DNA-TR-84-119 

INTERNAL DOSE ASSESSMENTOPERATION CROSSROADS 

3 J. Phillips 

J. Klemm 

;5 J. Goetz 

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INTERNAL DOSE ASSESSMENT-OPERATION CROSSROADS 

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Phillips, J.; Klemm, J.; Goetz, .J. 

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FIELD GROUP SUB-GROUP Operation CROSSI;OADS Target Ship Contamination. 

&clear Test Personnel Review (NTPR) 16 18 

-18 3 Internal Dose Resuspension 

STRACT (Continue on reverse if necessary and identrfy by block number) 

he radiation dose commitment to ten body organs/parts, due to inhalation of resuspended fp 

nuclear contaminants from target ships exposed to the underwater burst (Test Baker) is 

determined for personnel who worked on the ships during and after Operation CROSSROADS. 

Four representative ships, INDEPENDESCC, NEW YORK, PLNSACOLA, and SALT LAKE CITY, are 

examined for the personnel activities associated with post-BAKER reboarding. Additionally, 

the dose due to internal emitters is assessed for personnel who unloaded ammunition from 

twenty target ships at Kwajalein, for personnel engaged in maintenance and security of 

the entire remaining target fleet at Kwajalein, and for shipyard workers exposed to 

eig:lt of the lrig!rer intensity ships at Pearl l!nrbor, Puget Sound, and San Francisco Naval 

S!ripyards. For nlmost all activities, fifty-year bone dose commitments are less than 

0.15 rem from any annual period of exposure. 

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SUMMARY 

Organ dose commitments for ten selected organs are calculated for personnel 

associated with specific activities relating to Operation CROSSROADS. These 

activities all involve post-Shot BAKER reboarding of target ships at Bikini, ammunition unloading of target ships at Kwajalein, maintenance and security of target ships 

at Kwajalein, and inspection and maintenance of target ships at three naval shipyards. 

These activities were performed by different organizations and units over the period 

of August 1946 through December 1948. 

Key aspects of the methodology for calculating organ dose commitments (and 

corresponding film badge doses) include: 

(1) Organ dose commitments are based on the inhalation of radioactive 

material initially deposited on ships’ surfaces, above and below decks, and 

subsequently resuspended. 

(2) The radionuclide inventory of the shipboard radioactive contamination is 

based on the measured characteristics of the Shot BAKER nuclear debris. 

(3) Resuspension factors are estimated from available literature, amended to 

reflect the extent of prior decontamination actions and the degree to 

which the local work activity is likely to disturb the deposited contamination. The strong adhesion of the contamination to ships’ surfaces makes 

the chosen resuspension factors high-sided. 

(4) Respiratory protective devices are assumed to have been used only for 

those activities where available documentation clearly confirms their use. 

(5) Organ dose commitments are keyed to average film badge doses for those 

activities for which representative film badge data is available. Where 

necessary, organ dose commitments are based on estimates of radiation 

levels and exposure times developed from Operation CROSSROADS documentation. 

Except for personnel at the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, 50-year bone dose 

commitments are less than 0.15 rem for each annual exposure. 

. . . 

111 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Section 

SUMMARY 

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS V 

LIST OF TABLES vi 

1 INTRODUCTION 1 

2 TECHNICAL APPROACH 3 

2.1 Introduction 3 

2.2 Radiological Environment 4 

2.2.1 Fission Products 4 

2.2.2 Activation Products 4 

2.2.3 Actinides 5 

2.3 Internal Contamination Process 6 

2.3.1 Resuspension Factors 7 

2.3.2 Breathing Rate 10 

2.3.3 Protection Factor 11 

2.4 Dose Calculations 11 

3 POST-BAKER REBOARDING AT BIKINI 20 

4 AMMUNITION LOADING AT KWAJALEIN 36 

5 [MAINTENANCE AND SECURITY AT KWA JALEIN 44 

6 INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE AT NAVAL SHIPYARDS 54 

7 CONCLUSIONS 66 

8 LIST OF REFERENCES 68 

-
1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Figure 59E 

BAKER Inventory Factor, l-30 Days 17 

BAKER Inventory Factor, l-35 Months 18 

Radiation Intensity of USS INDEPENDENCE (CVL-22) 28 

Radiation Intensity of USS NEW YORK (BB-34) 29 

Radiation Intensity of USS PENSACOLA (CA-241 30 

Radiation Intensity of USS SALT LAKE CITY (CA-25) 31 

Example Calculation of Reboarding Dose 33 

Example Dose Calculation for Ammunition Unloading Team No. 1 42 

Calculation of Average Radiation Intensity of Target Ships 51 

Average Radiation Intensity of Target Ships at Kwajalein 52 

Average Radiation Intensity of Target Ships at Naval Shipyards 60 

V 
LIST OF TABLES 

Table 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

Ihge 

Fission Product Radionuclides 14 

Resuspension Factors for Internal Dose Analysis 15 

BAKER Inventory Factors 16 

Fission Product and Actinide Components of BIF 19 

Post-BAKER 

at Bikini 

Post-BAKER 

at Bikini 

Post-BAKER 

at Bikini 

Post-BAKER 

at Bikini 

Parameters 

Reboarding of USS INDEPENDENCE (CVL-22) 

23 

Reboarding of USS NEW YORK (BB-34) 

24 

Reboarding of USS PENSACOLA (CA-241 

25 

Reboarding of USS SALT LAKE CITY (CA-25) 

26 

for Post-BAKER Reboarding Teams at Bikini 27 

Radiation Intensity of Target Ships at Bikini 32 

Organ Dose Commitments for Post-BAKER Reboarding 

Teams at Bikini 34 

Calculated Film Badge Doses for Post-BAKER Reboarding 

Teams at Bikini 35 

Ammunition Unloading Schedule 39 

Film Badge Doses of Ammunition Disposal Unit at Kwajalein 40 

Radiation Intensity of Target Ships 41 

Organ Dose Commitments for Ammunition Unloading 

Personnel at Kwajalein 43 

Schedule of Target Ship Arrivals and Departures at Kwajalein 49 

Exposure data for Kwajalein 50 

Organ Dose Commitments and Film Badge Doses for Maintenance 

and Security Work at Kwajalein, August 1946~July 1948 53 

vi 
LIST OF TABLES (Concluded) 

Table PaRe 

20 Schedule of Target Ship Arrivals and Departures at Naval Shipyards 58 

21 Radiation Intensity of Target Ships at Naval Shipyards 59 

22 Fraction of Annual Film Badge Dose Received per 

Quarter at Naval Shipyards 61 

23 Average Film Badge Doses at Naval Shipyards 62 

24 Organ Dose Commitments at Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard 63 

25 Organ Dose Commitments at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard 64 

26 Organ Dose Commitments at San Francisco Naval Shipyard 65 

27 Operation CROSSROADS Internal Dose Synopsis 67 

vii 
- - 

. VI11 
SECTION 1 

INTRODUCTION 

Operation CROSSROADS, the first nuclear test series following World War II, 

consisted of two nuclear detonations, Shots ABLE and BAKER, at Bikini Atoll in 

July 1946. Shot ABLE on July 1, 1946 was a low airburst; Shot BAKER on July 25, 

1946 was a shallow underwater burst. The nuclear device for each shot was a 

plutonium-fueled weapon having a yield of approximately 23 KT (Reference 1). 

At each shot a large array of approximately eighty target ships was positioned in 

the Bikini lagoon around the designated surface zero to determine the effects of 

nuclear weapons on naval vessels. Shot ABLE, the airburst, caused considerable 

structural damage to close-in target ships, but did not cause significant radiological 

contamination. However, Shot BAKER, the underwater burst, did cause significant 

radiological contamination of the target ships. 

Personnel who worked on the target ships following Shot BAKER were subject to 

exposure to both external and internal radiological hazards. An external radiation 

dose would accrue simply from the presence of radioactive contamination. An internal 

radiation dose would occur if radioactive material were ingested or inhaled. 

This report presents calculations of the internal radiation dose, referred to as 

the organ dose commitments, for personnel associated with four specific activities 

relating to Operation CROSSROADS. The activities are as follows and all involve 

target ships that were not remanned: 

a post-Shot BAKER reboarding of target ships at Bikini, 

0 ammunition unloading of target ships at Kwajalein Atoll, 

• maintenance and security of target ships at Kwajalein, and 

0 inspection and maintenance of target ships at three naval shipyards. 

These activities were performed by different organizations and units over the period 

of August 1946 through December 1948. 
The basic methodology used to calculate organ dose commitments is explained in 

Section 2. The approach used to characterize the radiological environment created by 

the nuclear debris frown Shot BAKER is presented. Equations for dose calculation are 

derived, and the key parameters for the equations are discussed. 

Section 3 addresses the post-Shot BAKER reboarding of target ships at Bikini. 

Organ dose commitments and filrn badge doses are calculated for the teams that 

reboarded four target ships: USS INDEPENDENCE (CVL-22), USS NEW YORK 

(BB-34), USS PENSACOLA (CA-24), and USS SALT LAKE CITY (CA-25). These ships 

were selected as high-dose representatives of the approximately fifty non-remanned 

target ships that were reboarded at Bikini in August 1946. 

The ammunition unloading of target ships at Kwajalein is addressed in Section 4. 

Twenty of the target ships that had survived the tests at Bikini contained large 

amounts of ammunition that was considered to present a serious potential hazard, 

Organ dose commitments are calculated for the ammunition disposal unit that 

unloaded those ships during the period September-November 1946. 

Section 5 addresses the maintenance and security of target ships at Kwajalein. 

Organ dose commitments and film badge doses are calculated for the personnel who 

boarded the target ships to perform limited maintenance and security tasks intended 

to keep the ships seaworthy and to prepare them for departure from Kwajalein. 

Approximately fifty target ships were involved during the period of August 1946-

July 1948. 

Section 6 addresses the inspection and maintenance of the eight target ships at 

three shipyards: Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard, Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, and San 

Francisco Naval Shipyard. Organ dose commitments are calculated for the personnel 

who boarded those ships during 1947 and 1948. 

A synopsis of the calculated organ dose commitments and film badge doses is 

given in Section 7. 
SECTION 2 

TECHNICAL APPROACH 

2.1 INTRODUCTION 

Personnel who boarded target ships after Shot BAKER could have received 

internal contamination by the inhalation of the nuclear debris deposited on the ships 

and later resuspended into the air by some disturbance of the surface. There was a 

general prohibition of eating aboard target vessels that would have effectively 

precluded the ingestion of radioactive rnaterial. However, to expedite their rebounding duties, a limited number of reboarding team personnel remained aboard their 

target vessels during some meal periods. Ingestion of contamination was minimized 

for these personnel by providing sealed rations for consumption in designated areas. 

Internal doses are either determined by bioassay or inferred from activities 

within the radiation environment. Some analyses of collected urine samples were 

performed at Operation CROSSROADS in 1946, but no cases of personnel with internal 

radiation contamination were reported. Only a slight beta activity was detected in 

16 of the 2,600 samples collected by August 15. Later, 1,300 urine samples were taken 

from the men working on the target ships, but all were reported as negative 

(Reference 3). It has been suggested that low-level radioactivity was not detected in 

the urine samples due to lirnitations of the equipment, procedures, and facilities then 

available (Reference 4). However, it should be noted that procedures to detect 

internal contamination were also in effect at naval shipyards in 1947 (Reference 5), 

but no indications of internal dose could be found in the Operation CROSSROADS 

literature. In the absence of positive urinalyses, internal radiation doses are 

determined frown known inhalation pathways and external doses. 

Radiation film badge records, where available, provide the external radiation 

doses associated with internal exposure (but may overrepresent the period of inhalation). Otherwise, external radiation doses are deterrnined from the radiation environment and tirnes of exposure. This type of analytical approach is used to calculate 

external doses to CROSSROADS test participants in Reference 2. 

3 
The basic elements of the analytical approach used to calculate internal 

radiation doses are described in the following subsections. Section 2.2 discusses the 

characterization of a target ship radiological environment, the internal contamination 

process is described in Section 2.3, and Section 2.4 presents the basic equations for 

dose calculation. 

2.2 RADIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT 

The radioactive material deposited by the base surge resulting from Shot Baker 

on a target ship included fission products, light elements made radioactive by neutron 

capture or activation (e.g., Na-24), and actinides that were part of the nuclear device 

or resulted from neutron capture by the weapon material (e.g., Pu-239). The 

procedures used to characterize these components of the radiological environment on 

a target ship are described below. 

2.2.1 Fission Products 

As reported in Reference 1, the nuclear device used at Shot BAKER was of the 

same design as that dropped on Nagasaki in World War II. According to Reference 6, 

SO percent of the yield of that device was generated by fissioning Pu-239 and 

20 percent was generated by fissioning U-238. The fission product inventory of the 

Shot BAKER nuclear device is thus based on a mixture of Pu-239 and U-238 fission 

products. 

The calculation of the fission product inventory was performed using the FIIDOS 

code (Reference 7). The basic fission product data contained in FIIDOS are based on 

calculations performed using Reference 8. The inventory has been modified to reflect 

the removal of krypton and xenon radionuclides. Since krypton and xenon are 

nonreactive, gaseous elements, they would not be present in the fission product 

mixture deposited on a target ship. Table I lists the I18 fission product radionuclides 

included in the inventory. 

2.2.2 Activation Products 

An underwater burst, Shot BAKER produced radionuclides by the neutron 

activstion of trace elements in the seawater. The radionuclide inventory of seawater 

4 
activation products is calculated using Reference 8 to determine the importance of 

such radionuclides to this dose assessment. Information on the elemental composition 

of seawater is obtained from Reference 9. The nuclear device is assumed to release 2 

neutrons per fission, both absorbed in the seawater. 

The rnost radiologically significant activation product was Na-24. At a postShot BAKER time of D+3 days (prior to the reboarding of target ships considered in 

this report), the specific activity of Na-24 was 2.1 x lo-19 Ci/fission and that of gross 

fission products was 2.2 x lo-17 Ci/fission. For calculating the dose to the total body, 

the inhalation dose conversion factor (see Section 2.4) is 699 rem/Ci for Na-24 and 

727 rem/Ci for the D+3 day fission products. Thus, the total body dose from the 

inhaled fission products is one hundred times greater than the dose from Na-24 at D+3. 

At later tirnes, the contribution from fission products is even more dominant, as the 

activation products decay more rapidly. Accordingly, seawater activation products 

are not included in the radionuclide inventory used for dose calculations. 

2.2.3 Actinides 

Since the Shot BAKER nuclear device contained U-238 and Pu-239, it is 

necessary to consider actinide elements in the radionuclide inventory. Two specific 

radionuclides of importance are Np-239 and Pu-239. 

Np-239 is produced when U-238 captures a neutron and does not fission. The 

capture product, U-239, decays with a radioactive half-life of 24 minutes to Np-239. 

Np-239 itself decays with a half-life of 2.35.days to Pu-239. Because of the short 

half-life of U-239, the U-239 decay is neglected and Np-239 is considered to be 

produced at the tirne of fissioning. 

For the fission neutron spectrum (Reference IO), the effective ratio of the 

capture cross section to the fission cross section for U-238 is approximately one-half 

(Reference 11). Since about 20 percent of the Shot BAKER device fissions occurred in 

U-238, the number of U-238 capture reactions per fission is approximately 0.1. 
Pu-239 is produced by the radioactive decay of Np-239. At a post-shot time of 

D+2.35 days, half of the Np-239 will have decayed to Pu-239; by D+16 days, less than 

1 percent of the Np-239 will remain and more than 99 percent of the decay product 

Pu-239 will have been produced. Also, the Shot BAKER nuclear device contained 

Pu-239, of which the unfissioned portion was present in the nuclear debris. Information on the plutonium content of Shot BAKER nuclear debris is provided in Reference 12: ” . ..The amount of plutonium associated with fission products was found to be 

quite constant. The average was 0.0013 micrograms of plutoniurn for each rnicrocurie 

of fission products... (Fission products were measured Septernber 6, 1946)...” 

The code FIIDOS is used to determine the specific activity (G/fission) of the 

Shot BAKER fission products. At a post-Shot BAKER time of D+43 days (i.e., 

September 6, 1946), the specific activity of the fission products was 1.21 x IO-l8 

Ci/fission. This value, multiplied by the above datum and the atomic mass of 

plutonium (6.02 x 1O23 atorns / 239g), implies that the nuclear debris contained 

4.0 atoms of plutonium per fission. 

Of the plutonium that was measured chemically, some would have been Pu-240, 

which has similar alpha emissions to Pu-239, but with a half-life one-fourth as long. 

Thus, if up to 10 percent of the mass of plutonium were of Pu-240 (which is taken as a 

high-sided order-of-magnitude estimate), the activity of the combination would be 

4 x 0.1 + 0.9 = 1.3 times that of Pu-239 alone. Effectively, there were about five 

atoms of Pu-239 per fission. 

In summary, the radionuclide inventory for the Shot BAKER dose calculations 

includes two actinide element radionuclides: Np-239 and Pu-239. The initial 

post-shot inventory of Np-239 is 0.1 atorn per fission or 1.3 x 106 Ci per KT. The 

effective post-shot inventory of Pu-239 is five atoms per fission or 17 Ci per KT. 

2.3 INTERNAL CONTAMINATION PROCESS 

Three key parameters are required in order to calculate the internal dose that 

could result from activities aboard a contaminated target ship. First, it is necessary 

6 
to establish a resuspension factor that provides a correlation between the activity on 

the surface and the activity in the air. Second, the breathing rate for the shipboard 

personnel is specified. Third, the protection factor afforded by the use of respiratory 

protection devices is addressed. Each of these parameters is discussed in the following 

sections. 

2.3.1 Resuspension Factors 

Resuspension refers to a process by which previously deposited radioactive 

particles are removed from a surface by man-made or natural forces to form an 

airborne aerosol. The ratio of the airborne activity (Ci/m3) to the surface activity 

(Ci/m2) is known as a resuspension factor (m-l). 

The literature on resuspension provides a basis for establishing resuspension 

factors that are applicable to the target ship dose assessment. Some of the more 

pertinent studies are discussed below. 

In Reference 13, resuspension data for indoor surfaces are used to suggest a 

resuspension factor of 2 x IO-6 m-l as a generic value for deriving allowable limits of 

surface contamination. A cited British civil defense study examined the resuspension 

associated with digging through dusty building rubble in an enclosed and unventilated 

10 -5 -1 space and derived a resuspension factor of 4 x m . 

Reference 14 reports resuspension experiments in a room contaminated with ZnS 

tracer dust. The first sirnulated vigorous work activity, including sweeping; the second 

used vigorous walking to simulate moderate work; and the third involved only light 

activity. The resuspension factors derived were 1.9 x 10m4, 3.9 x 10-5, and 9.4 x 10-6 

m-l, respectively. 

Reference 15 reports resuspension experiments in a room coated with a dried 

suspension of plutonium oxide. Under quiescent conditions, the resuspension factor 

-3 ,-I

was 2x10 ; with a man walking at the rate of 14 steps per minute, the 

-5 ,-I. resuspension factor was 10 , when the rate of movement was 36 steps per 
minute, the resuspension factor was 5 x 10s5 m-1. When the contaminant was 

plutonium nitrate from a nitric acid solution, the three resuspension factors were 

2 x lo-‘, 10w6, and 5 x 10m6 m-1. 

Resuspension data for indoor conditions were reviewed in Reference 16. Resuspension factors of lo6 m-l were suggested for quiescent conditions and 10 -5 m-l, or 

-1

even 10q4 m in some cases, under operational conditions. 

Various types of activities were performed on the target ships. The resuspension 

factor would be affected by the degree to which these work activities disturbed the 

contaminated surfaces. Those activities most closely related to any resuspension 

experiments involve walking below decks (enclosed spaces not previously disturbed). A 

-5 -1 . resuspension factor of 10 m IS rnost consistent with the above data, but is likely 

high-sided because of the adhesion of Shot BAKER contamination to ship surfaces. 

For more significant mechanical disturbances of a contaminated surface, -4 10 -1 m is 

correspondingly appropriate. 

Resuspension factors topsides were reduced as a consequence of decontamination 

activities. Initial decontamination of the target ships began a few days after Shot 

BAKER, before the ships were reboarded. The ships were washed with foam and 

saltwater by the salvage tugs or fire fighting ships. These washings, which generally 

lasted about four hours, were applied repeatedly to some of the more heavily 

contaminated target ships. This decontamination would have removed rnost of the 

deposited material that could easily be resuspended. These washings affected only 

topsides. 

When the target ships were reboarded, extensive local decontamination was 

performed. This decontamination included scrubbing and washing ship surfaces with 

saltwater, foam, and, in some cases, lye. In general, this decontamination was not 

very effective, partly because most of the readily removable contamination had 

already been removed by the initial decontamination operations and partly because of 

the adhesion of contamination to ship surfaces. Resuspension factors for decontaminated topsides could conceivably have been as great as 10 -6 

m-l for walking and 

8 
10-j m-l for more significant mechanical disturbances. The ineffectiveness of 

manual decontamination implies factors no higher, but possibly far less. 

Target ship decontamination operations at Bikini ceased on August 12, 1946. No 

general decontamination operations of any significance were ever resumed. However, 

with the passage of time natural environmental factors would have caused the 

contamination present on the topside portions of the target ships to become even more 

firmly bound to the ships’ surfaces. 

At Bikini, the principal target ship activities included damage inspection, limited 

repair, and decontamination. Inspection and repair work were performed both topside 

and below decks. The decontamination work was primarily performed topside. A 

resuspension factor of 10-5m-l is used for the below decks inspection and repair work. 

Although this work did not involve major disturbances of the contaminated surfaces, it 

was performed in an area that had not been subjected to decontamination. A 

resuspension factor of 10 -6 m-1 is used for the topside inspection and repair work, 

which involved only minor disturbances of the contaminated surfaces and was 

performed in an area that had been previously decontaminated. A resuspension factor 

-6 ,-I . of 10 IS used for the topside and below decks decontamination work. This work 

did involve major disturbances of the contaminated surfaces, but the surfaces involved 

were kept continuously wet, thereby strongly suppressing resuspension. 

At Kwajalein, the target ship activities included an ammunition unloading 

operation and ship maintenance and security work. These activities involved both 

topside and below decks work. A resuspension factor of 10 -4 m-1 is used for the 

below decks ammunition unloading work. This work involved major disturbances of 

contaminated surfaces in areas that had not been subjected to decontamination. 

However, it should be noted that personnel performing this work wore respiratory 

protective devices (see Section 2.3.3). A resuspension factor of 10e5 m-l is used for 

the topside ammunition unloading work. This work was performed in an area that had 

been decontaminated, but did involve disturbing some contaminated surfaces (e.g., 

ammunition containers) that were temporarily in the area. For the maintenance and 

security work, the resuspension factors are 10m5 m-1 for below decks work and 

9 
10m6 m-l for topside work. The values are the same as those used for sirnilar work at 

Bikini. 

At the naval shipyards, the principal target ship activities included ship 

inspection and maintenance. These activities began in 1947 and ended in 1948, about 

two years after Shot BAKER. The shipyard activities involved resuspension factors of 

10m5 m-1 for below decks work and 10m6 m-l for topside work. These values are 

additionally high-sided to the extent that late-time contamination would have been 

more firmly bound to the ships’ surfaces. 

A summary of the selected resuspension factors is provided in Table 2. 

2.3.2 Breathing Rate 

The breathing rate is dependent upon the physical activity of an individual during 

his period of exposure. Breathing rates for a typical adult male include 0.45 m3/hr for 

resting and 1.2 m3/hr for light activity (Reference 17). The light activity breathing 

rate is representative of an individual walking on a flat surface at a speed of about 

3 miles per hour (Reference 7). 

Breathing rates for rnore vigorous activities are not given in Reference 17, but 

the reference does provide information on the energy expenditure rates associated 

with selected types of activities. By correlating energy expenditure rates with 

breathing rates, it is determined that for heavy work (illustrated by foundry work and 

ambulant postal delivery) the breathing rate is approximately 2.0 m3/hr. 

Accordingly, for the purposes of this dose assessment, a breathing rate of 

2.0 m3/hr is used for the decontamination operations at Bikini and the ammunition 

unloading at Kwajalein, and a breathing rate of 1.2 m5/hr is used for the inspection 

and repair activities at Bikini and the inspection, maintenance, and security activities 

at Kwajalein and at the naval shipyards. 

10 
2.3.3 Protection Factor 

During the ammunition unloading operation at Kwajalein, personnel who worked 

below decks and other personnel who performed work that involved disturbing a ship 

surface, such as scraping, welding, or sand blasting, were required to wear a protective 

rnask or rescue breathing apparatus. Such a respiratory protective device, or 

respirator, reduces the concentration of the contamination breathed by the wearer. 

The protection afforded by a respirator is defined in terms of its protection 

factor (PF). The PF is defined as the ratio of the concentration of contaminant in the 

ambient atmosphere to that in the wearer’s protected breathing zone. 

The respirator used at Kwajalein was a rescue breathing apparatus (RBA), a 

positive-pressure, self-generating oxygen system similar to a self-contained breathing 

apparatus (SCBA). Guidance on the PF afforded by such a respirator is provided in 

Reference 18. Self-contained breathing apparatus which use demand-type regulators 

have a PF of only 50, because the negative pressure created in the facepiece during 

inhalation increases the potential for leakage. Self-contained breathing apparatus 

which use pressure-demand-type regulator have PFs in the 1,000 to 10,000 range 

because positive pressure is maintained to the facepiece at all times. 

The available information does not identify the type of regulator used in the 

RBAs at Kwajalein. Under such circumstances, it is appropriate to assume the RBAs 

used demand-type regulators. Accordingly, for the purposes of this dose assessment, a 

PF of 50 is used for all situations in which respirators were used. 

2.4 DOSE CALCULATIONS 

Internal radiation doses are calculated for the following ten body parts or organs: 

Lung Kidneys 

Lower Large Intestine Liver 

Bone Testes 

Red Marrow Thyroid 

Endosteum Total Body 

I1 
The calculated doses are 50-year organ dose commitments; that is, the dose delivered 

over a 50-year period commencing with the initial intake of the radioactive material. 

The doses are primarily based on inhalation organ dose conversion factors from 

Reference 19. 

The underlying equation used for calculating the dose commitment to organ j, 

Dj(rerTl), is: 

Dj = SC*K*BR*T*L *DCFj

PF 

where SC(Ci/m*) is the surface activity concentration, K (Ci/m3 per Ci/m*, or m -1) is 

the resuspension factor, BR (m3/hr) is the breathing rate, T(hr) is the duration of the 

exposure, PF is the respiratory protection factor, and DCFj (rem/Ci) is the dose 

conversion factor, the dose commitment to organ j per unit activity intake by the 

body. DCFj is the activity-weighted average of the dose conversion factors for all 

factors for all components of the radionuclide inventory. Other terms in the equation 

are self-explanatory or were discussed earlier in Section 2.3. 

The surface activity concentration was not directly measured, but is related to 

the radiation intensity, I(R/hr). This tirne-dependent relationship is determined for 

Shot BAKER nuclear debris with the computer code FIIDOS. The other itern 

determined by FIIDOS is the dose conversion factor for BAKER debris, also time 

dependent because of the changing radionuclide inventory. For ease of application, 

the FIIDOS-calculated factors are combined. The resulting product, herein called the 

BAKER Inventory Factor, BIFj, is presented in Table 3 and depicted in Figures 1 and 2 

for each organ j at various times after the BAKER detonation. Units for the BAKER 

Inventory Factor are (rem/Ci) x (Ci/m*)/(R/hr). However, for other quantities 

expressed in the above units, the purely numerical values of BIFj presented henceforth 

lead properly to organ doses in rem. 

The operative equation for calculating dose commitments becomes 

Dj = I.K*BR*T* & *BIFj (1) 

12 
The BAKER Inventory Factors used for this dose assessment (Table 3) include the 

effects of U-238 fission products, Pu-239 fission products, and the radionuclides 

Np-239 and Pu-239, based on the source terms described in Section 2.2. The factors 

are based on 50-year organ dose conversion factors for inhalation. The radiation 

intensity correlation used in calculating the factors are for a free-in-air, unshielded 

radiac meter located at a height of one meter above a contaminated surface. A 

technical description of the procedures used to calculate these BAKER Inventory 

Factors is presented in Reference 7. 

Actinides contribute significantly to the BAKER inventory factors. Table 4 

shows that for late-time exposures, actinides dominate the BlFj for most organs- In 

contrast, the actinide contribution to radiation intensity is minimal. 

Equation I is used for calculating organ dose commitments when the radiation 

intensity, I(R/hr), and the duration of the exposure, T(hr), are known. When organ dose 

commitments are calculated based on film badge data, the measured film badge dose, 

DFB (rem), is related to the radiation intensity and exposure duration by the equation: 

D FB = (0.7)I.T (2) 

where the factor of 0.7 is used to convert integrated intensity (RI to equivalent film 

badge dose (rem) (Reference 20). With the assumption that the internal exposure 

occurred at the same time as the external exposure, Equation 2 can be used with 

Equation 1 to calculate organ dose commitments based on film badge data. 

13 
Table 1. Fission Product Radionuclides 

Se-79 Y-95 

Br-82 Zr-95 

Br-83 Nb-95 

Br-84 Zr-97 

Br-85 Nb-97 

Rb-86 Nb-97m 

Rb-87 MO-99 

Rb-88 Tc-99 

Rb-89 Tc-99m 

Sr-89 MO-101 

Rb-90 Tc-101 

Sr-90 Tc-103 

Y-90 Ru-103 

Rb-91 Rb-103m 

Sr-91 MO-105 

Y-91 Tc-105 

Y -9lm Ru-105 

Sr-92 Rh-105 

Y-92 Rh-105m 

Sr-93 Ru-106 

Y-93 Rh-106 

Zr-93 Pd-107 

Nb-93m Rh-109 

Ag-110m 

Ag-111 

Cd-113m 

Cd-115m 

Sn-123 

Sb-124 

Sn-125 

Sb-126 

Te-125m 

Sn-126 

Sb-126 

Sb-127 

Te-127 

Te-127m 

Te-129 

Te-129m 

I-129 

I-130 

Te-131 

Te-131m 

I-131 

Sb-132 

Te-132 

Sb-133 

Te-133m 

I-133 

Te-134 

I-134 

cs-134 

Cs-134m 

I-135 

cs-135 

Cs-136 

cs-137 

Ba-137m 

Cs-138 

cs-139 

Ba-139 

cs-140 

Ba-140 

La-140 

Ba-141 

La-141 

Ce-141 

Ba-142 

La-142 

Ce-143 

Pr-143 

Ce-144 

Pr-144 

Pr-144m 

Ce-147 

Nd-147 

Pm-147 

Sm-147 

Pr-148 

Pm-148 

Pm-148m 

Pm-149 

Pm-151 

Sm-151 

Eu-152 

Sm-153 

Eu-154 

Eu-155 

Eu-156 

Tb-160 

Ho-166m 

MO-93 Pd-109 I-132 La-143 
Table 2. Resuspension Factors for Internal Dose Analysis 

Location 

Bikini 

Kwajalein 

Kwajalein 

Naval Shipyards 

Activity 

Inspection and Repair, below decks 

Inspection and Repair, topside 

Decontamination, below decks 

Decontamination, topside 

Ammunition Unloading, below decks 

Ammunition Unloading, topside 

Maintenance and Security, below decks 

Maintenance and Security, topside 

Inspection and Maintenance, below decks 

Inspection and Maintenance, topside 

Resuspension 

Factor 

K(m-I) 

1o-5 

1o-6 

1O-6 

1o-6 

1o-4 

1V5 

l@ 

1o-6 

1o-5 

1o-6 

- _ 
Table 3. RAKER Inventory Factors 

TIHE Lung LLI Wail Bone R llarror Endos Kidneys Liver Testes Thyroid lot Body 

5 Min 2.98E+Ol 5,49E+?O 4.27E-01 4.39E-01 1.67EtOO 4.00E-01 8.07E-01 1.57E-01 3.2BEtOl 7.1&E-01 

9 flin 4.75E*Ol l.l3E+Ol 8.?OE-?I 8.28E-(?l 3.3OEtOO 7.4?E-01 1.52EtOO 3.03E-01 &.&&Et01 1.23E+OO 

30 Hin 7,59E*Ol 2.68EtOl 1.72EtOO 1.7lEtOO 7.54EtOO 1.50EtOO 3.13EtOO &.26E-01 1,&2Et02 2.25ENO 

1 Hr I.lbE+OZ S.llE+Ol 3.03E+OO 2,94E+W) 1.43EtOl 2.47EtN 5.44EtOO 1.05EtOO S.OOEt02 3.64Et90 

; tir 2,24E+02 l.lBE+OZ 6.4lEtOO &.05E+00 3.29EtOl 4.72E'OO 1.13EtOl 2.oSEtoo &,25EtO2 ?.03E+OO 

4 Hr 5,33E+02 3,28EtO2 1.67EtOl 1.54EtOl 9.42EtOl 1.09EtOl 2.90EtOl 4.79EtOO 1.49EtOS 1.67EtOl 

6 Hr 9.16E+02 6.09Et02 3.05001 2.80EtOl 1.82EtO2 1.87EtOl 5.28Et01 8.38Et00 2.5Xto3 2.89EtOl 

j Hr 1.38Et03 9,90E+02 4.99EtOI 4.55EtOl S.14EtO2 2.a9EtOl 8.64EtOl 1.32EtOl S.fl5EtOS 4.45EtOl 

12 Hr 1.71Et03 l.ZEEt03 6.55E91 5.9bEtOl 4.29EtO2 3.67E'Ol 1.14Et02 1.67EtOl 4.71EtOS 5.57Et01 

10 Hr 2.20Et03 1,73E+O3 9.3lEt01 8.43EtOI &.45EtO2 4.97Et01 l.b4E+O2 2.25Et01 5.83EtOS 7.33EtOl 

I Zbay 2.61Et03 2.081+03 1.19Et02 1.07EtO2 8.5&EtO2 b.l4E+Ol 2.12Et02 2.74EtOl 5,SBEtOS 8.81EtOl 

Z Day 3.69Et03 2,81Et03 2.10Et02 1.83Et02 1.63Et03 9.81E'Ol 3.83Et02 4.21EtOl 7.80Et03 1.29Et02 

; Day 4,34E+OS 3.04E*03 2.94EtQZ 2.49Et02 2.3flEtO3 1.27EtO2 5,4OEt02 5.38EtOl 8.24EtO3 1,57Et02 

4 Gay 4.87Et03 3.10E+03 3.82Et0.23.18E+OZ 3.19~to3 1.55Et02 7.07Et02 &.53E+Ol 8.71EtO3 l.ElE+O2 

J ?ay 5.39Et03 3.OBEtO3 4.8OE+O2 3.94EtO2 4.08EtO3 1.85E+02 8.91Et02 7.74EtOl 9.28EtOS 2.07EtO2 

b Gay 5.93E+03 3.02Et03 5.BPEt02 4.77Et02 5.09EtOS 2.17Et02 l.lOEt03 9.04EtOl 9.91EtOS 2.34E+02 

: Day b.S3E+O3 2,95E+03 7.09Et02 5.70Et02 &.23EtO3 2.52E+02 1,33Et03 1.04Eto2 l,O&Et04 2,65Et02 

;O Day 8.7&E+03 2.77Et03 1.15Et03 P.llE+OZ 1.04EtO4 3.77Et02 2.17Et03 1.55Et02 1.24EtO4 3.74EtO2 

I4 Day 1.26EtO4 2.69Et03 l.BPEt03 1.40Et03 1,7&EtO4 5.82Et02 3.61EtO3 2.3bE+@2 1,3&EtO4 5.58EtO2 

21 Day 2.04EtM 2.9lEtO3 3.32Et03 2.61EtO3 3.1gEtO4 9.82E+02 6.46EtO3 3.90E+O2 1.26Et04 9.16Et92 

1 Ion 3.0SEt04 3.33Et03 5.2lEt03 4.llEt03 5.12EtO4 1.51Et03 1,03E+O4 5.92E+02 9,lOEtOS 1.38EtQ3 

i Bon 6.97Et04 4.61Et03 1.32Et04 1.06Et04 1,3&E+O5 3.80E+O3 2,71Et?4 1.45EtO3 5.44EtOS 3.29Et03 

; Fan l.llEt05 5.59EtOJ 2.2bE+O4 1.83Et04 2.3aEtO5 &.5OE+03 4,71EtO4 2.47Et03 9.04EtO2 5.44Et03 

4 Ron 1.5lEtOS 6.39Et03 3.24EtO4 2.64EtO4 3.4flEtO5 9.34Et03 6.84EtO4 3.56Et03 9.05EtO2 7.64Et03 

5 Bon 1.96E+O5 7.29E+OS 4.42EtO4 3.61EtO4 4.78Et05 1.27Et04 9,381*04 4.85EtO3 l.;ZEtOS 1,02E+?4 

6 tion 2.51Et05 8.42Et03 5.93Et04 4.86EtO4 &.47EtO5 1.71Et04 1.27Et05 6.52EtO3 1.41EtOS 1.35Et04 

7 Mon 3.11Et05 9.87Et03 7.91004 b.SOEtO4 0,&8EtO5 2.28E+O4 1.69Et05 8.71E+O3 1.79EtOS 1.77Et34 

8 Ron 4.09005 1.17EtO4 1.05Et05 8.64EtO4 1.16Et06 3.02EtO4 2.25EtO5 l.lbEtO4 2.29EtO3 2.32E+04 

9 Non 5.17EtOS 1.39Et04 1.38E+05 1.14Et05 1.5SEtOb 3.97E+04 2.97EtO5 1.52Et04 2.9SEtOS 3.02EtO4 

10 Hon 6.49EtO5 1,65E+04 1.80EtOS 1.49Et05 2,1)OE+06 5.17Et04 3.88Et05 1,98EtO4 3.73Et03 3.89E+?4 

1 Y l.OZE+Ob 2.34Et04 3.05EM5 2.52EtO5 3.4OEt06 8.73EtO4 6.58EtO5 3.36EtO4 &.08EtOS &.4bE+04 

1.2 Y 1.54E+06 3.20EtO4 5.00Et05 4.13Et05 5.57EtO6 1.4SEt05 l.OEEtO& ,5.50EtO4 9. &BE+03 1.04EtO5 

1.4 Y 2.09EtO6 3.97E*04 7.30005 6.04Et05 8,1&Et06 2.08Et05 1.57Et06 8.03EtO4 1.39Et04 1.49Et@5 

1.7 Y 2.80E+06 4.63Et04 1,07E+O& 8.90Et05 1.2OEt07 3,05E+05 2,32EtO& 1.18Et05 2.00EtO4 2.15EtO5 

2 Y 3.30Et06 4.73EtO4 1.38EtOb l.lIEtO& 1,54Et07 3.90Et05 2.97EtO6 1.51Et05 2.52EtO4 2.71Et05 

3 Y 4.44E+O6 3.79Et04 2.26Et06 1.8flEtOb2.54Et07 6.37Et05 4,88EtOb 2.48Et05 3.99EtO4 4.3lEtOS 

5 Y b.SZEtOb 1.87EtO4 3.92EtOb 3,2&Eto& 4.42EtO7 l.lOEtOb 8.4bEt06 4.29Et05 6.71EtO4 7.28EtO5 

10 Y 3.06EtOb 7.28003 5.74Et06 4.77EtOC &,4flEt07 l.&lEtO& 1,24E+07 6.29Et05 9,6flE+O4 1.0bEtOb 

30 Y 1,48Et07 7.64Et03 9.3OEtOb 7,78EtO& l,O&EtO~ 2.63EtOb 2,03Et07 1.03Et06 1.54Et05 1.72EtOb 

70 Y 3.72Et07 1.18Et04 2.32Et07 1.95Et07 2. &7EtOfl 6.62E+Ob 5.12Et07 2.57E+Ob 3.79Et05 4.32EtOb 

16 
i0 

Decay Time (days) 

Figure 1. BAKER Inventory Factor, l-30 days 

17 

-
!O’ 

‘r 

10’ 

i04 

103 L 

I102 L I L I L I 

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 

Decay Time (months) 

Figure '2. BAKER Inventory Factor, 1-35 months 

18 
Table 4. Fission Product and Actinide Components of BIF 

10 Days 3 Months 6 Months 1 Year 

Organ FP ACT FP ACT FP ACT FP ACT 

Lung 72 28 70 30 64 36 54 46 

LLI Wall 58 42 >99 <1 >99 <l >99 <l 

Bone 23 77 10 90 6 94 4 96 

R Marrow 17 83 6 94 3 97 2 98 

Endosteum 2 98 1 99 <l >99 <l >99 

Kidneys 32 68 10 90 7 93 4 96 

Liver 10 90 4 96 2 98 1 99 

Testes 35 65 8 92 5 95 3 97 

Thyroid >99 (1 64 36 36 64 22 78 

Total Body 49 51 30 70 23 77 16 84 

19 
SECTION 3 

POST-BAKER REBOARDING AT BIKINI 

In August 1946, about a week after Shot BAKER, personnel reboarded the target 

ships to atteinpt decontalnination, to inspect the damage, and, in sorne cases, to repair 

the damage. Lirnited film badge data are available for these personnel; however, 

inforrnation on the tirne of ship boarding, the type of activity performed, and the 

exposure time aboard the ship is available. This information provides the basis Eor 

calculating organ dose cornmitlnents and film badge doses for the ship boarding 

personnel. 

Approximately 50 target ships were reboarded at Bikini after Shot BAKER. Four 

of these ships--USS INDEPENDENCE (CVL-221, USS NEW YORK (BB-341, USS 

PENSACOLA (CA-241, AND USS SALT LAKE CITY (CA-25)--are considered in this 

analysis. The nurnbers of reboarding personnel were 49, 536, 354, and 335, respectively. An additional 50 non-crew personnel were also involved. 

Tables 5 through 8, based on data frorn deck logs, decontamination reports, and 

other documentary sources, provide ship boarding inforInation for each of the four 

target ships during the post-BAKER period at Bikini. Each table identifies the ship 

boarding teams by describing their activities or functions aboard the ship, and gives 

the dates and the duration of each boarding. Each tearn thus represents a group of 

people who boarded a target ship for a specific purpose on the stated days and were 

aboard for a specified period of time, 

Organ dose commitlnents and film badge doses are calculated for each target 

ship boarding tearn. A target ship crewmember can normally be associated with a 

single boarding team; however, some individuals rnay have belonged to rnore than one 

of the identified boarding teams. Simple proportioning of tearn doses according to the 

tirne involved yields appropriate dose cornmitrnents. 

Equation I (Section 2) is the basic equation used for calculating organ dose 

coinmitrnents. For calculating doses for the post-SAKEK reboarding at Bikini, 

20 
Equation 1 is applied to the topside and to the below decks exposure situations. Since 

respiratory protective devices were not used, the protection factor is omitted. The 

resulting equation for the dose commitment to organ j, Dj(rem) is: 

Dj = fTS’ITSgKTS.BR.T*BIFj + fBD’IBD’KBD .BR.T*BIF. (3) 1 

where the TS indicates topside and the BD indicates below decks; fTS is the fraction 

of time spent topside and fBD is the fraction spent below decks. 

Equation 2 (Section 2) is the basic equation used for calculating film badge doses. 

For the post-BAKER reboarding at Bikini, the modified equation for the film badge 

dose DFB (rem), is: 

DFB = fTS (O-7) ITS*T + FBD (O-7) IBD*T (4) 

Equations 3 and 4 are used to calculate organ dose commitments and film badge 

doses for the target ship boarding teams. For a given boarding team, the equations are 

applied to each boarding episode and the results are added to give the total organ dose 

commitments and the total film badge dose for the team. The procedure for applying 

Equations 3 and 4 to a boarding episode and the selection of the values of the 

parameters in the equations are discussed below. 

For the selected ship boarding team, information on the boarding episode is 

obtained from Table 5, 6, 7, or 8. The date of the boarding episode is used to 

determine the time at which the boarding occurred relative to Shot BAKER expressed 

in days (e.g., D+27 days); the time of the boarding is used to determine the shipboard 

radiation intensity and the value of the BAKER inventory factors for the boarding 

episode. The tables also give the value of T, the duration of the exposure, for 

specified boarding episodes. 

Table 9 provides values of the breathing rate, BR, the fraction of time topside, 

and below decks, fBD, and the topside and below decks resuspension factors, KTS ‘TS’ 

and KBD, for the ship boarding teams. The basis for the selection of the breathing 

rate and resuspension factor values is provided in Section 2. 

21 
Figures 3 through 6 show the post-Shot BAKER radiation intensity aboard the 

target ships (Reference 2). Table 10 gives the average target ship topside radiation 

intensity, ITS. Based on Figures 3 through 6, the average below decks radiation 

intensity, IBD9 is taken as 10 percent of the average topside radiation intensity. 

The rernaining paramete, for the equations is the BAKER Inventory Factor, BIF.. 

1 

The factors are given in Table 3. The factors are keyed to the time at which the 

exposure occurred relative to Shot BAKER. Factors for times not specifically 

identified in the table are obtained by interpolation. 

Figure 7 illustrates the calculation of an organ dose commitment for a specific 

boarding team. 

The calculated organ dose commitments and film badge doses for the postBAKER reboarding teams at Bikini are given in Tables 11 and 12, respectively. 

22 
- - - 

Table 5. Post-BAKER Reboarding of USS INDEPENDENCE (CVL-22) at Bikini* 

Date Time Aboard 

Team (1946) (hours) 

Inspection 18 Aug 4.2 

19 Aug 3.9 

20 Aug 5.2 

Anchor 21 Aug 4.0 

*Only 49 members of the 343-man crew reboarded after Shot BAKER. All 

personnel are identified by name in the ship's deck log. 

23 
Table 6. Post-BAKER Reboarding of USS NEW YORK (BB-34) at Bikini* 

Date Time Aboard 

Team (1946) (hours) Remarks 

Survey 5 Aug 0.05 Non-crewmembers 

Decontamination 5 Aug 1.0 

6 Aug 0.73 

7 Aug 2.0 

8 Aug 2.0 

9 Aug 2.0 

10 Aug 2.0 

Engineer-l 7 Aug 7.0 

Engineer-2 8 Aug 16.0 

Engineer-3 9 Aug 24.0 

Engineer-4 10 Aug 24.0 

Engineer-5 11 Aug 10.5 

Engineer-6 16 Aug 3.2 

Inspection 13 Aug 4.0 Non-crewmembers 

15 Aug 4.0 Non-crewmembers 

Pump Detail 17 Aug 4.0 

18 Aug 4.0 

19 Aug 3.0 

20 Aug 3.5 

Ordnance 21 Aug 4.6 

Anchor 19 Aug 4.6 

20 Aug 4.0 

21 Aug 7.2 

22 Aug 1.0 

24 Aug 1.0 

*It is assumed that all members of the 536-man crew reboarded after Shot BAKER 

for one or more of the activities. 

24 
fl) Table 7. Post-BAKER Reboarding of USS PENSACOLA (CA-24) at Bikjni 

Date Time Aboard 

Team (1946) (hours) 

Advance-1(2' 1 Aug 0.4 

5 Aug 0.9 

6 Aug 0.1 

7 Aug 1.5 

8 Aug 1.0 

Advance-2 2 Aug 1.4 

Decontamination-l 10 Aug 0.9 

Decontamination-2 (3) 12 Aug 1.0 

14 Aug 1.0 

16 Aug 1.0 

19 Aug 1.0 

21 Aug 1.0 

Inspection 13 Aug 1.0 

15 Aug 1.0 

18 Aug 1.0 

20 Aug 1.0 

22 Aug 1.0 

Anchor 24 Aug 2.0 

26 Rug 2.0 

(1) It is assumed that all members of the 354-man crew 

reboarded after Shot BAKER for one or more of the 

activities. 

(2) Non-crewmembers. 

(3) Function changed to Inspection after 12 August. 

25 
-- 

Table 8. Post-BAKER Reboarding of USS SALT LAKE CITY (CA-25)(l) 

Date Time Aboard 

Team (1946) (hours) 

Advance(') 1 Aug 2.0 

Decontamination-l 2 Aug 2.0 

4 Aug 2.0 

6 Aug 2.0 

8 Aug 2.0 

12 Aug 2.0 

(3) Decontamination-2 3 Aug 2.0 

5 Aug 2.0 

7 Aug 2.0 

9 Aug 2.0 

13 Aug 2.0 

Inspection 19 Aug 4.0 

20 Aug 3.0 

Anchor 17 Aug 3.2 

23 Aug 2.0 

25 Aug 2.0 

(1) It is assumed that all members of the 335-man crew 

reboarded after Shot BAKER for one or more of the 

activities. 

(2) Non-crewmembers. 

(3) Function changed to Inspection after 12 August. 
Table 9. Parameters for Post-BAKER Reboarding Teams at Bikini 

Topside Below 

Breathing Fraction Resuspension Fraction Resuspension 

Rate Factor of Factor 

Team (m3/hr) TPie (m-l) Time (m-l) 

Decontamination 

-On/Before 12 Aug 2.0 0.75 1O-6 0.25 1o-6 

-After 12 Aug 1.2 0.25 1O-6 0.75 1o-5 

Anchor 1.2 0.50 1o-6 0.50 1o-5 

All Other Teams* 1.2 0.25 lo+ 0.75 1o-5 

*These teams engaged in ship inspection and limited repair work. Includes 

Advance, Engineer, Inspection, Ordnance, Pump Detail, and Survev Teams. 

27 

. _-
USS INDEPENDENCE (CVL-22) 

A BELOW DECKS 

0 AMIDSHIPS 

2 

1 ’*uc10 1 sm 

Days After BAKER 

100 

.OOOl 

1000 

Figure 3. Radiation Intensity of USS INDEPENDENCE (CVL-22) 

28 
USS NEW YORK (BB-34) 

.OOOl 

1 1 NC 10 1 svr 100 1000 

Days After BAKER 

Figure 4. Radiation Intensity of USS NEW YORK (BB-34) 

29 
USS PENSACOLA (CA-24) 

h 

c,

0 TOPSIDE 

-001 *: 

A BELaW DECKS 2! 

0 AMIDSHIPS Ifi 

Days After BAKER 

Figure 5. Radiation Intensity of USS PENSACOLA (CA-24) 

30 
USS SALT LAKE CITY (CA-25) 

A BELaW DECKS 

A 10 I sm 1 100 

Days After BAKER 

Figure 6. Radiation Intensity of USS SALT LAKE CITY (CA-25) 

31 
10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

Table 10. Radiation Intensity of Target Ships at Bikini 

Average Topside Radiation Intensity (R/hr) 

Date D+ INDEPENDENCE NEW YORK PENSACOLA SALT LAKE CITY 

1 Aug 7 * * 0.613 0.198 

2 Aug 8 * * 0.517 0.166 

* * * 3 Aug 9 0.143 

* * * 4 Aug 0.124 

* 5 Aug 11 0.103 0.341 0.110 

* 6 Aug 12 0.0925 0.305 0.0979 

* 7 Aug 13 0.0833 0.275 0.0833 

* 8 Aug 14 0.0625 0.250 0.0583 

* * 9 Aug 0.0479 0.0458 

10 Aug 16 * 0.0375 0.210 *

11 Aug 17 * 0.0347 * *

12 Aug 18 * * 0.180 0.0362 

* 13 Aug 19 0.0300 0.168 0.0337 

* * * 14 Aug 0.157 

* * 15 Aug 21 0.0263 0.147 

16 Aug 22 * 0.0248 0.139 * 

17 * * Aug 23 0.0234 0.0263 

18 Aug 24 0.0663 0.0222 0.124 *

19 Aug 0.0625 0.0210 0.118 0.0236 

20 Aug 26 0.0596 0.0200 0.112 0.0224 

21 Aug 27 0.0567 0.0190 0.106 *

22 Aug 28 * 0.0181 0.101 *

* * * 23 Aug 29 0.0195 

24 Aug * 0.0166 0.0925 * 

* * * 25 Aug 31 0.0178 

26 Aug 32 * * 0.0850 *

*Ship not boarded. 

32 
This illustrates the calculation of the SO-year dose commitment to the 

lung for the Anchor Team of the USS INDEPENDENCE (CVL-22). As shown in 

Table 5, the Anchor Team boarded INDEPENDENCE only once, on 21 Aug 46, 

27 days after shot BAKER. 

The dose calculation equation is: 

D fTS.ITS.KTS*BR*T.BIFLungi + [fBD.IBD.KBD.BR.T.BIFLung 1 Lung = I 

The value of the parameters are: 

= 0.50 - Fraction of time Topside for Anchor Team, fTS from Table 9, 

= 0.0567 (R/hr) - Topside radiation intensity for INDEPENDENCE ITS at post-Shot BAKER time of D+27 days, from 

Table 10, 

= lo6 (m-l) - Topside resuspension factor for Anchor Team, KTS from Table 9, 

= 0.50 - Fraction of time Below Decks for Anchor fBD Team, from Table 9, 

= 0.00567 (R/hr) - Below Decks radiation intensity, taken as 'BD 10% of Topside radiation intensity, 

= 10s5 (m-l) - Below Decks resuspension factor for Anchor KBD Team, from Table 9, 

BR = 1.2 (m3/hr) - Breathing rate for Anchor Team, from Table 9, 

T = 4.0 (hr) - Duration of exposure for Anchor Team aboard 

INDEPENDENCE on 21 Aug, from Table 5, 

BIF = 2.69 x 1O+4 - BAKER inventory factor for lung at post-Shot Lung BAKER time of D+27 days, obtained by interpolation between D+21 days and M+l month unit 

dose factors in Table 4. 

The dose is: 

D = c(O.50) (0.0567) (10-6) (1.2) (4.0) (2.69 x 10+4)] Lung 

+ [(O.SO) (0.00567) (10-5) (1.2) (4.0) (2.69 x 10+4)] 

D = c3.66 x 1O-3] + c3.66 x lo-31

Lung 

= 7.32 x 1O-3 'Lung 

D = 0.007 rem. Lung 

-

Figure 7. Example Calculation of Reboarding Dose 

33 
Table 11. Organ Dose Commitments for Post-BAKER Reboarding Teams at Bikini 

Organ Dose Commitment (rem) 

Ship/Team Lung LLI Wall Bone R. Marrow Endos Kidneys Liver Testes Thyroid Total Body 

USS INDEPENDENCE (CVL-22) 

Inspection 0.025 0.003 0.004 0.003 0.040 0.001 0.008 c.001 0.011 0.001 

Anchor 0.007 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.012 c.001 0.002 c.001 0.003 c.001 

USS NEW YORK (68-34) 

Survey c.001 c.001 c.001 c.001 c.001 c.001 c.001 c.001 c.001 c.001 

Decontamination 0.012 0.003 0.002 0.001 0.016 0.001 0.003 c.001 0.013 0.001 

Engineer-l 0.008 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.011 c.001 0.002 c.001 0.009 c.001 

Engineer-Z 0.015 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.021 0.001 0.004 c.001 0.016 0.001 

Engineer-3 0.019 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.027 0.001 0.006 c.001 0.019 0.001 

Engineer-4 0.016 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.023 0.001 0.005 c.001 0.015 0.001 

Engineer-5 0.007 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.010 c.001 0.002 c.001 0.006 c.001 

Engineer-6 0.002 c.001 c.001 c.001 0.003 c.001 0.001 c.001 0.001 c.001 

Inspection 0.005 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.008 1.001 0.002 c.001 0.003 c.001 

Pump Deta i 1 0.009 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.015 c.001 0.003 c.001 0.004 <.OOl 

Ordnance 0.003 c.001 c.001 c.001 0.005 0.001 0.001 c.001 0.001 <.ODl 

Anchor 0.011 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.018 c.001 0.004 c.001 0.004 c.001 

USS PENSACOLA (CA-24) 

Advance-l 0.015 0.004 0.002 0.002 0.020 0.001 0.004 <.OOl 0.019 0.001 

Advance-2 0.006 0.003 0.001 0.001 0.007 c.001 0.001 <.ODl 0.010 <.DOl 

Decontamination-l 0.004 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.006 <.OOl 0.001 c.001 0.004 c.001 

Decontamination-2 0.019 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.030 0.001 0.006 c.001 0.011 0.001 

Inspection 0.018 0.002 0.003 0.002 0.028 0.001 0.006 <.OOl 0.009 0.001 

Anchor 0.013 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.023 0.001 0.005 c.001 0.004 0.001 

USS SALT LAKE CITY (CA-25) 

Advance 0.003 0.001 c.001 c.001 0.003 c.001 0.001 c.001 0.005 c.001 

Decontamination-l 0.015 0.004 0.002 0.002 0.018 0.001 0.004 c.001 0.019 0.001 

Decontamination-2 0.013 0.003 0.002 0.001 0.017 0.001 0.004 c.001 0.016 0.001 

Inspection 0.005 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.008 c.001 0.002 c.001 0.002 c.001 

Anchor 0.005 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.008 c.001 0.002 c.001 0.002 c.001 
Table 12. Calculated Film Badge Doses for Reboarding Teams at Bikini 

Ship/Team 

USS INDEPENDENCE (CVL-22) 

Inspection Team 

Anchor Team 

USS NEW YORK (BB-34)

Survey Team 

Decontamination Team 

Engineer-l Team 

Engineer-2 Team 

Engineer-3 Team 

Engineer-4 Team 

Engineer-5 Team 

Engineer-6 Team 

Inspection Team 

Pump Detail Team 

Ordnance Team 

Anchor Team 

USS PENSACOLA (CA-24) 

Advance-l Team 

Advance-2 Team 

Decontamination-l Team 

Decontamination-2 Team 

Inspection Team 

Anchor Team 

USS SALT LAKE CITY (CA-25) 

Advance Team 

Decontamination-l Team 

Decontamination-2 Team 

Inspection Team 

Anchor Team 

Film Badge Dose 

( rem) 

0.19 

0.087 

0.001 

0.34 

0.13 

0.23 

0.26 

0.21 

0.083 

0.018 

0.051 

0.072 

0.020 

0.13 

0.28 

0.17 

0.10 

0.22 

0.15 

0.14 

0.090 

0.52 

0.43 

0.037 

0.061 

35 
SECTION 4 

AMMUNITION UNLOADING AT KWAJALEIN 

In late August and early September of 1946, target ships that had survived the 

tests at Bikini were taken to Kwajalein. Twenty of the target ships contained large 

amounts of ammunition that had been stored on the ships prior to Operation 

CROSSROADS to test the effects of nuclear weapons on munitions. Due to the 

effects of the heat and humidity aboard the target ships, the ammunition was 

becoming unstable and its re:noval was required. 

A special ammunition disposal unit was formed to rernove the ammunition from 

the target ships. The unit consisted of an Initial Boarding Team and five Ammunition 

Unloading Tearns, with a total of 268 personnel. The Initial Boarding Team inspected 

the ships for potential hazards and measured radiation intensities; after the ship was 

declared safe, the Team opened up the ship and rigged hoists and other equipment to 

handle the ammunition. The Ammunition Unloading Teams subsequently boarded the 

ships and rernoved the ammunition. Each team was commanded by an officer and 

accompanied by a radiological safety monitor. Film badges were worn at all tirnes and 

the use of a rescue breathing apparatus (RBA) was required when working below decks. 

All personnel were processed through a change ship for issue of clothing and equipment 

on the way to the target ships and for decontamination and rnonitoring on return frown 

the target ships. The activities of the ammunition disposal unit and the safety 

regulations for the activities are given in References 21, 22, and 23. 

Table 13, based on data froln messages, reports, and other documentary sources, 

shows the schedule for operations of the ammunition disposal unit. Table 14, based on 

data contained in Reference 24, sumrnarizes the film badge data recorded for the unit. 

The schedule of operations and the film badge data provide the basis for calculating 

organ dose colnmitrnents for the ammunition disposal unit. 

Organ dose commitments are calculated for each teain of the ammunition 

disposal unit; these organ dose commitments are based on the average film badge dose 

for the team. Film badge data are available for the members of the unit and most 

36 
members can be identified with one of the specified teams. Organ dose commitments 

for these individuals can be determined from the ratio of the individual’s film badge 

dose to the team’s average film badge dose. 

Equation 1 (Section 2) is the basic equation used for calculating organ dose 

commitments. For calculating doses for the ammunition unloading work at Kwajalein, 

Equation 1 is applied to the topside and to the below decks exposure situations. Using 

the subscripts TS for topside and BD for below decks, the resulting equation for the 

dose commitment to organ j, Dj(rem), is: 

Dj; f TS*ITS-KTS*BR*T-BIFj + fBD4BD.KBD~BR-I-* (5) 

where fTS is the fraction of the time aboard a ship spent topside and fBD is the 

fraction of the time spent below decks. PF is the respiratory protection factor; since 

respiratory protective devices were not required for topside work, PF is omitted from 

the portion of Equation 5 dealing with topside exposure. 

Equation 2 (Section 2) is the basic equation used for calculating filrn badge doses. 

For the ammunition unloading work at Kwajalein, the modified equation for the film 

badge does, DFB(rem), is: 

DFB = fTS (0.7) ITSaT + fBD (0.7) IBD’T (6) 

It should be noted that Equation 6 is not used to calculate film badge doses since such 

data are already available; as shown below, the equation is used to replace the 

radiation intensity and exposure duration in the organ dose equation with a film badge 

dose. 

Equations 5 and 6 are simplified by assigning specific values to some of the 

variables. As discussed in Section 2, for the ammunition unloading work at Kwajalein, 

the breathing rate, DR, is 2.0 m3/hr; the respiratory protection, PF, is 50; and the 

resuspension factors topside, KTS, and below decks, KBD, are 10 -5 m-1 and 10e4 m-1 , 

respectively. For the ammunition unloading work, the fraction of time topside, fTS, is 

37 
0.25 and the fraction of time below decks, fBD, is 0.75. Based on Figures 3 through 6 

(Section 3), the average below decks radiation intensity, IBD, is 10 percent of the 

average topside radiation intensity, ITSUsing the above values, Equations 5 and 6 are simplified to: 

Dj = (5.30 X 10-6)ITS*T*BIFj (7) 

DFB = (0.2275)I~~*T (8) 

Using Equation 8 to eliminate the pararneters ITS and T in Equation 7 gives: 

Dj = (2.33 X 10-5)DFB*BTF. (9) J 

Equation 9 is the basic equation used for calculating organ dose commitments for the 

ammunition unloading work at Kwajalein. The equation is applied for each day that 

shipboard work was performed and the results are sumrned to give the total organ dose 

commitments. BIFj is the value of the BAKER Inventory Factor, interpolated from 

Table 3 for each day of exposure. 

The daily film badge dose is obtained from the total dose by allocating the doses 

in Table 14 to the work schedules in Table 13. The total dose is proportioned into daily 

doses in accordance with the intensity of a specific ship on the day that the team was 

aboard. When two target ships are boarded in one day, the intensities are averaged. 

The intensity of each ship is obtained by t-ls3 decay of the value given in Table 15. 

Figure S illustrates the lung dose calculation for Ammunition Unloading Team No. 1. 

Some personnel of the ammunition disposal unit cannot be associated with a 

specific team, as seen in Table 14. To treat this category (i.e., Unassigned Personnel), 

organ dose commitments are calculated using the work schedules of the six identified 

teams and the film badge dose of the unassigned personnel. The results are then 

averaged to give organ dose commitments for the unassigned personnel. 

The calculated organ dose commitments for personnel of the ammunition 

disposal unit at Kwajalein are given in Table 16. 

38 
Table 13. Ammunition Unloading Schedule 

-_ 

Date Initial B,)ardinq AMMUNITION UNLOADING TEAM 

(19‘16) Teali No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 

1 SEF Cdrteret Carteret Carteret Carteret Carteret Carteret 

5 SCP Carteret 

5 SEP New York Carter-et, New York Wainwright New York 

7 SEP Ilew York Carteret, New York Wainwright New York 

9 SEP New York Skipjack Carteret Wainwright New York 

10 SEP New York Skipjack Carteret Prinz Eugen Hughes New York 

11 SEP 

12 SEP 

Hughes, Pensacola 

Pensacola 

Gasconade,Hughes 

Independence 

Salt Lake City 

Salt Lake City Wainwright 

New York 

13 SCP Gasconade, Pensacola Hughes Gasconade Salt Lake City Wainwright New York 

14 SEP 

16 SEP 

Crittenden, Pensacola 

Pensacola Hughes 

Crittenden, Gasconade 

Gasconade 

Mayrant Wainwright 

Hughes 

Gasconade 

17 SEP Pensacola Hughes Pensacola Hughes 

I8 SEP Pensacola Hughes Gasconade, Pensacola Hughes 

19 SEP Independence Huqhes Gasconade Rhind tiuqhes Crittenden 

20 SEP Pensacola Hughes Gasconade Trippe Hughes Crittenden 

21 SCP Independence, Pensacola Gasconade Rhind Gasconade Crittenden 

22 SEP Gasconade 

23 SEP Independence Gasconade Barrow, Bracken Gasconade Crittenden 

24 SEP Gasconade Gasconade Crittenden 

25 SEP Pallon, Pensacola Butte Crittenden 

26 SEP Pensacola Pensacola Salt Lake City Crittenden 

27 SEP Pensacola Pensacola 

28 SEP Independence 

30 SEP Hughes Fallon 

1 OCT Pennsylvania 

3 OCT Pensacola Pensacola 

5 OCT Pennsylvania 

6 OCT Pensacola 

9 OCT Independence Independence 

10 OCT Fallon 

11 OCT Fallon Pensacola 

12 OCT Pennsylvania 

14 OCT Pennsylvania Nevada Pensacola 

15 OCT Pensacola Pensacola 

17 OCT Independence 

26 OCT Nevada Nevada 

26 OCT Nevada Nevada Nevada 

23 OCT Nevada Nevada Nevada 

30 OCT New York Nevada Nevada 

31 OCT New York Nevada rlevada 

1 NOV 

4 NOV 

Independence 

Nevada Pensacola 

5 NOV Nevada 
Table 14. Film Badge Doses of Ammunition Disposal Unit at Kwajalein 

Average 

Number of Film Badge Dose 

Team Personnel* (rem) 

Initial Boarding Team 33 0.340 

Ammunition Unloading Team No. 1 43 0.312 

Ammunition Unloading Team No. 2 42 0.378 

Ammunition Unloading Team No. 3 42 0.468 

Ammunition Unloading Team No. 4 41 0.315 

Ammunition Unloading Team No. 5 44 0.281 

Unassigned Personnel 23 0.173 

268 

*All personnel of the ammunition disposal unit are identified by name in 

the unit's muster roll. Data from Reference 24. 

40 

_ 
Table 15. Radiation Intensity of Target Ships 

Average Topside Radiation Intensity 

Target Ship 

USS BANNER (APA-60) 

USS BARROW (APA-61)* 

USS BRACKEN (APA-64)* 

USS BRISCOE (APA-65) 

USS BRULE (APA-66) 

USS BUTTE (APA-68)* 

USS CARTERET (APA-70)* 

USS CARTON (APA-71) 

USS CRITTENDEN (APA-77)* 

USS DAWSON (APA-79) 

USS FALLON (APA-81)* 

USS GASCONADE (APA-85)* 

USS HUGHES (DD-410)* 

USS INDEPENDENCE (CVL-22)* 

USS LST-52 

USS LST-133 

USS LST-220 

USS LST-545 

uss LST-661 

USS MAYRANT (DD-402)" 

USS MUGFORD (DD-389) 

USS MUSTIN (DD-413) 

USS NEVADA (BB-36)* 

USS NEW YORK (BB-34)* 

USS PENNSYLVANIA (BB-38)" 

USS PENSACOLA (CA-24)* 

PRINZ EUGEN* 

USS RALPH TALBOT (DD-390) 

USS RHIND (DD-404)* 

USS SALT LAKE CITY (CA-25)* 

USS SKATE (SS-305) 

USS SKIPJACK (SS-184)* 

USS STACK (DD-406) 

USS TRIPPE (DD-403)* 

USS WAINWRIGHT (DD-419)* 

USS WILSON (DD-408) 

On 19 Aug 46 (D+25) 

(R/day) 

0.30 

0.63 

0.34 

0.83 

3.1 

0.074 

0.025 

1.2 

1.5 

0.50 

2.3 

1.1 

0.55 

1.5 

3.8 

1.1 

0.37 

0.16 

3.0 

0.90 

0.20 

0.20 

1.1 

0.51 

0.74 

2.8 

0.41 

0.46 

0.60 

0.56 

0.50 

0.50 

0.64 

:':26 

0:97 

*Denotes target ship with ammunition. Source: Reference 2 

41 
Percentof 

Average Topside Film Badge Dose Film Badge Dose Lunq Lung Dote Comnitment 

Time Since Radiation lntensity Received Received RlFJ Rccelved Date Shot BAKER On Specified Day (2) On Specified Oay(3) On Specified Day(4) For Specified Day(S) On Specified Day(6)

(1946) (days)_ (Rldati__ ~___@1____ ~~..._1!!?!!.___ ____~_(repnl_.__ 

4 Sep CARTERET 41 0.013 0.23 0.001 4.llE404 0.001 

9 Sep SKIPJACK 46 0.226 3.95 II.012 4.73E+O4 0.013 

10 Sep SKIPJACK 47 0.220 3.84 0.012 4.86E+04 0.014 

13 Sep HUGHES 50 0.223 3.H9 0.012 5.2RE+04 0.015 

16 Sep HUGHES 53 0.207 3.61 0.011 5.74t+04 0.015 

17 sep HUGHES 54 0.202 3.53 o.n11 5.9w+04 0.015 

18 Sep HUGHES 55 0.197 3.44 0.011 6.07E+04 0.015 

19 Sep HUGHES 56 0.193 3.37 0.011 6.24E+D4 0.016 

20 Sep HUGHES 57 0.188 3.28 0.010 6.41E+04 0.015 

23 Sep GASCONADE 60 0.353 6.16 0.031 0.019 6.97Et04 

0.019 7.08E+04 24 Sep GASCONADE 61 0.345 6.02 0.031 

0.046 7.30E+04 26 Sep PENSACOLA 63 0.842 14.70 0.078 

0.045 7.42E+04 27 Sep PENSACOLA 64 0.825 14.40 0.078 

0.734 12.R2 0.040 R.l4E+04 3 Ott PENSACOLA 70 0.076 

3.48 0.011 l.l5E+05 26 Ott NEVADA 93 0.199 0.030 

3.39 0.011 l.l7E+05 

29 Ott NEVADA 96 0.191 3.34 fl.0ll-l l.l8E+05 

2.8 Ott NEVADA 95 0.194 0.030 

0.028 

30 Ott NEVADA 97 0.189 3.30 0.028 0.010 1.19E+05 

98 0.186 -3.25 0.010 1.21E+05 31 Ott NEVADA -_- 0.028 

5.727 100.00 0.312 Total = 0.56 

1) Based on work schedule of lhrnunition Unloading Team No. 1 given in Table 13. 

2) Radiation intensity calculated for specified target ship (column 2) for specified day (colurm 3) using data given in Table 15. 

(3) fe;;;;r&of ,'f;m$dge dose calculated from radiation intensity (colurm 4 and total of column 4) based on Equation 12. For example. (0.013 + 5.727) 

(4) Film badge dose. OFB. based on percent of total film badge dose (column 5) and average film badqe dose for kmunition Unloading Team No. 1 given in 

Table 14 as 0.312 rem. 

(5) ElFj values obtained from Table 4 of Section 2 by interpolation. Example organ is lung. 

(6) Based on Equation 9: Dj = (2.33 x 10-5).DFB.BlFj. 

Figure 8. Example Dose Calculation for Ammunition Unloading Team No 
Table 16. Organ Dose Commitments for Ammunition Disposal 

Unit at Kwajalein (rem) 

Initial Ammunition Unloadinq Teams 

Organ 

Boarding 

Team No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 

Unassigned 

Personnel 

Lung 0.53 0.56 0.66 0.71 0.58 0.44 0.29 

LLI Wall 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.02 

Bone 0.10 0.11 0.13 0.13 0.11 0.09 0.06 

R Marrow 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.09 0.07 0.05 

Endosteum 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.2 0.85 0.57 

Kidneys 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 

Liver 0.21 0.22 0.26 0.27 0.23 0.17 0.11 

Testes 0.011 D.012 0.014 0.015 0.013 0.010 0.006 

Thyroid 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.02 

Total Body 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.01 

43 

-.- _ -
SECTION 5 

MAINTENANCE AND SECURITY AT KWAJALEIN 

As mentioned in Section 4, target ships that had survived the tests at Bikini were 

taken to Kwajalein. At Kwajalein, personnel boarded the target ships to perform 

lirnited maintenance and security tasks intended to keep the ships seaworthy and to 

prepare thern for sinking near Kwajalein or for transfer to naval shipyards. In the first 

year after the tests, approximately 500 personnel were involved in this activity. After 

July 1947, however, personnel decreased to 146, and by July 1948, the effort was 

complete as the last ship departed. 

The safety precautions specified for personnel boarding the target ships were the 

salne as those used for the ammunition disposal unit discussed in Section 

(Reference 22). However, as discussed in Reference 1, these precautions were not 

always strictly followed, especially during 1947. Accordingly, it is assumed that 

respiratory protective devices, such as a rescue breathing apparatus (RBA), were not 

used when working on target ships. 

Fifty target ships were at Kwajalein. These included fourteen small craft, such 

as landing craft and fuel barges, and thirty-six large ships, such as troop transports and 

destroyers. Since rnost of the maintenance and security work was performed on the 

large ships, the average radiation intensity to which a shipboard worker was exposed is 

best determined by considering only the large ships. Table 17, based on information 

provided in Reference 1, gives the arrival and departure schedule of the large target 

ships at Kwajalein. As is discussed later, this schedule information in conjunction with 

the radiation intensity of the specified target ships is used to determine the average 

radiation intensity of the set of target ships present at Kwajalein as a function of 

time. 

The maintenance and security work at Kwajalein began on 20 August 1946 with 

the arrival of USS STACK (DD-436) and ended on 25 July 1948 with the departure oE 

LST-661. Filrn badge and exposure tirne data are available only for the period of 

August 1947 through July 1948 (Reference 25). The available data are summarized in 

Table IS. 

44 

4 
Since the available film badge data do not cover the period of August 1946 

through July 1947, organ dose commitments for personnel exposed during this period 

are based on an estimated daily exposure. As seen in Table 18, for the period of 

August 1947 through July 1948 the average monthly figure indicates that a worker 

spent approximately one hour per day aboard target ships. Because this period is 

rather long and includes all types of shipboard activities that were performed as part 

of the maintenance and security work, the average monthly exposure time for the 

period is a reasonable estimate of the average monthly exposure time for the 

August 1946 - July 1947 period. Accordingly, organ dose commitments and film badge 

doses for personnel exposed during the period of August 1946 through July 1947 are 

calculated for a worker who spends one hour per day aboard target ships. 

To maintain consistency, organ dose commitments and film badge doses for 

personnel exposed during the period of August 1947 through July 1948 are also 

calculated for a worker who spends one hour per day aboard target ships. However, 

since film badge data is available for this period, the organ dose commitments can be 

referenced to the actual film badge dose, thus eliminating any assumptions about 

exposure duration. 

Organ dose commitments and film badge doses for the maintenance and security 

work at Kwajalein are calculated on a monthly basis. As rnentioned above, the 

calculations are based on a worker spending one hour per day, approximately 30 hours 

per month, aboard target ships. For personnel who served at Kwajalein during the 

period of August 1947 through July 1948 (the period for which film badge data are 

available), organ dose commitments to an individual can be determined from the 

actual film badge data. 

Equation I (Section 2) is the basic equation used for calculating organ dose 

commitments. For calculating doses for the maintenance and security work at 

Kwajalein, Equation 1 in applied to the topside and to the below decks exposure 

situations. Since respiratory protective devices were not used, the protection factor is 

omitted. The resulting equation for the dose commitment to organ j, Dj(rem) is: 

45 
Dj = fTS*ITS’KTS.BR.T.BIFj + fBD*IBD*KBD*BR*T*BIFj (10) 

where TS indicates topside and BD indicates below decks; fTS is the fraction of time 

aboard the ship spent topside and fBD is the fraction spent below. 

Equation 2 (Section 2) is the basic equation used for calculating film badge doses. 

For the maintenance and security work at Kwajalein, the modified equation for the 

film badge dose is: 

D FB = fTS (0.7)ITS.T + fBD(0.7)IBD+T (11) 

Equations 10 and 11 are simplified by assigning values to some of the variables. 

As discussed in Section 2, for the maintenance and security work at Kwajalein, the 

breathing rate, BR, is 1.2 m3/hr and the resuspension factors topside, KTS, and below 

-6 -t and 1o-5 ,-I decks, KBD, are 10 m , respectively. The fraction of time topside, 

is 0.5 and the fraction of time below decks, fBD, is 0.5. Based on Figures 3 fTS’ 

through 6 (Section 31, the average below decks radiation intensity, IBD (R/hi-), is 10 

percent of the average topside radiation intensity ITS. The duration of the exposure, 

T, is 1 hour per day, the estimated daily exposure discussed earlier. 

Using the above values, Equations 10 and 11 are simplified to: 

Dj = (I.20 X 10-6)ITS.BIF. (12) i 

D FB = (0.385N~s (13) 

The above equations are used to calculate the organ dose commitments and the film 

badge dose on a daily basis; the doses are summed to give the total doses for a monthly 

period. 

BIFj is the BAKER Inventory Factor, interpolated from Table 3 for each day of 

exposure. 

46 
The parameter ITS (R/hr) in Equations 12 and 13 is the average topside radiation 

intensity of the set of target ships present at Kwajalein on a given day. An average 

radiation intensity is used because it is not possible to determine the specific target 

ships that were worked on a given day. The procedure for calculating this average 

radiation intensity is discussed below. 

Table 15 gives the average topside radiation intensity of each of the thirty-six 

target ships at twenty-five days after Shot BAKER (Reference 2). From the standard 

CROSSROADS decay (proportional to t-l*’ ), the radiation intensity of the target ships 

on a given day is calculated for the first six months after the test. Because fallout 

decay is known to accelerate after six months (Reference 29), the standard decay is no 

longer applicable. Decay determined by the FIIDOS code (Reference 7) is used through 

1948, approximately t -2’3 for the period. Based on the arrival and departure 

information given in Table 17, the target ships present at Kwajalein on a given day are 

identified. During the two-year maintenance and security period, the radiation 

intensities of those target ships present at Kwajalein on each day are summed and then 

divided by the number of ships present to give the average radiation intensity. This 

procedure is illustrated in Figure 9 for the first five days of the maintenance and 

security period. 

Figure 10 shows the average radiation intensity of target ships at Kwajalein for 

the full two-year period. During the first three weeks, the average changes 

significantly as more target ships arrive. From September 1946 through rvlarch 1948, 

the average radiation intensity drops steadily due to radioactive decay, and the effect 

of a target ship’s departure is not readily apparent because departures occur almost 

uniformly during the period. During the last four rnonths of the operation, the average 

radiation intensity changes significantly because, with few target ships present, the 

departure of a single target ship greatly affects the average. 

For those cases in which monthly film badge data is available, monthly organ 

dose commitments can be determined from the actual film badge dose, thus 

elirninating the assumption regarding the daily exposure conditions. When Equation 12 

is divided by Equation I-J, it is seen that the ratio of the organ dose commitment to 

the film badge dose is equal to a constant: 

47 
!.3_ • (1.2 x lo? . BIF 

(0.385) i (14) DFB 

Through the BAKER Inventory Factor, BIFj, the value of the dose ratio is dependent on 

the time after the shot at which the exposure occurs. It should be noted that the value 

is not explicitly dependent on the radiation intensity or the duration of the exposure. 

The calculated organ dose commitments for the maintenance and security work 

at Kwajalein are given in Table 19. It rnay be noted that the actual film badge doses 

from August 1947 to July 1948 are higher for rnost months than the calculated monthly 

averages. This is apparently because only that portion of the detachment assigned to 

the higher intensity ships was actually badged--about 20 men per rnonth average. 

These personnel were badged for periods of one to six months, two months on the 

average. The annual average for the detachment, however, would likely be as 

calculated; that is, no individual would have received the sum of all monthly film 

badge (actual) doses. As stated previously, dose commitments are based on film badge 

doses. When dosimetry is available for an individual, it should be used. When it is not 

available, the calculated film badge doses, although possibly high-sided for unbadged 

intervals, are appropriate for determination of organ doses. 

48 
Table 17. Schedule of Target Ship Arrivals and Departures at Kwajalein 

Target Ship 

USS BANNER (APA-60) 

USS BARROW (APA-61) 

USS BRACKEN (APA-64) 

USS BRISCOE (APA-65) 

USS BRULE (APA-66) 

USS BUTTE (APA-68) 

USS CARTERET (APA-70) 

USS CATRON (APA-71) 

USS CRITTENDEN (APA-77) 

USS DAWSON (APA-79) 

USS FALLON (APA-81) 

USS GASCONADE (APA-85) 

USS HUGHES (DD-410) 

USS INDEPENDENCE (CVL-22) 

USS LST-52 

USS LST-133 

USS LST-220 

USS LST-545 

uss LST-661 

USS MAYRANT (DD-402) 

USS MUGFORD (DO-389)

USS MUSTIN (DD-413) 

USS NEVADA (BB-36) 

USS NEW YORK (BB-34) 

USS PENNSYLVANIA (BB-38) 

USS PENSACOLA (CA-24) 

PRINZ EUGEN 

USS RALPH TALBOT (DD-390) 

USS RHIND (DD-404) 

USS SALT LAKE CITY (CA-25) 

USS SKATE (SS-305) 

USS SKIPJACK (SS-184) 

USS STACK (DD-406) 

USS TRIPPE (DD-403)

USS WAINWRIGHT DD-419) 

USS WILSON (DD-408) 

Date 

Arrived 

Kwajalein 

29 Aug 46 

27 Aug 46 

21 Aug 46 

22 Aug 46 

29 Aug 46 

30 Aug 46 

27 Aug 46 

28 Aug 46 

26 Aug 46 

21 Aug 46 

3 Sep 46 

26 Aug 46 

28 Aug 46 

27 Aug 46 

27 Aug 46 

30 Aug 46 

30 Aug 46 

30 Aug 46 

27 Aug 46 

29 Aug 46 

21 Aug 46 

30 Aug 46 

22 Aug 46 

24 Aug 46 

24 Aug 46 

27 Aug 46 

22 Aug 46 

29 Aug 46 

1 Sep 46 

25 Aug 46 

24 Aug 46 

7 Sep 46 

20 Aug 46 

22 Aug 46 

25 Aug 46 

21 Aug 46 

Date 

Departed 

Kwajalein* 

16 Feb 48 

11 May 48 

10 Mar 48 

6 May 48 

11 May 48 

12 May 48 

19 Apr 48 

6 May 48 

1 Dee 46 

16 Apr 46 

10 May 48 

15 Jan 47 

15 May 47 

15 Jun 47 

15 Apr 48 

11 May 48 

12 May 48 

12 May 48 

25 Jul 48 

4 Apr 48 

22 Mar 48 

28 Apr 48 

15 May 47 

15 Mar 47 

10 Feb 48 

15 Apr 47 

22 Dee 46 

15 Mar 48 

22 Mar 48 

15 Jul 47 

26 Aug 46 

11 Sep 46 

24 Apr 48 

3 Feb 48 

5 Jul 48 

8 Mar 48 

*For ships sunk or scuttled at Kwajalein, the departure date is taken as the 

date the ship was sunk or scuttled. For those ships where only month and 

year of Kwajalein departure is known, the departure date is taken as the 15th 

of the month. 

49 
Table 18. Exposure Data for Kwajalein 

Total Average 

Number Monthly (2) Monthly 

Month WolPkfers(l) 

Exposure Time 

(hr) 

Exposure Time 

(hr) 

Aug 47 19 38 2 

Sep 47 20 155 8 

act 47 52 585 11 

Nov 47 20 391 20 

Dee 47 33 630 19 

Jan 48 23 268 12 

Feb 48 17 429 25 

Mar 48 20 359 18 

Apr 48 21 892 42 

May 48 14 958 68 

Jun 48 6 410 68 

Jul 48 7 514 73 

252 5629 22(3) 

(1) The total number of workers is greater than the 146 men identified by 

name in the Kwajalein dosimetry data base (Reference 25); most of the 

men worked more than one month on the target ships. 

(2) During the 6-month period of August 1947 to January 1948, the total 

exposure time is 2067 hours; during the 6-month period of February 

1948 to July 1948, the total exposure time is 3562 hours. During the 

first period, the work involved only maintenance and security of the 

target ships, whereas during the second period, 25 target ships were 

prepared for sinking. This activity presumably accounts for the 

increased exposure time during the second period. 

(3) Obtained by dividing the sum of all monthly exposure times by the sum 

of the monthly number of workers. 

50 

__~_ -. ~_ -~ 
- - 

Topside Radiation Intensity (R/day) on Specified Date (1946) 

19 Aug(') (1) Target Ship (0+25) 

STACK 0.64 

BRACKEN 0.34 

DAWSON 0.50 

MUGFORD 0.20 

WILSON 0.97 

BRISCOE 0.83 

NEVADA 1.10 

PRINZ EUGEN 0.41 

TRIPPE 1.20 

NEW YORK 0.51 

PENNSYLVANIA 0.74 

SKATE 0.50 

Total (R/day) = 

Number of Ships = 

Average Intensity (R/day) = 

Average Intensity (R/hr) = 

(1) Listed in order of arrival 

(2) From Table 18. 

20 Aug 

(0+26) 

21 Aug 

(0+27) 

0.608 0.579 

0.308 

0.452 

0.181 

0.878 

0.608 2.398 

1 5 

0.608 0.480 

0.025 0.020 

at Kwajalein. 

22 Aug 

lD+28) 

0.552 

0.293 

0.432 

0.173 

0.837 

0.716 

0.949 

0.354 

1.036 

5.342 

9 

0.594 

0.025 

23 Aug 

(0+29) 

0.528 

0.280 

0.412 

0.165 

0.800 

0.684 

0.907 

0.338 

0.989 

5.103 

9 

0.567 

0.024 

24 Aug 

(0+301 

n.5n5 

0.268 

0.394 

0.158 

0.765 

0.655 

0.868 

0.323 

0.947 

0.402 

0.584 

0.394 

6.263 

12 

0.522 

0.022 

Figure 9. Calculation of Average Radiation Intensity of Target Ships 

51 
5’ 
Table 19. Organ Dose Commitments and Film Badge Doses for Maintenance 

and Security Work at Kwajalein, August 1946 - July 1948 

Organ Dose Conml tment (rem) 

Month Lung LLI Wall Bone R Marrow .- E ndos Kidneys Liver ._I Testes Thyroid 

Total 

Body 

Film Badw 

Calculated 

Dose (rem) 

Actual 

Aug 1946(l) 0.011 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.018 0.001 0.004 c.001 0.004 c.001 0.113 

Sep 1946 0.033 0.002 0.006 0.005 0.060 0.002 0.013 0.001 0.003 0.001 0.188 -

Ott 1946 0.033 0.002 0.006 0.005 0.067 0.002 0.013 0.001 c.001 0.002 0.105 

Nov 1946 0.029 0.001 0.006 0.005 0.067 0.002 0.013 0.001 c.001 0.002 0.067 -

oec 1946 0.029 0.001 0.006 0.005 0.071 0.002 0.015 0.001 c.001 0.002 0.050 

Jan 1947 0.029 0.001 0.007 0.006 0.076 0.002 0.015 0.001 c.001 0.002 0.039 

Feb 1947 0.025 cl.001 0.006 0.005 0.069 0.002 0.014 0.001 c.001 0.002 0.027 -

Ear 1947 0.026 0.001 0.007 0.006 0.074 0.002 0.015 0.001 c.001 0.002 0.022 

Apr 1947 0.024 0.001 0.006 0.005 0.069 0.002 0.014 0.001 c.001 0.001 0.015 -

May 1947 0.022 0.001 0.006 0.005 0.072 0.002 0.014 0.001 c.001 0.001 0.012 

Jun 1947 0.023 0.001 0.006 0.005 0.072 0.002 0.013 0.001 <.OOl 0.001 0.009 -

Jul 1947 0.024 0.001 0.00) 0.006 0.078 0.002 0.015 0.001 ‘.OOl 0.002 0.008 

Total Period 0.31 0.013 0.072 0.059 0.79 0.023 0.16 0.009 0.009 0.018 0.66 -

Aug 1947 0.024 0.001 0.007 0.006 o.oaz 0.002 0.016 0.001 c.001 o.oo2 0.006 0.001 

Sep 1947 0.023 0.001 0.007 0.006 0.081 0.002 0.016 0.001 c.001 0.002 0.005 0.043 

act 1947 0.023 c.001 0.007 0.006 0.086 0.002 0.016 0.001 <.ool 0.002 0.005 0.103 

Nov 1947 0.022 c.001 0.008 0.006 0.083 0.002 0.016 0.001 c.001 0.002 0.004 0.028 

Dee 1947 0.022 c.001 0.008 0.007 0.087 0.002 0.017 0.001 <.OOl 0.002 0.003 0.022 

Jan 1948 0.021 c.001 0.007 0.006 0 085 0.002 0.017 0.001 c.001 0.002 0.003 0.030 

Feb 1948 0.019 c.001 0.007 0.006 0.079 o.oo2 0.015 0.001 c.001 o.on1 0.003 0.055 

f4ar 1948 0.020 <.a01 0.008 0.006 0.085 0.002 0.016 0.001 c.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 

Apr 1948 0.018 t.001 0.007 0.006 0.081 0.002 0.016 0.001 <.OOl 0.001 0.002 0.010 

May 1948 0.024 c.001 0.010 0.008 0.11 0.003 0.021 0.001 1.001 0.002 0.002 0.033 

Jun 1948 0.025 c.001 0.010 0.009 0.11 0.003 0.022 0.001 c.001 0.002 0.003 0.020 

Jul 1948(‘) 0.035 c.001 0.015 0.019 0.16 0.004 0.031 0.001 c.001 0.003 0.003 0.019 

Total Penod 0.28 0.005 0.10 0.084 1.1 0.028 0.22 0.011 0.001 0.020 0.041 

(1) First target ship arrived at Knajalein on 20 August 1946. 

(2) Last target ship departed KuaJalein on 25 July 1948. 
SECTION 6 

INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE AT NAVAL SHIPYARDS 

As mentioned in Section 5, some of the target ships that had been taken to 

Kwajalein were later transferred to naval shipyards. The naval shipyards were the 

Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard, the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, and the San Francisco 

Naval Shipyard. At a shipyard, a ship was inspected for damage and lirnited 

maintenance was performed. When a target ship was determined to be of no potential 

use, it was taken out to sea and sunk. As is discussed below, most of the work on the 

target ships at the naval shipyards was perforrned during 1947 and 1948. The number 

of personnel involved at Pearl Harbor was about 150 per year; at Puget Sound, 288 in 

1947 and I 16 in 1948; and at San Francisco, 130 in 1947 and 397 in 1948. Some 

personnel shown for 1948 were also present in late 1947 at Puget Sound and San 

Francisco. 

Safety regulations for work on target ships at naval shipyards were issued by the 

US Navy Bureau of Medicine and Surgery in January 1947 (Reference 5). As discussed 

in Reference 1, these regulations emphasized the potential internal radiation hazards 

and appeared to codify the safety practices that had been developed earlier at Bikini 

and at Kwajalein. As before, these new regulations specified the use of respiratory 

protective devices, such as a rescue breathing apparatus (RBA), to prevent the 

inhalation of airborne radioactivity. However, the radiation intensities of the target 

ships in 1947, and especially in 1948, were so low that it is likely that RBAs were not 

always used when appropriate. Accordingly, it is assumed that RBAs were not used 

when working on the target ships at the naval shipyards. 

Table 20, based on information provided in Reference 1, gives the arrival and 

departure schedule of the target ships at the three naval shipyards. As is discussed 

later, this schedule inforrnation in conjunction with the radiation intensity of the 

specified target ships is used to determine the average radiation intensity of the set of 

target ships present at a naval shipyard as a function of time. 

54 
Film badge data are recorded for personnel at the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard 

and the San Francisco Naval Shipyard in References 26, 27, and 28. For Puget Sound, 

the film badge data that cover the 1947-1945 period are provided for two periods, with 

the division occurring at 1 March 1948. The film badge data for San Francisco are 

annual data for 1947 and 1948. No film badge data are available for the Pearl Harbor 

Naval Shipyard. As discussed later, annual film badge data for Pearl Harbor are 

estimated from the Puget Sound film badge data, based on a comparison of the timeintegrated average radiation intensities at the two shipyards. 

Equation 1 (Section 2) is the basic equation used for calculating organ dose 

commitments. For calculating doses for the inspection and maintenance work at the 

naval shipyards, Equation 1 is applied to the topside and to the below decks exposure 

situations. Since respiratory protective devices were not used, the protection factor is 

ornitted. The resulting equation for the dose commitment to organ j, Dj(rem) is: 

Dj = fTS*ITS*KTS*BR*T*BIFj •BR.T*BIF. (15) + ‘BD*IBD°KBD I 

where TS indicates topside and BD indicates below decks; fTS is the fraction of time 

aboard the ship spent topside and f is the fraction spent below decks.

BD 

Equation 2 (Section 2) is the basic equation used Eor calculating film badge doses. 

For the inspection and maintenance work at the naval shipyards, the modified equation 

for the film badge dose DFB(rem), is: 

D fTS (0.7) ITS-T + fBD (0.7) IBD.T (16) FB = 

Equations 15 and 16 are simplified by assigning values to some of the variables. 

As discussed in Section 2, for the inspection and maintenance work at the naval 

shipyards, the breathing rate, BR, is 1.2 m’/hr and the resuspension factors topside, 

,-1 and lo-5 -1 below decks, KBD, are 10 -6 m , respectively. The fraction KTS’ and 

of time topside, f is 0.25 and the fraction of time below decks, f is 0.75. Based TS’ BD’ 

on Figures 3 through 6 (Section 3), the average below decks radiation intensity, IBD, is 

10 percent of the average topside radiation intensity, ITS. 

55 

-
Using the above values, Equations 15 and 16 are sirnplified to: 

Dj = (1.2 X 1 O-6) ITS’T’BIFj (17) 

DFB = (0.2275) ITS-T (18) 

Using Equation 18 to eliminate ITS and T in Equation 18 gives: 

Dj = (5.27 X 1 O-6) DFB’BIFj (19) 

During the interval of about one year (for while film badge data are reported), 

the radionuclide inventory, and hence BIFj, changes considerably. Therefore, film 

badge doses are partitioned into quarterly intervals. For each ship, the topside 

intensity is integrated for each quarter. The ratio of the quarterly integrated 

intensity to the total annual integrated intensity is used (assuming constant daily 

exposure periods) to partition the film badge dose quarterly. 

Table 21 gives the average topside radiation intensity of each of the eight target 

ships as of 1 January 1947, 160 days after Shot BAKER (Reference 2). From these 

values, the radiation intensity of a target ship on a given day is calculated. Fallout 

decay is known to accelerate after six months (Reference 29); therefore, the standard 

-I.? CROSSROADS decay proportional to t is no longer applicable. Decay determined 

-2.3 by the FIIDOS code (Reference 7) is used through 1948, approximately t for the 

period. Based on the arrival and departure information given in Table 20, the target 

ships present at a naval shipyard on a given day are identified. During the two-year 

inspection and maintenance period, the radiation intensities of those target ships 

present at the shipyard on each day are summed and then divided by the number of 

ships present to give the average radiation intensity. Figure 11 shows the average 

radiation intensity of target ships at each of the three naval shipyards for the 1947-

1948 period. 

Table 22 shows the fraction of the film badge dose received per quarter as 

calculated for each of the naval shipyards. For San Francisco, the film badge doses 

56 
allocated are annual doses for the years 1947 and 1948. For Puget Sound, the doses 

allocated are for a lo-month period preceding 1 March 1948 and for a 9-month period 

following 1 March 1948; to simplify quarterly calculations for the two-year period, the 

doses are treated as though they were accumulated over the first five quarters and the 

last three quarters of the period, respectively. Note that for a quarter when no target 

ships were present at a given shipyard, the film badge dose fraction is not specified. 

For Pearl Harbor, the doses are deterrnined from the ratio of film badge dose to 

integrated intensities at the other shipyards. Because the ratio of film badge dose for 

both years to the integrated intensity is greater for Puget Sound than for San 

Francisco, the organ dose commitments for Pearl Harbor are high-sided by using the 

Puget Sound ratio. The two-year Pearl Harbor film badge dose thus obtained is 

partitioned annually and then quarterly as previously described. The annual calculated 

film badge dose for Pearl Harbor (shown in Table 23) is less than that for Puget Sound. 

This is consistent with the intensities shown in Figure 11. 

The calculated organ dose commitments for the inspection and maintenance 

work at the naval shipyards in 1947 and 1948 are given in Tables 24, 25, and 26, for 

Pearl Harbor, Puget Sound, and San Francisco Naval Shipyards, respectively. For 

situations in which individual film badge data are available, organ doses can be 

determined from the ratio of the actual to the average film badge dose. 

5 7 
Table 20. Schedule of Target Ship Arrivals and Departures 

at Naval Shipyards 

Date 

Naval Shipyard Target Ship Arrived 

Pearl Harbor uss NEVADA (BB-36) 15 May 47 31 Jul 48 

uss NEW YORK (BB-34) 15 Mar 47 8 Jul 48 

Puget Sound uss HUGHES (DD-410) 31 May 4, 16 Ott 48 

uss PENSACOLA (CA-24) 21 Apr 47 10 Nov 48 

uss SALT LAKE CITY (CA-Z) 28 Jul 47 25 May 48 

San Francisco(') uss CRITTENDEN (APA-77) 1 Jan 47 5 Ott 48 

uss GASCONADE (APA-85) 27 Jan 47 21 Jul 48 

uss INDEPENDENCE (CVL-22) 16 Jun 47 26 Jan 51(3) 

(1) The departure date is taken as the date the ship was sunk. 

(2) Two other target ships, USS SKATE (SS-305) and USS SKIPJACK (SS-184), 

were also sent to the San Francisco Naval Shipyard. They are not 

included in this analysis because, in comparison with the other target 

ships at the San Francisco Naval Shipyard, they are much smaller and 

much less contaminated. 

(3) This analysis addresses the naval shipyards for the years 1947 and 

1948. Calculations for USS INDEPENDENCE (CVL-22) are terminated at 

the end of 1948. 

58 
Table 21. Radiation Intensity of Target Ships at Naval Shipyards 

Average Topside Intensity* 

Naval Shipyard Target Ship 

1 Jan 47 (~+160) 

(R/day) 

Pearl Harbor USS NEVADA (BB-36) 0.099 

USS NEW YORK (BB-34) 0.046 

Puget Sound USSHUGHES (DD-410) 0.049 

USS PENSACOLA (CA-24) 0.251 

USS SALT LAKE CITY (CA-25) 0.050 

San Francisco USS CRITTENDEN (APA-77) 0.134 

USS GASCONADE (APA-85) 0.099 

USS INDEPENDENCE (CVL-22) 0.134 

*Based on t-1-3 decay from D+25 (Table 15). 

59 
0. 

.O 

San Francis 

\ 

\ \\ 

Pearl Harbord, 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

.002 I 

A 

I I I I 

A I 1 I 

IJan 47 1 Jan 4P 

Fiaure 11. Average Radiation Intensity of Target Ships at Naval Shipyards 
Table 22. Fraction of Annual Film Badge Dose Received 

Per Quarter at Naval Shipyards 

Period 

Jan - Mar 1947 

Apr - Jun 1947 

JUT - Sep 1947 

Ott - Dee 1947 

Jan - Mar 1948 

Apr - Jun 1948 

Jul - Sep 1948 

Ott - Dee 1948 

Pearl Harbor 

0.12 

0.42 

0.29 

0.18 

0.52 

0.36 

0.12 

-

Puget Sound* 

0.54 

0.23 

0.14 

0.09 

0.42 

0.38 

0.20 

San Francisco 

0.56 

0.21 

0.14 

0.08 

0.37 

0.26 

0.21 

0.16 

*The film badge data available for the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard cover 

the period 27 Apr 47 - 1 Mar 48 and 1 Mar 48 - 30 Nov 48, Film badge 

doses are allocated to five quarterly periods prior to 1 April 1948 and 

three quarterly periods subsequent thereto. 
Table 23. Average Film Badge Doses at Naval Shipyards 

Average 

Film Badge Dose 

Naval Shipyard Period 1 rem> 

Pearl Harbor* 1 Jan 47 - 31 Dee 47 0.074 

1 Jan 48 - 31 Dee 48 0.017 

Puget Sound 1 Jan 47 - 31 Mar 48 0.126 

1 Apr 48 - 31 Dee 48 0.057 

San Francisco 1 Jan 47 - 31 Dee 47 0.039 

1 Jan 48 - 31 Dee 48 0.004 

*Average film badge doses are estimated from the doses for the Puget 

Sound Naval Shipyard, as discussed in the text. 

62 
Table 24. Organ Dose Commitments at Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard 

Organ Dose Comnitment (rem) 

Organ 

Lung 

LLI Wall 

Bone 

R Marrow 

Endosteum 

Kidneys 

Liver 

Testes 

Thyroid 

Total Body 

Jan-Mar(‘) 

1947 

0.014 

c.001 

0.003 

0.003 

0.037 

0.001 

0.007 

c.001 

c.001 

0.001 

Apr-Jun 

1947 

0.098 

0.003 

0.027 

0.022 

0.30 

0.008 

0.058 

0.003 

0.001 

0.006 

Jul-Sep 

1947 .__ 

0.13 

0.003 

0.040 

0.033 

0.45 

0.011 

0.086 

0.004 

0.001 

0.008 

Ott-Dee 

1947 

0.13 

0.002 

0.042 

0.035 

0.48 

0.012 

0.092 

0.005 

0.001 

0.009 

Total(') 

1947 

0.37 

0.008 

0.11 

0.093 

1.3 

0.032 

0.24 

0.012 

0.002 

0.024 

Jan-Mar 

1948 

0.12 

0.002 

0.042 

0.036 

0.47 

0.012 

0.092 

0.005 

0.001 

0.008 

Apr-Jun 

1948 

0.096 

0.001 

0.038 

0.031 

0.43 

0.011 

0.082 

0.004 

0.001 

0.008 

Ju~;;;P(~) 

0.036 

<.OOl 

0.015 

0.012 

0.20 

0.004 

0.033 

0.002 

c.001 

0.003 

Ott-OK 

1948 

0.000 

0.000 

0.000 

0.000 

0.000 

0.000 

0.000 

0.000 

0.000 

0.000 

T$4aRl(2) 

0.25 

0.004 

0.095 

0.079 

1.1 

0.027 

0.21 

0.011 

0.002 

0.019 

Film Badge 0.009 0.031 0.021 0.013 

Film Badge Dose (rem) 

0.074 0.009 0.006 0.002 0.000 0.017 

(1) 

(2) 

(3) 

First target ship arrived at Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard on 15 March 1947. 

Total is for the calendar year. Doses for total period may not equal sum of quarterly doses due to rounding, 

Last target ship departed Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard on 31 July 1948. 
Table 25. Organ Dose Commitments at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard 

Orqan Dose Commitment (rem) 

Organ 

Jan-Mar 

1947 

Apr-Jun(” 

1947 

Jul-Sep 

1947 

Ott-Oec 

1947 

Total(') 

1947 

Jan-Mar 

194x ___ 

Apt=Jun 

_ 1948 

Jul-Sep 

1948 ----

0C&CllC(3' Tot'; (*' 

.__ 

Lung 0.000 0.22 0.18 0.17 0.56 0.15 l-I.38 0.39 n.72 1.1 

LLI Wall 0.000 0.005 0.004 0.003 0.012 0.003 0.006 n.005 0.003 0.016 

BOllP 0.000 0.059 0.055 0.059 0.17 0.052 0.15 n.17 0.096 0.46 

A Marrow 0.000 0.049 0.045 0.049 0.14 0.044 0.12 0.14 0.079 0.38 

I Endosteum n.000 0.66 0.61 0.66 1.9 0.59 1.7 2.1 1.2 5.6 

Kidneys 0.000 0.017 0.016 0.017 0.050 0.015 0.042 0.047 0.027 Il.13 

Liver 0.000 0.13 0.12 0.13 0.37 0.11 0.32 0.36 0.21 1.00 

Testes 0.000 0.007 0.006 0.007 0.019 0.006 0.016 n.oui 0.010 0.051 

Thyroid 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.003 0.001 0.003 fl.003 0.002 0.009 

Total Body 0.000 0.013 0.012 0.012 0.027 0.010 0.030 0.033 0.019 0.091 

Film Badqe Dose (rem) 

Film Badge 0.000 0.068 0.029 0.018 0.115 0.011 0.024 0.022 0.011 0.068 

--

(1) First target ship arrived at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard on 21 April 1947. 

(2) 

(3) 

Total is for the calendar year. Doses for total period may not equal sum of quarterly doses due to rounding 

Last target ship departed Puget Sound Naval Shipyard on 10 November 1948. 
Table 26. Organ Dose Commitments at San Francisco Naval Shipyard 

Orqan Dose Commitment (rem) 

Organ__ 

Jan-Mar(') 

1947 

Apr-Jun 

1947 -~ 

Jul-Sep 

1947 __~_ 

Ott-Dee 

1947 ._I 

T;9t$') 

--

Jan-Mar 

1948 

Apr-Jun 

1948 ~-__ 

Jul-Sep 

1948 

Total(*) 

1948 

Lung 0.034 0.026 0.034 0.031 0.125 0.019 0.016 0.015 0.012 0.062 

LLI Wall 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.003 <.nn1 <.nn1 <.onl <.DOl 0.001 

Bone 0.008 0.007 0.010 0.011 0.036 0.007 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.025 

R Marrow 0.007 0.006 0.008 0.009 0.030 0.006 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.016 

Endosteum 0.091 0.079 0.12 0.12 0.40 0.077 0.072 0.081 0.070 0.30 

Kidneys 0.002 0.002 O.OD3 0.003 0.010 0.002 o.r)oz 0.002 0.002 0.007 

Liver 0.018 0.015 0.022 0.023 0.078 0.015 0.014 0.014 0.012 0.055 

Testes 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.004 O.Drll 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.003 

Thyroid c.001 c.001 c.001 c.001 0.001 C.Dr)l c.001 <.onl <.OOl c.001 

Total Body 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.008 0.001 0.001 o.on1 0.001 0.005 

Film Badge Dose (rem) 

Film Badge 0.022 0.008 0.005 0.003 0.039 0.n01 n.nol n.001 O.r)Dl 0 .on4 

(1) First target ship arrived at San Francisco Naval Shipyard on 1 January 1947. 

(2) Total is for the calendar year. Doses for total period may not equal sum of quarterly doses due to roundinq. 

(3) Last target ship departed San Francisco Naval Shipyard in 1951. Dose analysis is cut-off at 31 December 1948 to be consistent with analyses for 

other naval shipyards. 
SECTION 7 

CONCLUSIONS 

Organ dose commitments for ten selected organs are calculated for personnel 

associated with specific activities relating to Operation CROSSROADS. These 

activities all involve post-Shot BAKER reboarding of target ships at Bikini, ammunition unloading of target ships at Kwajalein, maintenance and security of target ships 

at Kwajalein, and inspection and maintenance of target ships at three naval shipyards. 

These activities were performed by different organizations and units over the period 

of August 1946 through December 1948. 

Table 27 presents a synopsis of the calculated organ dose commitments and film 

badge doses. The full set of results that provides the basis for Table 27 is given in 

Tables 11 and I2 in Section 3, Tables 14 and 16 in Section 4, Table 19 in Section 5, and 

Tables 24, 25, and 26 in Section 6. Fifty-year bone dose commitments for each year of 

exposure are less than 0.15 rem for all activities except at the Puget Sound Naval 

Shipyard (0.17 rern in 1947, 0.46 rem in 1948). The endosteal doses were typically up 

to a factor of 10 higher than corresponding bone doses. Uncertainties are dominated 

by those in the resuspension factor. The high-sided values chosen tend to upper-limit 

the internal doses derived. Actual doses could be much smaller. 

66 
Table 27. Operation CROSSROADS Internal Dose Synopsis 

Organ Dose Carmitment (rem) 

Fiim Badge 

rose 

Activity Element (rem) m LLI Uall & R. Marrow 3 Kidneys Liver Testes Thyroid Total Body 

Post-BAKER 

dt Bikini 

Reboarding JSS INDEPENDENCE (CVL-22) 

inspection Team 0.19. 0.025 0.003 0.004 0.003 0.040 0.001 0.008 <.OOl 0.011 0.001 

Anchor Team 0.087' 0.007 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.012 c .OOl 0.002 <.OOl 0.003 <.OOl 

JSS NEU YORK (66-34) 

Survey Team 0.001' c.001 <.OOl c.001 c.001 c.001 c.001 c.001 c.001 c.001 <.OOl 

&contamination Team 0.34' 0.012 0.003 0.002 0.001 0.016 0.001 0.003 c.001 0.013 O.cQl 

Engineers 

:nspection Team 

Pump Detail Team 

Ordnance Team 

0.93* 

0.051. 

3.072. 

0.020* 

0.067 

0.005 

0.009 

0.003 

0.013 

:::t 

<.oOl 

0.010 

0.001 

0.002 

c.001 

0.008 

0.001 

0.001 

<.OOl 

0.096 

0.008 

0.015 

0.005 

0.003 

c.001 

c.001 

c.001 

0.020 

0.002 

0.003 

0.001 

0.001 

c.001 

<.oOl 

<.OOl 

0.067 

0.003 

0.004 

0.001 

:: % 

<.OOl 

<.OOl 

Anchor Team 0.13' 0.011 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.018 O.Dol 0.004 <.oOl 0.004 c.001 

USS PENSACOLA (CA-241 

Advance-l Team 

Advance-2 Team 

Decontamination-l Team 

Decontamination-E Team 

Inspection Team 

Anchor Team 

0.28. 

0.17* 

0.10' 

0.22' 

3.15. 

0.14* 

0.015 

x?z 

0:019 

0.018 

0.013 

0.004 

0.003 

0.001 

0.003 

0.002 

0.001 

0.002 

0.001 

0.001 

0.003 

0.003 

0.002 

0.002 

0.001 

0.001 

0.002 

0.002 

0.002 

0.020 

0.007 

0.006 

0.030 

0.028 

0.023 

0.001 

S.001 

c.001 

0.001 

0.001 

0.001 

0.004 

0.001 

0.001 

0.006 

0.006 

0.005 

c.001 

<.OOl 

<.OOl 

c.001 

<.oOl 

i.001 

0.019 

E% 

0:011 

0.009 

0.004 

0.001 

<.OOl 

<.OOl 

0.001 

E% 

USS SALT LAKE CITY (X-25) 

Advance Team 

Oecontdmlnation-I Team 

&contamination-Z Team 

Inspection Team 

Anchor Team 

0.090' 

0.52' 

0.43' 

0.037. 

0.061R 

0.003 

0.015 

0.013 

0.005 

0.005 

0.001 

0.004 

0.003 

0.001 

0.001 

1.001 

0.002 

0.002 

0.001 

0.001 

c.001 

0.002 

0.001 

0.001 

0.001 

0.003 

0.018 

0.017 

O.M)8 

0.008 

<.OOl 

0.001 

0.001 

<.OOl 

<.OOl 

0.001 

0.004 

0.004 

0.002 

0.002 

< .OOl 

c.001 

<.OOl 

<.OOl 

<.OOl 

0.005 

0.019 

0.016 

0.002 

0.002 

<.OOl 

0.001 

0.001 

<.Wl 

c.001 

kIMWnltiOn Unloading at KwaJalein 

:nltial Soardrng Team 

Team No. 1 

Team Yo. 2 

Team b. 3 

Team Xa. 4 

Team NO. 5 

Jnass~;ned sersonnel 

3.340 

!I.312 

0.378 

0.468 

5.315 

0.231 

0.173 

0.53 

0.56 

0.66 

0.71 

0.58 

0.44 

0.29 

0.03 

0.03 

0.04 

0.05 

0.03 

0.03 

0.02 

0.10 

0.11 

0.13 

0.13 

0.11 

0.09 

0.06 

0.08 

0.09 

0.10 

0.11 

0.09 

0.07 

0.05 

1.0 

1.1 

::: 

1.2 

0.85 

0.57 

0.03 

0.03 

0.04 

0.04 

0.03 

0.03 

0.02 

0.21 

0.22 

0.26 

0.27 

0.23 

0.17 

0.11 

0.011 

0.012 

0.014 

0.015 

0.013 

0.010 

0.006 

:fz 

0:04 

0.06 

0.03 

0.03 

0.02 

0.03 

0.03 

0.03 

0.03 

0.03 

0.02 

0.01 

Rlntenance and Security at KWaJd:Qln 

August 1946-Julj 

August 1947-July 

1947 

1948 

3.66, 

3.041' 

0.31 

0.28 

0.013 

0.005 

0.072 

0.10 

0.059 

0.084 k:’ 

0.023 

0.028 

0.16 

0.22 

0.009 

0.011 

0.009 

0.001 

0.018 

0.070 

lnspectlon and Yalntenance It Iaval Shipyards 

Pearl riaraor-1947 

Pearl lidrSar-!348 

Puset Sound-:947 

Pu& Sound-:947 

San Francisco-1947 

San Francisco-i948 

'3.074. 

0.017. 

9.115 

3.068 

3.039 

3.004 

0.37 

0.25 

0.56 

1.1 

0.13 

0.062 

0.008 

0.004 

0.012 

0.016 

0.003 

0.001 

0.11 

0.095 

0.17 

0.46 

0.036 

0.025 

0.093 

0.079 

0.14 

0.38 

0.030 

0.016 

::: 

::: 

0.40 

0.30 

0.032 

0.027 

0.050 

0.13 

0.010 

0.007 

0.24 

0.21 

0.37 

1.0 

0.078 

0.055 

0.012 

0.011 

0.019 

0.051 

0.004 

0.003 

0.002 

0.002 

0.003 

0.009 

0.001 

c.001 

0.024 

0.019 

0.027 

0.091 

O.W8 

0.005 

'Cdlculated. 
SECTION 8 

LIST OF REFERENCES 

1. “Operation CROSSROADS, 1946,” DNA-603ZF, Defense Nuclear Agency, 

Washington, DC, January 1983. 

2. “Analysis of Radiation Exposure for Naval (Jnits of Operation CROSSROADS,” 

DNA-TR-S2-05, Defense Nuclear Agency, Washington, DC, March 1982. 

3. Message, CAPT Bednarczyk to COL Nichols (info to COL Warren), reporting the 

situation of target vessels in Kwajalein Lagoon, undated. 

4. Bradley, D., No Place to Hide 1946/1984, University Press of New England, 

Hanover, NH, 1983. 

5. “Safety Procedures and Requirements for Shipyards Working on Target Ships,” US 

Navy Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, January 1947. 

6. Kerr, G.D., “Findings of a Recent ORNL Review of Dosirnetry for the Japanese 

Atomic-Bomb Survivors,” Paper Prepared for Proceedings of a Symposiurn on 

Reevaluations of Dosirnetry Factors, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Oak Ridge 

National Laboratory, I98 1. 

7. “F11DC’S--24 Computer Code for the Computation of Fallout Inhalation and 

Ingestion Dose to Organs,” Science Applications, Inc., October 1984. 

8. “ORIGEN2--.4 Revised and [Jpdated Version of the Oak Ridge Isotope Generation 

and Depletion Code,” ORNL-5621, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Zlay 1980. 

9. Stumrn, W. and J.J. Clorgan, Aquatic Chemistry: An Introduction Emphasizing 

Chemical Equilibriurn in Natural Waters, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1981. 

10. “Version 4 of ATR (Air Transport of Radiation),” DNA3995F, Defense Nuclear 

Agency, January 1976. 

68 

-
11. “Neutron Cross Sections,” BNL 325, Brookhaven National Laboratory, January 

1976. 

12. Letter, University of California Radiation Laboratory, from K.C. Scott to Capt. 

W.B. Walsh, Subject: “Fission Product and Plutonium Assays on Crossroads Ship,” 

30 September 1946. 

13. Dunster, H.J., “Surface Contamination Measurernents as an Index of Control of 

Radioactive Materials,” in Health Physics, 8, pp. 353-356, 1962. 

14. Fish, B.R., et al., “Redispersion of Settled Particulates,” in Proceedings of a 

Symposium on Surface Contamination, Pergamon Press, New York, June 1964. 

15. Jones, I.S., and S.F. Pond, “Some Experirnents to Determine the Resuspension 

Factor of Plutonium from Various Surfaces,” in Proceedings of a Symposium on 

Surface Contamination, Pergamon Press, New York, June 1964. 

16. Stewart, K., “The Resuspension of Particulate Material from Surfaces,” in 

Proceedings of a Symposium on Surface Contamination, Pergamon Press, New 

York, 1964. 

17. “Report of the Task Group on Reference Man,” ICRP Publication 23, International Commission on Radiation Protection, 1975. 

18. “A Guide to Industrial Respiratory Protection,” National Institute for 

Occupational Safety and Health, June 1976. 

19. “Estimates of Internal Dose Equivalent to 22 Target Organs for Radionuclides 

Occurring in Routine Releases from Nuclear Fueled-Cycle Facilities,” ORNL/ 

NUREG/TM-190, Volume III, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, October 1981. 

20. “Analysis of Radiation Exposure for Task Force Warrior, Shot SMOKY, Exercise 

Desert Rock VII-VIII, Operation PLUMBBOB,” DNA4747F, Defense Nuclear 

Agency, lMay 1979. 

69 
21. Letter, Headquarters Kwajalein, from LCDR S.W. McGovern to Commander Task 

Unit 1.2.12, Subject: “Task of Ammunition Inspection and Disposal on 

CROSSROADS Target Vessels--Report on,” 23 October 1946. 

22. Letter from Commander Task Unit 1.2 to All CROSSROADS Activities on 

Kwajalein--Bikini Area, Subject: “Safety Precautions Incident to Boarding 

Target Vessels Laid-up at Kwajalein and Bikini,” 20 August 1946. 

23. Address, “Command Problems of Atomic Defense Warfare,” by CAPT 

Frank I. Winant, Jr., USN, for the Fort Belvoir Conference Course of 

September 1947. 

24. REECo microfilm Roll 1, Frame 444, “Continental and Pacific Historical 

Records, 1945-1948. 

25. Atoll Command, Kwajalein, Dosimetry Summary Post-CROSSROADS. 

26. Letter, Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, Bremerton, Washington, from Radiological 

Safety (Medical Officer to Radiological Safety Section, Bureau of [Medicine and 

Surgery, Navy Department, Subject: “Complete Report for ApriI 1947 through 

November 1948,” 31 December 1948. 

27. Radiation Laboratory, San Francisco Naval Shipyard, San Francisco, California, 

“Monthly Photodosimetry Report,” 8 January 1948. 

28. Radiation Laboratory, San Francisco Naval Shipyard, San Francisco, California, 

“Monthly Photodosirnetry Report,” 1 December 1948. 

29. “The Effects of Nuclear Weapons,” US Department of Defense and US 

Department of Energy, 1977. 

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