2 ANALYSIS OF RADIATION EXPOSURE,-

- SERVICE PERSONNEL ON RONGERIK ATOLL, 

< Operation Castle,- Shot Bravo I 

13 

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J. Goetz, et al. 

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11 TITLE (Include Security Classrfrcahon) 

ANALYSIS OF RADIATION EXPOSURE - SERVICE PERSONNEL ON RONGERIK ATOLL 

Ooeration -_ Castle- Shot Bravo

12 PERSONAL AUTHOR(S) 

Goetz, J.; Klemm, J.; Phillips, J.; Thomas, C. 

13a TYPE OF REPORT Il3b TIME COVERED 114 DATE OF REPORT (Year,Month,Day) 115 PAGE COUNT 

Technical FROM 850312 TO 8706u 1 870709 I 48 

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17 COSATI CODES 18 SUBJECT TERMS (Contrnue on reverse if necessary and identrfy by block number) 

FIELD GROUP SUB-GROUP Operation CASTLE, Shot Bravo Rongerik Atoll 

0p 07 Radiation Exposure Assessment 

T (Contuwe on reverse rf necessary ancf identrfy by block number) 

al and internal doses are reconstructed for the 28 American servicemen stationed on 

Marshall Islands, who were exposed to fallout on l-2 March 1954 from Shot 

Bravo of Operation CASTLE. External doses are determined from limited radiation survey 

and film badge information. Internal dose commitments are derived from urinalysis data. 

The magnitude of the calculated activity intake suggests the principal pathways. 

Reconstructed film badge doses are approximately 40 rem, with adjustments from individual 

activity scenarios, as available. Internal dose commitments to the thyroid and large 

intestine (nearly all first-year dose) provide the only significant increments to the 

external dose. Total doses are approximately 230 rem to the thyroid, 115 rem to the lower 

large intestine, 85 rem to the upper large intestine, and about 40 to 50 rem to all other 

organs. 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Section Page 

LIST OF TABLES iv 

1 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 1 

2 BACKGROUND AND AVAILABLE DATA 2 

2.1 BACKGROUND 2 

2.2 AVAILABLE DATA AND ASSUMPTIONS 3 

3 TECHNICAL APPROACH -- EXTERNAL DOSE 6 

3.1 DOSE CALCULATIONS 6 

3.2 AVAILABLE FILM BADGE DATA 12 

3.3 COMPARISON OF ESTIMATED FILM BADGE DOSES 14 

WITH FILM BADGE DATA 

4 TECHNICAL APPROACH -- INTERNAL DOSE 16 

4.1 RELATIVE ACTIVITY 17 

4.2 INVENTORY NORMALIZATION 17 

4.3 PATHWAYS AND DOSE CONVERSION FACTORS 19 

4.4 ORGAN-SPECIFIC DOSE COMMITMENTS 22 

5 RESULTS AND COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS 23 

5.1 RESULTS 23 

5.2 COMPARISON WITH PREVIOUS DOSE DETERMINATIONS 26 

5.3 TOTAL DOSE 30 

6 LIST OF REFERENCES 31 

Appendix SAMPLE CASE INTERVIEW 35 
LIST OF TABLES 

Table Page 

1 Preliminary dose estimates for personnel on Rongerik Atoll, 11 

l-2 Varch 1954. 

2 Film badge dosimetry results, Rongerik Atoll, l-2 March 1954. 14 

stationed on Rongerik Atoll, 1 and 2 March 1954. 

stationed on Rongerik Atoll, 1 and 2 March 1954. 

3 Comparison of calculated film badge doses with dosimetry. 15 

4 Reconstructed gamma radiation doses for military personnel 24 

5 Fifty-year internal dose commitments for military personnel 25 

6 Calculated film badge dose for one airman (CN 406). 36 

iv 
SECTION 1 

INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 

During the period 1-2 March 1954, twenty-eight Army and Air Force personnel 

stationed at Rongerik Atoll in the Marshall Islands were exposed to radioactive fallout 

from Shot Bravo of Operation CASTLE. The purpose of this report is to determine the 

whole body gamma radiation dose received by these personnel prior to their evacuation 

from the atoll, plus their organ dose commitments from internal emitters. 

The external gamma radiation dose (i.e., dose equivalent) is reconstructed as 

follows. The radiological environment resulting from Shot Bravo fallout is determined 

from time-of-arrival data on Rongerik, modeled deposition, measured decay rates, and 

a later reading on Rongerik. Personnel activity scenarios are considered in 

conjunction with radiation shielding factors to arrive at film badge doses on an 

individual basis. Although film badge readings are available, they relate inadequately 

to personnel dose. Readings that reflect well-specified exposures indicate good 

agreement with corresponding calculated doses. A small, but systematic, difference 

suggests an adjustment to the calculated personnel doses, which are in the vicinity of 

40 rem. 

Organ-specific 50-year dose commitments (i.e., committed dose equivalent) 

resulting from the large-particle inhalation and ingestion of Bravo fallout 

radionuclides are calculated. Intake of iodine-131 is determined from the body 

metabolism of iodine that led to a measured activity of I-131 in a pooled urine sample 

taken 17 days after Bravo. The radionuclide inventory for the time of intake is 

normalized to the level of I-131 activity, thereby indicating the full intake of 

radioactivity. Large-particle inhalation dose conversion factors for each radionuclide 

are developed for calculation of internal dose commitments to each organ. The 

calculated thyroid dose is 190 rem, and dose to the intestines is as great as 76 rem. 

Other organ doses do not add significantly to the external gamma dose. 
SECTION 2 

BACKGROUND AND AVAILABLE DATA 

2.1 BACKGROUND. 

Shot Bravo was detonated on Bikini Atoll at 0645 hours (local time) on 1 March 

1954. The total yield of the thermonuclear explosion was approximately 15-megatons 

TNT equivalent. The nuclear device was mounted on a barge in shallow water, about 

seven feet above the surface of a coral reef. The radioactive fallout from Shot Bravo 

contaminated an area extending from about 20 statute miles upwind to over 330 miles 

downwind and varying in width to over 60 miles. Included within the area of major 

contamination were Bikini Atoll and three downwind atolls: Ailinginae Atoll, Rongelap 

Atoll, and Rongerik Atoll (References 1, 2). Among these atolls, Marshallese were 

present on Ailinginae and Rongelap, and American servicemen only on Rongerik. 

Twenty-eight servicemen (25 Air Force personnel and 3 Army personnel) 

operated a weather station on Rongerik Atoll, about 150 miles east of Bikini. At 

approximately 1407 hours (almost 7% hours after the Bravo detonation) the deposition 

of fallout on Rongerik was detected by a low-level gamma radiation monitoring 

instrument and subsequently observed visually. 

At 1500 hours, a message was sent to Joint Task Force (JTF) Headquarters on 

Enewetak Atoll (Reference 3) notifying them of the fallout on Rongerik. Approximately one-half hour later, a reply came back from Enewetak instructing the military 

personnel on Rongerik to put on long-sleeved shirts, trousers, hats, and GI shoes, and 

to remain inside as much as possible, consistent with their normal work routine. At 

about 2330 hours, another message was received directing all personnel to cease 

operations and move inside permanent buildings. 

At 1245 hours on 2 March 1954, eight men, the first eight on the alphabetical 

detachment roster, were evacuated from Rongerik to Kwajalein Atoll by airplane; the 

remaining twenty men were evacuated by airplane at approximately 1800 hours 

(Reference 3). 

2 
Upon arrival at Kwajalein Atoll, the personnel evacuated from Rongerik were 

monitored for personal contamination and decontaminated. The decontamination 

program, consisting of repeated showers and radiation monitoring, continued from 

2 March through 6 March. While at Kwajalein, the film badges that had originally been 

issued to the Rongerik detachment were collected and processed. In addition, urine 

samples, both pooled and individual, were collected and sent to laboratories in the 

United States for analysis. Late in April, the servicemen from Rongerik were 

transferred from Kwajalein to Triplet Army Hospital (Honolulu, Hawaii) for further 

observation and subsequent return to duty (References 3, 4). 

2.2 AVAILABLE DATA AND ASSUMPTIONS. 

Just prior to the first evacuation on 2 March, a gamma intensity reading was 

obtained with an uncalibrated AN/PDR-39 radiation survey meter. Because the 

operating condition of the instrument was not known at the time of its use, this 

reading (2000 mR/hr @ H+28.5 hours --Reference 5) is used only to indicate the 

general magnitude of the fallout intensity at the time of the first evacuation. The 

first radiological survey with calibrated instruments on the atoll was conducted on 10 

March 1954, nine days after the shot. At this time the rad-safe survey team 

encountered average outdoor radiation intensity readings of 280 mR/hr on the island 

where the military personnel had been stationed. Other survey readings on 10 March 

were as discussed in Section 3.1. Additional surveys were made in subsequent weeks, 

but the readings were not as comprehensive and had less internal consistency. This 

likely arose from differential weathering and decay. Therefore, these later readings 

are not used in this analysis. 

The only other radiation intensity data available from Rongerik were obtained on 

1 March when a low-level gamma background monitoring instrument at the weather 

station began to register at 1407 hours and then went off scale (100 mR/hr) at 1437 

(H+7.9 hr). The data from this instrument establish the time of arrival of the fallout. 

After Shot Bravo, analyses of fallout samples were made to determine the decay 

of gamma intensity with time. Unfortunately, the only data adequate to characterize 

3 
the fallout were from Bikini Atoll and may not be completely representative of the 

fallout decay on Rongerik Atoll. Radiation intensity readings obtained from the Bikini 

lagoon (How Island) indicated decay rates that varied considerably from the traditional 

t- l l * rule. Average values for the decay exponent, obtained with several gamma 

ionization time-intensity meters on Bikini (Reference 6), are as follows: 

3< - t< 10hrs k = -1.19

105 t < 48 hrs k = -0.815 

485 t< 480 hrs k = -1.50 

Figure 1 depicts this fallout decay in comparison to t-l** decay. A varying decay of 

this type is consistent with the presence of Np-239 (tH=56 hr) and U-240 (t,=l4 hr), 

significant neutron-activation products of the U-238 in a thermonuclear device. 

Because fallout decay rate data on Rongerik Atoll are not available, dose 

calculations for the military personnel on Rongerik are made using the measured decay 

rates on Bikini and the measured radiation intensity on Rongerik Atoll (280 mR/hr at 

D+9 days). In addition, the radiation environment during fallout deposition must be 

more explicitly defined. From the gamma background monitoring instrument on 

Rongerik, the time of arrival of measurable fallout from Bravo has been determined to 

be 1407 hours, or 7.4 hours after the shot. The radiation time-intensity recordings on 

Bikini indicated that, once fallout began, a period of l-2 hours elapsed while fallout 

was occurring before the radiation levels reached a maximum and began to decay, 

even though fallout was still continuing (Reference 7). Other data were obtained 

aboard three Task Force 7.3 ships that were positioned at various distances downwind 

from the Bravo GZ. On one of these ships-- the GYPSY--fallout commenced 

approximately 7 hours after detonation, about the time of arrival on Rongerik. The 

GYPSY data indicated that at least 4 hours of significant fallout occurred. The exact 

duration cannot be determined because ship washdown procedures were initiated while 

the intensity was still increasing. The data indicate, however, that at locations 

downwind from Bikini, the time to maximum intensity was somewhat longer than it 

was on Bikini. Based on these data, a five-hour period of significant fallout deposition 

is used to characterize the radiation environment on Rongerik. It is assumed that 90 

percent of the fallout, by mass, was deposited during this interval. 

4 
100 

50 

20 

10 

T 

s 5 

2, P.rln 

Measured on Bikini Atoll 

z

c,

Y s 2 

c, 

z

7

7

2 1 

0.5 

0.28 R/hr 8 216 hr 

0.2 

Fallout 

0.1 1 \* I 

1 2 5 10 20 50 100 2co 500 1000 

Time After Burst (hr) 

Figure 1. Fallout intensit 

normalized to 

versus 

in t ensity 

time after 

reading on 

burst (Shot

Rongerik. 

Bravo) 
SECTION 3 

TECHNICAL APPROACH--EXTERNAL DOSE 

3.1 DOSE CALCULATIONS. 

In order to calculate the radiation dose (i.e., dose equivalent) to personnel on 

Rongerik from the Shot Bravo fallout, the free-field radiation environment must be 

specified mathematically. Further, the calculated doses are dependent on any 

protection or shielding that was provided by buildings in which they stayed until they 

were evacuated. 

(1) Free-Field Radiation on Rongerik 

Based on the available data, the free-field radiation environment on Rongerik is 

estimated as follows: 

a t -1.5 For times greater than 48 hours after burst, the radiation decay followed 

decay rate. From the radiation intensity of 0.28 R/hr measured on Rongerik on 10 

March (about 216 hours after burst), the intensity at 48 hours after burst (148) is: 

= ‘216 (2 16/48)‘05 = 2.67 R/hr (1) I48 

Similarly, from I48 and the radiation decay according to t -0.8 15 between 10 and 

48 hours after detonation, the intensity after cessation of fallout through the time of 

evacuation is: 

-0.8 15 It = I48 (48/t) o*815 q 2.67 (48/t)‘0815 = 62.7 t (2) 

During fallout deposition, this decay applies to landed fallout particles (the 

change in decay exponent at 10 hours is too early in the deposition to noticeably affect 

the calculations). Thus, it is necessary to determine the fraction of time-normalized 

activity (or mass, for constant specific activity) deposited with time. This deposition 

is assumed to occur as a Gaussian (normal) distribution in time, reflecting a similar 

6 
spatial (horizontal) distribution in the nuclear cloud. A correction is applied for 

lateral diffusion of the cloud. For an increase in cloud area in direct proportion to 

time, the concentration of fallout particles is inversely proportional to time. The rate 

of deposition with time (T) is of the form: 

cT- f ,-a(T-b? 

Parameters a and b are chosen to match the meter reading of 100 mR/hr at 7.9 hours 

and for the central 90 percent of the deposition to occur in 5 hours. The normalization 

to total deposition is provided by c. Fallout accumulated through time t is represented 

by the time integral of the above expression. The choice of the lower limit of 

integration is not crucial; the observed time of fallout onset is satisfactory. The 

complete expression for intensity with time is then: 

fT-le-0.23(T-l 1 .612dT It = 62.7t-0*815 l 3.09 /

7.4 

Figure 2 depicts this relationship, which serves as the basis for the dose calculations. 

The peak intensity of 7 R/hr occurs at the end of the estimated interval of significant 

fallout (9 to 14 hours). 

(2) Personnel Activities on Rongerik Atoll, l-2 March 1954 

After being evacuated to Kwajalein, each person who was on Rongerik was 

interviewed to determine his specific activities during the period 1 March until 

evacuation on 2 March. Other pertinent data concerning their exposure conditions 

were also obtained such as clothing worn, food and drink consumed, and their 

recollection of what the fallout resembled. A synopsis of all of these interviews 

(Reference 3) is used in reconstructing the radiation exposure estimates in this 

memorandum. Seventeen of the interviews were in sufficient detail that the 

individuals’ activities during the exposure period could be fairly well established on an 

hour-to-hour basis. For intervals without specified activities, reasonable assumptions 

are made that high-side the calculated radiation doses. The Appendix contains an 

example of the information available and the procedure employed in order to 

reconstruct the dose for one individual. 
0 4 E 12 16 20 24 2% 32 36 40 

Time After Burst (hr) 

Figure 2. Rongerik fallout intensity versus time after burst (Shot Bravo). 
(3) Protection Factors on Rongerik Atoll 

During the initial radiological survey of Rongerik on 10 March 1954 (Reference 8), specific locations were surveyed with an AN/PDR-39 survey meters. In 

addition to the average reading of 280 mR/hr found at various locations on the island, 

the survey team also took intensity readings both inside and outside of the various 

structures utilized by the military personnel during their exposure period. The ratio of 

the intensity outside to the radiation intensity inside is defined as the protection 

factor and gives a measure of the radiation protection or shielding provided by the 

structure. From the 10 March survey data, each type of structure and its measured 

protection factor are as follows: 

Protection 

Structure Factor 

Mess Hall 2.0 

Tent 1.5 

Latrine 1.6 

Sleeping quarters 2.9 

Dispensary 2.0 

R-Section Bldg 2.5 

(4) Film Badge Doses 

With the free-field radiation intensity (It) as defined previously, film badge doses 

for the military personnel on Rongerik can be calculated for each time interval (tl to 

t2) to which a protection factor (PFi) applies, as follows: 

t2 Dfb = (0.7)(1/PFi) / Itdt (4) 

5 

where Dose as would be recorded by a film badge worn on the chest. Dfb = 

(0.7) = Factor to convert integrated free-field radiation intensity to 

film badge dose. This factor takes into account the body 

shielding of the badge as worn. 

9 
The maximum possible dose to a film badge worn continuously through the time 

of final evacuation is obtained by using PF=I throughout, i.e., no radiation protection 

available on the island. The upper limit of integration in this case would be 35 l/4 

hours after burst, which corresponds to final evacuation at 1800 hours, 2 March. A 

dose of 87 rem results. If a film badge was not worn, but instead left out in the open, 

the (0.7) factor would not enter into the calculations. As an example, one film badge 

was left hanging from a tent post (PF assumed to be 1) until H+28.75 hours (1130 

hours, 2 March) at which time it was placed in the mess hall (PF=2) until the second 

group evacuated. The calculated dose is 112 rem. 

All of the film badge dose calculations are dependent on the accuracy of 

integrated intensities derived from Figure 2. Uncertainty, especially concerning the 

duration of fallout deposition, is evidenced in a comparison with limited film badge 

dosimetry data (Section 3.3). Thus, film badge dose calculations in this section 

represent initial estimates. 

For the seventeen individuals who provided sufficient information in their postevacuation interviews to reconstruct their activities, the preliminary film badge dose 

estimates are given in Table 1. Because the individual activities used to derive these 

film badge doses were varied enough to encompass most reasonable activities, the 

calculations can be applied with confidence to all individuals, even those with 

insufficient information on their specific activities. 

As would be expected, the second group of evacuees received a greater film 

badge dose than did the group evacuated approximately 5 hours earlier. Further, 

among the second group of evacuees, it appears that the Army troops who were 

manning the Project 6.6 station on Rongerik received a slightly larger dose than did 

the Air Force troops. This is not unexpected since the Army area on the island did not 

have any “permanent” structures, and the troops slept in a tent until approximately 

midnight, 1 March. 

10 
Table 1. Preliminary dose estimates for personnel on Rongerik 

Atoll, 1-2 March 1954. 

Calculated 

Clinical No. (CN) Film Badge Dose (rem) 

Assigned* + Air Force Army 

First Group to Evacuate 

+ 401 

+ 402 

403 * 

404 39 

405 * 

406 35 

407 35 

408 * 

Second Group to Evacuate 

409 46 

+ 410 

411 46 

412 38 

413 * 

414 51 

415 43 

416 43 

417 44 

418 41 

419 * 

420 42

3 421 

422 40 

423 48 

424 * 

425 45 

426 38 

427 44 

428 * 

*Film badge dose is assumed comparable to that dose received by other personnel in 

the evacuation group. 

**For this analysis, clinical numbers are used instead of actual names. 

11 
3.2 AVAILABLE FILM BADGE DATA. 

Film badge data pertaining to the radiation exposure on Rongerik are reported in 

several references; however, the readings require interpretation. Because the allotted 

badges were not worn continuously by each individual, the data do not necessarily 

reflect the doses accrued by the servicemen. Moreover, there are inconsistencies 

among the references regarding the assignation of badges and in some of the reported 

readings. 

Either twelve (Reference 9) or fourteen (Reference 3) film badges were received 

at the Rongerik weather station on 19 February 1954. One of these (i/314) was 

distributed to the Army group. It was positioned seven feet above the floor of a tent 

in the Army area and was not worn. Two badges (#310/311) tier, assigned to the 

radio-weather station and were worn by a member of each shift (CN 408/CN 416) until 

approximately 1130 hours, 2 March. One badge (#3 12) was to be worn in the housing 

area by one of the Air Force personnel (CN 411) and another badge (j/313), was worn 

by the NCOIC of the camp (CN 419). One other badge (#315) was placed on the side of 

a building in the housing area. This one was located shoulder high and moved 

occasionally each day to avoid direct sunlight. The remaining six badges U/309, j/316-

#320) were placed in a refrigerator in the mess hall. According to Reference 3, there 

were eight film badges placed in the refrigerator, but the reference does not cite 

badge numbers as does Reference 9. 

Of the six badges that were issued, five (all but #313) were collected at 1130 

hours, 2 March, and placed in a manila envelope and set on a table in the mess hall. 

The film badges that had been in the refrigerator remained there until 1700, at which 

time they too were placed in the manila envelope in preparation for the final 

evacuation. CN 419 continued to wear badge /I313 until he arrived at Kwajalein at 

1900, 2 March 1954. 

The first written report of the film badge doses accrued on Rongerik came in 

Dispatch No. 240 431A from CTG 7.1, Enewetak and COMNAVSTA, Kwajalein, 

received 25 April 1954, which stated (documents of the period reported doses in r 

(i.e., RI, not the modern rem): 

12 
Film Badge Readings are as follows: 

CN 401 40 r CN 416 40 r 

CN 403 40 r CN 417 40 r 

CN 404 40 r CN 419 52 r 

CN 408 40 r Unknown 40 r 

CN 410 44 r CN 414 98 r 

CN 411 40 r CN 423 98 r 

CN 415 40 r CN 425 98 r 

Film badges presently in custody of TU 7, TG 7.1 until completion 

of operation, at which time they will be forwarded to AFSWP. 

This dispatch reportedly (Reference 3) contains the distribution list for the badges as 

originally planned; however, because only six of the badges were actually distributed, 

and only four were actually worn, many of the 40 R readings attributed to personnel 

may have actually been from the film badges that were placed in the refrigerator. 

One individual with whom a badge reading is associated was not stationed on Rongerik 

during the period l-2 March 1954. 

Reference 10 states that: “Several badges worn both outdoors and inside buildings on the island read 50-65 r, and one badge which remained outdoors over the 28.5 

hr period read 98 r. Another group kept indoors inside a refrigerator read 38 r.” The 

inference is that the troops received a film badge dose ranging from 50-65 R, while 

the badges in the refrigerator and ;he one that remained outside provide a lower and 

upper bound dose, respectively. 

Reference 5, which cites a Hq JTF-7 Memo for Record: “Rad Safe Narrative 

Sequence of Events”, BRAVO Shot, Operation CASTLE, as a reference, states that 

“film badge readings were obtained covering a range of values which varied with 

exposure conditions. Several badges were worn both outdoors and indoors (and covered 

the range 44-52 r). One badge which remained outdoors over the 28.5 hour exposure 

reached the upper limit of 98 r. Several other badges kept inside a refrigerator 

13 
indoors gave the lowest value of 38 r.” Thus, although References 5 and 10 agree on 

the maximum and minimum readings, they differ on the range of doses to personnel. 

Dr. Payne S. Harris of Los Alamos National Laboratory (then LASL) listed film 

badge numbers and their respective doses (Reference 9). These data, in Table 2, 

approximate those film badge readings quoted in References 1 and 2, with a range in 

personnel dose of 40-52 R and maximum and minimum doses of 98 R and 37.5 R, 

respectively, depending on whether the badge remained outside or inside for the 

exposure period. For comparison with calculated doses, the Reference 9 doses are 

used. 

Table 2. Film badge dosimetry results, 

Rongerik Atoll, 1-2 March 1954. 

Badge/I Location Dose (RI 

309 Refrigerator 37.5 

310 CN 408 40.0 

311 CN 416 40.0 

312 CN 411 44.0 

313 CN 419 52.0 

314 On tent pole 98.0 

315 On barracks 82.0 

316 Refrigerator 38.0 

317 Refrigerator 38.5 

318 Refrigerator 37.5 

319 Refrigerator 37.5 

320 Refrigerator 37.5 

3.3 COMPARISON OF ESTIMATED FILM BADGE DOSES WITH FILM BADGE DATA. 

All film badges except badge /I 313 were turned in and placed in the mess hall at 

approximately 1130 hours, 2 March (H+28.75), where they remained until evacuation at 

1800 hours (H+35.25). Therefore, the estimated film badge doses in Table 1, which are 

based on personnel movements on the island until evacuation, cannot be compared 

directly with those film badge readings in Table 2. In order to make this comparison 

14 
for a specific badge, the exposure of the film badge during the period it was in the 

mess hall (H+28.75 to H+35.25) must be added to the calculated film badge dose as of 

H+25.75 hours. This “mess hall dose” is approximately 12 rem. 

From the personnel interviews it is possible to calculate the H+28.75 film badge 

dose for two of the film badges whose readings are given in Table 2 (badge 8311 and 

#312). In addition, it is possible to calculate the H+28.75 hour dose for the badge tha-t 

was hung on the tent post in the Army area (badge #314). Table 3 compares the 

calculated film badge dose at H+35.25 hours (the calculated dose at H+28.75 hours plus 

the “mess hall dose”) and the corresponding film badge reading (from Table 2) for these 

three film badges. The activity scenarios or protection factors pertinent to the other 

badges are insufficiently known to permit meaningful comparisons. 

Table 3. Comparison of calculated film badge doses with dosimetry. 

Film Calculated Dose Calculated Dose Film Badge 

Badge . CN @H+28.75 hrs @H+35.25 hrs Reading (Table 2) Ratio 

311 416 32 rem 44 rem 40 rem 1.10 

312 411 38 50 44 1.14 

314 N/A 100 112 98 1.14 

From Table 3, the calculated dose to a specific film badge at H+35.25 hours is 

approximately lo-14 percent higher than the actual film badge reading. That these 

ratios are similar under varying circumstances of exposure suggests that there is a 

systematic overestimation of dose in the foregoing analysis. The difference between 

the calculated doses and the film badge readings could easily be accounted for in the 

uncertainties associated with defining the free-field radiation environment and 

protection factors on Rongerik. Thus, the estimated doses in Table 1 are reduced by a 

factor of 1.1 in order to be consistent with the dosimetry results. This adjustment in 

the Table 1 doses yields the best estimates of film badge doses received by the 

personnel on Rongerik. Such an approach provides the most consistency when the 

exposures are characterized by a mix of film badge readings and calculated doses. 

Results are presented in Section 5. 

15 
SECTION 4 

TECHNICAL APPROACH - INTERNAL DOSE 

The technical approach used to estimate the organ-specific radiation dose 

commitments (i.e., committed dose equivalent) for the American military personnel 

exposed on Rongerik Atoll is based on the following data: 

0 Radionuclide inventory data for Shot Bravo calculated by Lawrence 

Livermore National Laboratory. 

0 Urinalysis data for the exposed Americans obtained by Los Alamos 

National Laboratory. 

The basic approach used to calculate the dose commitments has four steps. 

0 The calculated radionuclide inventory provides the time-dependent relative 

activity of the radionuclides present in the fallout. 

0 The inventory is normalized to the actual activity intake by relying on 

post-shot urinalysis to determine the amount of I-131 activity intake. 

0 The internal dose pathways are examined to determine that doses are highsided through use of large-particle inhalation dose conversion factors 

(rem/u Ci), which are developed by modifying published ingestion dose 

conversion factors. 

0 Organ-specific dose commitments (rem) are calculated by combining the 

normalized activity inventory data with the large particle inhalation dose 

conversion factors. 

A description of each of the above steps is provided in the subsections below. 

16 
4.1 RELATIVE ACTIVITY. 

The basic fallout radiological data calculated for Shot Bravo was provided by 

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) (Reference 11). The calculations 

were performed using the isotope generation and depletion code ORIG EN 

(Reference 12). Modifications to the ORICEN-calculated results were made based on 

radiation chemistry data for Bravo available to LLNL. The LLNL-calculated data for 

Bravo thus reflect the device-specific characteristics (such as fissile nuclides, neutron 

energy, and light/heavy element production) that are necessary to correctly specify 

the radionuclide content of the fallout material. The unfractionated inventory is used 

because it high-sides organ doses derived from an iodine-based bioassay and because no 

specific level of fractionation can be substantiated. Plutonium nuclide information 

does not explicitly appear in Reference 1 I, but has been derived based on guidance 

from the author. 

4.2 INVENTORY NORMALIZATION. 

As previously mentioned, urine samples were collected from the exposed 

American servicemen and sent to US laboratories for analysis. These afford the 

opportunity for a more accurate dose calculation than possible from first-principle 

physical considerations. On-site radiation surveys were late (D+V days) and did not 

facilitate an internal exposure analysis (Reference 8). The urinalysis data collected by 

Dr. Payne S. Harris of the Los Alamos National Laboratory are the most useful for 

this dose calculation because they are based on a comparatively early (D+17 days) 

sample collection and are well documented (Reference 9). The urinalysis results 

reported by the Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory involved samples collected 

much later (D+44 days and after), for which the available documentation is weak 

(Reference 13). It is understood that urinalysis results were also reported by medical 

personnel at Tripler Army Hospital; however, apparently the sample collection times 

were so late that meaningful results were not reported (Reference 4). 

The urinalysis data reported by Dr. Harris for the American servicemen were 

based on a IO-man, pooled urine sample collected on 18 March 1954. The urine 

17 
samples were analyzed for plutonium, calcium -45, strontium -89, ruthenium - 103, 

iodine-131, and barium-140. The I-131 analyses of the pooled urine samples of the 

servicemen and Marshallese provided the basis for thyroid dose estimates by Dr. Harris 

and later researchers. Dr. Harris judged that I-l 31 analysis was the most accurate; it 

also led to the highest doses to the servicemen (Reference 9). 

The basic finding of the I-131 analysis of the pooled urine sample was the 

determination that, for an average individual, the amount of I-131 excreted in urine 

over a 24-hour period at the time of the urine sample collection (D+17 days) was 4.0 

nanocuries. That result is used to determine the amount of I-131 intake. 

The amount of a radionuclide excreted in a 24-hour urine sample is related to the 

amount of the radionuclide initially intaken (that is, inhaled and/or ingested) by 

Au(t)=QI*fl*Y(t)*Fu (5) 

where 

Au(t) = the amount (uCi) of the radionuclide in a 24-hour urine sample taken 

at time t, 

Q, = the amount (uCi) of the radionuclide intake, 

f, = the fractional amount of the radionuclide intake that is transferred 

to the blood, 

y(t) = the ratio of the amount (uCi) of the radionuclide excreted with a 24-

hour period to the amount (uCi) of the radionuclide uptaken by the 

blood, and 

Fu = the fraction of the total daily excretion that is present in the urine. 

To apply this equation, not only must the time t of excretion relative to that of intake 

be known, but also, for a radionuclide mixture, the time after detonation/release. In 

18 
addition, the pathway may influence the body absorption fraction f 1 and y(t) may be 

influenced by the presence of parent radionuclides. 

As mentioned above, the value of AU (D+17) is 4.0 nCi or 0.004 uCi for I-131. 

For iodine, the applicable biological parameters are f 1 = 1.0 and F, = -86 (derived from 

References 14, 15, and 23). The value of Y(t) is derived from Reference 16, which 

contains a recent retention model. This model does not differentiate between the 

relatively short time from intake to organ uptake, which is satisfactory ‘due to the 

rapid absorption of iodine by the body. The value of Y(D+l7) used is for the first day 

(effectively instantaneous relative to 17 days) intake: Y(D+17) = 2.87~10~~ uCi/day 

per uCi uptake. This value reflects excreted I-131 that entered the body as I-131. 

However, at an early (shot-day) time of intake, the parent radionuclide Te-13lm (halflife of 30 hours) exists in modest abundance--about 10 percent as much as I-131, by 

mass (Reference 11). Although tellurium is only partially absorbed into the body, at 

least half of the Te-13lm decays prior to elimination from the body, and the iodine 

produced is fully absorbed. Therefore, up to about 7 percent of the excreted I-131 on 

D+17 could be from intake of Te-131m. With this adjustment, Y (D+17) = 3.07~10~~. 

Using the values of Au (D+17), f 1, Y(D+17), and F, cited above, the amount of 

the I-131 intake, QI, is 15 uCi. This value of QI is used to normalize the radionuclide 

inventory. Based on I-131 representing 0.2-0.3 percent of the total fission product 

activity (Reference 11) at the estimated time of intake (discussed subsequently), the 

total activity intake of fission products was about 5 to 7 mCi. 

4.3 PATHWAYS AND DOSE CONVERSION FACTORS. 

Researchers have arrived at various conclusions as to the dominant pathways for 

exposure to the Bravo contamination. The assumption of an inhalation pathway was 

made by Cole based on a comparison of the internal and external radiation dose 

estimates for the Americans on Rongerik and the natives on Rongelap (Reference 4). 

Cole’s basic logic was that since the ratio of the internal and external doses was 

practically the same for both the Americans and the natives, the exposure pathways 

must have been similar (i.e., inhalation) and not related to the personal hygiene or 

19 
consumption habits that were dissimilar. However, the latest determination of 

internal dose for the Marshallese (Reference 19) considers ingestion to be the 

dominant pathway and arrives at significantly greater thyroid doses than previously 

calculated. Dr. Harris considers that ingestion through food or drinking water also 

contributed to the internal dose of the servicemen on Rongerik (Reference 9). 

Scoping calculations suggest that both inhalation and ingestion pathways could 

have contributed significantly to internal dose at Rongerik, but that inhalation could 

not have dominated. As derived in Reference 20, the inhaled activity (curies) from 

full exposure to descending fallout is roughly 10m5 x peak gamma intensity (R/hr) x 

time of fallout after detonation (hr). The values of these parameters obtained in 

Sections 2 and 3 imply an inhaled activity on the order of 1 mCi. Ingestion could have 

resulted in virtually all of the activity intake, if, for example, food on a plate exposed 

to 15 minutes of significant fallout deposition were entirely ingested. At the time of 

the peak intensity, the area1 concentration of activity exceeded 1 CT/m’ (Refer- ? 

ence 11). With a plate size of 0.1 m‘ and exposure for 5 percent of the estimated 

duration of significant fallout, an intake of 5 mCi is implied. 

Later pathways are less likely to have contributed significantly to internal dose. 

Fallout, which had accumulated to a noticeable depth, would have been brushed or 

washed off of objects pertinent to ingestibles; at lower levels of contamination, an 

unrealistically large surface area would have to be involved for ingestion at the mCi 

level. Inhalation during the following day of contaminants resuspended by wind or 

personal agitation would have been minor. 

The particle-size characteristics of the airborne fallout material are adequately 

known. Based on considerations of particle fall rate, Bravo cloud height, and time 

after detonation, it is estimated that the deposited fallout particles were in the size 

range of 55 to 120 urn diameter. Analysis of soil samples on Rongerik indicated that 

most of the radioactivity in soil was associated with particles in the size range of 60 

to 200 urn diameter (Reference 13). In the context of aerosols, the deposited material 

consisted of large particles (greater than 10 urn in diameter). For dosimetric purposes, 

differentiation among large particle sizes is unnecessary, as shown below. 

20 
For most typical radiological contamination situations involving the inhalation of 

radioactive material, organ dose commitments are calculated using published inhalation dose conversion factors. Inhalation dose conversion factors are available for 

activity on particles of less than lOurn in diameter; however, inhalation dose 

conversion factors for large particles are not available in the published literature. 

Accordingly, for the purpose of this dose calculation a set of large-particle inhalation 

dose conversion factors is developed. 

For particles greater than 1Ou’m diameter, essentially all of the inhaled material 

is initially deposited in the nasal or nasopharyngeal region of the respiratory tract 

(Reference 17). This material is removed by chemical (absorption) and mechanical 

processes, and goes either to the blood, with subsequent transfer to other body organs, 

or to the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with subsequent transfer to the blood and further 

transfer to other body organs or bodily elimination by excretion. The “pulmonary 

clearance classification” of the inhaled material (roughly analogous to the solubility of 

the material) determines the amount of the material that is initially transferred to the 

blood or the CI tract; for example, 99 percent of an “insoluble” material will go to the 

the GI tract with only 1 percent going to the blood, whereas a “very soluble” material 

will be divided evenly between the GI tract and the blood (Reference 16). 

As ingestion plays a major role in the fate of an inhaled large particle, the largeparticle inhalation dose conversion factors used for the present dose calculation are 

obtained by modifying ingestion dose conversion factors. This modification is 

necessary to properly account for that portion of the inhaled material that is initially 

transferred to the blood, rather than to the CI tract. The metabolic data needed to 

construct large-particle inhalation dose conversion factors are given in 

ORNL/NUREG/TM- 190 (Reference 16) for the most radiologically significant 

radionuclides. The TM-190 dose conversion factors, based on the most current 

dosimetry information, are used in conjunction with these. For those radionuclides not 

addressed in TM-190, unmodified ingestion dose conversion factors are taken from 

NUREG-0172 (Reference 18). 

21 
Large-particle inhalation dose conversion factors (where derivable) are used to 

high-side estimates of internal dose, despite the apparent dominance of the ingestion 

pathway. For some radionuclides, the original deposition of inhaled particles in the 

nasopharyngeal region affords a significantly greater absorption into the body than 

occurs in the GI tract. A minor contribution to CI tract doses is depleted through this 

pathway, but lung dose is greatly increased. For iodine, absorption is essentially 

complete with either pathway. Thus, the iodine-dominated thyroid dose is insensitive 

to the mix of ingestion and large-particle inhalation contributions to the total activity 

intake (so long as these occur at about the same time). Moreover, the use of the 

calculated I-131 intake to normalize the radionuclide inventory is independent of this 

mix. 

Dose calculations are made for intake at 9 hours after detonation. In the early 

portion of significant fallout deposition, this high-sides organ doses by including 

greater activities of fast-decaying radionuclides. The large-particle dose conversion 

factors used in the calculation are listed in Reference 21. 

4.4 ORGAN-SPECIFIC DOSE COMMITMENTS. 

The 50-year dose commitment to organ j, Dj, resulting from the intake of a 

mixture of radionuclides is given by 

Dj = c Q’, - DCcj 

i 

Qi, the amount of intake of radionuclide i, is determined from the radionuclide 

inventory as normalized by the I-131 activity intake developed from the urinalysis 

i data. The dose conversion factor, DCl7, for organ j due to the intake of radionuclide i 

is as discussed previously. 

22 
SECTION 5 

RESULTS AND COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS 

5.1 RESULTS. 

EXTERNAL DOSE 

The gamma radiation dose to the servicemen on Rongerik Atoll is reconstructed 

as follows. The radiological environment resulting from Shot Bravo fallout is 

determined from time-of-arrival data on Rongerik, modeled deposition, measured 

decay rates, and a late reading on Rongerik. Personnel activity scenarios are 

considered in conjunction with radiation shielding factors to arrive at film badge doses 

on an individual basis. Although film badge readings are available, they inadequately 

relate to personnel dose. Readings that reflect well-specified exposures indicate good 

agreement with corresponding calculated doses. A small, but systematic, difference 

indicates an adjustment to the calculated personnel doses. Average doses to the 

identifiable subgroups of Rongerik personnel are as follows: 

Number of Average Dose 

Group People (rem) 

First Evacuation 8 

Second Evacuation 

Air Force 17 

Reconstructed doses are presented by case number in Table 4, with individual scenario 

information included as available. 

INTERNAL DOSE 

Organ-specific 50-year dose commitments resulting from the large-particle 

inhalation and ingestion of Bravo fallout radionuclides are given in Table 5. The 

23 
Table 4. Reconstructed gamma radiation doses for military personnel 

stationed on Rongerik Atoll, 1 and 2 March 1954. 

Clinical Film Badge 

Number Number + Reconstructed 

Air Force Army Assigned (Reading) Dose (rem) 

FIRST EVACUATION 

X 401 33** 

X 402 33** 

X 403 33”” 

X 404 35 

X 405 33+* 

X 406 32 

X 407 32 

X 408 #00310 (40R) 33** 

SECOND EVACUATION 

409 41 

410 38** 

411 #00312 (44R) 41 

412 34 

413 38”” 

X 414 46 

X 415 39 

X 416 GO03 11 (40R) 39 

X 417 40 

X 418 37 

X 419 #00313 (52R) 52**” 

X 420 38 

X 421 38** 

X 422 36 

X 423 43 

X 424 38*” 

X 425 43 

X 426 34 

X 427 40 

X 428 38”” 

*Reference 9 

**Mean dose for group

***Actual film badge reading is given because it represents entire exposure. 

24 
Table 5. Fifty-year internal dose commitments for military personnel 

stationed on Rongerik Atoll, I and 2 March 1954. 

Organ Dose Commitment (rem) 

Thyroid 190 

Lower large intestine wall 76 

Upper large intestine wall 44 

Small intestine wall 13 

Lung 13 

Stomach wall 6.4 

Endosteum (bone surfaces) 3.4 

Liver 1.6 

Bone 1.4 

Red marrow 1.3 

Kidney 1.2 

Pancreas 0.9 

Testes 0.6 

25 
calculation of internal dose commitments is based on an intake at 9 hours after Shot 

Bravo, with large-particle dose conversion factors applied to the radionuclide inventory to that time. The inventory, which is based on radiochemical analysis of Bravo, is 

normalized to the activity level of iodine-l 31. Intake of this radionuclide is 

determined from the body metabolism of iodine that led to a measured activity of 

I-13 1 in urine samples taken 17 days after Bravo. 

The calculated thyroid dose commitment of 190 rem is by far the largest organ 

dose commitment, and the dose is accrued comparatively rapidly. Short-lived radionuclides dominate the thyroid dose, which is seven times that from I-131 alone. If the 

intake had been at 13 hours after Bravo, the thyroid dose would be six times that from 

I-131 (based on the Reference 1 I radionuclide inventory). Thus, the thyroid dose is not 

sensitive to actual time of intake within the fallout deposition period. 

The only other dose commitments that exceed the dose from external gamma 

radiation are for the sections of the large intestine. Actinide emitters, produced by 

the neutron activation of U-238 during the detonation, are significant to these doses. 

Because CI tract doses are dominated by the ingested contents in transit rather than 

by absorbed radionuclides, these doses are also accrued rapidly. 

Caution is advised in interpreting these calculated internal doses for specific 

individuals. Based on a pooled urine sample, the calculated doses represent an average 

or nominal dose estimate and do not necessarily pertain to a specific individual. 

However, limited individual urine sampling reported by Dr. Harris (Reference 9) 

indicated only a modest spread of results. The counts of the individual samples were 

consistent to within 40 percent of their mean. Also, the implied intake of I-131 

agreed well with that from the pooled sample. 

5.2 COMPARISON WITH PREVIOUS DOSE DETERMINATIONS. 

Dose determinations for personnel on atolls downwind of CASTLE Bravo have 

been principally of two types: the initial estimates developed in the mid-1950s, 

shortly after the event, and the long-term, continuing followup by Brookhaven 

26 
National Laboratory on the affected Marshallese. While the servicemen on Rongerik 

Atoll do not fall under the Brookhaven charter, they do obtain limited mention in 

Brookhaven reports with respect to the consistency of external dose estimates. 

Moreover, the internal dose methodologies for the two groups are perforce similar, as 

the underlying data are related. Consequently, as the current Brookhaven report 

(Reference 19) provides a synthesis of earlier work, it affords the best available 

comparison with this analysis. 

EXTERNAL DOSE 

Previous studies have the following features in common for dose estimates to the 

servicemen on Rongerik: doses are based on free-field intensities, are reported as air 

exposure (R), and thus are non-specific as to individual’s activities. These estimates 

have recently been referred to in terms of rad or rem, which further blurs the 

distinction between them and the calculated film badge doses that are presented in 

this report. Thus, the previous estimates, which are generally in the range of 70-

100 R, would correspond to about 50-70 rem with the use of the 0.7 rem/R film badge 

conversion factor. With the inclusion of the protection factor of about 2 for time 

indoors, the estimates would be reduced further and adequately correspond to the 

present results. Earlier reports displayed no interest in arriving at individualized 

estimates; it is not even clear that the 1950’s researchers had access to the full range 

of then-classified information that would have been required for such estimates. 

Reference 19 lists along with its current estimates of whole body external doses 

to the Marshallese a corresponding value for Rongerik, 81 rad. While this value is 

useful for comparing doses for various Marshallese situations, it does not apply to the 

servicemen. The value was treated as if it were the whole body dose and thus 

additive, without adjustment, to an internal dose in rem. This was done for the 

Marshallese to arrive at total thyroid doses. The 81 rad was arrived at by application 

of a Marshallese living-style factor to an estimate of integrated intensity in free air. 

No consideration was given to the substantially greater shielding of the Rongerik 

servicemen (Reference 22). 

27 
One of the first estimates of Rongerik external whole-body dose is cited in 

Reference 19 as 78 rad, from WT-939 (Reference 5). This value came through the use 

of a secondary reference (Reference 22); WT-939 actually provides a range of possible 

air doses (R), from which it selected a value of 86 R. While WT-939 did report final 

results in terms of R, it contains a discussion of corresponding depth doses in tissue. 

The magnitude of depth doses, relative to the air dose, are consistent with the aim of 

a film badge reading to adequately reflect depth dose. Correspondingly lower film 

badge doses would follow from these relationships. 

Even after conversion to depth dose/film badge dose, the WT-939 dose estimate 

remains greater than the present value for two reasons: how it considered shielding 

and how it arrived at an integrated intensity in air. Without the benefit of WT-938 

(Reference 3), published later, WT-939 incorporated no specifics on personnel movement; an estimate was used of one-half of the time outdoors with no protection and 

one-half of the time indoors with a protection factor of 2. Based on the personnel 

scenarios in WT-938, however, it is deduced that a considerably greater fraction of the 

time was spent indoors, and more of that was in buildings with a PF > 2 than PF < 2. 

In fact, for the lowest dose case (CN406), detailed in the Appendix, the time-averaged 

PF was greater than 2. Thus, the calculated film badge dose for this case is less than 

two-thirds of what WT-939 would suggest -- 0.65 x 0.7 x 86 = 39 rem, close to the 

present value of 32 rem. 

The WT-939 estimate of integrated intensity in air relies on an assumed duration 

of fallout deposition. While the present analysis initially follows this approach, the 

results are adjusted for actual film badge readings. Both indoor and outdoor badges, 

when shielding and duration of exposure are properly accounted for, imply a consistent 

adjustment factor. Lacking any known systematic error in the film badge readings, 

the normalization to badge readings provides the most credible personnel dose 

determination. The implied integrated intensity in air is about 15 percent less than in 

WT-939. This resolves the remnant difference in personnel dose estimates. 

One other known estimate of Rongerik external dose is cited in Reference 19. 

A computerized theoretical treatment of Bravo fallout deposition leads to dose estimates at odds with other analyses for all atolls studied. The wind data available for 

this approach are too sparse, leading to results that are not credible (Reference 22). 

28 
The current Brookhaven report has a number of features that could make it 

useful for comparison with internal dose estimates for the Rongerik servicemen: 

closely related urinalysis data for the Marshallese and the servicemen are utilized in 

similar internal dose methodologies; the latest thyroid dose estimates (to the 

Marshallese) exceed any of the referenced previous estimates; and use is made of 

ICRP-30 (Reference 14), a likely’foundation for the present analysis had all of the 

metabolic and dosimetric information for specific radionuclides been published when 

this work was initiated. 

Both the Brookhaven and the present assessments utilize I-131 counts from 

urinalyses to arrive at initial body burdens of I- 131. From this, Brookhaven 

determines the levels of other iodine isotopes that lead to thyroid dose. The present 

analysis goes beyond, with use of Reference 11, to determine the levels of radionuelides generally, and from them and References 16-18, the doses to all relevant 

organs. However, the excretion values used in Reference 19 do not specifically relate 

to this analysis because of the longer duration of intake, the earlier urine sampling 

time, and the non-standard daily urine sample size, which is considered to influence 

iodine metabolism. 

The common basis for the ORNL-TM-190 (Reference 16) and ICRP-30 (References 14, 15) treatments of iodine metabolism is Reference 23. TM-190 has applied 

the Reference 23 prescription numerically as a function of time for various body 

compartments; ICRP-30 gives approximated time constants for these compartments, 

from which the user can develop functional relationships. When this is done, the 

agreement between I-131 body burdens deduced from ICRP-30 and TM-190 is good, 

especially with the approximations taken into account. However, this agreement 

exists only for the more recent version of iodine metabolism expressed in ICRP-30, 

Part 3 (Reference 15) -- ICRP-30, Part 1 (Reference 14) has since been acknowledged 

as incorrectly stating the iodine parameters (References 15, 24). The most recent 

work on radionuclide metabolism, Reference 25, tabulates daily excretion fractions 

that are in close accord with this analysis. 

29 
5.3 TOTAL DOSE. 

The total dose to each organ is the sum of the external and internal dose 

contributions. For consideration of risk assessment, the long-term aspect of certain 

dose commitments must be included. However, the important contributions of internal 

dose to the total dose of the Rongerik personnel were only for organs in which the 

internal dose is rapidly accrued. Approximate total values are 230 rem to the thyroid, 

115 rem to the lower large intestine wall, 85 rem to the upper large intestine wall, and 

about 40 to 50 rem to all other organs. 

Uncertainties in the dose calculations are not readily determined. For external 

dose, they are judged to be small in that the calculations rely substantially on film 

badge readings. No information is available as to the accuracy of this dosimetry. For 

internal dose, the referenced metabolic information lacks estimates of uncertainty. 

Throughout the calculations, a high-sided estimate is made when a choice of specific 

parameters is available. 

30 
SECTION 6 

LIST OF REFERENCES 

1. The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, S. Glasstone and P.J. Dolan, US Department of 

Defense and US Department of Energy, Washington, DC, GPO, 1976. 

2. “Environmental Radioactivity,” M. Eisenbud, Second Edition, Academic Press, 

New York, 1973. 

3. “Exposure of Marshall Islanders and American Military Personnel to Fallout,” 

WT-93%EX, R. Sharp and W.H. Chapman, Naval Medical Research Institute, 

Operation CASTLE, February 1980. AD/A 995 077.” 

4. “Inhalation of Radioiodine from Fallout: Hazards and Countermeasures,” 

R. Cole, Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, August 1972, AD 761 638.” 

5. *‘Physical Factors and Dosimetry in the Marshall Island Radiation Exposure,” WT939, Addendum Report, Operation CASTLE, Project 4.1, C.A. Sondhaus and V.P. 

Bond, Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory, December 1955, AD 338 337.* 

6. “Distribution and Intensity of Fallout,” Operation CASTLE, WT-915, R.L. Steton, 

Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory, January 1956, AD 361 836.” 

7. Analysis of Fallout Data, Part II, “Decay Characteristics of Radioactive Fallout,” C.F. Miller, Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory-TR-221, 1958. 

8. Letter Report, Subject: Radiological Survey of Downwind Atolls Contaminated 

by BRAVO, Herbert Scoville, Jr., Hq. Task Unit 13, Task Group 7.1, TU-13-54-

375, 12 March 1954. 

9. Private Notes and Communications, Dr. P.S. Harris to SAIC Staff, 1982-1983. 

*Available from NTIS; order number appears before the asterisk. 

* * Available at CIC. 

31 
10. “Study of Response of Human Beings Accidentally Exposed to Significant Fallout 

Radiation,” Operation CASTLE, WT-923, Project 4.1, E.P. Cronkite et al., Naval 

Medical Research Institute, January 1954, AD 465 295.” 

Il. “Results of Calculations of External Gamma Radiation Exposure Rates from 

Local Fallout and the Related Radionuclide Compositions of Selected US Pacific 

Events,” UCRL-53505, H.G. Hicks, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 

1984, (AlO) DE 84 010 678.” 

12. “ORIGEN - The ORNL Isotope Generation and Depletion Code,” ORNL-4628, 

M.J. Bell, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, May 1973. 

13. “Nature and Extent of Internal Radioactive Contamination of Human Beings, 

Plants and Animals Exposed to Fallout,” WT-936, Operation CASTLE, S.H. Cohn 

et al., Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory and Naval Medikal Research 

Institute, 1957, AD 617 134.” 

14. “Limits for Intakes of Radionuclides by Workers,” International Commission on 

Radiological Protection, ICRP Publication 30, Part 1, Pergamon Press, New 

York, 1978. 

15. , ICRP Publication 30, Part 3, Pergamon Press, New York, 1981. 

16. Estimates of Internal Dose Equivalent to 22 Target Organs for Radionuclides 

Occurring in Routine Releases from Nuclear Fuel-Cycle Facilities, 2 vols., 

C.G. Killough et al., ORNL/NUREG/TM-190, Jun 78 and Nov 79, 

NUREC/CR-0150” and NUREC/CR-0150-V-2.” 

17. Task Group on Lung Dynamics, “Deposition and Retention Models for Internal 

Dosimetry of the Human Respiratory Tract,” Health Physics, 12(1966), p. 173-

207. 

*Available from NTIS; order number appears before the asterisk. 

**Available at CIC. 

32 
18. “Age Specific Radiation Dose Commitment Factors for a One Year Chronic 

Intake,” NUREC-0172 (PB-272-348), G.R. Hoenes and J.K. Soldat, Battelle 

Pacific Northwest Laboratories, November 1977. * 

19. “Thyroid Absorbed Dose for People at Rongelap, Utirik, and Sifo on March 1, 

1954,” BNL 51882 *E. Lessard et al., Brookhaven National Laboratory, March 

1985. 

20. “Low Level Internal Dose Screen, CONUS Tests,” DNA-TR-85-317, Defense 

Nuclear Agency, 22 December 1986. 

21. “FIIDOS--A Computer Code for the Computation of Fallout Inhalation and 

Ingestion Dose to Organs,” DNA-TR-84-375, Defense Nuclear Agency, 

December 1985. 

22. Discussion with E. Lessard, Brookhaven National Laboratory, 25 March 1986. 

23. “Quantitative Aspects of Iodine Metabolism in Man,” D.S. Riggs, Pharmacological Reviews, Vol. 4 (1952), p. 284-370. 

24. Discussion with K. Eckerman, member ICRP Committee 2, 11 March 1986. 

25. “Interpretation of Bioassay Measurements,” NUREC/CR-4884 (BNL 52063), E. 

Lessard, X. Yihua, K. Skrable, C. Chabot, C. French, T. Lebone, J. Johnson, D. 

Fisher, R. Belanger, J. Lipsztein, Brookhaven National Laboratory, March 1987. 

*Available from NTIS. 

**Available at CIC. 

33 
34 
APPENDIX 

SAMPLE CASE INTERVIEW 

After being evacuated to Kwajalein on 2 March 1954, all of the military 

personnel assigned to Rongerik Atoll were interviewed to determine their specific 

activities during the period 1 March until their subsequent evacuation on 2 March. 

Some of the interviews provided sufficient detail to determine an individual’s 

activities, hence his whereabouts, on an hour-to-hour basis. Because the film badge 

dose estimates in this memorandum are based on seventeen such interviews, this 

appendix shows how these data are utilized in calculating the film badge doses. 

Reference 3 contains a summary of the interviews obtained from the 28 military 

personnel after being evacuated to Kwajalein. The results of an interview with CN 

406, extracted from Reference 3, is as follows: 

CN 406 

Duty. Rawinsonde Operator. 

Activities. 1 March: On duty day of 1 March until 1630. Took shower before 

chow. Attended movie in mess hall. 

2 ,March: Worked outside, helping to wash outside of mess hall. 

Clothing. Wore shorts until 1530. Changed to long clothing. 

Food and Drink. Ate evening meal 1 March. Had coffee for breakfast, 2 March. 

No lunch. 

Fallout. Observed fallout at about 1500. “White ashes; light, floated down.” 

Film Bad e. None. CN408 wore badge for group. 

d In first group .(1245 hours, 2 March). 

Note: High school education. Thirteen months remaining of present enlistment. 

Based on the interview with CN 406, it is possible to estimate where this 

individual was at a particular time and, hence, determine what radiation protection 

was provided by the particular building he was in. When a particular structure was not 

specified, it was assumed he was outdoors (PFxl.0). Table 6 details the activities of 

CN 406 as inferred from his interview, and lists the calculated film badge dose for this 

individual during his stay on Rongerik. 

35 
Table 6. Calculated film badge dose for one airman (CN 406). 

l-2 MARCH 1954 TIME AFTER 

TIME (LOCAL) BURST (HRS) ACTIVITY -PF

1430-1630 7.75-9.75 Radiosonde bldg-on duty 2.5 

1630-1700 9.75-10.25 Shower 1.0 

1700-1500 10.25-11.25 Mess hall-chow 2.0 

1800-2300 11.25-16.25 Mess hall-movies 2.0 

2300-0700 16.25-24.25 Barracks 2.9 

0700-0500 24.25-25.25 Mess hall-chow 2.0 

0800-1000 25.25-27.25 Washing down mess hall 1.0 

1000-1245 27.25-30.0 Mess hall until evacuation 2.0 

*This total is subsequently reduced by 10 percent as described in Section 3.3. 

CUMULATIVE 

DOSE (rem) 

0.3 

0.9 

2.0 

13.0 

23.6 

25.2 

31.3 

35.2* 
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