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UNNASSlglEfl 

Report to the Scientific Director 

PROJECT 4.1 - ADDENDUM REPORT 

Nature and Extent of Internal Radioactive 

Contamination of Human Beings, Plants, 

and Animals Exposed to Fallout 

S. H. Cohn, R. W. Rinehart, J. K. Gong, 

J. S. Robertson, W. L. Milne, W. H. Chapman,. 

and V. P. Bond 

Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory 

San Francisco, Calif. 

Naval Medical Research Institute 

Bethesda, Md. 

ABSTRACT 

The first instance of exposure of human beings to mixed fission products occurred as a 

result of the contaminating detonation of 1 March 1954. Beta activity in the urine of these 

exposed human beings indicated significant internal contamination from the ingestion and inhalation of fallout material. The body burden of the group of human beings with the greatest 

internal contamination was of the order of the maximum permissible concentrations for the 

individual radionuclides. 

Few of the fission products present in the environment were readily absorbed by the 

bloodstream from the lungs and the gastrointestinal tract. Most of those radioelements that 

gained entry into the body had short radiological and biological lives, and thus the levels of 

activity in the tissues of the body were relatively low. The concentration of radioisotopes at 

6 months postdetonation was barely detectable in the urine of most of the exposed individuals. 

The human body burden of individual radionuclides was estimated from radiochemical 

analysis of the human urine and of the tissues and urine of animals from Rongelap. The mean 

body burdens of the radionuclides in the Ailinginae group were approximately one-half those 

of the Rongelap group, and the mean body burdens of the American group were about onefourth those of the Rongelap group. 

Radioiodine is probably the most hazardous internal radioemitter at early times after 

exposure. Of the longer lived fission products Srss is the most abundant and presents the 

greatest potential hazard in this particular group. 

Oral administration of calcium EDTA, beginning seven weeks postdetonation, to a representative group of individuals from Rongelap increased the rate of excretion of activity. However, the decrease of the body burden was insignificant since the excretion rate was very low 

at this late time. 

High levels of activity were found in water and on the external surfaces of plants. The 

contamination of the internal portions of fruits and vegetables was small; however, high levels 

of contamination were found in the coconut tree sap. Of the individual radionuclides, Sr”, 

because of .its high solubility and relatively long radioactive half life, was probably the isotope 

of greatest potential hazard in the environment. 

Gross beta activity of urine and tissue samples of animals indicates significant internal 

contamination of all the animals. The level of internally deposited radioisotopes in the pigs 

from Rongelap was ten times the amount in human beings from the same area. 

Studies of animals provided direct data on the nature and distribution of the contamination 

in the tissues of the body. Over 90 per cent of the activity in the body of animals was localized 

in the skeleton. The pattern of deposition of the fission products in the skeleton seen in autoradiographs was similar to that of alkaline earths. The fish and clam had a much lower concentration of the alkaline and rare earths and a body burden considerably higher than that of 

the land animals. Since fish form a large staple item in the diet of the island populations, this 

high level of contamination is of considerable importance. 

Studies made on egg production of contaminated hens gave no evidence of any radiation 

effect. The production rate for eggs was normal, and the eggs produced were also normal. 

3 

$2. -
The extraordinary ability of fowl to mobilize calcium in shell formation resulted in the presence of very high activity in the shells of the first few eggs. The activity was associated with 

the fission products of the alkaline earth group. 

Fertility of the hens and hatchability of the eggs produced by the mating of contaminated 

roosters and hens showed no radiation effects. The baby chicks hatched from these eggs are 

growing normally, and the amount of radioactivity in their tissues is barely detectable. 

In the g-month postdetonation period, neither significant gross changes nor pathological 

changes, which could definitely be ascribed to radiation, were detected in any of the animals 

from Rongelap. 

Analysis of the internal contamination in human beings indicates that the dose to the 

tissues of the body was near but did not exceed the maximum permissible dose levels. The 

activity fixed in the body decreased rapidly as a function of time. The contribution of the 

effects of internal contamination to the total radiation response observed appears to be small 

on the basis of the estimated body burden of the radioelements. In view of the short half life 

of the most abundant fission products in this situation, the possibility that chronic irradiation 

effects will occur is quite small. 

4 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

Although it is impossible to acknowledge all the assistance rendered by the many individuals at the Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory and other laboratories that contributed 

to this project, the contributions of outstanding nature can be mentioned here. We gratefully 

acknowledge the assistance of the following people: 

CAPT. R. A. Hinners, USN, CAPT. A. R. Behnke, MC USN, and Dr. P. C. Tompkins, who 

made available all necessary facilities of the laboratory to pursue the many diversified aspects of this problem. 

Dr. E, L. Alpen assisted in the administration of early phases of this project and assisted 

in the pathology studies conducted. 

H. H. Hechter performed the statistical analyses of the data. 

Miss C. Jones prepared autoradiographs of animal tissues. 

Dr. W. P. Norris, Argonne National Laboratory, made autoradiographs of animal tissues. 

Dr. R. Reed performed the microscopic pathological study of animal tissue. 

LTJG R. Sharp, MSC USN, and LT W. H. Chapman, MSC USN, Naval Medical Research 

Institute, assisted in the collection of the biological samples. 

C. A. Sondhaus assisted in the mathematical calculations of the external and internal dose 

to the animals. 

Dr. E. R. Tompkins made available the facilities of the Chemical Technology Division and 

provided technical advice on the radiochemical aspects of the project. 

Lt Co1 R. A. Veenstra cared for the experimental animals. 

5-6 

CONTENTS 

ABSTRACT ......... 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ....... 

ILLUSTRATIONS ........ 

TABLES .......... 

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ..... 

1.1 Objectives ........ 

1.2 General Nature of Internal Radiation Toxicity . 

CHAPTER 2 INTERNAL CONTAMINATION IN HUMAN BEINGS 

2.1 Methods . . . . . . . . . 

2.2 Results and Discussion . . . . . . 

2.2.1 Beta Activity of the Urine . . . . 

2.2.2 Radiochemical Analysis of the Urine: Estimate of 

Body Burden . . . . . . . 

2.3 Route of Entry of Internal Contamination . . . 

2.4 Internal Radioactive Decontamination Therapy . . 

2.5 Summary and Conclusions . . . . . 

CHAPTER 3 INTERNAL CONTAMINATION IN ANIMALS . 

3.1 Methods . . . . . . . . . 

3.2 Results and Discussion . . . . . . 

3.2.1 Gross Observations . . . . . 

3.2.2 Radioactivity of Tissues and Excreta . . 

3.2.3 Radiochemical Analysis of Tissues and Excreta 

3.3 Autoradiographs . . . . . . . 

3.4 Pathology . . . . . . . . . 

3.5 Egg Production in Chickens . . . . . 

3.6 Fertility and Hatchability Studies in Chickens . . 

3.7 Internal Radioactive Decontamination Studies in Chickens 

3.8 Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . 

CHAPTER 4 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES . . . . . 

4.1 Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Fallout Material 

4.2 Radiochemical Analysis of Food, Water, and Soil . . 

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CONTENTS (Continued) 

Page 

4.2.1 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 

4.2.2 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . 42 

4.3 Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . 47 

CHAPTER 5 RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . 48 

5.1 Field . . . . , . . . . . . . . . 48 

5.2 Laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 

REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

CHAPTER 3 INTERNAL CONTAMINATION IN ANIMALS 

3.1 Beta and Gamma Activity in Chicken Excreta . . . . . . 26 

3.2 Autoradiograph of Tibia of Chicken Sacrificed 45 days 

Postdetonation (ANL) . . . . . . . . . . . 29 

3.3 Autoratliograph of Tibia and Femur of Baby Chick Sacrificed 46 

Days Postdetonation (ANL) . . . . . . . . _ 30 

3.4 Autoradiograph of Tibia of Pig Sacrificed 45 Days Postdetonation 

(ANL). . . . . . . . . . . , , . . 31 

3.5 Autoradiograph of Tibia and Femur of Pig 6 Sacrificed 57 Days 

Postdetonation . . , . . . . . . . . . . 32 

3.6 Autoradiograph of Tibia of Adult Sow Sacrificed 38 Days 

Postdetonation . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 

3.7 Autoradiograph of Femur of Boar Sacrificed 26 Days Postdetonation . . 34 

3.8 Appearance of Gamma Activity in Egg Shell As a Function of Time . . . 36 

3.9 Autoradiograph of Chicken Eggs, Showing Pattern of Deposition 

of Fission Products in Yolk . . . . . . . . . . 37 

TABLES 

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 

1.1 Biologically Hazardous Internally Deposited Fission Products . . . 12 

CHAPTER 2 INTERNAL CONTAMINATION IN HUMAN BEINGS 

2.1 Summary of Human Urine Analysis, Gross Beta Activity . . . . 15 

2.2 Gross Beta Activity in Urine of the Rongelap Group . . . . . 16 

2.3 Gross Beta Activity in Urine of Ailinginae and American Groups . . 17 

2.4 Radiochemical Analysis of Rongelap Urine . . . . . . 18 

2.5 Mean Body Burden of Rongelap Group . . . . . . . 18 

2.6 Internal Radioactive Decontamination, Calcium EDTA Treatment of 

Rongelap Group . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 

CHAPTER 3 INTERNAL CONTAMINATION IN ANIMALS 

3.1 Mortality and External Radiation Dose of Animals from the 

Living Areas of Rongelap and Utirik . . . . . . . . 23 

8 
TABLES (Cantimed) 

Page 

3.2 Radiochemical Analysis of Tissues and Urine of Pigs from 

Rongelap . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 

3.3 Beta and Gamma Activity of Chicken from Rongelap . . . . 27 

3.4 Beta and Gamma Activity of Fish from Rongelap Lagoon . . . 28 

3.5 Distribution of Radioactivity in Chicken Eggs . . . . . . 38 

3.6 Radiochemical Analysis of Chicken Eggs . . . . . . . 38 

CHAPTER 4 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 

4.1 Survey of Initial Activity of Samples Collected from Rongelap . . . . 41 

4.2 External Contamination on Representative Rongelap Food 

Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 

4.3 Removal of Radioactivity from Rongelap Foodstuffs by 

Washing Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 

4.4 Radioactive Contamination Associated with Edible Portions of 

Food Plants of Rongelap and Utirik . . . . . . . 44 

4.5 Radiochemical Analysis of Various Rongelap Samples . . . . 44 

4.6 Distribution of Activity Between Particulate and Dissolved 

Material in Rongelap Well Water . . . . . . . . . 45 

4.7 Beta-Gamma Data on Water from Rongelap and Utirik . . , . . 46 

4.0 Distribution of Beta Activity Among Various Size Rongelap 

Earth Particles . , . . . . . . . . . . 46 

4.9 Gross Beta and Alpha Activity of Soil, Grass, and Thatch from 

Rongelap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 

9-10 

CHAPTER 1 

INTRODUCTION 

1.l OBJECTIVES 

The objectives of the study of internal radioactive contamination, Project 4.1, are as 

follows: 

1. To determine the nature and extent of the internal radiation hazard to human beings 

exposed to the fallout from the 1 March 1954 detonation of Operation CASTLE. 

2. To evaluate the contribution of the internal contamination to the acute and long-term 

radiation syndrome. 

3. To determine the feasibility of an internal decontamination therapy program. 

4. To determine the amount and type of contamination sustained by exposed animals, 

food plants, soil, and water of the contaminated atolls. 

The nuclear detonation of 1 March was the first instance in which a large group of people 

received a significant internal contamination from fission products with an accompanying external dose of less than lethal magnitude. 

A detailed study of the internal contamination in the exposed human population and in 

animals was made to determine the kind and degree of internal deposition. There were three 

general problems to be investigated: (1) The first was to determine the contribution of the 

internal contamination to the acute radiation syndrome observed in order to evaluate the importance of internal contamination when combined external and internal irradiation occurs. 

(2) The second problem concerned the possibility of long-term effects. (3) The third question 

was directly answered by the study made, that is, what was the qualitative and quantitative 

nature of the internal contamination produced by exposure of individuals to mixed fission 

products. There has been no previous situation in which human beings have been exposed to 

an environment contaminated with mixed fission products. 

Evaluation of the internal contamination of the human beings was made by a study of the 

radioelements excreted. Since very little information is presently available concerning the 

ratio of excreted radioelements to the amount deposited in the body, it was necessary to base 

the evaluation on data obtained from animals that had been contaminated in the same event. 

Detailed studies of animal tissues and animal excreta then provided data on which estimates 

of the human body burden were based. 

1.2 GENERAL NATURE OF INTERNAL RADIATION TOXICITY 

The nature of the radiation hazard from internally deposited fission products can best be 

understood in terms of the biophysical behavior of the radionuclides. 

Fission products entering the body through inhalation or ingestion concentrate in various 

tissues and act as sources of internal radiation. The ability of a radionuclide to enter the 
blood stream is determin hysical state. The 

radioelements formed in fission are predominantly oxides which have a limited solubility in 

body fluids. On this basis only a few of the radioelements can become available to the body. 

However, the amount that can produce injurious effects when deposited within the body is 

minute because of the close proximity of the isotope to the tissues it irradiates and because 

the isotope continues to irradiate these tissues until it is removed by biological turnover or 

is rendered harmless by radioactive decay. The effects of radiation from internally deposited 

emitters are the same as those from external radiation. The distinguishing feature of internal 

radiation, however, is its long continuing nature. 

TABLE 1.1 -Biologically Hazardous Internally Deposited Fission Products 

T Fraction reaching 

Half life critical organt, : Fission* 

Radio- Type* of abundance Radiological* Biologicalt, $ BY BY 

element radiation (4%) (days) (days) ingestion inhalation 

Sr”9 4.6 53 3.9 x 103 0.25 0.22 

Y$’ 5.9 57 >500 2.8 x 10-d 0.14 Zr95 6.4 65 >lOO 0.35 Ru’o:j 3.7 42 20 0.04 

Ru’06 0.5 365 20 0.04 

$31 2.8 8 180 0.2 0.15 

Ba”O 6.0 12.8 -200 0.07 0.20 La140 6.0 1.7 35 1.2 x 10-a 0.1 ccl41 5.7 28 > 100 0.25 

Pr1(3 5.4 13.8 50 1.3 x 10-3 0.063 

Ceiu 5.3 275 500 2 x 10-d 0.10 

*From G. T. Scaborg and I. Perlman, Rev. Mod. Phys., 20: 585 (1948). 

tFrom J. G. Hamilton, Rev. Mod. Phys., 20: 718 (1948). 

$From National Bureau of Standards Handbook 52, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C., 1953. 

Radioactive isotopes follow the same metabolic processes in the body as the naturally 

occurring inactive isotopes of the same element and of chemically similar elements. Thus 

strontium and barium, which are analogous chemically to calcium, are deposited in the calcifying tissue of the bone. Although nearly 200 radioisotopes are produced in the fission 

process, only a few are potential chronic internal radiation hazards. These fission products, 

listed in Table 1.1, constitute a high percentage of the fission yield and localize chiefly in 

bone. The “bone seekers” have, in general, lung radiological and biological half lives and 

produce high-energy beta particles. Thus they cause greater damage to bone and to the radiosensitive bone marrow than to other tissues. The damage to the blood-forming tissue results 

in a reduction of blood cells and thus affects the entire body. 

Information on the biological effects of internally deposited isotopes is derived from the 

limited studies of accidental radioisotopic poisoning in humans or from animal experimentation. The best documented data on the effects of small amounts of internally deposited emitters in human beings are obtained from studies of radium poisoning. As a result of radium 

deposition, terminal anemia, bone necrosis, and osteogenic sarcoma appeared after a number 

of years. The residual activity in the body associated with these effects was 1 to 2 pg of 

radium. Radium is a particularly hazardous element when deposited internally because of its 

very long radiological half life. 

Very few data are available on the long-term biological effects in human beings of the 

shorter lived isotopes such as Sr*‘, 11”, Ps2, and Na2”. The metabolism, excretion, and bio- 
logical effects of a number of fission products have been studied in animals by Hamilton,’ 

Abrams,’ Bloom,’ and others. However, most of these studies do not cover the problem of the 

long-term effects produced by small amounts of internally deposited isotopes in animals. 

Few data are available concerning the effects of internal contamination with mixed fission 

products from nuclear detonations. Contamination is not produced by every detonation of a 

nuclear device. For example, no internal contamination was detected in any of the individuals 

exposed to the airbursts at Nagasaki and Hiroshima. 

In field tests of the contaminating type of atomic detonation, animals that inhaled fission 

products during short periods of exposure were found to have insignificant amounts of internal 

contamination. 

The long-term effects (primarily malignant changes) resulting fr*>m radium deposition 

have been used to set the limits for maximum permissible body concentrations of various 

radionuclides.” The maximum permissible level of a radioisotope is the maximum amount 

which may be deposited in the body without the production of detectable damage. The value 

for both internal and external irradiation to any tissue is 0.3 rem/week. 

13 
CHAPTER 2 

INTERNAL CONTAMINATION IN HUMAN BEINGS 

The internal contamination study was begun 15 days postdetonation with the collection of 

pooled 24-hr urine samples from the Marshallese and American groups. Maximum activity 

in the urine occurred during the first few days after internal contamination. By one week an 

approximate equilibrium state was reached in which the contaminants remaining in the body 

were firmly fixed, chiefly in the skeletal tissues. The activity in the urine then was derived 

from radioelements which were replaced in the natural process of biological turnover. Thus 

the study made is essentially that of an equilibrium condition. 

All the urine samples were sent back to laboratories in the United States for analysis 

since the high background encountered in the field masked the relatively low levels of activity 

in the aliquot samples used. A field laboratory is most desirable for a rapid survey and was 

shown to be feasible if adequate facilities are provided for the counting of the samples. 

The first urine samples, mentioned above, were collected by the Los Alamos Scientific 

Laboratory (LASL). Similar samples collected 44 days postdetonation were also sent to LASL. 

On the 23d, 24th, and 47th days postdetonation, 24-hr urine collections from each individual in 

the Rongelap and Ailinginae groups were sent to the AEC New York Operations Office (NYOOAEC) for analysis. In addition, samples from representative individuals in these groups were 

collected 2’& 3, and 6 months postdetonation and sent to NYOO-AEC. 

The Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory (NRDL) collected samples from each member 

of the American, Rongelap, and Ailinginae groups at 43 to 45 days postdetonation. Samples from 

representatives of these groups were also collected at 2i/,, 3, and 6 months by NRDL. In addition, samples from a representative group of 6 Americans and 20 Marshallese were collected 

for 6 consecutive days beginning 33 days postdetonation. 

2.1 METHODS 

Since a complete radiochemical analysis of all the urine samples was not feasible, samples 

were analyzed only for Srsa, Ba”‘, the rare-earth group, and fissile material. These analyses 

are the most useful for evaluating the concentration and identity of all the potentially hazardous 

internally deposited radioactive isotopes. Measurement was also made of the gross beta activity of all the samples. 

A scanning method for beta measurement, consisting of a basic oxalate precipitation with 

a lanthanum carrier, was employed on an aliquot of the 24-hr urine samples in order to facilitate the processing of the large number of urine samples being sent from the field, This 

method rapidly concentrates the radioactive elements into a small volume and eliminates the 

normally present K” background. A carbonate precipitation of the entire 24-hr sample increased the sensitivity of measurement sufficiently for analysis of samples collected later 

than 2i/, months postdetonation. 

14 
The beta activity was counted with a thin end-window Geiger-Miiller countel-. The counter 

was calibrated with a U,03 standard, and an appropriate correction for self absorption was 

made using a Sr*’ standard. 

2.2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

2.2.1 Beta Activity of the Urine 

Internal deposition of radioactive elements was evidenced by the presence of significant 

amounts of beta activity in the urine. This activity decreased rapidly as a function of time, 

since it was derived chiefly from short-lived radioisotopes. For example, at 3 months postdetonation, the mean activity of the urine of the Rongelap adults was 28 per cent of the value 

measured 45 days postdetonation, and at 6 months the activity in the urine was barely detectable in most of the individuals. 

TABLE 2.1-Summary of Human Urine Analysis, Gross Beta Activity* 

Rongelap Ailinginae 

(ape) (age) Time 

(postdetonation) < 5 5-16 >16 <5 5 -16 >16 American 

l’/, months 

Case No. 7 11 31 1 2 10 25 

24-hr vol. (ml) 165 439 581 150 275 722 1158 

Dis/mfn/24 hr 404 758 1208 217 126 553 309 

2% months 

Case No. 10 

24-hr vol. (ml) 824 

Dis/min/24 hr 705 

3 months 

Case No. 10 

24-hr vol. (ml) 379 

MS/mm/24 hr 339 

6 months 

Case No. 8 12 33 3 12 

24-hr vol. (ml) 360 510 625 400 655 

Dis/min/24 hr 12 5 0 0 0 

*AU values corrected for decay. 

Comparison of the means of the urine samples for the adults of the Rongelap and Ailinginae 

groups and the American group indicates that the highest activity was in the Rongelap group at 

45 days postdetonation (Table 2.1). The Ailinginae group had less than one-half the activity 

present in the Rongelap group, and the American group had about one-fourth the activity of 

the Rongelap group. 

The mean gross beta activity of the urine of the Rongelap, Ailinginae, and American 

groups was roughly proportional to the external dose each group received. However, a comparison of the mean beta activity of the urine of the Ailinginae and the American groups indicated that the latter had a somewhat lower amount of internal contamination although both 

groups received about the same external dose. This may be accounted for by the fact that the 

Marshallese drank contaminated water from open containers and ate contaminated food up to 

the time of evacuation at 55 hr postdetonation. The American personnel ingested much less 

contaminated food and water, since both were largely stored in closed containers. Indoctri15 
TABLE 2.2 -Gross Beta Activity in Urine of the Rongelap Group* 

(46 days postdetonation) 

Age and Total 24-hr Beta Activity Age and Total 24-hr Beta Activity 

case No. volume (ml) (dis/min/24 hr) case No. volume (ml) @is/mm/24 hr) 

<5 yr >16 yr 

2 120 712 4 455 634 

3 150 894 7 810 1700 

5 155 313 9 355 201 

23 40 223 10 980 549 

33 260 0 11 450 1583 

54 80 385 13 340 1677 

69 455 301 14 780 2460 

18 455 1670

Mean 165 404 

22 47 77 

30 960 438

6-15 yr 34 750 570 

20 265 1900 37 480 792 

24 550 0 40 550 1450 

26 650 1032 46 330 495 

35 255 0 49 425 0 

36 190 236 52 780 0 

39 280 1100 55 320 1080 

47 650 1705 56 700 3220 

67 450 674 57 550 1095 

72 110 507 58 750 2170 

75 440 0 60 810 580 

76 380 1180 62 980 1985 

63 635 2260

Mean 439 758 

66 855 1715 

68 300 2010 

71 290 1450 

73 230 0 

78 965 52 

79 465 2038 

80 540 1353 

82 670 2140 

Mean 581 1208 

*Values corrected for decay. 

nation of the American group concerning radiation hazards probably was also a factor in reducing the amount of contamination which they received. 

The variation of gross activity among the individuals in any of the three groups is quite 

large (Tables 2.2 and 2.3). This is chiefly the result of variations in the quantity of water and 

both the kind and quantity of food ingested. The degree of exposure of the individual to airborne 

activity is also a factor in determining the individual degree of contamination. While there 

were large variations among individuals, the day-to-day levels of activity for each individual 

were fairly consistent. 

Further information on the source of individual variations was obtained by grouping the 

individuals from Rongelap and Ailinginae according to age (Tables 2.2, 2.3). Although the 

activity excreted per unit volume of urine is about the same for both children and adults, the 

mean activity of the urine excreted in 24 hr by children under 15 years of age was significantly 

lower than that excreted by adults. The available data do not indicate definitely whether the 

lower total excretion indicates a smaller total body burden in the children resulting from 

lower inhalation and ingestion or whether it represents a higher degree of fixation of the 

radioelements by growing bone. 

16 
TABLE 2.3-Gross Beta Activity in Urine of Ailtnginae and American Groups* 

Ailinginae Americans 

(46 days postdetonation) T (44 days postdetonation) 1 

Age and Total 24-hr Beta Activity Total 24-hr Beta Activity 

case No. volume (ml) (dis/min/24 hr) Case No. volume (ml) (dis/minj24 hr) 

<5yr 

6 401 1970 0 

8 2 650 0 

44 150 217 3 1224 820 

Mean 150 217 4 

5 

440 

735 

78 

0 

6-15 yr 

48 

53 

81 

180 

370 

164 

88 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

900 

1340 

1410 

248 

0 

1260 

Mean 275 126 11 1580 385 

12 1460 0 

>16 yr 13 1810 965 

1 900 765 14 720 438 

16 880 827 15 1380 830 

28 680 1202 16 1930 0 

29 780 0 17 945 

31 260 846 18 1520 0 

41 920 62 19 1300 466 

43 610 754 20 1070 0 

45 850 680 21 550 353 

51 410 400 22 

70 440 0 23 1180 0 

Mean 722 553 24 

25 

1160 

1380 

750 

187 

26 510 323 

27 565 

28 1220 0 

Mean 1158 309 

*Values corrected for decay. 

No correlation was found between body weight and the total activity per 24 hr excreted in 

the urine by members of the Rongelap group. 

Gross beta activity measurements were also made by NYOO-AEC on the samples sent to 

them. Their results (Harley*) essentially corroborate the findings by NRDL, particularly the 

ratio of the activities among the three groups studied. The absolute values of the activity 

determined by NYOO-AEC, however, were lower than the NRDL values by a constant factor. 

2.2.2 Radiochemical Analysis of the Urine: Estimate of Body Burden 

Radiochemical analysis of the Rongelap urine samples indicates that the alkaline-earth 

and rare-earth groups together contributed 75 per cent of the beta activity at 45 days postdetonation (Table 2.4). The predominant radionuclide is SF*‘, which contributes 42 per cent of 

the total beta activity at this time. 

Assays of fissile material made on pooled samples of urine were all negative within experimental limits. 

-Tkpar\v~~rin~ .san-pLwJina~wdJy~t~ JALS ~g,CrJllkcPJ 1A@v~3kQfWm&iR~~ 23x---

tained large amounts of radioiodine in addition to the alkaline and rare earths. 
On the basis of the radiochemical analysis of the urine, the body burden (the radioisotopic 

deposition in the tissues) was estimated. The ratio between the activity of the urine and the 

amount of isotope fixed in the body is required for this calculation. However, few ratios are 

available for the deposition of the various radioelements in humans, so that it was necessary 

to utilize ratios obtained from animal studies. Of the animals collected from the islands, the 

pig was selected as the closest to the human in size and metabolism. A detailed study was 

therefore made on the excretion of these animals and on the radioactive content of various 

tissues. Details of the animal study are presented in Chap. 3. 

TABLE 2.4-Radlochemical Analysis of Rongelap Urine 

(45 days postdetonation) 

Beta Activity 

(dis/min/24 hr) 

Sample 

No. 

Gross beta 

activity SP I Rare-earth I Ba”’ activity 

1370 490 120 197 

1260 510 130 244 

1020 460 120 324 

1210 626 150 264 

1460 328 110 474 

1200 727 170 353 

1253 526 134 312 

Total beta 100 42 10.7 25.5 

activity, W 

TABLE 2.5-Mean Body Burden of Rongelap Group 

Activity at Activity at Activity at 

82 days 1 day 1 day 

Radioisotope 

tic) 

WRDL) 

w 

WRDL) 

tic) 

(LAW 

Sr” 0.19 1.6 2.2 

Ba”O 0.021 2.7 0.34 

Rare-earth group 0.03 1.2 

I”’ (in thyroid) 0 6.4 11.2 

Ru”’ 0.013 

Cad5 0 0 0.019 

Fissile material 0 0 0.016 beg) 

The estimate of the mean body burden of the Rongelap group at 82 days postdetonation is 

presented in Table 2.5. The body burden at 1 day postdetonation was calculated in the following 

manner. A formula was obtained from urinary excretion data (reported by Cowan, Farabee, 

and Love5) in a case of accidental inhalation of SrgO. The excretion curve was best represented 

by four exponentials. [Very similar results were obtained by approximating the biological decay of strontium with a power function, based on human excretion of the metabolically similar 

element, radium (Norris, Speckman, and Gustafsoni4 and Looney”).] 

Estimates were made of other radioelements present in significant amounts at 1 day, as 

shown in Table 2.5. These estimates were made on the basis of the level of Sr*’ at 1 day 

18 
together with data on the activity of the various fission products at this same timelo and 

animal isotope absorption and retention data.‘*13 

LASL has also estimated the body burden at 1 day on the basis of radiochemical analysis 

of polled urine samples from a representative number of Rongelap and American individuals 

(Harris’). These calculations were based on the analysis of 1131 in the early samples of urine 

(15 days postdetonation), as well as the above-mentioned physical and biological data on fission products (Hamilton,l National Bureau of Standards Handbook 52,13 and Hunter and Balloui’). Their findings are presented in Table 2.5. 

On the basis of an assumed uptake of 20 per cent per 24 hr, the integrated dose to the 

thyroid from I*31 and other shorter lived iodine isotopes was calculated by NRDL to be about 

100 rep. LASL has estimated (Harris’) that this dose was about 150 rep for the Rongelap 

group and 50 rep for the Americans. 

The differing approaches used by NRDL and LASL for estimating the body burden gave 

results which, except for Bai4’, are very close. 

The mean body burdens of the individual nuclides presented in Table 2.5 were calculated 

for the Rongelap group. Values for the Ailinginae group were approximately one-half those 

of the Rongelap group, and values for the Americans were about one-fourth those of the Rongelap group. 

The total amount of radioactive material present in the gastrointestinal tract at 1 day 

postdetonation in members of the Rongelap group was estimated as approximately 3 mc. This 

activity was contributed chiefly by isotopes of short radiological and biological half life and 

limited solubility. Thus the levels of activity in the tissues of the body were relatively low. 

The concentration of radioisotopes at 6 months postdetonation was barely detectable in the 

urine of most exposed individuals. 

Iodine, which is quite soluble, is probably the most hazardous internal radioemitter in the 

early period following exposure (Harris’). The dose to the thyroid was appreciable, but it was 

low compared to the partially or totally ablating doses of IL31used in therapy of hyperthyroidism 

or carcinoma. At 1 day postdetonation Srsa was calculated to be near the maximum permissible 

level13 for this nuclide. At later times following exposure of this group, this longer lived fission product presents the greatest potential internal hazard. 

The present study confirms the observation made in animal experiments, that most of the 

radioactive elements formed in fission as well as the fissile material itself, are not readily 

absorbed by the bloodstream from the lungs and the gastrointestinal tract. Only iodine, strontium, barium, and a few of the rare-earth elements were absorbed to any significant degree. 

An attempt to measure bone-fixed radioactive emitters by means of sensitive film badges 

taped below the knee, over the epiphysis of the tibia, on a number of persons yielded no positive results. 

No correlation could be obtained between the degree of internal contamination and the 

clinical and hematological findings. In view of the short half life of the most abundant fission 

products deposited internally in this situation, the possibility that chronic irradiation effects 

will occur is quite small. Thus, an evaluation of the data on the internal contamination, including that of Sr*‘, leads to the conclusion that the internal hazard to the contaminated inhabitants of the Marshall Islands is minimal both from the acute and the long-range point of 

view. 

2.3 ROUTE OF ENTRY OF INTERNAL CONTAMINATION 

Internal deposition of fission products resulted from inhalation and ingestion of the fallout 

materia!. Ingestion appears to be the more important of the two routes of entry into the body. 

The activity in the air settles out fairly rapidly, but contaminated food, water, and utensils 

retain their activity for long periods of time. 

The particles with which the activity was associated were considerably larger than the 

optimum size for deposition in the alveolar tissue of the lung (see Chap. 4). Thus the probability of the retention of inhaled airborne contamination was not appreciable during the exposure period. 

19 
The hypothesis that ingestion was the chief source of internal contamination is supported 

by the finding that the gastrointestinal tract, its contents, and the liver of autopsied chickens 

and pigs sacrificed at early intervals following detonation were more active than the alveolar 

tissue. 

The importance of ingestion as a continuing source of contamination is evidenced by the 

level of internal contamination of the Rongelap pigs. These animals had about ten times the 

body burden of the human population. Since the airborne activity had already dropped to a low 

value at the time of evacuation of the humans, the contamination of the pigs during their prolonged stay on the island necessarily derived from ingestion of radioactive food and water. 

2.4 INTERNAL RADIOACTIVE DECONTAMINATION THERAPY 

Since there is no method of counteracting the effects of radiation from internally deposited 

emitters, treatment consists of removing the nuclides from the body as rapidly as possible. 

TABLE 2.6- InternalRadioactive Decontamination Calcium EDTA 

Treatment of Rongelap Group 

[Beta Activity (dis/min/24 hr)*] 

Daily 

Patient No. 7 14 39 52 63 66 71 av. 

Pretreatment 1750 610 612 2190 

(Day 35-41) 

Post-treatment 6206 3922 5865 3583 

(Day 55 -59) 

3610 3255 

3190 

2074 

4775 

*All values corrected for decay to day 35. 

The ability of ethylene-diamine-tetra-acetic acid (EDTA) to mobilize certain of the fission 

products from the skeleton and to increase the rate of their excretion has previously been 

demonstrated (Foreman and Hamilton,’ Cohn et al.‘). It is most effective with the rare-earth 

group, but it has no effect on strontium (Cohn and Gong’). These studies have shown that most 

of the biologically hazardous material remaining in the body is firmly fixed in bone within a 

short time, so that effective systemic decontamination by chemical agents can occur only in a 

short period following exposure. Nevertheless, an attempt to effect internal decontamination 

was made at 7 weeks postdetonation, since it was felt that whereas optimum decontamination 

could not be accomplished at this time, any procedure which enhanced the elimination of some 

of the radioelements from the body was valuable in reducing theultimate hazard to the contaminated individual. 

A representative group of seven individuals from Rongelap were selected for this study. 

During a control period of 5 days, 24-hr urine samples were collected daily for radioanalysis 

in order to establish a basal excretion rate. During the next 3 days, calcium EDTA was administered daily (1 g per 25 lb of body weight) by oral administration. (Although the slow-drip 

intravenous administration of sodium EDTA in 5 per cent dextrose is the method of choice, 

only the oral administration of calcium EDTA was feasible in this situation.) 

Twenty-four-hour urine samples were collected daily during the treatment period and 

for 5 days following treatment to determine the effectiveness of EDTA in accelerating the 

excretion rate of the radioelements. 

No side effects from the use of EDTA were observed. Blood counts and blood pressure 

remained unchanged throughout the treatment. 

The mean activity of the urine during the EDTA treatment period was 2.5 times the pretreatment activity (Table 2.6). The probability that the differences observed are due to chance 

is less than 0.01. Thus the oral administration of EDTA for a period of 3 days beginning 52 

20 
days postdetonation increased the excretion rate of internally deposited fission products, but 

the over-all effect on decreasing the body burden was insignificant, as the excretion rates 

were very low at this time. 

2.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

The first instance of internal deposition of mixed fission products in humans occurred as 

a result of the contaminating event of 1 March. This internal contamination resulted from 

both inhalation and ingestion of contaminated material, the latter being the more important. 

Few of the fission products present in the environment were readily absorbed from the 

lungs and the gastrointestinal tract. Radiochemical analysis of the urine samples from the 

Rongelap group indicates that strontium, barium, and the rare-earth group together constituted 75 per cent of the total beta activity of the urine at 45 days postdetonation. Strontium89 was the predominant radionuclide at this time;contributing 42 per cent of the total beta 

activity. Assays for fissile material in the pooled urine samples were all negative. 

The human body burden of individual radionuclides was estimated from radiochemical 

analysis of the human urine and of the tissues and urine of animals from Rongelap. The mean 

body burdens of the radionuclides in the Ailinginae group were approximately one-half those 

of the Rongelap group, and the mean body burdens of the American group were about onefourth those of the Rongelap group. While the activity excreted per unit volume of urine was 

the same for adults and children of the Rongelap group, the total activity excreted in the urine 

in 24 hr by children under 15 years of age was significantly lower than that excreted by the 

adults. 

The total amount of radioactive material in the gastrointestinal tract at 1 day postdetonation was estimated to be 3 mc in members of the Rongelap group. This activity was contributed 

chiefly by isotopes of short radiological and biological half life and limited solubility, and thus 

the levels of activity in the tissues of the body were relatively low. The concentration of 

radioisotopes at 6 months postdetonation was barely detectable in the urine of most of the exposed individuals. 

The estimated dose to the thyroid from I13i and other short-lived iodine isotopes was 100 

to 150 rep for the Rongelap group. Iodine is probably the most hazardous internal radioemitter 

at early times after exposure. The dose to the thyroid, while appreciable, was low compared 

to the partially or totally ablating doses of Ii3i used in the treatment of hyperthyroidism or 

carcinoma. 

At 1 day postdetonation, the concentration of Sr*’ was calculated to be near the maximum 

permissible level for this nuclide. At later times following exposure, this longer lived fission 

product presents the greatest potential internal hazard. 

Oral administration of calcium EDTA beginning 7 weeks postdetonation to a representative 

group of individuals from Rongelap increased the rate of excretion of activity 2.5 times. However, the decrease of the body burden was insignificant, as the excretion rate was very low 

at this time. 

Analysis of the internal contamination indicates that the dose to the tissues of the body 

was near but did not exceed the maximum permissible dose levels. The activity fixed in the 

body decreased rapidly as a function of time. The contribution of the effects of internal contamination to the total radiation response observed appears to be small on the basis of the 

estimated body burden of the radioelements. In view of the short half life of the most abundant 

fission products in the situation, the possibility that chronic irradiation effects will occur is 

quite small. 

21 
CHAPTER 3 

INTERNAL CONTAMINATION IN ANIMALS 

The internal contamination of a number of animals collected on the Marshall Islands was 

studied. The activity in their urinary excretion was studied, and radiochemical analyses were 

made of various tissues. These data provided the bases for estimating the body burden of the 

radioisotopes in human beings. In addition, hematological and pathological studies were made, 

and autoradiographs of selected tissues were prepared. A number of the animals are also being 

studied for the appearance of possible long-term effects of radiation. 

A special study was carried out to determine the effect of the radiation on the fertility of 

chickens and the hatchability of their eggs. 

The animals collected on Rongelap and Utirik Islands included 41 chickens, 9 baby chicks, 

11 swine, 4 ducks, and 1 cat. These were all shipped alive to NRDL. Three fish and one large 

clam were taken from the Rongelap lagoon. Collection dates and mortality data for these animals are presented in Table 3.1. In addition, a boar, a cat, and two chickens were autopsied in 

the field, and representative tissues were collected. 

3.1 METHODS 

Tissue samples were taken from all animals that died spontaneously or were sacrificed. 

Specimens were obtained from the lung, liver, gastrointestinal tract, and the skeleton. The 

samples were ashed at 550°C in a muffle oven, and the ash made up to volume with 2N HCl. An 

aliquot was then dried for beta measurement. The beta activity was determined by means of a 

thin end-window Geiger-Milller counter. Strontium-89 was used as the basis for the mass absorption correction for the samples, since it was the major radioelement deposited. The correction calculated is an approximation, since mass absorption is a function of the average energy 

of the sample. Beta activity was measured in total disintegrations per minute, and this value 

was converted to microcuries, “Sr” equivalent.” 

The gamma activity of the tissue samples was measured in a well-type sodium iodide scintillation counter, which has an efficiency of about 40 per cent for a Co” standard. The gamma 

activity was obtained in total disintegrations per minute, and this value was converted to microcuries, “Cog0 equivalent.” 

Samples were analyzed radiochemically for Sras, Ba”‘, the rare-earth group, I*“, and 

fissile material. 

For excretion studies the animals were caged individually, and their excreta were collected 

at 24-hr intervals. The feces and urine were ashed together for the chickens, whereas they were 

collected separately for the pigs. Beginning 5 weeks postdetonation, the excreta of a representative group of chickens were collected at weekly intervals for a period of 2’/2 months. Collection 

of pig excreta was begun at 6 weeks postdetonation, and the collection was made at weekly inter22 
, , . 

TABLE 3.1-Mortality and External Radiation Dose of Animals from the Living 

280 r (day 8) II 330 I (day 25) II 340 I (day 33) _ 

Total Total 

received Dead Sacrificed rz:ed Iad lacrtficed received Dead Sacrificed 

- -

6 1 1 

(day 231 (day 23) --I-- 1 

=I= 1

1 I (day 45) 

1 1 

7 

I I 

41 

20 2 

(days 42 

and 43) 

1 

(day 49) 

9 

2 

way 44) 

1 

(day 56) 

••Day (postdetonation) of collectlon is given in parentheses. 

••Day 67, No. 36; day 74, No. 39; day 92. No. 35; day 99, No. 7; day 130, No. 24. 

t Day 38, sow; day 57, No. 6; day 82, Nos. 24 and 25. 

D Animals from Utirik; all others fr‘om Rongelsp (Utirik animals received 32 r external dose). 

Areas of Rongelap and Utirtk 

D Total 

360 r (day 51 to 53) 

Total 

rzzed 1Dead ! Sacrificed received Dead Sacrificed 

37 8 4-G I 4 1

I I 

30 

I 

3 
vals for a g-week period. Radioanalysis of the excreta was performed in the same manner as 

that of the tissue samples described above. 

3.2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

3.2.1 Gross Observations 

The animals had been roaming free on the islands. Although malnourished, they showed no 

evidence of disease. Autopsy of two chickens that died during shipment revealed no pathological 

findings that could be associated with radiation. 

On the basis of an assumed 1-hr effective fallout time, the Rongelap animals received an 

integrated external dose of 280 to 360 r, depending on the date of their collection (see Table 

3.1). The Utirik pigs had received a calculated dose of 32 r at the time of their evacuation. The 

animals all showed extensive external contamination, ranging from 0.5 to 5 mr/hr at 30 days 

postdetonation. This activity was reduced about 75 per cent by a washing with water alone. 

3.2.2 Radioactivity of Tissues and Excreta 

The gross beta activity of the pig at 82 days postdetonation was about 4 ~c. The distribution 

of activity in the individual tissues is shown in Table 3.2. Over 90 per cent of the bets activity 

was localized in the skeleton. The highest activity in a soft tissue was found in the liver, which 

had, however, less than 0.5 per cent of the total body burden. The colon contents had the second highest activity for the soft tissues, about 0.24 per cent of the total. The alveolar tissue of 

the lung had an activity less than 0.02 per cent of the total activity in the body. 

Gross beta and gamma activity of the chickens at 74 days postdetonation was approximately 

0.2 PC. The gross activity per body weight of the chicken is approximately the same as that of 

the pig. The distribution of activity in the tissues of the chicken (Table 3.3) was very similar 

to that in the pig. Most respiratory activity was localized in the turbinates, as a result of entrapment of the large particles that could not penetrate to the alveolar tissue. 

The beta activity in the skeleton of chickens at 160 days dropped to 4 per cent of the value 

at 24 days postdetonation, whereas in the same period the gamma activity dropped to 0.2 per 

cent of the 24-day value. These data indicate that most of the activity is associated with shortlived isotopes. The initial drop in activity is very rapid, and after 45 days the decay curve is 

essentially that of Sr*‘, the most abundant of the longer lived elements deposited. 

The residual total beta activity found in the two larger fish at 4 months postdetonation 

averaged 2.5 JJC (Table 3.4). There was, at the same time, about twice as much gamma activity. 

The fish were collected 56 days postdetonation, and the drop in activity between that time and 

the analysis at 4 months represents only radiological decay. Thus the results are not directly 

comparable to those obtained from animals that were returned alive and in which biological 

turnover, as well as radiological decay, was operating. 

The largest fraction of the gross beta activity in the fish was contributed by the concentration of radioactive material in the viscera. In two of the fish in which bones and muscle were 

separated and analyzed, equal amounts of activity were found in each fraction. However, the 

storage of these fish in formaldehyde for 3 months may have permitted the diffusion of the 

radioelements from bone to muscle to take place. Further studies on fresh fish will clarify this 

point. 

The contamination of the fish was considerably greater than that of the land animals studied. 

Since fish form a large staple item in the diet of the island populations, the high level of contamination is very important to consider. 

At the end of a 2l/r-month experimental period, the excretion by the chickens of beta and 

gamma activity per 24 hr was 5 per cent of the value measured at the start at 37 days postdetonation (Fig. 3.1). 

Analysis of pig excreta indicates a similar decrease of activity with time. In a g-week 

period the gamma activity excreted per 24 hr decreased to about 2.5 per cent of the activity 

excreted at 44 days postdetonation (Fig. 3.1). 

24 
TABLE 3.2-Radiochemical Analysis of Tissues and Urine of Pigs from Rongelap* 

(82 days postdetonation) 

Beta activity 

(dis/min/totai sample) 

Gross Total 

activity Sraa Ba14’ rare earth 

Sample (x 10-a) (x 10-a) (x 10-B) (x 10-3) 

Pig No. 24 (25.8 kg) 

Skeleton (total) 8890 5660 660 1010 

Liver 31 0.40 0.33 6.4 

Colon and contents 12 5.0 2.4 3.2 

Lung (alveolar) 1.5 0.22 0.20 0.8 

Stomach 1.2 0.22 1.1 1.3 

Intestine (small) 2.3 0.62 0.50 0.51 

Kidney 3.3 0.21 0.42 0.74 

Remaining tissues 690 

Total 9630 5667 665 1020 

Urine sample, 24 hr 13 8.7 1.2 1.6 

Pig No. 25 (22.7 kg) 

Skeleton (total) 8600 5100 530 690 

Liver 27 0.53 0.20 5.5 

Colon and contents 16 5.0 3.2 4.9 

Lung (alveolar) 1.1 0.26 0.23 0.33 

Stomach 2.0 0.29 0.13 0.30 

Intestine (small) 2.6 0.83 0.88 0.88 

Kidney 3.1 0.14 0.19 0.52 

Remaining tissues 220 

Total 8870 5107 534 702 

Urine sample, 24 hr 6.2 4.4 0.40 0.54 

Summary 

Gross beta activity Skeleton Total body Urine (24 hr) 

Sr 89 62.0 58.0 69.0 

Ba 140 6.8 6.5 7.9 

Rare earth 9.7 9.0 10.5 

Total 78.5 73.5 87.4 

* All values corrected for decay. 

The excreta of the Utirik pigs contained less than 10 per cent of the gross beta activity 

found in the excreta of the Rongelap pigs at the same time. This ratio of 10 was approximately 

the same ratio found between the activity of the Rongelap and Utirik food, water, and soil 

samples. 

3.2.3 Radiochemical Analysis of Tissues and Excreta 

Radiochemical analysis of pig tissues indicated that 62 per cent of the skeletal beta activity 

was derived from SrE9, ‘7 per cent from Ba”“, and 10 per cent from the rare-earth group at 

82 days postdetonation (Table 3.2). The radioisotopic composition of the urine at this time was 

very similar to that of the skeleton. This distribution of activity in the body of the pig probably 

represents the distribution in human beings. The absolute amount of human internal contamination in the Rongelap group was, however, only ‘/,o of that found in the animals. 

25 
- 100 

- 90 

- 60 

- 70 

- 60 

- 50 

- 40 

- 30 

- 20 

- IO 

- 9 

- 8 

- 7 

- 6 

- 5 

- 4 

- 3 

- T 

< 

: 

1 

z 

-

20 40 50 60 

DAYS POST-DETONATION 

Fig. 3.1 -Beta and Gamma Activity in Chicken Excreta. 

26 
, , 

TABLE 3.3- Beta and Gamma Activity of Chickens from Rongelap (pc x 10’) 

(Beta, SrB8 equivalent; Gamma, Co@ equivalent.) 

Hen No. 1 Hen No. 2 Hen No. 39 Hen No. 36 Hen No. 35 Hen No. 7 Hen No 24 

Day of death* Day 23 Day 23 Day 74 Day 97 Day 121 Day 138 Day 159 

Day analyzed* Day 24 Day 24 Day 79 Day 107 Day 122 Day 140 Day 159 

Activity 

Tissue Beta Gamma Beta Gamma Beta Gamma Beta Gamma Beta Gamma Beta Gamma Beta Gamma 

Tibia 

Skeleton 

Liver 

Gizzard 

Gizzard (content) 

Crop 

Intestine (large) 

and contents 

Intestine (small) 

and contents 

Pancreas 

Spleen 

Kidney 

Lungs (alveoli) 

Trachea 

Turbinates 

7600 

11030 

119 

198 

17 

3850 

55800 

21 

46 

28 

8180 

11900 

352 

0 

4610 

66900 

271 

26 

133 

1930 

12 

4.1 

0.93 

0.43 

0.63 

1.6 

0.16 

1.17 

0.57 

0.24 

3.87 

695 

8600 

72 

17 

5.0 

10.0 

4.0 

9.0 

4.0 

2.0 

19 

253 

3670t 

34 

7.0 

2.0 

3.0 

3.0 

1.0 

9.0 

2.0 

1.0 

22 

215.5 

3120 

32 

8.5 

1.4 

7.9 

6.3 

14.2 

1.4 

10.7 

15.3 

59 

8507 

33 

7.6 

10.0 

4.5 

3.7 

7.6 

41.3 

600 

17.7 

10.3 

7.5 

12.2 

14.0 

8.4 

14.9 

5.6 

0.9 

31.3 

454t 

13.5 

7.9 

1.2 

9.3 

10.7 

6.4 

12.4 

4.3 

0.2 

33.2 

437 

10.7 

3.6 

0 

4.5 

8.9 

0.75 

0.26 

0.79 

16.8 

8.1 

117.57 

1.8 

0.6 

0.3 

0 

0.29 

0 

0.23 

0.83 

* Day postdetonation. 

t Calculated using ratio of gamma activity skeleton/tibia. 
TABLE 3.4-Beta and Gamma Activity of Fish from RoWelap Lagoon* 

(3 months postdetonation) 

Fish No. 1 (602 g) 

Radiochemical analysis 

Gross activity in barium, strontium, and Barium, strontium, (PC) rare-earth fraction (8) and rare earth; 

Beta Gamma Total activity (%) Srss Bat” Rare earth 

Head 0.568 1.26 9.9 38.3 9.6 52.1 

Scales, fins and tail 0.500 0.58 9.5 17.4 9.9 72.7 

Viscera 0.900 2.36 48.0 1.4 0.6 98.0 

Gills 0.160 0.43 7.8 13.9 6.7 79.4 

Remainder of body 0.596 1.78 a.3 45.2 11.2 43.6 

Total 2.724 6.41 

Fish No. 2 (507 g) Fish No. 3 (166 g) 

Gross activity (crc) Gross actfvfty Cc) 

Beta Gamma Beta Gamma 

Head 0.101 0.23 0.045 0.017 

Scales, fins, and tail 0.067 0.23 0.058 0.084 

Viscera 1.620 2.14 0.115 0.205 

Gills 0.043 0.09 0.023 0.011 

Skeleton 0.197 0.35 0.030 0.070 

Muscle 0.151 0.53 0.038 0.074 

Total 2.179 3.58 0.301 0.461 

Clam No. 1 

Total beta activity-6.4 x 10’ dfs/min 

Radiochemfcal analysis 

Total 

Radioelement activity (%) 

Zrv6 21.4 

Ru103.108 32.4 

Other 11.4 

SP 0.7 

Bat0 0.7 

Rare earths 33.4 

* Samples collected two months postdetonation. 

At 4 months postdetonation the alkaline earths comprised less than 2 per cent of the total 

activity in the clam (Table 3.4). The rare-earth group constituted 33 per cent of the total beta 

activity. The balance of the activity was contributed chiefly by ZrB6 (21 per cent) and RLI’~~~‘~’ 

(32 per cent). About 50 per cent of the material found in the viscera of the fish was of the rareearth group. Very small amounts of strontium and barium were found. In the tissues of the 

fish, strontium, barium, and the rare earths contributed only about 10 per cent of the total 

activity. 

3.3 AUTORADIOGRAPHS 

A number of autoradiographs of the tibiae and femurs of 1 chick, 4 pigs, 1 rooster, and 2 

chickens were prepared both at NRDL and at the Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) to deter28 
mine the pattern of deposition of fission products. Contact printing on X-ray no-screen film 

was found to be the most satisfactory method of preparing the autoradiographs. The discussion 

and conclusions presented below summarize the findings reported by Norris et aLi 

The autoradiograph of a tibia from a chicken sacrificed at 45 days postdetonation (Fig. 3.2) 

indicated a relatively uniform distribution of the activity throughout most of the bone, with the 

highest concentration of activity in the area adjacent to the epiphysis. Tb’ rea of high activity 

corresponds to an area of dense trabecular bone. 

Fig. 3.2-Autoradiograph of Tibia of Chicken Sacrificed 45 Days Poetdetonation (ANL). 

The tibia and femur of a baby chick, which died spontaneously 47 days postdetonation, 

showed the heaviest concentration of radioactive material in the diaphysis (Fig. 3.3). The end 

regions of the bone, which were laid down after the animals were removed from the contaminated environment, were relatively lacking in activity. The region of greatest activity was in 

the diaphysis, which appeared to be abnormally constricted, possibly because of a decreased 

rate of endosteal resorption. 

The tibiae from pig 1 sacrificed 45 days postdetonation and from pig 6 sacrificed 59 days 

postdetonation each have an area under the growing epiphysis free of activity (Figs. 3.4 and 3.5). 

As in the chick described above, this area corresponds to the growth that took place titer the 

animals were removed from the area of contamination. The marrow cavity in these tibiae 

contained dense trabecular bone along their entire length, a formation not normally found in 

mammalian bones. The centers of the diaphysis were abnormally thick, possibly because of a 

failure of the normal resorptive process. In pig 1 there were also two distinct areas of increased density in the trabecular region, which appear as two lines of radioactivity in the 

autoradiograph. 

29 
The pattern of radioactive deposit in the bones of two adult animals is illustrated in a sow 

sacrificed 38 days postexposure (Fig. 3.6) and in a boar sacrificed 26 days postdetonation (Fig. 

3.7). Faint deposits of activity in the trabecular bone were noted, separate from the higher 

level in the epiphysis, which is characteristic of uptake of the alkaline earths by adult bone. 

Fig. 3.3-Autoradiograph of Tibia and Femur of Baby Chick 

Sacrificed 46 Days Postdetonation (ANL). 

Bloom* has shown that atypical osseous tissue in trabecular space is a characteristic 

histopathological finding following radioactive deposition. For example, clinical studies have 

shown that following radium deposition in bone, atypical osseous tissue is formed in cancellous 

bone. These formations appear as areas of increased density in roentgenograms (Looney”). 

It is difficult to interpret the anomaly in the pig, described above, and the dense trabecular 

bone in both the pig and chicken. No normal controls are available for comparison with these 

animals, and the history of the animals from the time of exposure to the time of collection is 

not known. Severe dietary changes and disease also produce changes in the pattern of deposition of ,3sseous tissue, and such changes are often indistinguishable from changes produced by 

exposure to radiation. 

3.4 P_4THOLOGY 

Sections of lung, liver, and tibia, as well as thyroid and other endocrine organs of most of 

the fowl and pigs dying spontaneously or sacrificed, were examined by Reed at NRDL. A few 

pathological changes were found, including an aplastic marrow in one of the bones of a duck. 

30 
pfg. 3.4-Autoradiograph of Tibia of Pig Sacrificed 46 Day Rmdetmation (ANL). 

31 
, 

--- I___ __ ._.. 

Fig. 3.5- Autoradiograph of Tibia and Femur of Pig 6 Sacrificed 57 Days Postdetonation. 

32 
Fig. 3.6- Autoradiograph of Tibia of Adult &w Sacrifhd 38 DAYS PoadctoaaUons 

33 
3.7 radiograph of Femur of Boar Sacrificed 26 Daya Fc don. 

34 
However, none of the changes could definitely be ascribed to radiation. Sections of bone examined by Lisco at ANL indicated no detectable pathological changes. 

3.5 EGG PRODUCTION IN CHICKENS 

In birds extraordinary demands are made on the calcium metabolism in the production of 

egg shells. It was, therefore, of particular interest to observe, during the process of egg production, the metabolism of those internally deposited radioelements that are metabolically 

similar to calcium. 

Forty-four days after detonation, a group of hens from Rongelap began laying eggs for the 

first time since their collection. During the next month and a half, 319 eggs were laid by 13 

hens. All the eggs were normal except for two eggs from one hen which were laid without 

shells. The shells were complete, smooth and of normal shape. The weights of the eggs ranged 

from 30 to 64 g, but those from a given hen were of uniform weight. In 14 eggs studied, the 

shell and membranes weighed an average of 13.6 per cent of the whole egg weight, and the ashed 

shell weighed 6.8 per cent of the whole egg weight. These values are within the normal range 

for eggs of domestic hens. 

The gross beta and gamma activities of the shell, albumen, and yolk were measured in the 

first 50 eggs obtained, and the gamma activity of the shell was measured in the remainder of 

the eggs. An increasing amount of gamma activity appeared in the shells of the first few eggs 

laid by each hen. The maximum gamma activity was usually noted in about the eighth egg laid. 

After the activity reached a maximum value, the subsequent eggs in the series showed a general 

decline in activity. An example of this phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. 3.8. 

The highest gamma activity found in a single egg shell was 66,300 counts/min, measured 

at 60 days postdetonation (Fig. 3.8). For a gamma energy of approximately 1 Mev, this figure 

corresponds to 0.0’7 PC. The yolks and albumens had much less activity than the shells, as was 

anticipated. The average distribution of gamma activity in the eggs is given in Table 3.5. 

The results of the radiochemical analysis of two eggs are presented in Table 3.6. 

The alkaline earths are the principal fission products deposited in the shell. In the albumen and yolk the beta activity contributed by the alkaline earths was only a little greater than 

that associated with the rare earths. 

The pattern of deposition of the radioactivity within the egg was also studied by means of 

autoradiographs. A series of 50 eggs was hard boiled and sectioned, and autoradiographs were 

prepared of the cut surfaces. Only four of the yolks of these 50 eggs were sufficiently radioactive to produce autoradiographs (see Fig. 3.9). There is a correlation between the rings of 

radioactivity in the yolk and those of pigment. 

The amount of activity removed from the body of the chicken through egg laying is very 

much greater than the amount excreted in the urine and feces during the period of this study. 

Egg production in the chicken represents a unique form of natural decontamination. 

3.6 FERTILITY AND HATCHABILITY STUDIES IN CHICKENS 

Fertility studies on the contaminated chickens were begun three and one half months postdetonation, with the mating of hens and roosters and the incubation of the eggs obtained. In the 

first clutch of 20 eggs, four were hatched. One of the chicks had the crippling slipped-tendon 

condition, congenital perosis, which is not uncommon. Radioanalysis of the chick tissues indicated that only a barely detectable amount of radioactive material was transferred to the chick, 

although the mother hen had at this time an appreciable contamination. 

In another hatch six months postdetonation, 65 eggs were incubated. Of these, 28 were 

infertile, 3 fertile ones were opened prematurely, 11 developed complete embryos but failed to 

hatch, and 23 live chicks were hatched, one of which had congenital perosis. The latter chick 

and six normal ones were sacrificed and their tissues radioanalyzed. Again, only barely detectable amounts of internally deposited activity were found. The remaining baby chicks are 

being raised and observed for possible long-term effects. At the present time all the chicks 

35 
u-3 

N 

R 

” 

3 

0’ 

. 
37 
are growing normally and are in good health. Comparison of the fertility and hatchability data 

from the Rongelap hens with those from domestic hens does not demonstrate any effect of radiation 3n these phenomena. 

TABLE 3.5 -Distribution of Radioactivity in Chicken Eggs 

Total Total 

gamma activity (96) beta activity (%) 

Shells 81 68 

Yolks 15 23 

Albumen 4 8 

TABLE 3.6-Radlochemical Analysis of Chicken Eggs 

(Beta activity given in disintegrations per minute per total tissue 

at 4 months postdetonation) 

I Rare 

Sample ~ Ba”O earths 

Egg No. 27 

Yolk 355 546 663 

Albumen 52 92 90 

Shell 18,080 3520 6060 

Egg No. 29 

Yolk 315 825 997 

Albumen 45 132 132 

Shell 22,300 4900 7830 

3.7 INTERNAL RADIOACTIVE DECONTAMINATION STUDIES IN CHICKENS -

A study was undertaken to determine the ability of both sodium EDTA and zirconium citrate 

(Schubert and White’“) to increase the excretion rate of internally deposited fission products in 

the Rongelap chickens. On the basis of previous experience, it was not expected that any appreciable decontamination could be effected at the time of this experiment (four months following internal radioactive deposition). 

The excretion rates of eight chickens with large body burdens of internal contaminants 

were dc termined for a period of four days as the base line for the study. Following this, two 

chickens were injected daily intraperitoneally with ‘75 mg sodium EDTA for four days; two 

received injections of 70 mg of zirconium citrate (Schubert and Whitei6); and two were injected 

with hot h zirconium citrate and sodium EDTA. Two chickens were kept as controls. The mean 

beta and gamma activity excreted by these chickens was determined individually for each of 

the treatment days and for one day following cessation of treatment. Neither the zirconium 

citrate nor the sodium EDTA alone was effective in increasing the excretion rate as reflected 

by the beta-activity measurements made. The combined administration of zirconium citrate and 

sodium EDTA, however, doubled the excretion rate of the beta activity. No detectable change 

in the rate of excretion of gamma activity was noted. The excretion rate of fission products at 

this long period postcontamination was less than 0.1 per cent per 24 hr. Thus the enhancement 

of the errcretion rate by the combination of zirconium citrate and sodium EDTA did not significantly decrease the total body burden. 

38 
3.8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

Studies of animals provided data on the nature and distribution of the radioisotopes in the 

tissues and the excreta. Over 90 per cent of the activity in the body of animals was localized 

in the skeleton. The pattern of deposition of the fission products in the skeleton seen in autoradiographs resembles that of the alkaline earths. Morphological changes which were observed 

in some of the bones may be the result of the exposure of the animal to radiation, although the 

effects of severe dietary changes and disease cannot be ruled out. 

The alkaline earths, Sr” and Ba”‘, and the rare-earth group together constituted 75 per 

cent of the gross beta activity in the pig at 82 days postdetonation. The fish and clam had a 

much lower concentration of the alkaline and rare earths, and a body burden considerably 

higher than that of the land animals. 

The internal distribution of fission products in the pig is probably representative of the 

distribution in human beings. An estimate of the human body burden was derived from the data 

on pigs. 

Studies made on egg production of contaminated hens gave no evidence of any effect of radiation. The rate of production of the eggs was normal, and the eggs produced were also normal. The extraordinary ability of fowl to mobilize calcium in shell formation resulted in the 

presence of very high activity in the shells of the first few eggs. The activity was associated 

with the fission products of the alkaline-earth group. A significant amount of activity was found 

in the yolk and lesser amounts in the albumen. The removal of activity from the body of chickens 

by egg production provides an effective natural decontamination process. 

Fertility of the hens and hatchability of the eggs produced by the mating of contaminated 

roosters and hens showed no effect of radiation. The baby chicks hatched from these eggs are 

growing normally, and the amount of radioactivity in their tissues is barely detectable. 

Although the administration of the combination of zirconium citrate and sodium EDTA to 

chickens doubled the excretion rate of fission products, the rate at this long time after exposure 

was so low that the body burden was little affected. 

In the six-month period postdetonation neither significant gross changes nor pathological 

changes that could be definitely ascribed to radiation were detected in any of the animals from 

Rongelap. Gross beta activity of urine and tissue samples indicated that all the animals had 

significant internal contamination. The level of internally deposited radioisotopes in the pigs 

from Rongelap was 10 times the amount in human beings from this area. The difference in the 

amount of internal contamination of the animals and the human beings was the result of the 

prolonged stay of the animals in the contaminated area. The chickens were found to have the 

same concentration of radioisotopic material per unit of body weight as the pigs. 

All the animals remaining will be observed throughout their lifetime for the possible appearance of any long-term biological effects resulting from their exposure to external and 

internal radiation. 

39 
CHAPTER 4 

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 

4.1 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FALLOUT MATERIAL 

The fallout material consisted largely of calcium carbonate and calcium oxide particles. 

The fission products were adsorbed mainly on the smaller particles. The fallout material was 

found to be 10 per cent water soluble and almost completely soluble in acid. An extensive 

physical and radiochemical analysis of the fallout material, and determination of its gamma 

and beta spectrum, waB performed by the Chemical Technology and Nucleonics Division of the 

NRDL and will be ~BBUH~ as separate reports. 

4.2 RADIOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF FOODSTUFFS, WATER, AND SOIL 

4.2.1 Methods 

Radiochemical analyses of the food, water, and soil samples reported here were performed 

by the Chemical Technology Division of the NRDL. Additional analyses were made by NYOOAEC and the NMRI. Since a complete radiochemical analysis of all biological samples was not 

feasible, only Sr*‘, Ba”‘, fissile material, and the rare-earth groups were measured in addition to the total beta activity. These measurements were found to be the most useful for determining the nature of the contamination. 

The initial external activity of the samples, as detected with a rapid survey instrument 

(lM-57/PDR-27 Radiac meter), is listed in Table 4.1. The values are given in milliroentgens 

per hour at surface contact unless otherwise stated. For the food plants with large surface 

areas, a range of activities is given. 

A more accurate estimate of the activity of environmental samples waB obtained by using 

a 4n gamma ionization chamber. A number of samples were first evaporated to dryness and 

wet ashed with fuming nitric acid. The residues were made up to volume in HCl, and an aliquot 

evaporated to dryness for beta-activity determination. The samples were then counted with a 

proportional counter, with appropriate corrections made for mass absorption, backscatter, and 

geometry of the counter. The disintegration rate determined was plotted against millivolt 

reading of the ionization chamber for the samples. This ratio waB then used to convert the 

.-ma ionization chamber readings into disintegrations per minute. 

c_ .’ The values obtained in this manner are listed in Tables 4.2, 4.3, and 4.4, discussed below. 

An empirically derived ratio of alpha activity to ionization chamber reading was also obtained 

on a number of samples. An estimate of the alpha activity of the remaining samples was then 

obtained by applying this ratio. 

40 
TABLE 4.1 -Survey of Initial Activity of Samples Collected from Rongelap 

Initial activity at 

surface (mr/hr) 

Samples Rongelap Utirlk 

Day 32 Postdetonation 

I. Soil (containing considerable organic 2.5* 

material 

Soil 4.0* 

Grass 5.0 

Pandanus (long stem) 

1. Fruit 0.5 to 5.0 

2. Stem 5.0 

3. Leaves 0.5 to 5.0 

Day 52 Postdetonation 

II. Grass 2.0 0.35 

Water 

1. Well 0.1 0 

2. Cistern 0.1 0 

Pandanus (2) 1.5 -5.0 1.5 

Coconut tree sap 

1 0.1 0 

2 0.1 0 

3 0 0 

Coconuts (2) 0.4 0 

Arrowroot 0.25 0.1 

Papaya 0 0 

soil 

1. Surface sample 2.0 0.2 

2. Sample (6 in. deep) 0.2 

Breadfruit 

Squash 0.2 

Eggs kill) 2.0 

3 fish, 1 clam (in formalin) 0.4 

Day 54 Postdetonation 

III. Hair 2.0 

Grass (from village) 5.0 at 2 in. 

Thatch 5.0 at 12 in. 

Coconut (3) 0.1-5.0 

Pandanus (3) 0.3 -5.0 

Papaya (2) 1.5 + 3.5 

Day 25 Postdetonation 

Dirt (about 1 liter) 4.5’ 

Water (about 1 liter) 0.5* 

Day 32 Postdetonation 

*- __ Water (about 1 liter) 0.5 

*Measured through 0.3 cm of glass. 

41 
4.2.2 Results and Discussion 

(a) Food. A summary of the alpha and beta activity on the surface of representative food 

samples from Rongelap at 43 days postdetonation is presented in Table 4.2. The beta activity 

was relatively high, the alpha activity fairly low. The surface contamination found on Utirik 

samples was considerably lower than that found on samples from Rongelap. 

After the surface contamination of the foodstuffs was measured, decontamination measures were studied. Coconuts, papayas, and pandanus were decontaminated by scrubbing with 

TABLE 4.2-External Contamination on Representative Rongelap Food Samples , 

(Day 42 postdetonation) 

Alpha activity of Beta activity 

fissile material (Sr”” equivalent) 

Food sample (2rg x 10’) (crc) 

Coconuts (3) 2.2-3.3 0.9- 1.3 

Papayas (2) 0.6-1.0 0.2 -0.4 

Pandanus (surface) 22-56 0.9-22.7 

Pandanus @eel) 3.5 0.76 

Pandanus (leaves) 8 1.71 

Pandanus (stem) 4 0.40 

tap water and detergent. Approximately 90 per cent of the activity was removed from the 

papayas and the coconuts (Table 4.3). Decontamination of the pandanus was more difficult than 

that of the other foodstuffs because of their rough surface. Only 50 per cent of the contamination of the pandanus could be removed. In general, effectiveness of decontamination was 

inversely proportional to the roughness of the surface of the fruit. 

After the surface was washed, the edible portions of the food were surveyed with an ionization chamber. Beta activity of individual fruits ranges from 0.001 pc for a papaya to 0.2 pc for 

a pandanus (Table 4.4). The relatively high levels of activity detected in the pandanus were 

probably the result of contamination from the rough external surface of the fruit. It is possible 

that active material was transported through the root system of the plant and deposited in the 

fruit during the two-month period that the fruits were growing in the contaminated area. The 

arrowroot may very likely have been contaminated in this manner since it is a tuber growing 

underground. 

The likelihood of the incorporation of radioactive contaminants into plants is supported by 

the very high levels of activity found in the Rongelap coconut tree sap at two months (1.4 kc/ 

liter) and in the Utirik specimens, which showed about ‘,& of this activity (Table 4.4). The 

presence of this activity in the tree sap appears to be the result of uptake of contaminated 

water by the root system since both the water and the tree sap had approximately the same 

isotopic composition. 

Larsen’* has shown that small amounts of fission products are immediately taken up by 

plants growing on soils contaminated from fallout material. This early uptake of fissron products seems to be a function of the solubility of the material. The predominant fission product 

incorporated into the plants in Larsen’s studies as well as in the present studies is SrRS. This 

high strontium concentration is probably a function of the relatively high soluhility of the eleI- “ment in water. Thus Srsa, because of its abundance and long half life, is the radionuclide of 

greatest potential hazard associated with ingestion of the contaminated food. 

_-- The radiochemical analysis for alkaline-earth and rare-earth activity of the material found 

on pandanus, grass, and thatch, as well as in water and coconut tree sap, is listed in Table 4.5. 

. 

t

The highest levels of beta activity found on thatch, grass, and pandanus at this time appeared 

in the rare-earth fraction. The alkaline earths, strontium and barium, contributed a small 

fraction of the total beta activity. There was a marked variation in the ratio of the strontium, 

42 
t , 

TABLE 4.3-Removal of Radioactivity from Rongelap Foodstuffs by Washing Procedures 

Unwashed food u Water wash Water plus detergent By both washes 

Beta Alpha of Beta Alpha of Beta Alpha of Beta Alpha of 

&as equiv.) fissile material (Sr” equiv.) fissile material (Sr” equiv.) fissile material (Sr” equiv.) fissile material 

Samples @c) (cg x 103) tic) t&g x 103) Qc) Gug x 103) olc) @g x 103) 

coconuts 

1 1.21 0.30 0.33 0.00 0.76 0.19 1.09 0.27 

2 0.93 0.22 0.42 0.10 0.42 0.10 0.84 0.20 

3 1.31 0.33 0.76 0.19 0.42 0.11 1.18 0.30 

Pandanus 

1 (small) 

2 Oarpe) 

8.90 

22.72 

2.20 

5.62 

2.55 

0.63 

0.63 

1.26 

1.90 

6.27 

0.47 

1.55 

4.45 

6.90 

1.10 

2.81 

Papaya 

1 (short) 

2 Oong) 

0.39 

0.24 

0.10 

0.06 

0.19 

0.12 

0.05 

0.03 

0.18 

0.10 

0.04 

0.02 

0.37 

0.22 

0.09 

0.05 
TABLE 4.4-Radioactive Contamination Associated with Edible Portions of 

Food Plants of Rongelap and Utirik 

(Day 69 postdetonation) 

Estimated PC beta activity* I 

Food plant Sample Rongelap Utirik 

Pandanus Entire edible portion 0.02-0.2 (3) 0.036 

Coconut Entire milk 0.004 0.008 

Papaya Entire edible portion 0.025 0.001 

Arrowroot Entire washed edible portion 0.004 (2) 

Entire unwashed plant 0.152 (3) 

Entire unwashed plant 0.160 

Squash Entire edible portion 0.200 

Coconut tree sap 1 liter 1.41 (3) 0.11 (3) 

* Number of individual samples analyzed are given in parentheses. 

TABLE 4.5-Radiochemical Analysis of Various Rongelap Samples 

Rare-earth activity Total beta Strontium Barium 

Sample activity activity activity Sepr. time Time t t(hr) 

Disintegrations per Minute per Total Sample, Day 72 Postdctonation 

Thatch 1.85 x 10’ 1.06 x lo5 9.15 x 105 6.88 x 106 5.84 X 10” 66 

(7.2 g) 

Grass 2.21 x 106 1.03 x 105 3.77 x 103 8.28 X 10” 7.35 x 105 52 

(9.8 g) 

Pandanus 2.70 x 105 5.21 X 10’ 1.96 x 10’ 1.92 x 105 1.82 X lo5 52 

(entire core) 

Water 

Filtered 1.24 X lo5 5.12 x 10” 1.07 x 10’ 2.11 x 104 1.24 X 10’ 66 

Solids 2.85 X lo5 6.70 X lo3 1.61 X lo5 1.55 x 105 1.46 x lo5 52 

Wash from hen 1.05 x 10” 9.8 X 10” 2.38 X 10’ 

No. 1 

--

Disintegrations per Minute per Total Sample, Day 93 Postdctonation 

Rongelap coconut 1.22 x 10” 2.72 x IO’ 4.57 x 10’ 

tree sap (300 cc) 

Rongelap cistern 

Water liauid 4.29 x 105 5.6 x lo4 9.0 x 10’ 

Solid (80;) cc) 2.26 x lo3 7.45 x lo:1 11.2 x 10” 

Total 4.31 x 105 6.4 X 10’ 10.1 x 104 

barium, and rare-earth components between the samples of thatch, pandanus, and water, 

probably as a function of the different solubilities of the radioelements. 

(b) Water. One of the most important sources of contamination for the Marshall Islanders 

was their water supply. Water on the island of Rongelap was obtained from one of two systems, 

open cisterns or open wells. Rongelap and Utirik cistern water showed higher levels of contamination than the corresponding well-water samples, as might be expected. At 34 days postdetonation a representative sample of water taken from an open well had a beta activity of approximately 0.88 &liter. Another sample of water taken from a cistern had an activity of 

2.5 &liter at 34 days postdetonation. 

44 
The distribution of activity between particulate and dissolved material in the well water is 

presented in Table 4.6. Much of the activity was associated with particles that could be filtered 

out of the water. Individual isotope analysis (Table 4.5), as well as the beta to gamma ratio of 

Rongelap water samples (Table 4.‘7), indicates that the ratio of strontium to rare earth, at 2 

months postdetonation, is much higher in the liquid phase than in the filtered solid particles. 

This is largely the result of the higher solubility of strontium salts compared to the other 

radioelements and its longer radiological half life. SraBis potentially the most hazardous 

TABLE 4.6-Distribution of Activity Between Particulate and Dissolved Material 

in Rongelap Well Water 

(43 Days Postdetonation) 

Beta activity 

Lte Total beta 

Sample (Srsg equivalent) activity, % 

A. Gross assay 

Hz0 + suspended matter 0.54 60.6 

HNO, wash of bottle 0.35 39.4 

Total 0.89 100.0 

B. Centrifugation of an aliquot 

Supc rnatant 0.018 35.3 

Prccipitatr 0.033 64.7 

Total 0.051 100.0 

C. Filtration 

1. Through fine frittered glass 

Supernatant 0.010 20.0 

Material filtered out 0.040 80.0 

Total 0.050 100.0 

2. Through #42 Whatman paper 

and fine frittered glass bed 

Supernatant Background Less than 10 

Material filtered out 0.045 90-100 

. 

Total 0.045 100 

fission product associated with ingestion of water or with food in this particular situation. This 

would not be true for situations in which exposure to fallout occurred at later times than that 

which occurred here; nor would it be correct when long periods of exposure are to be considered, as compared with the short exposure of the Marshallese. 

There was less than ‘7 x lo-’ @g/liter of fissile material found in the cistern water examined. 

(c) Soil, Thatch, and Grass. The most representative samples of fallout material on the 

contaminated islands were obtained from soil and roof thatch. A sample of soil taken at 25 

days in the center of the village on Rongelap showed an activity of approximately 0.13 pc/g. 

The contamination was associated with very fine particulate matter and was uniformly distributed throughout the individual samples. Autoradiographs of the soil samples indicated that the 

activity was associated chiefly with fallout particles ranging from 60 to 200 J.I in diameter. A 

sample of earth was separated in a multiple sieve and the specific activity of the various fractions determined in an ionization chamber. The bulk of the activity was associated with the 

smaller earth-particle sizes (less than 400 p) in diameter, and the highest specific activity was 

observed on the smallest earth-particle size (less than 200 I), Table 4.8. 

45 
TABLE 4.7-Beta-Gamma Data on Water from Rongelap and Utirik 

(66 Days Postdetonatfon) 

Beta activity 

Amount of Ion chamber (Sr” equivalent) Beta to gamma 

Sample sample (cc) Rdgs (mv) Cc) ratio @c/mv) 

Rongelap Water 

Well solids 0.042 0.09 2.1 

Well filtrate 800 0.011 0.04 3.6 

0.053 0.13 

Cistern solids 0.067 0.10 1.5 

Cistern filtrate 800 0.180 0.62 3.4 

0.247 0.72 

Utirik Water 

Well solids 0.002 0.002 1.0 

Well filtrate 600 0.005 0.006 1.2 

0.007 0.008 

Cistern solids 0.029 0.02 0.7 

Cistern filtrate 800 0.041 0.15 3.7 

0.070 0.17 

TABLE 4.8-Distribution of Beta Activity Among Various Size 

Rongelap Earth Particles 

Weight of Beta activity 

Diameter range fraction Total Beta activity (percentage of 

(cc) (g) weight (46) kc/fraction) total activity) 

> 1650 148.9 44.6 0.89 3.3 

833 -1650 15.3 4.5 0.33 1.2 

416 -833 42.6 12.7 1.20 4.4 

208-416 . 121.2 36.3 18.10 66.7 

< 208 5.8 1.7 6.46 23.9 

Absorption measurements made on the earth samples gave the results listed below. 

Particle-size range Percentage % 

800- 1600 /L 104 mg Al/cm’ 37 

38 mg Al/cm’ 43 

7 mg Al/cm2 20 

400 - 800 j.t 92 mg Al/cm2 54 

26 mg Al/cm2 35 

(Remaining fraction very soft) 

The activity associated with earth samples had about equal amounts of a hard and a medium 

component, in addition to a very soft component. 

46 
After the initial gross activity was surveyed, samples of human hair, grass, thatch roofing, and soil were analyzed for their beta and alpha activity (Table 4.9). The presence of fissile material on the thatch was of the order of lo-’ N/g and on grass about one-half that on 

the thatch, at 35 days postdetonation. The fissile material activity in human hair was quite 

low. 

TABLE 4.9-Gross Beta and Alpha Activity of Soil, Grass, and 

Thatch from Rongelap 

Days Beta activity 

Sample 

postdetonation 

(Sr” equivalent) 

W/P 

Fissfle material 

@g/f3 x 103) 

Thatch 

Tl-5 35 2.7 1.3 

T6 56 1.6 

Grass 

Gl-3 35 0.5 0.3 

G4 41 0.3 0.1 

G5 67 0.09 

G6 (Utirik) 67 0.03 

Soil 

Sl (organic) 41 0.10 0.47 

S2 (sandy) 41 0.06 0.03 

S3 (surface) 67 0.06 3.0 

S4 (6 in. deep) 67 0.003 1.9 

S5 (Utlrik) 67 0.006 0.6 

4.3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

The fallout material was found to consist largely of calcium oxide and calcium carbonate. 

The fission products were adsorbed mainly on particles of 60 to 200 P. This material was 10 

per cent soluble in water and completely soluble in acid. 

Radioanalysis of soil and water samples from Rongelap indicated high levels of radioactive 

contamination from the fallout at early times following detonation. Significant amounts of beta 

activity as well as smaller amounts of fissile material were present on the external surfaces 

of plants 42 days after detonation. Only small amounts of beta activity and no alpha activity 

were detected in the edible portion of foods. It appears that during the first month a limited 

amount of fission products is available to plants growing on contaminated soil. However, high 

levels of activity in the coconut tree sap were detected which had an isotopic composition very 

similar to that of the water analyzed. 

Radiochemical analysis of thatch and water samples indicated a marked variation in the 

ratio of Sr8’, Ba”‘, and the rare-earth group probably as a function of the different solubilities 

of the radioelements. The activity of food, water, and soil samples from Utirik was approximately */io of those of Rongelap. 

It appears from this study that the ingestion of contaminated water was one of the principal 

sources of contamination for the Marshallese. Of the individual radionuclides, Sr”, because of 

its high solubility and relatively long half life, was probably the isotope of greatest potential 

hazard in the environment. 

47 
CHAPTER 5 

REC?MMENDATIONS 

5.1 FIELD 

1. In any emergency situation arising from a contaminating type detonation, the early collection of 24-hr .urine samples would be highly desirable. 

2. EDTA decontamination procedures should also be applied early following contamination. 

EDTA is of potential benefit only when administered at early intervals following exposure. 

3. Information concerning the nature of the internal-radiation hazard should be widely 

disseminated to minimize the inhalation and ingestion hazard. 

4. Simple procedures for decontamination of food and water should be developed for use 

in emergency situations. 

5.2 LABORATORY 

1. More data on the ratio of body burden of individual fission products to the amounts excreted in the urine as a function of time should be obtained. These data would serve as the 

basis for an estimate of the internal hazard to human beings exposed to fission products. 

2. The combined effects of internal and external radiation should be studied in detail. 

3. Radiochemical techniques for the isolation and measurement of individual radionuclides 

in urine and in the tissues should be improved. 

4. The long-term effects of internally deposited radioactive isotopes, particularly the 

effects in bone, should be studied. 

48 
REFERENCES 

1. R. Abrams, et al., Metabolism of Inhaled Fission Product Aerosols, PPR, 22G, 5.16, 

Reports CH-3485 and MDDC-248. 

2. W. Bloom, ed., “Histopathology of Irradiation from External and Internal Sources, National 

Nuclear Energy Series, Division IV, Volume 221, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New 

York, 1948. 

3. S. H. Cohn, J. K. Gong, and M. C. Fishler, Studies on EDTA Treatment of Internal Radioactive Contamination, Nucleonics, 1: 56 (1953). 

4. S. H. Cohn and .T. K. Gong, Effect of Chemical Agents on Skeletal Content and Excretion 

of Injected Sr*‘, Proc. Sot. Exptl. Biol. Med., 83: 550 (1953). 

5. F. P. Cowan, L. B. Farabee, and R. A. Love, Health Physics and Medical Aspects of a 

SrgO Inhalation Incident, Am. J. Roent., Rad. Ther. Nut. Med. 67: 805 (1952). 

6. H. Foreman and J. G. Hamilton, The Use of Chelating Agents for Accelerating Excretion 

of Radioelements, AECD-3247, 1951. 

7. J. G. Hamilton, The Metabolic Properties of the Fission Products and Actinide Elements, 

Rev. Mod. Phys., 20: 718 (1948). 

8. J. Harley, personal communication, 1954. 

9. P. Harris, personal communication, 1954. 

10. H. F. Hunter and N. E. Ballou, Fission-product Decay Rates, Nucleonics, 9: (1951). 

11. W. B. Looney, Late Effects (25 to 40 years) of the Early Medical and Industrial Use of 

Radioactive Materials (Presented in part at the 35th Annual Session of the American 

College of Surgeons, Chicago, Ill., Apr. 9, 1954). 

12. K. H. Larsen, J. H. Olafson, J. W. Neil, and A. J. Steen, The Uptake of Radioactive Fission 

Products by Radishes and Ladino Clover from Soil Contaminated by Actual Sub-surface 

Detonation Fallout Materials, Report UCRL-272, Dec. 14, 1953. 

13. National Bureau of Standards Handbook 52, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 

25, D. C., 1953. 

14. W. P. Norris, T. W. Speckman, and P. F. Gustafson, Studies on the Metabolism of a 

Radium in Humans, unpublished. 

15. W. P. Norris, L. A. Woodruff, P. F. Gustafson, and A. M. Brues, Report on Biological 

Specimens Collected on Rongelap Atoll in March 1954, (to be published as ANL-5328). 

16. J. Schubert and M. R. White, The Effect of Different Dose Levels of Zirconium Citrate on 

the Excretion and Distribution of Plutonium and Yttrium, J. Biol. Chem., 184: 191, (1950). 

49-50 

DISTRIBUTION 

Military Distribution Category 5-50 

ARMY ACTIVITIES 

Asst. Chief of Staff, G-3, D/A, Washington 25, D. C., ATTN: Dep. CofS, G-3 (RR&SW) 1 

Chief of Research and Development, D/A, Washington 25, D. C., ATTN: Special Weapons 

and Air Defense Division 2 

Chief of Ordnance, D/A, Washington 25, D. C., ATTN: ORDTX-AR 3 

Chief Signal Officer, D/A, P&O Division, Washington 25, D. C., ATTN: SIGOP 4-6 

The Surgeon General, D/A, Washington 25, D. C., ATTN: Chief, R&D Division 7-8 

Chief Chemical Officer, D/A, Washington 25, D. C. 9-10 

The Quartermaster General, D/A, Washington 25, D. C., ATTN: Research and 

Development Div. 11 

Chief of Engineers, D/A, Washingtoli 25, D. C., ATTN: ENGNB 12-15 

Chief of Transportation, Military Planning and Intelligence Div., Washington 25, D. C. 16 

Commanding General, Continental Army Command, Ft. Monroe, Va. 17-19 

President, Board #l, Headquarters, Continental Army Command, Ft. Sill, Okla. 20 

President, Board 82, Headquarters, Continental Army Command, Ft. Knox, Ky. 21 

President, Board f3, Headquarters, Continental Army Command, Ft. Benning, Ga. 22 

Commanding General, First Army, Governor’s Island, New York 4, N. Y. 23 

Commanding General, Second Army, Ft. George G. Meade, Md. 24 

Commanding General, Third Army, Ft. McPherson, Ga., ATTN: ACotS, G-3 25 

Commanding General, Fourth Army, Ft. Sam Houston, Tex., ATTN: G-3 Section 26 

Commanding General. Fifth Army, 1660 E. Hyde Park Blvd., Chicago 15, Ill. 27 

Commanding General, Sixth Army, Presidio of San Francisco, Calif., ATTN: AMGCT-4 28 

Commanding General. U.S. Army Caribbean, Ft. Amador, C. Z., ATTN: Cml. Off. 29 

Commanding General, USARFANT & MDPR, Ft. Brooke, Puerto Rico 30 

Commanding General, U.S. Forces Austria, APO 168, c/o PM, New York, N. Y., 

ATTN: ACotS, G-3 31 

Commander-in-Chief, Far East Command, APO 500, c/o PM, San Francisco, Calif., 

ATTN: ACotS, J-3 32-33 

Commanding General, U.S. Army Forces Far East (Main), APO 343, c/o PM, San 

Francisco, Calif., ATTN: ACofS, G-3 34 

Commanding General, U.S. Army Alaska, APO 942, c/o PM, Seattle, Wash. 35 

Commanding General, U.S. Army Europe, APO 403, c/o PM, New York, N. Y., 

ATTN: OPOT Div., Combat Dev. Br. 36-37 

Commanding General, U.S. Army Pacific, APO 958, c/o PM, San Francisco, Calif., 

ATTN: Cml. Off. 38-39 

Commandant, Command and General Staff College, Ft. Leavenworth, Kan., 

ATTN: ALLLS(AS) 40 

Commandant, The Artillery and Guided Missile School, Ft. Sill, Okla. 41 

Secretary, The Antiaircraft Artillery and Guided Missile School, Ft. Bliss, Tex. 

ATTN: Maj. George L. Alexander. Dept. of Tactics and Combined Arms 42 

Commanding General, Medical Field Service School, Brooke Army Medical Center, 

Ft. Sam Houston, Tex. 43 

Director, Special Weapons Development Office, Headquarters, CONARC, Ft. Bliss, Tex., 

ATTN: Lt. Arthur Jaskierny 44 

51 
Commandant, Army Medical Service Graduate School, Walter Reed Army Medical Center, 

Washington 25, D. C. 45 

Superintendent, U.S. Military Academy, West Point, N. Y., ATTN: Prof. of Ordnance 46 

Commandant, Chemical Corps School, Chemical Corps Training Command, 

Ft. McClellan, Ala. 47 

Commanding General, Research and Engineering Command, Army Chemical Center, Md., 

ATTN: Deputy for RW and Non-Toxic Material 48-49 

Commanding General, Aberdeen Proving Grounds, Md. (inner envelope), ATTN: RD 

Control Officer (for Director, Ballistic Research Laboratories) 50-51 

Commanding General, The Engineer Center, Ft. Belvoir, Va., ATTN: Asst. Commandant, 

Engineer School 52-54 

Commanding Officer, Engineer Research and Development Laboratory, Ft. Belvoir, Va., 

ATTN: Chief, Technical Intelligence Branch 55 

Commanding Officer, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, N. J., ATTN: ORDBB-TK 56 

Commanding Officer, Army Medical Research Laboratory, Ft. Knox, Ky. 57 

Commanding Officer, Chemical Corps Chemical and Radiological Laboratory, Army 

Chemical Center, Md., ATTN: Tech. Library 58-59 

Commanding Officer, Transportation R&D Station, Ft. Eustis, Va. 60 

Director, Technical Documents Center, Evans Signal Laboratory, Belmar. N. J. 61 

Director, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, 7th and Independence Avenue, S.W., 

Washington 25, D. C. 62 

Director, Operations Research Office, Johns Hopkins University, 7100 Connecticut Ave., 

Chevy Chase, Md., Washington 15, D. C. 63 

Commanding General, Quartermaster Research and Development Command, Quartermaste r 

Research and Development Center, Natick, Mass. ATTN: CBR Liaison Officer 64-65 

Technical Information Service, Oak Ridge, Term. (Surplus) 66-72 

NAVY ACTIVITIES 

Chief of Naval Operations, D/N, Washington 25, D. C., ATTN: OP-36 73-74 

Chief, Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, D/N, Washington 25, D. C., ATTN: Special 

Weapons Defense Div. 75-76 

Chief of Naval Personnel, D/N, Washington 25, D. C. 77 

Chief, Bureau of Ships, D/N, Washington 25, D. C., ATTN: Code 348 78 

Chief, Bureau of Supplies and Accounts, D/N, Washington 25, D. C. 79 

Chief, Bureau of Aeronautics, D/N, Washington 25, D. C. 80-81 

Commander-in-Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet, Fleet Post Office, San Francisco, Calif. 82 

Commander-in-Chief, U.S. Atlantic Fleet, U.S. Naval Base, Norfolk 11, Va. 83 

Commandant, U.S. Marine Corps, Washington 25, D. C., ATTN: Code A03H 84 

Superintendent, U.S. Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, Calif. 85 

Commanding Officer, U.S. Naval Schools Command, U.S. Naval Station, Treasure Island, 

San Francisco, Calif. 86 

Commanding Officer, U.S. Fleet Training Center, Naval Base, Norfolk 11, Va., ATTN: 

Special Weapons School 87 

Commanding Officer, U.S. Fleet Training Center, Naval Station, San Diego 36, Calif., 

ATTN: (SPWP School) 88 

Commanding Officer, U.S. Naval Damage Control Training Center, Naval Base, 

Philadelphia 12, Pa., ATTN: ABC Defense Course 89 

Commanding Officer, U.S. Naval Unit, Chemical Corps School, Army Chemical Training 

Center, Ft. McClellan, Ala. 90 

Commander, U.S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory, Silver Spring 19, Md., ATTN: R 91 

Commander, U.S. Naval Ordnance Test Station, Inyokern, China Lake, Calif. 92 

Commanding Officer, U.S. Naval Medical Research Inst., National Naval Medical Center, 

Bethesda 14, Md. 93 

Director, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington 25, D. C., ATTN: Code 2029 94 

Director, The Material Laboratory, New York Naval Shipyard, Brooklyn, N. Y. 95 

Commanding Officer and Director, U.S. Navy Electronics Laboratory, San Diego 52, 

Calif., ATTN: Code 4223 96 

Commanding Officer, U.S. Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory, San Francisco 24, 

Calif., ATTN: Technical Information Division 97 -100 

Commander, U.S. Naval Air Development Center, Johnsville. Pa. 101 

Director, Office of Naval Research Branch Office, 1000 Geary St., San Francisco, Calif. 102 

52 
Brooklyn, N. Y. 103 

Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard, 1300 E. St. N.W., Washington 25, D. C., ATTN: Capt. 

J. R. Stewart 104 

Technical Information Service, Oak Ridge, Tenn. (Surplus) 105-111 

AIR FORCE ACTIVITIES 

Asst. for Atomic Energy, Headquarters, USAF, Washington 25, D. C., ATTN: DCS/O 112 

Director of Operations, Headquarters, USAF, Washington 25, D. C., ATTN: Operations 

Analysis 113 

Director of Plans, Headquarters, USAF, Washington 25, D. C., ATTN: War Plans Div. 114 

Director of Research and Development, Headquarters, USAF, Washington 25, D. C.. 

ATTN: Combat Components Div. 115 

Director of Intelligence, Headquarters, USAF, Washington 25, D. C., ATTN: AFOIN-IB2 116- 117 

The Surgeon General, Headquarters, USAF, Washington 2,5, D. C., ATTN: Bio. Def. Br., 

Pre. Med. Div. 118 

Deputy Chief of Staff, Intelligence, Headquarters, U.S. Air Forces Europe, APO 633, 

c/o PM, New York, N. Y., ATTN: Directorate of Air Targets 119 

Commander, 497th Reconnaissance Technical Squadron (Augmented), APO 633, c/o PM, 

New York, N. Y. 120 

Commander, Far East Air Forces, APO 925, c/o PM, San Francisco, Calif. 121 

Commander-in-Chief, Strategic Air Command, Offutt Air Force Base, Omaha, Neb., 

ATTN: Special Weapons Branch, Inspector Div., Inspector General 122 

Commander, Tactical Air Command, Langley AFB, Va., ATTN: Documents Security 

Branch 123 

Commander, Air Defense Command, Ent AFB, Colo. 124 

Commander, Wright Air Development Center, Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton, O., 

ATTN: WCRRN, Blast Effects Research 125- 126 

Commander, Air Training Command, Scott AFB, Belleville, Ill., ATTN: DCS/O GTP 127 

Commander, Air Research and Development Command, PO Box 1395, Baltimore, Md., 

ATTN: RDDN 128 

Commander, Air Proving Ground Command, Eglin AFB, Fla., ATTN: AG/TRB 129 

Director, Air University Library, Maxwell AFB, Ala. 130-131 

Commander, Flying Training Air Force, Waco, Tex., ATTN: Director of Observer 

Training 132- 139 

Commander, Crew Training Air Force, Randolph Field, Tex., ATTN: SGTS, DCS/O 140 

Commander, Headquarters, Technical Training Air Force, Gulfport, Miss., ATTN: TA&D 141 

Commandant, Air Force School of Aviation Medicine, Randolph AFB, Tex. 142- 143 

Commander, Wright Air Development Center, Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton, O., 

ATTN: WCOSI 144- 145 

Commander, Air Force Cambridge Research Center, LG Hanscom Field, 

Bedford, Mass., ATTN: CRQST-2 146- 14’7 

Commander, Air Force Special Weapons Center, Kirtland AFB, N. Mex., 

ATTN: Library 148- 150 

Commandant, USAF Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson AFB, Dayton, 0.. 

ATTN: Resident College 151 

Commander, Lowry AFB, Denver, Colo., ATTN: Department of Armament Training 152 

Commander, 1009th Special Weapons Squadron, Headquarters, USAF, Washington 25, D. C. 153 

The RAND Corporation, 1700 Main Street, Santa Monica, Calif., ATTN: Nuclear 

Energy Division 154- 155 

Commander, Second Air Force, Barksdale AFB, Louisiana, ATTN: Operations Analysis 

Office 156 

Commander, Eighth Air Force, Westover AFB. Mass., ATTN: Operations Analysis Office 157 

Commander, Fifteenth Air Force, March AFB, Calif., ATTN: Operations Analysis Office 158 

Technical Information Service, Oak Ridge, Tenn. (Surplus) 159- 165 

OTHER DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE ACTIVITIES 

Asst. Secretary of Defense, Research and Development, D/D, Washjgton 25, D. C., L ATTN: Tech. Library , 166 

a 
U.S. Documents Officer, Office of the U.S. National Military Representative, SHAPE, APO 55, 

New York, N. Y. 167 

Director, Weapons Systems Evaluation Group, OSD, Rm 2E1006, Pentagon, Washington 25, D. C. 168 

Commandant, Armed Forces Staff College, Norfolk 11, Va., ATTN: Secretary 169 

Commanding General, Field Command, Armed Forces Special Weapons Project, PO Box 5100, 

Albuquerque, N. Mex. 170-175 

Commanding General, Field Command, Armed Forces, Special Weapons Project, 

PO Box 5100, Albuquerque, N. Mex., ATTN: Technical Training Group 176-177 

Chief, Armed Forces Special Weapons Project, Washington 25, D. C., ATTN: Documents 

Library Branch 178- 186 

Commanding General, Military District of Washington, Room 1543, Building T-7, 

Gravelly Point, Va. 187 

Technical Information Service, Oak Ridge, Tenn. (Surplus) 188- 194 

ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION ACTIVITIES 

U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Classified Technical Library, 1901 Constitution Ave., 

Washington 25, D. C., ATTN: Mrs. J. M. O’Leary (For DMA) 195-197 

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Report Library, PO Box 1663, Los Alamos, N. Mex., 

ATTN: Helen Redman 198- 199 

Sandia Corporation, Classified Document Division, Sandia Base, Albuquerque, N. Mex., 

ATTN: Martin Lucero 200- 204 

University of California Radiation Laboratory, PO Box 808, Livermore, Calif., 

ATTN: Margaret Edlund 205- 207 

Weapon Data Section, Technical Information Service, Oak Ridge, Term. 208 

Technical Information Service, Oak Ridge, Term. (Surplus) 209- 220 

UNCLASSIFIED