Biological Effects of Nuclear Explosions (BENE) Domain Guide 

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September 2012 

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Glen I. Reeves 

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14. ABSTRACT 

This Biological Effects of Nuclear Explosions (BENE) Domain Guide presents relevant 

documentation, references, and bibliographic citations for the student and researcher interested 

in original test documentation in the BENE phenomenology area. 

This document reflects the effort of some two decades of work to organize and review the 

atmospheric test documentation and Nuclear Test Personnel Review (NTPR) data managed by the 

Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA). This effort was led by Dr. David Auton (†), who died 

before this Guide’s completion. This effort is dedicated to his memory. Dr. Glen Reeves of 

Applied Research Associates added information and edited and updated the initial document. 

15. SUBJECT TERMS

Weapon effects Blast effects Thermal effects Radiation effects Biological effects

16. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF: 17. LIMITATION 

OF ABSTRACT 

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(of pages) 

19a. NAME OF RESPONSIBLE 

PERSON

Paul K. Blake, Ph.D.

a. REPORT b. ABSTRACT a. THIS PAGE UNCLASS 36 19b. TELEPHONE NUMBER 

(include area code) UNCLASS UNCLASS UNCLASS 

703 767-3384

Standard Form 298 (Rev. 8-98) 

Prescribed by ANSI Std. Z39.18 
iii

CONVERSION TABLE

Conversion factors for U.S. customary to metric (SI units of measurement)

MULTIPLY 

TO GET 

BY 

BY 

TO GET 

DIVIDE 

angstrom 1.000 000 x E-10 meters (m) 

atmosphere 1.012 25 x E +2 kilo pascal (kPa) 

bar 1.000 000 x E + 2 kilo pascal (kPa) 

barn 1.000 x E – 28 meter2 (m2) 

British thermal unit (thermochemical) 1.054 350 x E + 3 joule (J) 

calorie (thermochemical) 4.184 000 joule (J) 

cal (thermochemical)/cm2 4.184 000 x E-2 mega joule/m2 (MJ/m2) 

curie 3.7000 000 x E + 1 giga becquerel (GBq)* 

degree (angle) 1.745 329 x E – 2 radian (rad) 

degree (Fahrenheit) Tk = (t +459.69)/1.8 degree kelvin (K) 

electron volt 1.602 19 x E – 19 joule (J) 

erg 1.000 000 x E – 7 joule (J) 

erg/sec 1.000 000 x E – 7 watt (W) 

foot 3.048 000 x X-1 meter (m) 

foot-pound-force 1.355 818 joule (J) 

gallon (U.S. liquid) 3.785 412 x E – 3 meter3 (m3) 

inch 2.540 000 x E -2 meter (m) 

jerk 1.000 000 x E + 9 joule (J) 

joule/kilogram (J/kg) (absorbed dose) 1.000 000 Gray (Gy)** 

kilotons 4.183 terajoules 

kip (1000 lbf) 4.448 222 x E + 3 newton (N) 

kip/inch2 (ksi) 6.894 757 x E +3 kilo pascal (kPa) 

ktap 1.000 000 x E +2 newton-second/m2 (N-s/m2) 

micron 1.000 000 x E – 6 meter (m) 

mil 2.540 000 x E – 5 meter (m) 

mile (international) 1.609 344 x E + 3 meter (m) 

ounce 2.834 952 x E – 2 kilogram (kg) 

pound-force (lbf avoirdupois) 4.448 222 newton (N) 

pound-force inch 1.129 848 x E – 1 newton-meter (N*m) 

pound-force/inch 1.751 268 x E + 2 newton-meter (N/m) 

pound-force/foot2 4.788 026 x E – 2 kilo pascal (kPa) 

pound-force/inch2 (psi) 6.894 757 kilo pascal (kPa) 

pound-mass-foot2 (moment of inertia) 4.214 011 x E – 2 kilogram-meter2 (kg*m2) 

pound-mass/foot3 1.601 846 x E + 1 kilogram/m3 (kg/m3) 

rad (radiation absorbed dose) 1.000 000 x E – 2 Gray (Gy) ** 

rem (roentgen equivalent man) Sievert (Sv) *** 

roentgen 2.579 760 x E – 4 coulomb/kilogram (C/kg) 

shake 1.000 000 x E – 8 second (s) 

Slug 1.459 390 x E + 1 kilogram (kg) 

Torr (mm Hg, 0 degrees C) 1 333 22 x E – 1 kilo pascal (kPa) 

* The Becquerel (Bq) is the SI unit of radioactivity: 1 Bq = 1 event/s. 

** The Gray (Gy) is the SI unit of absorbed radiation. 

*** The Sievert (SV) is the SI unit of dose equivalent. 
iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CONVERSION TABLE .............................................................................................................. iii

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ v

FOREWORD ............................................................................................................................... vi

1.0 HISTORY/INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1

1.1 HIROSHIMA/NAGASAKI ............................................................................................. 1

1.2 PACIFIC PROVING GROUNDS ................................................................................... 2

1.3 NEVADA TEST SITE ..................................................................................................... 7

2.0 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS .......................................... 15

2.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 15

2.2 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE INJURIES ................................................................ 15

3.0 AIRBLAST EFFECTS ...................................................................................................... 17

3.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 17

3.2 MECHANISMS OF INJURY........................................................................................ 17

4.0 THERMAL EFFECTS ...................................................................................................... 19

4.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 19

4.2 BURN SEVERITY ........................................................................................................ 19

5.0 RADIATION EFFECTS ................................................................................................... 21

5.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 21

5.2 EARLY EFFECTS OF RADIATION ........................................................................... 21

5.3 CHRONIC/PROTRACTED IRRADAITION ............................................................... 22

5.4 LATE EFFECTS ............................................................................................................ 23

5.5 INTERNAL DOSE ........................................................................................................ 24

5.6 MULTIPLE EXPOSURES/EFFECTIVE RESIDUAL DOSE ..................................... 24

6.0 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 26

7.0 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 26

APPENDIX A. ACRONYMS .................................................................................................. A-1

APPENDIX B. DISTRIBUTION LIST .................................................................................. B-1
v

LIST OF TABLES 

Table 1.1 Operation CROSSROADS, 1946 ................................................................................... 4

Table 1.2 Operation SANDSTONE, 1948 ...................................................................................... 5

Table 1.3 Operation GREENHOUSE, 1951 ................................................................................... 5

Table 1.4 Operation IVY, 1952 ...................................................................................................... 6

Table 1.5 Operation CASTLE, 1954 .............................................................................................. 6

Table 1.6 Operation WIGWAM, 1955 ........................................................................................... 6

Table 1.7 Operation REDWING, 1956........................................................................................... 7

Table 1.8 Operation HARDTACK I, 1958 ..................................................................................... 7

Table 1.9 Operation DOMINIC I, 1962 .......................................................................................... 7

Table 1.10 Operation BUSTER-JANGLE, 1951 ............................................................................ 9

Table 1.11 Operation TUMBLER-SNAPPER, 1952 ..................................................................... 9

Table 1.12 Operation UPSHOT-KNOTHOLE, 1953 ................................................................... 10

Table 1.13 Operation TEAPOT, 1955 .......................................................................................... 11

Table 1.14 Operation PLUMBBOB, 1957 ................................................................................... 12

Table 1.15 Operation HARDTACK II, 1958 ................................................................................ 13

Table 1.16 Operation SUNBEAM, 1962 ...................................................................................... 13

Table 1.17 Operation ROLLER COASTER, 1963 ....................................................................... 14

Table 1.18 Operation MILL RACE, 1981 .................................................................................... 14
vi

FOREWORD 

This Biological Effects of Nuclear Explosions (BENE) Domain Guide presents relevant 

documentation, references, and bibliographic citations for the student and researcher interested in 

original test documentation in the BENE phenomenology area. 

This document reflects the effort of some two decades of work to organize and review the 

atmospheric test documentation and Nuclear Test Personnel Review (NTPR) data managed by 

the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA). 

This effort was led by Dr. David Auton (†), who died before this Guide’s completion. While at 

the Defense Threat Reduction Information Analysis Center (DTRIAC) Dave compiled all the 

data for the Guide and wrote it as a draft DTRA Technical Report. Only editorial corrections 

and brief expansions of the data have been added. This document is dedicated to his memory. 
1 

1.0 HISTORY/INTRODUCTION 

The following references contain relevant Biological Effects of Nuclear Explosions (BENE) test 

documentation. The intention of this listing is to denote documents, for bibliographic purposes, 

and to provide a convenient reference point for the researcher interested in original test 

documentation in the BENE area. The test history is rich in relevant experiments and 

observations, and understanding in this area was deemed of great importance. 

The Defense Threat Reduction Information Analysis Center (DTRIAC) provides the reports on 

U.S. testing to eligible persons and agencies through the Scientific and Technical Information 

Archival and Retrieval System (STARS). Further information may be found at their web page, 

www.dtra.mil/DTRIAC.aspx (accessed 03 Oct 2012). DTRIAC has archived “A Guide to 

Nuclear Weapons Phenomena and Effects Literature” (Sachs, 1995), which summarizes project 

names, report numbers, and a brief description of each report under the weapons testing program. 

1.1 HIROSHIMA/NAGASAKI 

Three weeks after the nuclear weapon detonations in Japan, the U.S. Army organized a study of 

the atomic bomb casualties. Upon landing in Japan the U.S. team learned that the Japanese 

Government had already sent several scientists from multiple Japanese universities to study these 

effects. The decision for cooperation between the investigators from the two governments was 

made and close liaison maintained between Japanese scientists and physicians and the Army 

Surgeon’s Office team. A group from the Manhattan District also arrived to determine what 

residual radioactivity was still present for purposes of troop protection as well as to study effects. 

COL (Dr.) Ashley W. Oughterson was the primary author of a six-volume set of documents 

entitled “Medical Effects of Atomic Bombs” (U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, 1945). This is 

an extensive and comprehensive review of the effects of the atomic bombs, and is an essential 

document for those required to study this topic. Distribution is available to any U.S. government 

agency and their contractors working in this area. 

Topics of the six volumes are: 

 Volume 1: Introduction; physics; description of Hiroshima and Nagasaki cities. 

 Volume 2: Materials and methods of medical studies; clinical observations. 

 Volume 3: Hematology; studies of bone marrow biopsies. 

 Volume 4: Pathology observations from autopsies of radiation-injured patients. 

 Volume 5: Statistical analyses of questionnaires for patients in both cities. 

 Volume 6: Studies of population and casualties; building and protection studies. 

Volume 1 also includes eyewitness accounts from residents of each city. 

The government of Japan published a book, “Medical Report on Atomic Bomb Effects”, which 

was favorably reviewed by the Journal of the American Medical Association a year later 

(National Research Council of Japan, 1953). Unfortunately, as of September 2012 it is not 

available in the U.S. 
2 

1.2 PACIFIC PROVING GROUNDS 

Shortly after WW II was concluded the United States established the Pacific Proving Grounds 

(PPG) for nuclear weapon testing. A number of sites in the Marshall Islands and a few other 

places in the equatorial western Pacific Ocean suitable for nuclear weapon testing composed the 

PPG. One of the aims of the testing program was to conduct biological and medical research to 

better understand the effects of nuclear weapons on biological specimens and, by extension, to 

man. This isolated area of ocean permitted the testing of large atmospheric devices with 

relatively low risk of human injury, although several inhabitants of the Marshall Islands and, on 

one occasion, the crew of a Japanese fishing boat were harmed by fallout. 

An extensive research effort on all aspects of weapons was conducted for each test. Experiments 

designed to study the biological effects of nuclear explosions were conducted and reports 

written, most of which have been declassified. 

(N.B. For ease of reading the nine operations at the PPG are listed together, and the tables 

summarizing the reports conducted under each operation are together at the end of this section.) 

Operation CROSSROADS (Table 1.1) tested large numbers of mammals (goats, pigs, and rats) 

as well as seeds, soil (to see if tomatoes and grass could grow in irradiated soil), and the 

effectiveness of radiation on biological warfare agents. 

Operation SANDSTONE (Table 1.2) assessed the effects of ionizing radiation on a variety of 

seeds, insects, and bacteria. 

Operation GREENHOUSE (Table 1.3) assessed the effects of nuclear radiation on mice, pigs, 

and dogs; objectives included lethality ranges, pathology of injury, effects of shielding 

(foxholes), and comparison of effects with laboratory irradiated animals as well as dosimeters. 

Operation IVY (Table 1.4) did surveys of plant and animal specimens before and after Test Mike 

to determine the changes in biological materials before and after this shot. (N.B. Test Mike was 

performed in November 1952 but the report noted below not written till the following year.) 

Operation CASTLE (Table 1.5) was a follow-on to IVY in developing thermonuclear weapons. 

They did not initially plan to conduct biomedical projects; however, the first test had a yield 

much higher than predicted and the crew of a Japanese fishing boat was exposed to high levels of 

fallout. Physicians and researchers hurried to treat and also study these men, and a program for 

biomedical studies was implemented. The injured and exposed Marshallese, as well as 

American military personnel, were studied for several months after the incident. 

Operation WIGWAM (Table 1.6) detonated a device deeply underwater to observe various 

radionuclides as they ascended the food chain. 
3 

Operation REDWING (Table 1.7) researched thermal radiation effects on the eyes of rabbits and 

monkeys that were constrained to face the fireball. 

Operation HARDTACK (Table 1.8) was initially designed as an extensive series of tests to be 

conducted at the PPG. However, the second phase of the series was done at the Nevada Test 

Site. HARDTACK I studied chorioretinal burn damage in rabbits analyzed with respect to 

exposure conditions. 

Operation FISHBOWL, part of Operation DOMINIC I (Table 1.9), also studied production of 

chorioretinal burns in rabbits. Unfortunately, during the Bluegill Triple Prime test, two military 

personnel accidentally received retinal damage; the damage was permanent in one man. 
4 

Table 1.1 Operation CROSSROADS, 1946 

Report Author Report Title Number Objective 

Bureau of Medicine 

and Surgery 

(BUMED) Research 

Group, 1950a 

Target Stations and 

Biological Materials 

Exposed During Tests 

Able and Baker 

XRD-163 Identifies locations of each 

biological sample 

BUMED, 1950b Airblast Effects of an 

Atomic Bomb Explosion 

XRD-164 Rat model used; autopsies 

studied trauma and thermal (not 

radiation) effects 

BUMED, 1950c Gross Autopsy Findings 

and a Statistical Study of 

the Mortality in the 

Animals Exposed at Bikini 

XRD-165 Autopsy findings on all animal 

models (goats, pigs, rats) 

BUMED, 1950d Germination of Vegetable 

Seeds Exposed at Bikini 

During the Atomic Bomb 

Test Able 

XRD-170 Assess effects of radiation 

exposure on plant germination 

and growth (several vegetables 

and cotton studied) 

BUMED, 1950e Residual Effects of 

Atomic Radiation in Soil 

on Seed Germination 

XRD-171 Studied ability of plants to grow 

in irradiated soil 

BUMED, 1950f Effect of the Bikini 

Atomic Bomb Test Able 

on Soil Microorganisms 

XRD-172 Compare quantities of 

microorganisms in irradiated 

and non-irradiated soils 

BUMED, 1950g Analysis of Tissues for 

Induced Radioactivity 

XRD-175 Induced radioactivity measured 

in bones of rats, pigs, and goats 

BUMED, 1950h Vycor Glass Gamma Ray 

Dosimeters 

XRD-176 Readings from dosimeters 

designed to measure dose on 

animals exposed to high levels 

of radiation 

BUMED, 1950i Aberrations Found in the 

Progenies of Plants Grown 

from Irradiated Cotton 

XRD177, -178 Analysis of second-generation 

seeds from cotton in XRD-170 

Armed Forces 

Special Weapons 

Project (AFSWP), 

1947

Test Site Survey XRD-212 Post-operation measurement of 

residual radiation in soils, 

plants, sea life 
5 

Table 1.2 Operation SANDSTONE, 1948 

Report 

Author 

Report Title Number Objective 

Berkhouse et 

al., 1983 

Biological and 

Animal Container 

Studies 

SS-33 (also 

DNA Report 

6033F) 

Assess effects of radiation on seeds, 

insects, and bacteria; design cages for 

animal exposure in future events 

Table 1.3 Operation GREENHOUSE, 1951 

Report 

Author 

Report Title Number Objective 

LeRoy and 

Langham, 

1951 

Evaluation of Program 2 

(Biomedical Tests) 

WT-21 Summary of Greenhouse biomedical 

experiments 

Carter et al., 

1951 

Annex 2.2, Control 

Studies of Operation 

Greenhouse Test 

Animals 

WT-6, -

18 

Exposures of mice, pigs, dogs to 

laboratory radiation simulating weapon 

environment 

Anderson et 

al., 1951 

Annex 2.4, 

Experimental Data 

Obtained in the Field 

WT-43 Comparative analysis of mice with Annex 

2.2 results; testing of materials to simulate 

human, mice, and pig tissues; evaluation 

of plants as gamma dosimeters 

Cronkite et 

al., 1951 

Annex 2.5, Mortality 

Rate as a Function of 

Distance 

WT-22 Survival of exposed mice, pigs, dogs as 

function of distance from Ground Zero 

Tullis et al., 

1951 

Annex 2.6, Pathology of 

Radiation Injury 

WT-16 Detailed clinical and autopsy observations 

of dogs and pigs exposed to nuclear 

environment 

Pearse et al., 

1951 

Annex 2.7, Thermal 

Radiation Injury 

WT-9 Nature of skin burns in dogs and pigs 

Talbot and 

Maupin, 

1951 

Annex 2.9, Blast 

Injuries in Foxholes 

WT-8 Measurements of blast, thermal, and 

radiation environments; autopsies of 

exposed dogs 

LeRoy, 1951 Annex 2.10, 

Miscellaneous Studies 

of Dosimeters 

WT-13 Evaluation of Glomerella fungus and corn 

as well as physical materials for dosimetry 

suitability 
6 

Table 1.4 Operation IVY, 1952 

Table 1.5 Operation CASTLE, 1954 

Report 

Author 

Report Title Number Objective 

Folsom et 

al., 1958 

Project 2.7a, Radioactivity of OpenSea Plankton Samples WT-954 Measurement of 

bioconcentration of fallout 

products and effects of 

biological processes 

Cronkite et 

al., 1954 

Project 4.1, Study of Response of 

Human Beings Accidentally Exposed 

to Significant Fallout Radiation 

WT-923 Detailed observations of 

injuries and treatments of 

Marshallese over first 76 

exposure days. 

Cohn et al., 

1954 

Project 4.1 Addendum, Nature and 

Extent of Internal Radioactive 

Contamination of Human Beings, 

Plants, and Animals Exposed to 

Fallout 

WT-936 Effects of internal 

contamination by fallout 

materials studied 

Bond et al., 

1955 

Project 4.1A Addendum, Medical 

Examination of Rongelap People Six 

Months After Exposure to Fallout 

WT-937 Six-month medical follow-up 

examinations and studies 

Sharp and 

Chapman, 

1957 

Project 4.1 Addendum, Exposure of 

Marshall Islanders and American 

Military Personnel to Fallout 

WT-938 Inclusion of U.S. troops 

stationed in fallout area 

Sondhaus 

and Bond, 

1955 

Project 4.1 Addendum, Physical 

Factors and Dosimetry in Marshall 

Island Radiation Exposure 

WT-939 Description of dosimetry 

support 

Table 1.6 Operation WIGWAM, 1955 

Report 

Author 

Report Title Number Objective 

Donaldson, 

1953 

Project 11.5, Radiobiological 

Studies at Eniwetok Before and 

After Mike 

WT-616 Collect and ash plant and animal 

samples for pre- and post-test 

radiological counting 

Report 

Author 

Report Title Number Objective 

Schaefer et 

al., 1959 

Project 2.5, Effects of 

Nuclear Explosion on 

Marine Biology 

WT1013 Assess possibility of radiation-contaminated 

fish entering fishing regions as well as 

multiple samples of other marine life 
7 

Table 1.7 Operation REDWING, 1956 

Table 1.8 Operation HARDTACK I, 1958 

Table 1.9 Operation DOMINIC I, 1962 

 

1.3 NEVADA TEST SITE 

Land tests at Nevada Test Site (NTS), now called the Nevada National Security Site, were begun 

in 1951. As with the PPG, the area chosen was relatively isolated. Atmospheric testing of 

weapons, as well as studies of weapon effects on animals, ceased in 1962; however highexplosive and other above-ground testing continued beyond 1962. As with the previous section 

for the PPG, the tables for each of the nine NTS operations are grouped together at the end of 

this section. 

Operation BUSTER-JANGLE (Table 1.10) did further radiation dosimetry work on human body 

phantoms as well as study thermal effects on rats and dogs. Flash blindness (time to eyesight 

recovery after exposure to a nuclear flash) was studied in humans. 

Operation TUMBLER-SNAPPER (Table 1.11) investigated the effects of different neutron 

radiation fluences on mice, as well as a study of flash blindness that inadvertently resulted in 

retinal burns in two human observers. Thermal irradiation of pigs protected from other nuclear 

insults was also studied. 

Report 

Author 

Report Title Number Objective 

Fixott et al., 

1955 

Project 4.1, 

Chorioretinal burns 

WT1326 Medical observations and assessments of 

rabbits and monkeys constrained to face 

fireball 

Report 

Author 

Report Title Number Objective 

Pickering et 

al., 1958a 

Project 4.1, Effects on Eyes 

from Exposure to Very-HighAltitude Bursts 

WT1633 Study of chorioretinal burns in 

rabbits on the ground and behind 

Plexiglas aircraft canopies 

Report 

Author 

Report Title Number Objective 

Berkhouse et 

al., 1983 

Operation 

DOMINIC I 

DNA 

6040F 

Report of early signs and symptoms of eye 

injuries and follow-up clinical measurements of 

visual fields and acuity 
8 

Operation UPSHOT-KNOTHOLE (Table 1.12) focused its biomedical program on the radiation 

hazard to mice and monkeys flying through the post-detonation clouds. The biological effects of 

neutrons on mice above ground and in foxholes was reviewed, as well as the ocular effects of 

thermal radiation from the flash and beta-gamma skin hazards to humans that would be in the 

contaminated area post shot. 

Operation TEAPOT (Table 1.13) was intended to test nuclear devices for possible inclusion in 

the weapons arsenal, improve military tactics, equipment, and training, and study civil defense 

requirements. 

Operation PLUMBBOB (Table 1.14) conducted a variety of tests using large numbers of animals 

to research all types of weapon insults, isolated and in combination, on several different animal 

models. Analysis of fallout effects on animals and vegetation in the area was also conducted. 

Thermal radiation effects on pigs inside shelters were studied. Monkeys were exposed to 

neutron and gamma radiation while protected from airblast; mortality and cause of death were 

studied over a two year period. A large animal model (burro) was also used, and phantom 

dosimetry reconstructed. Swine, dogs, rabbits, guinea pigs, and mice were used in multiple and 

isolated insult studies. Neutron and gamma absorption were reviewed in pigs. 

Operation HARDTACK II (Table 1.15) examined effects on swine and mice from very low yield 

detonations. Several specimens were placed in foxholes and on military vehicles. Some were 

also given medical radiation countermeasures beforehand. Evaluation of vision on soldiers who 

were placed in viewing range but facing away from the flash was performed. 

Operation SUNBEAM (Table 1.16), which was the DoD code name for DOMINIC II, measured 

neutron and gamma radiation inside exposed sheep as well as synthetic human tissue equivalent 

material. 

Operation ROLLER COASTER (Table 1.17) was the name given to four tests evaluating the risk 

of dispersal of plutonium during storage and transportation. No fission yield occurred in these 

experiments. Measurements were performed in various biota. 

Operation MILL RACE (Table 1.18) was actually a high explosive test designed to simulate a 

one kiloton nuclear weapon airblast, ground motion, and, for certain experiments, thermal 

radiation fluence. No ionizing radiation was released during the test. 
9 

Table 1.10 Operation BUSTER-JANGLE, 1951 

Report 

Author 

Report Title Number Objective 

Smith et al., 

1952 

Project 2.7, Biological 

Injury from Particle 

Inhalation 

WT-396, -

372 

Distribution of radioactive particles 

inhaled by sheep and dogs post 

detonation exposure 

Chambers, 

1952 

Project 4.1, Radiation 

Dosimetry 

WT-315 Expose human body simulation materials 

with embedded radiation sensors to 

nuclear environments 

Brooks et al., 

1952 

Project 4.2, Thermal 

Effects on Animals 

(Dogs) 

WT-362 Exposed dogs with hair shaved in patches 

to thermal radiation environment 

Sheline et 

al., 1952 

Project 4.2a, Thermal 

Effects on Animals 

(Rats) 

WT-316 As above, using rat model 

Byrnes, 1952 Project 4.3, Flash 

Blindness 

WT-341 Measure eyesight and visual acuity 

recovery times from nuclear flash effects 

in humans 

Table 1.11 Operation TUMBLER-SNAPPER, 1952 

Report 

Author 

Report Title Number Objective 

Carter et al., 

1953 

Project 4.3, The Biological 

Effectiveness of Neutron 

Radiation from Nuclear 

Weapons 

WT-528 Mortality as a function of neutron 

radiation fluence and time 

measured in mice 

Chambers, 

1953 

Project 4.4, Gamma Dose Depth 

Measurement in Unit Density 

Material 

WT-529 Attempt to develop instrumented 

spheres to simulate human tissue 

Byrnes, 1952 Project 4.5, Flash Blindness WT-530 Vision recovery time measured in 

humans (two subjects 

unexpectedly received retinal 

burns) 

Kingsley et 

al., 1953 

Project 4.6, The Time-Course of 

Thermal Radiation As Measured 

by Burns in Pigs 

WT-531 Study of thermal injury in pigs 

protected from other nuclear 

effects 
10 

Table 1.12 Operation UPSHOT-KNOTHOLE, 1953 

Report 

Author 

Report Title Number Objective 

Langham et 

al., 1953 

Project 4.1, The Radiation 

Hazards to Personnel Within an 

Atomic Cloud 

WT-743 Drones with mice and monkeys 

flew through clouds 

Draeger and 

Lee, 1955 

Project 4.2, Direct Air Blast 

Exposure in Animals 

WT-744 Dogs and rats, shielded from 

radiation, exposed to overpressures 

from blasts 

Byrnes et 

al., 1955 

Project 4.5, Ocular Effects of 

Thermal Radiation from Atomic 

Detonation—Flashblindness and 

Chorioretinal Burns 

WT-745 Human subjects used for 

flashblindness studies, rabbits for 

chorioretinal burn assessment 

Brennan, 

1953 

Project 4.7, Beta-Gamma Skin 

Hazard in the Post-Shot 

Contaminated Area 

WT-746 Evaluation of previously 

unmonitored beta radiation in areas 

near Ground Zero 

Carter et al., 

1957 

Project 4.8, Biological Effects of 

Neutrons 

WT-747 Mice above ground and in foxholes 

studied in conditions of reduced 

gamma exposure (shielding) 

--- Project 23-24 (series), 

Communal Shelter Tests 

--- Various structures with emplaced 

biological specimens to study blast, 

thermal, & radiation environments 

Bond et al., 

1953 

Project 23.1, Biological 

Effectiveness of Ionizing 

Radiation Within Shelters 

WT-793 Study of ionizing radiation 

Silverman 

and Bond, 

1953 

Project 23.2, Bacteriological 

Studies on Animals Exposed to 

Neutron Radiation 

WT-794 Analysis of bacterial sepsis in mice 

exposed to supralethal doses of 

neutron and gamma-neutron 

radiation 

Plough and 

Sheppard, 

1854 

Projects 23.4-23.14, 23.16, 

Genetic Effects of Fast Neutrons 

from Nuclear Detonations 

WT-820 Mice, as well as various plant and 

fungi species were exposed, then 

mated, to determine relative 

biological effectiveness of neutrons 

for transmitted genetic defects 

Roberts et 

al., 1953 

Project 23.15, Effects of 

Overpressures in Group Shelters 

on Animals and Dummies 

WT-798 Relationship of overpressure rise, 

air drag, and static overpressure 

levels to blast injuries in dogs 

Lindberg et 

al., 1954 

Project 27.2, Environmental and 

Biological Fate of Fall-Out from 

Nuclear Detonations in Areas 

Adjacent to the Nevada Proving 

Grounds 

WT-812 Radio-ecological studies of soils, 

plants, and animals before, during, 

and after several test series to 

determine biological availability of 

radioactive materials over time 
11 

Table 1.13 Operation TEAPOT, 1955 

Report 

Author 

Report Title Number Objective 

White et 

al., 1956 

Project 33.1, Biological Effects of 

Pressure Phenomena Occurring Inside 

Protective Shelters Following a Nuclear 

Detonation 

WT1179 Observation and effects 

studies of animals inside 

shelters 

Hirsch et 

al., 1956 

Project 33.2, The Effects of Noise in 

Blast-Resistant Shelters 

WT1180 Noise effects on rats 

studied 

Lindberg et 

al., 1959 

Project 37.1, Factors Influencing the 

Biological Fate and Persistence of 

Radioactive Fallout 

WT1177 Particulate fallout matter 

and its location and 

intensities in soil, plant, 

and animal specimens 

determined 

Taplin et 

al., 1961 

Project 37.3, Evaluation of the Acute 

Inhalation Hazard from Radioactive FallOut Materials by Analysis of Results from 

Field Operations and Controlled 

Inhalation Studies in the Laboratory 

WT1172 Adverse effects on rabbits 

and rats placed postdetonation in fallout field 

studied 

Palmer and 

Harper, 

1955 

Project 39.4b, Technical Photography 

(High Speed—Blast Biology) 

WT1197 Effects of blasts on 

animals and structures 

studied as well as autopsy 

specimens 

Harris, 

1955 

Project 39.7, Physical Measurement of 

Neutron and Gamma Radiation Dose from 

High Neutron Yield Weapons and 

Correlation of Dose with Biological 

Effects* 

ITR1167 Free-field and blastshielded chambers 

containing mice studied; 

dose compared with 

biological effects 

* Redacted version available on World Wide Web. 
12 

Table 1.14 Operation PLUMBBOB, 1957 

Report 

Author 

Report Title Number Objective 

McDonnel 

et al., 1961 

Project 4.1, Effects of Nuclear 

Detonations on a Large Biological 

Specimen (Swine) 

WT1428 Twelve hundred specimens used 

to assess injuries from blast, 

thermal, and gamma and neutron 

radiation effects 

Gulley et 

al., 1960 

Project 4.2, Evaluation of Eye 

Protection Afforded by an 

Electromechanical Shutter 

WT1429 Evaluation of a high-speed 

electromechanical shutter for 

protection against flashblindness 

in human subjects 

Richmond 

et al., 1959 

Project 33.1, Blast Biology—A 

Study of the Primary and Tertiary 

Effects of Blast in Open 

Underground Protective Shelters 

WT1467 Dogs, pigs, rabbits, guinea pigs, 

and mice exposed to airblast in 

underground shelters with open 

entrances 

Taborelli et 

al., 1959 

Project 33.3, Tertiary Effects of 

Blast—Displacement 

WT1469 Photography of movement of 

dummies and spheres exposed to 

blast (tertiary blast effects, or 

displacement) 

Goldizen et 

al., 1961 

Project 33.4, Missile Studies With 

a Biological Target 

WT1470 Studies of dogs exposed to flying 

glass and rocks from airblast 

(secondary blast effects, or 

missiling) 

Richmond 

et al., 1960 

Project 33.6, The Internal 

Environment of Underground 

Structures Subjected to Nuclear 

Blast, II. Effects on Mice Located 

in Heavy Concrete Shelters 

WT1507 Sixty-day survival study 

Larson et 

al., 1966 

Project 37.1, Distribution, 

Characteristics, and Biotic 

Availability of Fallout, Operation 

Plumbbob 

WT1488 Near- and long-range fallout 

tracked throughout the biological 

chains in several areas over time 

Taplin et 

al., 1957 

Project 37.5, Chemical Dosimetry 

of Prompt and Residual 

Radiations from Nuclear 

Detonations 

WT1493 Direct-reading chemical 

dosimeters used to estimate 

prompt and residual gamma 

exposures and compared with 

results from Hiroshima and 

Nagasaki 

Greig and 

Pearse, 

1958 

Project 39.3, Thermal Radiation 

Measurements 

ITR1502 Eight pigs placed inside shelters 

and their injuries described 

Hurst and 

Ritchie, 

1958 

Project 39.5, Radiation Dosimetry 

for Human Exposures 

WT1504 Gamma and neutron dosimetry on 

several shots performed and 

compared against similar data 
13 

Report 

Author 

Report Title Number Objective 

from Hiroshima and Nagasaki 

survivors 

Pickering et 

al., 1958b 

Project 39.6, Biological Effects of 

Nuclear Radiation on the Monkey 

(Macaca Mulatta) 

WT1505 Report of sixty-day observations 

of behavior and medical tests 

related to neutron and gamma 

radiation 

Pickering et 

al., 1960 

Project 39.6 (Supplement I), 

Biological Effects of Nuclear 

Radiation on the Monkey (Macaca 

Mulatta): Two-Year Evaluation 

WT1542 Observations and test results at 

two years 

Kuhn and 

Kyner, 

1958 

Project 39.6a, Large-Animal 

Neutron-Gamma Irradiation 

Experiment 

ITR1476 Survival study of neutron and 

gamma irradiated burros 

protected from blast wave 

Imirie et al., 

1958 

Project 39.8, Depth-Dose Studies 

in Phantoms with Initial Bomb 

Gamma and Neutron Radiation 

WT1508 Human tissue equivalent material 

tissue phantoms used, one 

simulating response to gamma, 

the other to neutron irradiation 

Table 1.15 Operation HARDTACK II, 1958 

Report 

Author 

Report Title Number Objective 

Moncrief et 

al., 1961 

Project 4.2, Effects of Very-LowYield Bursts on Biological 

Specimens (Swine and Mice) 

WT1663 Animals placed in foxholes and 

military vehicles and exposed to 

very high levels of radiation; some 

animals pre-medicated 

Verheul et 

al., 1960 

Project 4.3, Effects of Light from 

Very-Low-Yield Nuclear 

Detonations on Vision (Dazzle) 

of Combat Personnel 

WT1664 Abilities of individuals to 

recognize targets tested shortly 

post-detonation 

Table 1.16 Operation SUNBEAM, 1962 

Report 

Author 

Report Title Number Objective 

Mobley et 

al., 1965 

Project 4.1, 

Tissue 

Dosimetry 

POR2270 Test radiation absorption of material designed to 

react to radiation in a human tissue-equivalent 

manner; sheep, synthetic material used 
14 

Table 1.17 Operation ROLLER COASTER, 1963 

Report 

Author 

Report Title Number Objective 

Menker et 

al., 1966 

Project 5.2/5.3a, 

Radiochemical Analysis of 

Biological and Physical 

Samples 

POR-2515 

(WT-2515) 

Effects of dispersed plutonium and 

uranium on soft tissues, bone, and 

excreta from dogs, sheep, and 

burros exposed to debris aerosol 

Major and 

Wessman, 

1966 

Project 5.2/5.3b, 

Radiobiological, 

Radiochemical, and 

Physiochemical Analyses 

POR-2516 

(WT-2516) 

Data from laboratory analyses on 

4,000 samples tabulated 

Krey and 

Fried, 1965 

Project 5.2/5.3d, Laboratory 

Analyses of Roller Coaster 

Samples 

POR-2518 

(WT-2518) 

Plutonium, uranium, americium, 

and gamma spectrometric analyses 

performed on over 2,000 samples 

Table 1.18 Operation MILL RACE, 1981 

Report 

Author 

Report Title Number Objective 

Meason et 

al., 1982 

Airblast Survivability 

Testing of Tactical Army 

Systems at Event Mill 

Race* 

POR7075 Testing of Biological Detection and 

Warning System against blast 

overpressure and assess crew member 

response to blast environment 

*Report is restricted distribution. 
15 

2.0 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS 

2.1 INTRODUCTION 

Personnel exposed to a nuclear explosion may be killed or suffer injuries of various types. 

Casualties are primarily caused by airblast, thermal radiation, and nuclear radiation. The 

frequency and severity of the effects on personnel depend on a number of factors, including the 

weapon yield, height of burst, atmospheric conditions, and the protection afforded by any shelter, 

including terrain. For instance, a nuclear explosion in or near cities and villages will produce 

considerable damage to structures, shelters, and facilities. This damage may extend over a 

considerable area, and a large number of serious injuries and fatalities can be expected for people 

located in this area. Casualties for those exposed in the open can also be expected but would 

generally be attributable to different mechanisms. 

Although casualties may be produced by a single effect, such as nuclear radiation, it is likely that 

they will result from a combination of effects. Such combined injuries may be synergistic, i.e., 

the resulting injury may be more significant than predicted for the sum of the individual effects. 

For example, single injuries may have a low likelihood of lethality, but when combined, the 

resulting combination of injuries may produce a high likelihood of death. 

2.2 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE INJURIES 

As a general rule, for bursts of a given type (e.g., air, surface, or subsurface), the range of each of 

the major effects (airblast, thermal radiation, and nuclear radiation) increases as yield of the 

weapon increases; however, the relative importance of each effect shift. Initial nuclear radiation, 

for example, is much more significant in comparison with air blast and thermal radiation for 

nuclear explosions of low yield than it is for those of high yield. As the yield of the weapon 

increases, the total number of casualties will increase, as will the proportion of injuries due to 

blast and thermal energy. 

The height of burst (HOB) will have an important influence on the range to effect for airbursts. 

With other factors constant, there is an optimum HOB that maximizes the range to a given 

overpressure level. This optimum height differs for each yield and for each value of the 

overpressure. Similarly, there are particular heights of burst that maximize the exposure ranges 

for either thermal radiation or the initial nuclear radiation; however, this height is usually 

different from the optimal HOB for blast damage, Thus, considerable variation is possible both 

in the number and in the nature of injuries for any given weapon yield. 

As the transition is made to a subsurface burst, at even very shallow depths of burst (DOB), 

injuries from initial nuclear radiation, air blast, and thermal radiation are much less than from a 

low airburst, or even from a surface burst of the same yield. On the other hand, the effects of 

ground shock and the delayed nuclear radiation hazard (fallout) would be greatly increased in the 

nearby region because increasing amounts of contaminated earth and debris are sucked up into 

the radioactive cloud. In the case of a deep (completely contained) underground burst, casualties 

would result only from the direct and indirect effects of ground shock. 
16 

In addition to the yield of the explosion and its HOB/DOB, local environmental circumstances 

can be a significant factor in the casualty potential of a nuclear weapon. For example, the 

shielding in ordinary houses may markedly reduce the range over which significant casualties 

from flash burns can occur. This is especially true for heavier structures extending below as well 

as above the ground; persons properly located in such buildings could be protected from blast 

and initial nuclear radiations as well as from thermal radiation; conversely, in certain buildings, 

the frequency of indirect blast injuries may be greatly increased by the presence of large numbers 

of missiles, such as glass from windows. 

The peak overpressure and wind velocity magnitude will be altered by the size and configuration 

of the structure as the blast wave propagates into the structure. The magnitude of the peak 

overpressure in a building interior can sometimes be appreciably less than the free- field value, 

but there is a possibility that, as a result of blast wave reflection from walls, etc., the 

overpressure in the interior of a building may be increased twofold or more, depending on the 

geometry and location. Likewise, wind velocities inside structures may differ markedly from 

those existing in the free field, and blast wave jetting through openings may be significant. 

Nevertheless, as long as people are away from walls, windows, or lying on the floor, there is 

generally a lower probability of injury from direct overpressure effects inside a structure than at 

equivalent distances on the outside. 

Similar modifications occur for both nuclear and thermal radiation inside structures. For 

example, buildings provide shielding against nuclear radiation. In general, the larger the 

building, the better the protection; this is particularly true for rooms in the interior of the 

building. Thermal radiation effects may be completely negated, unless the person is behind a 

window facing the blast. However, injuries due to burning and smoldering material may be 

larger than in the open. 

This guide summarizes the sources of material in the Data Archival and Retrieval Enhancement 

(DARE) database (now called the Scientific and Technical Information Archival and Retrieval 

System, or STARS) describing the various effects of nuclear weapons on personnel, the injury 

mechanisms, and the available biomedical data (Sachs 1995). While we will mention long-term 

effects, we will not dwell on these issues in any detail, because the focus of the information 

given in this guide is on prompt nuclear effects of interest to those involved in all aspects of 

casualty assessment (serious injury and lethality). 
17 

3.0 AIRBLAST EFFECTS 

3.1 INTRODUCTION 

Airblast injuries may be of three main types: direct (or primary) injuries from exposure of the 

body to the overpressure of the blast wave; indirect injuries resulting from the impact of 

penetrating and nonpenetrating missiles on the body (secondary blast effects); and the 

consequences of displacement of the body as a whole (tertiary blast effects). Other blast injuries, 

such as burns from the gases and injuries from the debris carried into shelters by airblast can also 

occur. 

The general interactions of airblast with the human body are somewhat similar to those with a 

structure. Because of the relatively small size of the body, the diffraction process is over quickly 

as the body is rapidly engulfed and subjected to severe compression. Compression continues 

with decreasing intensity for the duration of the positive phase of the blast wave. During this 

time, the blast winds exert a drag force that combines with the overpressure force. A description 

of the nuclear air blast environment can be found in Chapter 2 of the DNA technical manual, 

Effects Manual One (EM-I), Capabilities of Nuclear Weapons.

Indirect blast injuries are caused by (1) the impact of missiles, either penetrating (such as glass 

fragments) or nonpenetrating (such as structural debris), and (2) the physical displacement of the 

body as a whole (translation). These injuries are considered secondary and tertiary injuries 

respectively. A fourth type of injury, quaternary, covers every other form of explosion-related 

trauma such as crush injuries, traumatic brain injury, and aggravation of pre-existing medical 

conditions or trauma related to dust, smoke, and toxic fumes from the blast. 

Personnel exposed at distances from an explosion at which significant blast injuries can occur 

will likely suffer multiple injuries or a mix of the injury types mentioned above. In addition to 

the blast wave parameters, the type of injuries depends on the sheltering conditions (in the open, 

residential structures, basements, bunkers, etc.). 

3.2 MECHANISMS OF INJURY 

For primary injury (direct overpressure) the ear is an indicator organ for the presence of damage 

to other tissues. The threshold for eardrum rupture is around 5 psi (34.5 kilopascals), which is 

below the 20 psi (138 kilopascals) or higher threshold for lethal overpressure injury to the lungs. 

If tympanic membrane rupture is present, medical personnel must be alert for delayed expression 

of pulmonary damage such as rupture to the alveoli. Air embolism (which is created in a manner 

similar to that of decompression injury in divers by the sudden release of pressure, thus allowing 

nitrogen bubbles to form in the blood), may also be present. Air emboli can damage almost any 

tissue in the body by blocking blood circulation; the tissues that can cause lethality or severe 

injury with air emboli include the brain, spinal cord, gastrointestinal tract, and several others. 

Another injury mechanism is spallation, which occurs at the juxtaposition of tissues of different 

density. As the blast wave passes through, increased energy is transmitted from the denser tissue 

to the less dense tissue, resulting in creation of fragments and dispersal of tissue. Rapid 
18 

compression of air in air containing organs (lungs, gastrointestinal tract), then sudden reexpansion as the blast wave passes through, can rupture these tissues. 

Secondary injury results when debris, either penetrating or blunt, strikes the body as it is blown 

by the blast wind. The wounding potential of blast-generated debris depends on a number of 

factors, including the impact velocity, the angle at which impact occurs, and the size, shape, 

density, mass, and hardness of the blast-energized objects. The portion of the body involved in 

the missile impact and the events that may occur during and after the time of impact are also 

important. Injuries that result can range from simple contusions and lacerations to more serious 

penetrations, fractures, and critical damage to vital organs. 

Tertiary injury involves displacement of the body as the individual is thrown about by the blast 

wind (sometimes called translational injury). The hazards from whole-body displacement 

depend mainly on the time and distance over which acceleration and deceleration of the body 

occur. Injury is more likely to occur during the latter phase when the body strikes a solid object, 

such as a wall or the ground, rather than while “in flight”. The velocity of the body at the time of 

impact is the significant factor. This, in turn, is determined by certain parameters of the blast 

wave and the initial position (standing or prone) and orientation of the body with respect to the 

direction of motion of the blast wave. The severity of the injury depends on the magnitude of the 

impact velocity, the properties of the impact surface, and the particular portion of the body that 

has received the decelerative impact. Individuals in a closed structure can experience this injury 

if there is an opening in the room that allows airblast venting. The risk of displacement is greater 

if the individual is standing rather than prone or supine. Reflection of the blast wave off of a 

nearby structure can increase its force, and thus the likelihood of displacement. 

Quaternary injury, as described above, covers all other forms of explosion-related injury. 

Building collapse obviously is an important risk factor from a nuclear explosion. Crush injuries 

are common after earthquakes as individuals are trapped under structural or vehicular debris. 

Management of these injuries is complicated by the fact that when the extraneous material is 

removed and circulation restored, toxic materials released by the damaged tissue into the 

circulation may cause problems such as cardiac arrhythmias and kidney damage. 
19 

4.0 THERMAL EFFECTS 

4.1 INTRODUCTION 

A burn is an injury caused by an increase in skin temperature resulting from direct absorption of 

thermal radiation, or from the transmission of heat through clothing. The severity of the burn 

depends on the amount and duration of the temperature increase. Skin burns are generally 

classified by the depth of tissue damage and by the total body surface area (TBSA) involved, 

expressed as a percentage. 

In addition to skin burns, other harmful thermal effects may be produced, including retinal burns 

and flash blindness. Although these effects are not life threatening, they can have an important 

impact on military operations unless adequate protective devices are used. Clothing and other 

protective devices can provide significant protection from the thermal pulse, but if the radiant 

exposure is sufficient to ignite the clothing, severe burns may result that can be as serious as with 

the case of bare skin. 

Thermal radiation can cause burn casualties (1) directly by absorption of the radiation energy by 

the skin, (2) indirectly by heating or ignition of clothing, and (3) as a result of fires started by the 

thermal pulse, the air blast, or ground shock. The air blast and ground shock may initiate fires by 

a number of different mechanisms, including electrical shorts, disrupted gas lines, overturned 

vehicles, and damaged vessels containing volatile fuels.

The frequency of burn injuries from a nuclear explosion will be fairly high for personnel in the 

open and in fire areas. Most of these injuries are flash bums caused by direct exposure to the 

thermal radiation pulse, although individuals trapped by spreading fires may suffer flame burns. 

In addition, hot gases and dust entering the structures even though they are shielded adequately 

from direct or scattered thermal radiation may burn persons in buildings or tunnels close to 

ground zero. 

Eye injuries can also be considered a form of thermal injury. Persons who happen to be looking 

directly at the weapon at time of detonation can experience burns to the retina, resulting in a 

permanent blind spot at the point where the eye focuses the incoming light from the fireball. 

Flash blindness, or dazzle, is a common experience for most people which they experience when 

leaving a darkened theater into the outside light, for example. This effect is much more 

pronounced with the flash of light from a weapon. Studies at the PPG and NTS cited above 

demonstrated, however, that this effect generally resolves spontaneously after a few minutes 

without permanent visual damage.

4.2 BURN SEVERITY 

Burns are often classified as first, second, or third degree. A first degree burn is like sunburn 

involving only the top layer of skin (epidermis). A second degree burn penetrates through the 

epidermis into the dermis. These are often subdivided into superficial partial thickness burns and 

deep partial thickness burns. The time till healing is significantly delayed in the latter. Third 
20 

degree burns penetrate through both the epidermis and the dermis. Skin replacement by grafting 

is necessary for all but the smallest burns. Burns that go through the skin and involve the 

underlying fascia, muscle, or bones are considered fourth degree burns. A severe burn, in terms 

of both depth and TBSA involved, places the casualty at risk for fluid loss and dehydration, 

infection, and hemorrhage, as well as long-term scarring and risk of contracture and dysfunction 

of the limb. The eschar (thick, scab-like crust that forms over many burns) can also restrict 

circulation, particularly if it surrounds the limb. Multiple operations are often required to 

temporarily or permanently graft skin onto the burned area and to remove the eschar. Burns are 

very painful as well, although paradoxically deep burns aren’t as painful, as the nerve endings, 

which are in the dermis proper, have been destroyed by the heat. 
21 

5.0 RADIATION EFFECTS 

5.1 INTRODUCTION 

The nuclear radiation produced by a nuclear explosion and the subsequent residual radiation 

from fallout (gamma rays, neutrons, beta particles, and alpha particles) can produce a number of 

different types of harmful effects to the human body. These include serious acute effects that 

may degrade combat performance and cause lethality, and latent effects, such as cancer. The 

types, incidence, duration, and severity of radiation effects depend on a number of factors, 

including the type of radiation, the magnitude of the absorbed dose, the rate at which the dose is 

delivered, the part of the body irradiated, and the dose distribution (total body or some part 

thereof). The three sources of nuclear radiation of primary interest to military operations and 

casualty assessment are the initial nuclear radiations from the nuclear explosion (fission gamma 

rays, air-secondary gamma rays, and neutrons), early fallout from surface and near-surface 

bursts, and neutron-induced ground activation. Other sources, such as late fallout, may present 

long-term health hazards. 

5.2 EARLY EFFECTS OF RADIATION 

The acute radiation syndrome (also called acute radiation sickness; both abbreviate to ARS) 

results from external exposure to radiation doses greater than approximately 100 rad (1 Gy) 

delivered to the whole body over a short time period. Doses below 100 rad are considered 

subclinical. ARS occurs in three (or four) phases: prodromal (initial symptoms such as nausea, 

vomiting, fatigue, weakness, anorexia); a latent phase (symptoms abate temporarily); manifest 

illness (patient becomes clinically ill with risk of death from bleeding, infection, shock if very 

high doses); and a fourth phase of recovery if the patient recovers. 

There are three classic subsyndromes of ARS: hematopoietic, gastrointestinal (GI), and 

cardiovascular/central nervous system (CV/CNS). The hematopoietic subsyndrome occurs with 

doses from 100 – 600 rad (1 – 6 Gy), the GI subsyndrome from 600 – 3000 rad (6 –30 Gy), and 

the CV/CNS subsyndrome at doses above 3000 rad (30 Gy). These terms were derived from the 

tissue injury that caused death. Animals with hematopoietic syndrome died a few weeks post 

exposure from infection and bleeding. Those with GI syndrome died of diarrhea, electrolyte 

imbalance, and fluid loss. Those with very high doses died of shock in several hours or at most a 

couple of days. For the past several years, however, most clinicians have realized that ARS is an 

all systems disease, with damage occurring in most organs at most doses; the clinical picture is a 

time- and dose-dependent expression of damage from multi-organ failure or multi-organ 

dysfunction syndrome (MODS). With modern treatment methods several accident victims have 

been able to survive the hematopoietic and GI syndrome only to die of pulmonary or renal 

injury. Doses to these patients have generally been in the 1000 – 2000 rad (10 – 20 Gy) range. 

Acute radiation mortality from hematopoietic failure resulting in hemorrhage and infection is the 

endpoint most studied as a function of radiation dose rate and animal species. Mice have been 

studied most extensively but the limited data available for hematopoietic lethality from large 

farm animals and primates indicate important species differences. 
22 

Chernobyl-type exposure situations represent extremely complex arrays of doses and 

dose rates from external and internal sources that result in early radiation injuries. 

Tissues with different radiation sensitivities and repair capabilities may be involved. This 

may result in different temporal relationships for expression of damage and healing in 

different body areas affected by radiation. Deep tissue injury can result when penetrating 

gamma rays are emitted from a contaminant. Skin, connective tissue, blood vessels, bone 

and muscle could all sustain significant radiation damage. In some situations surgery may 

be indicated. It is important that surgical procedures be undertaken within the first 24-48 

hours post injury; else radiation damage to the fibroblasts and other reparative tissues will 

prevent wound healing. Infections could be lethal especially if bone marrow damage is 

also present. Rather than a discrete single "syndrome", perhaps the most realistic 

situation associated with a reactor "event", nuclear terrorism, or a denial scenario 

involving radioisotopes will be non-uniform exposure with various doses and dose rates 

producing very large variations in early radiation damage that could be lethal. 

5.3 CHRONIC/PROTRACTED IRRADIATION 

Fallout from nuclear weapons, intentional dispersal of radioactive chemicals for purposes 

of area denial, or terrorism are examples of sources of chronic or protracted irradiation to 

which personnel may be exposed. The exposure may be from external sources such as 

some isotope widely dispersed in or on the soil, or some point source such as a 

radiography unit. The exposure may also be internal from isotopes taken into the body in 

food, water, or air. Because most but not all cells are endowed with the capacity to repair 

radiation injury within minutes or hours, irradiation at low dose rates is less injurious 

than when the exposure is acute; i.e. instantaneous or delivered over an hour or two. In 

addition, when irradiation is sustained over days or weeks either in a continuous mode or 

as fractions separated in time, the injury is typically less than with an acute exposure. 

This is referred to as a chronic or protracted exposure and may last for the entire lifetime 

in the case of background radiation. In addition to cellular repair, proliferation of cells 

may occur so that tissue and organ function is preserved. The generalization is that as 

dose rate decreases and exposure time increases, the radiation dose necessary to produce 

a given effect increases. This reduced effectiveness of radiation at low dose or dose rates 

is expressed by a dose and dose rate effectiveness factor (DDREF); multiplying the dose 

required to produce a given effect at high dose and dose rate by the DDREF gives the 

dose required to produce the same effect given at low dose rates. Typical DDREF values 

range from 1-3. Likewise, the biological effect is reduced when radiation is administered 

in two or more fractions at high dose rate. With this form of dose protraction the 

diminished effect is attributable to cellular repair of radiation injury and to cellular 

proliferation between radiation fractions. 

The effects of dose rate or protraction are less well understood for the other classical 

syndromes associated with early radiation effects such as the intestinal and the central 

nervous system syndromes. Likewise, comprehensive studies are lacking concerning 

what could be called the cutaneous and pulmonary syndromes that may result from high 

levels of radioactive contamination of the skin and the pulmonary tracts, respectively. 
23 

Rodent studies in support of radiation therapy applications have involved the tolerance of 

skin and lung to partial-body exposures that include all or part of the organ in question in 

the radiation field. How these results with external radiation relate to situations involving 

injuries following skin or lung contamination with radioactive fission products or other 

radioisotopes remains to be determined. 

5.4 LATE EFFECTS 

As early as the 1940's experiments on dose rate and dose fractionation regimens were sometimes 

extended over long periods of time up to and including the entire life span of rodents. Later, 

large-scale rodent studies involved external radiations such as x-rays, gamma rays or fission 

spectrum neutrons. Other studies involved internal deposition of fission products or other 

radioisotopes in various rodents and canines. 

Because tumors and other physiological changes were often seen in aged animals and 

irradiation appeared to accelerate changes and tumor expression [and perhaps frequency], 

radiation-induced aging was thought to occur. Between the 1950s and the early 1980s 

lifespan studies on irradiated animals were conducted to provide information on radiation 

carcinogenesis and many other cellular and tissue injuries. It was felt that qualitative 

generalization from animal experiments, when viewed with the available human data 

would assist with the assignment of cancer risk estimates for humans. High costs and the 

long times needed to collect and analyze results were among the factors that resulted in 

termination of most lifespan studied on animals. Also cancer risk information from 

humans was forthcoming from medical studies that involved radiation and from the 

populations exposed to nuclear weapons in Japan. During the 1990s follow up studies 

have been initiated on persons in the former Soviet Union who were occupationally or 

accidentally exposed to radioisotopes or external sources. The expectation is that cancer 

risk estimates will be improved based on new date from persons who received long-term 

exposures. The hope is that these new data for long-term exposures at low dose rates, 

when analyzed in comparison with cancer data for a single dose from Japan will facilitate 

estimation of the DDREF or sparing effect of low dose rates for cancer induction in 

humans. 

Further studies of human populations exposed to radiation will be crucial. Human 

populations include Japanese exposed to nuclear weapons, persons in the former Soviet 

Union (FSU) exposed to chronic external or internal exposures from accidental 

contamination of water supplies and food or through work in the nuclear weapons 

industry, and unfortunate persons accidentally exposed to radiation anywhere in the 

world. Means to reduce radiation injury that produce deleterious early and late health 

effects include pharmacological agents that may be administered before or after single or 

fractionated doses and the use of vitamins and other dietary supplements or drugs that 

may be administered during continuous irradiation at low dose rates. 
24 

5.5 INTERNAL DOSE 

Radioactive materials can be ingested, inhaled, or otherwise incorporated into the body 

through broken skin. Few new data on internal emitters have become available since the 

1980s and the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) has 

organized volunteer committees that have produced comprehensive reviews/reports and 

analyzes of the available data from humans and experimental animals. In the 1990s the 

use of depleted uranium munitions raised questions in DOD and NATO concerning the 

potential environmental impacts of weapons debris as well as any health effects if the 

material gains entrance to the body via food, water, inhalation, or after some injury. 

5.6 MULTIPLE EXPOSURES/EFFECTIVE RESIDUAL DOSE 

Extensive scientific literature exists for experimental animals given multiple exposures. The 

concern in the late 1940s was that military personnel might be re-irradiated at high or low dose 

rates following an initial exposure to a weapon detonation and/or fallout. It was thought that the 

cumulative effect of several exposures over time would be different from the effect of the total 

dose given as a single exposure. 

One experimental approach was to assess the “recovery potential” of various species following a 

high sub-lethal radiation dose by re-irradiating large populations at high dose rates and at various 

intervals between exposures to determine the 50% lethal dose [LD50] after the initial irradiation. 

This was referred to as the split-dose technique. For a hypothetical example, a species 

characterized by an LD50 of 600 rad would be given a first dose of 400 rad or two-thirds of the 

known LD50. After 20 days the population would be tested again to determine the LD50. If the 

LD50 in the re-irradiated population was 600 rad, the inference was that there had been 

“recovery” from all of the initial radiation injury. The effective residual dose 20 days after 

radiation was therefore zero. Conversely, if the LD50 in the re-irradiated population was only 200 

rad, the inference was that all the initial injury remained, there was no "recovery", and the 

effective residual dose was 400 rad. 

During the 1950s and 1960s the U. S. Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory (USNRDL) 

conducted an interspecies comparison program to determine the LD50 and recovery rates for 

rodents and large farm animals. Variations in split dose methodology included the use of high 

dose rates for both the initial and second doses, and the use of various low dose rates for either 

the initial or second dose. An important extension of these studies was conducted during the 

early 1970s by Jones and Krebs at the Stanford Research Institute following the demise of 

USNRDL in 1969. The conceptual basis for this split-dose technique was attributed to Dr. 

Henry A. Blair at the University of Rochester, and the method was used for more than 20 years 

to provide a database in support of modeling efforts for military operations and civil defense 

planning. 

In general, results showed that small rodents recover rapidly and the residual dose decreases by 

more rad/day than for large farm animals. Large farm animals and the Rhesus monkey recover 

more slowly, may not initiate recovery for several days, or may experience a transient acquired 
25 

radio resistance where the LD50 in the re-irradiated animals is significantly above that for a 

normal animal. Some data for sheep indicate that an initial dose at a high dose rate impairs the 

animal’s ability to repair later radiation injury experienced in a low dose rate radiation field. 

Because of the importance of this phenomenon for modeling, it is important to repeat these 

experiments, determine if it occurs, and if so in what species. It is thought that an irradiated 

population never recovers fully, and that there is heterogeneity within the population in terms of 

radiation sensitivity. Work by scientists in the former Soviet Union supports this latter theory; 

see Kovalev, 2008. 
26 

6.0 CONCLUSION 

Many, but by no means all, of the biological projects at PPG and NTS focused on a single 

mechanism of injury to better eliminate confounding factors in studying that particular effect and 

how various parameters influenced it. It should be noted that only a third of the casualties in 

Japan had only blast trauma, or thermal injury, or ARS. Two-thirds had combined injury. 

Combined injury is synergistic; that is, the effects of the different insults are not merely additive 

(trauma upon trauma) but work to aggravate the severity. Radiation depresses the fibroblasts and 

other connective tissue elements responsible for repairing fractures or re-epithelializing burned 

areas, for example. Several of the studies at NTS in particular did intentionally look at combined 

injuries to note how the three main effects (blast, thermal, radiation) combined. 

The days of research into the direct biological effects of atmospheric testing are fortunately gone. 

Further work needs to be done based on these findings however. The reader is encouraged to 

carefully study the literature amassed around the testing experience, note the gaps in our current 

understanding of nuclear weapon injuries, and see what laboratory studies need to be done to 

improve our knowledge. New paradigms for understanding radiation effects have recently been 

developed, and the data need to be reviewed in this light. 
26 

7.0 REFERENCES 

N.B. The Lovelace Foundation for Medical Education and Research is now the Lovelace 

Respiratory Research Institute. The Armed Forces Special Weapons Project was established in 

1947. In 1959 it became the Defense Atomic Support Agency, then the Defense Nuclear Agency 

in 1971, and the Defense Special Weapons Agency in 1996. In 1998 the Defense Special 

Weapons Agency merged with two other DoD organizations to become the Defense Threat 

Reduction Agency. 

Anderson, E.C., Benson, M., Brennan, J.T., Carter, R.E., Harris, P.S., Langham, W.H., Pinson, 

E.A., Schuch, R.L., Taylor, G.W., Trujillo, T.T., Vier, M.H., Conger, A.D., Daniels, 

D.S., Fairchild, L.M., 1951. Annex 2.4, Experimental Data Obtained in the Field. 

Operation GREENHOUSE. WT-43, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, NM; Naval 

Medical Research Institute, MD; Oak Ridge National Laboratory, TN. 

AFSWP (Armed Forces Special Weapons Project), 1947. Technical Report: Bikini Scientific 

Survey. Operation CROSSROADS. XRD-212, Defense Atomic Support Agency, 

Washington, DC. 

Berkhouse, L.H., Davis, S.E., Gladeck, F.R., Hallowell, J.H., Jones, C.B., Martin, E.J., Miller, 

R.A., McMullan, F.W., Osborn, M.J., 1983. Operation DOMINIC I. DNA 6040F, 

Defense Nuclear Agency, Washington, DC. 

Bond, V.P., Carter, R.E., Reed, J.S., Hechter, H.H., Veenstra, R.J., Cronkite, E.P., Conard, R.A., 

Schlang, H.A., Thorpe, W.T.S., 1953. Biological Effectiveness of Ionizing Radiation 

Within Shelters. Operation UPSHOT-KNOTHOLE. WT-793, U.S. Naval Radiological 

Defense Laboratory, San Francisco, CA; Naval Medical Research Institute, Bethesda, 

MD; National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD. 

Bond, V.P., Conard., R.A., Robertson, J.S., Weden, E.A. Jr., 1955. Medical Examination of 

Rongelap People Six Months After Exposure to Fallout. Operation CASTLE. WT-937, 

Naval Medical Research Institute, Bethesda, MD; U.S. Naval Radiological Defense 

Laboratory, San Francisco, CA. 

Brennan, J.T., 1953. Project 4.7, Beta-Gamma Skin Hazard in the Post-Shot Contaminated 

Area. Operation UPSHOT-KNOTHOLE. WT-746, Armed Forces Special Weapons 

Project, Albuquerque, NM. 

Brooks, J.W., Ham, W.T. Jr., Williams, R.C., Evans, E.I., 1952. Project 4.2, Thermal Effects on 

Animals (Dogs). Operation BUSTER. WT-362, Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, 

VA; Department of the Army Office of the Surgeon General, Washington, DC. 
27 

BUMED (Bureau of Medicine and Surgery) Group Report, 1950a. Target Stations and 

Biological Materials Exposed During Tests Able and Baker. Operation CROSSROADS. 

XRD-163, Director of Ship Material, Naval Medical Research Section, Bethesda, MD. 

BUMED, 1950b. Airblast Effects of an Atomic Bomb Explosion. Operation CROSSROADS.

XRD-164, Director of Ship Material, Naval Medical Research Section, Bethesda, MD. 

BUMED, 1950c. Gross Autopsy Findings and a Statistical Study of the Mortality in the Animals 

Exposed at Bikini. Operation CROSSROADS. XRD-165, Director of Ship Material, 

Naval Medical Research Section, Bethesda, MD. 

BUMED, 1950d. Germination of Vegetable Seeds Exposed at Bikini During the Atomic Bomb 

Test Able. Operation CROSSROADS. XRD-170, Director of Ship Material, Naval 

Medical Research Section, Bethesda, MD. 

BUMED, 1950e. Residual Effects of Atomic Radiation in Soil on Seed Germination. Operation 

CROSSROADS. XRD-171, Director of Ship Material, Naval Medical Research Section, 

Bethesda, MD. 

BUMED, 1950f. Effect of the Bikini Atomic Bomb Test Able on Soil Microorganisms. Operation 

CROSSROADS. XRD-172, Director of Ship Material, Naval Medical Research Section, 

Bethesda, MD. 

BUMED, 1950g. Analysis of Tissues for Induced Radioactivity. Operation CROSSROADS.

XRD-175, Director of Ship Material, Naval Medical Research Section, Bethesda, MD. 

BUMED, 1950h. Vycor Glass Gamma Ray Dosimeters. Operation CROSSROADS. XRD-176, 

Director of Ship Material, Naval Medical Research Section, Bethesda, MD. 

BUMED, 1950i. Aberrations Found in the Progenies of Plants Grown from Irradiated Cotton 

Seed. Operation CROSSROADS. XRD-177, -178, Director of Ship Material, Naval 

Medical Research Section, Bethesda, MD. 

Byrnes, V.A., 1952. Project 4.3, Flash Blindness. Operation BUSTER. WT-341, USAF School 

of Aviation Medicine, Randolph AFB, TX. 

Byrnes, V.A., 1953. Project 4.5, Flash Blindness. Operation TUMBLER-SNAPPER. WT-530, 

USAF School of Aviation Medicine, Randolph AFB, TX. 

Byrnes, V.A., Brown, D.V.L., Rose, H.W., Cibis, P.A., 1955. Ocular Effects of Thermal 

Radiation from Atomic Detonation—Flashblindness and Chorioretinal Burns. Operation 

UPSHOT-KNOTHOLE. WT-745, USAF School of Aviation Medicine, Randolph AFB, 

TX. 
28 

Carter, R.E., Anderson, E.C., Brennan, J.T., Harris, P.S., Langham, W.H., Pinson, E.A., Schuch, 

R.L., Taylor, G.W., Cooper, A.D., Bond, V.P., Calvert, C., Chapman, W.H., Cronkite, 

E.P., Eaton, A.W. Jr., Elsasser, E., Fishler, M.C., Gleiser, C.A., Lee, R.H., Sarkisian, 

S.S., Sipe, C.R., Tullis, J.L., 1951. Annex 2.2, Control Studies of Operation Greenhouse 

Test Animals. Operation GREENHOUSE. WT-6, -18, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, 

NM; Naval Medical Research Institute, Bethesda MD; U.S. Naval Radiological Defense 

Laboratory, San Francisco, CA; Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN. 

Carter, R.E., Bond, V.P., Veenstra, R.J., Reed, J.S., Silvia, P.H., 1953. Project 4.3, The 

Biological Effectiveness of Neutron Radiation from Nuclear Weapons. Operation 

SNAPPER. WT-528, U.S. Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory, San Francisco, CA. 

Carter, R.E., Bond, V.P., Veenstra, R.J., Reed, J.S., Silvia, P.H., 1957. Project 4.8, The 

Biological Effects of Neutrons. Operation UPSHOT-KNOTHOLE. WT-747, U.S. Naval 

Radiological Defense Laboratory, San Francisco, CA. 

Chambers, F.W. Jr., 1952. Project 4.1, Radiation Dosimetery. Operation BUSTER. WT-315, 

Naval Medical Research Institute, Bethesda, MD. 

Chambers, F.W. Jr., 1953. Project 4.4, Gamma Dose Depth Measurement in Unit Density 

Material. Operation TUMBLER-SNAPPER. WT-529, Naval Medical Research Institute, 

Bethesda, MD. 

Cohn, S.H., Rinehart, R.W., Gong, J.K., Robertson, J.S., Milne, W.L., Chapman, W.H., Bond, 

V.P., 1954. Nature and Extent of Internal Radioactive Contamination of Human Beings, 

Plants, and Animals Exposed to Fallout. Operation CASTLE. WT-936, Naval Medical 

Research Institute, Bethesda, MD; U.S. Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory, San 

Francisco, CA. 

Conklin, J., Walker, R., 1987. Military Radiobiology. Armed Forces Radiobiology Research 

Institute, Academic Press, Inc., Bethesda, MD. 

Cronkite, E.P., Bond, V.P., Chapman, W.H., Lee, R.H., Tullis, J.V., Lamson, B.G., Madden, 

S.C., Eaton, A.W. Jr., Gleiser, C.A., Sarkisian, S.S., 1951. Annex 2.5, Mortality Rate as a 

Function of Distance. Operation GREENHOUSE. WT-22, Naval Medical Research 

Institute, Bethesda, MD; Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY; Armed Forces 

Institute of Pathology, Washington, DC. 

Cronkite, E.P., Bond, V.P., Browning, L.E., Chapman, W.H., Cohn, S.H., Conrad, R.A., 

Dunham, C.L., Farr, R.S., Hall, W.S., Sharp, R., Shulman, N.R., 1954. Project 4.1, Study 

of Response of Human Beings Accidentally Exposed to Significant Fallout Radiation. 

Operation CASTLE. WT-923, Naval Medical Research Institute, Bethesda, MD; U.S. 

Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory, San Francisco, CA. 
29 

DNA (Defense Nuclear Agency), 1993. Capabilities of Nuclear Weapons Effects Manual One 

(EM-1), Chapter 14, Effects on Personnel. Defense Nuclear Agency, Department of 

Defense, Washington, DC. 

DTRA (Defense Threat Reduction Agency), 2002. Defense’s Nuclear Agency, 1947-1997.

Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Department of Defense, Washington DC. 

Donaldson, L.R., 1953. Radiobiological Studies at Eniwetok Before and After Mike Shot. 

Operation IVY. WT-616, Applied Fisheries Laboratory, University of Washington, 

Seattle, WA. 

Draeger, R. and Lee, R., 1955. Direct Air Blast Exposure in Animals. Operation UPSHOTKNOTHOLE. WT-744, Naval Medical Research Institute, Bethesda, MD. 

Fixott, R.S., Pickering, J.E., Williams, D.B., Brown, D.V.L., Rose, H.W., 1955. Project 4.1, 

Chorioretinal Burns. Operation REDWING. WT-1326, USAF School of Aviation 

Medicine, Randolph AFB, TX. 

Folsom, T.R., Jennings, F.D., Johnson, M.W., 1958. Project 2.7a, Radioactivity of Open-Sea 

Plankton Samples. Operation CASTLE. WT-954, University of California, La Jolla, CA. 

Glasstone, S., Dolan, P., 1977. The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (3rd ed.). U.S. Department of 

Defense and U.S. Department of Energy. 

Goldizen, V.C., Richmond, D.R., Chiffelle, T.L., Bowen, I.G., White, C.S., 1961. Project 33.4, 

Missile Studies With a Biological Target. Operation PLUMBBOB. WT-1470, Lovelace 

Foundation for Medical Education and Research, Albuquerque, NM. 

Gould, K., 1990. Glossary of Terms: Nuclear Weapon Phenomena and Effects. DASIAC SR89-083, Defense Nuclear Agency, Alexandria, VA. 

Greig, A.L. and Pearse, H.E., 1958. Project 39.3, Thermal Radiation Measurements. Operation 

PLUMBBOB. ITR-1502, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, DC. 

Gulley, W.E., Metcalf, R.D., Wilson, M.R., Hirsch, J.A., 1960. Project 4.2, Evaluation of Eye 

Protection Afforded by an Electromechanical Shutter. Operation PLUMBBOB. WT1429, Aero Medical Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH. 

Harris, P.S., 1955. Project 39.7, Physical Measurement of Neutron and Gamma Radiation Dose 

from High Neutron Yield Weapons and Correlation of Dose with Biological Effects. 

Operation TEAPOT. ITR-1167, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM. 

Note: Redacted version available on World Wide Web. 
30 

Hirsch, F.G., Longhurst, J., McGiboney, D.R., Sander, H.H., 1956. Project 33.2, The Effects of 

Noise in Blast-Resistant Shelters. Operation TEAPOT. WT-1180, Sandia Corporation, 

Albuquerque, NM. 

Hurst, G.S. and Ritchie, R.H., 1958. Project 39.5, Radiation Dosimetry for Human Exposures. 

Operation PLUMBBOB. WT-1504, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN. 

Imirie, G.W., Bond, V.P., Eicher, M., Stickley, E.E., Cronkite, E.P., 1958. Project 39.8, DepthDose Studies in Phantoms with Initial Bomb Gamma and Neutron Radiation. Operation 

PLUMBBOB. WT-1508, Naval Medical Research Institute, Bethesda, MD; Brookhaven 

National Laboratory, Upton, NY. 

Jackson, R., 1993. Guide to U.S. Atmospheric Nuclear Weapons Effects Data. DASIAC SR-92-

007, Defense Nuclear Agency, Alexandria, VA. 

Kingsley, S.D., Schloerb, P.R., Murden, C.H. Jr., Williams, D.B., Pearse, H.E., 1953. The TimeCourse of Thermal Radiation as Measured by Burns in Pigs. Operation TUMBLERSNAPPER. WT-531, University of Rochester, NY. 

Kovalev, E.E., 2008. Risk and Safety in Post-Soviet Russia. DTRA-TR-08-04, Defense Threat 

Reduction Agencv, Fort Belvoir, VA. May. 

Krey, P.W. and Fried, R.E., 1965. Project 5.2/5.3d, Laboratory Analyses of Roller Coaster 

Samples. POR-2518 (WT-2518), Isotopes, Incorporated, Westwood, NJ. 

Kuhn, U.S.G. III and Kyner, R.E., 1958. Project 39.6a, Large-Animal Neutron-Gamma 

Irradiation Experiment. Operation PLUMBBOB. ITR-1476, University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville, TN. 

Langham, W.H., Anderson, E.C., Crumley, P.M., Harris, P.S., Pinson, E.A., 1953. Project 4.1, 

The Radiation Hazards to Personnel Within an Atomic Cloud. Operation UPSHOTKNOTHOLE. WT-743, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, NM: Air Force Cambridge 

Research Center, Cambridge, MA. 

Larson, K.H., Neel, J.W., Hawthorne, H.A., Mork, H.M., Rowland, R.H., Baurmash, L., 

Lindberg, R.G., Olafson, J.H., Kowalewsky, B.W., 1966. Project 37.1, Distribution, 

Characteristics, and Biotic Availability of Fallout, Operation PLUMBBOB. WT-1488, 

University of California at Los Angeles, CA. 

LeRoy, G.V., 1951. Annex 2.10, Miscellaneous Studies of Dosimeters. Operation 

GREENHOUSE. WT-13, University of Chicago, IL. 

LeRoy, G.V., Langham, W., 1951. Evaluation of Program 2. Operation GREENHOUSE. WT21, University of Chicago, IL, and Los Alamos National Laboratory, NM. 
31 

Lindberg, R.G., Scanlan, J.T., Watson, J.C., Rhoads, W.A., Larson, K.H., 1954. Project 27.2, 

Environmental and Biological Fate of Fall-Out from Nuclear Detonations in Areas 

Adjacent to the Nevada Proving Grounds. Operation UPSHOT-KNOTHOLE. WT-812, 

University of California at Los Angeles, CA. 

Lindberg, R.G., Romney, E.M., Olafson, J.H., Larson, K.H., 1959. Project 37.1, Factors 

Influencing the Biological Fate and Persistence of Radioactive Fallout. Operation 

TEAPOT. WT-1177, University of California at Los Angeles, CA. 

Major, W.J., Wessman, R.A., 1966. Project 5.2/5.3b, Radiobiological, Radiochemical, and 

Physiochemical Analyses. Operation ROLLER COASTER. POR-2516 (WT-2516), 

Tracerlab, Richmond, CA. 

McDonnel, G.M., Crosby, W.H., Tessmer, C.F., Moncrief, W.H. Jr., Baker, H.J., Goldstein, J.D., 

Woodward, K., Shively, J.N., Daniell, H.W., Horava, A., Claypool, H.A., 1961. Project 

4.1, Effects of Nuclear Detonations on a Large Biological Specimen (Swine). Operation 

PLUMBBOB. WT-1428, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Washington, DC. 

Meason, J.L., O’Kuma, J.H., Perry, R.L., 1982. Airblast Survivability Testing of Tactical Army 

Systems at Event Mill Race. Operation MILL RACE, POR-7075, U.S. Army Materiel 

Test and Evaluation Directorate, White Sands Missile Range, NM. Note: Report is 

restricted distribution. 

Menker, H.E., Armstrong, J.C., Buchanan, J.D., Forslow, E.J., Sorensen, B.H., 1966. Project 

5.2/5.3a, Radiochemical Analysis of Biological and Physical Samples. Operation 

ROLLER COASTER. POR-2515 (WT-2515), Hazleton-Nuclear Science Corporation, 

Palo Alto, CA. 

Mobley, T.S., Damewood, L.A., Penikas, V.T., Engel, R.E., 1965. Project 4.1, Tissue 

Dosimetry. Operation SUNBEAM. POR-2270, Air Force Weapons Lab, Kirtland AFB, 

NM. 

Moncrief, W.H., Dacquisto, M.P., Fitzpatrick, J., Claypool, H.A., Rothe, W.E., 1961. Project 

4.2, Effects of Very-Low-Yield Bursts on Biological Specimens (Swine and Mice). 

Operation HARDTACK II. WT-1663, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 

Washington, DC. 

National Research Council, 1980. The Effects on Populations of Exposure to Low Levels of 

Ionizing Radiation. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. 

National Research Council of Japan, 1953. Medical Report on Atomic Bomb Effects. Tokyo. 

Palmer, M.A. and Harper, R.S., 1955. Project 39.4b, Technical Photography (High Speed—

Blast Biology). Operation TEAPOT. WT-1197, Lovelace Foundation for Medical 

Education and Research, Albuquerque, NM. 
32 

Pearse, H.E., Kingsley, H.D., Schilling, J.A., Hogg, L. Jr., Blakney, R.M., Davis, T.P., Krolak, 

L.J., Murden, C.H., Williams, D.B., Ely, T.S., 1951. Annex 2.7, Thermal Radiation 

Injury. Operation GREENHOUSE. WT-9, University of Rochester, NY; Naval Medical 

Research Institute, Bethesda, MD. 

Pickering, J.E., Culver, W.T., Allen, R.G., Benson, R.E., Morris, F.M., Williams, D.B., Wilson, 

S.G., Zellmer, R.W., Richey, E.O., 1958a. Project 4.1, Effects on Eyes from Exposure to 

Very-High-Altitude Bursts. Operation HARDTACK I. WT-1633, USAF School of 

Aviation Medicine, Randolph AFB, TX. 

Pickering, J.E., Zellmer, R.W., Benson, R.E., Hartwig, Q.L., 1958b. Project 39.6, Biological 

Effects of Nuclear Radiation on the Monkey (Macaca Mulatta). Operation PLUMBBOB. 

WT-1505, USAF School of Aerospace Medicine, Randolph AFB, TX. 

Pickering, J.E., Williams, D.B., Melville, G.S. Jr., McDowell, A.A., Leffingwell, T.P., Zellmer, 

R.W., 1960. Project 39.6 (Supplement I), Biological Effects of Nuclear Radiation on the 

Monkey (Macaca Mulatta): Two-Year Evaluation. Operation PLUMBBOB. WT-1542, 

USAF School of Aerospace Medicine, Randolph AFB, TX. 

Plough, H.H. and Sheppard, C.W., 1954. Projects 23.4-23.14, 23.16, Genetic Effects of Fast 

Neutrons from Nuclear Detonations. Operation UPSHOT-KNOTHOLE. WT-820, U.S. 

Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, DC. 

Richmond, D.R., Taborelli, R.V., Bowen, I.G., Chiffelle, T.L., Hirsch, F.G., Longwell, B.B., 

Riley, J.G., White, C.S., Sherping, F., Goldizen, V.C., Ward, J.D., Wetherbe, M.B., 

Clare, V.R., Kuhn, M.L., Sanchez, R.T., 1959. Project 33.1, Blast Biology—A Study of 

the Primary and Tertiary Effects of Blast in Open Underground Protective Shelters. 

Operation PLUMBBOB. WT-1467, Lovelace Foundation for Medical Education and 

Research, Albuquerque, NM. 

Richmond, D.R., White, C.S., Sanchez, R.T., Sherping, F., 1960. Project 33.6, The Internal 

Environment of Underground Structures Subjected to Nuclear Blast, II. Effects on Mice 

Located in Heavy Concrete Shelters. Operation PLUMBBOB. WT-1507, Lovelace 

Foundation for Medical Education and Research, Albuquerque, NM. 

Roberts, J.E., White, C.S., Chiffelle, T.L., 1953. Project 23.15, Effects of Overpressures in 

Group Shelters on Animals and Dummies. Operation UPSHOT-KNOTHOLE. WT-798, 

Lovelace Foundation for Medical Education and Research, Albuquerque, NM. 

Sachs, D. A, 1995. Guide to Nuclear Weapons Phenomena and Effects Literature. DASIAC SR92-004, Defense Nuclear Agency, Alexandria, VA. 

Schaefer, M.B., Holmes, R.W., Bierl, R., Orton, G.L., Wisner, R.L., Shimada, B.M., Lear, D.W. 

Jr., Openheimer, C.H. Jr., Thomas, W.H., Haxo, F.G., Goldberg, E.D., Martin, D., 
33 

Berner, L. Project 2.5, Effects of Nuclear Explosion on Marine Biology. Operation 

WIGWAM. WT-1013, University of California, La Jolla, CA. 

Sharp, R. and Chapman, W.H., 1957. Project 4.1 Addendum, Exposure of Marshall Islands and 

American Military Personnel to Fallout. Operation CASTLE. WT-938, Naval Medical 

Research Institute, Bethesda, MD. 

Sheline, G.E., Alpen, E., Kuhl, P., 1952. Project 4.2a, Thermal Effects on Animals (Rats). 

Operation BUSTER. WT-316, U.S. Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory, San 

Francisco, CA. 

Silverman, M.S. and Bond, V.P., 1953. Project 23.2, Bacteriological Studies on Animals 

Exposed to Neutron Radiation. Operation UPSHOT-KNOTHOLE. WT-794, U.S. Naval 

Radiological Defense Laboratory, San Francisco, CA. 

Smith, F., Boddy, D.W., Goldman, M., 1952. Project 2.7, Biological Injury from Particle 

Inhalation. Operation JANGLE. WT-396, National Institutes of Health, Public Health 

Service-Federal Security Agency, Bethesda, MD. 

Sondhaus, C.A. and Bond, V.P., 1955. Project 4.1. Addendum; Physical Factors and Dosimetry 

in Marshall Islands Radiation Exposure. Operation CASTLE. WT-939, Naval Medical 

Research Institute, Bethesda, MD. 

Taborelli, R.V., Bowen, I.G., Fletcher, E.R., 1959. Project 33.3, Tertiary Effects of Blast—

Displacement. Operation PLUMBBOB. WT-1469, Lovelace Foundation for Medical 

Education and Research, Albuquerque, NM. 

Talbot, J.M. and Maupin, C.S., 1951. Annex 2.9, Blast Injuries in Foxholes. Operation 

GREENHOUSE. WT-8, U.S. Air Force School of Aviation Medicine, Randolph AFB, 

TX; Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, NM. 

Taplin, G.V., Meredith, O.M. Jr., Kade H., 1957. Project 37.3, Evaluation of the Acute 

Inhalation Hazard from Radioactive Fall-Out Materials by Analysis of Results from Field 

Operations and Controlled Inhalation Studies in the Laboratory. Operation TEAPOT. 

WT-1172, University of California at Los Angeles, CA. 

Taplin, G.V., Malin, K.H., Griswold, M.L., Paglia, D.E., 1961. Project 37.5, Chemical 

Dosimetry of Prompt and Residual Radiations from Nuclear Detonations. Operation 

PLUMBBOB. WT-1493, University of California at Los Angeles, CA. 

Tullis, J.L., Lamson, B.C., Madden, S.C., Eaton, A.W. Jr., Gleiser, C.A., Lushbaugh, C.C., 

LeRoy, G.C., 1951. Annex 2.6, Pathology of Radiation Injury. Operation 

GREENHOUSE. WT-16, Naval Medical Research Institute, Bethesda, MD; Brookhaven 

National Laboratory, Upton, NY; Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Washington, DC; 

Los Alamos National Laboratory, NM; University of Chicago, IL. 
34 

U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, 1945. Medical Effects of Atomic Bombs, Joint Commission 

Reports, Volumes I, II, III, IV, V, and VI. United States Atomic Energy Commission, 

Oak Ridge, TN. 

Verheul, R.H., Lowrey, A., Browning, L.E., 1960. Project 4.3, Effects of Light from Very-LowYield Nuclear Detonations on Vision (Dazzle) of Combat Personnel. Operation 

HARDTACK II. WT-1664, Field Command, Defense Atomic Support Agency, Sandia 

Base, Albuquerque, NM. 

White, C.S., Chiffelle, T.L., Richmond, D.R., Lockyear, W.H., Bowen, I.G., Goldizen, V.C., 

Merideth, H.W., Kilgore, D.E., Longwell, B.B., Parker, J.T., Sherping, F., Cribb, M.E., 

1956. Project 33.1, Biological Effects of Pressure Phenomena Occurring Inside 

Protective Shelters Following a Nuclear Detonation. Operation TEAPOT. WT-1179, 

Lovelace Foundation for Medical Education and Research, Albuquerque, NM. 
A-1 

APPENDIX A. ACRONYMS 

ARS – Acute Radiation Sickness (or Acute Radiation Syndrome) 

BENE – Biological Effects of Nuclear Explosions 

BUMED – Bureau of Medicine and Surgery (U.S. Navy) 

CV/CNS – Cardiovascular/central nervous system 

DARE – Data Archival and Retrieval Enhancement 

DDREF – Dose and Dose Rate Effectiveness Factor 

DNA – Defense Nuclear Agency 

DOB – Depth of Burst (below ground or marine surface) 

DoD – Department of Defense (U.S.) 

DTRA – Defense Threat Reduction Agency (formerly Defense Nuclear Agency) 

DTRIAC – Defense Threat Reduction Information Analysis Center 

EM-1 – Effects Manual One, Capabilities of Nuclear Weapons 

FSU – Former Soviet Union 

GI – Gastrointestinal 

HOB – Height of Burst (above ground or marine surface) 

LD50 – Median Lethal Dose (lethal to 50% of the population) 

MODS – Multiple Organ Dysfunction Syndrome 

NATO – North Atlantic Treaty Organization 

NCRP – National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements

NTPR – Nuclear Test Personnel Review program 
A-2 

NTS – Nevada Test Site 

PPG – Pacific Proving Ground 

STARS – Scientific and Technical Information Archival and Retrieval System 

TBSA – Total Body Surface Area 

USNRDL – U.S. Naval Defense Research Laboratory 
B-1 

APPENDIX B. DISTRIBUTION LIST 

DTRA-TR-12-33 

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE 

ARMED FORCES RADIOBIOLOGY RESEARCH INSTITUTE 

8901 WISCONSIN AVENUE BLDG 42 

BETHESDA, MD 20889-5603 

 ATTN: DIRECTOR 

DEFENSE TECHNICAL INFORMATION CENTER 

8725 JOHN J. KINGMAN ROAD, SUITE 0944 

FORT BELVOIR, VA 22060-6201 

 ATTN: DTIC/OCA 

DEFENSE THREAT REDUCTION AGENCY 

8725 JOHN J. KINGMAN ROAD 

FORT BELVOIR, VA 22060-6201 

 ATTN: J-9, NUCLEAR TEST PERSONNEL REVIEW 

U.S. ARMY NUCLEAR AND COMBATTING WMD AGENCY 

5915 16TH STREET, BUILDING 238 

FORT BELVOIR, VA 22060 

 ATTN: DIRECTOR 

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE CONTRACTORS 

APPLIED RESEARCH ASSOCIATES, INC. 

801 NORTH QUINCY STREET, SUITE 700 

ARLINGTON, VA 22203 

ITT INDUSTRIES 

ITT SYSTEMS CORPORATION 

1680 TEXAS STREET, SE 

KIRTLAND AFB, NM 87117-5669 

 ATTN:DTRIAC 

L-3 COMMUNICATIONS 

11410 ISAAC NEWTON SQUARE N, SUITE 103 

RESTON, VA 20190-5005 

 ATTN: LIBRARIAN 
B-2 

SAIC, INC. 

1710 SAIC DRIVE 

MCLEAN, VA 22102 

 ATTN: DIRECTOR