islands. (See Plate #14. ) Certain 

islands in the atoll, listed as Group II in Table 4- 1, were traditionally 

utilized on an exclusive agricultural basis in support of the major 

islands of Enjebi, Medren, and Enewetak. The Enewetak people 

have expressed a strong desire to have these islands rehabilitated and 

again utilized for agricultural uses in support of the inhabited islands. 

Further, there is a definite requirement to develop these islands to 

support the future population growth, which is projected to be approximately 300 persons on Enjebi and 450 persons on Medren or Enewetak 

by the year 1983, as indicated in Plate #5. These islands and their 

estimated usable acreage are listed in Table 4-4. The total usable land 

area of 328 acres contained in these islands will support approximately 

16,700 coconut seednuts, 480 breadfruit plants, and 1,150 pandanus 

cuttings. 

Work should be initiated on the remaining islands during the 

second planting phase. Runit Island was extensively altered due to past 
TABLE 4-4 

ISLAND SUMMARY - PLANTING REQUIREMENTS 

Usable Dwarf 

Is land Acreage Coconut Coconut Breadfruit Pandanus 

Enjebi 216.58 14,735 2 10 140 210 

Medren 192.70 12,824 18 0 120 18 0 

Enewetak 165.96 10,110 45 0 300 450 

Japtan 62.93 3,755 300 100 300 

Subtotal 638.17 41,424 1, 140 660 1,140 

Runit 41.43 2,517 ----- 86 213 

Alembel 22.75 1,394 ----- 45 112 

Aomon 126.39 4,014 ----- 110 264 

Bijile 34.09 2,138 ----- 59 114 

Lojwa 25.17 1,776 ----- 49 11 7 

Lujo r 37.50 2,331 ----- 67 167 

Aej 27.50 1,736 ----- 45 112 

Anani j 13.13 819 -- --- 23 158 

Subtotal 327.96 16,725 ----- 48 4 1,157 

Kidrinen 13.07 941 ----- ----- -----

Mijikadrek 12.06 868 ----- ----- -----

Bokenelab 6.07 43 6 ----- .----- -----

Elle 5.31 382 -- --- ----- ----- -

Subtotal 36.51 2,627 ----- ----- -----

TOTAL 1002.64 60,776 1, 140 1,144 2,297 
operations which will require considerable cleanup and rehabilitation 

prior to agricultural development. 

4.8. 5. 3 Food Gathering and Picnic Islands. (See Plate #14. ) The 

remaining inhabited islands in the atoll will be used primarily for 

gathering birds and eggs, turtles and eggs, coconut crabs, pandanus, 

-

iu, copra, firewood, fishing, and family picnicking. The islands include

the following: 

s Biken, Kiddrenen, Ribewon, Boken, Mut, Ikuren, Louj, 

Kirunu, Bokombako, Bokoluo, and others. Most of these 

islands presently serve as bird sanctuaries and are fairly 

remote from areas chosen as population centers. With 

the exception of two islands which are believed to be of 

significant agricultural importance, the re st of the islands 

should be preserved as principal areas for food gathering 

and family picnicking activities. 

e The islands of Mut and Ikuren, neighboring islands located 

in close proximity to the south channel into the lagoon, are 

both fairly large in size (about 40 acres each) and should 

sustain substantial agricultural plantings. An estimated 

64 usable acres could support a minimum of 4, 500 new 

coconut plantings. Both islands are currently hosting 

coconut palms of the endemic species which should be 

encouraged and properly cultivated. The two islands also 

can accommodate approximately 130 breadfruit trees and 

320 pandanus plantings. As they are located a short 

distance across the south channel from Enewetak Island, 

it is possible that these islands could be utilized as small 

residential islands should Enewetak Island be subsequently 
leased out and Medren become overcrowcled in future 

years. 

4.8.6 Agricultural Summary 

The total land area considered suitable for agricultural development on both populated and nonpopulated islands is approximately 960 

acres. The acreage available for agricultural development and the 

number and species of plantings for each island are listed in Table 4-4. 

For planting purposes approximately 100, 000 cocorlut seeds would be 

required for nursery care and selection for planting in the plantations. 

A minimum of 2, 300 breadfruit plants, 3,450 pandanus cuttings, and 

2, 300 dwarf coconut seeds also would be required. The estimated 

quantities are based on the anticipation that failure, slow germination, 

growth deformities, and possibly unhealthy trees will eliminate up to 

40 percent of the total nuts purchased. The mortal.ity rate of breadfruit 

plants is considered to be 50 percent and pandanus cuttings are estimated 

to have a 70 percent survival rate or higher. 

As stated by both Messrs. Manuel A. Tenorio and David H. 

Butchart, agricultural consultants, hydrological surveys must be 

conducted on all islands selected for planting to determine the extent, 

capacity, salinity, and alkalinity of the freshwater lens. The results 

of the surveys will assist in the final assessment of the lens as 

potential sources of irrigation. A rat eradication ,program for all 

islands is recornmended and should be developed during the detailed 

agricultural planning phase of the program. 

5. REVIEW OF POTENTIALS FOR ECONOMIC D:EVELOPMEN 

5. REVIEW OF POTENTIALS FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 

The people of Enewetak prior to and during their sojourn on 

Ujelang, have developed a liking for products from the outside world 

such as outboard motors, rice, canned meat, and other imported 

goods. To support these tastes into the future, the people must develop 

an economy on Enewetak Atoll which will contribute something to the 

outside world in return. Indeed, the atoll has considerable promise 

in this respect. In this chapter, potentials for economic development 

are surveyed, areas of greatest opportunities pointed out, and outlines 

sketched of a legallbusines s structure which could bring these 

potentials into actuality while safeguarding all interests of the Enewetak 

people. 

5.1 OVERVIEW 

This discussion will begin by summarizing the assets and 

liabilities of the atoll as an economic resource. On the negative 

side, the atoll consists of a tiny bit of dry land, 2.75 square miles, 

spread among 39 islands situated in the middle of a vast ocean. The 

atoll is 2, 100 miles from Japan, 2,500 miles from Honolulu, 1, 100 miles 

from Guam, and 360 miles from Kwajalein. The land is sandy and 

relatively infertile, rainfall is sparse, and markets and sources of 

skilled manpower are at great distances. 

On the other hand, the atoll contains a lagoon of striking beauty, 

occupying 388 square miles and teeming with marine life. The main 

island of Enewetak was previously a busy military base and as such 

contains many facilities which suit it ideally as a commercial1 

industrial center. Among these facilities are a modern jet airport 
with an 8, 000-foot runway, a petroleum storage facility, repair shops, 

warehouses, cold storage lockers, piers, mess halls, dormitory 

buildings, swimming pool, etc. 

From the standpoint of basic geography, those economic 

activities requiring large amounts of land, fresh water or, because 

of distance, shipment of bulk commodities, are not feasible. Thus, 

large scale agricultural and manufacturing activities can be ruled 

out. On a smaller scale however, there will be copra production, 

handicrafts (shells and corals), and possibly there could be small 

amounts of fruit, vegetables and meat produced for markets in nearby 

islands such as Kwajalein (Ebeye). Initially, the most interesting 

export item will be salvage materials. Subsequently, the most 

interesting export items are fishery products. Even here, because of 

long shipping distances and limited labor resources, emphasis must 

be on high profit per pound items. Thus the focus initially must be on 

smoked fish and other gourmet and delicacy items, such as lobster 

tail, shell fish, and shark fin, rather than bulk fish catches. 

One other possibility of major interest for the atoll is "way 

station service" by which the airport could serve passing aircraft 

as a refueling stop. The existing port facilities similarly could 

serve ship traffic and fishing vessels operating in the vicinity as a 

resupply and rest point. 

The atoll has distinct promise for "institutional use". It 

already contains the Eniwetok Marine Biological Laboratory, 

operated by the University of Hawaii under the auspices of the AEC. 

Discussions have been held concerning the enlargement of this 

laboratory into a research center specializing in atoll and fisheries 
research. Similarly, the possibility has been disc.ussed of 

establishing a "Community College of The Marsha1:l Islands. 'I 

Such an institution would complement the EMBL and would be 

clearly a great asset to the economy of the atoll. 

Finally, there is the possibility of tourism. Here, there is 

vast difference of opinion, ranging from those who ask "with all the 

islands in the Pacific, why would a tourist go there? 'I, to those who 

point out the unusual beauty of the lagoon, sport fishing potential, 

and historical interest. 

It is believed that while the tourism potential in this atoll might 

not impress a Las Vegas operator, viewed on a scale with the 

population of the islands the tourist trade, properly promoted, could 

make a very significant contribution to the economy of the atoll. 

The potential for economic development is there. The degree 

of success will depend on the imagination and industry of the people who 

undertake the development. To develop this potential an inflow of outside expertise and capital will be required. The final section of this 

chapter presents a plan for acquiring this inflow while protecting the 

interests of the Enewetakes e. The intervening sections discuss the 

various development po ssibilities individually. 

5.2 EXISTING SALVAGEABLE ASSETS 

There is an abundance of salvageable material on Enewetak Atoll 

left over from the Nuclear Testing Operations which represents a 

possible source of income for the Enewetakese. The holdings of the 

people could be expanded to include such salvageable items as submarine 

and land cable with copper conductors and iron and steel scrap. The 

people could subcontract the salvage rights to a reputable company for 

a percentage of the gross profits. 
There are several hundred miles of armored submarine cable in 

the lagoon, all with copper conductors as well as a large quantity of 

wire and cable on land. With the current price of copper scrap at 

$. 60 per pound, a salvage operation might prove to be profitable. 

There could be as much as 20,000 tons of s tee1 scrap on Enewetak 

and Medren which could be relatively easy to salvage. It is composed 

mostly of shore line debris and derelict landing craft on the lagoon 

beaches. Due to the location of these islands, there would be no 

danger of radiologically contaminated scrap being mixed in with 

noncontaminated metal debris. However, the current price of ferrous 

metal scrap at the time of salvage would be the governing factor in 

detkrmining the economic feasibility of this operation. 

A large number of metal buildings will become excess after the 

cleanup operation. Although some will be used for permanent community 

center facilities on Medren and Enjebi and parts will be retained for 

repair, there appears to be no use for the remainder. It appears 

feasible that these excess buildings could be sold to the TTPI or 

others for use on other atolls rather than salvaged for scrap. 

It is suggested that if an agreement is reached between the 

people and a salvage contractor, the agreement include a provision 

to employ as many Enewetakese in the salvage operation as may 

be practicable. 

5.3 AGRICULTURE 

5.3.1 Copra 

Copra has been the traditional "cash crop" of the Marshall 

Islanders. Although a market for copra exists in the Marshall Islands 

through the United Micronesia Development Association (UMDA), prices 
fluctuate, but of late have been quite depressed and the overall return 

in dollars per labor hour is low. The existing coconut palm trees at 

Enewetak Atoll are not in sufficient numbers to produce marketable 

quantities of copra. New trees which will be planted during the 

rehabilitation program will take 7- 10 years to mature and start 

producing nuts. After maturity it is estimated, using today's prices, 

tha copra could bring the people approximately $40,000 in income per 

year. 

5.3.2 Breadfruit. Pandanus. Banana, and Pa~ava 

These plants are low in salt tolerance and consequently must be 

limited to the central and leeward areas of the larger islands. The 

establishment of these plants is very desirable to provide needed 

staples and variety in the diet of the Enewetak peop1.e. However, even 

when established, the total production from these pl.ants will be small. 

Quantities of produce sufficient for export are not foreseen. 

5.3.3 Vegetables 

Vegetables such as tomatoes, Chinese cabbage, etc., have been 

grown on the islands in the past, and if reestablished could supplement 

the subsistence foods of the Enewetak people. Central nurseries could 

be established on the home islands. Plants. could be transplanted 

from these nurseries to the WZtos where they would be cared for and 

harvested by individual family groups. The production of vegetables 

in this manner is expected to be mainly for internal consumption 

rather than for export. However, it is understood that there is a 

market for produce as well as for fresh meat and fish in other parts 

of the Marshalls, especially Kwajalein (Ebeye). It i s recommended 

that a study be conducted to determine the fea.sibility of developing 

a vegetable export business. 
5.3.4 Hydroponics 

Hydroponic gardening techniques are being developed in several 

parts of the world as methods for production of large quantities of good 

quality vegetables. However, difficulties are involved which would have 

to be overcome. Facilities would have to be constructed to house a 

hydroponics operation. Personnel would requi.re considerable training 

in hydroponics techniques, including procurement of chemicals, 

preparation and application of nutrient solutions, combat of plant 

diseases, etc. The existence of scholarships in this area should be 

explored. The hydroponic approach is a long range possibility for 

Enewetak but is not viewed as a significant business prospect in the 

near term. 

5.3.5 Farm Animals 

Chickens and pigs are found throughout Micronesia and are two 

important food sources for the Enewetak people. Commercial feed 

for these animals, however, is not readily available. As a result these 

animals are raised only for local consumption and not in sufficient 

numbers for sale to outsiders. There is little possibility that hog and 

poultry raising for commercial purposes could be established on 

Enewetak. However, if future development-of Enewetak produces 

sufficient quantities of garbage it may be feasible to raise hogs 

commercially. 

5.4 INSTITUTIONAL USE 

The U. S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) has indicated that the 

Eniwetok Marine Biological Laboratory (EMBL) will continue to operate 

in a limited fashion under AEC sponsorship as it has in the past. This 
laboratory could become the basis for a major scientific center serving 

Micronesia and particularly the Marshalls. The work of the EMBL 

would focus on the study of atolls, lagoons, and the oceanography of 

that part of the Pacific. The impact of the laboratory and its potential 

for obtaining support would be most excellent if its work had a strong 

practical "applied science" approach. Clearly, there is a need for 

this type of work. As an example, more definitive work needs to be 

done on the certification and location of commercially useful sea life. 

Bait fish need to be located. Methods for harvesting, processing, and 

shipping need to be developed. Research on fish poisoning (ciguatera) 

is needed. Life cycles and ecologies need to be studied so that optimum 

yields may be quantified and fisheries management policies established. 

Various mariculture ideas need to be applied to lagoon environments 

and developed to a practical stage. 

Last, but not least, the laboratory could serve the economy of the 

region significantly by taking on responsibility for communicating 

practical scientific and economic know how to the local populace. It is 

in this connection that the possibility has been discussed of establishing a 

"Community College of The Marshall Islands" in conjunction with the 

EMBL. Together, the two institutions could offer formal classroom 

work, vocational style training, seminars,. short courses, and 

demonstration projects. They could bring the benefits of western 

technology to the people while retaining the values and traditions of 

Marshalles e culture. 

The EMBL is presently located on Enewetak Island which contains 

several existing structures that could be adapted to institutional 

functions. The existing three- story dormitory could provide adequate 

student and faculty housing, while teaching and research could be 
conducted in other conveniently located buildings in the area. Thus, the 

capital investment required to start these institutions would be 

minimal. 

It is also recommended that after rehabilitation of the atoll the 

temporary housing facilities on Japtan be considered for use in a small 

educational/tourist type subcenter tied to the commercial development 

of Enewetak Island. 

5.5 FISHERIES 

5.5.1 Sharks 

The abundance of sharks in Enewetak waters is legendary. These 

animals represent a valuable resource. There is on the one hand a 

great demand for shark products in various parts of the world. On the 

other hand it is clearly desirable to reduce the shark population, 

especially in the lagoon. Thus a menace could sharply be reduced and 

at the same time a profit made by harvesting these animals. 

The most saleable parts of the shark are the pectoral, dorsal, and 

lower lobe of the caudal fins. These parts are used in shark fin soup, 

an oriental delicacy. Correspondence with merchants in Hong Kong 

and elsewhere indicates that they will take as many shark fins as they 

can get at prices ranging around $4 per pound. 

Shark meat and shark skins are also marketable products. For 

many species it is necessary to soak the meat before it becomes edible, 

but this is a fairly simple process. Treated this way, shark fillets are 

reported to be delicious, co-mparable to swordfish steaks. Shark skins 

make very tough high quality leather. For shipment, shark skins are 

dried and placed in stacks which are rolled into tight bundles. The skins 

of large sharks have the greatest value and bring $0.50 to $1. 00 per 

pound . 
Sharks in general have enormous livers. Shark liver oil at one 

time was a major source of vitamin A. However, the demand for this 

oil disappeared after it became possible to produce vitamin A synthetically. 

Now, the pendulum is swinging back. With the current interest in 

"natural" vitamin products, shark liver oil can again be found on the 

shelves of health food stores. Thus there may well be a market for the 

livers of Enewetak sharks. 

Finally, with the islands inhabited, with talk of .tourism, scuba 

parties, etc. i t i s clearly desirable to reduce the population of sharks in 

the lagoon. Thus the initiation of a shark fishing activity soon after the 

return of the people could at the same time minimize an obstacle to 

tourism, produce initial revenue, and establish the working contacts and 

shippinglpackaging procedures required for further fishery development. 

5.5.2 Tuna 

Several species of commercial tuna are known to exist in the 

waters near Enewetak Atoll. There has been discussion of a tuna 

cannery to be located elsewhere in the Marshalls. However, the 

availability of the required bait fish appears to be in question as is the 

fresh water required for cannery operations. Tuna fishing is a large 

volume, low profit business. If a cannery were established, it is 

pos sible that the Enewetakese might consider commercial tuna fishing. 

Without a cannery, emphasis would be better placed on low volume, 

high priced, gourmet type seafood products. 

5. 5. 3 Rabbitfish 

Siganids, or rabbitfish as they are sometimes called, are 

considered to be one of the tastiest reef fish. These fish are in demand 

by the inhabitants and hotels of the Trust Territory and could be 

marketed in the area, providing dependable transportation to market 

is available. 
5.5.4 Other Fish 

Some 700 species of fish are reported in the Enewetak area (Shutte, 

et al., 1953). Many of these could be of commercial importance. However, 

harvesting and marketing them in commercial quantities is a major 

problem. While there are long range possibilities for a major fishery 

industry, it is believed the best course for the Enewetakese for the 

present is to avoid any thought of high volume fishing and concentrate 

on gourmet items for which the price per pound is sufficient to justify 

freezing and shipping to market by air. 

Many of these species can be smoked, salted, or sun-dried using 

local techniques and, in addition, improved techniques as detailed in 

literature provided by the South Pacific Commission and the Food and 

Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. Smoke driers such as 

the type used on Jaluit are both practical and feasible. Fish processed 

by these methods are in great demand in the Marshalls indicating a 

ready market for export by the Enewetakese. 

Sea Cucumbers 

Sea cucumbers are marine animals belonging to the Class 

Holotruoidea of the Phylum Echinodermata. C ertain species of these 

animals are used to produce the marine food product known as Beche-demer (France), Trepang (Malay), Haisim (Singaporean-Chinese) and 

other names in different countries. This product is considered a 

delicacy and aphrodisiac by the Chinese people and is in great demand. 

It is also consumed in large quantities in Mongolia, eastern U. S. S. R., 

Korea, Japan, China (mainland), Hong Kong, Viet Nam, Cambodia, 

Laos, Thailand, Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, and the 

countries in the South Pacific Islands. It is estimated that there are over 

50 different species of sea cucumbers in the Trust Territories of which 
The species about a dozen are suitable for producing Beche-de-mer. 

found at Enewetak are Actinopygia mauritiana, Holothuria atra, and 

H. leucorpilota; species were most abundant along the windward ocean 

side of the reef, especially off the east end of Enewetak Island. 

However, the Actjnopygia species were not abundant at any of the sites 

surveyed. (V. A. Nelson, University of Washington, private correspondence, 

1973.) These two species are used in the making of 'I'repang. Processing 

of these animals is a fairly simple procedure and could be readily handled 

by the Enewetakese. Traders in Singapore paid up to $2. 50 per pound 

for Beche-de-mer in 1970. 

Clams 

Tridacna gigas commonly called the giant or killer clam is known 

to occur at Enewetak. The meat of these animals is considered a 

delicacy and shells of large specimens have been sold for as much as 

$500 each. This animal has been eradicated in some areas by overfishing and poaching. Studies are required to determine optimum 

sustainable yield. A small export volume could yield significant income 

without depleting the population. Ready markets exist at both Ebeye and 

Majuro. 

5. 5. 7 Lobster 

Spiny lobsters (Panulirus spp. ) are found throughout the Marshall 

Islands and are known to occur at Enewetak. These, too, are a high 

price per pound item of the type preferred for export. Little is known 

about the life history of these animals, but it appears that a lack of 

suitable sheltered habitats is the most important factor limiting 

abundance. Studies of these animals and experiments with artificial 

shelters should be conducted to determine the feasibility of increasing 

the sustainable lobster yield of the atoll. 
5. 5.8 Turtles 

Sea turtles occur naturally in Enewetak and are another delicacy 

item that could be exported in low volume. At the present time there is 

much interest in turtle culture. Commercial feeds and farming 

techniques recently developed in the Caribbean and Torres Straits have 

demonstrated the feasibility of commercial farming of sea turtles. Thus 

may be a future possibility for Enewetak. 

The establishment of "turtle rookeries" and farms on the smaller 

islets could prove to be a profitable venture. Turtles are in demand 

throughout the world and every part except the head has a market value. 

5. 5. 9 Oysters 

Oysters are presently being successfully cultured in several 

countries and a good market exists. A survey of the local species at 

Enewetak should be conducted to determine eating quality, abundance 

and rare or unique pearl production, e. g. the black pearl. L£ desirable 

types of oysters are found, studies should be conducted to develop 

appropriate high density culturing techniques for Enewetak. The 

feasibility of importing commercially desirable species for local 

culturing also should be determined. A worldwide demand exists for 

good quality oysters of specific types and any sizeable production could 

be readily marketed. Guam and Japan are presently very good markets. 

5. 5. 10 Fish Waste Products 

Unsaleable portions of fish can be utilized for supplementary 

animal feed and fertilization of plants. Its high protein content could 

be a valuable contribution to the raising of animals commercially. 

Fish waste products are also valuable when used as compost or 

fertilizer. 
5. 5. 11 Ciguatera 

One of the question marks surrounding any discussion of fisheries 

in the Marshalls is the question of Ciguatera, or fish poisoning. 

Occasionally, fish from this area have been found to contain a deadly 

poison, apparently from eating a certain type of algae. The outbreaks 

of this poison are rare, but unpredictable. Therefore, sampling programs 

will need to be established to ensure that no poison fish are ever sent 

to market. 

BUSINESS STRUCTURE AND INITIATION PLAN 

Enewetak Atoll has considerable economic potential and also many 

obstacles to the development of that potential. Whether or not this development is successfully accomplished will depend basically on the initiative, 

imagination, and sound planning of the people who undertake the job. 

Clearly, outside capital and know how will be required. 

Historically, the problem with outside capital investment has been 

that control of the resources involved tends to pass to the outside investors. 

What is needed is a business structure which will be sufficiently attractive 

to bring in outside investment and skills while still protecting the interests 

of the Enewetakese. An example of such a structure might be as described 

in the succeeding sections. 

5. 6. 1 Enewetak Peoples Inc. 

In view of the facilities already present on the main island of 

Enewetak it makes most sense to set aside this island as the commercial 

center for the atoll. The remaining islands would be utilized for 

residential and agricultural purposes. In this way the Enewetakes e 

could have the best of both worlds: a modern, developed commercial 
center on a single island, and a traditional South Seas atmosphere on 

the remaining islands. 

Currently the land on Enewetak is divided into watos, owned by 

individual families. A typical wato cuts across the island from ocean 

to lagoon and might include for example, some beach, a piece of airport 

runway, part of a building, and an oil tank. Clearly a more workable 

arrangement is needed if there is to be economic development of this 

island. 

Therefore, it is suggested that a legal entity be established, 

possibly called the Enewetak Peoples Inc. , which would hold ownership 

of the island of Enewetak in common for all the Enewetak people. The 

percentage ownership of this company, by family, and trade-offs of land 

elsewhere in the atoll would be worked out by the people among themselves. 

5. 6. 2 Enewetak Island Development Co. 

Next, i t i s recommended that an Enewetak Island Development 

Company be established, partly owned by Enewetak Peoples Inc. and 

partly by outside investors. Enewetak Peoples Inc. then would grant 

a long term lease for Enewetak Island to the Development Company. 

The outside investors would put up a sum of cash. This cash, along 

with the lease would constitute the starting assets of the Development 

Company. This company would then establish a plan and begin business 

and development activities. The charter of the Development Company 

would be to develop the economy in a manner which is both aggressive 

from a business point of view, yet at the same time minimizes the 

environmental impact, the cultural shock, and complements to the 

maximum the development plans of the Marshalls District and Micronesia 

in general. 
All this can be accomplished with a good business instinct tempered 

by thoughtfulness, judgment, and concern for the social aspects of the 

enterprise. A suitable board of directors would be selected to provide 

mature guidance in this respect. 

5. 6. 3 Initiation Plan 

On the subject of getting an Enewetak economy started the first 

thing that needs to be said is the way not to do it. The way not to do it 

is to wait until the cleanup and resettlement are complete and then 

to begin getting an economy started. The time to work the bugs out of 

the initial economic activities is while the islands are full of construction 

workers, while the airplanes are landing regularly, while there are 

skilled people around who can help, advise, and teach. 

Therefore, it is recommended that some of the Ehewetak people 

be returned to the atoll at the start of cleanup operations. Most of these 

men will want to assist in cleanup operations, however, some should 

initiate pilot fishing, agriculture, and salvage programs. The presence 

of skilled personnel during these pilot programs would be of great help 

should it be necessary to make boat, engine, or other rnechanical 

repairs. This friendly and understanding assistance would help in 

overcoming myriad problems, which though small could otherwise cause 

discouragement and possible collapse of the enterprise. It is during 

this period also that detailed procedures for processing products, 

freezing, and packaging should be worked out. 

Therefore, emphasis must be placed on the establishment of the 

Development Company during, or even prior to, the resettlement of 

the Enewetak people. The Development Company should. be in position to 

guide and coordinate these initial economic activities. It is important 

therefore that the Development Company be established as soon as possible. 
5.7 BASIC PLAN FOR ENEWETAK ISLAND 

At the conclusion of the atoll cleanup program, all buildings and 

facilities used in support of the operation on Enewetak Island will be 

turned over to the Enewetakese. It is anticipated that the general state 

of repair of island facilities will reflect the use of good maintenance 

practices at the time of turnover. The intent of the basic plan for 

Enewetak is to utilize as many of the existing facilities as are compatible 

with the industrial and institutional development of the island. 

Plate #39 indicates tentative zoning for the various types of 

development previously discussed. The southwest end of the island 

containing airport facilities, POL storage, and the cargo pier are in 

the zone for industrial (marine products) and way station activities. 

Structures in this area include the hangar, airport terminal, and ancillary 

buildings, as well as warehouse and multipurpose buildings. There are 

approximately 26,000 square feet of space which could be devoted to a 

marine products industry. The hangar encloses a 50,000- square us able 

area and is ideally situated for servicing aircraft. POL storage facilities 

with a 56,000-barrel capacity in seven tanks are contained within 

bermed and fenced enclosures. 

The major warehousing and maintenance facilities lie northeast 

of the airport. Eight buildings containing approximately 50,000 square 

feet of floor space are situated in this area. The ultimate usefulness 

of these structures as they would relate to planned development of the 

island rema.ins to be determined. 

The island utilities, fre'sh water, salt water, and power are 

located adjacent to the northeast end of the runway. The distribution 

Lagoon 

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Industrial & Maintenance 

Utilities 

Buffer or Recreational 

!IHousing & ~nstitutional/~ommercial 

a Leased Area 

1-1 

BASIC LAND USE PLAN - ENEWETAK ISLAND 

TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 

ENEWETAK ATOLL MASTER PLAN Fl 
systems run to both ends of the island from this central location. As 

discussed in Section 4. 5, the extent of utilizatiorl of these facilities 

will be determined by the nature of the island's development. 

The area to 'the northeast of the utility group is barren, with the 

exception of a personnel shelter and some concrete slabs. This can be 

utilized as a buffer zone between the industrial/c~ommercial and utilities 

functions and the housing and institutional area above it. A golf driving 

range previously was located in this area and could be easily reinstalled. 

The main camp area for the cleanup operation is located in the 

next zone. The buildings include living quarters (approximately 40, 000 

square feet available), mess hall, laundry, clubhouse, dispensary, 

chapel, and administrative offices. It is in this area that facilities for 

the EMBL and associated activities would be located. The three-story 

dormitory would be available for housing purposes while some of the 

remaining buildings situated nearby would provide space for the institutional functions. 

A tennis court and swimming pool are located northeast of the 

camp area just below the U. S. Coast Guard enclave. It is anticipated 

that these facilities will be used for the same purposes as they were 

previously. Radio communications and marine operations also were 

situated in this area. The future function of these facilities is 

dependent upon the island development requirements. 

A U. S. Coast Guard Loran Station is located on the north tip 

of the island. Living quarters, equipment, and maintenance facilities 

are contained within the enclave. 

5.8 RESIDUAL RIGHTS 

Certain residual rights on Enewetak Atoll have been requested by 

the U. S. Government agencies. Some will be terminated prior to the 

completion of the rehabilitation and resettlement program, while others 

will continue indefinitely. The Defense Nuclear Agency (DNA) requires 

the atoll cleanup rights and has requested rights to conduct the EXPOE 

program through mid1974. DNA probably will allso be designated to hold 

the atoll for the TTPI when the turnover from the Air Force takes place. 

The U. S. Coast Guard has requested the right to continue operation of 

the Loran Station for an indefinite period. Also the Atomic Energy 

Commission intends to continue sponsorship of the EMBL on Enewetak 

Island for an indefinite period. The Coast Guard and EMBL functions 

are the only activities which are presently foreseen to be operational 

after the atoll is resettled. 

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6. MASTER PLAN 1MPLEMENT.ATION 

6.1 RECOMMENDATIONS 

Inasmuch as the primary elements of the Master Plan reflect the 

wishes and desires of the Enewetak People it is :recommended that this 

plan be adopted. Further it is recommended that initiation of 

rehabilitation and resettlement activities commence without undue 

delay and in consonance with the Atoll Cleanup Program. It also is 

recommended that: 

The Enewetak People continue to be involved in the follow-on 

decision making which will be required:. 

s The Enewetak People be employed to the fullest extent 

possible in the rehabilitation and resettlement activities. 

es The Enewetak Peoples Company be established as soon as is 

practicable so that plans for economic development may be 

initiated without delay. 

CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS 

During the Enewetak Atoll cleanup and r ehal~ilitation program, the 

Enewetak People who will participate will establish residence on 

Japtan Island. It is understood that these men desire to be accompanied 

by their families. To lessen the sociological impact on these people, 

it is planned to establish a community totally independent of outside 

influences. The presence of the families obviate any requirement for 

outside support and establishment of a cooperative store will minimize 

the need for off-island travel, to obtain imported foods. Contact with 

these people will be kept to a minimum by restricting travel between 

the remaining islands and Japtan. 
6.3 ON-THE- JOB TRAINING 

In order to obtain maximum benefits from the close working 

relationships with skilled craftsmen i t i s planned to establish and 

maintain a continuing "on-the-job" training program for the Enewetakese 

during the cleanup and rehabilitation operations. The program will 

emphasize training in the skills which will be most beneficial after the 

islands have been returned to the people. Training in the areas of 

agriculture, carpentry, masonry and concrete construction, sheet metal 

work, gasoline and diesel engine maintenance and repair, and light 

equipment repair will constitute the primary objectives of this program. 

Instruction in other areas including administration will be given as 

required. 

In consonance with the objectives of this training program talent 

will be provided capable of maintaining facilities which will remain in 

operation after resettlement is complete. It should be noted that 

maintenance of all facilities will be the responsibility of the Trust 

Territory and/or the Enewetak people. 

6.4 CONSTRUCTION SCHEDULE RESETTLEMENT PROGRAM AND 

INTEGRATION WITH CLEANUP OPERATION 

The construction schedule shown on Plate No. 40 reflects only 

the rehabilitation and resettlement requirements. It should be noted 

that temporary community facilities already exist on Japtan by 

virtue of the fact that they will have been prepared and used during the 

cleanup operation. Due to the magnitude of the tasks involved in the 

rehabilitation and resettlement work, it is presently planned to utilize 

two separate task forces over a 24-month period. Each task force 

will consist of approximately eighty men; half to be engaged in 

residential and community facility construction and the remainder 

in agricultural planting and associated activities. 
Rehabilittation Schedule November 1973 

I I I I

MOB1 LIZE & DEMOBILIZ 

JAPTA N* 

Planting Preparation Planting 

ENJEBI 

Temporary Camp

Cleanup

Planting Preparation Ho us ii~g 

Community Facilities 

Planting 

MEDREN 

Cleanup

Planting Preparation Housing

Community Facilities 

Planting 

rklPlAlrVh 11 /A IA rntwr inn (~~ternate)

Cleanup

Planting Preparation Housing

Community Facilities 

Planting 

NORTH ISLANDS 

Cleanup

Planting Preparation 

Planting 

SOUTH ISLANDS 

Cleanup

Planting Preparation 

Planting

k~emporary Camp Facilities Existing From Cle 

To expedite the work on Enjebi Island it is p.lanned to establish a 

temporary camp on that island for the northern task force. Creation of 

this camp will eliminate weekday travel time between Enewetak/Japtan 

and Enjebi. Personnel of the northern task force .will be returned each 

weekend to their respective base camps. 

Rehabilitation and planting preparations can be initiated on Enjebi 

and Medren as soon as the cleanup of those islandr; is completed. 

Housing construction and agricultural planting on these islands will 

begin during the first year of rehabilitation. Agricultural planting on 

the remaining islands will be accomplished during the second year. 



7. BIBLIOGRAPHY 

*Butchart, David H., "A Master Plan of Agricultu.ra1 Rehabilitation 

for Enewetak Atoll, September 15, 1973, with adjusted data 

September 22, 1973. 

*Enewetak People, Resolution re: Rehabilitation Program and Construction 

of Housing on Enewetak Atoll, July 30, 1973. 

*Gilmore, E. P., Letter to Dennis McBreen, District Planner, T. T. P. I., 

November 12, 1973. 

*Hawpe, W. Carleton, Status Report on Ujelang - Enewetak Survey Trip, 

July - August, 1973, August 17, 1973. 

*Hawpe, W. Carleton, Ujelang Field Trip, October 5, 1973. 

*Hawpe, W. Carleton, Housing Information Forms,, July, 1973. 

*Kiste, Robert C. , Letter re: Evaluation of Environmental Impact 

Statement - Enewetak Atoll Cleanup Plan, August 30, 1973. 

Marsh, Kenneth, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, "Living Patterns 

of the Ujelangese, " A Field Trip Report, August 21, 1973. 

Holmes & Narver, Inc. , "Engineering Study for a Cleanup Plan - Eniwetok Atoll - Marshall Islands, HN- 1348. 1, April, 1973. 

Holmes & Narver, Inc., Working Draft, "Envirolumental Impact Statement for a Cleanup Plan - Enewetak Atoll - Marshall Islands, " 

HN-8156. 1. 1, October 5, 1973. 

*McBreen, Dennis P., District Planner, T. T. P. I., Letter to 

W. Carleton Hawpe, September 4, 1973. 

*McBreen, Dennis P., District Planner, T. T. P. I., Letter to 

E. P. Gilmore, October 31, 1973. 

*Contained in Volume 2. 
*Mendoza, Alfonso M. R. and Remus L. Prudente, "Fertilization Studies 

On Coconut At the Philippine Coconut Research Institute, July, 1972 

Rawson, G. C. and Florence A. Sai, "A Short Guide To Fish Preservation" with special reference to West African conditions, Food and 

Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1966. 

*Tenorio, Manuel A., "Agricultural Plan - Enewetak Atoll, " 

September 10, 1973. 

Tobin, Jack A., "The Resettlement of the Enewetak People: A Study of 

a Displaced Community in the Marshall Islands, I' 1967. 

Tobin, Jack A., "Land Tenure In The Marshall Islands, " 1956. 

Tobin, Jack A., Letter re: Enewetak Census, November 9, 1972. 

*Tobin, Jack A., "The Enewetak People, " A Special Report for the 

Radiological Survey of 1972-73, " April 20, 1973. 

Tobin, Jack A., "The Marshall Islands - A Guide For Visitors, 

March, 1971. Revised July, 1973. 

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Territorial Planning Coordination Committee, "Eniwetok Field Trip Report, " May 17, 1972. 

*Ujelang Council, A Resolution requesting the Department of Defense 

to stockpile noncontaminated debris on the islands within Enewetak for 

the use of the Enewetakese, July 30, 1973. 

*Ujelang Council, A Resolution expressing the comments of Ujelang 

Council about the Master Plan for Enewetak prepared and presented by 

Holmes & Narver, October 30, 1973. 

Van Pel, H. , Fisheries Officer, South Pacific Commission, "Fish 

Preservation Simplified, South Pacific Commission Literature 

Bureau. 

W-Panel Building System Brochures. 

::Contained in Volume 2. 
'TRUST TERRUTQRV OFz THE PAGOPIC ISLANDS 

MARSHALL 0Sb.ANDb DUSTWPCT 

DISTRICT PLANNING owneE 

March 19, 1974 

Earl G i1nwre 

Holmes & Narver, Inc. 

400 East Orangethorpe Avenue 

Anaheim, California 92801 

Dear Earl: 

I reget the delay in rep1 ying to your letter of February 12, 1974 but 

have been off island to the Congress of Micronesia .Budget Hearings. 

The 14th. of March a meeting was held with the Ujlang Council and a 

number of important points decided as follows: 

1. The two major residential islands will be Engibi and Eniwetok. 

2. I agreed to the possibility of a few houses being constructed on 

Medren if insufficient land was available for a specific family on 

certain Eniwetok wetos. 

3. No community facilities would be requested or Eluilt on Medren to 

support these houses. 

4. The community center on Eniwetok will be on Mwillinwr weto. 

5. The council will submit a list of families wishing houses on Medren 

as soon as possible. 

6. A resolution was adopted stating the council's full approval and 

support of Holms & Narver to continue the pro:iect. 

The council will be returning to Ujlang this week clue to the death of 

one of the Iroij. Thus, I really see no benefit from a trip by 

you to Majuro unless you have other item cuss. I will keep you 

informed of future developments at this dL%nis P. McBrec? 

District planntj(; Marshalls 

cc: Distad 

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