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United States Atmo Nuclear Weapons Tests 

Nuclear T sonnel Review 

Pf*epared by the Defense r Agency as Executive Agency 

for the D nt of Defense 
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_)LL”r.l I I ..L.-.z.Jnr I.-?.llYrn vr lll,J I-rn”L ,“,,cx’““‘Yrm.~““, 

READ INSTRUCTIONS REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE BEFORECOMPLETINGFORM 

I. REPORT NUMBER 2. GOVT ACCESSION NO. 3. RECIPIENT’S CATALOG NUMBER 

DNA 6033F 

1.TITLE (end SubtItle) 5. TYPE OF REPORT & PERIOD COVERED 

Technical Report OPERATION SANDSTONE: 1948 

6. PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMBER 

KT-82-026(R) 

7. AUTHOR(s) 8. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(s) 

L.H. Berkhouse J.H. Hallowell F.W. Mcfqullan 

S.E. Davis C.B. Jones M.J. Osborn DNA 001-79-C-0274 

F.R. Gladeck E.J. Martin W.E. Rogers 

3.PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. PROGRAM ELEMENT, PROJECT, TASK 

AREA L WORK UNIT NUMBERS Kaman Tempo 

816 State Street (P.O. Drawer QQ) Subtask U99QAXHK506-03 

Santa Barbara, CA 93102 

81. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS 12. REPORT DATE 

Director 19 December 1983 

Defense Nuclear Agency 13.NUMBER OF PAGES 

Washington, DC 20305 222 

14 MONITORING AGENCY NAME d ADDRESS(it different from Controflfng Olfice) 15. SECURITY CLASS. (of lhla rsporl) 

UNCLASSIFIED 

15a. DECLA5SIFICATION~DOWNGRADlNG 

SCHEDULE 

SIFIFD

16.DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (01 this Rep&) 

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited. 

18. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES 

This work was sponsored by the Defense Nuclear Agency under RDT&E RMSS Code 

835DD794G4 U99QAXMK50609 H2590D. For sale b:/ the F!ational Technical 

Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161. 

19. KEY WORDS (Continue on reverse sfde II neceassry and ldentlfy by block number) 

Nuclear Testing Enewetak JTF-7 

Nuclear Test Personnel Review X-Ray 

SANDSTONE YOKE 

Pacific Proving Ground ZEBRA 

!O. ABSTRACT (Contfrtuue 00 revmae side If nscesaary rrd ldontlfy by block number) 

SANDSTONE was a three-detonation atmospheric nuclear weapon test series 

conducted durinrJ the spring of 1948 at Enewetak Atoll in the lIarshal Islands. 

Report emphasis is on the radiological safety of the personnel. Available 

records on personnel exposure are summarized. 

DD , :zf;;, 1473 EDITION OF 1 NOW 65 IS OBSOLETE UIJCLASSIFIED 

SECURITY CLA~~FICATIOM OF Tws PAGE men Data Entered) 
UNCLASSIFIED 

SECURITY CLASSIFlCATION OF THIS PAGEWhen Data Entered) 
FACT SHEET 

SANDSTONE was a three-detonation nuclear weapon test series held at Enewetak Atoll, the Atomic Energy Commission’s (AEC) Pacific Proving Ground 

(PPG) I 

consisted 

in the spring 

principally 

of 

of 

1948. Located 

Enewetak* 

in 

and 

the 

Bikini 

Central 

atolls 

Pacific 

in 

Ocean, 

the north

the PPG 

western 

Marshall Islands. 

_. -

Assjgned Local Yjeld 

Name Date location (KT)a 

X-RAY 15 April 200-foot (61-meter) tower on Enjebl Island 37 

YOKE 1 May 200-foot (61~meter) tower on Aomon Island 49 

ZEBRA 15 May 200-foot (61-meter) tower on Runlt Island 18 -. 

Note: 

'One ktloton equals the approximate energy release of a one-thousandton TNT exploslon. _ 

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 

Operation SANDSTONE was the second test series to be held in the Marshall 

Islands, but it differed from the first series (CROSSROADS in 1946) in that it 

was primarily an AEC scientific test-series with the armed forces serving in a 

supporting role. Its purpose was to proof-test improved-design atomic weapons, 

whereas the purpose of CROSSROADSwas to test nuclear weapons effects on ships. 

The weapons were tested at En&etak by a joint military and civilian 

organization designated Joint Task Force 7 (JTF 7). This was a military organization in form, but contained military, civil service, and contractor personnel of the Department of Defense (DOD) and the AEC. The commander of this force 

was the appointed representative of the AEC and reported to both the Joint 

Chiefs of Staff and the Commander in Chief, Pacific. 

Peak DOD numerical strength at SANDSTONE was approximately as follows: 

Uniformed military 9,890 

DOD civilians 350 

DOD contractors 126 

10,366 

-

* Formerly Eniwetok. A better understanding of the Marshall Islands language 

has permitted a more accurate transliteration of Marshall Island names into 

English language spelling. 

1 
Numerous technical experiments were carried out in conjunction with each 

of the three detonations. These experiments measured the yield and efficiency 

of the devices and attempted to gauge military effects of the explosions. DOD 

personnel participated in this test operation as individuals whose duty stations were at the AEC weapon design and development laboratories, as units 

performing separate experiments, and as units performing various support roles. 

An extensive radiological safety (radsafe) program with the following 

objectives was instituted: 

1. Keeping personnel radiation exposure at the lowest possible level consistent with medical knowledge of radiation 

effects and the importance of the test series 

2. Avoiding inadvertent contamination of populated islands 

or transient shipping. 

This program established an organization to provide radsafe expertise and services to commanders of the separate components of the task force, who were 

responsible for personnel safety within their commands. Personnel were trained 

in radiological safety. Standards governing permissible exposure were established. The standards were 0.1 roentgen (R) per 24-hour period and a maximum 

exposure of 3 R for certain approved specific missions. Film badges were issued 

to persons likely to be exposed to radiation, as well as a representative group 

of the task force. An extensive weather forecasting group was established to 

predict wind directions and areas of potential fallout. Personnel were evacuated from danger areas before each detonation. Reentry to radioactive areas 

was restricted to personnel required to retrieve important data, and their 

radiation exposures were monitored. 

TEST OPERATIONS AND EXPOSURES 

Each of the SANDSTONE tower shots produced fallout; however, none of the 

inhabited islands in the area received appreciable fallout. Kwajalein received 

measureable fallout on 3 May, two days after the YOKE shot. The estimated dose 

from fallout for persons who were on Kwajalein for the entire test series was 

calculated to be 0.075 R. 

Most task force personnel were on Kwajalein or aboard ships. The remainder 

were on Enewetak and stayed there for the three shots. The temporary camps on 

the northern and eastern islands of the atoll near the detonation sites were 

abandoned and dismantled before the shots. Task force ships evacuated the lagoon. except for USS Albemarle (AV-51, USS Mount McKinley (AGC-71, USS Curtiss 

(AV-41, and USS Bairoko (CVE-1151, which remained in the lagoon near the base 

islands on the southern side of the atoll. 

Highest DOD exposures for both the Army (6.050 R) and the Navy (5.140 R) 

were accrued by radiation monitors from the Joint Radiological Safety Group. 

Only eleven personnel (0.6 percent of those badged) received exposures in excess of the imposed standards of 3 R. In fact, radiation exposure for badged 

JTF 7 personnel at SANDSTONE averaged less than 0.25 R, and approximately 

percent had zero exposures. Recorded SANDSTONE exposures are summarized in the 

table on the following page. 

2 

65 
SANDSTONE Joint 

Army 

% of Total 

Navy 

% of Total 

Air Force 

% of Total 

Marines 

% of Total 

Non-DOD Participants 

% of Total 

Totals 

% of Total 

Task Force 7 Personnel Exposures 

Exposure Ranges 

(roentgens) 

Number Over High 

Badged 0 0.001-l l-2 2 (R) 

327 168 141 10 8 6.050 

51 43 3 3 

973 730 233 8 2 5.140 

75 24 1 <l 

350 195 144 8 3 3.060 

56 41 2 1 

112 102 9 10 1.040 

91 8 <l 0 

119 18 83 6 12 17.0 

15 70 5 10 

1,881 1,213 610 33 25 17.0 

65 32 2 1 

3 
4 
PREFACE 

Between 1945 and 1962, the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) conducted 

235 atmospheric nuclear weapon tests in the United States and in the Pacific 

and Atlantic oceans. In all, about 220,000 Department of Defense (DOD) participants, both military and civilian, were present at the tests. Of these, approximately 142,000 participated in the Pacific test series and approximately 

another 4,000 in the single Atlantic test series. 

In 1977, 15 years after the last aboveground nuclear weapon test, the Center for Disease Control (CDC) of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services noted more leukemia cases than would normally be expected among about 

3,200 soldiers who had been present at shot SMOKY, a test of the 1957 PLUMBBOB 

Series. Since that initial report by the CDC, the Veterans Administration (VA) 

has received a number of claims for medical benefits from former military personnel who believe their health may have been affected by their participation 

in the weapon testing program. 

In late 1977, the DOD began a study that provided data to both the CDC and 

the VA on potential exposures to ionizing radiation among the military and civilian personnel who participated in the atmospheric testing 15 to 32 years 

earlier. In early 1978, the DOD also organized a Nuclear Test Personnel Review 

(NTPR) to: 

• Identify DOD personnel who had taken part in the atmospheric nuclear weapon tests 

• Determine the extent of the participants’ exposure to ionizing radiation 

• Provide public disclosure of information concerning participation by DOD personnel in the atmospheric nuclear 

weapon tests. 

This report on Operation SANDSTONEis one of many volumes that are the 

product of the NTPR. The Defense Nuclear Agency (DNA), whose Director is the 

executive agent of the NTPR program, prepared the reports, which are based on 

military and technical documents concerning various aspects of each of the 

tests. Reports of the NTPR provide a public record of the activities and associated radiation exposure of DOD personnel for interested former participants 

and for use in public health research and Federal policy studies. 

Information from which this report was compiled was primarily extracted 

from planning and after-action reports of Joint Task Force 7 (JTF 7) and its 

subordinate organizations. Documents were desired that accurately placed 

personnel at the test sites so that their degree of exposure to the ionizing 

radiation resulting from the tests could be assessed. The search for this information was undertaken in archives and libraries of the Federal Government, 

in special collections supported by the Federal Government, and by discussion 

or review with participants. 

5 
For SANDSTONE, the most important archival source is the National Archives 

and Record Center, Modern Military Branch, Washington, D.C. The Naval Archives 

at the Washington Navy Yard also was helpful, as was the collection housed in 

the Air Force Weapons Laboratory Technical Library at Kirtland Air Force Base, 

Albuquerque, New Mexico. Other archives searched were the Department of Energy 

archives at Germantown, Maryland, its Nevada Operations Office archives at Las 

Vegas, and archives of the Test Division of Los Alamos National Laboratory. 

JTF 7 exposure records and an additional file of exposure-related documents 

(microfilmed by the Reynolds Electrical and Engineering Company, Inc., support 

contractor for the Department of Energy/Nevada Operations) have also been very 

useful. 

The work was performed under RDT&E RMSS B350079464 U99 QAXMK 506-09 H2590D 

for the Defense Nuclear Agency by personnel from Kaman Tempo. Guidance was 

provided by Mr. Kenneth W. Kaye of the Defense Nuclear Agency. 

6 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

FACT SHEET 1

PREFACE 5 

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 13 

LIST OF TABLES 16

Chapter 

1 OVERVIEW 17 

Introduction 17 

Purpose 17 

Hlstorlcal Background 17 

Report Organlzatlon 21 

Nuclear Tests and Radtatlon Exposures 21 

Experlmental Program 23 

Weapon Dlagnostlc Experiments 24 

Yield Measurements 24 

Dlagnostlc Measurements 24 

Service Tests 26 

Oceanic Testlng Operatlons 26 

Marshall Is'lands Settlng 26 

Special Problems In Testing in the Marshalls 28 

Joint Task Force 7 30 

Jolnt Task Force 7 Headquarters 32 

Task Group 7.1 (Atomic Energy Commlsslon 

Provlng Ground Group) 32 

Task Unlt 7.1.1 (Sclentlflc) 32 

Measurements Sectlon 35 

Flrlng and Englneerlng Branch 35 

Services Sectlon 36 

7 
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) 

Chapter Page 

1 (cant) Task Group 7.2 (Army) 36 

Task Group 7.3 (Navy) 38 

Task Group 7.4 (Alr Force) 39 

Task Unit 7.4.1 (Headquarters and Service Unit) 43 

Task Unit 7.4.2 (Drone Unlt) 43 

Task Unit 7.4.3 (Photography Unit) 44 

Task Unit 7.4.4 (Weather Unit) 44 

Task Unit 7.4.5 (Air Rescue Unlt) 44 

Task Unit 7.4.6 (Airways and Air Communlcatlons 

Service Unit) 44 

Task Unit 7.4.7 (Interlsland Transport Unit) 44 

Task Unit 7.4.8 44 

Task Unlt 7.4.9 (Llalson Unit) 44 

Task Group 7.5 (Joint Security Group) 45 

Task Group 7.6 (Jolnt Radlologlcal Safety Group) 45 

Task Group 7.7 (Kwajaleln Island Command) 46 

Task Group 7.8 (Observer Escort Group) 47 

RADIOLOGICAL SAFETY 48 

Organlzatlon and Responslbllltles 48 

Task Unit 7.6.1 (Alr Monltorlng Unit) 49 

Task Unlt 7.6.2 (Staff Unlt) 51 

Task Unjt 7.6.3 (Operatlons Unlt) 52 

Task Unlt 7.6.4 (Laboratory Unlt) 52 

Task Unit 7.6.5 (Radlologlcal Records Unit) 53 

Task Unlt 7.6.6 (Technical Measurements Unlt) 53 

Task Unlt 7.6.7 (Monltor Unit) 53 

Task Unlt 7.6.8 (Advlsory Unlt) 54 

Task Unlt 7.6.9 (Rear Echelon Unit) 54 

Training 54 

Safety Crlterla 57 

Radlatlon Safety Standards 57 

Radlatlon Exposure Waivers 58 

8 
3 

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) 

Chapter 

2 (cant Radlatlon Exposure Records 

Group Exposure Record 

Radlologlcal Safety Instrumentatlon 

Personnel Film Badges and Records 

Pre-Event Safety Measures 

Danger Area 

Fallout and Lagoon Contamlnatlon Prediction 

Command Briefing 

Weather Predlctlon 

Eye Protection 

Evacuation and Reentry Plans 

POSTEVENT SAFETY MEASURES 

Cloud Tracking 

Sample Recovery Techntques 

Protective Clothlng 

Personnel Decontam1natlon 

Shlp Decontamlnat1on 

Equlpment Decontamtnatlon 

Alrcraft Decontamlnatlon 

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM 

Experlmental Partlclpatlon 

Weapon Dlagnostlc Experiments 

Radlochemlstry 

Neutron Measurement 

Neutron Generatlon -- Ross1 Method 

Neutron Generatlon -- Teller Method 

Gamma-Ray Spectrum 

Gamma-Ray Appearance -- Ross1 Method 

Gamma-Ray Appearance -- Teller Method 

Technlcal Photography 

Blast Measurements 

Paqe 

58 

59 

59 

60 

61 

61 

66 

66 

67 

68 

68 

69 

70 

70 

76 

76 

81 

82 

82 

89 

89 

92 

92 

94 

94 

95 

95 

95 

95 

96 

96 

9 
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) 

Chapter Page 

3 (cant) Service Tests 97 

Relnforced Concrete Structures 97 

Blast Resistance of Structures 97 

Alrcraft Blast Acceleration 98 

Exposure of Biological Materials 98 

Exposure of Materials to Radlatlon 99 

Evaluatlon of New Radiological Instruments 99 

Radlatlon Shleldlng by Materials 99 

Evaluation of Collective Protectors 100 

Residual Crater Contamlnatlon 100 

Aerlal Survey of Ground Contamlnatlon 100 

Aerial Survey of Cloud Intenslty 101 

Survey of Cloud Partjcle Size 101 

TEST OPERATIONS 102 

X-RAY 105 

YOKE 110 

ZEBRA 114 

U.S. ARMY PARTICIPATION IN OPERATION SANDSTONE 118 

Headquarters Joint Task Force 7 118 

Task Group 7.1 (Atomic Energy Commlsslon 

Proving Ground Group) 118 

Task Group 7.2 (Army) 120 

Task Group 7.3 (Navy) 123 

Task Group 7.4 (Alr Force) 123 

Task Unit 7.4.1 (Hq and Service Unit) 123 

Task Unit 7.4.2 (Drone Unlt) 123 

Task Unlt 7.4.3 (Photography Unit) 124 

Task Group 7.5 (Jolnt Security Group) 124 

Task Group 7.6 (Jolnt Radiological Safety Group) 124 

U.S. NAVY PARTICIPATION IN OPERATION SANDSTONE 125 

Headquarters Jolnt Task Force 7 125 

10 
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) 

Chapter Page 

6 (cant) Task Group 7.1 (Atomic Energy Commlsslon 

Proving Ground Group) 128 

Task Group 7.2 (Army) 129 

Task Group 7.3 (Navy) 130 

Staff Organlzat1ons 130 

Shlp Units 130 

Ajr Units 146 

Task Group 7.4 (Air Force) 146 

Task Group 7.5 (Joint Securtty Group) 147 

Task Group 7.6 (Joint Rad!ologlcal Safety Group) 147 

Task Group 7.7 (Kwajaleln Island Command) 148 

Task Group 7.8 (Observer Escort Group) 149 

Non-Task-Force Ships 149 

7 U.S. AIR FORCE PARTICIPATION IN OPERATION SANDSTONE 151 

Task Group 7.1 (Atomic Energy Commlsslon 

Task Unit 7.4.6 (Airways and Alr Communlcatlons 

Headquarters Jotnt Task Force 7 152 

Headquarters Air Forces, Joint Task Force 7 152 

Proving Ground Group) 152 

Task Group 7.4 (Air Force) 153 

Task Unit 7.4.1 (Hq and Service Unit) 153 

Task Unit 7.4.2 (Drone Unit) 153 

Task Unit 7.4.3 (Photography Unlt) 153 

Task Unit 7.4.4 (Weather Unit) 154 

Task Unit 7.4.5 (Atr Rescue Unit) 154 

Services Unit) 154 

Task Unit 7.4.7 (Interisland Transpor t Unit) 154 

Task Unit 7.4.9 (Liaison Unit) 155 

Task Group 7.5 (Joint Security Group) 155 

Task Group 7.6 (Joint Radiological Safety Group) 155 

11 
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) 

Chapter Page 

7 (cant) Task Group 7.7 (Kwajaleln Island Command) 155 

1535th Alr Force Base Unit 155 

31-8 Air Weather Service Detachment 156 

Offjclal Observers 156 

B U.S. MARINE CORPS PARTICIPATION IN OPERATION SANDSTONE 157 

Joint Task Force 7 Staff 157 

Task Group 7.3 (Navy) 157 

Task Group 7.4 (Alr Force) 158 

Task Group 7.5 (Joint Security Group) 159 

Task Group 7.6 (Joint Radiological Safety Group) 159 

Task Group 7.7 (Kwajaleln Island Command) 159 

9 JOINT DEFENSE, ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION, OTHER 

GOVERNMENT AGENCIES, AND CONTRACTOR PARTICIPATION 

IN OPERATION SANDSTONE 160 

Joint Defense Agencies 160 

Atomic Energy Commlsston 161 

Contractors to the Atomic Energy Commlsslon 162 

Other Government Agencies 163 

Department of Defense Contractors 163 

10 SUMMARY OF PERSONNEL EXPOSURES 165 

REFERENCES 167 

Appendlxes 

A RADIOLOGICAL STATUS REPORT OF ENEWETAK ATOLL 179 

B GLOSSARY OF TERMS 185 

C ENEWETAK ISLAND SYNONYMS 197 

12 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Frontlsplece: SANDSTONE Shot X-RAY Flreball 

Flqure Page 

1 The Central Pacific. 19 

of runway wlth junk revetments and B-17 samplers In 

board USS Balroko (CVE-115) before SANDSTONE as the instructor 

2 Enewetak Atoll, 1948. 20 

3 Aerial view of Ananlj Island, Enewetak Atoll, ln 1948. 28 

4 Enewetak Island, 1948, showlng upwlnd (northeast) end 

foreground. 29 

5 Parry Island, 1948; Jolnt Task Force 7 shlps In background. 29 

6 Organlzatlon of Jolnt Task Force 7. 31 

7 Organlzatlon of Headquarters Jolnt Task Force 7. 33 

8 Organization of Task Group 7.1. 34 

9 Organlzatlon of Task Group 7.2. 37 

10 Organlzatlon of Task Group 7.4. 41 

11 Task Group 7.6 (Jolnt Radlologjcal Safety Group). 49 

12 Monltors callbratlng Vlctoreen Model 247A Instruments on 

observes. 57 

13 Alr patrol plans A, B, and C. 62 

14 Alr patrol plan Cl. 63 

15 Air patrol plan E. 64 

16 Alr patrol plan F. 65 

17 Drone B-17 at Enewetak after shot ZEBRA, approached by 

truck with forkllft wlth extenslon arm to grasp top 

sampler box. 71 

18 Forkllft extenslon arm lifts top filter from drone B-17 

followlng shot ZEBRA. 72 

19 Two men take top fllter box from forkllft and place It on the 

ground following shot ZEBRA. 72 

20 Man pulls lanyard to remove one of two filter-paper holders 

from top fllter unlt following shot ZEBRA. 73 

21 Lanyard pulls fllter-paper holder free from top ftlter unlt 

following shot ZEBRA. 73 

13 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (continued ) 

Figure Page 

22 Second filter holder comes free from top filter; man In 

background tilts top filter unlt from another drone. 74 

23 Hard pull and both hands are requjred to free filter-paper 

holder. 74 

24 Two men run In to pull filter holders from lower sampler 

on B-17 drone followlng shot ZEBRA. 75 

25 Filter papers In lead box handed up to C-54 preparlng for 

flight to United States followlng shot ZEBRA. 75 

26 Bootles or shoe covers used ln Operatlon SANDSTONE. 77 

27 Personnel leave Enjebl tlmlng statlon several days following 

shot X-RAY. 77 

28 Oecontamlnatlon truck and drone B-17 vlewed through clothesllne at shower station on Enewetak Island. 78 

29 Shower statlon on Enewetak; personnel are belng monltored 

before dressing in clean clothes. 78 

30 Drone maintenance man rewashes hands following work on drone 

8-17. 79 

31 Hands are remonltored. 79 

32 Monltor ChecKs radloactlvlty following SANDSTONE shot wlth 

plastic-wrapped Geiger-Mueller Instrument. 83 

33 Pilot who had just moved drone B-17 Into posltlon for 

decontamqnatlon Is monltored for radloactlve contamlnatlon. 84 

34 Monltors record radloactlvlty of SANDSTONE drone sampler 

before decontamlnatlon. 85 

35 Decontamlnatlon of SANDSTONE B-17 drone sampler. 86 

36 Decontamlnatlon of SANDSTONE B-17 drone sampler. 86 

37 Enllsted man Is monitored for radloactlvlty following 

decontamlnatlon of SANDSTONE drone sampler. 87 

38 Mllltary pollceman prevents access to SANDSTONE drone B-17 

followlng Its decontamlnatlon. 87 

39 Drone tank used for sol1 sampllng operatlon. 93 

40 Drone tank ln.revetment; helicopter hovers overhead to 

control tank after It has been started. 93 

41 Navy Bureau of Yards & Docks experlmental structural 

shapes after shot YOKE. 98 

42 Evacuation of Enjebl before shot X-RAY. 104 

43 Ship posltlons at shot time, X-RAY. 106 

14 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (continued) 

Figure Page 

44 Monjtor In SANDSTONE, X-RAY crater, probably 6 days after 

the shot. 107 

45 Ship posltlons at shot time. 111 

46 Ship positions at shot time, 115 

15 
LIST OF TABLES 

Table Page 

SANDSTONE detonations, Enewetak, 1948. 17 

Task Group 7.1 personnel strength. 35 

Task Group 7.2 operating strength at Enewetak. 38 

Task Group 7.3 organizatjon and personnel strength. 40 

Task Group 7.4 SANDSTONE personnel dlstrlbutlon 

(26 January 1948). 42 

6 SANDSTONE alrcraft. 43 

7 Radlologlcal safety equipment dlstrlbutlon. 51 

8 SANDSTONE experlments. 90 

9 SANDSTONE sclentlflc personnel radlatlon exposures. 91 

10 SANDSTONE personnel exposures, U.S. Army organlzatlons. 119 

11 SANDSTONE personnel exposures, U.S. Navy organlzatlons. 126 

12 SANDSTONE personnel exposures, U.S. Air Force organlzatlons. 152 

13 SANDSTONE personnel exposures, U.S. Marlne Corps organlzatlons. 158 

14 SANDSTONE personnel exposures, clvlllans from joint defense 

and other government agencies and contractors. 161 

15 Exposures by task group for the entire SANDSTONE serles. 165 

16 
CHAPTER 1 

OVERVIEW 

INTRODUCTION 

Put- pose 

SANDSTONEwas a test series in which three nuclear fission devices were 

detonated at the Atomic Energy Commission’s (AEC) Pacific Proving Ground (PPG) 

at Enewetak Atoll* in the spring of 1948. Table 1 lists the detonations. 

Table 1. SANDSTONE detonations, Enewetak, 1948. 

Assigned Local Yield 

Name Date Location (KTja 

X-RAY 15 April 200-foot (61-meter) tower on Enjebl Island 37 

YOKE 1 May 200-foot (61-meter) tower on Aomon Island 49 

ZEBRA 15 May 200-foot (61-meter) tower on Runlt Island 18 

Note: 

'One klloton equals the approximate energy release of a one-thousandton TNT explosion, 

This report documents the participation of Department of Defense (DOD) 

personnel who were active in the test series. Its purpose is to bring together

the available information about the atmospheric nuclear test series pertinent 

to the radiation exposure of DOD personnel, both uniformed and civilian employees. The report explains the reasons why DOD personnel were present at 

these tests, lists the DOD organizations represented, and describes their 

activities. It discusses the potential radiation exposure involved in these 

activities and the measures taken for the protection of DOD personnel. It 

presents the exposures recorded by the participating DOD units. 

Hlstorlcal Background 

Operation SANDSTONEwas primarily conducted to proof-test new weapon designs. Interest in weapon effects experiments in these tests was definitely 

secondary. A proof-test had not been conducted since the TRINITY test in July

1945, in which the design of the weapon used for the Nagasaki attack was 

-

* A better understanding of the Marshall Islands language has permitted a more 

accurate transliteration of Marshall Islands names into English language

spelling. These newer transliterations are used in this report with few exceptions. Appendix C lists the names and their variant spellings. 

17 
proven. Operation CROSSROADSwas conducted in 1946, chiefly to test the effects 

of nuclear detonations on Navy ships. 

When the President approved the preliminary SANDSTONE test program on 

27 June 1947, the United States apparently had only 13 nuclear weapons in its 

stockpile. One year later, in spite of heavy emphasis on increased production 

of fissionable material, the number of weapons was only about 50, far short of 

the number (estimated at as high as 200) that military planners calculated 

would be required in a war with the Soviet Union. The more efficient weapon 

designs proof-tested at SANDSTONE, coupled with the higher production rates of 

fissionable material, allowed the great expansion in the U.S. stockpile evident 

by the end of 1949 (Reference D.l). 

Meetings were held on 9 July at Los Alamos, New Mexico, to define test responsibilities for SANDSTONE. Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL), the 

organization that had developed the wartime atomic weapons and the AEC organization that did research and laboratory development of new nuclear weapon designs, was to provide technical leadership and the military services were to 

provide supplies and support. Potential test sites in the Marshall Islands 

were visited in September 1947, and a site was selected on 11 October 1947 

(Reference A.8, pp. 140 and 141). 

Enewetak Atoll was selected because it was large enough for three shots, 

and the steady trade winds would carry fallout from the shots over the open 

ocean to the west. These trade winds, and their orientation with respect to 

Enewetak Island (the major island of the atoll), made a permanent major airfield possible. This was undoubtedly a factor that made Enewetak more desirable than Bikini Atoll, which had been used for Operation CROSSROADS (Reference 

A.5). Figure 1 shows the location of the Marshalls in the Central Pacific and 

Figure 2 is a map of Enewetak Atoll. 

Although inhabited by about 140 people, the dri-Enewetak and the driEnjebi , who lived on the islands of Bijire and Aomon, Enewetak Atoll was far 

removed from other inhabited islands. Bijire housed the dri-Enjebi, the people 

whose normal home was Enjebi in the northern islands of the atoll, and Aomon 

was occupied by the dri-Enewetak, whose normal home was Enewetak Island on the 

southern side of the atoll. Both of these islands had been the scene of fierce 

fighting during World War II and later were major military operating areas, 

requiring the population’s removal. In 1946, these people were moved to Meek 

Island at Kwajalein Atoll for a short time when Enewetak was considered a possible site for the CROSSROADS test series (References A.9 and A.10). 

Ujelang Atoll, 124 nmi (230 km) southwest of Enewetak, was selected as the 

future home for this group of people, and construction of cisterns, water 

catchments, latrines, tent frames, and other buildings was begun by a Navy 

construction battalion group on 22 November 1947. Ujelang had been without 

permanent inhabitants from the time it had been abandoned in the late nineteenth century by the survivors of a typhoon that swept the atoll. 

On 2 December 1947, the United States notified the United Nations Security 

Council that it was closing Enewetak Atoll in order to conduct necessary experiments relating to nuclear fission. The land area of Enewetak Atoll, its 

18 
I I 

-t---- -c_______-_-
BOKAIDRIKDRIK 

DRIDRILBWIJ 

X-RAY (37 KT). .TOWE R BOKINWOTME 

BOKOMBAKO 

(49 KTI. TOWER 

UNlB;R 

DEEP \

mENTRANCE 

, I2 3 4 5&yREN W,DE ENEy 

0 

L 1 I 1 L I I ENTRANCE 1lo 20’ NORTH NAUTICAL MILES t--

0123456 

L 1 1 ’ ’ ’ 1 

STATUTE MILES 1 

0 2 4 6 8 10 1132~ 20’ EAST 

LI 11 1 ’ 11 ’ 11 

KILOMETERS 

Fjgure 2. Enewetak Atoll, 1948. 

20 
1 agoon, and the waters within 3 miles (5 km) of its seaward sides constituted 

the test area. These islands were part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific 

Islands, a strategic area trusteeship of the United Nations, administered by 

the United States. The U.S. agency in charge of the test area itself was the 

AEC. 

On 3 December 1947, military authorities met with the dri-Enewetak and 

dri-Enjebi to explain the proposed move. Chiefs and members of the councils 

visited Ujelang on the following day and agreed to move upon their return to 

Enewetak on 5 December. The move of the people and their belongings was completed by 20 December by USS LST-857 (References A.9 and A.lO). The number of 

people moved is given in contemporary sources as 142, but recent a authoritative work cites 136 (Reference A.10). 

Report Organization 

Subsequent sections of this overview chapter discuss the form of experimental nuclear weapon test programs with emphasis on the potential radiation 

exposure of participating DOD personnel. The experimental activities are considered first without particular reference to geographic location of the testing and are then related to the geographic limitations on such activities at 

the WC. The portion of the experimental program of heaviest DOD participation 

is emphasized. The chapter concludes with a description of Joint Task Force 7 

(JTF 7), the organization that conducted SANDSTONE, and indicates how the DOD 

elements within JTF 7 functioned. 

Chapter 2 is concerned with the radiological safety (radsafe) aspects of 

the tests. This chapter documents procedures, training, and equipment used to 

protect participants from radiation exposure potential inherent in test operations. 

Chapter 3 focuses on the role of the DOD in the experimental program of 

SANDSTONE in general, leading to a discussion of DOD operations for the test 

events in Chapter 4. 

Chapters 5 through 8 report participation by the Army, Navy, Air Force and 

Marine Corps. Chapter 9 summarizes participation of other government agencies 

and contractors. A listing of participating units and a statistical characterization of their personnel exposures are included in these chapters. Personnel 

exposures are discussed in Chapter 10. 

NUCLEAR TESTS AND RADIATION EXPOSURES 

Nuclear testing before 1961 usually consisted of the unconfined detonation 

of nuclear devices (usually not weapons) in the atmosphere. Devices might be 

placed on a platform or a barge on the surface, placed atop a tower, supported 

by a balloon, dropped from an airplane, flown on a rocket, or shot from a cannon. A few were detonated underwater or buried in the earth in underground 

tunnels or shafts. SANDSTONEwas the first operation in the Pacific to detonate 

nuclear devices on towers. 

In theory, personnel could be exposed either by the radiation emitted at 

the time of explosion and for about 1 minute thereafter -.- usually referred to 

21 
as initial radiation -- or the radiation emitted later (residual radiation). 

Initial radiation is part of the violent nuclear explosion process itself: to 

be close enough for initial radiation exposure would place an unprotected observer within the area swept by lethal blast and thermal effects. 

The neutron component of initial radiation has the property of altering 

certain nonradioactive materials so that they become radioactive. This process, 

called activation, works on sodium, silicon, 

well as other common materials. Activation 

the inventory of the radioactive products 

process and contribute to the possibility 

radiation. 

calcium, 

products 

produced 

of personnel 

manganese, and iron, 

thus formed are added 

in the nuclear detonation 

exposure as residual 

as 

to 

The potential 

than the potential 

for 

for 

personnel 

exposure 

exposure 

to initial 

to residual 

radiation. 

radiation 

In the 

was much greater 

nuclear explosion 

process, fissioning atoms of the heavy elements, uranium and plutonium, split 

into lighter elements, releasing energy. These lighter atoms are themselves 

radioactive and decay, forming another generation of descendants from the original fission products. This process is rapid immediately after the explosion 

but slows later and cant inues for years at very low levels of radioactivity. 

Overall radioactivity of all the fission products formed decays at a rate 

that is closely approximated by a rule that states that for each sevenfold 

increase in time the intensity of the radiation will decrease by a factor of 

ten. Thus, a radiation exposure rate of 1 roentgen per hour (R/hr) at 1 hour 

after detonation would be expected to be about 0.1 R/hr after 7 hours and 0.01 

R/hr after 49 hours. This rule seems to be valid for about 6 months following 

an explosion, after which the observed decay rate is somewhat faster than that 

predicted by this relationship. Activation products, in general, decay at a 

faster rate than the fission products. 

Fission products and activation products, along with unfissioned uranium 

or plutonium from the device, are the components of the radioactive material 

in the debris cloud, and this cloud and its fallout are the primary sources of 

potential exposure to residual radiation. 

In a nuclear airburst in which the central core of intensely hot material, 

or fireball, does not touch the surface, weapon residues (including the fission 

products, activation products resulting from neutron interaction with device 

materials, and unfissioned uranium and/or plutonium) are vaporized. These vapors condense as the fireball rises and cools, and the particles formed by 

condensation are small and smoke-like. They are carried up with the cloud to 

the altitude at which its rise stops, usually called the cloud stabilization 

altitude. Spread of this material then depends on winds and weather. If the 

detonation is small, cloud stabilization altitude will be in the lower atmosphere and the material wi.11 act like dust and return to the Earth’s surface in 

a matter of weeks. Essentially all debris from detonations with yields equivalent to kilotons of TNT will be down within 2 months (Reference A.6). Areas in 

which this fallout material will be deposited will appear on maps as bands 

following the wind’s direction. Larger detonations (yields equivalent to megatons of TNT) will have cloud stabilization altitudes in the stratosphere 

(above about 10 miles [16 km] in the tropics) ; radioactive material from such 

22 
altitudes will not return to Earth for many months and its distribution will 

be much wider. Thus, airbursts contribute little potential for radiation exposure of personnel at the testing area, although some residual and short-lived 

radioactivity might come from activated surface materials under the burst if 

burst altitude is sufficiently low for neutrons to reach the surface. 

Surface and near-surface bursts pose larger potential radiation exposure 

problems. These detonations create more radioactive debris because more material is available for activation within range of neutrons generated by the 

explosion. In such detonations the extreme heat vaporizes device materials and 

activated earth materials as well. These materials cool in the presence of 

additional material gouged out of the burst crater. This extra material causes 

the particles formed as the fireball cools to be larger in size, with radioactivity embedded in them or coating their surfaces. The rising cloud will lift 

these particles to altitudes that depend on particle size and shape and the 

power of the rising air currents in the cloud, which in turn depend on yield 

of the detonation. The largest particles will fall back into the crater or very 

near the burst area with the next largest falling nearby. It has been estimated 

that as much as 80 percent of the radioactive debris from a land-surface burst 

falls out within the first day following the burst (Reference A.6). 

Detonations on the surface of seawater generate particles consisting mainly 

of salt and water drops that are smaller and lighter than fallout particles 

from a land detonation. As a consequence, water-surface bursts produce less 

early fallout than similar weapon%-~detonated on land. Large-yield surface 

bursts in the PEG over relatively shallow lagoon waters or on small areas of 

truly dry land probably formed a complex combination of land-surface- and 

water-surface-burst particle-size characteristics. 

Detonations on towers may be considered as low airbursts or ground bursts, 

depending upon the relative height of the detonation and Its yield. A larger 

burst will create more fallout than a smaller burst on equal-height towers, not 

only because of the additional fission products and weapon debris, but also because it will pull up more earth materials, or even form a crater. In addition, 

materials of the tower itself provide a source of easily activated materials. 

Particles of the tower material may also act as centers on which debris vapors 

may condense to form the larger particles that lead to heavier early fallout. 

Devices that fission uranium or plutonium inefficiently will cause more of 

these radioactive components of the device residue to be dispersed. 

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM 

Central to the test series was the experimental program. This program and 

Its requirements dictated the form of the test organization and the detail of 

personnel participation. SANDSTONE’s experimental program incorporated two 

aspects, the most important of which was the development of the weapons themselves ; the second aspect was measuring effects of the detonations on equipment 

and structures. 

These two aspects serve as a rough measure of the differentiation of inter- , 

est between the major participants: the AEC interest in weapon development, 

and the DOD interest in military applications of the effects of the explosions. 

23 
The several parts of the weapon development and the effects studies each had 

particular features that led to the possibility of radiation exposure. 

Weapon Dlagnostlc Experlments 

LASL was responsible for conducting experiments designed to measure the 

output of the nuclear devices, specifically radiation, blast, and yield. In 

testing devices, weapon designers are interested in two classes of measurements : the total energy release of the device, and the rate of release. Total 

energy release measurements are called yield measurements, and the rate of 

release measurements are called diagnostic measurements. 

YIELD MEASUREMENTS.Device yield usually was determined by several methods. 

two of which involved photo-optical techniques. Growth of the intensely hot 

and radiating mass of device debris and air that constitute the nuclear fireball varies with its yield. Very-high-speed cameras were therefore used to 

record this growth, and film records subsequently analyzed to infer yield. 

Duration and intensity of the energy pulse in the optical-thermal spectral 

region also vary with yield; thus, light detectors coupled to recorders were 

also used to derive yield. 

In addition, yield may be determined by collecting and analyzing radioactivity of a representative sample of the device debris. Inferences are then 

drawn regarding the yield, based on knowledge of the materials in the device. 

Construction, instrumentation placement, and data recovery for the photooptical yield determinations usually did not require personnel to be in areas 

with a high potential for exposure to radiation. Cameras and light detectors 

need only a clear field of view of the burst point and enough breadth of view 

to encompass the fireball . Camera placement did not involve personnel activities at times and places of high radiation levels. Film recovery generally did 

not involve high exposure potential, as the photo stations were usually at 

ranges and in directions not heavily contaminated by fallout. 

Sampling of device debris, however, necessitated exposure to higher levels 

of radioacivity. The technique used in most atmospheric tests was to fly aircraft with collectors directly through portions of the radioactive (or mushroom) cloud, although for some shots rockets and drone aircraft were used. 

About 90 percent of the fission debris was usually considered to be in the 

upper portion of the radioactive cloud (Reference A.6). 

For SANDSTONE, cloud debris was collected by eight unmanned B-17 drone 

aircraft. The drones picked up significant amounts of radioactive material on 

their surfaces, posing potential radiation exposure to ground crews involved 

in decontamination. Samples collected were radiologically “hot” and required 

special handling as they were taken from the aircraft and prepared for shipment 

to laboratories for analysis. 

DIAGNOSTIC MEASUREMENTS. The detonation of a nuclear device is a progressive release of increasing amounts of nuclear radiation, some of which directly 

escapes the device. The rest of the radiant energy interacts with the associated material of the device itself and is converted into differing forms of 

24 
radiation and into the kinetic energy of the remaining materials in a small 

fraction of a second. The intensely hot core then reradiates, heating the surrounding air and creating a shock wave that propagates outward from the burst 

point. 

Weapon diagnosticians used sophisticated techniques to follow the processes 

that occur during the device detonation. Detectors and collectors were run up 

to, and sometimes inside, the device case so that the radiation being sampled 

could be directly channeled some distance away and be recorded by instrumentation designed to survive the ensuing blast. To enhance its transport, radiation 

was conducted through pipes (often evacuated or filled with special gases) 

from the device to stations where recording instrumentation was located or 

where the information could be retransmitted to a survivable recording station. 

Radiation measurements are based upon the effects that result from the 

interaction of the radiation with matter. Fluorescence is one such effect. 

Materials that fluoresce with radiation exposure were placed in view of cameras 

or light detectors to provide a record of the variation of fluorescent intensity with time, thereby providing an indirect measurement of the radiation 

environment. 

Other methods of detecting radiation involve the shielding (attenuation) 

properties of earth materials, water, and other substances. These materials 

are also used to baffle or collimate radiation to ensure that radiation is 

directed toward the detecting instrument. 

Radiofrequency energy produced by the detonation can be detected by radio 

receivers and, with the addition of filtering and processing circuitry, can 

also provide information about the energy flow from the explosion. Such measurements permit remote placement of receiving and recording instruments. 

The potential for radiation exposure of personnel associated with weapon 

diagnostic experiments depended upon the proximity of the measurement or data 

recovery point to surface zero and the time lapse between the detonation and 

the data collection. 

The primary radiation exposure potential in the vicinity of surface zero 

is from fission products and materials made radioactive by neutron activation 

of device and earth materials. Thus, the distance from surface zero is a principal factor in assessing exposure to persons engaged in the experimental 

program. 

Since radiation decays with time, the time lapse between the detonation 

and exposure is a critical factor in dose assessment. Primary recording media 

for weapon diagnostic experiments were photographic films from oscilloscope, 

streak, or framing cameras located in survivable bunkers near the detonation 

point. Because radiation fogs film in time, these films and other timesensitive data were removed from the bunkers by helicopter-borne personnel 

within hours of the detonation to minimize damage by fogging. This recovery 

constituted the main potential for exposure of weapon diagnostics participants. 

25 
Service Tests 

These experiments were designed to measure the effects of detonations on 

equipment and structures. They were requested by the military services, approved by the AEC, and conducted by a variety of task force organizations. 

The potential for radiation exposure of personnel responsible for recovery 

depended in general upon the proximity of the instruments to the device and 

the elapsed time between detonation and instrument recovery. If the recovery 

was not time-sensitive, the exposure was very low. 

OCEANIC TESTING OPERATIONS 

the 

and 

Nuclear test 

management of 

the remoteness 

operations in 

radioactive 

of Enewetak 

the 

conta

Atoll. 

Pacific 

mination 

posed 

because 

problems 

of the 

in logistics 

limited land 

and 

area 

in 

Marshall Islands Settlng 

The Marshall Islands are in the easternmost part of the area known as Micronesia (“tiny islands”). The Marshalls are spread over 770 thousand mi2 (2 

million km21 of the Earth’s surface, but the total land area is only about 

70 mi2 (180 km2). Two parallel chains form the islands: Ratak (or Sunrise) 

to the east, and Ralik (or Sunset) to the west; Enewetak is in the Ralik chain 

at its northern extreme (Figures 1 and 2). 

A typical atoll, Enewetak is a coral cap set on truncated, submerged volcanic peaks that rise to considerable heights from the ocean floor. Coral and 

sand have gradually built up narrow islands into a ring-like formation with 

open ocean on the outside and a relatively sheltered lagoon on the inside. 

Enewetak has three passages, Southwest Passage, Wide Entrance, and Deep Entrance, that permit access to its lagoon from the sea. All the islands are 

low-lying, with elevations seldom over 20 feet (6 meters) above high tide. 

During nuclear testing, the more populated, support-oriented sections were 

the south and southeast areas of the atoll where the larger islands are located. Devices were detonated on the northern islands and over the northern 

reefs. The western sections of the atoll were not involved in test activities 

except for limited use as instrumentation sites. 

Elliptically shaped, Enewetak Atoll is approximately 550 nmi (about 1,020 

km) southwest of Wake Island and 2,380 nmi (4,410 km) southwest of Honolulu. 

It encloses a lagoon 17 by 23 miles (27 by 37 km) and has a total land area of 

2.75 mi2 (7.12 km2), with elevations averaging 10 feet (3 meters) above 

mean sea level. The support section of Enewetak (Enewetak, Parry, and Japtan 

islands) constitutes about 34 percent of the atoll’s land surface. The string 

of islands from Runit to Bokoluo, the detonation area, constitutes about 32 

percent. The various names used for the islands of the atoll are listed in 

Appendix C, ” Is land Synonyms. ” 

The climate of Enewetak Atoll is tropical marine, generally warm and humid. 

Temperature changes are slight, ranging from 70 O to 9O0F (21° to 32OC). 

Rainfall is moderate, and prolonged droughts may occur. North of Enewetak is 

26 
open ocean for over a thousand miles, with the only inhabited island being 

Wake. East of Enewetak are several atolls including Bikini, Rongelap, Rongerik, 

Ailinginae, and Utirik. Rongelap, the nearest inhabited atoll, is a little over 

260 nmi (about 480 km) from Enewetak. Storms are infrequent, although typhoons 

occur; nevertheless, both wind and sea are continuous erosional agents. Although possible at any time, most 

December. Much cumulus cloud cover exists 

tropical 

in 

storms 

the area. 

occur from September to 

The Enewetak region incorporates three basic wind systems. The northeast 

trade winds extend from the surface to 25,000 or 30,000 feet (7.6 or 9.1 km), 

the upper westerlies from the top of the trades to the base of the tropopause 

at 55,000 to 60,000 feet (16.8 to 18.3 km), and the Krakatoa easterlies from 

the tropopause into the stratosphere. These systems are all basically east-towest or west-to-east currents. Day-to-day changes reflect the relatively small 

north-south components, which are markedly variable. Greatest variation occurs 

in the upper westerlies, particularly during late summer and fall. 

The steady northeast trade winds in the lower levels cause the water at 

the surface of the lagoon to flow from northeast to southwest, where it sinks 

to the bottom and returns along the lower levels of the lagoon, rises to the 

surface along the eastern arc of the reefs and islands, and is moved by the 

winds to the southwest again. The lagoon waters moving in this closed loop 

also mix with those of the open ocean, resulting in a flushing action. Flushing 

is rapid and has two major routes. The first is directly through the eastern 

reefs to the western reefs: the second is in through Deep Entrance between 

Japtan and Parry and out Wide Entrance west of Enewetak Island. These two 

routes also function to keep the waters of the northern part of the lagoon 

separate from the southern waters. 

The islands of Enewetak Atoll had been used for growing coconuts from the 

time of their German possession in the nineteenth century, but during the 1944 

assault and capture of the atoll by American forces, the coconut stands had 

been destroyed on the islands of Enjebi, Enewetak, and Parry. On those islands 

on which the coconut stands had not been destroyed, the lack of normal care 

was evident (Figure 3) as the low-growing native shrubbery advanced. 

After the fighting, an airstrip was built on Enewetak Island, but little 

attempt was made to clear battle debris (Reference A.lO). Facilities and 

structures on the islands were in poor condition in the fall of 1947. In addition, surplus American property purchased by the Chinese had to be removed 

from the island. Many of the islands had short piers that were in poor repair. 

Airstrips had to be built and submarine cable laid. The overall construction 

plan for the proving ground required three test-firing sites, a 200-foot 

(61-meter) tower on each site, and instrument stations. Photographic towers 

also had to be erected and a control station built. 

By Christmas 1947, construction was progressing on schedule, and the rehabilitation of living and messing facilities at Enewetak was well underway. A 

causeway between Aomon and Bijire was constructed by a private company. 

27 


JOINT TASK FORCE 7 

On 18 October 1947, JTF 7 was activated and assigned the code name, 

“Switchman. ” Incorporated into its organization were elements of the four 

military services, other government agencies including the AEC, and civilian 

organizations under contract. The AEC, charged with responsibility for nuclear 

energy development by the Atomic Energy Act of 1946, designated Commander JTF 

7 (CJTF 7) as its representative. JTF 7 was also subordinate to the Joint 

Chiefs of Staff (JCS). These relationships are illustrated in Figure 6. 

The resulting organization, though complex, worked well enough, as it conformed with the realities of the situation. The realities were that the tests 

were being conducted to develop nuclear weapons, an activity limited by law to 

a civilian agency, the AEC. The tests were mainly being conducted in an area 

that came under the jurisdiction of the AEC (in the sense that the AEC was the 

U.S. government agency primarily responsible for the islands that were included 

in the test area>. Furthermore, the territory was remote from the United States 

and required special supply and security arrangements appropriate to military 

operations. Finally, the organization for which the weapons were being developed was the U.S. military establishment. The mission of the task force was 

to, “construct a proving ground, under the scientific direction of the AEC, 

and conduct proof testing of atomic weapons on the Enewetak Atoll” (Reference 

C.5, p. 2-6). Any military service tests or experiments were to be conducted 

on a noninterference basis. 

The Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP) was the tri-service military organization formed to manage the receipt, storage, safety, security, and 

inspection of atomic weapons, if and when the military was required to use 

them. It was most interested in participating in the SANDSTONE tests and coordinated with LASL early in the planning. AFSWP was to provide military personnel to be integrated into Task Group (TG) 7.1 (AEC Proving Ground Group), and 

116 personnel were assigned to this organization. 

The armed services furnished personnel, equipment, and services necessary 

to ensure security, proper operation, and logistic support. The joint task 

force was divided into functional and service-branch oriented task groups. 

The test director of TG 7.1 was responsible to the AEC for direction of 

technical test activities and policies. All military experiments were under 

his direction. TG 7.2 (Army Task Group) was commanded by an Army general officer who was also Commander, Enewetak Atoll. He was responsible for construction 

and security on the atoll as well as billeting, transportation, sanitation, 

retreat ion, medical facilities, and utilities maintenance for all units. TG 

7.3 (Naval Task Group), commanded by a Navy flag officer, was responsible for 

the operational control of all TG 7.3 units, augmenting air-sea rescue by 

available aircraft and ships as required, offshore patrol of a circular area 

from the center of Enewetak Atoll commensurate with available aircraft and 

surface craft, operation of a boat pool, ship security, helicopter operations 

except when attached to the Air Force, and laying of submarine cable. TG 7.4 

(Air Task Group) commanded by an Air Force general officer, was responsible 

for all air operations, meteorological services, interisland air transportation, air-sea rescue, and aerial photography. TG 7.5 (Joint Security Group) 

was responsible for advising appropriate commanders relative to security 

30 
JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF I 

I 

TASK GROUP 7.1 

AEC PROVING GROUND GROUP 

TEST DIRECTOR 

I 

I 

1. 

/ 

DEPUTY COMMANDER _ DEPUTY COMMANDER 

NAVY AIR FORCE TASK UNIT 7.1.1 

SCIENTIFIC UNIT 

LOS ALAMOS LABORATORY -

SCIENTIFIC DIRECTOR 

DEPUTY SCIENTIFIC DIRECTOR 

JOINT RADIOLOGICAL 

LEGEND 

COMMAND 

-- ---TECHNICAL DIRECTION 

-------COORDINATION 

Figure 6. Organization of Joint Task Force 7, SANDSTONE. 

31 
control measures, for safeguarding classified information, for security of the 

instrumentation islands, and for providing couriers. TG 7.6 (Joint Radiological 

Safety Group) was responsible for the operational detection and determination 

of intensities and types of radioactivity. This group furnished monitors to 

accompany all parties returning to an area of possible radioactivity. TG 7.7 

(Kwajalein Island Group) was responsible for billeting, transportation, sanitation, recreation, medical faciljties, and utilities maintenance for all JTF 

7 units on Kwajalein, for the military security of the island, and for construction on Kwajalein. A radsafe officer from the staff of CJTF 7 was assigned 

to TG 7.7 to determine radiological exposure potential for all personnel, including precautions necessary to protect personnel against exposure and detection and determination of intensities and types of radioactivity. TG 7.8 

(Observer Escort Group) was responsible for escorting observers in the test 

area. Thirty 

observers. 

spaces each were allocated to the AEC and the armed forces for 

During peak manning 

for SANDSTONE, the 

mately 350 nonservice 

periods 

Navy 5,850, 

civilians 

the Army provided approximately 

the Air Force 1,800, and 

from LASL, DOD, and various 

2,124 

AFSWP 116. 

other 

personnel 

Approxlcontractor 

organizations participated. The Navy provided a total of 28 Navy ships, 11 

small craft, 6 helicopters, 6 patrol seaplanes, 3 large land-based patrol aircraft, and 2 small aircraft. The Air Force supported SANDSTONE operations with 

over 60 other aircraft. 

Joint Task Force 7 Headquarters 

Figure 7 shows the organization of Hq JTF 7. CJTF 7 had three principal 

deputies, one of whom was the Test Director and in charge of TG 7.1. The joint 

staff and the comptroller were patterned after other military organizations. 

During test operations, Hq JTF 7 was located on USS Mount McKinley (AGC-7) ; 

some staff members were also on USS Albemarle (AV-51, USS Curtiss (AV-41, and 

USS Bairoko (CVE-115). Total strength of Hq JTF 7 during April and May was 

approximately 175 personnel, with approximately 96 stationed on Mount McKinley 

(Reference C.5, p. 3-A9). 

Task Group 7.1 (Atomic Energy Commlsslon Proving Ground Group) 

Figure 8 shows the organization of TG 7.1, which was the heart of the task 

force. It was responsible for preparing and firing the three nuclear devices. 

preparing and conducting all experimental programs, and operating and maintaining all atoll base facilities except those on Enewetak Island, which were 

manned by TG 7.2. TG 7.1 contained both scientific and military civilian personne 1. Subordinate task units are discussed subsequently. In the forward 

area, TG 7.1 was composed of 283 personnel from LASL; AFSWP; Naval Research 

Laboratory: Naval Ordnance Laboratory: Argonne National Laboratory: Edgerton, 

Germeshausen & Grier, Inc.: Aberdeen Proving Ground: AEC; Navy Bureau of Personne 1; David Taylor Model Basin: and the Mi litary Liaison Committee. Table 2 

lists task group strength figures. 

TASK UNIT 7.1.1 (SCIENTIFIC). Task Unit (TU) 7.1.1 was staffed primarily 

with scientists from LASL who were assisted by military personnel as well as 

scientists from other AEC installations and outside agencies. Its nucleus of 

32 
ATOMIC ENERGY 

COMMISSION 

TEST DIRECTOR 

TASK GROUP 7.1 

CHIEF OF STAFF 

J-l 

? ADJUTANT 

GENERAL 

PROVOST 

MARSHAL 

+I HEADQUARTERS 

COMMANDANT 

L 

1 METEOROLOGIST ATOMIC ENERGY 

PHOTOGRAPHIC COMMISSION 

OFFICER STAFF 

L 

SURGEON 

TRANSPORTATION 

ORDNANCE 

OUARTERMASTER 

L

--II 1 TASK GROUP 7.6 ATOMIC ENERGY 

TASK GROUP 7.2 

COMMANDER 

COMMANDER OF COMMISSION 

AIR FORCES RADIOLOGICAL OPERATING 

I 

Figure 7. Organlzatlon of Headquarters, Joint Task Force 7, SANDSTONE. 

33 
COMMANDER 

TASK GROUP 7.1 

TEST DIRECTOR 

DEPUTY TEST DIRECTOR 

STAFF +m 

COMMANDER 

SCIENTIFIC 

TASK UNIT 

DIRECTOR 

7.1.1 

STAFF ~ DEPUTY SCIENTIFIC DIRECTOR 

MEASUREMENTS SECTION $q + 

THEORETICAL PHYSICS LAJ 9 ASSEMBLY LAJ 14 LOGISTICS 

RADIOCHEMISTRY LAJ 10 ENGINEERING LAJ 15 ADMINISTRATION 

MEASUREMENT OF LAJ-11 COMMUNICATIONS LAJ 16 CIRCUITS AND 

NEUTRONS LAJ 12 TIMING AND MAPS 

NEUTRON GENERATION FIRING 

METHOD l-ROSS1 METHOD LLAJ 13 CONSTRUCTION 

METHOD 2-TELLER METHOD 

GAMMA RAY SPECTRUM 

GAMMA RAY APPEARANCE 

METHOD l-ROSS1 METHOD 

METHOD 2--TELLER METHOD 

TECHNICAL PHOTOGRAPHY 

6 LAST 

Flgure 8. Organlzatlon of Task Group 7.1, Operation SANDSTONE. 

34 
-- 

Table 2. Task Group 7.1 personnel strength, SANDSTONE. 

Number of 

Agency Personnel 

Los Alamos Sclentlflc Laboratory 77 

Armed Forces Special Weapons Project 116 

Naval Research Laboratory 23 

Naval Ordnance Laboratory 20 

Argonne National Laboratory 6 

Edgerton, Germeshausen b Grler, Inc. 12 

Aberdeen Proving Ground, Army 8 

Atomic Energy Commission 12 

Bureau of Personnel, Department of the Navy 6 

David Taylor Model Basin, Navy 2 

Mllltary Liaison Commlttee, Atomjc Energy 

Commjssion 1 

Total 283 

Source: Reference C.5, p. l-24. 

LASL personnel was assigned to LASL’s newly created J-Division, and personnel 

from other divisions were also transferred to J-Division (Reference C.5, p. 

l-24). 

The mission of the scientiEic task unit was to provide equipment and personnel and to prepare detailed plans for and to conduct the scientific and 

technical phases of the proof-tests. It fired the devices and made necessary 

observations. TU 7.1.1 was divided into Measurements Section, Firing and 

Engineering Branch, and Services Section. 

Measurements Section. The responsibilities of this section were divided 

into four phases: (1) planning experiments, (2) preparing an experiments handbook, (3) consulting with experimenters at Enewetak. and (4) interpreting results of the experiments. The nucleus of the group consisted of three civilians 

from LASL. This section included J-l through J-8, which conducted experiments 

in theoretical physics, radiochemistry, neutron measurements, neutron generation, gamma-ray spectrum, gamma-ray appearance, technical photography, and 

blast. 

Firinq and Enqlneerinq Branch. An assistant Scientific Director was responsible for the engineering and firing work. He selected a staff of engineers 

from Sandia Branch of LASL to carry out his duties. This branch was responsible 

for the following activities: 

35 
• Weapon assembly and handling 

• Ships’ modifications and installations 

• Engineering 

0 Communications liaison 

a 

a 

Firing circuitry liaison 

Construction liaison 

a Industrial safety. 

Services Section. 

Administration, and 

charge of procurement, 

Services Section included J-14 

Circuits and Maps. Logistics (J-14) 

shipping, and property control. 

through 

was 

J-16 --

a service 

Logistics, 

group in 

J-15 (Administration) was primarily concerned with personnel matters, 

including employment of personnel at LASL,, preparation of all personnel under 

the Scientific Director for overseas travel, arrangements for travel to and 

from the test area, and multiple problems arising from maintaining personnel 

at the forward base. Other minor responsibilities included provision of office 

space, equipment and services, housing at LASL, and similar functions overseas. 

J-16 (Circuits and Maps) was responsible for preparing maps and plans 

indicating the location of all experimental installations and underground 

cables and wires. This group was also responsible for coordinating cable-laying 

during the construction period (Reference C.40, pp. 33, 115, 129). 

Task Group 7.2 (Army) 

Most Army personnel in JTF 7 were assigned to TG 7.2. The group was activated on 15 October 1947. CTG 7.2 was also Atoll Commander for JTF 7. Figure 9 

shows the TG 7.2 organization. Table 3 lists units involved and enumerates the 

personnel at Enewetak. This task group was engaged in construction throughout 

the atoll and operated base facilities at Enewetak Island and the atoll. 

During the operational shot phase, TG 7.2 personnel provided the following 

services for all units ashore on the atoll: 

0 Construct ion 

• Maintenance of ordnance wheeled vehicles 

• Atoll ground defense and general security 

• Operation of transient billeting 

• Bakery and messing 

a Repair and maintenance services for utilities and 

facilities 

• Operation and maintenance of off-island radio 

communications 

• Transportation 

• Counterintelligence 

36 
_-------P-F 

ADMINISTRATION ONLY 

1 

L- PERSONNEL 

SECTION 

LIGHT AVIATION 

COMBAT 

INFORMATION 

UTILITIES Il- EMBARKATION ----------

ENGINEERING SUPPLY 

AND MAINTENANCE 

PORT DIRECTOR 

CENTER t- DUARTERMASTER 

L- PHOTO SECTION LAUNDRY 

ORDNANCE 

MAINTENANCE 

AND SUPF-LV 

1 FINANCE 1 SIGNAL SIJPPLV 

TRANSPORTATION 

COMPANY SUPPLY 

I 

1 SIG,,] pz--1 t 

MEDICAL SUPPLY 

POST EXCHANGE 

SUPPLY 

SPECIAL SERVICES 

SUPPLY 

1217th COMPOSITE 

SERVICE PLATOON 

1218th COMPOSITE 

SERVICE PLATOON 

L AIR WEATHER 1219th COMPOSITE 

SERVICE 

I

I L COMPOSITE SIGNAL 

I I I I DETACHMENT 

‘532nd ENGINEER BOAT & 

I BASE HOSPITAL I 

Figure 9. Organlzatlon of Task Group 7.2, SANDSTONE. 
Table 3. Task Group 7.2 operating strength at Enewetak, SANDSTONE, 

Unit Strength 

1220th Provlslonal Englneer Battalion 26 officers 

(1217th, 1218th Composite Servjce 2 warrant officers 

Platoons; Hq & Hq Detachment, 18th 468 enllsted men 

Engineer Construction Company; 

1219th Slgnal Service Platoon with 

attached Composjte Signal Detachment) 

2nd Engineer Special Brigade 49 officers 

(532nd EB&SR, Hq & Hq Company D, 4 warrant officers 

Company E, and Medical Detachment) 566 enllsted men 

461st Transportation Amphlblous Truck Company 1 officer 

26 enllsted men 

Hq 854th Transportatlon Port Company 8 officers 

272 enlisted men 

Naval Shore Base Detachment, wlth Navy 7 officers 

Slgnal Team 110 enlisted men 

Photo Team No. 7 2 officers 

4 enllsted men 

401st CIC Detachment 2 officers 

50 enlisted men 

Sources: Personnel Rosters TG 7.2, 31 March 1948; SANDSTONE 

Reports 3 and 4) 

0 Sanitation 

• Operation of port and port headquarters 

0 Special services (recreation) facilitjes 

0 Medical and dental services 

0 Financial services. 

Task Group 7.3 (Navy) 

The Navy task group provided support at Enewetak Atoll for the scientific 

programs and carried out surface and air operations in and around the atoll. 

The main tasks of TG 7.3 were to: 

• Deliver nuclear components to Enewetak Atoll 

• Provide mobile facilities for devices at the test site 

• Conduct surface and air security measures In the Enewetak 

Danger Area 

38 
• Provide intra-atoll water transport 

• Plan for evacuation of all personnel from the atoll 

• Transport personnel and scientific and naval equipment to 

and from the atoll 

• Provide living accommodations for task group personnel 

• Lay cable 

a Provide offshore patrol. 

In order to carry out these tasks, TG 7.3 was organized into eight functional 

task units. 

Most of the naval vessels stayed at Enewetak during the test series except 

for the destroyers, which routinely were on surveillance patrols of the area. 

The flagship, Mount McKinley, was anchored off Parry Island for all three 

shots. GSS Comstock (LSD-191 was the mother ship for the boat pool, which provided water transportation for all task units during SANDSTONE. Most TG 7.3 

personnel remained on board ships except for those involved in scientific 

operations. Table 4 provides the personnel strength for TG 7.3. 

Task Group 7.4 (Air Force) 

The SANDSTONE TG 7.4 mission was local air transport, cloud sampling, 

weather data, communications, search and rescue, and photographic support. 

Specific missions were to: 

• Provide and operate aircraft for experimental programs and 

cloud sampling operations 

a Provide and operate aircraft to gather weather data 

• Provide and operate weather observation posts at Enewetak, 

Rongerik, Majuro, Kwajaleln, and Wake 

0 Provide and operate JTF 7 Weather Central on Mount McKinley 

• Provide and operate liaison-type aircraft for intra-atoll 

transportation at Enewetak 

a Provide and operate aircraft for search and rescue operations within 300 nmi (556 km) of Enewetak 

• Provide photographic coverage of Operation SANDSTONE. 

Air Force personnel in SANDSTONE were in many task force organizations in 

addition to manning TG 7.4. Within Hq JTF 7, there were 55 Air Force personnel, 

22 on the JTF 7 staff and 33 working for Commander Air Forces. Commander Air 

Forces was also a deputy to the task force commander and had his own staff and 

command authority for TG 7.4. TG 7.4 was organized as shown in Figure 10. 

Table 5 shows GF 7.4 personnel distributed by task unit. 

Providing and operating aircraft in support of SANDSTONE was the primary 

function of TG 7.4. Table 6 shows types and numbers of aircraft used at SANDSTONE by TG 7.3 and TG 7.4. 

39 
Table 4. Task Group 7.3 organlzatlon and 

personnel strength, SANDSTONE. 

lask Unit/Designation Strength 

7.3.1 Flagship US,Mo_unt_C?cKin&y (AGC-7) 578 

7.3.2 ~- Main Naval lask Unit, Enewetak 

USS_P!ckaway (APA-222) 290 

USS Warrick (AKA-89) lb1 

USS_Curtiss (AV-4) 555 

USS_YYncey (AKA-93) 148 

USS Albemarlc (AV-5) 53 I 

USS_LST~-45 66 

USSLST -2T9 60 

!JSS LST:P!! 53 

7.3.3 -- Off-Shore Patrol 

USS GarrlTners Bay (AVP-39) 173 

USS.H~QL~_W. Tucker (DDR-875) 233 

USS__Roqer-- (DDR-876) 234 

USS Perkins (DDR-877) 233 

USS SpanqTer~ (DE -696) 135 

USS~~Ge_oo_rqe(DE-697) 141 

USS Raby (OE-698) 143 

USS M4h (Dt-699) 138 

USS Currier (DE-700) 136 

Patrol Squadron (MS) 6 Detachment 153 

Developmental Squadron 4 Detachment 54 

AVR #C-26638 6 

AVR #C-26653 6 

7.3.4 .- Hellcopter Unit 

USS Balroko (CVE-115) with 4 H03S and 710 

? Hll heltcopters 

7.3.5 -- Services Unit 

USS--Arequ&a (AF -31) 76 

USS PasA (AU-3) 164 

YOG-64 11 

Yw-94a 

7.3.6 .- Cable Unit 

LSM-250 61 

LSM-378 43 

Naval Signal Unit No. 1 54 

7.3.7 -- Boat Pool Unit 

USS Comstock (LSD-19) 252 

USS Askarl (ARL-30) 164 

LCI 549 18 

LCl(L)-1054 21 

tcT(Lj-1090 21 

tcT-472a 

tcT -494a 

Lcl-lT94a 

LcT -1345a 

Varlous small boats: 4 LCTs, 2 AVRs, 28 LCMs 

32 LCVPs, 1 LCPR, 6 LCPLs, 2 PPBs, 2 50-foot Mls, 

2 35-Foot MBs, 1 MWB. 

7.3.8 -- Evacuation and Reentry Unit 

Units from other task units as asslgned 

lotal 5,984 

Note: 

aNo data available. 

Sources: Data from CNO OP 981-10 Aug 87 and 

Reference C.4, p. XVII-34. 

40 
LEGEND 

- COMMAND 

CHIEF OF STAFF ------OPERATIONAL 

I CONTROL ONLY I 

-- -COORDINATION 

A-2 A-l INTELLIGENCE

ADMINISTRATION AND SECURITY 

4 CHAPLAIN 1 

-I LEGAL 

I 

j STATISTICS 1 ,L__ 

--- +------I 

I 

i_----, 

I 

TASK UNIT 7.4.1 TASK UNIT 7.43 HEADQUARTERS PHOTOGRAPHY ri AND SERVICES

, 

I I 

I TASK UNIT 7.42 

DRONES 

I I 

Figure 10. Organlzatlon of Task Group 7.4, SANDSTONE. 

41 
-- 

Table 5. Task Group 7.4 SANDSTONE personnel distribution 

(26 January 1948). 

Unit Command Officers Alrmen Civilians Totals 

Hq JTF 7 Mixed 17 5 22a 

Commander Air 

Forces, JTF 7 SAC 12 10 _- 22a 

TU 7.4.1 APG 66 518 _- 584 

TU 7.4.2 APG 105 376 .- 481 

TU 7.4.3 APG 43 102 19 164 

TU 7.4.4 ATC 47 185 -- 232 

TU 7.4.5 ATC 13 20 -- 33 

TU 7.4.6 ATC 4 109 -- 113 

TU 7.4.7 ATC 12 35 -- 47 

TU 7.4.9 Mixed 2 11 _- 13 

Notes: 

aU.S. Air Force strength only, does not Include other servjces. 

SAC -- Strategic Air Command 

APG -- Air Proving Ground 

ATC -- Air Transport Command 

Source: Reference C.5, p. 3-A-12. 

42 
Table 6. SANDSTONE alrcraft, 

Type Quantity Task Unit Mlsslon 

PBM-5 6 7.3.3 Offshore air patrol 

PB-1W (B-176) 3 7.3.3 Offshore air patrol 

OB-17G 12 7.4.2 Drone controllers 

98-176 12 7.4.2 Drone samplers 

c-54 2 7.4.3 Photography 

F-13a 3 7.4.3 Photography 

WB-29 8 7.4.4 Weather reconnaissance 

SB-17 2 7.4.5 Search and rescue 

OA-10 2 7.4.5 Search and rescue 

H03S 4 7.4.5 Search and rescueb 

HTL 2 7.4.5 Search and rescueb 

PBM-5 2 7.4.5 Search and rescueb 

c-54 11 7.4.7 Interato 11 transport 

and samp le return 

c-47 3 7.4.7 Interato 11 transport 

L-4 2 7.4.9 Llalson 

L-5 11 7.4.9 Llalson 

Notes: 

aAn F-13 was a 8-29 modlfled for photography.

b

Navy supplled two PBM seaplanes for search and rescue on shot 

days only and four H03S and two HTL hellcopters. The hellcopters were used for sclentiflc support on shot days and for 

high-priority lnterlsland transportation on nonshot days. 

Sources: Reference C.3, pp. VIII-5, 26, 32, 60; Reference C.4, 

pp. XVII-35). 

TASK UNIT 7.4.1 (HEADQUARTERSAND SERVICE UNIT). This unit formed Hq TG 7.4 

and provided TG 7.4 aircraft with supply and maintenance support. It also performed most of the base housekeeping services for Air Force units on Kwajalein, 

where it was stationed. 

TASK UNIT 7.4.2 (DRONE UNIT). This unit was made up of 460 men from the 1st 

Experimental Guided Missiles Group at Eglin Field, Florida. Men from this task 

unit operated 24 B-17s, 12 of which were drone control aircraft and 12 were 

unmanned cloud sampling aircraEt. Contaminated drones were landed at Enewetak, 

where the radioactive cloud sample filters were removed by LASL personnel. The 

43 
drones were decontaminated at Enewetak and then returned to Kwajalein where 

the unit was stationed. 

TASK UNIT 7.4.3 (PHOTOGRAPHYUNIT). This unit had separate suborganizations 

to accomplish its diverse missions. Aerial photography was done by the 311th 

Air Division using C-54s and F-13s. Documentary photography was done by seven 

teams on various ships and attached to various task groups. Tower photography 

was done by another team. A film processing laboratory was also set up on 

board Curtiss. Additional personnel for TU 7.4.3 came from Lookout Mountain 

Laboratory, LASL, Army, Navy, and Marine Corps. 

TASK UNIT 7.4.4 (WEATHER UNIT). This unit was composed of two separate 

groups that collected weather data. Weather reconnaissance was done by the 

514th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron operating eight WB-29s out of Kwajalein. 

These aircraft were also used to track the radioactive cloud after each shot 

for up to 5 days. For cloud-tracking operations a monitor from TG 7.6 was 

aboard each aircraft. Cloud-tracking aircraft always returned with exterior 

contamination, requiring monitoring and personnel decontamination operations 

(Reference C.43, p. 91). The second group was the weather reporting portion of 

the task unit. Two persons were stationed aboard Mount McKinley. One of these 

was in charge of JTF 7 Weather Central. Weather reports from several other 

atolls were furnished daily to Weather Central. 

TASK UNIT 7.4.5 (AIR RESCUE UNIT). This task unit was made up of personnel 

of the 5th Air Rescue Squadron from MacDill AFB, Florida, who flew two OA-10 

and two SB-17 rescue aircraft. They were stationed at Kwajalein but were at 

Enewetak on shot days. The Navy provided six helicopters from Bairoko and two 

PBMs on shot days. 

TASK UNIT 7.4.6 (AIRWAYS AND AIR COMMUNICATIONSSERVICE [AACS] UNIT). This 

unit was responsible for TG 7.4 communications and for airbase navigational 

aids at Enewetak and Kwajalein. The 71st AACS Group, Hickam Field, Hawaii, 

provided 27 men: 86 more came from several units in the United States. 

TASK UNIT 7.4.7 (INTERISLAND TRANSPORT UNIT). This unit operated 11 C-54 

and 3 C-47 aircraft from the Kwajalein Air Base, ferried personnel and equipment to and from Enewetak, and conducted aerial radiological surveys of groundlevel radiation at shot sites. The C-54s also flew radioactive cloud samples 

and exposed film to the United States. This task unit, which consisted of 47 

men, also borrowed personnel and aircraft from the 1535th Air Force Base Unit, 

which was permanently stationed on Kwajalein. 

TASK UNIT 7.4.8. This unit was used only to control the movement of TG 7.4 

personnel to and from the PPG. 

TASK UNIT 7.4.9 (LIAISON UNIT). This unit operated 13 fixed-wing light aircraft and 6 helicopters to transport men and equipment to the various islands 

of Enewetak Atoll. Thirteen Air Force personnel were assigned to this unit 

along with Navy pilots who flew the helicopters off Bairoko. 

44 
Task Group 7.5 (Joint Security Group) 

The missions assigned to TG 7.5 were: 

• Travel control (air and water) 

• Protection of technical installations 

a Security survey of the atoll 

• Dissemination of security information 

• Establishment and implementation of security clearances in 

the forward area. 

In addition, TG 7.5 personnel guarded the drones when they landed at Enewetak. 

Five TG 7.5 courier teams escorted the radioactive cloud sample filters and 

film back to the United States. Approximately 30 AFSWP personnel from the 38th 

Engineer Battalion were sent to TG 7.5 as special guards (Reference C.5, p. 

5-l). On 24 January 1948, two officers and thirty-three enlisted military 

police arrived to strengthen units on Enjebi, Aomon, Runit, and Parry. 

Task Group 7.6 (Joint Radiologlcal Safety Group) 

On 29 February 1948, TG 7.6 was 

ational purposes (Reference C.35, p. 

divided 

37): 

into the following units for oper-

• TU 7.6.1 Air Monitor Unit (based on Kwajalein) 

• TU 7.6.2 Staff Unit 

• TU 7.6.3 Operations Unit 

• TU 7.6.4 Laboratory Unit 

• TU 7.6.5 Radiological Records Unit 

a TU 7.6.6 Technical Measurements Unit 

• TU 7.6.7 Monitor Unit 

• TU 7.6.8 Advisory Unit 

• TU 7.6.9 Rear Echelon Unit. 

The primary responsibility 

logical safety of TG 7.4 and 

to be of value to the AEC or 

erence C.35, p. 86). 

of the 

also to 

DOD. It 

Air Monitor 

obtain, co

consisted 

Unit 

mpile, 

of 24 

was 

and 

Air 

to ensure 

evaluate 

Force officers 

the 

data 

radiolikely 

(RefThe Staff Unit administered services such as communications, logistics, 

historical records, photographic liaison, and athletics. It was also concerned 

with personnel morale. This unit consisted of six officers and eight enlisted 

men. 

The Operations Unit supported CJTF 7 and CTG 7.6 planning and radsafe 

operations. It maintained current information on all radioactive areas and on 

the location of all monitors and parties engaged in radiological operations. 

It controlled operations of all radsafe missions. The unit consisted of seven 

officers. 

45 
The Laboratory Unit performed all laboratory work required to support 

radsafe operations including: repair and calibration of instruments: developing. reading, and calibrating personnel film badges: measurement of decay 

rates of radioactive samples: and determination of the radiation exposure 

potential from radioactive materials. It also prepared comparative records of 

instrument performance. The unit consisted of two officers, eight enlisted 

men, and two civilians. 

The Radiological Records Unit calculated exposures of all personnel who 

entered radioactive areas and submitted its findings. It prepared all necessary 

reports concerning exposures and overexposures and made recommendations to CTG 

7.6. The unit also established a medical review board to consider and comment 

on all findings of radiological overexposure. It consisted of one officer, one 

enlisted man. and one civilian. 

The Technical Measurements Unit supervised and coordinated all technical 

measurement projects assigned to TG 7.6. It consisted of five officers, four 

enlisted men, and two civilians. 

The Monitor Unit provided monitors and equipment for all radsafe missions, 

including decontamination operations. This unit consisted of nine Army officers, twelve Navy officers, one Pubic Health Service officer, and four Army 

enlisted men. 

The Advisory Unit acted in an advisory capacity to the task force radsafe 

officer on medical and technical matters. It consisted of three civilians. 

The Rear Echelon Unit consisted of one officer. He maintained liaison with 

supporting activities in the continental United States. 

TG 7.6 

radsafe duties, 

in Chapter 

arrived on 

TG 7.6 

3 (References 

also 

Enewetak Atoll 

conducted s

C.35 and B.6.1). 

by 16 

everal 

March 

experiments, 

1948. In 

which 

addition 

are d

to 

escribed 

its 

Task Group 7.7 (Kwajalein Island Command) 

A permanent garrison of Army, Navy, and Air Force personnel existed on 

Kwajalein Island at the time of SANDSTONE. Most of TG 7.4 was stationed on 

Kwajalein. Commander Navy Base Kwajalein was designated as CTG 7.7 to facilitate integration of Kwajalein into the planning and operation of SANDSTONE. He 

was responsible for billeting, transportation, sanitation, recreation, medical 

facilities, and utilities maintenance for all task force units ashore on 

Kwajalein. He was also responsible for military security and all construction 

at Kwajalein. TU 7.7.3 was the Joint Control and Liaison Office. TU 7.7.4 was 

the Aviation Engineer Unit (926th Aviation Engineer Battalion) and did all 

construction in preparation for TG 7.4. 

The Kwajalein Island Command had two Air Force units assigned to assist 

during SANDSTONE. One, the 1535th Air Force Base Unit, supplied personnel and 

aircraft for TU 7.4.7. The other was the 31-8 Air Weather Service Detachment, which had 23 men on Kwajalein to support SANDSTONE with air weather 

information. 

46 
Task Group 7.8 (Observer Escort Group) 

TG 7.8 was organized to escort official observers and was assisted by personnel and facilities of TG 7.2. TG 7.2 arranged for observers’ accommodations, 

transportation, and activities ashore. Five or six officers of TG 7.2 were 

assigned to observer parties to provide information (Reference C.3, p. VI, 

C-8-9). 

47 
CHAPTER 2 

RADIOLOGICAL SAFETY 

Radiological safety (radsafe) for Operation SANDSTONE was defined as a 

command responsibility in Joint Task Force 7 Field Order 1. One task group, TG 

7.6, was given primary responsibility for ensuring the health and safety of 

the task force in the face of potential exposure to radioactivity (Reference 

C.43, Appendix B-l). Activities of TG 7.6 had the following objectives (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex A): 

1. Inform Commander Joint Task Force 7 (CJTF 7) regarding 

safe employment of personnel in radioactive areas 

2. Inform CJTF 7 about radiological hazards that might cause 

injury or sickness 

3. Prepare instructions outlining precautions necessary to 

protect personnel from radiation exposure 

4. Reevaluate the hazards of radioactive areas as radiological work progressed 

5. Advise the Task Force Surgeon on diagnosis and treatment 

of illness or injury resulting from, or associated with, 

exposure to radioactivity. 

The radsafe plan for TG 7.6 was derived primarily from the Joint Task Force 

Field Orders. It detailed the application of safety criteria during operations 

and included procedures for training, installing equipment aboard task force 

ships, monitoring, and decontaminating personnel and equipment. 

ORGANIZATION AND RESPONSIBILITIES 

Overall organization planning and authority for radiological safety rested 

with CJTF 7. The commander’s staff, specifically the Staff Radiological Safety 

Officer, was responsible for radsafe planning. The Staff Radiological Safety 

Officer coordinated radsafe information during shot operations and maintained 

liaison with the Commander-in-Chief of the Pacific (CINCPAC) regarding radiological contamination outside the Pacific Proving Ground (PPG) (Reference C.43, 

p. 4). Elements of control existed at all command levels, and operational 

control was implemented through normal command channels. For example, party 

leaders in radioactive areas were responsible for the radiological safety of 

their personnel. 

CTG 7.6 exercised control of a functional group composed of Army, Navy, 

Air Force, U.S. Public Health Service (USPHS), and various civilian personnel. 

Carrying out the safety policy within a separate activity allowed coordination 

of effort without impeding the overall operation (Reference C.43, p. 4). CTG 

7.6 performed the following tasks (Reference C.43, Appendix B-l): 

1. Organization and command of a joint radsafe group composed 

of radsafe monitors and supporting personnel 

48 
2. Support of all operations in radioactive areas by supplying radiological monitors and equipment 

3. Promulgation of radsafe regulations and reporting their 

infractions 

4. Detection and determination of the intensity and types of 

radioactivity encountered in all radioactive areas 

5. Organization and supervision of personnel decontamination 

as necessary. 

TG 7.6 was divided into the task units shown in Figure 11. Descriptions of 

major functions of the task units follow. 

TASK GROUP 7.6 

JOINT RADIOLOGICAL SAFETY GROUP 

TASK UNIT 7.6.4 

AIR MONITOR UNIT LABORATORY UNIT 

10 MILITARY 2 CIVILIANS 

TASK UNIT 7.6.2 TASK UNIT 7.6.5 

STAFF UNIT RADIOLOGICAL RECORDS UNIT ADVISORY UNIT 

14 MILITARY 2 MILITARY 1 CIVILIAN I 3 CIVILIANS

Figure 11. Task Group 7.6 (Jotnt Radiologlcal Safety Group), 

Operation SANDSTONE. 

Task Unit 7.6.1 (Air Monltorlng Unit] 

Task Unit (TU) 7.6.1 was composed of 24 Air Force officer monitors. It 

operated from Kwajalein Atoll, supporting the mission of Commander Air Forces, 

JTF 7, and had responsibities !Yor instrument repair, calibration, and photometry (Reference C.43, Appendix B-2). 

During the period from 1 November to 15 December 1947, personnel requirements for the radsafe group were estimated at 50 officers, 17 enlisted men, 

and 5 civilians. Ten officers were air monitors, whose chief duty was to advise 

airborne crews about radioactive intensities at shot time, indicate paths of 

least intensity for entry and exit, distribute film badges to aircrews before 

takeoff, and collect film badges upon completion of the mission (Reference 

C.43, p. 7). About 22 January 1948, planners realized that the number of air 

monitors needed had been underestimated. As a result, nine officers of the 

Medical Service Corps, USAF, were added (Reference C.43, p. 8). 

49 
On 17 March personnel from TU 7.6.1 departed for Kwajalein from Enewetak 

to begin operations with TG 7.4 (Reference C.43, p. 50). Projects undertaken 

immediately included publication of operational memoranda, assignment of monitors to mission aircraft, indoctrination and ground training of monitors for 

flying operations, construction of personnel decontamination and instrument 

calibration facilities, orientation and indoctrination of TG 7.4 personnel, 

evaluation of instrument performance at high altitudes, photographic documentation, detailed operational planning for shot days, and monitoring indoctrination flights (Reference C.43, pp. 86-87). 

A TU 7.6.1 air monitor was aboard each manned aircraft in the test area on 

shot days to prevent aircraft from entering areas where the radiation intensity exceeded 0.100 R/hr. Radiation detection equipment used by air monitors 

is listed in Table 7. The unit monitored drone aircraft after landing and 

engaged in decontamination operations at Enewetak. It also participated in 

aircraft monitoring and personnel decontamination operations on Kwajalein, 

including cloud-tracking operations until Ht108. TU 7.6.1 personnel also repaired and calibrated instruments, prepared medical exposure records, and 

compiled mission reports (Reference C.43, pp. 87-88). 

Each monitor averaged two training flights with his assigned crew before 

the X-RAY rehearsal. These practice flights permitted monitors to develop 

radsafe procedures that minimized interference with the primary mission. 

Instrument performance data were accumulated and analyzed. As a result of 

these data, instrumentation procedures were changed for better operations 

(Reference C.43, p. 88). 

By the day of the X-RAY rehearsal, the unit had mapped out radsafe procedures aboard aircraft, completed operational plans for test days, and was 

plotting radiological exclusion (radex) areas daily. In addition, the personnel 

decontamination center at Kwajalein for TG 7.4 and TG 7.6 was being readied 

for 

pp. 

operation. 

88-89). 

TU 7.6.1 also indoctrinated TG 7.4 personnel (Reference C.43, 

X-RAY test 

The radiological 

consisted 

procedure aboard 

of the following 

aircraft 

(Reference 

during 

C.43, 

the X-RAY rehearsal 

p. 90): 

and 

• At H-30 minutes instruments were turned on 

• At H-5 

members 

minutes 

turned 

cabin heaters 

on 100 percent 

were shut 

oxygen 

off and all crew-

• At H-10 

goggles 

seconds all crewmembers adjusted high-density 

• After detonation, goggles were 

phenomena and monitor instruments 

removed to observe burst 

• After leaving 

monitored 

the area the interior of aircraft was 

• Upon landing 

monitored. 

the crew and the aircraft exterior were 

50 
Table 7. Radlologlcal safety equlpment dlstrlbutlon, SANDSTONE. 

Party 

Group Equlpment Monltor Member 

Sclentlflc Film badge X X 

Group Doslmeters X X 

Protective clothtng X X 

Gas masksa X X 

Air Group Ion-chamber survey Instrument X 

Geiger-Mueller counter X 

1 or 2 protexlmeters X 

1 pocket doslmeter (0.2 R) X 

1 or 2 hlgh-range doslmeter(s) (10 R or 50 R) X 

1 casualty fllm badge X 

Film badge X X 

Dlsaster Group Casualty film badge X 

Film badge X 

Pocket doslmeter (0.2 R) X 

Pocket doslmeter (10 R) X 

Pocket doslmeter(50 R) X 

Gas mask, hood X 

High-range lon survey meter X 

Alpha meter X 

Zero Day Ashore Film badges X X 

Group 0.2 R pocket doslmeter X X 

10 R pocket doslmetera X X 

Casualty film badgea X X 

Enewetak, Geiger-Mueller counter X 

Parry, Ujelang Ion chamber instrument X 

0.2 R pocket doslmeter X 

Film badgesb X X 

Notes: 

'Urgent work. The casualty film badges orlglnally were planned to contain 

hlgh-range film (above 10 R), but there Is no evidence that they were used. 

The high-range film may have been !ncorporated In the normal film badge. 

b

Parry and Enewetak personnel only. 

Source: Reference C.43, Annex 3-3 to Field Order 1. 

Task Unlt 7.6.2 (Staff Unlt) 

The Staff Unit of TG 7.6 was established by Special Order Number 2 to 

administer services to the task grdup. The kinds of services ranged from communications to athletic programs (Reference C.43, p. Appendix B-2). Six officers and eight enlisted men were assigned to this task unit on 29 February 

1948 (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex I, Part 11-l). 

51 
Task Unit 7.6.3 (Operations Unit) 

The Operations Unit , composed of seven officers, supported CJTF 7 and CTG 

7.6 planning and radsafe operations. It maintained current information on 

location of all monitors and parties engaged in radiological operations. It 

also maintained current information on all radioactive areas and controlled 

operations of all radsafe missions (Reference C.43, p. Appendix B-2). The 

plotting room located on the flag bridge of USS Mount McKinley (AGC-7) was 

used and maintained only for shot days unless otherwise directed by the JTF 7 

Radsafe Officer. Data were recorded on a chart of the atoll and on detailed 

maps of each island involved in the test. The unit also maintained current air 

and surface radex area information. The Radsafe Center on Mount McKinley furnished systematic information to the plotting room and the JTF 7 Radsafe Officer. The Radsafe Center communicated directly with monitors in the field on 

test days. 

Task Unit 7.6.4 (Laboratory Unit) 

TU 7.6.4, established by Special Order 2, was composed of two civilians, 

two officers, and eight enlisted men (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex I, 

Part 11-2). This unit performed all laboratory work required to support radsafe 

operations, including repair and calibration of instruments: development, 

reading, and calibration of personnel film badges; and measurements of the 

decay rates of radioactive samples (Reference C.43, Appendix B-2). Laboratories 

were established on Enewetak (specifically for crater sample recovery) and 

aboard USS Bairoko (CVE-115). These laboratories plotted isointensity lines 

(or contours) and monitored biological samples (Reference C.43, p. 60). All 

samples were brought to the instrument issue area, never directly to the laboratory (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex C-1&2). 

TV 7.6.4 was responsible for maintaining an adequate stock of health physics survey instruments; for the repair, servicing, and calibration of the 

instruments: and for an evaluation of the various types of health physics survey instruments. It processed and read the photographic personnel film badges. 

Laboratory facilities were also made available to TV 7.6.6 (Technical Measurements Unit) for any measurements necessary in connection with its projects 

(Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex C-l). 

The Laboratory Unit maintained a stock of calibrated ionization chamber 

and Geiger-Mueller (GM) survey instruments and pocket dosimeters in the after 

ready room of Bairoko for reentry surveys. Instruments were issued on the 

hangar deck of Bairoko upon recommendation of the Operations Officer and were 

returned there after use. Photographic film badges were issued to each party 

in sufficient numbers to badge al 1 members. Instruments were checked for contamination (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex C). Film badges and pocket 

dosimeters were returned to the issue room where they were processed, read, 

and recorded on forms supplied by the Radiological Records Unit. Records were 

kept on repair and replacement of each survey instrument. In addition, a series 

of tests was conducted on the various instruments, and the monitors were surveyed to evaluate instrument design features. 

52 
Task Unit 7.6.5 (Radlological Records Unit) 

This unit was composed of a civilian, an officer, and an enlisted man 

(Reference C.43, Special Order 2). TU 7.6.5 calculated and recorded the exposures for all personnel who entered radioactive areas and prepared regular 

exposure reports as well as special reports of any overexposures. The Radiological Record Unit’s Medical Review Board considered and commented on all 

overexposures (Reference C.43, Appendix B-2). All pocket dosimeters and film 

badges were read and the results recorded when work in radioactive areas was 

completed. CTG 7.6 sent the results to CJTF 7, with copies to the Test Director 

and Scientific Director. The report gave the names of all individuals receiving 

exposures exceeding 0.1 R on any day of operations and indicated total accumulated radiation received by the individuals to date (Reference C.43, Appendix 

B, Annex A). 

Task Unit 7.6.6 (Technical Measurements Untt) 

The Technical Measurements Unit was composed of 11 men, including civilians 

and military. The unit supervised all technical measurement projects assigned 

to CTG 7.6 (Reference C.43, Appendix B-2). Projects were suggested by the Armed 

Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP), Navy Bureau of Medicine and Surgery 

(BuMed) , Navy Bureau of Ships (BuShips) , Navy Bureau of Aeronautics, and Army 

Chemical Corps. These projects, discussed further in Chapter 3. involved studies of nuclear and optical radiation,effects of nuclear detonations (Reference 

C.43, Appendix B, p. G-1-2). 

Task Unit 7.6.7 (Monitor Unit) 

The monitor unit, composed of 26 officers, provided monitors and equipment 

for all radsafe missions. It also decontaminated personnel as necessary. 

Because of the number of operations using monitors and the necessity for 

locating each member of TG 7.6, a detailed operation schedule for each day 

throughout the test periods was prepared. Each radsafe party was given a number, its time of movement noted, monitors’ names given, type of transportation 

cl ted, and a brief summary of the specific mission stated. Mission priority 

was also designated as routine or urgent. A rough draft of the schedule was 

thoroughly studied, and shortly before X-RAY it was mimeographed in final form 

and distributed to all personnel concerned. Beginning 2 days after X-RAY 

(X-RAY D+21, a schedule was published each night for the following day. A new, 

abbreviated schedule gave the radsafe party number, a brief description of the 

mission, names of the monitors, type and number of instruments involved, number of film badges provided, and times of issue and departure. Monitor assignments were regulated in accordance with previous exposure (Reference C.43, pp. 

56-56a) . 

The basic plans for YOKE and ZEBRA operations followed the same pattern as 

X-RAY. Radsafe activities were a repetition of those of X-RAY. Whenever possible, however, personnel were reassigned from one group to another, so broad 

experience in various aspects of radiological safety could be gained (Reference 

C.43, pp. 62. 64). 

53 
Task Unit 7.6.8 (Advisory Unit) 

This unit was established by Special Order 2 to advise the task force 

Radsafe Officer on medical and technical matters. TU 7.6.8 was staffed by 

three civilians (Reference C.43, Appendixes B-l and B-2). 

Task Unit 7.6.9 (Rear Echelon Unit) 

The Rear Echelon Unit maintained liaison with supporting activities in the 

United States. It was established by Special Order 2 (Reference C.43, Appendix 

B-2) and consisted of one officer based in Washington, D.C., who was affiliated 

with AFSWP (Reference C.43, Appen- dix B, Annex I, Part 11-3). 

TRAINING 

Considerable staffing problems had to be resolved before assembling the 

necessary TG 7.6 “primary duty” technicians, most of whom were military personnel affiliated with AFSWP or the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) and were 

graduates of the radsafe schools at Treasure Island (Navy) and Edgewood Arsenal 

(Army) (Reference C.43, p. 5). 

Before CROSSROADS, a special JTF 1 Radiological Safety School was established by the Navy. One of the lessons learned by the Navy from CROSSROADSwas 

that a full radiological safety program was required. Accordingly, in October 

1946, the Chief of Naval Operations directed that such a program be established 

with the least practicable delay (Reference B.3.0.1). The Bureau of Naval Personnel Special Committee outlined the goals of a radsafe training program on 3 

December 1946. The basic premises (Reference B.3.0.2) in instituting the Navy’s 

training program were: 

1. Navy damage control procedures should be able to handle 

multiple effects of atomic bombs 

2. Shore establishments were the most important target of an 

atomic attack 

3. The Navy’s radsafe training program should supplement 

courses given at the damage control schools 

4. Personnel should be trained at several levels of qualificat ion 

5. Instruments for the classes should be provided through a 

BuShips development program 

6. The primary source of basic radiological information 

should come from the Radiological Safety Manual Project 

of the Joint CROSSROADS Committee. 

Among the training programs were a nuclear physics correspondence course 

(functioning by 20 December 1946 at New York, New Orleans, San Francisco, and 

Great Lakes naval installations); the Radiological Safety Officer and Meter 

Operator Training Program (a 6-week course at the damage control schools to 

qualify radiological safety officers); the Radiological Safety Engineer Training Program (being formulated at the U.S. Navy Postgraduate School from the 

Postgraduate Physics-Electronics-Radar GKOUP for a limited number of officers); 

54 
and the radiological safety courses at damage control schools (Reference 

B.3.0.2). 

Of these five, the last was among the most Important. Two courses were set 

up to cover radiological safety at damage control schools in Philadelphia, 

Pennsylvania, and Treasure Island, California. Instructors selected had thorough knowledge of physics, radiological decontamination, and had instructional 

experience. In instructing radiological meter operators, at least one ensign 

or lieutenant, three chief petty officers and one electronics technician were 

assigned per fifty students (Reference B.3.0.2). 

Of the two damage control schools, the one at Treasure Island was perceived 

as better suited for setting up a radiological safety course, partially because 

the nearby Hunters Point and Mare Island Naval Shipyards had been used in the 

decontamination work following CROSSROADS. Furthermore, use of radiological 

experts from the University of California at Berkeley could be arranged. All 

instructors participating in the Philadelphia Radsafe Training School assisted 

in establishing the first courses at Treasure Island. This ensured that the 

courses at Philadelphia would be similar. 

The target date for the opening of the radsafe course was established as 

1 March. All instructors were to be present at the Treasure Island Damage Control School on 1 February to prepare all of its officers and instructors and 

to have all instructional materials on hand before the opening date (Reference 

B.3.0.2). 

The Radiological Safety School actually opened on 17 March 1947 with 40 

officers (24 Navy and Marine Corps, 15 Army, and 1 USPHS). The most serious 

problem associated with the first class in the radsafe training program was in 

the selection of attendees. After the first day, it was apparent that many 

students were unable to handle even rudimentary mathematical concepts. A voluntary , supplementary course designed to facilitate mathematics training did not 

completely eliminate the problem. Significantly, fifteen people, more than onethird of the class, regularly attended the extra sessions. As a result of the 

lack of mathematically sophisticated students, restriction of future classes 

to individuals who had the equivalent of Naval Academy training, or at least 

to those who had had at least one college course in science or mathematics, 

was recommended (Reference B.3.0.3). 

The Army implemented a similar program. The Joint Radiological Safety 

Training Committee authorized the program. The committee (Reference B.2) determl ned the: 

1. Types of radsafe billets required by the armed services 

2. Types and ranks or rates of personnel required to fill 

the billets 

3. Types of training required to fill each billet and approximate length of training periods 

4. Types and numbers of instructors required per hundred 

students and their availability 

55 
5. Training organization required and recommended relationship between such an organization and the War and Navy 

Departments and the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS). 

Edgewood Arsenal was a desirable location to provide radsafe training on 

the East Coast, and the Chemical Corps recommended beginning the first class 

about 8 September 1947. AFSWP determined student qualifications, curricula, 

length and nature of courses, and types, numbers and availability of instructors (Reference B.2). 

Criteria were established to ensure the quality of instruction. Six weeks 

appeared to be the optimum training period. If the course were extended to 

eight weeks, as had been suggested, augmenting the material presented or decreasing the tempo of presentation would be required. Additionally, further 

increase in material would have required the students to have greater mathematical knowledge. 

A joint indoctrination lecture-syllabus was prepared and offered to the 

schools for inclusion in their curricula. The Joint Radiological Safety Training Committee recommended that it be closely coordinated with indoctrination 

lectures, primarily on radiological safety, plus movies and one demonstration 

(Reference B.6.2). 

The proposed radsafe indoctrination course (Reference B.6.2, Encl. A) 

given in the schools was to include the following material: 

• Security lecture using the Army, Navy Screen Magazine #86 

“What is Radsafe?” 

• Atomic energy film/types of radiation lecture 

• CROSSROADS film/atomic bomb explosion phenomena lecture 

• Biological effects lecture (blast and radiation) 

• Instruments lecture/demonstration 

• Radsafe film/decontamination lecture 

• Organization and training lecture 

• Tactical and strategic implications lecture. 

On 29 February 1948 Bairoko departed Long Beach, California, with TG 7.6 

embarked, for Pearl Harbor and Enewetak. On the day of embarkation, further 

indoctrination of TG 7.6 personnel began. CTG 7.6 gave two orientation lectures 

in which all aspects of the mission were covered. Immediately upon sailing for 

Pearl Harbor, detailed operational planning and a comprehensive study of expected problems began (Reference C.43, p. 35, 36). 

The School Director at the Radiological Safety School, Treasure Island, 

California, had been designated the School Officer for TG 7.6. He outlined a 

schedule of classes to be conducted en route to the test site. These classes 

began on 1 March and were conducted daily. In addition to scheduled lectures, 

a daily afternoon period was established for calibration of the various instruments used in monitoring operations (Reference C.43, p. 39). Figure 12 shows 

56 

Radiation Exposure Waivers 

Absolute adherence to the radiological standards prescribed for routine 

laboratory or industrial use was recognized as unrealistic for the special 

conditions of a field test (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex A). A definition 

of overexposure, standard operating procedures for exposures, and rest periods 

required after overexposures were established by the JTF 7 Staff Radsafe Officer and TG 7.6 staff. The basic formula of 0.1 R per 24-hour period was set as 

the maximum, except for certain specific missions where exposures of 3 R were 

permitted. All missions involving 3 R exposure were to be approved by the Test 

Scientific Director and the Staff Radsafe Officer. No exposure over 3 R would 

be permitted unless approved by CJTF 7 (Reference C.43, p. 9). 

Radiation exposure records were maintained by the Radiological Records 

Unit (TU 7.6.5). TG 7.6 and the task force Medical Officer exchanged medical 

data required for evaluating an individual’s radiation health record. 

The Medical Review Board considered an individual’s medical file, his group 

exposure record, and his radiation exposure record and rendered decisions on 

his availability for future work in radioactive areas. An individual was reported to the board if he received over 0.1 R per 24-hour period or approached 

the authorized limit of 3 R. Personnel receiving 3 R had the data included on 

their medical charts, along with the expected date they could resume activity 

in a radioactive area. The board also maintained records on any instrument 

suspected of giving an erroneous reading and evidence of such was entered on a 

group exposure record for future evaluation as well as for medical-legal purposes (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex H). 

Radiation Exposure Records 

In recording exposures, JTF 7 used a definition of “overexposure” that 

requires a note of explanation. Exposures of 0.1 R or less per day were not 

considered overexposures. Exposures greater than 0.1 R/day were considered 

overexposures, and if a man’s cumulated total reached 3.0 R he was withdrawn 

from activity that would involve the possibility of additional exposure for a 

period of 30 days. This overexposure cumulation, however, could be lessened by 

0.1 R for each day the man received no exposure. For example, if an individual 

received 0.1 R per day for four days, his overexposure was zero. If on the 

filth day he received 2.4 R, his overexposure was 2.3 R. If on the sixth day 

his exposure was 0.8 R, his overexposure for that day was 0.7 R. The 0.7 R was 

added to the 2.3 R of day five for a total overexposure of 3 R, the prescribed 

limit for overexposure, and he was not permitted any activities involving the 

potential presence of radioactivity for 30 days to allow him to recover from 

his overexposure at a rate of 0.1 R per day. Had he only received 0.2 R on the 

sixth day instead of 0.8 R, his overexposure would have been 0.1 R for that 

day, which would have been added to the fifth day’s reading of 2.3 R for an 

exposure total of 2.4 R. If he then received no radiation exposure for 5 days. 

his total overexposure would then drop to 1.9 R on the basis of a recovery 

factor of 0.1 R per day. If however, he received 0.1 R each day, the total 

overexposure would remain 2.4 R unti 1 the day of no overexposure. This overexposure total was kept on a radiation exposure record (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex H). 

58 
Group Exposure Record 

The group exposure record included names of all individuals assigned to 

each work party, the organization to which they belonged, the general nature 

of the mission, and the times of departure and return. The monitor collected 

film badges and other instruments and entered film badge and pocket dosimeter 

numbers issued for each man on the form. He also entered pocket dosimeter readings opposite the man’s name after the mission. If any members of the party 

required decontamination or if any unusual event relating to safety occurred, 

the monitor entered the remarks on the group exposure record. He also entered 

any appropriate remarks concerning the instruments. He returned the form to 

the instrument issue desk immediately upon return to Bairoko. The record was 

then sent to the Radiological Records Unit (TU 7.6.5) for entry of the film 

badge readings. This unit dispatched the completed record to the Medical Review 

Board if an overexposure was indicated. When the review was completed, the 

group exposure record was returned to TU 7.6.5. After exposures were transcribed from the group exposure record, the record was then filed (Reference 

C.43, Appendix B, Annex H). 

RADIOLOGICAL SAFETY INSTRUMENTATION 

The major radsafe instruments were the 247-A ion chamber and the 263-A 

Geiger-Mueller (GM) instruments manufactured by Victoreen Instrument Company. 

On 22 September 1947, a group of radsafe specialists recommended to the JTF 7 

radsafe advisors that the following Instruments be procured: 150 GM counters 

(from a variety of manufacturers), 100 ion-chamber survey instruments, 600 

direct-reading dosimeters (pocket electrometers), and 900 direct-reading 

dosimeters (vacuum-tube integration) (Reference C.43, p. 10-11). Table 7 lists 

radsafe equipment for all t.ask force groups expected to be exposed to 

radiation. 

The quantities of survey instruments recommended included allowances for 

only six aircraft. If more aircraft were to be involved it was recommended 

that the following quantities and types of instruments be procured for each 

aircraft: one ion-chamber survey meter, two GM survey meters, and one proteximeter (Reference C.43, p. 13). During the test series, each air group monitor 

was furnished with an ion-chamber survey instrument, one GM counter, one or 

two proteximeters, one 0.2 R pocket dosimeter, one or two high-range pocket 

dosimeters (10 R or 50 R), and one casualty badge (a film badge capable of 

registering high- or casualty-range exposures) (Reference C.43, Appendix B, 

Annex B-2). 

In addition to recommendations made by the instruments committee, others 

suggested the addition of 40 alpha-measuring instruments, 20 additional (unmodified) Rauland-Zeus Alpha-Beta-Gamma meters, and 20 AEC-designed Pluto 

meters (Reference C.43, p. 13). AEC was responsible for procuring the radsafe 

instruments and spare parts (Reference C.43, p. 13). 

Among the instruments available for the technical measurements portion 

were film badges, crystal dosimeters, activation samples, filter collection 

units, rate-meters, and recorders (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex G). 

59 
The three manufacturers of gamma-recording pocket dosimeters, (Beckman, 

Cambridge, and Kelly-Koett) all designed rather rugged instruments. They included the following models: Kelly-Koett Models K-100, K-150, K-160; Cambridge 

(no model number, AEC catalog number PIC-9A) ; and Beckman Model MX-7 (AEC catalog numbers PIC-11A and PIC-12A) (Reference C.43). 

An AN/PDR-1 (X-l) was sent by Admiral Electronics and Raytheon for SANDSTONE. This experimental model differed from the AN/PDR-1 contracted for by 

the Navy (OP-36) later in the year. By 3 November 1948 the AN/PDR-1 was identical to the AN/PDR-8 except for power supply (Reference B.3.0.4). 

All instrument calibration presumably utilized radium sources (Reference 

C.43, p. 391. The radium standards procured from BuShips were 25-, 50-, loo-, 

and 250-mg sources in containers of 0.5 mm of platinum or its equivalent (Reference C.43, Appendix A-4). 

PERSONNEL FILM BADGES AND RECORDS 

On 5 November 1947, a memorandum was issued stating that 10,000 film badges 

with a range of 0 to 10 R were to be supplied by Eastman Kodak Company (Reference C.43, p. 15). These were to be of two types -- Type A and Type K, the 

latter distinguished by a lead cross-shield. 

On 3 March, the first calibration of personnel film badges was run, using 

a 48.7-mg radium source. A second calibration was completed on 6 March. The 

films were then developed and read on a Western densitometer, model number 877 

(Reference C-43, p. 46). Several men from TG 7.6 received low exposures during 

the eight instrument calibration sessions. Many of these exposures were detected only on the direct-reading dosimeters and not by film badges. The exposures recorded by the film badges were typically 0.005 R for each calibration 

session, although at one session a badge recorded 0.040 R (Reference E.l). 

These readings are typical for detection instrument calibration laboratories 

and were largely derived from removing the radium sources from their shields 

and placing them in calibration position. The readings were recorded in a 

Kardex file for radiological records. This served as a dry run of the record 

system. (Reference C.43, p. 45). 

Only men who were expected to be exposed to radioactivity were badged. 

Before leaving for a potentially radioactive mission, all personnel were 

checked against the control list by a monitor and issued appropriate equipment, 

including film badges, pocket dosimeters, and any necessary protective clothing. After the radioactivity on the shot islands had decayed for several days, 

the issue of the badges and equipment was handled at a checkpoint manned by TU 

7.6 personnel on the shot island. An example of the task force’s perception of 

the expectation of exposure to these personnel may be found in the instruct ions. In the 24 April (X-RAY Dt9) instructions for the checkpoint on Enjebi, 

the monitors are instructed to issue badges to anyone expected to come closer 

than 550 yards (503 meters) to the surface zero. The instructions for the 

following 2 days use the same distance as a criterion. (Reference C.43, Monitor Instructions, pp. 26-28). When work was completed in the radioactive area, 

all film badges and pocket dosimeters were returned to the monitor (Reference 

C.43, Appendix B, Annex A-3). 

60 
One f-i lm badge was furnished for each aircraft crewmember. Film badges and 

pocket dosimeter readings were returned by air from Kwajalein to Bairoko (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex B-2). 

At first. film badges were apparently processed and read in order of receipt. On X-RAY day, for example, film badges and monitor cards began to come 

in at 1200. By 2300, 250 had been received. All film badges were processed and 

overexposures reported to CJTF 7 the next day (Reference C.43, p. 84). Beginning on the night of X-RAY Dt2, the system of film processing was accelerated 

by segregating all darkened badges and reading them first. This allowed completion of the overexposure report by midnight of X-RAY D+2. This procedure 

was continued throughout the series (Reference C.43, p. 84). 

On YOKE D+4, permission was obtained from CJTF 7 to change the method of 

submitting overexposure reports. Up to that time, all individual exposures 

exceeding 0.1 R/day had been reported daily. Thereafter, no individual was 

reported by dispatch unless he received more than 0.3 R in 3 days (Reference 

C.43, p. 84). 

Procedures used throughout the first two tests were continued for ZEBRA. 

On ZEBRA Dtl, a dispatch was received by CJTF 7 concerning entries on the 

physical records of all Navy and Marine Corps personnel. A conference of medical officers and CTG 7.6 devised a report form that would supply all task group 

commanders with the necessary exposure data (Reference C.43, p. 85). 

A Kardex file system was set up to maintain individual records. On X-RAY 

Dt5, the Kardex file was rechecked and all overexposures were recorded. The 

final information on overexposure was submitted on X-RAY D+13 in the postshot 

report (Reference C.43, p. 84). The records created in this file consist of 

3- by 5-inch preprinted cards, noted as a JTF 7 form and labeled “Individual 

Exposure Record. ” The cards had the man’s name entered as well as the date(s) 

of badge issue, the exposure(s) (in milliroentgens) from the badge(s), and 

usually the exposure recorded from a pocket dosimeter. A column was reserved 

for entering the 

badge log sheets, 

sure (References 

calculated 

is the 

A.3 and 

overexposure. 

basic dosimetric 

E.l). 

This 

record 

file 

for 

of cards, along with 

SANDSTONE personnel 

film 

expoAfter ZEBRA, CJTF 7 

medical-legal supporting 

tion in AEC records on 

records of all military 

among the armed services 

recommended that 

data be delivered 

Dt25 (Reference 

personnel were 

(Reference C.43, 

the radiological medical records with 

to the Test Director for incorporaC.43, Field Order 2). Copies of the 

forwarded to AFSWP for distribution 

p. 52). 

PRE-EVENT SAFETY MEASURES 

Danger Area 

On 30 December 1947, the AEC issued a press release announcing that from 

31 January 1948 through 31 December 1948, a Danger Area would exist around 

Enewetak Atoll as a result of the planned weapon tests. The Danger Area was 

defined as laying between 10°15’N and 12O45’N and between 160°35’E and 

163O55’E (see Figure 13). This notice was also published through routine air 

and maritime channels (Reference C.5, p. l-Ad). Entry into the Danger Area was 

not prohibited, although Enewetak itself was a Closed Area. 

61 
52 nmi 

lO”15’N 

Plan A. One plane patrols Inner ring (between 17 and 27 nml) (32 

and 50 km) In a six-leg (hexagonal) flight path with total 

clrcult length of 132 nml (245 km). 

Plan B. Two planes: one flies Plan A, and a second patrols outer ring 

(between 40 and 52 nmi) (74 and 96 km) in a SIX-leg (hexagonal) 

fljght path with total circuit length of 276 nml (456 km). 

Plan C. Three planes: one flies Plan A, Plane 2 patrols western half 

of outer ring, and Plane 3 patrols eastern half. 

Figure 13. Air patrol plans A, B, and C, Operation SANDSTONE 

The Danger Area was patrolled both with surface ships and aircraft under 

TG 7.3. The surface patrol worked outside of Enewetak Lagoon. TG 7.3 maintained 

a plot of individuals, vessels, and aircraft authorized to operate in the 

Closed Area and the Danger Area. 

The Air Patrol Unit (TU 7.3.3) flew a variety of search patterns in the 

Danger Area. It was composed of Navy Medium Seaplane Patrol Squadron 6 

WP[MS]-6) and Navy Air Development Squadron 4 W-4) (Reference B.3.2). 

62 
To prevent inadvertent contamination or unauthorized surveillance, the 

greatest attention was paid to the area 40 nmi (74 km) offshore from Enewetak 

Atoll, particularly to the north and east. During patrols, all vessels discovered within the Danger Area were Identified and warned to leave immediately. 

Immediate reports of all such incidents were made to Hq JTF 7. Contact surveillance of any vessel in the area was maintained until further instructions were 

received. CTG 7.3 had to be prepared to use the maximum patrol force patrol 

during the period H-48 and Ht24 (patrol plan F) (Reference B.3.1, Annex A-2). 

Figures 13 to 16 show the proposed methods of patrolling the Closed and 

Danger Areas. 

SECTOR 

\ 

\ 

/ \ 

NAUTICAL MILES SECTOR 

0 20 40 60 80 100 8 

I I I 1 

KILOMETEHS 

Figure 14. Air patrol plan D, Operation SANDSTONE. (Four planes: plane 1 

fl?es patrol plan A; planes 2-4 patrol sectors A through C In 

accordance with the diagram.) 

63 
12’45’N -

h sECLoR \\ 1/-/sEcLoR /j 

2.0 4p 6,O a,0 1qoJ 

I I I I I I I 

KILOMETERS I 

10°15’N 

Figure 15. Air patrol plan E, Operation SANDSTONE. (Five planes: plane 1 

flies patrol plan A; planes 2-5 patrol sectors A through D In 

accordance with the dlagram.) 

64 
12’45’N 

SECTOR 

KILOMETERS 

10°15’N 

Figure 16. Air patrol plan F', Operatton SANDSTONE. (SIX planes: plane 1 

flles patrol plan A; planes 2-6 patrol sectors A through E In 

accordance with the diagram. 

65 
Fallout and Lagoon Contamination Predlctlon 

The Radsafe Office prepared fallout predictions, delineated radiological 

exclusion (radex) areas (showing where radioactivity and fallout were expected 

to be present in the air and on surfaces), and presented the predictions at 

command briefings before each shot. Radex plotting used vector analysis of wind 

pat terns. Fallout patterns were predicted for the surface, 15,000, 20,000, 

25,000 and 30,000 feet (4.6, 6.1, 7.6, and 9.1 km). The surface radex area, 

designated between two bearings from zero point, was determined from the predicted fallout patterns. 

Fallout predictions were based on weather observations. If fallout from 

45,000 feet (13.7 km) or below was predicted to occur outside the sector 

bounded by 90°T and 170°T from zero point, the day was considered as a possible shot day. If fallout from 45,000 feet (13.7 km) was predicted on the 

bearings of Enewetak-Parry islands (150°-160°T), the day was judged questionable with moderate hazard. If fallout from 35,000 feet (10.7 km) or below 

was predicted on these islands, the day was ruled a nonshot day (Reference 

C.43, Appendix I. Annex I-3 and I-4). 

Three days preceding the test, a forecast for a test day was 

made, and on the day before the test day the latest weather 

forecast was presented at 1800. Actual wind data was plotted 

at intervals from this time to 0300 at which time the last 

balloon sounding was made and the data was prepared for the 

briefing. 

At U jelang , a monitor aboard the designated evacuation ship furnished 

radiological data to the ship’s commanding officer. The monitor was to advise 

the commanding officer of any necessary action if radioactive rainout occurred 

on Ujelang. 

A special study of currents around Enjebi was made. This study was conducted to anticipate the direction and spread of any possible radioactivity 

from the explosion. The drift of partially submerged floating objects was also 

observed by helicopter and small boat patrols. The study indicated that currents were generally from east-northeast and that no radioactivity would be 

expected south of a line bearing 240°T from the southern tip of Enjebi. 

Results of the lagoon survey following X-RAY bore out the accuracy of these 

predictions (Reference C.43, p. 53). 

Command BrIefAng 

CJTF 7 decided whether to go ahead with a test firing on the basis of four 

meetings. The first of these meetings was held at 1500 on D-3. At this meeting 

meteorologists gave a weather briefing, including a 4-day forecast. Based on 

this forecast, he decided whether to proceed with the firing procedure for D-2 

and the morning of D-l. Each task group reported on its state of readiness 

during this meeting. The meeting was attended by CJTF 7 and his deputies, the 

Chief of Staff, Test and Scientific Directors, Commander TG 7.2, Commander TG 

7.3, Commander Air Forces, staff meteorologist, Radsafe Officer, staff photographer, and representatives of J-2 and J-3. 

66 
A second meeting was held at 1100 on D-l. At this meeting CJTF 7 decided 

if the weather would be satisfactory for the shot, determined how the operation 

was proceeding, and if all ships, aircraft, equipment, instruments, and personnel were ready for the test. If he decided to proceed with the test, he notified the AEC. 

A third meeting was held at 1800 on D-l. In addition to the latest weather 

forecast, the Radsafe Officer presented his forecast of the movement of the 

radioactive cloud. A meeting was sometimes held at H-4 to determine if takeoff 

of the drone control planes from Kwajalein was acceptable. The last meeting 

was held at H-l. Any changes in weather or cloud travel forecasts were given, 

and a final decision was made. 

A postponement of the test after the D-3 meeting involved little repetition 

of firing sequence operations. During the 1800 meeting on D-l, the decision 

was made whether ships should leawe their anchorages and whether the firing 

party should proceed to the shot Island to complete the firing circuits. At 

the last meeting it was decided whether to fire the weapon. The meetings were 

not closely scheduled with meteorological operations. At some meetings decisions were made with much poorer meteorological information than would have 

been available a few hours later. However, the last meeting was held at H-l 

when the final firing decision was made based upon the latest weather data. 

(Reference C.7, pp. 157-159). 

Weather Predlc t Ion 

Because fallout forecasts depend primarily on forecasts of wind speed and 

direction, the accuracy of SANDSTONE fallout predictions was related to the 

accuracy of the weather predictions. CTG 7.3 and CTG 7.4 administered and supported weather elements to provide meteorological data in conjunction with the 

SANDSTONE tests. (Reference C.5, pp. 3-A195 ff). 

The meteorological organization provided information to JTF 7, including 

cloud-cover forecasts for all air and photographic operations, wind information 

to heights of 60,000 feet (18.3 lcnif or higher for radiological studies and 

safety procedures, climatological information, and severe storm warnings. Weather detachments were located at Kwajalein, Majuro, Enewetak, Rongerik, and 

Wake islands. 

Commander Air Forces, JTF 7, established and operated the weather stations 

at these islands except Kwajalein and Wake. He resupplied the weather detachments with assistance from TG 7.3 for Rongerik, TG 7.7 for Majuro, and Pan 

American Airlines for Wake. The weather stations provided complete weather 

observation service, including a minimum of four rawinsondes (instrumented 

balloons) per 24-hour period, a forecast and briefing service for crews of 

transient and JTF 7 aircraft, and a relaying service to disseminate all weather 

information (including flight reports and flight summaries). In addition to 

the outlying weather stations, Joint Task Force Weather Central was located 

aboard Mount McKinley. 

The JTF 7 Staff Weather Officer recommended flight paths for the two weather reconnaissance flights each day. The 43rd Weather Wing maintained weather 

facilities at Enewetak until CTG 7.4 meteorological facilities were in place. 

The 43rd Weather Wing transferred control of eight WB-29 aircraft and crews, 

67 
plus one additional officer and seventy enlisted men, to Commander Air Forces 

for weather reconnaissance and cloud-tracking duties. It also lent additional 

support by ferrying meteorological equipment and personnel to weather stations. 

Bairoko, USS Albemarle, (AV-5) and USS Curtiss (AV-4) also served as weather 

ships. These ships gathered and disseminated information from four rawinsonde 

and two radiosonde observations per day as well as information from complete 

shipboard surface observations. A small number of 2,000~gm balloons for highaltitude ascents (100,000 feet [30.5 km]) were included in the weather equipment (Reference C.5, p. 3-A 198). 

Eye Protectlon 

Individuals looking directly at a blast at H-hour wore high-density goggles. They were issued to all airborne personnel. The special goggles were put 

on at H-2 minutes. Copilots attempted to protect their eyes completely (for 

an extra margin of safety) by covering their eyes with bent arms until after 

the flash. A copilot could then take over if the pilot were temporarily blinded 

(Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex A, 11-3). 

Evacuation and Reentry Plans 

JTF 7 issued an evacuation plan to ensure that all personnel were removed 

from danger of the explosion or radioactivity at test time. Two days before 

each test, CTG 7.2 made a detailed, physical search of all islands in Enewetak 

Atoll (except for Enewetak and Parry) to ensure that no unauthorized personnel 

were ashore. Color-coded badges, coupled with access lists, facilitated identification of authorized personnel. 

On D-l, CJTF 7 alone authorized movement into and within a 40-nmi (74-km) 

radius from the center of Enewetak Atoll. On the same day, authorized ships 

entered Enewetak Lagoon only after being passed by CTG 7.3 control. Similarly, 

CTG 7.4 prohibited any unauthorized JTF 7 aircraft from leaving Kwajalein or 

Enewetak islands. 

Al 1 personnel, except those authorized to be at Enewetak, Parry, and the 

shot islands, evacuated the atoll by H-l. They moved aboard the ships of TU 

7.3.8, which were east of the atoll during shot operations. Individuals ashore 

consisted of the minimum number of CTG 7.1 personnel at Enewetak, Parry, and 

the shot islands to carry out the scientific operations plan. CTG 7.2 maintained a mobile reserve of three officers and eighteen enlisted men on Enewetak 

Island during the test, as well as minimum security guards and communications 

personnel on Enewetak and Parry islands. A minimum boatcrew under CTG 7.3 remained at Enewetak or Parry Island. Minimum aircrews and operations personnel, 

including air communications, photographic, and weather personnel, remained at 

Enewetak Island. CTG 7.5 maintained one officer and nine enlisted men as security guards who remained on the shot islands until returning with the firing 

crew to Parry Island. Other TG 7.5 guards remained on the unused shot islands 

until 1215 on D-l. They were evacuated to Enewetak Island, remaining there 

during the test. CTG 7.6 kept required radsafe monitors at Enewetak and Parry 

Islands. CTG 7.3 evacuated the remaining personnel from the shot island. They 

arrived at Parry Island between H-3 and H-l. The shot island thus was completely evacuated and preparations on Parry Island complete. 

68 
In addition to general Enewetak evacuation, CTG 7.3 was prepared to evacuate personnel from Ujelang. CTG 7.2 planned to give suitable warning to all 

personnel on Enewetak and Parry islands to assemble in a designated area if 

the radsafe monitor indicated that this was appropriate. CTG 7.3 maintained 

sufficient craft to evacuate the individuals in an emergency. CTG 7.4 was to 

be evacuated with Air Force personnel to Kwajalein by air (Reference C.7, pp. 

3-A-144 ff). 

The reentry plan dictated that only personnel with “urgent” duties return 

to radioactive areas on shot day. CTG 7.6 conducted a radiological survey of 

the shot island and surrounding islands. After they were cleared, experiment 

personnel would be allowed to conduct “routine” work. Ships and aircraft landed 

only at Enewetak and Parry islands in accordance with CJTF 7 or the reentry 

plan. Following the shot, no aircraft flew within 2 nmi (3.7 km) of the shot 

islands except in accordance with the reentry plan or on orders of CJTF 7. 

These restrictions were in effect- throughout SANDSTONE (Reference C.7, pp. 

3-A153 ff). 

POSTEVENT SAFETY MEASURES 

Mount McKinley Radsafe Center issued radex area information where significant fallout was predicted to occur within 6 hours after detonation. Task 

units were denied entry into radex areas except with specific authorization. 

Data were recorded on shot days on a chart of the atoll and on detailed 

maps of the shot islands maintained on board Mount McKinley. Air and surface 

radex area information was available there. 

All communications from radsafe missions were directed to Mount McKinley 

Radsafe Center and monitored by the Radsafe Center on Bairoko. This provided 

immediate, first-hand information for the radsafe officer aboard Mount 

McKinley. On days after a shot the plan called for direct communications with 

the Radsafe Center on Bairoko. Mount McKinley Radsafe Center plotted fallout 

patterns based on weather forecasts for the radsafe officer and maintained 

daily surface and air radex area plots. Information from TU 7.6.1 monitors and 

from the cloud-tracking aircraft was also plotted in the Radsafe Center (Reference C.43, p. 58). 

Mount McKinley Radsafe Center furnished systematic information to CJTF 7 

and the JTF 7 Radsafe Officer. Radiological situation maps were updated based 

on information received there. Air ahd surface radex areas were changed after 

the shots when warranted by weather conditions. Isointensity lines of 0.1 R 

per day in the lagoon water were plotted, as were fallout data from Kwajalein 

and Ujelang (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex E-9 and E-10). 

All islands north of Runit were considered radioactive until cleared by TG 

7.6. Enewetak postshot control and decontamination activities were centered at 

Enewetak Island. Parties recovering scientific data soon after the shot operated from naval vessels in the lagoon until early radiological surveys determined whether it was safe to move data-recovery operations ashore. 

All personnel entering radioactive areas were badged. Radsafe checkpoints 

strictly controlled entry into and exit from these areas. Protective clothing 

69 
was required in radioactive areas. The radsafe monitors accompanying the scientific parties determined the amount of protective clothing necessary, including 

whether gas masks were advisable. Inst ructlons were given to the monitors in 

some cases so that they did not themselves decide on the degree of protection 

required. Instructions for 24 April on Enjebl, for example, stated that personnel coming closer than 550 yards (503 meters) to the X-RAY surface zero 

would wear gas masks if they were doing anything to raise dust (Reference C-43, 

Monitor Instructions, p. 26). 

The Radiological Records Unit (TU 7.6.5) maintained cumulative personnel 

exposure records aboard Bairoko. When work parties returned to Bairoko, they 

turned in their clothing, pocket doslmeters, and personnel film badges. 

Transport of radioactive materials out of the test area complied with AEC 

regulations for shipping radioactive materials (AEC Regulations, Safety No. 3, 

Standard Safety Requirements, Part 14). All radioactive materials were monitored by TG 7.6 before transport. Authority to remove samples of radioactive 

material from the test area was obtained from the Test Director and such removals complied with security requirements (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex 

A-4). 

Cloud Tracking 

Tracking debris with WB-29 weather reconnaissance aircraft was the primary 

method planned to verify radioactive cloud travel in the predicted direction. 

An aerial survey determined radiation intensities and fallout occurring at 

varying altitudes in the vicinity of the shot island. TU 7.6.1 plotted the 

cloud-tracking information aboard Mount McKinley. (Reference C.43, p. 58). 

Major areas of concern were: 

1. Downwind, especially Enewetak and Ujelang 

2. Upwind 

3. Upwind of the native populated atolls to the southeast 

4. Air and surface transportation routes through Wake Island 

and the Marshall Islands. 

Sample Recovery Techniques 

Unmanned drone B-17s were used to collect samples of particles from the 

radioactive shot clouds. These samples were collected on filter papers placed 

In sheet-metal boxes mounted In the normal position of the top and chin turrets 

of the B-17 (see Figure 17). Three flights were made though the weapon cloud 

by each of several drones, after which the planes were landed at Enewetak. 

After the drone B-17s had stopped rolling, their tails were checked for 

radioactivity and a tow bar attached to each drone’s tail. The drones were 

then towed into an area at the eastern end of the runway on the lagoon side of 

the island (see Figure 4). An area there had been isolated by rows of junked 

heavy construction equipment, trucks, steel landing mats, etc. These rows were 

meant primarily to protect the landed samplers from any other drones that might 

70 





Four-foot (1.2-meter) tongs were available to handle the papers, although they 

were not always used as they were unwieldy. All the men wore gloves, some wearing rubber gloves under cotton ones. The filter papers were identified by drone 

ai rcraf t number, which was stapled to the papers when they were removed from 

the filter holders. 

Generally, the filters were divided into two equal groups and flown directly to Albuquerque for radioachemical analysis at LASL, the aircraft making 

one stop at Honolulu en route to Albuquerque. 

Samples were also collected from the ground surface near the detonation 

point with a radio-controlled drone tank. These were taken to Bairoko by LCVP 

boat or helicopters and were returned to Los Alamos later. The techniques and 

protective measures used in handling these samples are not documented. The 

samples themselves were not as intensely radioactive as the samples collected 

by the aircraft. 

Protective Clothing 

Personnel working in areas likely to be contaminated or working with contaminated objects wore clothing to avoid contaminating skin, hair, and personal 

clothing. This protective clothing usually consisted of coveralls or fatigues 

with a head covering, gloves, and shoe covers. The function of this clothing 

was to trap radioactive particles in the cloth. This made personnel decontamination much easier and also prevented inadvertent transport of the radioactive 

materials to uncontaminated areas. A gas mask was also worn where airborne 

contamination was suspected. Personnel shown in Figures 18 through 24 are shown 

wearing the usual protective clothing. Figure 26 shows the shoe coverings or 

booties, and Figure 27 shows personnel wearing masks during an inspection of a 

timing station after shot X-RAY. 

Personnel DecontamlnatIon 

The basic method used for personnel decontamination was removal of contaminated clothing, radiation monitoring, showering, radiation monitoring with 

additional washing, and additional monitoring as required before donning fresh 

clothes. Shower and change facilities were set up near worksites where personnel contamination was likely. Figures 28 and 29 show the shower near the drone 

decontamination area in Enewetak with personnel who had been working on the 

drones passing through after their shift. Special attention was paid to hands. 

They were frequently rewashed and remonitored (Figures 30 and 31). 

Any personnel caught in radioactive fallout or rainout were to take cover 

immediately in as airtight a location as was available. Gas masks were to be 

worn if senior monitors present advised. Any person actually contaminated by 

radioactive rain was to remove his clothing and wash himself. No eating, drinking, or smoking were allowed while the rainout continued or before decontamination was complete. 

On Enewetak and Parry islands, all personnel were to take cover in buildings previously selected by monitors and remain there until danger from fallout 

or radioactive rain ended. Monitors were to check the area surrounding the 

shelter to determine when it was safe to resume normal operations in the open. 

76 



If task force ships were involved in a radioactive rainstorm, all personnel 

were to go below deck and all hatches were to be closed. The ship was to follow a course predicted to take it out of the rain as rapidly as possible. As 

soon as the rain ended, the monitor was to check exposed surfaces and, if necessary , recommend hosing down to remove contamination (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex J-2, pp. 3-4). 

Ujelang was considered unlikely to receive fallout. However, plans were 

made that upon warning from CJTF 7 that it lay in a possible fallout zone, the 

Enewetak people living there would board an LST for possible evacuation. 

Fallout typically occurred at Enewetak on the uninhabited islands northwest 

of the shot islands. Two days after YOKE, fallout was reported on Bairoko off 

Aomon Island) and at Kwajalein. Chapter 4 has a more thorough discussion of 

the fallout and its consequences. 

On D+l a beach radsafe center on the shot island was set up near the landing point in an area of low radioactivity. Radiation monitors from it accompanied all parties entering the shot island. It also served as a communication 

and information center. 

When background radiation was less than 0 .OOOl R/hr (gamma), a person was 

considered contaminated if any part of his body gave a reading greater than 

0.0001 R/hr above background. If background was greater than 0.0001 R/hr (gamma), personnel were not checked until taken to an area where it was less than 

0.0001 R/hr (gamma) (Reference C.43, Appendix E, Annex I-l and I-2). 

When personnel were contaminated on the shot island, they returned after 

the mission to the beach radsafe center and removed their clothing, including 

cloth booties and gloves. Clothing was considered contaminated if it measured 

more than 0.0001 R/hr (gamma) above background, if background itself was less 

than 0.0001 R/hr. If background was higher than 0.0001 R/hr, all clothing worn 

in the radioactive area was placed in containers that were later weighted and 

dumped at sea in deep water. 

Personnel who had removed their gloves in the radioactive area were required to wash their hands. The monitor checked everyone in his party for 

radioactivity. Fresh clothing from the beach radsafe center was issued after 

the individual was monitored. If removing clothing failed to complete personnel 

decontamination, the monitor escorted any remaining contaminated personnel to 

Bairoko, rechecked them, and they undertook necessary additional decontamination for complete clearance. 

Personnel were advised not to bring valuable personal items ashore. If, 

however, any valuable item (such as a watch or ring) became contaminated in 

excess of 0 .OOOl R/hr above background, it was put in a clean container and 

stored on Bairoko until the item was radiologically cleared. 

If a person was contaminated somewhere other than on the shot island, monitors checked him to ensure that he was decontaminated at the completion of 

the mission during which he was exposed. Procedures similar to those on the 

shot islands were carried out. If rainout or fallout contaminated inhabited 

80 
islands, the monitor reported the circumstances to CJTF 7 and CTG 7.6. Walking 

in radioactive areas and handling contaminated materials were kept to a minimum 

(Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex D). 

A portside section of Bairoko’s -- hangar deck was set up as a decontamination 

center, supply section, and issue point. As monitors prepared to leave the 

ship, they reported to this area and drew instruments, booties, gloves, and 

any other equipment required for the mission. When the mission was completed, 

they came aboard portside and passed into a restricted zone roped off on the 

deck. Here they were monitored for contamination, decontaminated if required, 

drew new clothing, and turned in their equipment, film badges, pocket dosimeters, and monitor report cards. This procedure was an established routine and 

prevented personnel in contaminated clothing from spreading radioactivity 

throughout the ship (Reference C.43, pp. 55-56). 

A personnel decontamination center was constructed on Kwajalein and placed 

in operation before X-RAY (Reference C.43, p. 88). After fallout occurred on 

Kwajalein following YOKE, a radiological control center was established there. 

Surveys were made and water samples collected for radiation counts. 

Ship Decontamlnatlon 

Ship decontamination had been a great concern to the Navy before SANDSTONE. 

BuShips was responsible for developing ship decontamination measures, and a 

project was designed to provide information about the contaminability and relative ease of decontamination for a variety of materials used as protective 

coatings on naval equipment and structures. Although high levels of contamination were not expected at SANDSTONE, the operation provided an opportunity to 

gain information. These materials were exposed as part of the TG 7.6 experimental activity discussed in Chapter 3 (Reference C.43, pp. 30-31). 

On an operational level, one ship, USS Roqers (DDR-8761, reported that 

decontamination was necessary. It probably was done using firehoses. An LCM 

was deliberately sunk rather than decontaminated. Four days after the last 

shot, all ships present were surveyed for their radiological clearances before 

they left for the United States. Areas monitored on the ships included evaporators, auxiliary condensers, weather decks, berth decks, intake screens of 

high-capacity supply blowers, and ventilation duct elbows. Hull scrapings near 

the waterline were taken from ships that had anchored within 5 nmi (9.3 km) of 

the test area. CTG 7.6 noted in a memo to CTG 7.3 that the radiological inspection of the ships was generally satisfactory, except for intake screens of the 

blowers. He suggested that the screens be removed and scrubbed with soap and 

water on the following day. The monitor then rechecked the screens (Reference 

C.43, Appendix I, Annex IV, 18 May 1948). 

M_ount McKinley, Albemarle, Curtiss, Bairoko, USS Comstock (LSD-191, uss 

Gardiners Bay (AVP-391, USS Pickaway (APA-2221, USS Mispillion, USS Askari 

(ARL-30), USS Henry W. Tucker (DDR-8751, Rogers, USS Spanqler (DE-696). USS 

Yancey (AKA-931, USS Raby (DE-698), USS Pasiq (AW-31, LSM-378, LSM-250, m 

LST-45, and LCI(L)-1054 had spot readings greater than 0.0002 R/hr above background. All of the above-named ships with high- and intermediate-capacity 

supply blowers showed readings above 0.0002 R/hr on intake screens after scrubbing. Contamination above 0.0002 R/hr persisted also on the No. 1 five-inch gun 

81 
on Spanqler and three air-conditioning units on Curtiss. As a result, CTG 7.6 

suggested that the intake supply screens of the ships’ blowers be scraped to 

bare metal, repainted, and monitored on arrival at a Navy yard. He recommended 

that shipyard workers wear respirators when wire-brushing or sand-blasting 

these screens and that workers with cuts on their hands not participate (Reference C.43, Appendix I, Annex IV, 18 May 1948). 

USS Perkins (DDR-8771, USS Georqe (DE-6971, USS Marsh (DE-6991, USS Currier 

(DE-7001, USATS FS-370, YW-94, YOG-64, LCI(L)-1090, LCI(L)-1540, AVR-26653, and 

AVR-26638 had no readings greater than 0.0002 R/hr above background. BuShips 

and BuMed therefore immediately issued final radiological clearance (Reference 

C.43, Appendix I, Annex IV, CTG 7.6 to CTG 7.3, May 20, 1948). 

Equipment Decontamination 

Radiac instruments were often wrapped in plastic (Figure 32) to avoid contamination of the instrument itself. However, when radiac instruments were 

contaminated, the issue officer aboard Bairoko was informed when they were 

returned. If scientific instruments showed less than 0.0001 R/hr (gamma), they 

were considered uncontaminated. For more heavily contaminated instruments, CTG 

7.6 cleared specific items for removal to task force ships. Otherwise they were 

left at the measurement site to allow the radioactivity to decay. If background 

exceeded 0.0001 R/hr (gamma) and if the scientific instruments were urgently 

needed, they were removed to a site having a background less than 0.0001 R/hr 

(gamma) so that their level of radioactivity could be determined and final 

disposition arranged. 

The drone tanks used 

ters became contaminated, 

taminated. The project pe

as better equipment would 

p. 55 and Appendix C). 

in collecting 

but were sunk 

rsonnel felt 

be available 

radi

in 

that 

in 

oactive 

the l

such 

any 

s

agoon 

an 

future 

amples 

rather 

effort 

tests. 

near the shot crathan being deconwas not worthwhile 

(Reference C. 10, 

Aircraft Decontamlnatton 

The drone cloud sampler B-17s required decontamination after each shot 

before they could be serviced and necessary maintenance performed. This was 

done after the planes had sat undisturbed in the sample removal area at Enewetak for several days to allow radiation on the planes to lessen due to natural 

decay processes. 

Just before decontamination, the aircraft were moved to another area of 

the island, but this location is not documented. In later test series held at 

Enewetak, a decontamination area was set up at the downwind end of the runway 

next to the lagoon to minimize the hazards from contaminated runoff water and 

spray. Possibly this area was also used during SANDSTONE. 

The drone B-17s were moved under their own power. The two outboard engines 

were started and the planes were taxied by a pilot from the upwind corner of 

the airfield to the decontamination area. After ZEBRA, 3 days elapsed before 

this took place, but the intensity of the drones’ radioactivity is not known. 

82 





The first member of the TG 7.6 party arrived at Enewetak Island on 30 March 

1948. A radsafe center was established in the radiochemistry laboratory, close 

to the drone parking area. The drone planes were not parked together, however, 

following the first shot. This caused some confusion, since the monitor was 

unable to keep track easily of all his men. Complete rehearsals, including 

drone landings, were held for X-RAY. It was estimated from the rehearsal that 

two monitors could handle filter-removal operations (Reference C.43, Annex 

1-l). 

The ajr monitor unit monitored drone aircraft and decontamination operations at Enewetak, aircraft and personnel decontamination operations at Kwajalein, and cloud-tracking operations until H+108. It also maintained and 

recalibrated instruments, prepared medical dosimetry records, and compiled 

mission reports (Reference C.43, pp. 87-88). Monitors from the air monitor 

unit also accompanied each manned aircraft on shot days to prevent them from 

entering areas where radiation intensity was greater than 0.1 R/hr (Reference 

C.43, pp. 87-88). If the aircraft encountered an intensity of 0.1 R/hr, the 

monitor advised the pilot to take immediate evasive action to avoid the radioactive area (Reference C.43, Appendix I. Annex I-l and I-2). 

Following the detonations, drone aircraft returned to Enewetak. All other 

aircraft involved in the tests returned to Kwajalein. Cloud-tracking missions 

were flown until Dt5. Aircraft used for these missions following X-RAY returned 

with exterior contamination, necessitating monitoring and aircraft and personnel decontamination. Six monitors supervised drone aircraft decontamination 

operations at Enewetak. All ground crews and personnel working on the contaminated drones wore film badges provided by the monitor assigned to the landing 

site (Reference C.43, Appendix B, Annex A, Part 11-2). Two monitors were sent 

to Guam to assist in weather reconnaissance aircraft decontamination. 

Additional TG 7.6 monitoring operations consisted of postshot photography 

al rcraf t missions, compilation of mission data, and monitoring drone aircraft 

ground maintenance operations following the return of drone aircraft to Kwajalein (Reference C.43, p. 91). 

Alrcraft were cleared to return to the United States after the radioactive 

contamination had decayed below 0.016 R/hr. Four monitors from TU 7.6.1 accompanied these aircraft back to Eglin Field, Florida (Reference C.43, p. 93). 

88 
CHAPTER 3 

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM 

EXPERIMENTAL PARTICIPATION 

SANDSTONE was a proof-test of second-generation nuclear devices. The two 

weapons detonated at CROSSROADS (1946) were the same type weapon dropped on 

Nagasaki. On 3 April 1947, the General Advisory Committee to the Atomic Energy 

Commission (AEC) recommended development and testing of new weapons. Los 

Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL) had developed the SANDSTONE weapons and 

was charged with the responsibility for measuring their outputs as well. Measurement of weapon output (X-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, heat, blast, etc.) 

was a new science, and In October 1947 LASL created a new division, called 

J-Division, to manage the nuclear testing program. J-Division contracted with 

selected military service laboratories and private contractors to assist it. 

Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL) was tasked to prepare and conduct experiments 

to measure blast overpressures. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) was similarly 

tasked to prepare and conduct radiation measurement experiments. Argonne 

National Laboratory was tasked to measure gamma-ray output. Edqerton, Germeshausen & Grier , Inc. (EG&G) was contracted to design and install timing and 

firing systems to trigger the nuclear devices and to activate the many experiments at precisely the right time (Reference C.7, p. 105). 

The military services were eager to participate in the testing to determine 

the effects of blast, heat, and radiation on biological specimens, equipment, 

and structures. They proposed many experiments and 15 were finally approved. 

These experiments were not to interfere with the basic mission of testing the 

new weapons and were under the technical control of Commander Task Group (CTG) 

7.1 (Reference C.l, p. 37). 

Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP) assisted the AEC in the weapon 

diagnostics experiments that measured nuclear device outputs. AFSWP also supervised the proposed effects experiments from the military services and assisted 

the services 

integrated 

assisted in 

in gaining AEC approval. Approximately 116 AFSWP personnel 

into Task Group (TG) 7.1 (AEC Proving Ground Group), where 

almost every area of effort (Reference C.43, p. 21). 

were 

they 

Table 

table also 

long-range 

8 lists the weapon diagnostics 

lists the six experiments of 

detection of the detonations, 

and service test 

a special operation, 

which were conducted 

experiments. 

associated 

independently 

The 

with 

of 

SANDSTONE by the Air Force with assistance from the U.S. Coast and Geodetic 

Survey (USC&G’S), the Navy, and NRL. No radiation exposure potential existed 

for these six experiments as the operations were far removed from the test 

site. No task force personnel participated in these experiments. 

Table 9 contains exposure information for personnel who could be associated 

with a particular experiment. Information for individuals associated with 

weapon diagnostics experiments is complete. Not everyone associated with the 

89 
Table 8. SANDSTONE experlments. 

Experlment Responslble Organlzatlon 

Weapon Dlagnostlcs Experlments 

Radlochemtstry Los Alamos Sclentlflc Laboratory 

Neutron Measurement Los Alamos Sclentlflc Laboratory 

Neutron Generatlon -- Ross1 Method Naval Research Laboratory 

Neutron Generatlon -- Teller Method Edgerton, Germeshausen & Grler, 

Inc. 

Gamma-Ray Spectrum Argonne National Laboratory 

Gamma-Ray Appearance -- Ross1 Method Naval Research Laboratory 

Gamma-Ray Appearance -- Teller Method Edgerton, Germeshausen & Grler, 

Inc. 

Technical Photography Task Group 7.4 

Blast Measurements Naval Ordnance Laboratory 

Service Tests 

Relnforced Concrete Structures Task Group 7.2 

Blast Resistance of Structures Task Group 7.3 

Alrcraft Blast Acceleration Task Group 7.4 

Exposure of Biological Material Task Group 7.6 

Exposure of Materlal to Radiation Task Group 7.6 

Evaluation of New Radlologlcal Instruments Task Group 7.6 

Radlatlon Shleldlng by Materlals Task Group 7.6 

Evaluatlon of Collective Protectors Task Group 7.6 

Residual Crater Contamlnatlon Task Group 7.6 

Aerial Survey of Ground Contamlnatlon Task Group 7.6 

Aerial Survey of Cloud Intenslty Task Group 7.6 

Survey of Cloud Particle Slze Task Group 7.6 

Special Operatlons 

Observation of the Moon Alr Force 

Magnetic Effects Alr Force; Naval Ordnance 

Laboratory 

Selsmlc Observatlons U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 

Acoustic Observations Navy 

Remote Detectlon by Ajrborne Fllters Alr Force 

Remote Detectlon by Ground Observatlon Alr Force 

90 
Table 9. SANDSTONE scientific personnel radlatlon exposures. 

Exposure Ranges (roentgens) 

No. of -

No. of Persons O.OOl- 0.5 l- 1.5- 2- 2.5- Over 

Experlment Tltle/Organlzatlon Persons Badged 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3a 

-___ 

Weapon Olagnosttcs Experiments 

Radlochemlstry 

Los Alamos Sclentiflc laboratory 8 8 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 5 

Aberdeen Proving Ground 5 5 0 1 3 1 0 0 0 0 

Neutron Measurement 

Los Alamos Sclentiflc Laboratory 26 26 2 13 1 1 3 3 1 2 

Neutron Generatlon -- Ross\ Method 

Naval Research Laboratory 38 19 11 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Neutron Generatlon -- Teller Method 

Edgerton, Germeshausen & Grler, Inc. 23 23 19 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Gamma-Ray Spectrum 

Argonne National Laboratory 8 8 2 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Gamma-Ray Appearance -- Ross.1 Method 

Naval Research Laboratory 38 19 11 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Gamma-Ray Appearance -- Teller Method 

Edgerton, Germeshausen, & Grler, Inc. 23 23 19 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 

lechnlcal Photography 

lask Unit 7.4.3 175 166 122 43 1 0 0 0 0 0 

Blast Measurements 

Naval Ordnance Laboratory 38 38 14 21 0 2 1 0 0 0 

Service Tests 

Reinforced Concrete Structures 

Task Group 7.2 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Structural Shapes 

Task Group 7.3 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 

AIrcraft Blast Acceleration 

lask Group 7.4 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Exposure of Blological Material 

lask Group 7.6 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Exposure of Materlal to Radlatlon 

Task Group 7.6 5 5 0 1 2 2 0 0 0 0 

Evaluation of New Radlologlcal Instruments 

lask Group 7.6 2 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 

Radlatlon Shleldlng by Materials 

lask Group 7.6 4 3 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 

Evaluation of Collective Protectors 

lask Group 7.6 3 3 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 

Aerlal Survey of Ground Contamlnatlon 

Task Group 7.6 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 

Aerlal Survey of Cloud Intensity 

lask Group 7.6 3 3 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 

Survey of Cloud Particle Slze 

Task Group 7.6 3 3 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 

____ 

Note: 

aPermlsslble exposure was 0.1 R/day. Overexposure, over 0.1 R/day, to a maxlmum of 3 R was allowed before 

removing an Indlvldual from addltlonal exposure for a period of 30 days. 

91 
service tests could be identified, however, so this information is based on 

personnel who could be identified with a particular test. Some individuals 

worked on more than one service test. Wherever this occurred, the individual 

has been counted under each service test in which he participated. The table 

omits the special long-range detection operation, since task force personnel 

did not participate. 

WEAPON DIAGNOSTICS EXPERIMENTS 

These experiments were designed to measure the output of the nuclear devices, specifically yield, radiation, and blast. LASL was responsible for these 

experiments and accomplished them with its own personnel or with personnel from 

other organizations (see Table 8). 

Radlochemlstry 

Aqency: Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL) 

Operations: Radioactive cloud samples were collected by eight remotely 

controlled drone B-17s on two shots by seven drones on one shot. Each 

drone, controlled by a manned B-17 flying clear of the weapon, made two or 

three passes through the radioactive cloud shortly after detonation to 

collect cloud debris on filter paper in special boxes mounted on top of 

and under the fuselage. Personnel from LASL removed the highly radioactive 

papers at Enewetak Island and these were flown to Los Alamos, New Mexico, 

for analysis. The techniques used in handling these samples are discussed 

in Chapter 2. 

Soil samples were collected by a modified light tank with a digging 

device installed and the turret removed (Figure 39). The tank was unmanned 

and was controlled from a hovering helicopter. The tank was placed in a 

protective shelter on the shot island (Figure 40) before the shot. Several 

hours after the shot it was driven out of its shelter by personnel landed 

on the island by LCM or helicopter. After the tank was started it was 

turned over to the controller in the helicopter for sampling runs into the 

crater area. The craters formed by the SANDSTONE shots were slightly depressed areas on the surface under the burst point, not deep holes in the 

ground. The concrete bases of the towers survived. A second drone tank was 

available in the LCM that brought personnel to the island in case the first 

tank failed. The soil samples retrieved by the tanks were then split, with 

one part analyzed locally and the other sent to LASL for analysis. 

Staffinq: LASL (LAJ-2) provided eight men and Aberdeen Proving Ground five 

men for this experiment. In addition, the entire Drone Unit of 460 men in 

TG 7.4 participated. LASL civilians performed various tasks, including 

removal of filters from the drone aircraft. LASL personnel also directed 

the ground-sample, drone tank operation. This operation was delayed until 

the filters from the aircraft drones had been removed so that the LASL 

scientist who supervised that operation could be flown by helicopter from 

Enewetak Island to the shot island. 

The actual operation of the drone tanks involved an officer, an NCO, 

and three civilians from Aberdeen Proving Ground (Army). The officer acted 

92 

as controller in the helicopter on shot days. He was also involved in 

recovering the tank that stalled after X-RAY and YOKE shots. 

The Navy provided the helicopter and pilot for the drone tank operation 

as well as the LCM and crew for the backup tank. A second helicopter was 

also involved and was positioned to help the tank-control helicopter keep 

its position away from the radioactive area. The particular Navy personnel 

involved cannot be identified. 

Paricipants in this experiment, particularly those handling the samples 

from the drone aircraft, had relatively high exposures. 

Project Reports: References C.3, C.5, and C.10. 

Neutron Measurement 

Aqency: Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL) 

Operations: On all three shots, neutron measurements were made with two 

strings of samples, a land string and a water string. Samples were placed 

on the water string from 100 to 1,000 yards (91.4 to 914 meters) at lOOyard (91.4-meter) Intervals from surface zero and on the land string from 

200 to 1,000 yards (183 to 914 meters) at 200-yard (183-meter) intervals 

from surface zero. Samples consisted of a variety of elements. Both strings 

were designed for retrieval of samples by pulling them in from a safe 

distance. 

Staffinq: LASL provided 10 men including the LAJ-3 section leader, and 

AFSWP provided 16 military personnel for this experiment. Exposures of one 

LASL and one military worker exceeded 

sures were generally higher than for 

were retrieved shortly after each deto

the 

other 

nation. 

3-R 

exper

limit 

iments 

(see 

because 

Table 9). 

the 

Exposamples 

Project Reports: References C.18 and C.19. 

Neutron Generatlon -- Ross1 Method 

Aqency: Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) 

Operations: Instrumentation was placed at three to four stations (depending on the shot) at varying distances from surface zero. In addition, one 

test station was located at the base of each shot tower, one station 300 

meters from each shot tower, and one station located over 1,000 meters 

from each shot tower. Data and films were recovered from the various stations 7 hours after the X-RAY detonation and 4 hours after the YOKE and 

ZEBRA detonations. 

Staffinq: NRL provided 22 men including the project leader, and AFSWP initially provided 16 military personnel for this experiment. After X-RAY 

about one-third of the military participants were released to AFSWP, and 

after YOKE all but one of the remaining military were released to AFSWP. 

All personnel were billeted on USS Albemarle (AV-5). Exposures were low, 

as reflected in Table 9. 

Project Reports: References C.ll, C.12, and C.13. 

94 
Neutron Generatlon -- Teller Method 

Aqency : Edgerton, Germeshausen & Grier, Inc. (EG&G) 

Operations: Measurement of early neutrons was attempted by detecting 

visible light variations. A mirror optical system was used with photomultipliers. 

Staffinq: EG&G provided 11 technicians including the project leader, and 

AFSWP provided 12 personnel. Since return to the shot island for recovery 

operations was unnecessary, exposures were quite low (see Table 9). 

Project Reports: References C.15, C.16, and C.17. 

Gamma-Ray Spectrum 

Aqency : Argonne National Laboratory 

Operations: Argonne was charged with measuring gamma rays as a function of 

time. “Gamma shelters” were constructed on or near each shot island: Shelters A and B for X-RAY, and Shelters A, B and C for YOKE and ZEBRA. The 

shelters were located 750, 1,300 and 1,800 yards (0.69, 1.19, and 1.65 km) 

from surface zero. Personnel were required to return to the shelters after 

each shot to retrieve data; however, because of distances to surface zero, 

radiation at recovery time was at an acceptable level. 

Staffinq: Eight Argonne staff members managed and executed this experiment. 

Their exposures are shown in Table 9. 

Project Report: Reference C.29. 

Gamma-Ray Appearance -- Ross1 Method 

Aqency: Naval Research Laboratory 

Qperations: The experiment was 

tion -- Rossi Method experiment. 

neutron production. 

essentially 

Gamma output 

identical 

was cal

to 

cul

the 

ated 

Neutron 

from 

Generameasured 

Staffinq: Staffing 

Method experiment. 

was the same as for the Neutron Generation -- Rossi 

Project Reports: References C.11, C.12, and C.13. 

Gamma-Ray Appearance -- Teller Method 

Aqency : Edgerton, Germeshausen & Grier, Inc. 

Operations: The experiment was essentially identical to the Neutron Ceneration -- Teller Method experiment. Gamma output was calculated from 

measured neutron production. 

95 
Staffing: Staffing was the same as for the Neutron Generation -- Teller 

Method experiment. 

Project Reports: References C.15, C.16, and C.17. 

Technlcal Photography 

Agency : Task Group 7.4 (TG 7.4) 

Operations: Fireball growth can be used for a variety of nuclear device 

diagnostic measurements if good photographs are collected. Four large 

towers were constructed for photography at locations that allowed use of 

two towers on each shot. A tower constructed on a coral head in the lagoon 

was used for all three shots. Towers were also built on Ananij, Aomon, and 

Runit; one was used for each of the three shots. Film was placed in cameras 

the day before each shot and retrieved from the Coral Head Photo Tower by 

personnel in small boats (LCM) and from the island towers by personnel 

flown over in L-5 aircraft the morning of the shots. In addition to tower 

photography, LASL also required airborne photography of the fireball 

growth. TG 7.4 (Air Force) furnished two OA-10 and two F-13 aircraft for 

technical photography on each shot. These aircraft circled the surface 

zero island at a safe distance. at altitudes ranging from 12,000 feet (3.7 

km) to over 30,000 feet (9.1 km). 

Staffing: LASL furnished 19 photographers and 3 other men to assist TG 7.4, 

which managed the entire photography program. The Air Force Photography 

Unit (Task Unit [TU] 7.4.3) had 175 personnel assigned, including the 19 

LASL civilian photographers and 12 Army, 5 Navy, 1 Marine, and 138 Air 

Force personnel. This group is discussed further under TU 7.4.3 (Photography Unit) in Chapter 7. Those in TU 7.4.3 involved with technical photography cannot be distinguished from those involved with documentary 

photography: therefore, Table 9 lists everyone in TU 7.4.3. 

Project Reports: References C.27 and C.28. 

Blast Measurements 

Aqency : Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL) 

Operations: To measure peak overpressure at various distances, variation 

of pressure with time, and shock arrival time, concrete piers 1.5 feet 

(0.46 meter) high were set in the ground from 220 to 2,921 yards (0.20 to 

2.67 km) to hold blast gauges on each of the three shots. The gauges were 

primarily self-recording and consisted of empty beer cans, foil-meters, 

pipes, 5-gallon (19-liter) cans, indenter gauges, velocity switches, harps. 

and free-piston gauges, but some strain-gauge data were telemetered. Gauges 

were retrieved the afternoon of Dtl. Recovery crews were accompanied by a 

monitor and wore film badges, pocket dosimeters, booties, caps, and gloves. 

Staffinq: NOL provided 21 men including the project leader, AFSWP provided 

12, Army Ballistics Research Laboratories provided 3, David Taylor Model 

96 
Basin provided 1, and LASL provided 1 this experiment. All 38 were badged: 

most exposures ranged from zero to 0.5 R (see Table 9). 

Project Reports: References C.20, C.21, and C.22. 

SERVICE TESTS 

These experiments were designed to measure effects of the detonations on 

equipment and structures. They were requested by the military services, approved by the AEC, and conducted by a variety of task force organizations. 

Reinforced Concrete Structures 

Aqency : Task Group 7.2 for Office, Chief of Engineers (Army). 

Operations: To determine the protection afforded by structures and earth 

barricades against blast and radiation from an atomic detonation, four 

reinforced concrete structures and one earth barricade were constructed on 

Enjebi Island and subjected to the effects of the X-RAY detonation. The 

structures were 12 by 24 feet (3.7 by 7.3 meters). Two had walls 1 foot 

(0.30 meter) thick and two had walls 2 feet (0.61 meter) thick: the former 

were located at 1,500 and 2,500 feet (457 and 762 meters) from surface zero 

and the latter located at 1,000 and 1,500 feet (305 and 457 meters) from 

surface zero. The earth barricade was 10 feet (3 meters) high and located 

2,500 feet (762 meters) from surface zero. Navy Bureau of Ships (BuShips) 

personnel (TG 7.3) placed gamma-reading film badges and AFSWP placed neutron detectors in the structures. BuShips personnel also placed test samples on the exterior of the structures for thermal radiation studies. 

Photographs were taken of the structures before and after the shot to 

record the effects. 

Staffing: Two TG 7.2 personnel have been identified with this experiment, 

an Army major and a civilian employed by the Army. Exposures were less 

than 0.5 R for both (see Table 9). 

Project Report: Reference C.24. 

Blast Resistance of Structures 

Aqency : Task Group 7.3 for Navy Bureau of Yards and Docks 

Operations: To determine blast damage to a variety of structural shapes 

made of concrete, steel, and wood, 79 specimens were exposed on X-RAY and 

92 specimens were exposed on YOKE. Structural shapes included cubes, 

prisms, cylinders, spheres, half-cylinders, pyramids, and domes, all with 

varying thicknesses. Figure 41 shows these shapes on Aomon after the YOKE 

shot. The specimens were placed between 1,000 and 5,000 feet (0.31 to 1.52 

km) from surface zero. To record and evaluate the damage, pre- and postshot 

photographs were taken, visual examinations were made and recorded, and 

the contours of all steel specimens were measured and recorded. 

Staffinq: Most specimens were designed and constructed at locations in the 

United States. Army engineers built a few on site: however, they departed 

97 

two shots. These came from the Department of Agriculture, California Institute of Technology, Army Chemical Corps, and Naval Medical Research Institute. The materials were placed in 20 separate packets and located at 

distances from 250 to 1,000 yards (229 to 914 meters) from surface zero. 

A second part of this experiment consisted of placing four empty animal 

containers between 350 and 1,500 yards (0.32 and 1.37 km) from the X-RAY 

and 

use 

YOKE detonations. 

in future irradiation 

The purpose 

testing 

was to 

of larger 

determine 

animals, 

their 

such 

suitability 

as dogs and 

for 

pigs. 

Staffinq: A Navy captain 

after detonation was not 

(see Table 9). 

from TG 7.6 managed this 

time-sensitive so exposure 

exp

to 

eriment. 

radiation 

Recovery 

was low 

Project Report: Reference C.33. 

Exposure of Materials to Radlatlon 

Agent y : Task Group 7.6 for Navy Bureau of Ships (BuShips) 

Operations: Small samples of several materials were exposed at 12 separate 

stations on each of the three SANDSTONE shots to determine the effects 

of radiation from fission products. Some of the materials had special 

coatings. 

Staffinq: Five TG 7.6 personnel managed this experiment for BuShips. Their 

exposures are listed in Table 9. 

Project Report: Reference C.5. 

Evaluatlon of New Radlologlcal Instruments 

Aqency : Task Group 7.6 for Navy Bureau of Ships 

Operations: Several new types of radiac meters were tested and evaluated 

under field conditions. Twelve types of beta-gamma instruments were tested, 

some of which were also designed to measure alpha activity. Seven types of 

pocket dosimeters were tested along with newly designed dosimeter chargers 

and new concepts in alpha meters. A total of over 300 gamma-beta instruments and over 1,000 pocket dosimeters were available for field testing by 

TG 7.6. 

Staffinq: Two TG 7.6 personnel were assigned to test these instruments 

under field conditions. Their exposures are included in Table 9. 

Project Report: Reference C.31. 

Radiation Shleldlng by Materials 

Aqency : Task Group 7.6 for Navy Bureau of Ships 

Operations: Film badges were placed behind concrete, steel, and other samples to determine relative radiation protection. Samples varied in thickness and in distance from surface zero. 

99 
Staffinq: Four TG 7.6 personnel were assigned to this experiment (see 

Table 9) . 

Project Reports: References C.5 and C.43. 

Evaluation of Collective Protectors 

Aqency : Task Group 7.6 for Army Chemical Corps 

Operations: To determine the efficiency of a system for the removal of 

airborne radioactive materials, field collective protectors were installed 

before X-RAY, one in the reinforced-concrete structure at 1,500 feet (457 

meters) from surface zero and one in an LCVP 2,500 yards (2.29 km) downwind 

from surface zero. The LCVP sank before the detonation and a second collective protector was installed on an LCM downwind of the YOKE surface 

zero. Recovery soon after the burst was unnecessary and exposures were 

low, although the LCM was highly radioactive and was scuttled rather than 

decontaminated. 

Staffing: Three TG 7.6 personnel have been identified with this experiment. 

Their exposures are listed in Table 9. 

Project Reports: References C.24, C.30, and C.43. 

Residual Crater ContamInatlon 

Aqenc y : Task Group 7.6 

Operations: The Technical Measurements Unit (TU 7.6.6) was responsible for 

this experiment. Unit personnel carried out studies of residual radiation 

in the craters by measuring radiation in soil samples collected by remotely 

controlled tanks on shot day and several succeeding days. 

Staffinq: Two U.S. Public Health Service personnel in TG 7.6 have been 

identified with 

operated the drone 

Table 9. 

this experiment. 

tank and their 

Personnel 

exposures 

from the 

are 

Aberdeen Proving 

listed under TG 

Ground 

7.1 in 

_Pro)ect Report: Reference C.43. 

Aerlal Survey of Ground Contamlnatton 

Aqency: Task Group 7.6 

Operations: The concept of this test was to determine if an aerial radiation survey could be used to determine levels of radioactivity on the 

ground. A C-47 aircraft flew over the contaminated islands shortly after 

each detonation at altitudes varying from 1,000 to 7,000 feet (0.31 to 

2.13 km) taking readings of gamma intensity. This procedure was repeated 

on Dtl for each detonation and again on Dt6 (except for the ZEBRA shot). 

100 
Staffinq: The C-47 was flown by a crew from TG 7.4. A TG 7.6 monitor conducted the experiment. His exposure is included in Table 9. 

Project Report: Reference C.43. 

Aerial Survey of Cloud Intensjty 

Aqency: Task Group 7.6 

Operations: Film badges were placed in each drone that conducted sampling 

operations on all three shots. Since each drone sampled the radioactive 

cloud at an assigned altitude, this assisted in determining distribution 

of intensity within the cloud. Badges were removed by TG 7.6 personnel 

when the drones landed at Enewetak. 

Staffing: Three individuals from TG 7.6 have been identified with this 

experiment. Two had exposures in excess of 1 R (see Table 9). 

Prolect Report: References C.30 and C.43. 

Survey of Cloud Particle Size 

Aqency : Task Group 7.6 for Army Chemical Corps 

Operations: Cascade impactors, which collect particles in the air, were 

placed in all four reinforced concrete shelters for X-RAY. For ZEBRA, a 

cascade impactor was in one of the drones. For YOKE and ZEBRA a cascade 

lmpactor was in operation on board an LCM, 2,500 yards (2.29 km) downwind 

of surface zero. Recovery was on D+l. 

Staffing: Three TG 7.6 personnel have been identified with this experiment. 

Their exposures are listed in Table 9. 

Project Report: Reference C.30. 

101 
CHAPTER 4 

TEST OPERATIONS 

Each SANDSTONE nuclear device was placed on a 200-foot (61-meter) tower, 

allowing clear lines of sight from instrument stations to the burst point. The 

islands used -- Enjebi, Aomon, and Runit -- were stripped of vegetation and 

graded level to facilitate instrument placement and test activities. On Enjebi, 

the 1944 World War II bombardment had destroyed the coconut palms, and only 

shrubby brush on the island remained before SANDSTONE. Aomon, nearby Bi jire, 

and Runit, however, had to be cleared of these trees. although one section of 

Aomon was left untouched. 

A causeway was built between Aomon and Bijire in preparation for SANDSTONE. 

The causeway allowed underground instrument cable runs from the test tower to 

an instrument station on Bijire. It was also a roadway for a radio-controlled 

tank used to collect samples of soil in the burst area, and allowed freer movement of construction and test personnel on the small islands before the shot. 

Details of instrument placement and experimental activities are in Chapter 3. 

The succession of shots was from Enjebi, the most northern and western of 

the test islands, to Runit, the most southern and eastern. Winds at Enewetak 

are usually such that the area of potential contamination by radioactive fallout would lie north of a line running west-southwest to east-northeast, passing 

just south of the burst point. Moving the shot points progressively from northwest to southeast minimized the possibility of personnel working in areas contaminated by prior shots. 

Operations for each of the three test shots were similar but were carried 

out more precisely with YOKE and ZEBRA as collective experience grew (Reference 

c.3, p. 1X-70). Operations were rehearsed from 4 to 8 April, with the latter 

the date of the X-RAY shot rehearsal. 

Test operations began about a week before each shot, when various samples 

of materials to be exposed were set out in or near test structures and at other 

measurement sites. 

On D-3, a meeting of all commanders and principal staff officers was held 

to determine if all preparations were sufficiently advanced to permit proceeding according to schedule. Upon receiving Commander Joint Task Force 7 (CJTF 

7) approval to proceed, orders were issued to execute the Evacuation Plan. 

On D-2, movements within and into the atoll were restricted to last-minute 

essentials; all islands except Enewetak and Parry were searched to ensure that 

everyone had been evacuated. 

On D-l, a personnel muster took place to ensure an accurate check of all 

personnel: last-minute preparations of all scientific equipment were carried 

out; and Enewetak Atoll was evacuated completely except for the personnel and 

equipment essential for the test. 

102 
Throughout test preparation days, the weather watch continued to ensure 

that the day selected for the test would have favorable weather. 

Wind direction and velocity at all altitudes were critical to minimize the 

possibility of fallout from the radioactive cloud on task force ships and any 

inhabited islands. Light, variable winds, which made forecasting more difficult, and winds with a northerly component presented unfavorable conditions 

for firing. Clouds that would interfere with visual direction of drone aircraft 

through the radioactive cloud also made firing conditions unfavorable. Additionally, heavy cloud cover would Interfere with aerial photography, but since 

this was not essential to scientific recording, this condition could be tolerated if other criteria were favorable. Rainshowers that could be predicted 

as “few and scattered” were acceptable, but predicted “heavy showers” were not 

acceptable because of possible interference with surface photography, which 

was essential to scientific recording. Keeping the drone aircraft away from 

all rainshowers to avoid wetting their filters was also essential. 

During periods of normal trade wind conditions, weather forecasts could be 

made with a high degree of certainty, but during periods of little weather 

movement, forecasts were very uncertain (Reference C.2, pp. III-24 and 111-25). 

Three musters were held on the day before each shot. The first, at 0600, 

was to account for everyone who was jn the Enewetak area before personnel left 

for their assigned shot-hour stations. The second, at 1330, was to ensure that 

personnel were at their assigned stations before the departure of the boats 

and ships. The third, at 1800, was to determine the whereabouts of everyone in 

the task force (Reference C.7, p. 157). 

Task force personnel on Enewetak were evacuated to ships the day before the 

shot, except for a small group that remained on Enewetak and Parry islands for 

the three shots. The temporary camps on Enjebi, Runit, and Aomon were abandoned 

and dismantled for each shot on those islands. Evacuation of Enjebi before 

X-RAY was photographed and is shown in Figure 42. The shot tower is in the 

background. Task force ships evacuated the lagoon except for USS Albemarle 

(AV-5), USS Mount McKinley (ACC-7)) USS Curtiss (AV-41, USS Bairoko (CVE-1151, 

AVR C-26638, and AVR C-26653 (air-sea rescue boats), which were off Parry 

Island. 

Plans were made to evacuate Ujelang (the atoll to which the Enewetak people 

had been moved before Operation SANDSTONE began) if fallout from any of the 

three shots occurred there. An LST was dispatched to Ujelang on D-3 for each 

shot to stand by if needed for evacuation. Four C-54 aircraft were on standby 

at Kwajalein to assist in evacuating the skeleton force on Enewetak if fallout 

occured. Neither contingency plan had to be used for any of the three shots. 

Cloud sampling was conducted by directing unmanned B-17 drones through the 

cloud. These drones were controlled by manned B-17 controller aircraft on a 

one-to-one basis. The drones were landed at Enewetak where the “hot” filter 

papers were removed and flown to Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL) for 

analysis. Analyses of the bomb debris collected by these filters were used to 

determine device yields and other technical data. 

103 

X-RAY 

The X-RAY nuclear device was detonated with a yield of 37 KT at 0617 on 15 

April 1948 just before sunrise on a tower on Enjebi. Figure 43 shows ship positions at burst time. The detonation produced a brilliant flash, and observers 

felt radiant heat on their faces for an instant. The fireball was immediately 

obscured by a condensation (Wilson) cloud that moved out behind the advancing 

shock wave and formed a hemlspherical shape with a diameter of about 5 nmi 

(9.3 km), which was illuminated from within by the fireball. This cloud disappeared after a few seconds, and the incandescent fireball changed from nearly 

white, to yellow, to orange, and finally to red in about 20 seconds. In 45 to 

50 seconds, the sound of the shot -- like that of heavy thunder -- reached the 

observers on the ships in the lagoon. 

The radioactive cloud pushed through the deck of broken cumulus shortly 

after the first minute. When its top:_reached 40,000 feet (12.2 km) in approximately 5 minutes, an ice cap was seen to form. The darkness prevented careful 

observations, and not all observers reported this ice-cap phenomenon. After 6 

minutes, the cloud top was at approximately 44,000 feet (13.4 km). The cloud 

consisted of two major portions: the mushroom with its tapering stem, and a 

large cumulus-type cloud from which the stem appeared to extend. This lower 

cloud portion reached up to an estimated height of 15,000 feet (4.6 km) and 

was mingled with the other lower clouds so that it was mostly obscured. As the 

mushroom continued to rise, it began to move eastward with the prevailing 

southwesterly winds. This eastward drift had begun between 3 and 4 minutes 

after the detonation, when the cloud had reached approximately 30,000 feet 

(9.1 km). Meanwhile, the lower portion was drifting westward, and the stem was 

elongating and becoming smaller in diameter. 

At 9-l/2 minutes, Albemarle observers recorded a clean break, or shear, 

between the upper and lower cloud masses that was estimated to occur at 20,000 

feet (6.1 km). The stem of the cloud rapidly dispersed in this wind shear region during the following 3 or 4 minutes, leaving an Irregular patch of dust 

or smoke that separated itself from both the upper and lower portions of the 

cloud. This shear point was at about the altitude that measured winds showed a 

direction change from predominantly northwest to predominantly northeast. 

Between 12 and 13 minutes after detonation, the mushroom reached its highest altitude. The upper portion of the cloud was estimated to be approximately 

5.5 nmi (10.2 km) in diameter at this time, and its center was 19 nmi (35.2 km) 

from the observing ships. After reaching maximum altitude. the upper cloud was 

moved by a wind from 2300 at approximately 25 knots (46 km/hr). 

The lower cumulus-type portion of the cloud remained visible for about 20 

minutes, when it was obscured by other clouds. The stem of the mushroom, which 

formed a broad, irregularly shaped area of fine dust and smoke, appeared to 

disperse in the region of wind shear and disappeared after about 2 hours. The 

primary portion maintained its general shape but appeared to become thin and 

sheet-like so that it closely resembled cirrocumulus. Finally, in approximately 

3 hours even this most prominent part of the cloud could not be distinguished 

by surface observers (Reference C.35, pp. 9 and 10). 

At H-hour plus 20 minutes a helicopter left Bairoko to go to Enjebi to 

check on the cable winch, which was there to retrieve samples from near the 

105 
••

1 l”50 

1 l”40 

1 1”3( 

. 

5 

; 

<

1 

x 

5 

2 

1 l”2rJ 

11”lC 

11’ 

US’GEORGE (DE-697) 

34 nrn, (63 kmi NE 

ENJEBI 

USS HENRY W. TUCKER (DDR 8751 

TASK UNIT 7 3 8 

USS PICKAWAY (APA 2221 

USS CURRIER (DE 7001 

USS WARRICK (AKA 89) 

USS MISPILLION (AO-105) 

USS GARDINERS BAY IAVP-39J 

USS COMSTOCK (LSD 19) 

USS ALBEMAHLE rAV 51 

USS SPANGLER (DE 6961 1 

me*.*. 

‘USS hlOUNT MCKINLEY ’ USS RABY IDE 6981 

USS CUHTISS 

USS ROGERS (DDR 8761 

••a ••* 0. . . USS PERKINS (DDR-877) 

LCI-549 TASK UNIT 7.3.5 

USS PASIG (AW,3) 

USS MARSH (DE-699) 

YW 94 

YOG 64 N USS ASKARI (ARL-301 

FS-370 

USS LST 45 

LCI-1054 t LCI 1090 

LSM 250 

USS AREQUIPA (AF 311 

NAUTICAL MILES 

(1 

STATUTE MILES 

OiulLh.2 

KILOMETERS 

I I I 

162OlO’ 162O20’ 162O30’ 1t 10' 

EAST LONGITUDE 

Figure 43. Ship posltlons at shot time, SANDSTONE, X-RAY. 

106 

built protective revetment in preparation for the X-RAY shot. After the filters 

had been pulled from the drone aircraft, the Rad-Chem section chief flew to 

Enjebi in a helicopter to supervise soil sample collection. He first advanced 

toward the crater to set out a row of red flags indicating the limit of safe 

approach. The antenna of the revetted tank had been sheared off by the blast. 

After the antenna of the backup tank was used as a replacement, the tank was 

started. A helicopter, hovering at a safe distance, was used to guide the tank 

into the crater by radio control. On the third attempt the tank mired in the 

soft soil and could not be restarted. Since the backup tank in an LCM in the 

lagoon lacked a radio antenna, it could not be used (Reference C.43, Annex Il. 

The C-47 for aerial radsafe survey left Enewetak at H-hour plus 30 minutes 

and flew to a position 10 nmi (18.5 km) upwind of the shot point, where it 

began its survey at H-hour plus 69 minutes. Almost immediately the monitor 

observed a reading of 0.12 R/hr and ordered a change of course. The plane had 

apparently come under a fringe of the upper portion of the cloud. The background in the plane remained at 0.008 R/hr for 1 hour, but had decreased to 

0.001 R/hr by landing time. Flights at altitudes from 5,000 feet (1.52 km) 

down to 1,000 feet (0.30 km) over the crater followed; peak rate readings of 

3.5 R/hr (uncorrected) were recorded. Later flights over the islands west of 

Enjebi indicated that, as expected, they had been contaminated by fallout. 

Readings of 0.5 R/hr were recorded 200 feet (61 meters) over Boken, Bokaidrikdrik. and Dridrilbwij (Reference C.30, Rpt 2, p. 17). 

The diagnostic experiments fielded by LASL (LAJ-3) were attached to a land 

cable and a water cable. LAJ-3 personnel, accompanied by a monitor, were flown 

by helicopter to the land cable that was attached to a winch situated in a 

relatively safe position. This cable was successfully winched in and most samples were recovered. The water-cable samples suffered appreciable blast damage, 

and 2 days were required to recover those that could be located. Exposures for 

the land-cable sample recovery personnel were less than 0.200 R for the 2-hour 

mission. A survey of the water cable locations took a second party nearer to 

the shot point. Exposures were higher, but “well within the tolerance established. ” The “tolerance established” is not cited in the source document. but 

must refer to the up-to-3 R exposure allowed for “specific urgent missions.“ 

The monitor for both the first and second parties was the same person and was, 

in fact, also the project leader for the experiments. His total exposure for 

the day was 0.75 R (Reference C.43, Appendix I, Annex I, p. 3, and Appendix I, 

Annex I, Appendix 1, p. 5; and Reference E.l). 

Five hours after detonation, personnel from LAJ-4 and LAJ-5 were helicoptered to Enjebi. They recovered instruments and film from the timing station 

and Gamma B station. Jeeps left on the island were used for transportation 

(Reference C.5, p. 3-22). 

Photo personnel recovered film from the Coral Head Photo Tower by LCM from 

Enewetak and from the Aomon Photo Tower by L-5 aircraft. Blast records were 

recovered from Enjebi by LAJ-8 personnel on Dtl (Reference C.5, p. 3-22). 

Two C-54 and two F-13 aircraft photographed the detonation. Two were at 

12,000 feet (3.66 km), one at 30,000 feet (9.14 km), and one above 30,000 feet 

(9.14 km). They flew from Kwajalein and circled Enjebi from a safe distance 

while taking pictures (Reference C.7, p. IV-19). 

108 
One weather reconnaissance WB-29 flew over Enewetak from midnight to 0530 

the morning of the shot. The WB-29 on this mission lost a propeller and aborted 

the mission; however, it was replaced by a second WE+29. After the detonation, 

the WB-29s were used in 12-hour shifts for 5 days to track the radioactive 

cloud. All of these aircraft returned contaminated and the aircraft crews required decontamination (Reference C.3, p. 1X-102). In fact, the filters from 

one WB-29 were too radioactive to analyze initially (Reference A.4, p. 22). 

Albemarle, Mount McKinley, and Curtiss steamed to Aomon from Parry after 

sunrise on D-day (15 April) to begin preparations for the next shot. Bairoko 

steamed to Enjebi to set up radiation controls and monitor personnel and 

equipment for radioactivity (Reference C.5, p. 3-21). 

A fallout chart of Enewetak, Kwajalein, and Ujelang atolls was maintained 

on board Bairoko. The Enewetak chart included daily surface and air radex 

a teas. Fallout patterns for surface, 15,000, 20,000, 25,000, and 30,000 feet 

(4.6, 6.1, 7.6, and 9.1 km) were plotted (Reference C.43, Annex 1). 

The unpopulated islands west of Enjebi were heavily contaminated: however, 

the rest of the islands were relatively free of any radioactivity. On D+5, CTU 

7.6 recommended closing the islands from Elle around to Southwest Passage 

because of radioactivity along the beaches and evidence of fallout. Temporary 

clearance of the other islands and their beaches for swimming was also recommended (Reference C.43, p I-4). 

Evidently, monitors from TG 7.6 were in heavy demand, for on 19 April the 

task force commander sent a dispatch to all task groups as follows: 

19 April 1948 

From: CJTF-7 

Action: All Task Group Commanders 

Personnel of Task Group 7.1 will be allowed to work on 

Enjebi in the area in which radiation intensity is less than 

12.5 mR/hr for a period of 8 hours unaccompanied by a monitor 

in accordance with the following procedures: CTG 7.1 wi 11 be 

notified daily by CTG 7.6 as to the extent of this area and 

CTG 7.1 will inform all TG 7.1 working parties, who can accomplish their work in this area, of the extent of the area. CTG 

7.6 will insure that there will be at least one monitor in 

this area to advise all individuals working under the above 

provisions. CTG 7.6 will provide for issue of film badges, 

pocket dosimeters and clothing as necessary at the landing 

area on Enjebi . Upon returning all working parties will stop 

at the Bairoko as it is not feasible to monitor personnel for 

contamination on Enjebi due to high background. 

The bogged tank that was to collect soil samples was recovered on 25 April. 

10 days after the shot (Reference C. 43, Annex I, p. 27). This recovery was 

done by attaching a cable to the tank and pulling it free of the loose sand . . with another vehicle, after which the tank was driven out by an Aberdeen Proving Ground (APG) technician. The cable could not be hooked to any substantial 

109 
point on the top of the tank’s hull, although attempts were made. Finally, the 

cable was hooked to a towing point on the underside of the tank’s hull. According to the Army officer from APG who did the hook up, this required considerable time crawling under the tank. The LASL radiochemist who was in charge of 

the project and was at the recovery acting as the monitor recollects that the 

hookup required little more than bending at the waist to accomplish (Reference 

D-5). A recent analysis was made of this incident using the conservative (and 

incorrect) assumption that the incident took place 5 days after X-RAY shot. 

Assuming that extensive crawling was required, the results of this analysis 

were that the whole-body gamma dose would have been between 4.4 and 7.2 rem. 

All personnel were badged for the incident and the ARC officer’s badge recorded 

0.140 R for the day. The film badges of the four monitors on this mission recorded between 0.150 and 0.180 R for the day (Reference E.l). 

Engineers destroyed the remains of the test structures on Enjebi in order 

to prevent unauthorized persons from obtaining any information on the effects 

of the test. Nine days after the shot, Bairoko had shifted its anchorage to a 

location near the YOKE test site, joining the test support ships that had moved 

there earlier. Eleven days after the shot, Enjebi was closed to all personnel. 

YOKE 

YOKE was detonated at 0609, just before sunrise on 1 May 1948 on a tower 

on Aomon. It had been postponed 1 day because of unfavorable winds. Its yield 

was 49 KT, the largest nuclear detonation to that time. Figure 45 shows ship 

positions at shot time. Observers noted the same brilliant flash and heat as 

from X-RAY, but the condensation cloud was larger, about 6 nmi (11 .l km) 

across. The sound of the YOKE detonation was perceived as a “resounding pop 

. . . similar to . . . [but] considerably magnified . . . a paper bag which is 

forcefully burst in a small room” (Reference C.35, p. 9). 

When the condensation cloud vanished, the fireball was seen. The base of 

the fireball seemed to spread out over the island and appeared to linger momentarily before rising. In about 10 seconds the fireball had grown to a diameter 

of 1 mile (1.6 km). The brilliant yellows and oranges changed to red as the 

incandescent gases cooled in about 20 seconds. In one minute, the mushroom top 

was estimated at about 2 miles (3.2 km) in diameter. From about 2 to 5 minutes, 

the cloud rose as a large, spherical mass on a broad stem, leaving a relatively 

thick trail of dust and smoke in its wake. 

After 5 minutes, the mushroom stem bent to the east, as strong westerly 

winds took effect. The cloud reached a maximum altitude of 56,000 feet (17.1 

km). At this time, it consisted, from the surface upward, of (1) a thick vertical mass estimated to be l-1/2 miles (2.4 km) in diameter extending to 15,000 

feet (4.6 km); (2) a slanting column, tilted toward the east, of irregular 

patches of reddish-brown smoke and dust; and (3) an upper, dominant mass that 

was about 5 miles (8 km) in diameter and 3 miles (4.8 km) thick. All parts of 

the cloud remained connected. 

At H-hour plus 16 minutes, the highest portion of the cloud resembled an 

anvil top, similar to that found on a cumulonimbus cloud, assumed to have been 

caused by its top spreading out as it flattened against the stratospheric 

110 
I I 11050’1 

• USS HENRY W. FUCKER (DDR.875) 

BOKEN ENJEBI \ 

UNIBOR . . uss hHt)T ,Vt-OYo, 

TASK UNIT 7 3 8 

15 nrn~ 20 nmi (28 37 km1 ESE 

USS PICKAWA’ Y (APA-222) 

USS CURRIER (DE-7001 

USS WARRICK (AKA-89) 

)N (AO-105) USS ALBEMARLE IAV L fZ,s !.,z%: - UJJ ~UIVIJ I ubK (LSD 19) 

USS ROGERS USS GARDINERS BAYIAVP-3S 

(DDR-876) \ 

USS CURTISS 

IKUREN” uss GEORGE (DE-6971 TASK UNIT 7.3.5 ------doa • USS PASIG (AW-3)

LCI-549 0 0 USS MARSH (DE 6991 .a. 

USS PERKINS USS ASKARI (ARC 30) 

(DDR-8771 FS-21 1 

LSM-250 

USS LST-45 

YW 94 N FS-370 

LCI-1054 

LCI-1090 

LSM-378 t 

OI NAUTICAL MILES 

0

I STATUTE MILES 

0 

I 

KILOMETERS 

1 6Z” 162OlO’ 162”20 162O30’ 16 

EAST LONGITUDE 

Figure 45. Shjp positIons at shot time, SANDSTONE, YOKE. 

111 
inversion. After 1 hour, the highest portion of the former anvil seemed to 

contain the only moisture in the entire cloud. It appeared to have stretched 

out into a rectangular patch of cirrocumulus: whereas the remainder of the 

cloud maintained its reddish-brown color and smoky, dusty appearance. The cloud 

had been drawn out by the upper winds into a ribbon whose extremities were 

about 50 miles (80 km) apart. This ribbon varied in width and density, but 

remained unbroken. It generally zig-zagged downward in a slanting line from 

east to west and reached completely across the northern sky. The cloud had 

moved away until it was less than loo above the horizon. After 2 hours, it 

appeared at such a low angle, and was so dispersed, that its general form 

could not be determined (Reference C.35, pp. 10-11). 

Four helicopters landed on Aomon at Ht20 minutes to retrieve the land 

cable with attached samples using a powered winch. A jeep was also used to 

assist in retrieving the samples. The cable closest to the detonation measured 

15 R/hr at a distance of 6 inches (15 cm> when it was reeled in. Two members 

of the party approached the crater until readings reached 20 R/hr, then retreated. One of these two was the TG 7.6 monitor. His exposure for this mission 

was 1.450 R (Reference C.43, Annex I). 

LAJ-4 and LAJ-5 personnel arrived at Aomon-Bljire by an LCVP at about H+l. 

They recovered instrumentation from the Gamma A and B stations, which was flown 

by helicopter to Albemarle. All personnel returned via Bairoko for monitoring 

and decontamination (Reference C.43, Annex I). The TG 7.6 monitor with this 

party received 0.800 R during the operation (Reference C.29). 

Mount McKinley, Albemarle and Curtlss left the Parry Island anchorage after 

the shot and steamed for Runit, site of the next shot. Bairoko headed for 

Aomon to cant rol entry to radex areas and to monitor personnel and equipment 

from the YOKE shot island. It encountered an increase in background radiation 

(amount not given) on the bridge even before it departed Parry Island; however, 

it was not sufficient to be of concern. This same Increase was noted on Parry 

Island (Reference C.43, Annex 1). 

Fallout charts were maintained for Enewetak, Kwajalein, and Ujelang atolls: 

again the Enewetak chart included air as well as ground radexes. The unpopulated islands northwest of Aomon were heavily contaminated by shot YOKE (Reference C.43, Annex 1). 

As they had been for X-RAY, the drones were prepositioned at Enewetak the 

day before the shot. B-17 controllers departed from Kwajalein early enough on 

shot day to guide the drones to the target area well before shot time. One 

drone made a simulated bomb run over the target area at H-hour and took plctures of the detonation. It flew at 20,000 feet (6.10 km) and experienced 

severe buffeting but returned safely. It did not perform any sampling as the 

radiation might have damaged the exposed photographic film. It was one of four 

B-17 drones instrumented to measure blast effects. LASL personnel removed the 

filters from all sampler drones after they landed at Enewetak and by 0940 had 

placed them aboard awaiting C-54s for flights to LASL. Drones were again decontaminated by TG 7.6 personnel and flown back to Kwajalein after a few days 

(Reference C.3, p. VIII-71; Reference C.23, p. 55). 

112 
-- 

The radio-controlled tank intended to collect soil samples from the YOKE 

crater was started after 1130. It stalled, and the LCM landed the backup tank 

and it obtained usable samples. These were shipped back to LASL via Enewetak, 

being dispatched by air from there after 1510 (Reference C.3, p. VIII-73). 

The C-47 was dispatched from Enewetak shortly after the detonation to conduct a radiological survey of Aomon and surrounding islands. It encountered 

fallout at about 1 hour and 15 minutes and readings inside the aircraft rose 

to 0.150 R/hr. The intensity did not drop rapidly despite flying through rain 

clouds to flush its exterior, and the mission was terminated at 0728 when the 

reading was 0.048 R/hr, only 3 minutes after the fallout was encountered. The 

C-47 landed at Enewetak at 0805 with a reading of 0.025 R/hr. It was allowed 

to sit and “cool” until 1310, when the intensity had dropped to 0.004 R/hr. 

The aircraft then resumed its mission. This later mission was considered quite 

successful, and several low passes were made over the crater at 500- and 600-

foot (152- and 183-meter) altitudes, Intensity readings on one of these passes 

rose to 25 R/hr. The TG 7.6 monitor on board the C-47 received an exposure of 

0.280 R during this mission (Reference C.30, p. 2-20; Reference E.l). 

Film recovery personnel were taken to the Coral Reef Photo Tower by an LCM 

from Enewetak and to the Runlt Photo Tower by L-5 aircraft. Monitors accompanied both parties; however, neither tower was radioactive (Reference C.27, 

p. 40). 

Blast records were recovered from Aomon-Bijire the afternoon of D+l by 

Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL:) personnel (LAJ-8) accompanied by a TG 7.6 monitor. All personnel wore booties, caps, and gloves and had pocket dosimeters 

as well as film badges (Reference C.20, p. 148). 

The two C-54 and two F-13 photography aircraft circled the shot island at 

the same altitudes as for X-RAY -- two at 12,000 feet (3.66 km), one at 30,000 

feet (9.14 km), and one above 30,000 feet (9.14 km). They took extensive pictures of the development of the cloud from a safe distance. They flew from and 

returned to Kwajalein (Reference C.7, p. IV-19). 

A WB-29 weather aircraft patrolled the Enewetak Atoll area reporting on 

cloud conditions from midnight until almost 0600 the morning of the shot. 

WB-29s were again used to track the radioactive cloud in 12-hour shifts for 5 

days (Reference C.4, p. X11-42). Most returned with some radioactivity (Reference C.3, p. X11-102). 

Two days after YOKE, Bairoko (anchored off Aomon) experienced fallout. The 

maximum intensity recorded was 0.0017 R/hr. At about the same time Kwajalein 

was also experiencing fallout. Intensfties on Kwajalein exceeded 0.002 R/hr, 

and the total lifetime exposure for persons remaining in the open was calculated to be 0.770 R (Reference D.6). Because of concern that inhabited islands 

might have experienced fallout, drinking-water samples were taken from Majuro, 

Likiep, Rongelap, Ujelang, and Ujae as well as Kwajalein. All samples were 

found to be completely safe (Reference C.43, Annex I, Annex IV). 

According to the Monitor Schedule, the stalled drone tank was recovered 2 

days after the shot. Four days after the shot, a regular monitor station was 

113 
set up on Aomon to control access to the island, on which by that time radioactivity had decreased enough to begin destruction of surviving test structures. The island was closed and declared a restricted area 11 days after YOKE 

(Reference C.43, Appendix I, Annex I, Appendix 1, p. 8). 

ZEBRA 

The third and last shot of the SANDSTONE series was detonated atop a tower 

on Runit at 0604 just before sunrise on 15 May 1948. Its yield was 18 KT. Figure 46 shows ship positions at shot time. Observers saw the brilliant flash 

and felt the heat, as during the two previous shots. The sound was described 

as like the “bang of an eight inch gun” heard at a distance of several hundred 

feet. The condensation cloud formed as before, but the base was at an altitude 

of about 2,000 feet (610 meters), allowing direct observation of the fireball. 

Because of its relative nearness and the unobstructed view, the fireball 

seemed brighter and appeared to last longer than those of previous shots. During the first 2 minutes, the cloud rose almost straight up. After 3 minutes, 

the upper part of the cloud began to move toward the east. Between 10 and 11 

minutes, the top of the cloud moved to the east of the broad stem, and observers on Bairoko were able to look up into the base of what had been the 

rising mushroom head. These observers stated that the cloud, viewed from the 

bottom, had a hollow appearance and looked somewhat like a smoke ring. 

After Htl, the edges of the cloud became indistinct, and it began to blend 

with the thin cirrus clouds that almost completely covered the sky. By 90 minutes, the out line of the cloud was indefinite: and at 2 hours, only a light 

tan patch remained of the primary cloud mass: no other parts of it could be 

seen. 

Eight B-17 drones were directed through the cloud for sampling operations, 

each aircraft making three passes. One drone was to make a simulated bomb run 

at 20,000 feet (6.1 km) at H-hour: however, the control B-17 had trouble with 

this drone, so the bomb run was cancel led. Four of the drones were equipped to 

measure blast effects. The drones and samples were noticeably more radioactive 

than on the previous two shots. 

As on the previous two shots, five LASL personnel were assigned to remove 

the filter papers from the aircraft. Three of the five had performed this operation on both the earlier shots. On this shot, however, three of the men received serious beta radiation burns on their hands. Overall gamma exposure for 

the five ranged from 2 R to 17 R during ZEBRA. This was accumulated as they 

removed the wire-mesh filter-paper holders from the large filter boxes on the 

aircraft. After removing these they took the filter papers from the holders 

and stapled an identifying tag (aircraft number) to each filter paper. Fourfoot- (1.2-meter-) long tongs were available to hold the paper, but these were 

difficult to manipulate in the brisk trade winds and were apparently seldom 

used. The papers were then placed in flat lead boxes (called “pigs”) and 

transported to two awaiting C-54 aircraft. 

The three men who received the radiation burns showered thoroughly and 

flew back to LASL on the two C-54 aircraft. Even before arriving at LASL their 

114 
11050’-

BOKEN< ENJEBI 

1104c 1’ - 

1’ - 

USS GEORGE (DE-69’ 

USS ALBEMARLE 

USS SPANGLER (D&696)._ 

USS ROGERS 

a 

(DDR 8761 

USS RABY (DE-698) 

USS HENRY W 

•

TUCKER 

LSM-378 

0 

I’ (DDR-875) 

USS PERKINS 

N 

LCI-549 

•

(DDR-877) 

0 

•e~*.. 

TASK UNIT 7.3.8 

USS PICKAWAY (APAUSS CURRIER IDE-700) 

USS COMSTOCK (LSD-191 

USS MISPILLION (A0.105) 

USS GARDINERS BAY (AVP-391 

\L ••o*.o 

1’ - 

0

I 

0 

I 

0 

I 

t 

NAUTICAL MILES 

STATUTE MILES 

KILOMETERS 

f 

TASK UNIT 7.3.5 

USS PASIG (AW-3) 

USS MARSH (DE 699) 

YW 94 

YOG-64 

USS ASKARI (ARL 30) 

FS 370 

LCI 1054 

LCI-1090 

LSM-250 

USS LST.45 

J 11’ 

162O 

I 

162OlO’ 

I 

162O20’ 

I 

162O30’ 16 IO’ 

EAST LONGITUDE 

Figure 46. Ship positions at shot time, SANDSTONE, ZEBRA. 
hands had become red, swollen, and itching. At LASL their injuries were quickly 

diagnosed as beta burns and all three were hospitalized. An individual who had 

done thjs job for YOKE also had complained of sore hands upon his return to 

LASL. He was called to the hospital and diagnosed as having beta burns also. 

He was hospitalized at this time, but was released on 28 May as his burns were 

minor. The other three men had badly burned hands that required skin grafts 

(Reference D.2). 

TG 7.6 personnel decontaminated the drones during the following few days, 

and Drone Unit personnel flew them back to Kwajalein (Reference C.3, p. 

VIII-74). They were cleared for flight back to Eglin AFB when the intensity 

levels had dropped to 0.016 R/hr, but were required to stay at least 24 hours 

at Hickam AFB, Hawaii, and 24 hours at Fairfield-Suisun AFB, California, during their flight to Eglin (Reference C.43, p. 93; Reference C.43, “Messages,” 

p. 4). 

LAJ-3 personnel and a TG 7.6 monitor were ferried to Runit after the detonation to retrieve the samples attached to the land cable and winch. The cable 

snagged, however, and the samples had to be removed by driving a jeep down 

alongside the cable, exposing the party to somewhat higher radiation intensities than encountered on the previous shots. Blast gauges were retrieved by 

NOL (LAJ-8) the afternoon of D+l. 

The neutron- and gamma-ray diagnosticians (LAJ-4 and LAJ-5) were helicoptered to Runi t the morning of the detonation to recover instruments and film 

from the gamma stations and the timing station. Jeeps were again used on the 

shot island (Reference C.5, p. 3-22). 

The radio-controlled tank on Runit stalled in the ZEBRA crater, but the 

backup tank was successfully employed to obtain soil samples from the crater. 

The samples were not sent to LASL but were analyzed locally aboard Albemarle 

(Reference C.3, p. VIII-75). The two tanks used for the three shots were disposed of in the ocean after ZEBRA. 

The aerial radsafe survey C-47 took off on schedule from Enewetak shortly 

after the detonation and surveyed Runit and the surrounding islands. Heavy 

fallout on the islands north of Runit was discovered. The C-47 also conducted 

a radsafe survey on Dtl to determine the extent of contamination (Reference 

C.30, pp. 2-25, 2-26). 

Photo personnel recovered their film from the Coral Head Photo Tower and 

the photo tower on Anani j. Light fallout was detected at the Coral Head Photo 

Tower, but it decayed rapidly (Reference C.43, Annex I). 

The two C-54 and two F-13 photography aircraft again flew from Kwajalein 

and took high-speed photographs of the detonation and cloud development from a 

safe distance. Altitudes were the same as for X-RAY and YOKE (Reference C.7, 

p. IV-19). 

One WB-29 flew weather reconnaissance in the Enewetak area from midnight 

until 0500 the morning of the shot to ensure that cloud cover was not too heavy 

for the shot. After the detonation, WB-29s were used in 12-hour relays to track 

116 
the radioactive cloud for 5 days. At about H plus 3 hours, a WB-29 inadvertently passed through a finger of the cloud and became contaminated. After 

another 40 minutes, the air monitor on board indicated that the WB-29 should 

return to its base at Kwajalein because of the contamination. The pilot flew 

through several rain squalls to reduce the radioactivity. The rain washed the 

radiating particles from the surface of the airplane and the radioactivity was 

reduced within (Reference A.4, pp. 22-24). The pilot was apparently not badged. 

A review of all air monitor records (air monitors were always badged) shows 

that none received an exposure exceeding 1 R for the SANDSTONE series (Reference E.l, p. E2.6). 

On ZEBRA Dt3, TG 7.6 monitors inspected the task force ships. Particular 

attention was paid to blower intake screens, open decks, lifeboats, evaporators, and auxiliary condensers. Blower screens that were found to be contaminated were removed and scrubbed with soap and water. When this did not reduce 

contamination of the blowers to acceptable levels on 23 ships, TG 7.6 recommended removal of intakes, scraping to bare metal, and repainting. Monitoring 

when they arrived at a Navy yard was also recommended. 

On 19 May the island of Runit was closed and no further operations were 

permitted there. The crater areas on all three shot islands were posted with 

danger signs in various languages. No attempt was made to fill the craters 

(Reference C.6, p. 16-6). On 20 May all but one person in TG 7.6 departed the 

test area and all monitoring operations ceased. This individual remained as 

Radsafe Officer for Enewetak. The JTF 7 Radsafe Officer provided the radiological status of the Enewetak islands in a 20 May 1948 letter, which is reproduced as Appendix A. 

117 
CHAPTER 5 

U.S. ARMY PARTICIPATION IN OPERATION SANDSTONE 

The Chief of Staff of the Army was the executive agent for the Joint Chiefs 

of Staff (JCS) in executing SANDSTONE. Commander Joint Task Force 7 (CJTF 7) 

was an Army general officer and other Army personnel were represented in Hq 

JTF 7 and in all the task groups. Army units constructed scientific test structures, airstrips, and base facilities at Enewetak. Support services included 

activities such as supply shipments, communications, stevedoring, laundry, 

small boat support, and security for Army personnel and for other elements of 

the task force. Personnel from Army laboratory and research agencies and Army 

personnel serving in the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP) participated in the experimental program. More than 1,300 Army personnel were at 

SANDSTONE during the testing period. 

Units supplyIng Army personnel are discussed below, arranged by the element of the task force the units’ men were in. Available radiological exposure 

information for the units is summarized in Table 10. 

HEADQUARTERS JOINT TASK FORCE 7 

A total of 88 Army personnel served in Hq JTF 7, and 11 (10 officers and 1 

enlisted man) were badged. 

TASK GROUP 7.1 (ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION PROVING GROUND GROUP) 

Over 100 personnel from the following Army organizations participated In 

Task Group (TG) 7.1 scientific activities. 

Aberdeen Provinq Ground, Research Department, Maryland. Three civilians, one 

officer and one noncommissioned officer participated in radiochemistry 

drone tank operations conducted by Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LA%). 

All were badged. High exposure was 1.070 R (Reference C.5, p. 6-3). 

Ballistic Research Laboratories, Aberdeen, Maryland. Three civilians participated in blast measurements with the Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL). Three 

were badged with the high exposure being 1.295 R. 

Chemical Corps. The Chemical Corps sponsored the project on the evaluation of 

protective field collectors. This experiment was conducted by TG 7.6 personnel with no apparent on-site Chemical Corps participation. 

Corps of Enqineers. This organization sponsored the tests of blast effects on 

concrete structures. Manning was by Army personnel in TG 7.2. 

Siqnal Corps. The Signal Corps participated in an attempt to detect the atomic 

explosion by reflection of its light from the moon on YOKE day as part 

of the Air-Force-sponsored experiments. Four were badged with the Signal 

Corps ; all received zero readings. 

118 
Table 10. SANDSTONE personnel exposures, U.S. Army organlzatlons. 

Organization 

Hq Joint lask Force 7 

Task Group 7.1 

Aberdeen Proving Ground 

Balllstlcs Research 

Laboratorles 

Slgnal Corps 

38th Englneer Battalion 

Other 

Total Army In TG 7.1 

Task Group 7.2 

Hq 1220th Provlslonal 

Englneer Battalion 

Hq 1220th Provlslonal 

Englneer Battalion, 

Medlcal Detatchment 

1219th Slgnal Service 

Platoon 

Hq 532nd Englneer 

Boat & Shore Reglment 

532nd Engineer Boat & 

Shore Regiment, Co D 

532nd Engineer Boat & 

Shore Regiment, Co E, fled 

461st Transportation 

Amphlblous Truck Co 

Unldentlfled units 

Total Army In TG 7.2 

Task Group 7.4 

Task Unlt 7.4.2 

Task Unit 7.4.3 

Total In TG 7.4 

Task Group 7.5 

369th CIC Detachment 

401st CIC Detachment 

8456th Ml lltary Police Co. 

Total Army In TG 7.5 

Task Group 7.6 

Totals 

No. ot 

Persons 

Badged 

11 

5 

3 

4 

75 

1 

88 

8 

1 

3 

30 

12 

16 

2 

27 

99 

1 

12 

13 

18 

9 

54 

81 

35 

327" 

0 

6 

0 

0 

4 

43 

1 

40 

4 

1 

1 

23 

2 

8 

0 

1 

40 

0 

10 

10 

11 

8 

41 

60 

4 

168 

0.001-0.5 

5 

1 

2 

0 

29 

0 

32 

4 

0 

2 

7 

10 

8 

2 

26 

59 

1 

2 

3 

7 

1 

12 

20 

9 

128 

Exposure Ranges 

0.5-1.0 1.0-1.5 

0 0 

3 1 

0 1 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

3 2 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

1 0 

1 0 

9 3 

13 5 

(roentgens) 

Over 

1.5-2 2 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

1 2 

0 0 

1 2 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

0 0 

4 6 

5 8 

High 

0.380 

1.070 

1.295 

0 

5.085 

0 

5.OB5 

0.050 

0 

0.010 

0.175 

0.443 

0.080 

0.200 

0.305 

0.443 

0.5 

0.150 

0.5 

0.230 

0.090 

0.580 

0.580 

6.050 

6.050 

'Mean total of those badged was 0.271 R. 

119 
38th Engineer Battalion, Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP). A total 

of 42 officers (mostly engineers) and 61 enlisted men from this battalion 

(an AFSWP organization) were assigned to various task units of TG 7.1. The 

battalion did not participate in SANDSTONE as a whole: rather, individuals 

from this unit reported for temporary duty for AFSWP activities, Altogether, 75 personnel were badged. The highest exposure, 5.085 R, was probably incurred in recovering samples. 

Five men were assigned to USS Albemarle (AV-5) to help assemble and 

anchor rafts. They assisted in posttest sample recovery and counting samples. A total of 15 men were assigned to the Neutron Generation and GammaRay Appearance experiments. They procured, tested, packaged, and shipped 

copper conductors, built a nitrogen supply system, and constructed lead 

shields. 

Twelve personnel (four officers and eight enlisted men) participated 

with Edgerton, Germeshausen & Grier, Inc. (EG&G) in studies of control, 

power , and monitoring circuits in the Timing and Firing Section. Altogether, 13 personnel (3 officers and 10 enlisted men) worked in the Blast 

Measurements Section. They assembled, checked, and maintained blast gauges. 

Five personnel (one officer and four enlisted men) participated in the 

Mechanical Assembly Section. The Pit Assembly Section consisted of 12 officers (divided into four teams); Teams 2 and 3 monitored nuclear materials 

and the other two teams counted neutron samples. 

One officer and two enlisted men worked in the Engineering Section. 

The officer escorted official observers, and the enlisted men maintained 

the tower hoists. One officer worked in the Communications Section as liaison between TG 7.1 and the task force Communications Officer. Five officers 

and nine enlisted men were in the Firing Section, checking and testing 

firing-cone assemblies. They formed three teams: each team participated in 

one shot. Three officers and four enlisted men worked in the Logistics Section: they operated warehouses on Enewetak and stockrooms aboard Albemarle. 

Two officers were assigned to the Circuit Diagrams and Map Section (Reference C. 5, p. 4-l ff) . Apparently this AFSWP unit also provided 25 men for 

special guard assignments under TG 7.5 (Reference C.5, p. 5-2). However, 

this was, at least for some, additional to their assignment in TG 7.1 

(Reference C.5. p. 3-C8). 

In addition, an Army NC0 served in the office of CTG 7.1. He was badged 

with zero exposure. His home station is not known (Reference C.5, p, 3-C3). 

TASK GROUP 7.2 (ARMY) 

Most Army personnel in the task force were in TG 7.2. TG 7.2 was composed 

primarily of service units and teams, and was activated by Hq JTF 7 on 15 October 1947. TG 7.2 was responsible for construction at Enewetak test site and for 

military security of the atoll. This task group was also responsible for housing, medical care, local transportation, and general housekeeping for all units 

ashore on the atoll (Reference C.l, p. 18). TG 7.2 population reached a peak 

of 2,124, including 40 observers and a naval signal unit of approximately 100 

men stationed on Parry Island: however, this was before actual testing began 

(Reference C.l, p. 60). In general, the main body of TG 7.2 was in place on 

Enewetak by 29 December 1947. Discussions of participating Army units follow. 

120 
1220th Provisional Enqineer Battalion. This battalion, consisting of service 

units and teams, was organized on 22 October 1947 and arrived on Enewetak 

Atoll on 29 November 1947 from Oahu. The 1220th included the following 

service units and teams: Battalion Headquarters, 1219th Composite Service 

Platoon with attached Composite Signal Detachment, 1218th and 1217th Composite Service Platoons, and the 18th Engineer Construction Company with 

attachments. The Medical Detachment was part of Headquarters. The mission 

of the 1220th was to rehabilitate Enewetak Island as a base of operation 

before arrival of the main body of troops by 25 December. The 18th Engineer 

Construction Company constructed facilities on Enjebi Island and also provided housing and housekeeping facilities for civilian workers engaged in 

Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) work. Personnel strengths of the components 

of this battalion were (Reference E.2.2.1): 

• Battalion Headquarters (included mess, supply, medical, 

postal, finance, and chaplain): 11 officers, 2 warrant 

officers, and 89 enlisted men (including 6 from JTF 7 Engineer and 13 from 18th Engineer Construction Company). 

Eight men were badged with Headquarters: the highest exposure of this group was 0.050 R. Another individual badged 

with the 12-man Headquarters Medical Detachment had a zero 

reading (Reference C.3, p. 27 ff). 

• 1219th Siqnal Service Platoon: 5 officers, 2 warrant officers, 60 enlisted men: Composite Signal Detachment: 2 officers, 100 enlisted men. This unit also included personnel 

from several other units.~ One officer, designated as commanding officer of the 1219th Composite Signal Detachment, 

was from 4th Army Headquarters. One first lieutenant from 

the 51st Signal Battalion, Ft. Meade, Maryland, was assigned to the 1219th Composite Signal Detachment. A total 

of 43 enlisted men from the 9400th TSU, Ft. Monmouth, New 

Jersey, unit were assigned to the 1219th Composite Signal 

Detachment. Six enlisted men from the 17th Signal Service 

Company, Ft. Myer, Virginia, were assigned to the 1219th 

Composite Signal Detachment. Three individuals were badged 

according to individual exposure records (Reference E.l); 

one man had a zero reading, another recorded an exposure 

of 0.005, and the third recorded 0.010 R. 

• 1218th Composite Service Platoon: 4 officers and 62 enlisted men. 

• 1217th Composite Service Platoon: 2 officers and 50 enlisted men. 

• 18th Enqineer Construction Company (with attachments): 2 

officers and ,107 enlisted men. 

532nd Enqineer Boat and Shore Reqiment (EB&SR) of the 2nd Enqineer Special 

Brigade. The 532nd EB&SR arrived for Operation SANDSTONE on 9 October 1947. 

The operating strength of this brigade was 46 officers, 4 warrant officers, 

and 566 enlisted men for construction activities during SANDSTONE. The 

following units of the 532nd EB&SR were committed for this operation: 

121 
• Hq Company: 28 officers, 4 warrant officers, and 187 enlisted men 

• Company D: 7 officers, 180 enlisted men 

a Company E: 6 officers, 180 enlisted men 

• Medical Detachment: 5 officers, 19 enlisted men 

The officers were attached directly to the 2nd Engineer Special Brigade 

(Reference E.2.2.1). 

Headquarters Company, stationed on Enewetak, performed construction on 

Parry and Enewetak islands (Reference C.4, p. XVI-53). This company was 

installed on Enewetak Island to function as a service unit and provided 

personnel to assist other allied headquarters on the island. According to 

the individual exposure records, 30 individuals were badged. The highest 

exposure was 0.175 R. 

Company D began construction activities on Aomon, Lojwa, and Bijire 

islands by 5 January 1948. It also assisted civilian contractors on the 

lagoon and Ananij photo tower projects and the causeway adjoining Aomon 

with Bijire Island. The maximum number of personnel present for duty was 

180, with normal strength averaging 156 (Reference C.4, p. XVI-32). According to the individual exposure records, 12 personnel were badged with 

Company D. The highest exposure was 0.443 R. 

Company E landed on Runit on 29 December 1947 as part of an advance 

echelon that had arrived on 24 December aboard USS Yancey (AKA-93). It constructed showers, latrines, mess halls, quarters, and installations on 

Runit Island. According to the company commander, the average daily 

strength was 115 enlisted men and 4 officers (Reference C.3, p. XIII1 ff). Company E also used two pioneer platoons, consisting of 2 officers 

and 35 enlisted men, for construction work and a heavy-equipment platoon 

of 1 officer and 25 enlisted men (Reference C.3, p. IV-61. According to 

the individual exposure records, 16 personnel were badged with the 532nd 

EB&SR, Company E, Med. The highest exposure was 0.080 R. 

The first part of the Medical Detachment (one officer and three enlisted men) arrived on Runit Island on 8 January 1948 and set up a field 

dispensary. It is not possible to tell if the 16 men badged with the 532nd 

(above, E Company) were from Company E or the Medical Detachment. 

461st Transportation Amphibious Truck Company. Composed of one officer and 

twenty-six enlisted men, this unit operated and maintained amphibious troop 

trucks (DUKWs) for Company D. 532nd EB&SR (Reference C.3, p. 75; Reference 

E.2.2.1). Two personnel were badged. The highest exposure was 0.200 R. 

854th Transportation Port Company. This unit loaded and unloaded ships at Enewetak. Its operating strength was 8 officers and 272 enlisted men, including 1 officer and 45 enlisted men from the 447th Transportation Port Company and 1 officer and 17 enlisted men from the 863rd Transportation Port 

Company (Reference C.4). None were badged according to the individual 

exposure records. 

122 
TASK GROUP 7.3 (NAVY) 

Ships of the 1J.S. Army Transportation Service supported SANDSTONE operations during which time they came under the control of CTG 7.3. The units were: 

WATS FS-211. This ship arrived at Enewetak on 19 March transporting dry 

stores. It left on 22 March and stopped at Ujea, Ailinglapalap, Jaliut, 

Majuro, and Mili and twice at Kwajalein before returning to Enewetak on 

7 April. On 10 April, the ship left Enewetak for a reprovisioning trip to 

Rongerik and Bikini (Reference C.3, p. VII-80 to 82). FS-211 was in the 

vicinity of Bikini Atoll for X-RAY. For YOKE, FS-211 was steaming with TU 

7.3.5 between 17 and 22 nmi (32 and 41 km) southeast of surface zero on 

Aomon. Between 6 and 10 May, the ship left Enewetak for a resupply run to 

Rongerik and Bikini. On 12 May, the ship left Enewetak for Mili to assist 

in the rollup of a station there and remained there for ZEBRA. The day 

after ZEBRA the ship left Mill for Ailinglapalap and returned to Kwajalein 

on 17 May. FS-211 was monitored for contamination at Pearl Harbor in early 

June. The usual crew size for this class of ship was 26 men. 

USATS FS-234. On 25 November 1947, this ship reported to CJTF 7 for operational 

control. It arrived at Kwajalein on 1 December. From then until late January 1948, It was the dry stores shuttle between Enewetak and Kwajalein. On 

11 February 1948, FS-234 left ‘Enewetak for Pearl Harbor and returned to 

control of U.S. Army Pacific (C.3, pp. VII-14, -15, -22, and -24). The 

usual crew size for this class of ship was 26 men. The ship was not In the 

operation area for any of the test shots. 

USATS FS-370. This ship arrived at Enewetak on 8 December 1947. Operating under 

CTG 7.3, it served as a refrigerator ship. It left Enewetak for Kwajalein 

on 3 January 1948 and returned on 11 January (Reference C.3). During X-RAY 

it was underway as part of TU 7.3.5 between 27 and 32 nmi (50 and 59 km) 

southeast of the shot island. During YOKE it was underway with TU 7.3.5 

between 17 and 22 nmi (32 and 41 km) southeast of surface zero on Aomon. 

For ZEBRA it was also with TU 7.3.5 about 20 nmi (37 km) south of Runi t , 

the shot island. 

The radsafe inspection on 20 May revealed no radioactivity on FS-370 

(Reference D.4, p. 6). The date of the ship’s departure from Enewetak after 

SANDSTONE cannot be determined from available documents. The usual crew 

size for this class of ship was 26 men. 

TASK GROUP 7.4 (AIR FORCE) 

Army personnel served in several elements of this predominantly Air Force 

unit. 

Task Un?t 7.4.1 (Hq and Service Unit) 

Twenty-three Army personnel were in this service unit. None were badged. 

Task Unit 7.4.2 (Drone Unit) 

Five Army personnel were with this TG 7.4 unit, which operated the drone 

B-17s that collected radioactive cloud samples. The unit, like most of TG 7.4, 

123 
was based on Kwajalein but the unmanned flights originated at Enewetak where 

the sample collection and aircraft decontamination took place. One of the five 

Army personnel was badged: his exposure was 0.5 R. 

Task Unit 7.4.3 (Photography Unit) 

Twelve Army personnel were in the photo teams of this unit. All were badged 

and the exposures were low. 

TASK GROUP 7.5 (JOINT SECURITY GROUP) 

The Army primarily provided a provisional military police company and two 

CIC detachments for security of the atoll. 

369th CIC Detachment. This detachment consisted of five officers and thirteen 

personnel who were assigned various security duties. A total of 18 personnel were badged according to the individual exposure records. The highest 

exposure was 0.230 R (Reference E.2.0.4). 

401st CIC Detachment. This detachment was the nucleus of the security force for 

JTF 7 and was attached to TG 7.5. By 13 December 1947, the detachment was 

assigned the following missions: 

• Travel control (air and water) 

• Protection of technical installations 

• Security survey of the atoll 

• Dissemination of security information 

0 Security clearances. 

A total of 13 personnel (including 2 officers and 1 warrant officer, and 

10 enlisted men) comprised this detachment. Four of these conducted the 

initial security survey, and the remaining were assigned as resident CIC 

agents on Enjebi, Aomon, Runit, and Parry islands. A total of nine personnel were badged according to the individual exposure records. The highest 

exposure was 0.090 R (Reference C.3, p. 32, and Reference E.2.0.4). 

8456th Military Police Company. This company consisted of 6 officers and 99 enlisted personnel who were assigned security duties. A total of 54 personnel were badged according to the individual exposure records. The highest 

exposure was 0.580 R (Reference E.2.0.4). 

TASK GROUP 7.6 (JOINT RADIOLOGICALSAFETY GROUP) 

A total of 35 Army personnel (31 officers and 4 enlisted men) performed 

various tasks for TG 7.6. All were badged. An officer in TU 7.6.3 (Operations 

Unit) had the highest reading with a 6.050 R exposure according to individual 

exposure records. The operations unit planned and controlled radiation safety 

missions. The second highest exposure was 5.085 R and belonged to an enlisted 

man who was part of TU 7.6.7 (Monitor Unit). He was probably a monitor (Reference E.2.0.3). 

124 
CHAPTER 6 

U.S. NAVY PARTICIPATION IN SANDSTONE 

Eight thousand, thirty-four naval personnel have been identified as having 

participated in SANDSTONE Most were in crews of ships operating in the Enewetak 

area under command of Commander Task Group (CTG) 7.3. The Navy operated about 

40 ships in the area to support SANDSTONE. Roughly two-thirds of the lO,OOO-man 

task force were stationed aboard ship. Most personnel in Hq Joint Task Force 7 

(JTF 71, TG 7.1, and TG 7.6 were billeted and worked aboard ship. 

Naval air units flew out of both Enewetak and Kwajalein in support of the 

test series. Several naval units were ashore under command of CTG 7.2. Kwajalein Air Station and various attached naval units supported SANDSTONE in 

addition to their regular duties. 

Civilian and military personnel from naval technical bureaus and laboratories worked on the experimental program as part of TG 7.1 and TG 7.6. Naval 

personnel also participated in the radiological safety (radsafe) activities of 

TG 7.6. Naval personnel held many positions in the Headquarters of JTF 7. 

USS Albemarle (AV-51, a seaplane tender, was modified to be a laboratory 

ship for TG 7.1. Alterations included installation of work benches, racks, 

bins, darkrooms, power outlets, test panels, and instruments. Albemarle was 

used to transport the nuclear devices to the test area. The devices, less the 

nuclear components, were stored aboard USS Curtiss (AV-4). USS Mount McKinley 

(AGC-7) was used as the command ship and also had the Weather Center and Air 

Operations Office on board. USS Bairoko (CVE-115) was used by the radsafe personnel (TG 7.6). Navy ships also patrolled the Danger Area to keep unauthorized 

ships out and conducted weather-reporting operations to supplement other weather data. Both confirmed and unconfirmed reports of submarine sightings were 

recorded during SANDSTONE, all quite close to Enewetak Atoll. 

Not all Navy personnel who served with the joint task force were badged: 

however, exposure records of those badged are available, along with rosters of 

most ships and other naval organizations involved. From these sources, a detailed picture of naval participation can be constructed. Available exposure 

information is tabulated in Table 11. 

HEADQUARTERS JOINT TASK FORCE 7 

As of 31 March 194.8, 52 uniformed Navy personnel were assigned to the 

headquarters (Reference E.2.0.2). It is not clear, however, whether all of 

these were at the Pacific Proving Ground (PPG) because even during the operational period the joint task force maintained small offices in Hawaii and 

Washington. Badged personnel can be assumed to have been at Enewetak, but the 

location of unbadged personnel is uncertain. 

125 
Table 11. SANDSTONE personnel exposures, U.S. Navy organlzatlons. 

Exposure Ranges (roentgens) 

No. of 

Persons Over 

Organlzatlon Badged 0 0.001-0.5 0.5-l l-l.5 1.5 Hlgh 

Hq Jolnt Task Force 7 13 6 6 1 0 0 0.620 

Task Group 7.1 

Oavld Taylor Model Basin 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.010 

Naval Ordnance Laboratory 21 5 15 0 1 0 1.180 

Naval Research Laboratory 14 9 5 0 0 0 0.030 

Other 17 12 5 0 0 0 0,250 

Navy Total In TG 7.1 53 26 26 0 1 0 1.180 

Task Group 7.2 

Enewetak Shore Detachment 17 6 11 0 0 0 0.090 

Slgnal Unlt 1 6 5 1 0 0 0 0.002 

Navy Total In TG 7.2 23 11 12 0 0 0 0.090 

Task Group 7.3 

Commander Task Group 7.3 7 4 3 0 0 0 0.140 

USS Albemarle (AV-5) 137 125 12 0 0 0 0.248 

USS Arequlpa (AF-31) 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 

USS Askarl (ARL-30) 44 44 0 0 0 0 0 

AVR C-26638 6 4 2 0 0 0 0.110 

AVR C-26653 5 1 4 0 0 0 0.130 

USS Balroko (CVE-115) 56 32 22 2 0 0 0.780 

_USS Comstock (LSD-19) 2 1 1 0 0 0 0.020 

Boat Pool 34 14 20 0 0 0 0.370 

USS Currier (DE-700) 105 103 2 0 0 0 0.050 

USS Curtlss (AV-4) 39 34 5 0 0 0 0.313 

USS Gardlners Bay (AVP-39) 2 0 2 0 0 0 0.110 

Sonobuoy Monltor Unit 7 5 2 0 0 0 0.030 

USS Henry W. Tucker (OOR-875) 22 3 19 0 0 0 0.070 

LCI(L)-1090 16 16 0 0 0 0 0 

LSM-250 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 

LSM-378 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 

USS LST-45 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 

USS LST-219 7 7 0 0 0 0 0 

(continued) 

126 
Table 11. SANDSTONE personnel exposures, U.S. Navy organlzatlons (continued). 

Exposure Ranges (roentgens) 

No. of 

Persons Over 

Organlzatlon Badged 0 0.001-0.5 0.5-l l-l.5 1.5 Hlgh 

Task Group 7.3 (continued) 

USS Marsh (DE-699) 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 

USS Mount McKinley (AGC-7) 23 17 6 0 0 0 0.080 

USS Paslg (AW-3) 11 9 2 0 0 0 0.360 

USS Plckaway (APA-222) 12 7 4 1 0 0 0.826 

USS Raby (DE-698) 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 

USS Rogers (DDR-876) 178 178 0 0 0 0 0 

USS Spangler (DE-696) 9 B 1 0 0 0 0.005 

USS Warrlck (AKA-89) 40 40 0 0 0 0 0 

Medium Seaplane Patrol Sqdrn 6 11 1 10 0 0 0 0.370 

Navy Total In TG 7.3 786. 666 117 3 0 0 0.826 

Task Group 7.4 Total Navy 6 2 4 0 0 0 0.100 

Task Group 7.5 Total Navy 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 

Task Group 7.6 

Bureau of Medicine & Surgery 3 0 1 1 0 1.340 

Bureau of Ships 1 0 0 1 0 0.780 

Bureau of Yards b Docks 1 0 0 1 0 0.735 

Other 41 6 23 4 3 5.140 

Total Navy In TG 7.6 46 6 24 7 3 5.140 

Task Group 7.7 

Constructlon Battallon 1509 5 0 5 0 0 0.020 

Naval Air Statlon, Kwajaleln 13 0 13 0 0 0.305 

Naval Statlon, Kwajaleln 4 0 4 0 0 0.010 

Naval Statlon, Kwajaleln 

Shlp Security Detachment 18 12 6 0 0 0.180 

Total Navy in TG 7.7 40 12 28 0 0 0.305 

Task Group 7.8 Navy Observers 5 0 4 1 0 0.760 

Total Navy Badged 973a 730 221 12 3 5.140 

Note: 

aMean of those badged was 0.085 R. 

-

127 
Office of the Deputies. Six naval officers and two enlisted men were listed as 

assigned to this office on 1 April 1948. By the end of the operation only 

three had been badged. One badged and one unbadged officer also served for 

some period of time with TG 7.1 (Reference E.2.0.4; Reference C.5, p. 

3-Clll. 

Office of the Chief of Staff. One naval officer is listed. He was not badged. 

J-l Section. 

ther was 

An officer and an 

badged. 

enlisted man were assigned to this office. NeiJ-2 Section. Seven Navy personnel were listed. Three were badged. 

5-3 Section. A badged Navy captain served in this section. 

J-4 Section. Five Navy men were listed, two of whom were badged. 

Communications Section. As of 1 April 1948, this section had 22 Navy officers 

and enlisted men: only two were badged. 

Fiscal Section. Two unbadged Navy officers were assigned to this section. 

Meteoroloqical Section. Of two officers assigned, one was badged. 

Photoqraphic Section. One unbadged Navy officer was assigned. 

Surqeon. The surgeon was a Navy captain who was badged (Reference E.2.0.4) 

TASK GROUP 7.1 (ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSIONPROVING GROUND GROUP) 

Most of the 64 Navy personnel in this task group were drawn from Naval 

Ordnance Laboratory (NOL) and Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), although other 

Navy organizations contributed. The organizations were: 

Bureau of Personnel. Six personnel from this bureau were noted as being in TG 

7.1 in the forward area, but their SANDSTONE activities have not been 

identified. They were probably among the Navy personnel in the office 

force of either CTG 7.1 or CTU 7.1.1 (see below). 

David Taylor Model Basin (DTMB). The Test Director’s report indicates that two 

DTMB personnel were in TG 7.1. One DTMB staff member was badged as part of 

the blast measurement program (Reference C.5, pp. l-24 and 3C-7). 

Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL). Altogether 21 civilian employees of this organization were badged and worked in LAJ-8 Section -- Blast (see Chapter 

for a discussion of these sections). Another NOL man was also aboard USS 

Pelican (AMS-321, but he was not badged (Reference C.5, pp. l-23 and 3-C7; 

References E.2.0.3, E.2.0.5, and E.2.3.31. 

Naval Research Laboratory (NRL). A total of 23 personnel from this organization 

served in TG 7.1, but only 20 can be identified by name. Of these, 14 were 

badged and based on Albemar le. NRL personnel made up the majority of the 

128 

3 
personnel in Subsection A of the task group’s LAJ-4 and LAJ-6 Sections 

(Reference C.5, pp. l-23 and 3-C5; Reference E.2.0.5). 

The home organization for 20 other Navy personnel in TG 7.1 is not clear, 

although it is likely that the six from Bureau of Personnel mentioned above 

were among the CTG 7.1 or CTU 7.1.1 office personnel. TG 7.1 organizations 

indicated as having Navy personnel for whom home station information is not 

available follow. 

Office of Commander Task Group 7.1. A Navy captain headed the task group with 

a Navy lieutenant commander as his chief staff officer. The office was on 

Albemarle. Nine Navy enlisted men were members of the clerical staff 

(Reference C.5, p. 3-C3; Reference E.2.3.3, pp. 2594-2595). The commander 

of the task group, the chief staff officer , and seven of the nine Navy 

enlisted men were badged. 

Office of Commander Task Unit 7.1.1. Stationed on Curtiss, the unit’s six-man 

clerical staff apparently included five Navy enlisted men, all of whom 

were badged (Reference C.5, p. 3-C4). 

LAJ-10 Section -- Enqineerinq. A Navy commander was a member of this group, 

but he was not badged (Reference C.5, p. 3-C9; Reference E.2.3.3, p. 2596). 

LAJ-11 Section -- Communications. A Navy commander was technical advisor to 

this section. He was badged (Reference C.5, p. 3-C9). 

LAJ-16 Section -- Circuit Diaqrams and Maps. A badged Navy lieutenant commander 

served in this section (Reference C.5, p. 3-ClO). 

Two additional Navy officers have been identified by name as serving with 

TG 7.1, but information is lacking on which task group components they worked 

in. Before their work in TG 7.1, they were assigned to the Office of the Deputies in the Hq JTF 7. One was badged and had a reading of 0.100 R. The other 

was not badged. 

TASK GROUP 7.2 (ARMY) 

Two units manned by 95 Navy personnel served in SANDSTONE under the operational control of TG 7.2. 

Enewetak Shore Detachment. This detachment consisted of 5 officers and 37 enlisted men. According to individual exposure records, 17 personnel were 

badged. The highest exposure was 0.090 R (Reference E.l). 

Siqnal Unit 1. This unit, attached to the Enewetak Shore Detachment, maintained 

and operated the shore station on Parry Island. It was manned by 1 Navy 

officer and 52 Navy enlisted men. They assembled at Fort Hueneme, California, and sailed to Enewetak aboard USS Pickaway (APA-222), arriving by 

6 December 1947 (Reference E.2.0.3, p. 29). They were attached to the 

1220th Provisional Engineer Battalion for movement purposes. According to 

the individual exposure records, six personnel from Signal Unit 1 were 

badged. The highest exposure was 0.010 R. 

129 
TASK GROUP 7.3 (NAVY) 

Most Navy personnel were in TG 7.3, which totaled 6,788 personnel. Most 

were assigned to ships or smaller surface craft. Total numbers of badged personnel are listed by unit in Table 11. Unless otherwise indicated, information 

on ship movements is drawn from the deck logs of the ships discussed. 

Following the last test at SANDSTONE, all but seven task force ships were 

monitored for radiation at least once, and in many cases twice, by JTF 7 

radsafe personnel. All ships that were inspected were cleared of any radiological hazard to personnel: in no case did readings reach accepted human 

tolerance levels. Since some shipboard machinery was not opened for inspection, 

however , and the standard Commander Western Sea Frontier inspection form was 

not used, CJTF 7 recommended that all ships be monitored again when they arrived at Pearl Harbor, San Francisco, or Puget Sound. The radiological readings 

listed in this chapter for the task force ships were, in general, the highest 

readings on the ship and were obtained on high- and intermediate-capacity airsupply blower screens, where a buildup could be expected from the large volumes 

of air passing over the screens. In the few cases where screens approached 

tolerance, they were removed and destroyed or cleaned. Very few readings were 

noted on other shipboard surfaces. 

Fallout was only recorded aboard task force ships following YOKE and this 

was low level, but it must have been enough to cause the contamination later 

detected. Eighteen ships and one infantry landing craft were found to have low 

levels of contamination, as did one maritime patrol bomber and a number of 

small boats on USS Comstock (LSD-19). When checked, five ships, two infantry 

landing craft , two service craft, two aircraft rescue vessels, and a number of 

other small boats on Comstock were found to be free of significant contamination (Reference D.4, pp. l-6). 

Staff Organlzatlons 

Staff of Commander Task Group 7.3. This organization included 54 personnel and 

was based aboard Mount McKinley. They provided support to CTG 7.3. Seven 

were badged (Reference E.2.3.3, p. 2594; Reference C.3, p. VII-4). 

Commander of Escort Division 1 and Staff. The escort division was made up of 

USS Spanqler (DE-6961, USS Georqe (DE-6971, USS Raby (DE-6981, USS Marsh 

(DE-699), and USS Currier (DE-700). The commander and his four-man staff 

were aboard George. Al 1 can be ident if ied by name, but none were badged 

(Reference C.3, pp. VII-4 and VII-5: Reference E.2.3.3, p. 2594). 

Commander Destroyer Division 52 and Staff. Destroyer Division 52 was made up 

of USS Henry W. Tucker (DDR-875), USS Roqers (DDR-8761, and USS Perkins 

(DDR-877). The commander and his staff were aboard Tucker but neither the - -’ 

commander nor his staff can be identified by name. Apparently they were 

not badged (Reference C.3, p. VII-4). 

Ship Units 

USS Albemarle (AV-5). This seaplane tender was part of TU 7.3.2, the Main Naval 

Task Unit. Albemarle arrived at the proving ground on 16 March 1948. The 

130 
ship had the major laboratories for analysis of test samples and 

instruments (Reference C.5, pp. 2-3). It served as the center for TG 

7.1 operations 

brought to Albe

137 were badged. 

(Reference 

marle (Ref

C.6, 

erence 

p. 7-13). 

C.l, p. 

After 

137). 

each shot, 

Of its 537 

samples 

crewmembers, 

were 

X-RAY (15 April). 

west of Parry, 

island. At 0715 

At 

16.5 

the 

shot 

nmi 

ship 

time 

(30.6 

got 

moored about 3,520 yards 

km) south-southeast of 

underway and at 0925 it 

(3.2 km) 

the shot 

anchored 

about 2,750 yards (2.5 km) south-southwest of Aomon. 

YOKE (1 May). At shot time moored about 3,520 yards (3.2 km) west 

of Parry, 13.5 nmi (25 km) south OF the shot island. At 0811 the 

ship got underway and at 0934 it anchored about 2,030 yards (1.9 

km) west of the south end of Runit. 

ZEBRA (15 May). At shot time moored about 3,520 yards (3.2 km) 

west of Parry, 8.5 nmi (15.8 km), south of the shot island. Underway at 0834, the ship anchored 3,890 yards (3.6 km) west-southwest 

of Ananij at 0916. 

On 18 May, Albemarle was underway for refueling at sea, later anchoring in the lagoon near Enewetak Island. On 20 May, radsafe monitors found 

readings of 0.0005 to 0.0007 R/hr on four air intakes on the ship (Reference D.4, p. 1). The ship left the proving ground for Pearl Harbor on 

21 May. 

USS Arequipa (AF-31). This stores ship arrived at Enewetak Atoll on 11 April 

and anchored in the lagoon off Enewetak Island. The ship participated only 

for X-RAY, supplying provisions to other task force ships. At shot time on 

15 April, it was steaming with TU 7.3.5 between 27 and 32 nmi (50 and 59 

km) southeast of the shot island. At 1050, the ship anchored in the lagoon 

off Enewetak Island. Arequipa left Enewetak Atoll for Pearl Harbor on 

20 April before YOKE. Three of its seventy-six crewmembers were badged. 

USS Askari (ARL-30). This landing craft repair ship arrived at Enewetak Atoll 

on 11 January 1948 and was attached to TU 7.3.7, the Boat Pool Unit. It 

assisted Comstock in keeping boat pool and other boats in running order, 

and it provided repair services to forces ashore and afloat. Of its 164 

crewmembers, 44 were badged. 

• X-RAY (15 April). At shot time, underway with TU 7.3.5 between 27 

and 32 nmi (50 and 59 km) southeast of the shot island. At 1053, 

the ship anchored in the lagoon about 1,780 yards (1.6 km) westnorthwest of the northern tip of Enewetak Island. 

• YOKE (1 May). At shot time, steaming with TU 7.3.5 between 17 and 

22 nmi (32 and 41 km) southeast of the shot island. At 1212, the 

ship anchored in the lagoon about 1,780 yards (1.6 km) westnorthwest of the northern tip of Enewetak Island. 

0 ZEBRA (15 May). At shot time, underway with TU 7.3.5 about 20 nmi 

(37 km) south of the shot Island. At 1100, the ship anchored in 

the lagoon in its post-X-RAY and post-YOKE location. 

131 
Radsafe monitors came aboard Askari on 18 and 20 May. They detected 

radiation in two locations, the highest reading being 0.001 R/hr in a vent 

set (Reference D.4, p. 2). The ship departed Enewetak Atoll on 29 May 

bound for Kwajalein Atoll. 

AVR C-26638 and AVR C-26653. These aviation rescue vessels were assigned to TU 

7.3.3 (Off-Shore Patrol Unit) (Reference C.3, p. VII-4). Before each detonation they transported the firing party from the shot island to Parry. 

Immediately following each detonation, they transported scientific recovery 

parties, radsafe monitors, and DUKW and LCVP crews to the shot island. 

Thereafter they moved personnel, delivered samples to the ships, and acted 

as search and rescue vessels in the lagoon (Reference C.3, p. VII-71-72). 

Neither vessel was found to be radioactive during the radsafe check of 

20 May (Reference D.4, p. 6). Each boat had a crew of six, of which all 

but one of the twelve were badged. 

USS Bairoko (CVE-115). This escort aircraft carrier carried personnel and 

equipment of TG 7.6. Bairoko arrived at Enewetak Island with its 770-man 

crew on 16 March. During the test series it was part of TU 7.3.4, the 

Helicopter Unit (Reference C.3, pp, VII-4 and 25). It served as the base 

for the helicopter unit and TG 7.6. The helicopter unit provided four 

H03S-1s and two HTL-2s and was manned by five officers and thirteen 

enlisted men. 

• X-RAY (15 April). At shot time, anchored about 4,600 yards (4.2 km) 

west of Parry In Enewetak Lagoon, about 16.5 nmi (30.6 km) southsoutheast of surface zero on Enjebi (Reference C.3, p. VII-70). At 

0700, the ship got underway for an anchorage off Enjebi. About 

5 nmi (9.3 km) from the island, two small boats were lowered into 

the water. They preceded Bairoko up the lagoon, and TG 7.6 personnel aboard them monitored radiation levels and reported their findings to the ship (Reference C.43, p. 59). At 0843, it anchored 

3,480 yards (3.2 km) southwest of the southern tip of Enjebi. 

Thereafter, it supported recovery operations. especially the 

radsafe activities of TG 7.6 (Reference C.43, p. 71). 

• YOKE (1 May). At shot time, anchored about 4,600 yards (4.2 km) 

west of Parry in Enewetak Lagoon and about 13.5 nmi (25 km) from 

the shot tower on Aomon. At 0700, the ship got underway for a berth 

off Aomon. It anchored about 6,000 yards (5.5 km) south-southwest 

of the southern tip of the island at 0825. It was preceded during 

the entire trip by four small boats checking for radioactivity 

(Reference C.3, p. VII-72; Reference C.43, p. 63). Two days after 

YOKE, Bairoko was still anchored in the same location. About 1000, 

apparently as the result of fallout, the background count on the 

ship’s flight and hangar decks began to rise, reaching 0.0017 R/hr. 

The fallout ceased in the early afternoon (Reference C.43, Annex I, 

p. 6). 

• ZEBRA (15 May). At shot time, anchored about 4,600 yards (4.2 km) 

west of Parry and 8.5 nmi (15.8 km) from the shot tower on Runit 

(Reference C.3, pp. VII-73 and VII-74). At 0703, the ship was 

underway for a location off Runit. At 0815, the ship anchored 

about 6,330 yards (5.8 km) south-southeast of Runit’s northern tip 

to support recovery operations. 

132 
Radsafe monitors checked Bairoko on 20 May. The highest radiation 

level detected was 0.0014 R/hr, probably at an air intake on the portside 

(Reference D.4, p. 5). Badges were issued to 56 crewmembers. 

USS Comstock (LSD-19). This dock landing ship arrived at the proving ground on 

29 November 1947, left on 12 January 1948, and returned on 1 February 

(Reference C.3, pp. VII-14 and VII-19). It served as the flagship for TU 

7.3.7, the Boat Pool Unit. The ship’s large well provided a protected 

environment for loading, unloading, and repairing boat pool vessels. 

X-RAY (15 April). 

7.3.8 in the open 

southeast of the shot 

tak Lagoon. 

At 

sea 

shot time, 

between 18 

island. At 

steaming in 

and 23 nmi (33 

0916, the ship 

formation 

and 43 km) 

anchored 

with TO 

southin EneweYOKE’ (1 

between 

May). 

15 and 

At 

20 

shot 

nmi 

time, 

(28 and 

steaming 

37 km) 

in formation 

southeast of 

with 

Aomon, 

TU 7.3.8 

the shot 

island. The ship anchored in the lagoon at 1032. 

ZEBRA (15 May). At shot time, underway with TU 7.3.8 between 25 

and 30 nmi (46 and 56 km) southeast of the shot island. At 1019, 

the ship anchored in the lagoon. 

A radiation check of the ship on 20 May showed a maximum reading of 

0.0015 R/hr on two vent screens. Comstock boat contamination is discussed 

under Boat Pool (see below) (Reference D.4, pp. 2 and 5). In late May, 

Comstock left Enewetak Atoll for Kwajalein Atoll, returning a few days 

later. On 31 May, the ship left Enewetak Atoll bound for Pearl Harbor. 

Badges were issued to 2 of its 152 crewmembers. 

Boat Pool. This unit was augmented by an Army unit, the Boat Detachment of the 

2nd Engineer Special Brigade (discussed in Chapter 5). Both units were 

based on Comstock, and they provided water transportation in the lagoon 

for JTF 7 elements. Between them, there were approximately 80 boats (Reference C.4. XVII-34). During the radsafe check of 20 May, 12 boats were 

found to be radioactive and 15 boats had no significant readings. The 

highest level of contamination tias 0.0013 R/hr on LCVP No. 3. Eight of the 

boats had readings less than 0.001 R/hr. Information is lacking, however, 

on which boats belonged to each of the two units (Reference D.4, pp. 5-6). 

The Navy component was made up of 184 officers and enlisted men, of whom 

34 were badged (Reference E.2.3.3, p. 23). 

USS Currier (DE-700). This destroyer escort arrived at Enewetak Atoll on 30 

March, where it served as part of TU 7.3.3, the Off-Shore Patrol Unit, 

which was to prevent intrusion Into the test area by unauthorized planes 

or vessels. Badges were issued to 105 of its 136 crewmembers. 

0 X-RAY (15 April). At shot time, underway with TU 7.3.8 a few miles 

east of Parry and between 18 and 23 nmi (33 and 43 km) southsoutheast of the shot island. At 0805, the ship began steaming 

independently for patrol duty. 

• YOKE (1 May). At shot time, screening for TU 7.3.8 between 15 and 

20 nmi (28 and 37 km) east-southeast of the shot island. At 0826, 

the task unit entered the lagoon. By 1308, the ship had left the 

lagoon for patrol. 

133 
_ -

• ZEBRA (15 May). At shot time, underway with TU 7.3.8 between 25 

and 30 nmi (46 and 56 km) southeast of the shot island. By about 

0930, the ship was near the lagoon entrance between Parry and 

Japtan. The ship entered the lagoon at 1225 and departed at 1330. 

The radiation check of 20 May revealed no radioactivity (Reference D.4, 

p. 6). Currier sailed for Pearl Harbor on 31 May. 

USS Curtiss (AV-4). This seaplane tender arrived at Enewetak Atoll on 16 March 

with the nuclear devices, less the nuclear material. It was part of TU 

7.3.2, the Main Naval Task Unit. Before each test, the device was assembled on Curtlss and then moved ashore (Reference C.5, p. 3). 

• X-RAY (15 April). At shot time, anchored in Enewetak Lagoon about 

1,360 yards (1.2 km) west of Parry and about 17 nmi (32 km) from 

the shot island. At 0745, Curtlss was underway for a berth off 

Aomon. At 0920, the ship anchored about 2,200 yards (2 km) southsouthwest of Aomon. 

• YOKE (1 May). At shot time, anchored 1,360 yards (1.2 km) west of 

Parry in 

island. At 

1,740 yards 

at 1020. 

Enewetak Lagoon about 13.5 nmi (25 

0838 the ship proceeded to Runlt 

(1.6 km) south-southwest of the no

km) 

and 

rthern 

from 

anchored 

tip 

the 

of 

shot 

about 

Runit 

• ZEBRA (15 

of Parry 

May). At shot time, 

in Enewetak Lagoon, 

anchored 

8.5 nmi 

1,360 

(15.8 

yards 

km) 

(1.2 

from 

km) 

the 

west 

shot 

island. At 0903, the ship moved to an anchorage about 3,550 yards 

(3.2 km) west of the northern tip of Enewetak Island. 

On 20 May, Curtiss was checked for contamination. The highest readings 

were 0.006 and 0.0055 R/hr on two vent duct screens amidships on the boat 

deck. These screens were removed. Other duct screens read from 0.00025 to 

Cl.0013 R/hr (Reference D.4, p. 3). Curtiss departed for Pearl Harbor on 21 

May. Of the 555 crewmembers, 39 were badged. 

USS Davison (DMS-37). This high-speed minesweeper arrived at Kwajalein on 24 

March from Pearl Harbor. It was under the operational control of CTC 7.3 

for support of a balloon-launching team from NRL (Reference C.3, pp. VII-58 

and VII-81). Davison arrived at Enewetak Island on 10 April and left on 12 

April to take up its station for X-RAY. 

• X-RAY (15 April). On station at approximately 12O25’N, 172O25’E 

about 600 nmi (1,112 km) east of the test site. At 0802 on 19 

April it moored in Kwajalein Lagoon. On 27 Apri 1 it was underway 

to take up its station for YOKE. 

• YOKE (1 May). On station at 14O40’N, 171°61 ‘E, about 660 nmi 

(1,223 km) east of the detonation. On 3 May it anchored at Kwajalein. On 12 May it was underway to take up its station for ZEBRA. 

• ZEBRA (15 May). On station at ll”25’N, 172O54’E. Later the same 

day. the ship headed for Majuro Atoll to pick up an NRL group. 

This ship was back at Kwajalein on 19 May, and it left for Pearl 

Harbor on 21 May. 

134 
Davison was not exposed to radiological contamination and none of its 

170-man crew was badged. 

USS Gardiners Bav (AVP-39). This small seaplane tender arrived at the proving 

ground with a crew of 265 on 29 January. It served as flagship of TU 

7.3.3, the Off-Shore Patrol Unit, and acted as tender for its seaplanes. 

Gardiners Bay provided the eight personnel of the Sonobuoy Monitor unit. 

In Table 11, these are shown separately. 

• X-RAY (15 April). Underway with TU 7.3.8 in the open sea just east 

of Jinimi, between 18 and 23 nmi (33 and 43 km) south-southeast of 

the shot island. At 0933, the ship anchored in Enewetak Lagoon 

west of Parry Island. 

• YOKE (1 May). Underway between 15 and 20 nmi (28 and 37 km) southeast of the shot island with TU 7.3.8. At 1011, the ship anchored 

in the lagoon west of Parry. 

• ZEBRA (15 May). Steaming as part of TU 7.3.8 between about 25 and 

30 nmi (46 and 56 km) southeast of the shot island. The ship 

anchored in the lagoon west of Parry at 0959. 

Gardiners Bay was checked for radiological contamination on 20 May. 

The highest level, 0.001 R/hr, was detected on the portside main air intake 

(Reference D.4, p. 1). On 22 May, the ship left the proving ground for 

Pearl Harbor. 

Sonobuoy Monitor Unit No. 1. By 24 Apri 1, strings of sonobuoys had been laid 

across both Deep Entrance and Wide Entrance at Enewetak Atoll. Stations to 

monitor the buoys on Parry and Enewetak islands were manned continuously 

during the rest of the operation (Reference C.3, p. VII-68). Eight men 

from Gardiners Bay were assigned to man this temporary unit. 

USS George (DE-6971 . On 2 Apr i 1, this destroyer escort reached Enewetak Atoll 

for duty as part of TO 7.3.3, the Off-Shore Patrol Unit. 

a X-RAY (15 April). On patrol roughly northeast of the atoll. At 

1200, the ship was about 34 nmi (63 km) east-northeast of the shot 

island. 

• YOKE (1 May). Steaming independently about 2.2 nmi (4 km) southsoutheast of the southern end of Enewetak Island, 19 nmi (35 km) 

south of the shot island. 

0 ZEBRA (15 May). On patrol about 19 nmi (35 km) east-southeast of 

the shot island. 

The radiation check of 20 May revealed no significant contamination on 

Georqe. The ship left for Pearl Harbor on 25 May. None of its 141 crewmembers was badged. 

USS Gull (AMS-16). This small minesweeper was under the operational control of 

CTG 7.3. On 16 March, the ship arrived under escort at Kwajalein. After 

replenishment there, it sailed, again under escort by USS LST-219. to 

Mili, about 660 nmi (1,223 km) southeast of Enewetak Atoll, to act as 

135 
support ship for the balloon station there. It arrived at Mili on 3 April. 

On 15 May, it departed Mili bound for Ailinglapalap (Reference C.3, pp. 

VII-80, VII-81, and VII-85; LST-45 deck log). On 26 May, the ship left the 

area bound for Pearl Harbor. Gull was not exposed to radiological contamination and none of its 24-man crew was badged. 

ESS Henry W. Tucker (DDR-875). On 18 March, this radar picket destroyer arrived 

at Enewetak Atoll, where it became part of TU 7.3.3, the Off-Shore Patrol 

Unit. 

• X-RAY (15 April). On patrol about 14.5 nmi (27 km) southeast of 

the shot island. At 1735 on 16 April, it moored in Enewetak Lagoon 

off Enewetak Island. 

• YOKE (1 May). On patrol about 14.5 nmi (27 km) northwest of the 

shot island. It returned to Enewetak Lagoon in the late afternoon 

of 4 May and moored off Enewetak Island. 

a ZEBRA (15 May). On patrol about 15 nmi (28 km) southeast of the 

southern tip of Runit. At 1447, the ship anchored in Enewetak 

Lagoon about 5,040 yards (4.6 km) west-southwest of the southern 

tip of Parry. 

A radiation check on 20 May revealed a maximum level of 0.0001 R/hr at 

three locations (Reference D.4, p. 1). Of its 233 crewmembers, 22 were 

badged. Tucker left the proving ground for Pearl Harbor on 21 March. 

l&I(L)-549. This large infantry landing craft arrived at Enewetak Atoll on 

1 January 1948 to serve as part of TU 7.3.7, the Boat Pool Unit. 

0 X-RAY (15 April). On station as a point of reference for drone 

aircraft operations, about 4.3 nmi (8 km) roughly west-southwest 

of Enewetak Island and 22 nmi (41 km) south of the shot island. At 

1236 on 15 April it anchored in the lagoon, apparently off Enewetak 

Island. 

0 YOKE (1 May). On station as a drone aircraft reference vessel, 

positioned about as it had been for X-RAY and about 20 nmi (37 km) 

south of the shot island. At 1403 the same day, it anchored in 

Enewetak Lagoon. 

0 ZEBRA (15 May). On station as drone aircraft reference vessel, 

about 4.5 nmi (8.3 km) southwest of the southern end of Enewetak 

Island and 16 nmi (30 km) from the shot island. At 1305, it 

anchored in the lagoon about 2,690 yards (2.5 km) west of the 

northern tip of Enewetak Island. 

The report of the radsafe inspection of 20 May indicates no radioactivity on LCI(L)-549 (Reference D.4, p. 6). None of its 18 crewmembers 

was badged. On 24 May, it sailed for Kwajalein Atoll and then to Pearl 

Harbor. 

LCI(L)-1054. This large infantry landing craft arrived at Enewetak Atoll on 

18 January. It became part of TU 7.3.7, the Boat Pool Unit. 

136 
• X-RAY (15 April). Steaming with TU 7.3.5 between 27 and 32 nmi (50 

and 59 km) southeast of the shot island. At 1144, it anchored in 

Anchorage A in Enewetak Lagoon west of Parry and Enewetak Island. 

• YOKE (1 May). Underway with TU 7.3.5 between 17 and 22 nmi (32 and 

41 km) southeast of the shot island. At 0615, it left the formation 

to return to the lagoon, anchoring west of Parry and Enewetak at 

Anchorage A at 1205. It began a ferry run to Runit at 1603. It 

anchored off Runit at 1709, and remained there overnight. 

• ZEBRA (15 May). Underway with TU 7.3.5 about 20 nmi (37 km) south 

of the shot island. At 0610, it left the formation to proceed to 

the vicinity of Wide Entrance. It left the vicinity of Wide Entrance at 1230 to reenter the lagoon through Deep Entrance. It 

anchored in Anchorage A in the lagoon west of Enewetak and Parry 

Island at 1405. 

During the inspection on 20 May, a 0.0014 R/hr reading was found on 

one air vent (Reference D.4, p. 4). LCI(L)-1054 left Enewetak Atoll on 24 

May and visited various islands and atolls in the area, returning to Enewetak briefly in July and September. None of its 21 crewmembers was badged. 

On 20 November, it left Kwajalein Atoll bound for Pearl Harbor and Long 

Beach, California. 

LCI(L)-1090. On 1 March, this large infantry landing craft reached Enewetak 

Atoll, where it was assigned to TU 7.3.7, the Boat Pool Unit. 

• X-RAY (15 April). Underway with TU 7.3.5 between 27 and 32 nmi (50 

and 59 km) southeast of the shot island. It anchored in Enewetak 

Lagoon at 1126, and at 1525 It got underway for a ferry run first 

to Runit and then to Aomon. It anchored off Aomon at 1702. The 

next morning the vessel was at Enjebi, the shot island, for about 

15 minutes. It spent the rest of the day on ferry runs between 

Aomon and Runit. 

• YOKE (1 May). Steaming with TU 7.3.5 between 17 and 22 nmi (32 and 

41 km) southeast of the shot island. At 1209, it anchored in the 

southeast portion of the lagoon. 

• ZEBRA (15 May). Underway with TU 7.3.5 about 20 nmi (37 km) south 

of the shot island. At 1405, it anchored in the southeast portion 

of Enewetak Lagoon. 

The radsafe monitor checked LCI(L)-1090 for about an hour on 20 May, 

but found no contamination (Reference D.4, p. 6). Sixteen of its twenty-one 

crewmembers were badged. On 24 May, it left Enewetak bound for Kwajalein 

Atoll. 

&Ts 472, 494, 1194, and 1345.. All were assigned to TU 7.3.7, the Boat Pool 

Unit. No other information is available. 

LSM-250. This medium landing ship arrived in the proving ground on 1 January 

1948. It was assigned to TU 7.3.6, the Cable Unit and helped lay and 

maintain the extensive system of underwater cables required during the 

operation. 

137 
• X-RAY (15 April). Steaming with TU 7.3.5 between 27 and 32 nmi (50 

and 59 km) southeast of the shot island. At 1125, it anchored 

about 2,220 yards (2 km) west-northwest of the northern end of 

Enewetak Island. 

• YOKE (1 May). Underway with TU 7.3.5 between 17 and 22 nmi (32 and 

41 km) southeast of the shot island. At 1219, it anchored in its 

post-X-RAY location. 

• ZEBRA (15 May). Underway wl th TU 7.3.5, about 20 nmi (37 km) south 

of the shot island. At 1352 it anchored in its post-X-RAY location. 

On 20 May, LSM-250 was found to have slight contamination in three 

locations, with the highest level being less than 0.001 R/hr on the aft 

weather deck (Reference D.4, p. 4). One of its sixty-one crewmembers was 

badged. On 24 May, it left for Pearl Harbor. 

LSM-378. This vessel was part of TU 7.3.6, the Cable Unit, which laid and 

maintained the cable network. It arrived at Enewetak Atoll on 1 January 

1948 and departed for Kwajalein on 30 March, arriving there on 1 April. On 

14 April it began the return trip to Enewetak. 

0 X-RAY (15 April). Underway from Kwajalein to Enewetak; at 0800 it 

was about 200 nmi (370 km) east-southeast of Enewetak Island. It 

reached Enewetak the next day, anchoring at 0811 about 2,200 yards 

(2 km) northwest of the northern tip of Enewetak Island. 

• YOKE (1 May). Underway less than 1 nmi (1.9 km) south-southeast 

the northern portion of Enewetak Island about 16.5 nmi (31 

from the detonation. At 1220, it anchored about 2,040 yards 

km) north of the southern end of Enewetak Island. 

of 

km) 

(1.9 

0 ZEBRA (15 May). Underway about 12 nmi (22 km) east-southeast 

the northern end of Parry Island and about 16.5 nmi (31 km) 

the detonation. At 1222, it anchored in its post-YOKE location. 

of 

from 

On 20 May, LSM-378 was monitored and found to have a reading of 0.0017 

R/hr on one air intake amidships on the starboard side (Reference D.4, 

p. 4). Three of the forty-three crewmembers were badged. It left the proving ground for Pearl Harbor on 24 May. 

USS LST-45. This tank landing ship arrived at Enewetak Atoll on 29 November 

1947, part of the first group of TG 7.3 ships. It joined TU 7.3.2, the 

Main Naval Task Unit (Reference C-3, pp. VII-4 and VII-14). Before X-RAY 

and after X-RAY and YOKE the ship provided forward logistical support for 

operations on the shot islands. 

a X-RAY (15 April). Steaming with TU 7.3.5 between 27 and 36 nmi (50 

and 67 km) from the shot Island. At 1152, the ship anchored about 

4,150 yards (3.8 km) south-southwest of the southern tip of Aomon 

Island. 

• YOKE (1 May). Steaming in formation with TU 7.3.5 between 17 and 

22 nmi (32 and 41 km) southeast of the shot island. The ship 

anchored about 3,150 yards (2.9 km) south-southwest of the northern 

end of Runit at 1320. 

138 
• ZEBRA (15 May). Underway with TU 7.3.5 about 20 nmi (37 km) south 

of the shot island. At 1213, the ship anchored about 1,260 yards 

(1.2 km) north of the southern end of Enewetak Island. 

Contamination of 0.0012 R/hr was detected in the generator room escape 

trunk vent set on 20 May (Reference D.4, p. 4). Four of its sixty-six 

crewmembers were badged. .-EST-45 left the proving ground for Pearl Harbor 

on 24 May. 

USS LST-219. This tank landing ship arrived at Enewetak Atoll with its 60-man 

crew on 29 November 1947 and left for Pearl Harbor on 2 February 1948. It 

returned to Enewetak on 21 March after stopovers at Pearl Harbor and 

Kwajalein Atoll. At the proving ground, it was part of TU 7.3.2, the Main 

Naval Task Unit. 

Under orders from CTG 7.3, the ship left Enewetak Atoll on 6 April for 

Ujelang Atoll, to stand by for evacuation of the inhabitants if fallout 

occurred on the island. Evacuation was not required. It remained there 

through all three tests and departed on 16 May for Kwajalein. 

After leaving Kwajalein, LST-219 sailed to Rongerik Atoll, arriving on 

19 May, back to Kwajalein Atoll, arriving 22 May, to Majuro, arriving 24 

May, then back to Kwajalein Atoll, arriving 27 May, and on 30 May it 

reached Enewetak Atoll. It left for Pearl Harbor on 31 May. 

USS LST-611. This tank landing ship was among the first group of ships to arrive at Enewetak (29 November 19471 in support of the SANDSTONE test 

series. Thereafter, it made several trips between Enewetak Atoll and Pearl 

Harbor. It served as part of TU 7.3.2, the Main Naval Task Unit, but it 

does not appear to have been in the vicinity of Enewetak Atoll for any of 

the detonations. On 10 April, it left Pearl Harbor for Enewetak, but it 

probably had not reached the atoll by 15 April, the day of X-RAY. On 26 

April, the ship left Enewetak for Hawaii, arriving there on 7 May: hence 

it was not in the proving ground for YOKE on 1 May. The ship left Hawaii 

for Enewetak on 12 May, but probably would not have reached the atoll in 

time for ZEBRA (Reference C.3, pp. VII-4, -14 and -15, -18 and -19, -21, 

-23, -80, and -84). The ship’s log are unavailable, so its movements cannot be followed in detail. Its crew numbered 53. 

USS Marsh (DE-6991 . This destroyer escort arrived at Enewetak Atoll on 30 

March. It served as part of TU 7.3.3. the Off-Shore Patrol Unit. 

0 X-RAY (15 April). Underway as antisubmarine screening vessel for 

TU 7.3.5 between 27 and 32 nmi (50 and 59 km) southeast of the 

shot island. 

• YOKE (1 May). Underway as antisubmarine screening vessel for TU 

7.3.5 between 17 and 22 nmi (32 and 41 km) southeast of the shot 

island. On 7 May at 1528, it anchored about 3 nmi (5.6 km) southwest of the south end of Runit. A radsafe monitor boarded Marsh on 

the afternoon of 2 May and remained aboard until the afternoon of 

5 May. 

• ZEBRA (15 May). Underway as antisubmarine screening vessel for TU 

7.3.5 about 20 nmi (37 km) south of the shot island. Shortly after 

139 
1245, the ship entered the lagoon to pick up a radsafe monitor, 

who came aboard from Tucker. After the monitor boarded Marsh at 

1309, the ship left the lagoon for antisubmarine patrol around 

Enewetak Atoll. At 1028 on 18 May, the ship reentered the lagoon 

and then lay to, awaiting a radsafe party. The party came aboard 

at 1130. The ship then anchored about 3,960 yards (3.6 km) west of 

the northern end of Enewetak Island. The monitor, who had come 

aboard on 15 May, and the radsafe party left the ship at 1343. 

There is no information on the radiation levels detected. 

No contamination was found during a check by radsafe monitors on 20 May 

(Reference D.4, p. 6). Only 1 of its 138 crewmembers was badged. Marsh 

left for Pearl Harbor on 3 June. 

USS Mispillion (AO-105). This oiler arrived at Enewetak on 10 Apri 1. It belonged to TU 7.3.5, the Service Unit, and served as tanker to the task 

group. 

• X-RAY (15 April). Steaming as part of TU 7.3.8 between 18 and 23 

run1 (33 and 43 km) south-southeast of the shot island. At 0858, 

Mispillion anchored in the lagoon about 3,960 yards (3.6 km) west 

of the northern end of Enewetak Island. 

• YOKE (1 May). Underway with TlJ 7.3.8 between 15 and 20 nmi (28 and 

37 km) east-southeast of the shot island. At 1019, the ship anchored in its post-X-RAY location. On 5 May, the ship left for 

Guam, returning to Enewetak Atoll on 12 May. 

0 ZEBRA (15 May). Underway with TU 7.3.8 between 25 and 30 nmi (46 

and 56 km) southeast of the shot island. At 1015, the ship anchored 

in its post-X-RAY location. 

On 20 May, Mispillion was found slightly contaminated at several locations. The highest level was 0.002 R/hr in the portside engine-room supply 

vents (Reference D.4, p. 3). All other readings were less than 0.001 R/hr. 

Its crew totaled 173. The next day the ship left Enewetak Atoll for Kwajalein Atoll en route to the U.S. mainland. 

USS Mount McKinley (AGC-7). On 16 March, this amphibious force flagship with a 

crew of 578 arrived at Enewetak. It was the only ship in TV 7.3.1, the 

Flagship Unit. 

• X-RAY (15 April). Anchored in the lagoon about 2,400 yards (2.2 

km) west of Parry, about 17 nmi (32 km) from surface zero. At 

0730, the ship got underway to an anchorage about 3,260 yards 

(3 km) southwest of Aomon Island. It arrived there at 0937. 

• YOKE (1 May). Anchored in its pre-X-RAY location, about 13.5 nmi 

(25 km) from the shot island. The ship got underway at 0825, and 

at 0946 it anchored about 2,480 yards (2.3 km) southwest of the 

northern end of Runit. 

• ZEBRA (15 May). Anchored as for the first two shots and about 8.5 

nmi (15.8 km) south of surface zero on Runit. At 0939, moved to a 

berth about 2,400 yards (2.2 km) west of the northern end of 

Enewetak Island. 

140 
On 20 May, radsafe monitors found slight contamination at two locations on the ship. The readings were 0.0006 R/hr and 0.0003 R/hr (Reference 

D.4, p. 2). Mount McKinley left the proving ground for Pearl Harbor on 

21 May. 

USS Pasiq (AW-3). This water distillation ship was in the proving ground twice 

in February and twice in March, arriving the second time on 28 March. 

During this 2-month period, it also was at Kwajalein, Rongerik, and Bikini 

atolls. Pasig served as flagship for TU 7.3.5 and provided freshwater. 

• X-RAY (15 April). Leadi.ng TU 7.3.5 between 27 and 32 nmi (50 and 

59 

the 

km) southeast of 

southeast portion 

the 

of 

shot island. At 

Enewetak Lagoon. 

1257, the ship anchored in 

0 YOKE (1 May). Leading TU 7.3.5 between 17 and 

km) southeast of the shot island. At 1206, 

the lagoon about 2,740 yards (2.5 km) w

northern end of Enewetak Island. 

22 

the 

est-no

nmi (32 and 

ship anchored 

rthwest of the 

41 

in 

0 ZEBRA (15 May). Leading TU 7.3.5 about 20 nmi (37 km) south of 

shot island. At 1140, the ship anchored in its post-YOKE location. 

At 1502, Pasiq departed for Bikini Atoll and then Kwajalein Atoll, 

returning to Enewetak Atoll on 19 May. 

the 

On 20 May, Pasiq was found to have radioactive contamination at several locations. The highest radiation level was 0.0017 R/hr in one of the 

intakes on the starboard side (Reference D.4, p. 4). Of its 164 crewmembers, 11 were badged. On 24 May, the ship departed for Pearl Harbor. 

USS Pelican (AMS-32). This motor minesweeper was under operational control of 

TG 7.3. On 3 March, Pelican sailed under escort to Kwajalein Atoll. After 

replenishment there, it was escorted to Ailinglapalap about 470 nmi (870 

km) southeast of Enewetak Atoll. Apparently it was there for all three 

shots. It departed Ailinglapalap for Kwajalein Atoll on 16 May (Reference 

C.5, pp. VII-58, 84&85). Pelican was not exposed to radiological contamination, and none of its 25-man crew was badged. 

USS Perkins (DDR-8771. On 29 January, this radar picket destroyer arrived at 

Enewetak Atoll, where it served as part of TU 7.3.3, the Off-Shore Patrol 

Unit. Its crew size was 223. 

• X-RAY (15 April). Patrolling south of Wide Entrance, about 3.8 nmi 

(7 km) southwest of the southern end of Enewetak Island and 21.25 

nmi (39.4 km) south-southeast of the shot island. On 27 April at 

1500, as the ship continued to patrol south of Wide Entrance, a 

radsafe monitor came aboard. About an hour later he transferred to 

George. 

• YOKE (1 May). Patrolling in approximately the same location as for 

X-RAY, about 20 nmi (37 km) from surface zero. On 3 May at 1751 it 

moored beside Mispillion to take on fuel: at 2015 it anchored west 

of Enewetak Island. 

• ZEBRA (15 May). Patrolling south of Wide Entrance, about 6 nmi (11 

km) southwest of the southern end of Enewetak Island and about 18.5 

141 
nml (34.3 km) south-southwest of surface zero on Runit. On 15 May 

at 1418 It returned to Enewetak Lagoon: at 1736, after refueling 

from M&pillion, it anchored about 3,300 yards (3 km) northwest of 

the northern end of Enewetak Island. 

During the radsafe inspection on 20 May, no contamination was found on 

Perkins (Reference D.4, p. 6). The ship left for Pearl Harbor on 21 May. 

USS Pickaway (APA-222). This attack transport ship served as a troop evacuation 

vessel. Dates of arrival at and departure from Enewetak Atoll before 

SANDSTONE by this ship are: 

Arrival Departure 

28 December 1947 1 January 1948 

26 February 1948 14 March 1948 ” 

1 April 1948 

During SANDSTONE the ship was part of TU 7.3.2, the Main Naval Task Unit. 

X-RAY (15 April). Steaming with TU 7.3.8 a few miles east of Parry 

and between 18 and 23 nmi (33 and 43 km) south-southeast of the 

shot Island. At 0834, the ship anchored in the lagoon about 2,370 

yards (2.2 km) west of the northern end of Enewetak Island. 

YOKE (1 May). Underway with TU 7.3.8 between 15 and 20 nml (28 and 

37 km) southeast of the shot island. The ship anchored in the 

lagoon at 1005 at its post-X-RAY location. 

ZEBRA (15 May). Underway wl th TO 7.3.8 between 25 and 30 nmi (46 

and 56 km) southeast of the shot Island. At 1019, the ship anchored 

about 3,070 yards (2.8 km) west-southwest of the northern end of 

Enewetak Island. 

The radsafe inspection on 20 May revealed several contaminated locations on Pickaway. The highest level of radioactivity was 0.0015 R/hr in 

the main engine-room blower at Frame 86 and in a porthole fan in the officer’s mess (Reference D.4, p. 2). Badges were issued to 12 of its 290 

crewmembers. On 27 May, the ship left Enewetak Atoll for Pearl Harbor via 

Kwajalein Atoll. 

USS Quick (DMS-37). On 24 March, this high-speed minesweeper arrived at Kwajalein. It was under the operational control of CTC 7.3. On 10 April it 

arrived at Enewetak Atoll and departed for its station on 12 April. 

0 X-RAY (15 April). On station within a 50-nmi (93-km) radius of 

15OO’N, 171°45’E. On 18 April the ship anchored at Kwajalein. 

On 27 April it left Kwajalein for its station. 

• YOKE (1 May). On station in the area of 13OO’W, 172O20’E. On 3 

May the ship moored at Kwajalein Atoll. On 12 May the ship left to 

take up its station for ZEBRA. 

• ZEBRA (15 May). On station in the area of 12O30’N, 172O20’E. 

The ship returned to Kwajalein on 16 May and left for Pearl Harbor 

on 21 May. 

142 
For each shot the ship was about 600 nmi (1,112 km) from Enewetak 

Atoll. The ship arrived at Kwajalein on the morning of 3 May, approximately 

4 hours after the radiological rainout from YOKE had fallen on the atoll 

for 10 hours. The ship was not exposed to radiological contamination, and 

none of its 167 crewmembers was badged. 

USS Raby (DE-698). For SANDSTONE, destroyer escort was part of TU 7.3.3, the 

Off-Shore Patrol Unit. It arrived at Enewetak Atoll with its 143 crewmembers on 1 January. 

0 X-RAY (15 April). Steaming near the southern end of Parry, about 

19.5 nmi (36.1 km) south-southeast of the shot island. On 18 April 

at 1848 it entered Enewetak Lagoon; at 1904 moored to Mispillion. 

On 19 April at 0710 it anchored in the lagoon west of Enewetak 

Island. 

• YOKE (1 May). Steaming in the open sea off Enewetak Atoll, about 7 

nmi (13 km) southeast of the shot island. At 0846, the ship entered 

the lagoon through Deep Entrance and then steamed to Northern 

Anchorage near Mount McKinley, which was anchored about 2,480 yards 

(2.3 km) southwest of the northern end of Runit. By 0955, Raby 

hove to near Mount McKinley. From Mount McKinley, Raby took aboard 

two officers and a ten-man U.S. Marine Corps detachment for transportation to Bikini Atoll where it was to investigate a report of 

footprints and tampering with experimental equipment on Enidrik 

Island (Reference C.3, p. VII-73). Raby was underway for Bikini 

Atoll at 1022. It returned to Enewetak Atoll on 3 May, following 

the investigation at Bikini Atoll. 

• ZEBRA (15 May). Underway about 1.8 nmi (3.3 km) southeast of the 

southern end of Parry and about 10 nmi (18.5 km) south-southeast 

of the shot island. At 1443, the ship moored alongside Spanqler, 

about 4,630 yards (4.2 km) west of the northern end of Parry, for 

refueling. At 1650, it anchored about 8,070 yards (7.4 km) west of 

the northern end of Enewetak Island. 

The radsafe check on 20 May indicated slight contamination at less 

than 0.001 R/hr on two air intakes on Raby (Reference D.4, p. 5). The ship 

left for Pearl Harbor on 21 May. 

USS Roqers (DDR-876). This radar picket destroyer reached Enewetak Atoll on 

8 March, where it became part of TU 7.3.3, the Off-Shore Patrol Unit. 

• X-RAY (15 April). On patrol about 2.1 nmi (3.9 km) east-southeast 

of the northern tip of Enewetak Island, about 19 nmi (35 km) from 

surface zero. 

• YOKE (1 May). On patrol about 5.3 nmi (9.8 km) east of Japtan and 

about 15 nmi (28 km) southeast of the shot island. Between 0844 

and 0855, the ship first entered and then left Deep Entrance channel. On 2 May at 1030 anchored about 3 nmi (5.6 km) southwest of 

the southern tip of Runit. 

• ZEBRA (15 May). On patrol about 8 nmi (15 km) southeast of the shot 

island and about 4.7 nmi (8.7 km) east-northeast of the northern 

143 
end of Enewetak Island. At 1643, the ship anchored in the lagoon 

about 2,370 yards (2.2 km) northwest of the southern tip of Enewetak Island. Between 1315 and 1345 on 18 May, a radsafe party 

checked the ship for radioactivity. The radsafe party left the 

ship at 1345 after finding various items excessively radioactive. 

Between 0915 and 0945 on 20 May, a radiological party again came aboard 

and found contamination in 18 vent-duct screens. The highest level of 

radioactivity was 0.0039 R/hr in the vent duct at Frame 150 on the starboard side (Reference D.4, p. 4). Later the same day, the ship left Enewetak Atoll for Rongerik Atoll en route to Pearl Harbor. Rogers was again 

inspected by radsafe personnel when it arrived at San Diego on 4 June and 

was declared safe. Of its 234 crewmembers, 178 were badged -- all with 

zero exposure. 

VSS Spanqler (DE-696). This destroyer escort arrived in the proving ground on 

15 January. It participated in operations as part of TU 7.3.3, the OffShore Patrol Unit. 

0 X-RAY (15 April). Anchored in the lagoon about 4,630 yards (4.2 

km) west of the northern end of Parry about 16 nmi (30 km) southsoutheast of surface zero. Assigned as plane guard for Bairoko, 

Spanqler steamed toward the northern part of the lagoon at 0705. 

It was released from plane guard duty at 0802 and returned to the 

southeast portion oE the lagoon, where it anchored about 2,330 

yards (2.1 km) northwest of the northern end of Enewetak Island at 

0915. 

• YOKE (1 May). Anchored as for X-RAY, 13 nmi (24 km) south of the 

shot island. At 0710, the ship was underway as plane guard for 

Bairoko. Released from plane guard duty at 0805, Spangler anchored 

2.4 nmi (4.4 km) west of the northern end of Parry Island. At 1405 

the ship got underway for patrol off the atoll. On 4 May the ship 

returned to the lagoon for refueling from Mispillion, resuming 

patrol the same day. On 8 May, after refueling from Cornstock, 

Spanqler anchored 2,860 (2.6 km) west-northwest of the northern 

end of Enewetak Island. At 0653 on 12 May, the ship was underway 

to patrol the Wide Passage. At 1412, a radsafe monitor came aboard 

the ship. On 14 May it anchored 2.4 nmi (4.4 km) west of the 

northern end of Parry Island. 

• ZEBRA (15 May). Anchored in the same postshot location as for the 

two previous detonations, about 8 nmi (15 km) south of the ZEBRA 

surface zero. At 1320, the radsafe monitor transferred to Currier. 

The radiation check of 20 May revealed contamination of 0.0055 R/hr in 

the starboard vent duct screen at Frame 70 on the port side. The screen 

was jettisoned. This left the highest reading as 0.004 R/hr on the starboard vent duct screen at Frame 50 (Reference D.4, p. 4). Of its 135 crewmembers, 9 were badged. Spanqler left for Pearl Harbor on 21 May. 

USS Swallow (AMS-36). This motor minesweeper arrived at Kwajalein Atoll with 

23 crewmembers sometime after 5 March. It was under the operational control of CTG 7.3. Its crew was 23. On 23 March, it left Kwajalein Atoll to 

144 
take up its station at Bikini Atoll, where it arrived on 27 March. Apparently it was at Bikini Atoll for all three detonations of Operation 

SANDSTONE, arriving back at Kwajalein Atoll on 17 May (Reference C.3, pp,

vm58, -73, -81, and -85; Raby deck log, Pasis deck log). 

USS Warrick (AKA-89). This attack transport first arrived at Enewetak Atoll in 

connection with SANDSTONEon 28 December 1947. It departed for Pearl Harbor 

on 25 January and returned to Enewetak Atoll on 29 March. It evacuated 

troops before the shots. During the test series, the ship was part of TU 

7.3.2, the Main Naval Task Unit. Badges were issued to 40 of its 167 

c rewmembers. 

X-RAY (15 April). Steaming with TU 7.3.8 in the open sea a few 

miles east of Parry, between 18 and 23 nmi (33 and 43 km) southsoutheast of the shot island. At 0842, it anchored about 3,900 

yards (3.6 km) west of the northern end of Enewetak Island. 

YOKE (1 May). Underway with TU 7.3.8 between 15 and 20 nmi (28 and 

37 km) southeast of the shot island. At 1014, the ship anchored at 

Its post-X-RAY location. On 9 May, the ship left Enewetak Atoll 

for Kwajalein Atoll. 

ZEBRA (15 May). Anchored at Kwajalein Atoll. 

After a trip to Wake Island between 18 and 22 May, Warrick left Kwajalein Atoll for Pearl Harbor on 1 June. 

ISS Yancey (AKA-93). This attack transport, with 148 crewmembers, was part of 

TU 7.3.2, the Main Naval Task Unit. The ship was present at Enewetak Atoll 

from 24 December 1947 to 6 January 1948, from 4 to 30 March 1948, and from 

16 to 26 May 1948. It was not, however, in the proving ground for any of 

the detonations, being in Pearl Harbor for X-RAY, en route to Pearl Harbor 

from San Francisco for YOKE, and en route to Enewetak Atoll for ZEBRA. On 

16 May it anchored in the lagoon a short distance west of Enewetak Island. 

Nevertheless, during the radsafe inspection of 20 May, contamination of 

0.001 R/hr was found in the deck vent at Frame 92 (Reference D.4, p. 5). 

YOG-64. No information is available on when this gasoline barge arrived in the 

proving ground. During the test series it served as part of TU 7.3.5, the 

Service Unit (Reference C.3, p, VII-4). Its crew numbered 11. 

0 X-RAY (15 April). Underway as part of TU 7.3.5 between 27 and 32 

nmi (50 and 59 km) southeast of the shot island. It returned to 

Enewetak Lagoon at 1233 on 15 April. 

• YOKE (1 May). 

during YOKE. Its 

was reboarded about 

The barge was probably 

crew was transferred to 

9 hours after YOKE. 

moored 

Askari 

in 

on 

Enewetak 

30 April. 

Lagoon 

YOG-64 

0 ZEBRA (15 May). 

south of surface 

Underway 

zero on 

as part 

Runit. 

of TU 7.3.5 about 20 nmi (37 km) 

During the radsafe inspection on 20 May, no contamination was detected 

on YOG-64 (Reference D.4, p. 6). The date of its departure from the proving ground is not known. 

145 
YW-94. This water barge arrived in the proving ground on 29 November 1947. It 

became part of TU 7.3.5, the Service Unit (Reference C. 3, pp. VII-4 and 

-14). 

X-RAY (15 April). Steaming with TU 7.3.5 between 27 and 32 nmi (50 

and 59 km) southeast of the shot island. It returned to Enewetak 

Lagoon on 15 April. On 16 April it moored by Pasiq 2,860 yards 

(2.6 km) west-northwest of the northern end of Enewetak Island. 

YOKE (1 May). Underway with TU 7.3.5 between 17 and 22 nmi (32 and 

41 km) southeast of surface zero on Aomon. It returned to Enewetak 

Lagoon on 1 May by 1230, when it was alongside the Pas& in the 

same location as following X-RAY. 

ZEBRA (15 May). Underway with TU 7.3.5 about 20 nmi (37 km) south 

of the shot island. It returned to Enewetak Lagoon by 1243, when 

it came alongside Pasiq to take on water. It was located as following X-RAY. 

The 

(Reference 

located. 

radsafe 

D.4, 

inspe

6). 

ction 

No r

on 

ecord 

20 

of 

May 

its 

found 

departure 

YW-94 

from 

free of 

Enew

cont

etak 

amination 

has been 

Air Units 

Air Development Squadron 4 (VX-4) Detachment. Assigned to TU 7.3.3 (Off-Shore 

Patrol), the VX-4 Detachment reported for duty on 20 March and was based 

on Kwajalein. The detachment had-54 personnel, none badged. It flew nightly 

patrols using one of its three PB-1W (B-17G) patrol aircraft (Reference 

E.2.3.3, p. 24; Reference C.3, p. VIII-67). Aircraft and personnel were 

detached from VX-4 on 1 April and reassigned to Air Early Warning Squadron 1 (VPW-1). Its SANDSTONE mission was not affected by this change. 

Fleet Aircraft Service Squadron 119 Detachment (FASRON-119). This unit was stationed aboard Gardiners Bay and maintained the six PBM-5 patrol planes of 

the Medium Seaplane Patrol Squadron 6 (VS[MS]-6) Detachment in the proving 

ground. FASRON-119 had 33 personnel, none of whom appear to have been 

badged (Reference E.l). 

Medium Seaplane Patrol Squadron 6 (VPLMSI-6) Detachment. The detachment reported for operational control on 21 January 1948. Equipped with six PBM-5 

patrol aircraft, the detachment had 153 personnel, 11 of whom were badged. 

It began patrolling the proving ground on 1 February 1948. Single aircraft 

daylight searches were flown six days per week; the seventh day a five 

aircraft search was flown. Gardiners Bay was the detachment seaplane tender 

(Reference C.3, p. VII-4; E.2.3.3, p. 24) . During a radsafe check on 20 

May, PBM-59250 was found to have radioactivity levels between 0.0003 and 

0.0013 R/hr on the top of the wing (Reference D.4, p. 1). PBMs 50155, 

84602, and 84623 did not show significant readings (Reference D.4, pp. 1 

and 4). Records are lacking on the two other aircraft. 

TASK GROUP 7.4 (AIR FORCE) 

Staff of the Air Force Commander. One badged Navy officer served in this 

organization. 

146 
Task Unit 7.4.3 (Photoqraphy Unitl. Five Navy personnel participated in the 

several photographic teams. All were badged with a high of 0.1 R. 

TASK GROUP 7.5 (JOINT SECURITY GROUP) 

A manning report dated 31 March 1948 indicates 116 Navy personnel were in 

TG 7.5, but the monthly roster of TG 7.5 personnel of the same date (Reference 

E.2.0.2, p. 15) lists only one Navy man, an officer who was badged, working in 

task group headquarters (Reference E.2.5.2, p. 1). In the manning report, the 

figures are divided into three categories: Army, Navy, and Air Force. No Marines were enumerated. However, there were 115 Marines in TG 7.5 (see Chapter 

8), and therefore 115 of the 116 Navy personnel referred to in the manning 

report are these Marines. 

TASK GROUP 7.6 (JOINT RADIOLOGICALSAFETY GROUP) 

Fifty Navy personnel were in this task group including its commander, a 

badged Navy officer. 

Bureau of Medicine and Surqery (BuMed). In conjunction with Bureau of Ships, 

this organization led the service tests of biological material, pocket 

dosimeters, samples of cloth and other material, and animal containers at 

various distances from the detonations. These activities involved exposure 

to radioactivity (Reference C.5, p. 3-10). Three Navy officers from BuMed 

can be identified with this test. During the operation they worked as part 

of TU 7.6.6 (Reference E.2.6; Reference C.3, pp. VIII-11 and 1X-55). 

Bureau of Ships (BuShips). A Navy officer from BuShips, working as part of TU 

7.6.6, conducted the material sample exposure tests at stations on Enjebi, 

Aomon , Bijire, and L,ojwa . In addition, radiation detection and exposure 

recording instruments were tested during radsafe operations (Reference 

C.5, pp. 3-10 and -11). The officer was badged (Reference C-3, p. 1X-54). 

Bureau of Yards and Docks (BuDocks), This organization led the service test of 

prefabricated structures set out on Enjebi for X-RAY and on Aomon, Bijire, 

and Lojwa for YOKE. Men from TG 7.3 apparently did most of that work (Reference C.5, p. 3-4). Only one officer from BuDocks, a badged Navy commander, can be identified with this effort. On 24 April, following X-RAY, he 

inspected the structures on Enjebi and gathered data. On 7 May, following 

YOKE, he inspected the structures on Aomon, Bijire, and Lojwa and gathered 

data (Reference C.3, p. VII-78). 

Thirty-seven Navy personnel whose home stations are not known were also in 

TG 7.6, having the following assignments. 

Task Unit 7.6.2 (Staff Unit). Eight Navy enlisted men, all badged, served in 

this unit (Reference C.43, Special Order No. 1, p. 1: Reference E.2.3.3, 

p. 2596). 

Task Unit 7.6.3 (Operations Unit). Three badged Navy officers were in this task 

unit (Reference C.43, Special Order No. 1, p. 1; Reference E.2.3.3, p. 

2596). 

147 
Task Unit 7.6.4 (Laboratory Unit). Eight badged Navy enlisted men were in this 

unit (Reference C.43, Special Order No. 2, p. 1; Reference E.2.3.3, p. 

2596). 

Task Unit 7.6.5 (Radioloqical Records Unit). One badged Navy enlisted man was 

In this unit (Reference C.43, Special Order No. 2, p. 2; Reference E.2.3.3, 

p. 2597). 

Task Unit 7.6.6 (Technical Measurements Unit). Five Navy officers and four enlisted men, all badged, served in this unit (Reference C.43, Special Order 

No. 2, p. 2; Reference E.2.3.3, pp. 2596-97). Four of the officers were 

from BUM and BuShips (above). 

Task Unit 7.6.7 (Monitor Unit). Including its commander, the unit had eleven 

Navy officers, all of whom were badged (Reference C.43, Special Order No. 

2, p. 2; Reference E.2.3.3, pp. 2596-7). 

Task Unit 7.6.9 (Rear Echelon Unit). Based in Washington, D.C., this unit was 

headed by a Navy officer. He was badged, probably when he visited the proving ground as a TG 7.8 observer. No other information is available on Navy 

participation in this unit (Reference C.43, Special Order No. 2, p. 3). 

Seven other Navy personnel have been identified as serving with TG 7.6, 

but their home stations and task unit affiliation are unknown. Three were 

badged: four were not. (Reference E.2.3.3, pp. 2596-97). 

TASK GROUP 7.7 (KWAJALEIN ISLAND COMMAND) 

task 

Nine hundred 

group. The 

seventy-one Navy 

following organizations 

personnel have 

contributed. 

been identified with this 

Amphibious Patrol 

and men, none 

Squadron 2 (VPAM-2) Detachment. This 

badged (Reference E.2.3.3, p. 2180). 

unit had 18 officers 

Civil Administration 

badged (Reference 

Unit, Kwajaleln. This 

E.2.3.3, pp. 2588-2589). 

unit had 34 Navy personnel, none 

Construction Battalion 1509 Detachment. Badges were issued to 5 of the 215 

officers and men of this detachment (Reference E.2.3.3, pp. 2589-2594: 

Reference E.2.3.2). 

Heavy Lift Patrol Squadron 8 (VPHL-8) Detachment. Two officers and six enlisted 

men made up this unit, none badged (Reference E.2.3.3, p. 2680; Reference 

E.2.3.4). 

Naval Air Station, Kwajalein. This unit had 427 personnel, of whom 13 were 

badged (Reference E.2.3.3, pp. 2664-2674). 

Naval Station, Kwajalein. One hundred and fifteen personnel were in this unit: 

four were badged (Reference E.2.3.3, pp. 2674-6). 

Naval Station, Kwajalein, In-Service Craft. This served as the Kwajalein Boat 

Pool. Twenty-eight personnel have been identified with this unit (Reference 

148 
E.2.3.3, p. 2676). Enlisted personnel in the four lowest ranks have not 

been identified. 

Naval Station, Kwajalein, Ship Security Detachment. This unit had a total of 

93 officers and men; 18 were badged (Reference E.2.3.3, pp. 2676-2678). 

The unit was the responsible for maintaining the target ships towed to 

Kwajalein Atoll from Bikini Atoll after Operation CROSSROADS in 1946. 

Transport Squadron 8 (VR-8) 

were unbadged (Reference 

Detachment. 

E.2.3.3, p. 

The 

24). 

26 personnel of this detachment 

Utility Transport Squadron 3 

detachment were not badged 

(VRU-3) De

(Reference 

tachment. 

E.2.3.3, 

The 

p. 

seven 

2687). 

personnel in this 

TASK GROUP 7.8 (OBSERVER ESCORT GROUP) 

Individuals escorting observers typically were drawn from other task 

groups. Assignments to this duty were temporary and in addition to other 

duties. No information is available on Navy participation in escort work. 

Seven Navy officers visited the proving ground as observers. Three were 

attached to the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP); one of the three 

also served as commander of TU 7.6.9. Two of the officers were from the staff 

of Commander-in-Chief, Pacific. One was from AEC, and one had no recorded 

affiliation beyond the Navy. Five were badged (Reference C.l, pp. 147-148). 

NON-TASK-FORCE SHIPS 

A number of other ships were in the area of the proving ground during the 

operational or rollup stages of Operation SANDSTONE. They were not pact of 

JTF 7, and their operations did not take them into radioactive areas. 

USS Ashtabula (AO-511. On 1 April, this oiler was at Enewetak Atoll, and on 

2 April, it was at Kwajalein Atoll. On 3 April at 0745 it left Kwajalein 

Atoll (Cuctiss deck log, Yancey deck log). 

USS Chehalis (AOG-48). This gasoline tanker arrived at Enewetak Atoll on 3 May 

and departed on 7 May (Reference C.3, p. VII-83). 

USS Cimacron (AO-221. On 1 May, this oiler was underway from Kwajalein Atoll 

on a southwesterly course (Pasiq deck log). It was also present at Kwajalein from 15 May to 17 May (Warrick log). 

USS Kecstin (AF-34). On 1 April, this reefer was at Enewetak Atoll (Gardinecs 

Bay deck log). It left on 1 April at 1815. 

USS Klickitat (AOG-641, This gasoline tanker was at Enewetak Atoll on 19 May 

and refueled from Mispillion (Curtiss deck log). It left that day. 

USS Latona (AF-351. This reefer arrived in the area on 9 April 1948. No infocmation on its location at the time of X-RAY has been found, but the ship 

does not appear to have been at Enewetak Atoll. For YOKE, Latona was at 

149 
Kwajalein Atoll and 

sels there, arriving 

(Reference C.3, pp. 

LCI-615. For all three 

(LST-219 deck log), 

up buildings on the 

USS Nemasket (AOG-10). 

as a station tanker. 

wetak. 

USS Ryer (AG-138). On 

(Yancey deck log). 

Atoll (LST-219 deck 

left for Enewetak 

on 3 May. The 

VII-83 and -85). 

shots this infantry 

acting as tender 

island (Reference 

On 1 December 1947 

In February it 

1 April, this ship 

On 17 April, two 

log). 

Atoll that day to reprovision vesship left Enewetak Atoll on 12 May 

landing craft was at Ujelang Atoll 

vessel for a Navy detachment putting 

C.3. p. VII-64). 

this gasoline tanker was at Enewetak 

delivered aviation gasoline to Enewas in the vicinity Kwajalein Atoll 

days after X-RAY, it was at Ujelang 

150 
CHAPTER 7 

U, S. AIR FORCE PARTICIPATION IN OPERATION SANDSTONE 

SANDSTONE was the first test series in which the newly created U.S. Air 

Force played a role. Over 2,000 Air Force personnel with approximately 60 aircraft participated in the operation. Most Air Force personnel were stationed 

on Kwajalein; however, others were stationed on ships, on Enewetak, Rongerik, 

and Majuro atolls, and on Wake Island. 

Air Force personnel for SANDSTONEwere in several task force organizations. 

In addition to Task Group (TG) 7.4, 55 Air Force personnel served in Hq Joint 

Task Force 7 (JTF 7) (22 on the JTF 7 staff and 33 on the staff of Commander 

Air Forces, who was a Deputy to Commander JTF 7 [CJTF 71). Commander Air Forces 

had command authority over CTG 7.4. Although the entire airbase operation at 

Enewetak Island was under the control of CTG 7.2, several Air Force personnel 

at Enewetak provided essential runway control, commmunications, and navigation 

services for aircraft using the Enewetak airbase. Over 200 Air Force personnel 

in the 1535th Air Force Base Unit, permanently based on Kwajalein Atoll, were 

assigned to TG 7.7. An Air Force security unit, the 700-X Counter Intelligence 

Corps (CIC) Detachment, was also assigned to TG 7.5. 

TG 7.4 established weather stations on Enewetak, Rongerik, and Majuro 

atolls and supplemented existing weather facilities at Kwajalein Atoll and 

Wake Island as part of Task Unit (TU) 7.4.4. Few, if any, weather and communications personnel at these weather stations were badged. Authorized strength 

was 35 for Enewetak, 20 each for Rongerik and Majuro, and 15 for Wake including 

5 permanent U.S. Weather Bureau personnel. The remaining 155 persons authorized 

for TU 7.4.4 were stationed on Kwajalein (Reference B.4.1, Annex K). 

Of the 2,012 Air Force participants, only 350 were badged. The exposure 

recording program was in its infancy, and no comprehensive program existed for 

badging all participants for the duration of the series. Information on those 

who were badged is very limited. Normally only the individual’s name and rank 

were posted to badge records. In some cases the first name (or initial) is not 

available, and in some cases the rank is not available. Some orders for Air 

Force personnel have been located that, along with clearance rosters, have 

allowed identification of most Air Force participants. Only personnel who 

entered potentially radioactive areas were issued badges. Generally, badges 

were issued and turned in daily during this series. Within TG 7.4 this included 

most aircrews and photographers. Winds were favorable for all three shots, and 

fallout drifted away from TG 7.3 ships and the inhabited islands of Parry and 

Enewetak at Enewetak Atoll. Fallout from shot YOKE on 1 May 1948, however, 

drifted over Kwajalein on 3 May. Calculations indicate that the total exposure 

for persons remaining in the open would have been 0.770 R from this fallout 

(Reference D.6). Table 12 reflects personnel exposure for Air Force personnel 

by task force functional organization and is derived from film badge readings. 

Overall exposures were low and only one person (in the Drone Unit) exceeded 

3 R. Discussion of each organization listed Table 12 follows. 

151 
Table 12. SANDSTONE personnel exposures, U.S. Air Force organlzatlons. 

No. of Exposure Ranges (roentgens) 

Persons 

Organization Badged 0 0.001-0.5 0.5-l l-l.5 1.5-2 Z-2.5 2.5-3 3-4 High 

Hq Jojnt Task Force 7 6 4 2 0 r1 (I 0 0 0 0.3HO 

Commander Air Forces 31 1u 13 0 0 u 0 0 II II 411'1 

Task Group 7.1 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0.890 

Task Group 7.4 

Task Unit 7.4.1 4 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1.052 

Task Unit 7.4.2 99 21 51 14 3 2 0 1 1 3.060 

Task Unit 7.4.3 148 110 37 1 0 0 0 0 0 0.530 

Task Unit 7.4.4 

Reconnaissance 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Task Unit 7.4.4 

Reporting 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Task Unit 7.4.9 5 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.060 

Task Group 7.5 15 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Task Group 7.6 13 3 7 3 0 0 0 0 0 0.880 

Task Group 7.7 

1535th Alr Force 

Base Unit 16 11 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 2.29 

Offlclal Observers 6 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.290 

Total A\r Force personnel 350a 195 124 20 5 3 1 1 1 3.060 

Note: 

aMean exposure was 0.187 R. 

HEADQUARTERS JOINT TASK FORCE 7 

Altogether, 22 Air Force personnel have been identified as working In Hq 

JTF 7 within the various staff sections. Six of these individuals were badged 

and their exposures are listed in Table 12. 

HEADQUARTERS AIR FORCES, JOINT TASK FORCE 7 

This special command organization in Hq JTF 7 was formed to manage air 

operations within the test area. This headquarters had a staff of 35 personnel, 

all of whom were located aboard USS Mount McKinley (AGC-7). One Navy, one Army, 

and 33 Air Force personnel made up this staff. Exposures for the 31 badged Air 

Force personnel are given in Table 12. 

TASK GROUP 7.1 (ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION PROVING GROUND GROUP) 

TG 7.1 rosters show one Air Force colonel and one Air Force major assigned 

during SANDSTONE. The colonel was Deputy Director, TG 7.1; the major’s duties 

are not specified. Both were badged (see Table 12). 

152 
TASK GROUP 7.4 (AIR FORCE) 

Most Air Force personnel in SANDSTONE served in this task group. Personnel 

identified with this group total 1,699. 

Task Unit 7.4.1 (Hq and Service Unit) 

This unit staffed Hq TG 7.4, provided third echelon supply and maintenance 

to TG 7.4 units, and was responsible for base housekeeping on Kwajalein for 

Air Force personnel and equipment. It operated a dispensary on Kwajalein Island 

and had 12 medical specialists assigned to the hospital on Kwajalein. All were 

stationed on Kwajalein, although some certainly traveled to Enewetak. Only 4 

of 605 personnel assigned to Task Unit (TU) 7.4.1 were badged (see Table 12). 

The 605 assigned to this unit included 23 Army personnel and 4 commissioned 

women Air Force nurses who were on Kwajalein. The Army personnel and nurses 

were not badged (Reference C.3, p. VIII-51 (Reference C.4, p. IV-7). 

Task Unit 7.4.2 (Drone Unlt) 

This unit consisted of personnel from the 1st Experimental Guided Missiles 

Group at Eglin Field, Florida. They operated 24 B-17s, of which 12 were unmanned drones used for cloud sampling and 12 were manned drone control aircraft. The manned B-17 control aircraft flew close to the radioactive cloud to 

control the drones, but only the drones penetrated the cloud. The radioactive 

drones were landed at Enewetak where the samples were removed by LASL personnel . Drones were decontaminated while at Enewetak and returned to Kwajalein. 

Table 12 shows exposures for TU 7.4.2. The 460 participants included five Army 

personnel (one of whom was badged and and whose exposure was 0.050 R) as well 

as five civilians (all of whom were badged). The Army personnel are not included in Table 12, but are in Table 10. The one person who received an exposure greater than 3 R was a staff sergeant in this task unit. His exposure was 

3.060 R, almost all of which was received in the 7 days following shot ZEBRA. 

He probably was involved in decontamination or maintenance of the radioactive 

B-17 drones. This unit was stationed on Kwajalein Island. but unit personnel 

frequently traveled to Enewetak Atoll in support of drone operations (Reference 

C.3, pp. VIII-5, -73, and -75). 

Task Unit 7.4.3 (Photography Unit) 

This unit with 173 Air Force personnel had separate suborganizations to 

conduct its several diverse missions. Aerial photography was done by the 311th 

Air Division using C-54s and F-13s. Documentary photography was done by seven 

teams on various ships and ashore at Enewetak and Kwajalein. Tower photography, 

using four specially constructed photo towers, was done by yet another team. 

Also, a film-processing laboratory was set up on USS Curtiss (AV-4) (Reference 

C.3, p. VIII-5&31; Reference C.4, p. XVIII-5). Personnel for TU 7.4.3 came from 

several organizations in addition to the 311th Air Division. Lookout Mountain 

Laboratory and Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL) furnished some personnel, and LASL hired 19 civilian photographers for the SANDSTONE tests. In 

addition, 12 Army, 5 Navy, and 1 Marine Corps personnel were assigned to TU 

7.4.3. All except nine personnel in this unit were badged at one time or 

another during SANDSTONE. All exposures were low (see Table 12). The exposures 

of the non-Air-Force personnel in this unit are shown in Table 10 for Army personne 1, Table 11 for Navy personnel, and Table 13 for Marine Corps personnel. 

153 
Task Unit 7.4.4 (Weather Unit) 

This unit contained two separate groups that collected weather data: weather reconnaissance (173 personnel) and weather reporting (112 personnel). 

The 514th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron operated eight weather reconnaissance WB-29s out of Kwajalein. These aircraft were also used to track the 

nuclear cloud for up to 5 days after each detonation. For cloud-tracking operations, a monitor from CTG 7.6 was aboard. A dispatch from TG 7.6 to TU 7.6.1 

(Air Monitor Unit) on 11 April 1948 allowed contact with the cloud during 

tracking as long as total exposure did not exceed 0.100 R. Cloud-tracking aircraft returned after shot X-RAY with exterior contamination that required 

aircraft monitoring and personnel decontamination operations (Reference C.43, 

p. 91). Reconnaissance personnel in TU 7.4.4 are reported separately from TU 

7.4.4 weather reporting personnel in Table 12. Even though cloud-tracking aircraft flew through radioactive material, records reflect badge readings for 

only four persons in the 514th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron. A check of TG 

7.6 air monitors who flew with crews of the WB-29s shows that none received an 

exposure in excess of 1 R during SANDSTONE. 

Weather reporting personnel were trained at Tinker AFB, Oklahoma, which 

was probably home station for many of these individuals. During SANDSTONE they 

were stationed at several locations in the Pacific test area. Two were aboard 

Mount McKinley and staffed JTF 7 Weather Central: 27 on Enewetak, 7 on Kwajalein, 27 on Majuro, 30 on Rongerik, and 19 on Wake furnished daily weather 

reports to Weather Central. Only one person in this group was badged and his 

exposure was zero (see Table 12) (Reference C.3, pp. VIII-6 and -58; Reference 

C-4, p. X11-7). 

Task Unit 7.4.5 (Air Rescue Unit) 

This task unit consisted of 33 personnel primarily from the 5th Air Rescue 

Squadron at MacDill AFB, Florida. It operated two OA-10 and two SB-17 rescue 

aircraft. Stationed on Kwajalein, its rescue aircraft were in the Enewetak 

area on test days. None of the 33 was badged. Its personnel approached the 

detonations no closer than 10 nmi (18.5 km). 

Task Unit 7.4.6 (Airways and Air Commun1catjons Services Unit) 

This unit with 127 personnel was responsible for TG 7.4 communications and 

airbase navigational aids at Enewetak and Kwajalein. The 71st Airways and Air 

Communications Services (AACS) Group, Hickam Field, Hawaii, provided 25 personnel and the remaining 102 came from several units in the United States. 

Seventy-nine personnel from this task unit were on Enewetak, 20 on Kwajalein. 

10 each on Rongerik and Majuro, and 8 on Wake. All were unbadged (Reference 

C.44, p. V-15). Of these locations, only Kwajalein received any fallout. 

Task Unit 7.4.7 (Interisland Transport Unit) 

This unit operated eleven C-54 and three C-47 aircraft from Kwajalein Air 

Base. It ferried personnel and equipment to and from Enewetak and conducted 

aerial radiological surveys of ground-level radiation at shot sites. The C-54s 

were used for returning radioactive cloud samples and exposed film to the 

154 
United States. The 47 individuals in this task unit were assisted by personnel 

and equipment of the 1535th Air Force Base Unit (AFBU) permanently assigned to 

Kwajalein Island. The 1535th AFBU activities are discussed under TG 7.7. None 

of the 47 assigned to TU 7.4.7 was badged during SANDSTONE (Reference C.2, p. 

V-63: Reference C.3, pp. VIII-5 and -26). 

Task Unit 7.4.9 (Llajson Unit) 

This unit operated 13 fixed-wing light aircraft to transport men and equipment to the various islands at Enewetak Atoll. Of the 13 assigned Al r Force 

personnel, 5 were badged (see Table 12). According to historical references, 

Army and Navy personnel were in this unit also, but specific numbers or names 

could not be identified (Reference C.3, p. VIII-7). 

TASK GROUP 7.5 (JOINT SECURITY GROUP) 

Among other duties, TG 7.5 guarded the TU 7.4.2 drones when they were 

landed at Enewetak Island and used five courier teams to escort the radioactive 

cloud samples and film back to the United States from Enewetak. The 700-X CIC 

Detachment with 14 Air Force personnel was assigned to TG 7.5. One Air Force 

man was assigned to the 369th CIC Detachment, an Army security unit. All 15 

were badged and all badges recorded zero (see Table 12) (Reference C.2, p. 

11-52; Reference E.2.0.3). 

TASK GROUP 7.6 (JOINT RADIOLOGICAL SAFETY GROUP) 

This group of 103 men provided qualified monitors to accompany personnel 

and aircraft on missions where radiation exposure was possible. It also conducted several experiments (described in Chapter 3). The AJr Force assigned 13 

to this task group, all badged. Of the 13, 12 were assigned to TV 7.6.1 (Air 

Monitor Unit), which provided one monitor for each manned TG 7.4 aircraft on 

shot days and on postshot cloud-tracking missions. None of the 13 Air Force 

personnel in TG 7.6 received more than 1 R exposure (see Table 12) (Reference 

C.43, Annex H). 

TASK GROUP 7.7 (KWAJALEIN ISLAND COMMAND) 

The commander of Kwajalein Island was also designated Commander TG 7.7 for 

SANDSTONE. His SANDSTONE missions are described in Chapter 1. Substantial engineering work was done on Kwajalein from December 1947 to March 1948 in preparation for the arrival of TG 7.4. The 2307th Aviation Engineer Company from 

Wheeler Field, Oahu, Hawaii, assisted the 2308th Aviation Engineer Company that 

was permanently stationed on Kwajalein. The 2307th returned to Oahu before the 

first SANDSTONE shot. The population on Kwajalein increased from 320 on 1 December 1947 to 1,988 on 1 May 1948. Two Air Force units assigned to Kwajalein 

to assist in SANDSTONE, but not part of TG 7.4, were the 1535th Air Force Base 

Unit and the 31-8 Air Weather Service Detachment. Discussions of units follow. 

155 
supported test operations. A roster of personnel supporting SANDSTONE exists 

with the names of 190 officers and senior noncommissioned officers. Enlisted 

personnel in the lower grades probably supported SANDSTONE as well. but no 

data are available for them. This unit supported TU 7.4.7 (Interisland Transport Unit 1 in operating eleven C-54s and three C-47s. Sixteen of the 190 personnel who can be identified were badged. Five crewmembers received measurable 

exposures, the highest of which was 2.29 R. Table 12 lists the exposures (Reference E.2.0.3, 1535th Roster). 

31-8 Air Weather Service Detachment 

This Air Force detachment was also stationed on Kwajalein at the time of 

the SANDSTONE tests. Its mission was to provide weather data for the Kwajalein 

area. A roster of 23 personnel in the unit who supported test operations 

exists, but total strength of the unit is not known. None of these 23 were 

badged (Reference E.2.0.3, 31-8 Det. Roster). 

OFFICIAL OBSERVERS 

Fifteen Air Force officers have been identified from the official observer 

rosters for X-RAY, YOKE, and ZEBRA. Six were badged: one had an exposure of 

0.290 R (see Table 12). 

156 
CHAPTER 8 

U.S. MARINE CORPS PARTICIPATION IN OPERATION SANDSTONE 

Participation of U.S. Marine Corps personnel in SANDSTONE primarily involved security responsibilities, although some of the 224 Marine personnel 

also contributed to JTF 7 communications, radiological safety (radsafe) activities, and photography. Marines were assigned to JTF 7 staff and Task Groups 

(TG) 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, and 7.7. Each task force element with Marine participation is discussed below and Table 13 lists the exposures for Marine Corps 

participants in SANDSTONE. 

JOINT TASK FORCE 7 STAFF 

Four marines were assigned to the communications section. Two were badged: 

one had zero exposure and and the other had 0.020 R (Reference E.2.0.6, p. 4). 

TASK GROUP 7.3 (NAVY) 

Marines were aboard several TG 7.3 ships as the Marine Detachment of the 

ship’s company or in other capacities. 

USS Albemarle (AV-5). Twenty-nine Marines assigned to TG 7.5 provided security 

aboard this ship. All were badged, but only two had exposures, neither of 

which exceeded 0.1 R. 

USS Bairoko (CVE-1154). The Marine Detachment on this ship had 24 Marines, one 

of whom was badged with a reading of 0.020 R. In addition to the Marine 

Detachment there were two Marines aboard who appear on the TG 7.5 roster. 

Both were badged, one recording zero exposure and the other less than 

0.1 R. 

USS Curtiss (AV-4). The security of the weapon assembly work done on this ship 

was assumed by 29 Marines assigned to TG 7.5. All were badged with zero 

exposure. 

USS Mount McKinley (AGC-7). Muster rolls show that 25 Marines made up the 

Marine Detachment on Mount McKinley. Nine of these were badged and all of 

these had zero exposure. There was also a Marine Security Detachment (MSD) 

of 18 personnel aboard Mount McKinley, none of whom were badged. An MSD is 

considered an expeditionary force and is not expected to function aboard 

ship as the regular Marine Detachment does. No documentation has been 

located indicating the assignment of this MSD on Mount McKinley. In addition to the regular Marine Detachment and the MSD, there were four badged 

Marines from TG 7.5 aboard Mount McKinley. All had zero exposures. 

USS Pickaway (APA-222). There was a two-man Marine Detachment aboard Pickaway. 

One of these Marines was badged with a zero exposure. 

157 
Table 13. SANDSTONE personnel exposures, U.S. Marine Corps organlzatlons. 

Exposure Ranges (roentgens) 

Organlzatlon 

No. of 

Persons 

Badged 0 0.001-0.5 0.5-l 

Over 

3 High 

Hq Joint Task Force 7 2 1 1 0 0 0.020 

Task Group 7.3 

USS Albemarle (AV-5) 

TG 7.4 Detachment 29 27 2 0 0 0.090 

USS Balroko (CVE-115) 

Marine Detachment 1 0 0 0 0.02 

TG 7.5 Detachment 

USS Curtlss (AV-4) 

TG 7.5 Detachment 

2 

29 

1 

29 0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.90 

0 

USS Mount McKinley (AGC-7) 

Marine Detachment 

TG 7.5 Detachment 

9 

4 

9 

4 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

USS Pickaway (APA-222) 

TG 7.5 Detachment 1 0 0 0 0 

Task Group 7.4 1 0 0 0 0 

Task Group 7.5 (see also TG 7

for shlpboard detachments) 

Enewetak Detachment 

.3 

32 30 

Task Group 7.6 2 0 

Task Group 7.7 1 1 

Totals 112a 102 

Note: 

aMean exposure was 0.018 R. 

TASK GROUP 7.4 (AIR FORCE) 

A Marine NC0 was in one of the photo teams of TU 7.4.3. He was badged with 

a zc:‘$ -exposure. 

158 
TASK GROUP 7.5 (JOINT SECURITY GROUP) 

TG 7.5 had 115 personnel including detachments on four ships (above) and 

at Enewetak Atoll (Reference E.2.0.3, pp. 4-6; Reference C.2, pp. 69 and 701. 

The Enewetak detachment had 51 of the 115, 32 of which were badged. Of the 32 

badged only two showed exposures and these were less than 0.1 R. 

TASK GROUP 7.6 (JOINT RADIOLOGICALSAFETY GROUP) 

Two Marines participated and were badged in this unit. Responsibilities 

are unknown. The high reading was 1.04 R and the low was 0.559 R. The person 

with the higher reading was scheduled to by on USS Gardiners Bay (AVP-39) at 

Kwajalein on ZEBRA D-l. The other person was scheduled to be on Parry Island 

(Reference E.2.6) 

TASK GROUP 7.7 (KWAJALEIN ISLAND COHMAND) 

Out of a total of 89 Marines assigned to the Marine Barracks, Kwajalein, 

one Marine appears on the exposure list under TG 7.7. His responsibilities are 

unknown. It is not known whether the Marine Barracks formally was part of TG 

7.7, or just this one individual. 

159 
CHAPTER 9 

JOINT DEFENSE, ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION, OTHER GOVERNMENT 

AGENCIES, AND CONTRACTOR PARTICIPATION IN OPERATION SANDSTONE 

JOINT DEFENSE AGENCIES 

Joint defense agencies were a new type of organization in 1948. The Department of Defense (DOD) was created in 1947, absorbing the War Department, which 

became the Department of the Army, and the Navy Department, which became the 

Department of the Navy. Created also as a branch of the DOD was the Department 

of the Air Force. This was the executive agent for a new service, the United 

States Air Force, which consisted of men and materiel of the former Army Air 

Forces. 

Triservice agencies of DOD were few in number in 1947, but two were involved in SANDSTONE activities. 

Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS). This organization was one of the most important 

and controversial organizations resulting from the 1947 military reorganization. JCS was active in outlining the requirements for the military development of atomic energy in general and the proposed SANDSTONE testing 

in particular. 

The joint task force conducting SANDSTONE was a subordinate command of 

JCS. The early stages of planning were done by the Joint Proof Test Committee established by JCS. Personnel of this committee were military officers who later became the leadership of Joint Task Force 7 (JTF 7). Except 

for the command relationship, direct JCS participation in SANDSTONE was 

limited to a field-grade officer who acted as an observer and was not 

badged (Reference C.l, p. 47). 

Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP). AFSWP was created in 1946 to be 

the military successor to the Manhattan Engineering District, which had 

developed the atomic bomb for the War Department during World War II. In 

1947, its commanding officer was the same Army general officer who had 

commanded the Manhattan District throughout its life. AFSWP was to handle 

military aspects of atomic energy not handled by the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), which was activated at the same time as AFSWP. AFSWP (and its 

successors) is probably the oldest of the joint defense agencies, predating formation of the DOD itself. 

AFSWP was anxious to have as many of its technical personnel participate in SANDSTONE as was possible in order to increase their knowledge and 

background in the development and use of atomic weapons. Because of this, 

AFSWP made available to the task force about 130 of its personnel, primarily from Sandia Base with a few from Washington, D.C. The unit providing 

most of these was the 38th Engineering Battalion (SP), an AFSWP unit made 

up of Army personnel. As befits the objective of their participation, 

AFSWP personnel were in almost all areas in the scientific measurements 

program described in Chapter 3 of this report, although AFSWP also provided 

160 
guard personnel (apparently as an additional duty assignment), clerical 

support, labor, and “working observers.” Rotation of teams for separate 

shots was also used to increase the number of AFSWP participants and the 

collective AFSWP experience. 

Although the AFSWP contingent was primarily Army personnel, there were 

several Navy officers from AFSWP who served in Hq JTF 7 or Hq Task Group 

(TG) 7.1 and one civilian who headed the Technical Measurements Unit (TU 

7.6.6). Exposure information for badged AFSWP personnel from the military 

services is included in Tables 10 and 11. Table 14 shows only the exposure 

of the civilian CTU 7.6.6. 

Table 14. SANDSTONE personnel exposures, c1vlllans from joint defense 

and other government agencies and contractors. 

Organlzatlon 

No. of 

Persons 

Badged 

-

0 0.001-0.5 

Exposure Ranges (roentgens) 

0.5-l l-l.5 1.5-2 2-2.5 2.5-3 

Over 

3 Htgh 

Jolnt Defense Agency 

Armed Forces Spectal 

Weapons Project 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1.23 

Atomic Energy Conwnlsslon 62 4 44 3 2 1 2 3 3 5.215 

Contractors to Atomic 

Energy Commlsslon 

Argonne Natlonal 

Laboratory 4 1 3 0 0 U 0 0 0 0.035 

Edgerton, 

& Grler, 

Germeshausen 

Inc. 12 9 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.070 

Los Alamos 

Laboratory 

Sctentlflc 

26 1 18 1 0 2 1 0 3 17 

Los Alamos 

(Sandla) 

Z-Dlvlslon 

3 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.140 

Oak Ridge 

Laboratory 

Natlonal 

1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Unlverslty 

Callfornja 

of 

7 1 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.26 

Other Government Agencies 

U.S. Public 

Service 

Health 

2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0.949 

Department 

Contractors 

of Defense 

Phllco Technology 

Corporatfon 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Total 119 18 77 6 3 3 3 3 6 17 

ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION 

This federal executive agerlcy was charged with the development and control 

of atomic energy by the Atomic Energy Act of 1946. The AEC operated a 

161 
laboratory (Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory [LASL]) at Los Alamos, New Mexico, 

with a branch at Sandia Base in Albuquerque, whose function was the design and 

development of atomic weapons. LASL developed the first atomic bombs. It had 

been operated since its inception by the University of California, first under 

contract with the Manhattan Engineer District of the War Department, and then 

with the newly formed AEC. The AEC also contracted for operation of a laboratory at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, where uranium was processed. This laboratory had 

been operated by the Manhattan Engineering District during World War II as the 

Clinton Engineer Works. The University of Chicago operated the Argonne National 

Laboratory for the AEC. All these laboratories had personnel at SANDSTONE. 

Liaison between the AEC and the JCS was handled by the Military Liaison 

Committee (MLC). The MLC sent six military officers as observers to increase 

their knowledge and background in the development and use of atomic weapons by 

working with civilians and scientists (Reference C.5, p. 5-l: Reference C.l, 

p. 147). None of these was badged. 

The total number of AEC participants (as opposed to contractor personnel) 

was 111. This total, however, may have included University of California contract personnel from LASL, as some of the observers listed as “AEC from Los 

Alamos” in Reference C.l (p. 147) were clearly scientific observers from the 

laboratory itself. The 111 participants included 104 civilians, 4 Navy officers, 2 Army officers, and 1 officer with an unknown military affiliation. The 

military officers were from the AEC Division of Military Application. AEC personnel participated in various parts of the task group organization, including 

Hq JTF 7 (6 men), TG 7.1 (74 men), and TG 7.6 (24 men) and included 17 official 

observers (Reference C.l, p. 1; Reference C.3; and Reference C.40). 

The individual exposure records (Reference E. 1) show that out of the AEC 

total of 111, 69 were badged (63 civilians, 4 Navy officers, and 2 Army officersl. The distribution of the badge readings for the AEC civilians is shown 

in Table 14. The military exposures are included in tables in their respective 

chapters. 

CONTRACTORS TO THE ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION 

Arqonne National Laboratory. This laboratory participated mostly in the gammaray experiments. Four were badged. 

Edqerton, Germeshausen, and Grier, Inc. (EGM;). This organization worked for 

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory in the establishment of timing and firing. 

Twelve were badged. 

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL), Los Alamos, New Mexico. A total of 30 

LASL personnel participated in SANDSTONE, including 1 Army major from the 

Health Division of LASL (Reference C.l, p. 147, Reference C.3, pp. 18, 40). 

The individual exposure records show 26 badged personnel, including 

the Army officer who worked in TG 7.6 and whose exposure was 1 .? R. The 

highest L.ASL exposure was 17 R. the highest experienced during SANDSTONE. 

Thi.; exposure? i nvo ! Ved con;act with radioactive filter::. [ -?i ;‘7;:s$p,~ j r: 

:i-.>ii_ Lj,,’ F;_ ; -. I i\ni,tt-: -l t’/’ ~ i.di: : 2 L! z 1_- ‘;~.II:GID sampl;‘rs _ 
LASL operations at Sandia Base were conducted by its Z-Division (Reference A.81, which soon after SANDSTONE emerged as a separate laboratory, 

the Sandia Laboratory, operated under contract by the Sandia Corporation, 

a subsidiary of Western Electric. Sandia participation in SANDSTONE involved two Army officers and four civilians (Reference C.3). 

Oak Ridqe National Laboratory (ORNL), Oak Ridqe, Tennessee. One badged civilian 

from ORNL participated. 

University of California. Seven were badged. Their role in SANDSTONE has not 

been determined. The University operated LASL and it is likely that these 

personnel were at the test site because of this connection. 

Exposure for the badged civilians from the AEC contractors is shown in Table 

14. 

OTHER GOVERNMENT AGENCIES 

Other Federal government groups participated directly or indirectly. 

Department 

atoll 

of 

area. 

Aqriculture (DO). DOA handled biological materials from the 

National 

ence 

Bureau 

C.30, 

of Standards (NBS). NBS calibrated 

p. 22; Reference C.31, p. 1X-4). 

and read film badges (Refer-

!T!.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (C-1. C&GS took part in the seismic measurements after each shot (Reference C.5, p. 3-10). C&GS also sent a party to 

survey the general layout of the islands before Operation SANDSTONE. One 

Navy lieutenant commander, one lieutenant colonel (either Army or Air 

Force), and seven civilians were involved. None of them appear on the 

individual exposure records. 

U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). USCG participated in task force communications. Two 

military personnel are listed in Hq JTF 7. Neither appears on the individual exposure records. 

U.S. Public Health Service (USPHS). Two badged officers from USPHS participated 

in the neutron absorption measurements, the residual contamination in 

craters measurements, particle size of material in the cloud, evaluation 

of radioactivity survey, and field collective protector instruments as 

part of TG 7.6 (Reference C.43). 

U.S. House of Representatives. Two unbadged congressmen were present at SANDSTONE as observers (Reference C.l, p. 147). 

163 
A large group of contractors manufactured instrumentation used during the 

tests. It is possible, but not likely, that some may have had representatives 

at Enewetak during the testing period. Other contractors apparently did offsite analytical work for the testing agencies. Contractors in these categories 

include: 

Air Reduction and Sales Company Mine Safety Appliance Company 

A.O. Beckman Company Mole Richardson Company 

Cambridge Instrument Company MSA Company 

Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory National Technical Laboratories 

Designers for Industry North American Philips Company 

Dumont Company Nuclear Instrument and Chemical Company 

Eastman-Kodak Company Rauland Radio Company 

Electronics Company, Inc. RCA 

Esterline-Angus Simpson 

General Radio Spencer 

Geophysical Instrument Company Sun Company 

Instrument Development Labs Sylvania Electric Products 

Kelly-Koett Manufacturing Company Tracer Laboratory 

Lansverk Electrometer Company Victoreen Instrument Company 

Leaf Company Watson Laboratories 

Massachusetts Institute of Weston 

Technology 

164 
CHAPTER 10 

SUMMARY OF PERSONNEL EXPOSURES 

In SANDSTONE, fewer that one in five participants was badged. Those selected to be badged were personnel whose activities were expected to bring 

them into areas of radioactivity. Some badges, however, may have been issued 

to individuals on a ship, for example, to represent larger groups of personnel. 

Results of the badging are shown In Table 15. The distribution of exposures 

for Department of Defense (DOD) personnel, uniformed and civilian, is arranged 

by task group. Shown separately in Table 15 are non-DOD exposures. These were 

almost exclusively Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) personnel and their contractors, and their exposures would primarily be associated with Task Group (TG) 

7.1 and secondarily with TG 7.6 activities. 

Table 15. Exposures by task group for the entire SANDSTONE series. 

Exposure Ranges (roentgens) 

Number Over Hjgh 

Organlzatlon Badged 0 O-O.5 0.5-1.0 1.0-1.5 1.5-2 2 (R) 

Hq Joint Task Force 7 32 17 14 1 0 0 0 0.120 

Task Group 7.1 143 74 59 4 3 1 2 5.085 

Task Group 7.2 122 51 71 0 0 0 0 0.443 

Task Group 7.3 796 675 118 3 0 0 0 0.826 

Task Group 7.4 312 170 119 15 4 2 2 3.06 

Task Group 7.5 165 139 25 1 0 0 0 0.580 

Task Group 7.6 97 13 40 20 11 5 8 6.050 

Task Group 7.7 57 24 29 1 1 1 1 2.29 

Task Group 7.8 11 5 5 1 0 0 0 0.76 

Non-DOD 119 18 77 6 3 3 12 17.0 

Table 15 indicates that task force personnel exposed to nuclear radiation 

during the SANDSTONE series were primarily involved in operations such as 

handling radioactive cloud samples, data recovery (TG 7.11, and radiological 

safety (radsafe) monitoring and technical measurements (TG 7.61, where exposures were expected to occur. Only low-level exposure of support personnel 

appears to have occurred. 

Only 25 men exceeded an exposure of 2 R. Five of these were LASL personnel 

who were exposed while handling cloud sampling filter papers covered with 

radioactive cloud particulates. One of these incidents resulted in the highest 

SANDSTONE reading for whole-body exposure (17 R). 

165 
The single incident in which unbadged personnel came into contact with 

radioactivity was an incident at Kwajalein, which affected TG 7.4 and TG 7.7. 

Two days after YOKE shot, fallout occurred at Kwajalein. The maximum estimated 

total lifetime dose from this fallout for personnel who were on Kwajalein for 

the entire test series was calculated to be 0.770 R. This figure assumes that 

personnel were in the open 24 hours a day (Reference D.6). 

The Kwajalein exposures (TG 7.7) also contain a small group of personnel 

who were apparently badged because of their potential exposure to radioactivity 

in their activities in pumping and otherwise maintaining target ships from the 

1946 nuclear test series, CROSSROADS, and not from any SANDSTONE activities 

(see Table 11, “Ship Security Detachment” under “Naval Stat ion Kwajalein” 1. The 

exposures of two-thirds of this 18-man group were zero: the high was 0.180 R. 

166 
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES 

The sources consulted for this report are listed on the following pages. 

They are organized into sections based upon their relationship to the body of 

nuclear testing information. 

The first section (A) contains basic references pertinent to nuclear weapons development and effects and to all or several atmospheric nuclear tests. 

These are generally monographs published and distributed through regular trade 

channels and are available in bookstores and libraries with the exceptions 

noted. 

The second and third sections are documents generated by Joint Task 

Force 7 (JTF 7) and its subordinate organizations. The second section (B) 

contains planning and related documents for SANDSTONE, and the third (C) 

after-action reports. These JTF 7 references are arranged in order of their 

SANDSTONE report number (styled either SS, OS, or SR, depending upon a 

particular library’s bibliographic practices). 

The fourth section (D) lists other reports concerning SANDSTONE by 

non-task-force organizations concerning SANDSTONE. 

The fifth section (E) consists of various rosters and personnel lists used. 

Footnoted availability codes appear at the end of many reference citations 

for those who wish to read or obtain copies. Availability status was correct 

at the time the reference list was prepared. Many documents indicated as unavailable will become available during the declassification review process. 

The Department of Energy Coordination and Information Center (DOE CIC) and 

NTIS will be provided future DNA-MT documents bearing an “EX” after the report 

number. 

Source documents with an availability code of DOE CIC may be reviewed at 

the following address: 

Department of Energy 

Coordination and Information Center 

(Operated by Reynolds Electrical b Engineering Co., Inc) 

2753 S. Highland 

P.O. Box 14100 

Las Vegas. Nevada 89114 

Telephone: (702) 734-3194; FTS: 598-3194. 

Source documents bearing an NTIS availability code may be purchased at the 

following address: 

167 
National Technical Information 

(Sales Office) 

5285 Port Royal Road 

Springfield, Virginia 22161 

Telephone: (703) 787-4650. 

Service 

When ordering by mai 1 or phone, please 

NTIS number. The price code appears 

ber: e.g., (A071 AD 000 000. 

in 

include 

parentheses 

both 

before 

the price 

the NTIS 

code 

order 

and the 

numAdditional ordering information or assistance may be obtained by writing 

to the NTIS, Attention: Customer Service, or by calling (703) 487-4660. 

Reference citations with no availability codes may be available at the 

location cited or in a library. 

A. BASIC REFERENCES 

A.1 Effects of Nuclear Weapons 

S. Glasstone, and P.J. Dolan, ed. 

U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO Stock No. 008-046-000-93-O) 

1977 

NTIS (A99/MF A011 AD A087 568” 

A.2 Compilation of Local Fallout Data from Test Detonations 1945-1962 Extracted from DASA 1251; Vol. 2, Oceanic U.S. Tests 

H.A. Hawthorne, ed. 

GE-TEMPO 

June 1979 DNA 1251 EX2 

NTIS (PC Al6/MF 01) AD A079 310* 

A.3 Trip Report of Field Search for Exercise Desert Rock Documentation Conducted by Representatives of the Adjutant General 18 June to 14 July 1978 

J.H. Hatcher 

Adjutant General Center, U.S. Army 

NTIS (A21/MF AOl) AD 070 933* 

A.4 History of Air Force Atomic Cloud Samplinq*** 

W.A. Minge 

AF Systems Command Publication Series 61-142-1 

January 1963 

*Avaiiable from NTIS; order number appears before the asterisk. 

**Available at DOE CIC. 

***Not available. 

168 
A.5 Provinq Ground: An Account of Radiobioloqical Studies in the Pacific 

1946-1961 

N.O. Hines 

University of Washington Press, Seattle 

1962 

A.6 Environmental Radioactivity, Second Edition 

M. Eisenbud 

Academic Press, New York 

1973 

A.7 Radioloqical Safety Requlation 

NavMed P-1325 

1951 

A.0 Atomic Shield 1947/1952. Volume 2 OF a history of the Atomic Energy 

Commission. 

R.G. Hewlett, Francis Duncan 

Pennsylvania State Press 

University Park, Pennsylvania 

1969 

A.9 Cleanup, Rehabilitation, Resettlement of Enewetak Atoll -- Marshall 

Islands. An Environmental Impact Statement (4 volumes) 

Defense Nuclear Agency 

April 1975 

A.10 The Radioloqical Cleanup of Enewetak Atoll 

Defense Nuclear Agency 

1981 

NTIS ( ) AD A107-977* 

B. SANDSTONE PLANNING DOCUMENTS 

B.l.l Operations Order l-48*** 

Test Directorate 

12 February 1948 

B.2 Traininq in Protection Aqalnst Radioactivity*** 

Memo for the Director of Organization and Training 

Maj. Gen. L.R. Groves (Army) 

21 May 1947 374-21-11 

*Available from NTIS; order number appears before the asterisk. 

**Available at DOE CIC. 

***Not available. 

169 
B.3.0.1 Establishment of a Radiological Safety Program for the Navy*** 

Op-602 

27 August 1946 38 76-0081 

B.3.0.2 Radiological Safety Proqram (Letter to Director of Training, from 

Special Committee, Navy Department)*** 

Bureau of Naval Personnel 

3 December 1946 38 76-0081 

B.3.0.3 Report on Openinq of Radiological Safety School, Treasure Island*** 

(Memo to RADM W.S. Parsons) 

LCDR H.L. Andrews 

USPHS 

7 April 1947 38 76-0081, 24 

B.3.0.4 AN/PDR-1 (Memo for CNO Op-36)*** 

3 November 1948 39 76-0081, 24 

B.3.1 Operations Order l-48*** 

Commander Task Group 3 

21 January 1948 38 76-0081, 22 

B.3.2 Operations Order 2-48*** 

Commander Task Unit 7.3.3 

20 March 1948 38 76-0081, 22 

B-4.1 Operations Plan l-48*** 

Hq U.S. Air Force 

1948 

B-6.1 Operations Plan l-48*** 

Commander Task Group 7.6 

6 March 1948 

B.6.2 Third Interim Report of the Joint Radiological Safety Training Committee Radiological Safety Indoctrination in Long Term Schools,*** 

(Frank I. Winant, Jr., to Chief, AFSWP) 

16 January 1948 

C. SANDSTONE AFTER-ACTION REPORTS 

c.1 Atomic Weapons Tests. Operation SANDSTONE. 1948. Report to the Joint 

Chiefs of Staff, Volume 1 

J.W. Hull 

Joint Task Force 7 

June 1946 SANDSTONE Report i 

NTIS AD A078 563” 
c.2 Atomic Weapons Tests. Operation SANDSTONE. 1948. Report to the Joint 

Chiefs of Staff. Part 1 of Annex 1 to Volume 1 

J.W. Hull 

JTF 7 

1948 SANDSTONE Report 2 

NTIS AD A078 571* 

c.3 Atomic Weapons Tests. Operation SANDSTONE. 1948. Report to the Joint 

Chiefs of Staff. Part 2 of Annex 1 to Volume 1 

J.W. Hull 

JTF 7 

1948 SANDSTONE Report 3 

NTIS AD A078 545” 

c.4 Atomic Weapons Tests. Operation SANDSTONE. 1948. Report to the Joint 

Chiefs of Staff. Part 3 of Annex 1 to Volume 1 

J.W. Hull 

JTF 7 

1948 SANDSTONE Report 4 

NTIS AD A078 542* 

c.5 Report to the United States Atomic Enerqy Commission on Operation 

SANDSTONE, Atomic Weapon Proof Test. 1948. Part 1, Vol. I of the Test 

Directors Report to the Commission (extracted version) 

J.S. Russell 

JTF 7 

1948 SANDSTONE Report 5-EX 

NTIS AD A995 107* 

C.6 Report to the United States Atomic Enerqy Commission on Operation 

SANDSTONE, Atomic Weapon Proof Test. 1948. Part 1, Vol. II of the Test 

Directors Report to the Commlsslon 

J.S. Russell 

JTF 7 

1948 SANDSTONE Report 6 

NTIS AD B951 727* 

c.7 Scientific Directors Report of Atomic Weapon Tests at Eniwetok 1948. 

General Report. Volume I (extracted version) 

0. Froman, A.C. Graves 

JTF 7 

1948 SANDSTONE Report 7-EX 

NTIS AD 995 094* 

*Available from NTIS: order number appears before the asterisk. 

**Available at DOE CIC. 

***Not available. 

171 
C.8 Scientific Directors Report of Atomic Weapon Tests at Eniwetok 1948. 

Analysis of Experimental Results. Volume II*** 

JTF 7 

1948 SANDSTONE Report 8 

c.9 Scientific Directors Report of Atomic Weapon Tests at Eniwetok. 1948. 

SANDSTONE Handbook of Nuclear Explosions*** 

JTF 7 

1948 SANDSTONE Report 9 

c.10 Radiochemical Methods. Annex 1 to Scientific Directors Report*** 

JTF 7 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 10 

c.11 Operation SANDSTONE Measurements by the Naval Research Laboratory, 

Annex 2, Part I*** 

Naval Research Laboratory 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 11 

c.12 Operation SANDSTONE Measurements by the Naval Research Laboratory, 

Annex 2, Part II*** 

Naval Research Laboratory 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 12 

c.13 Operation SANDSTONE Measurements by the Naval Research Laboratory, 

Annex 2, Part III*** 

Naval Research Laboratory 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 13 

c.14 Slowly Varyinq Liqht from an Atomic Explosion as Measured with a Photocell, Annex 2, Part IV of the Scientific Directors Report*** 

JTF 7 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 14 

c.15 Operation SANDSTONE Report by Groups LAJ-4H, LAJ-12A, Annex 3, Part I 

of the Scientific Directors Report*** 

JTF 7 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 15 

C.16 Operation SANDSTONE Report by Groups LAJ-4H, LAJ-12A, Annex 3, Part II 

of the Scientific Directors Report, Addenda to Part I*** 

JTF 7 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 16 

*Available from NTIS: order number appears before the asterisk. 

**Available at DOE CIC. 

***Not available. 

172 
c.17 Operation SANDSTONE Report by Groups LAJ-4B, LAJ-12A, Annex 3. Part III 

of the Scientific Directors Report, Addenda to Part I*** 

JTF 7 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 17 

C.18 Threshold Detector Measurement of Hiqh Enerqy Neutrons*** 

JTF 7 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 18 

c.19 Neutron Absorption Measurements Durinq Operation SANDSTONE*** 

JTF 7 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 19 

c.20 Blast Measurements Summary Report, Annex 5, Part I of the Scientific 

Directors Report*** 

JTF 7 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 20 

c.21 Blast -- Measurement of Peak Pressure, Annex 5, Part II of the Scientific Directors Report*** 

JTF 7 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 21 

c.22 Blast Measurements of Pressure as a Function of Time*** 

JTF 7 

June 1948 SANDSTONE Report 22 

C.23 Blast -- Airplane Shock Wave Measurements (Service Test No. 5)*** 

JTF 7 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 23 

C.24 Blast Protection Afforded by Structures -- OCE (Service Tests Nos. 1, 

2, and 31, Annex b*** 

JTF 7 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 24 

C.25 Blast Resistance of Structures -- Bureau of Yards and Docks (Service 

Test No. 4)*** 

JTF 7 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 25 

C.26 Blast Resistance of Structures -- Bureau of Yards and Docks (Service 

Test No. 41, Annex b, Part II*** 

JTF 7 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 26 

*Available from NTIS: order number appears before the asterisk. 

**Available at DOE CIC. 

***Not available. 

173 
C.27 

C.28 

c.29 

c.30 

c.31 

C.32 

c.33 

c.34 

c.35 

Technical 

Report*** 

JTF 7 

n.d. 

Photoqraphy, Annex 7, Part I of the 

SANDSTONE Report 

Scientific 

27 

Directors 

Technical 

JTF 7 

n.d. 

Photoqraphy Measurements*** 

SANDSTONE Report 28 

Gamma Ray Measurements, 

Scientific Directors 

JTF 7 

April 1949 

Annex 

Report*** 

8. Parts I, II, 

SANDSTONE Report 

III, 

29 

IV, and V of the 

Contamination Studies, 

Scientific Directors 

JTF 7 

n.d. 

Annex 

Report*** 

9, Parts I, II. III, 

SANDSTONE Report 30 

IV, and V of the 

Radioloqical Safety Instruments, Annex 10, Parts I, II, and III of the 

Scientific Directors Report 

H.L. Andrews, R.E. Murphy 

JTF 7 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 31 

NTIS AD A078 554* 

Thermal Effects and Decontamination Studies, Annex 11, Parts I, II, 

and III of the Scientific Directors Report*** 

JTF 7 SANDSTONE Report 32 

Biological and Animal Container Studies (Service Test No. 71, Annex 12, 

Parts I and II of the Scientific Directors Report*** 

JTF 7 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 33 

Studies of Miscellaneous Phenomena, Annex 13, Parts I. II, and III of 

the Scientific Directors Report*** 

JTF 7 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 34 

Scientific Meteoroloqy Information, Annex 14 of the Scientific Directors Report*** 

JTF 7 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 35 

*Available from NTIS: order number appears before the asterisk. 

**Available at DOE CIC. 

***Not available. 

174 
C.36 

c.37 

C.38 

c.39 

c.40 

c.41 

C.42 

c.43 

c.44 

LAJ-9A Activities, Annex 15, Part I of the Scientific Directors 

Report*** 

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory 

1948 SANDSTONE Report 36 

LAJ-9B Activities, Annex 15, Part II of the Scientific Directors 

Report*** 

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory 

1948 SANDSTONE Report 37 

LAJ-12B Activities, Annex 15, Part III of the Scientific Directors 

Report*** 

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory 

1948 SANDSTONE Report 38 

Planninq and Construction, Annex 16, Parts I and II of the Scientific 

Directors Report*** 

JTF 7 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 39 

Operation SANDSTONE -- J-Division History, Annex 17, Part I of the 

Scientific Directors Report (extracted version) 

L. Lemons 

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory 

NTIS AD A995 093* SANDSTONE Report 40-EX 

Sandia Laboratory Group and Forward Area Administration, Annex 17, 

Parts II and III of the Scientific Directors Report 

J.C. Clark 

Sandia Laboratory 

NTIS AD A078 550” SANDSTONE Report 41 

Report of the Enqineer, JTF 7, Part II of the Enqineers Report*** 

JTF 7 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 42 

TG 7.6 Operations, Operational Report Phases A, B, C, D. E 

F. Winant, J. Cooney 

JTF 7 

NTIS AD A078 570* SANDSTONE Report 43 

Technical Report of the Communications and Electronics Section of the 

Special Staff of the Commander, Joint Task Force Seven*** 

JTF 7 

n.d. SANDSTONE Report 44 

*Available from NTIS: order number appears before the asterisk-

**Available at DOE CIC. 

***Not available. 

175 
D. OTHER PERTINENT DOCUMENTS 

D.l “U.S. Nuclear Stockpile, 1945 to 1950” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Vol 38, No. 5, p. 25 

David A. Rosenberg 

May 1982 

D.2 Operation SANDSTONE Radiation Injuries*** 

Memo 

LASL 

27 July 1948 

D.3 Interview with John Balasna, LASL*** 

Kaman Tempo memorandum, F.W. McMullan 

30 March 1982 

D.4 Monitor Reports of SANDSTONE Vessels*** 

10 June 1948 374-75-82 

D.5 Reconstruction of Dose Received by J. Knights at SANDSTONE (X-RAY)*** 

Science Application, Inc. Memorandum, 

10 September 1979. 

D.6 Radiation Dose for an Individual on Kwalalein Following SANDSTONE, 

YOKE. *** 

Science Applications, Inc. Memorandum 

24 August 1981 

D.7 Phone Interview with M.G. Bowman 

Kaman Tempo Memorandum, F.W. McMullan 

16 March 1983 

E. ROSTERS 

E.l Individual Exposure Records*** 

(File of cards arranged alphabetically by name and microfilmed. A 

list summarizing the total exposures from this file was prepared by 

Reynolds Electrical and Engineering Co., Inc. (REECo) in 1967. REECO 

also prepared the microfilm in 1978. The pertinent cartridge for 

SANDSTONE is Roll 2) 

JTC 7.6 

1948 

E.2.0.1 JTF 7 Personnel Roster*** 

19 December 1947 

*Available from NTIS: order number appears before the asterisk. 

**Available at DOE CIC. 

***Not available. 

176 
E.2.0.2 

E.2.0.3 

E.2.0.4 

E.2.0.5 

E.2.0.6 

E.2.2.1 

E.2.2.2 

E.2.2.3 

E.2.3.1 

E.2.3.2 

E.2.3.3 

E.2.3.4 

E.2.5.1 

Strenqth 

JTF 7 

31 March 

Report 

1948 

by Task Group*** 

374-70A-56 

Roster 

2 April 

of Personnel 

1948 

Attached to TG 7.6*** 

374-70A-45 

Monthly Roster 

31 March 1948 

of Task Group 7.5 Personnel*** 

374-70A-45 

Request for Issuance of U.S. 

to Certain Civilians Travelinq 

with Operation SANDSTONE*** 

JTF 7 

15 January 1948 

Navy Identification 

to Central Pacific 

374-70A-15 

Cards 

Areas 

(M. Nav 546) 

in Connection 

IIQI, Clearance 

JTF 7 

15 June 1948 

Roster*** 

374-70A-49 

Personnel 

TG 7.2 

31 March 

Roster*** 

1948 

Roster Photo Team 7*** 

31 March 1948 

Roster Enewetak 

31 March 1948 

Shore Detachment with Siqnal Unit l*** 

Roster 

7 April 

USS Pelican 

1948 

(AMS-32)*** 

Roster 

n.d. 

Construction Battalion Det. 1509*** 

Rosters, Dose Averaqes, 

CNO OP 982-TD 

10 March -10 June 1982 

and Summaries*** 

Roster of Officers 

VPHL-8 Detachment 

1948 

and Men Attached*** 

Monthly Roster 

31 March 1948 

TG 7.5*** 

374-70A-45 

*Available from NTIS; order number appears before the asterisk. 

**Available at DOE CIC. 

***Not available. 

177 
E.2.5.2 Monthly 

30 April 

Roster 

1948 

TG 7.5*** 

374-70A-45 

E.2.6 Roster of Personnel 

Hq TG 7.6 

2 April 1948 

attached to TG 7.6*** 

374-70A-45 

*Available from NTIS: order 

**Available at DOE CIC. 

***Not available. 

number appears before the asterisk. 

178 
APPENDIX A 

RADIOLOGICAL STATUS REPORT OF ENEWETAK ATOLL 

20 May 1948 

179 
180 
APPENDIX A 

JOINT TASK FORCE SEVEN 

USS MT MCKINLEY (AGC-7) 

Fleet Post Office 

San Francisco, Callfornla 

20 May 1948 

SUBJECT : Eniwetok Atoll - Radiological Status Report. 

TO: Commander, Joint Task Force SEVEN. 

1. All islands of Eniwetok Atoll were surveyed for radioactivity during 

the period 17 to 19 May 1948. During Operation SANDSTONE much of the land mass 

of the Atoll was contaminated with significant amount of radioactivity. For 

practical purposes the degree of contamination is divided into four classes. 

A. Class I - Zero Islands. 

These are islands on which tests were conducted and consequently 

have highly contaminated craters. The crater is defined as a disk shaped area, 

radius 400 yards, centered at the zero tower base. The three islands should be 

considered as uninhabitable for a period of years. Radiochemical analyses of 

dirt samples would be required before considering any extensive re-use of 

these islands. Monitors should accompany any parties working in these craters. 

Class I Islands are as follows: Engebi, Aoman, Runit. 

B. Class II - Islands Heavily Contaminated from Fall-out. 

Several islands downwind of the zero islands were heavily contaminated by fall-out of radioactive materials following the various tests. Until 

final clearance, every group re-entering these islands should be accompanied 

by a monitor. There should be no extensive re-use or occupation until a thorough and satisfactory re-survey and radiochemical analysis has been conducted. 

Class II Islands: 

Piiraai Yeici 

Aaraanbiru Bokonaarappu 

Ro joa Kirinian 

Biijiri Muzinbaarikku 

Eberi ru Bogon

Ru joru Engebl (outside of crater) 

Ai tsu Aoman (outside of crater) 

C. Class III - Islands liqhtly Contaminated from Fall-out. 

Several Islands in the northwest section of the atoll were 

contaminated from fall-out to a sesser degree than those listed under Class 

II. Only limited operations should be permitted for the next few weeks. For 

181 
such operations a monitor would not be necessary unless dust producing operations were conducted. Extensive re-survey and radiochemical analysis should be 

conducted before any of these islands were opened for permanent occupancy. 

Class III Islands: 

Bogairikk Ruchi 

Teiteiripucchi Bogombogo 

Elugelab Boga 1 lum 

Beacon “N” Runit (outside of crater) 

D. Class IV - Uncontaminated Islands. 

fall-out 

types of 

The islands of the 

or other contamination 

operations and permanent 

southern half 

and should be 

occupancy if 

of Eniwetok 

considered 

desired. 

Atoll received 

as cleared for 

no 

all 

Class IV Islands: 

Chinicero 

Aniyaani 

Chinimi 

Japtan 

Parry 

Eniwetok 

1 

Igurin 

Mui 

Pokon 

Ribaion 

Giriinian 

Rigi li 

son 

Task 

2. For the use of the 

Command, AEC material 

Group 7.2 as follows: 

radiological 

was transferred 

safety 

on 

officer 

17 May 

of 

1948 

the 

to 

Eniwetok 

Supply 

GarriOfficer , 

Silica Gel Bags 

Personnel Film Badges 

Instruction Books for: 

263A counters 

Dosimeters 

Vacuum Tubes: 

VX-41A 

2E35 

2532 

GM Tubes 

Flashlite Batteries 1.5 v 

No. 467 67.5 v batteries 

No. 493 300 v batteries 

No. 4F 1.5 v batteries 

Minimax, 22.5 v batteries 

B2BP 3 v batteries 

Charging Kit batteries 

Minimax 

Simpson Test Meter 

plus leads (Model 260) 

Radium buttons 

Crystal headsets 

1 Box 

216 Each 

2 Each 

10 Each 

4 Each 

4 Each 

15 Each 

96 each 

50 each 

50 each 

20 each 

96 each 

18 each 

9 each 

1 each 

2 each 

5 each 

182 
Keleket Charging Units 2 each 

Keleket .2 r dosimeters 20 each 

MX-6 Ion Chambers 2 each 

263A survey instruments 5 each 

MX-6 (Zeus) covers 6 each 

263A covers 15 each 

One calibration source (Cobalt) will be delivered prior to departure of U.S.S. 

BAIROKO. This should be kept i,n a safe and should be shielded by three inches 

of lead. 

3. Captain Meredith Mallory, Jr., MC, USA, of TF-7.6 will remain at Eniwetok on temporary duty until 1 June 1948 to monitor any necessary operations 

during the turn-over period. Major Butkus, MC, USA, has been ordered from 

AFSWP to Eniwetok as Radiological Safety Officer and Post Surgeon to arrive 

about 1 June 1948. 

4. It is recommended that gas masks be worn for all dust producing operations on all islands listed under Classes I, II and III. 

5. It is further recommended that upon completion of any operations or 

visit to any island except those listed under Class IV all personnel and 

equipment involved be monitored for contamination. 

JAMES P. COONEY 

Colonel, MC 

Radiological Safety Officer 

Joint Task Force SEVEN 

Copies to: 

Eniwetok Garrison Commander 

Garrison RadSafe Officer 

TG-7.6 file (2) 

183 

APPENDIX B 

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 

Many of the definitions in this glossary relating to nuclear device and 

radiation phenomena have been quoted or extracted from The Effects of Nuclear 

Weapons (3;d edition), S. Glasstone and I P.J. Dolan. 1977. 

AAX. Airways and Ale Communication Service (Air 

Force). 

AC&w. Aircraft Control and Warning (Air Force). 

AAU. Administrative Area Unit (Army). -

ACC . Army Chemical Center, Edgewood Arsenal, 

Maryland. 

accelerometer. An instrument for determining the 

acceleration of the system with which it moves. 

activation products. Radioactive nuclides produced by the Irradiation oE a stable nuclide, 

usually-with neutrons. 

AD* Destroyer tender (Navy). 

A&. Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, D.C. 

Independent agency of the Federal goverruwznt 

with statutory responsibilities for atomic energy matters. No longer exists: its Eunctions 

have been assumed by the Department of Energy 

and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 

AX. Store ship (Navy): also Air Force. 

A&. Air Force Base. 

A_. Air Force Base Unit. 

AFSWC. Air Force Special Weapons Center, Kirtland 

AFB, New Uexlco. 

Am. Armed Forces Special Weapons Project. 

AGC. Amphibious force flagship (Navy). 

airburst. The detonation of a nuclear device in 

the air at a height such that the expanding 

fireball does not touch the Earth’s surface 

when the luminosity (emission of light) is at 

a maximum. 

air particle trajectory. The velocity and rate of 

descent of windblown radioactive particles. 

AK. Cargo ship (Navy). 

A&. Attack cargo ship (Navy). 

allowable dose. See MPL. 

-

alpha emitter. A radlonuclide that undergoes 

transformation by alpha-particle emission. 

alpha particle. A charged particle emitted spontaneously from the nuclei of some radioactlve 

elements. It Is jdentlcal with a helium nucleus, having a mass of 4 units and an electric charge of 2 positive units. See also 

radioactivity. 

alpha rays. A stream of alpha particles. 

Loosely, a synonym for alpha particles. 

A!!!!!. Airman; enlisted Air Force personnel. 

Aws. Army Hap Service, Washington, D.C. 

AMS. Small minesweeper (wooden hull) (Navy). -

g. 01 ler (Navy). 

e. Air Operations Center. 

AS. Gasoline tanker (Navy). 

AZ. Transport ship (Navy). 

Aa. Attack transport (Navy). 

m. Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland. 

APO. Army Post Office. 

ARL . Landing craft repair ship (Navy). -

armlnq. The changing of a nuclear device from a 

safe condition (that is. a condition in which 

it cannot be accidentally detonated) to a state 

of readiness for detonation. 

E. Salvage ship (Navy). 

w. Salvage lifting ship (Navy). 

ASA. Army Security Agency. -

AS. Army Support Unit. 

AX. Anti-Submarine Warfare. 

ATA. Auxiliary ocean tug (Navy). -

&lJ. Air Transport Command. 

185 
ATF 

yrJ. Fleet ocean tug (Navy). 

e. A ring of coral reefs, usually with small 

islets, that surrounds a lagoon. Uost are isolated reefs rising from the deep sea that -have 

built up on submerged volcanoes. They vary considerably in size; the largest atoll, Kwajalein 

In the Marshall Islands, has an irregular shape 

that extends for 84 miles (135 km). See also 

coral reef. 

atomic bomb (or weapon). A term sometimes applied 

to a nuclear weapon utilizing fission energy 

only. See also fission. nuclear device. 

atomic explosion. See nuclear explosion. 

attenuation. The process by which radiation is 

reduced in intensity when passing through some 

material. It is due to absorption or scattering or both, but it excludes the decrease of 

intensity with distance from the source W-Jverse square law, which see). 

AL. Army Unit. 

AV. Seaplane tender (Navy). 

Avp. Small seaplane tender (Navy). 

AVR. Aircraft rescue vessel (Navy). -

AA. Dlstllllng ship (Navy). 

B-17. Four-engine. propeller-driven bomber developed by Boeing Airplane Company and widely used 

in Yorld War II. Used as radio-controlled, 

unmanned drone cloud sampler in atmospheric 

nuclear weapon tests. 

B-29. A 4-engine. propeller-driven bomber developed by Boeing, used for weather reconnalssance , cloud tracking, aerial sampling and 

photography, and aerial refueling at the PPG. 

These versions designated RB-29. UB-29. and 

KB-29. 

backqround radiation. The radiation of man’s natural environment, consisting of that which 

comes from cosmic rays and from the naturally 

radioactive elements of the Earth, Including 

that from within man’s body. The term may also 

mean radiation extraneous to an experiment. 

base surqe. The particulate dust cloud that rolls 

out from the bottom of the cloud column oroduced by the detonation of a nuclear device. 

For underwater bursts, the base surge is a 

cloud of water droplets, and the flowing properties are those of a homogeneous liquid. 

bathythermoqraph (B/T).. A device for obtaining a 

record of temperature with depth in the upper 

1.000 feet (300 meters) of the ocean from a 

ship underway. 

becquerel (84). See curie (Cl). 

beta burns. Beta-emitting particles that come 

Into contact with the skin and remain for an 

cathode-ray tube 

appreciable time can cause a form of radiation 

injury sometimes referred to as “beta burn.” 

In an area of extensive early fallout, the 

whole surface of the body may be exposed to 

beta particles. 

&ta emitter. A radlonuclide that disintegrates 

by beta particle emission. All beta-active 

elements existing in nature expel negative particles. I.e.. electrons or, more exactly, negatrons. Beta-emitting particles are harmful if 

Inhaled or Ingested or remain on the skin. 

beta particle (ray). A charged particle oE very 

small mass emitted spontaneously from the nuclei of certain radioactive elements. Host, if 

not all, of the direct fission products emit 

negative beta particles (negatrons). Physically, the beta particle is identical to an 

electron moving at high velocity. 

bhanqmeter. A device that measures bomb yield 

based on light generated by the explosion. 

-* blast The detonation of a nuclear device, like

the detonation of a high explosive such as TNT, 

results in the sudden formation of a pressure 

or shock wave, called a blast wave in the alr 

and a shock wave when the energy is imparted 

to water or Earth. 

blast wave. An air pulse In which the pressure 

increases sharply at the front followed by 

winds propagated from an explosion. 

blast Yield. That portion of the total energy of 

a nuclear explosion that manifests itself as 

blast and shock waves. 

bomb debris. See weapon debris. 

BRL. Ballistic Research Laboratories, Aberdeen 

Proving Ground, Maryland (Army). 

BuAer Bureau of Aeronautics (Navy). -* 

BuDocks. Bureau of Yards and Docks (Navy). 

BuHed Bureau of nediclne and Surgery (Navy). -* 

burst. Explosion: or detonation. See also air_ 

burst, hlqh-altitude burst, surface burst. 

BuShIps. Bureau of Ships (Navy). 

c-47. A twin-engine transport aircraft manufactured by Douglas Aircraft Company (Air Force 

version of the K-3). 

C-54. A 4-engine mllltaty cargo and personnel 

transport manufactured by Douglas Aircraft 

Company (Air Force version of the DC-4). 

cab. The shelter that covers a nuclear device 

being prepared for test. Hay be located on a 

tower. on the Earth’s surface. or on a barge. 

cathode-ray tube. A vacuum tube in which cathode 

rays (electrons) are beamed upon a fluorescent 

186 
____ __ 

cave 

screen to produce a luminous image. The character of this image is related to, and controlled 

by, one or more electrical signals applied to 

the cathode-ray beam as input informatlon. The 

tubes are used In measuring instruments such 

as oscilloscopes and in radar and television 

displays. 

CZ. A heavily shielded enclosure in which 

radioactive materials can be remotely manlpulated to avoid radiation exposure of personnel. 

CB. Center for Disease Control. 

Ci;. Abbreviation for cyrie, which see. Cl is 

preferred now but c was the abbreviation used 

in the 1950s. 

CIC. Counter-Intelligence Corps (Army): Combat 

-&formation Center (Navy). 

CINCPAC. Commander in Chief, Pacific. 

Circle William fittinqs. The closing of certain 

closures, designated “Circle William” Eittings, 

hinders the movement of outside air into the 

Interior spaces of naval ships. This sealed 

state is also called Circle William condition. 

CJTF 7 Commander. Joint Task Force 7. -* 

closed area. The land areas of Bikini and Enewetak and the water areas within 3 miles of ther 

that the United States closed to unauthorized 

persons. 

cloud chamber effect. See Wilson cloud. 

cloud column (funnel). The visible column of 

weapon debris (and possibly dust or water droplets) extending upward from the point of a 

nuclear burst. 

cloud phenomena. See fallout, fireball, radloactive cloud. 

m. Chief of Naval Operations. 

collimate. To align nuclear weapon radiant outputs within an assigned solid angle through 

the use of baffles in order to enhance 

measurements. 

Co. Chemical symbol for cobalt. 

cobalt. Metallic element with radionucllde 

T used as a calibration source for gansna 

instruments. 

ComAi rPac_. Commander Naval Air Forces Pacific 

(Navy 1 . 

CornServPac. ( ommander Service Forces Pacific 

(Navy). 

D-day 

objects, and personnel following a nuclear 

detonation. This material generally consists 

of fallout in which fission products and other 

device debris have become incorporated with 

particles of dust. vaporized components of 

device platforms. etc. Contamination can also 

arise from the radioactivity induced in certain 

substances by the action of neutrons from a 

nuclear explosion. See also decontamination. 

fallout. weapon debris. 

coral reef. A complex ecological association of 

bottom-living and attached shelled marine animal fossils -that form fringing reefs. barrier 

reefs, and atolls. The lagoons of barrier 

reefs and atolls are Important places for the 

deposition of Eine-gralned calcium carbonate 

mud. 

Cpn. Counts per minute. a measure of radioactive 

material disintegration. 

crater. The depression formed on the surface of 

the Earth by a surface or underground explosion. Crater formation can occur by vaporization of the surface material, by the scouring 

effect of airblast. by throwout of disturbed 

material, or by subsidence. 

CA. Chemical symbol for cesium. 

c/s. Chief of Staff. 

m. Commander, Task Group. 

curie (Cl). A unit of radioactivity; it is the 

activity of a quantity of pny radioactive species in which 3.700 x 1010 (37 billion) nuclear disintegrations occur per second (approximately the radioactivity of 1 gram of radium). 

The gamma curie is sometimes defined correspondingly as the activity of material in which 

this number of gamma-ray photons Is emitted 

per second. This unit is being replaced by the 

becquerel (Eq), which is equal to one disintegration per second. 

cutle pie. A portable b&a-gamma survey meter 

using an ionization chamber as the detector 

volume to measure radiation exposure rates. 

Usually used at higher radiation levels for 

both detecting and measuring ionizing radiation. A removable end-cap acts as a shield for 

the detector, allowing the instrument to indicate combined beta and gamma radiation when 

the cap is removed. or gamma radiation only 

when the cap is in place. 

CB. Escort aircraft carrier (Navy). 

CW _- .-. net Continuous wave network. An organization

of stations capable of direct radio communicam 

tions on a common channel or frequency. 

&&Y. The term used to designate the unnamed 

day on which a test takes place. The equlva 

ient rule applies to H-hour (which WC), Tim< 

!n plans ii3 Indicated by a lr.itz! wklc!~ show, 

tne u3it of :imc t~mn1~7~e1; . 1 Ii’ ;iqurr::. W! I II L+

187 
DDE fallout 

minus or plus slgn to indicate tha amount of 

time before or after the reference event, e.g.. 

D+l means 7 days after D-day, H+2 means 2 hours 

after H-hour. 

DE. Escort destroyer (Navy). 

DA. Destroyer escort (Navy). 

debris (radioactive). See weapon debris. 

decay (radioactive). The decrease in activity of 

any radioactive material with the passage of 

time due to the spontaneous emission from the 

atomic nuclei of either alpha or beta partlcles, sometimes accompanied by gamma radiation, 

or by gamma photons alone. Every decay process 

has a definite half-life. 

decontamination. The reduction or removal of contaminating radioactive material from a structure, area. object. or person. Decontamination 

may be accompllshed by (1) treating the surface to remove or decrease the contamination: 

(2) letting the material stand so that the 

radioactivity Is decreased as a result of natural decay: and (3) covering the contamination 

In order to attenuate the radiation emitted. 

device Nuclear fission and fusion materials. -. together with their arming, fuzing, firing. 

chemical-explosive, and effects-measuring components, that have not reached the development 

status of an operational weapon. 

diaqnostic measurements or experiments. Experiments whose purpose Is to study the explosive 

disassembly of a nuclear device as opposed to 

effects measurements Which see). 

m. Minesweeper destroyer (Navy). Converted destroyer designed to conduct high-speed minesweeping operations. 

DO>. Department of Defense. The Federal executive 

agency responsible for the defense of the 

United States. Includes the four services and 

special joint defense agencies. Reports to the 

President through the Secretary of Defense. 

dose. A general term denoting the quantity of 

ionizing radiation absorbed. The unlt of absorbed dose is the rad (which see). In soft 

body tissue the absorbed dose in rads is essentially equal to the exposure In roentgens. The 

biological dose (also called the RBE dose) in 

rems is a measure of blologlcal effectiveness 

of the absorbed radiation. Dosage is used in 

older literature as well as exposure dose and 

simply exposure. and care should be exercised 

in their use. See also exposure. 

dose rate. As a general rule, the amount of lonizing (or nuclear) radiation that an individual 

or material would receive per unit of time. It 

is tisually expressed as rads (or rems) per hour 

or multiples or divisions of these units such 

as millirads per hour. The dose rate is commonly used to indicate the level of radioactivity 

in a radioactive area. See survey meter. 

doslmeter. An instrument for measuring and reglsterlng the total accumulated dose of (or 

exposure to) ionizing radiation. Instruments 

worn or carried by individuals are called 

personnel dosimeters. 

dosimetry. The measurement and recording of radiation doses and dose rates. It is concerned 

with the use of various types of radiation 

instruments with which measurements are made. 

See also dosimeter. survey meter. 

m. Disintegrations per minute. a measure of 

radioactivity, literally atoms disintegrating 

per minute. Difficult to directly compare with 

roentgens per hour for mixtures of radionuclldes. 

DX. David Taylor Model Basin. Carderock. 

Maryland (Navy). 

m. Two-and-one-half-ton amphibious truck 

(Navy). 

dynamic pressure. Air pressure that results from 

the mass air flow (or wind) behind the shock 

front of a blast wave. 

effects measurements or experiments. Experiments 

whose purpose is to study what a nuclear explosion does to material, equipment and systems. Includes also measurement of the changes 

In the environment caused by the detonation 

such as increased air pressures (blast). thermal and nuclear radiation. cratering. water 

waves. etc. 

EGM;. Edgerton, Germeshausen & Grier, Boston, 

Massachusetts (now EG&G, Inc.). An AEC contractor. Provided timing and firing electronics. 

electromaqnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiations range from X-rays and gamma rays of short 

wavelength (high frequency). through the ultraviolet, visible. and infrared regions, to radar 

and radio waves of relatlvely long wavelength. 

electron. A particle of very small mass and electrically charged. As usually defined. the electron’s charge is negative: The term negatron 

is also used for the negative electron and the 

positively charged form is called a positron. 

See also beta particles. 

exposure. A measure expressed In roentgens of the 

Ionization produced by gamma rays (or X-rays) 

in air. The exposure rate is the exposure per 

unit time (e.g., roentgens per hour). See 

dose. dose rate, roentqen. 

exposure rate contours. Lines joining points that 

have the same radiation intensity that define 

a fallout pattern, represented In terms of 

roentgens per hour. 

fallout. The process or phenomenon of the descent 

to the Earth’s surface of particles contaminated with radioactive material from the radioactive cloud. The term is also applied in a 

188 
fathometer 

collective sense to the contaminated particulate matter itself. The early (or local) 

fallout is defined, somewhat arbitrarily, as 

particles reaching the Earth within 24 hours 

after a nuclear explosion. The delayed (or 

worldwide) fallout consists of the smaller 

particles. which ascend into the upper troposphere and stratosphere and are carried by 

winds to all parts of the Earth. The delayed 

fallout Is brought to Earth, mainly by rain 

and snow, over extended periods ranging from 

months to years. 

fathometer. A depth-sounding instrument. The 

depth of water is measured by noting the time 

the echo of a sound takes to return from the 

bottom. 

film badqes. Used for the indirect measurement of 

ionizing radiation. Generally contain two or 

three pieces of film of different radiation 

sensitivities. They are wrapped in paper (or 

other thin material) that blocks light but is 

readily penetrated by gamma rays. The films 

are developed and the degree of fogging (or 

blackening) observed is a measure of the gammaray exposure, from which the absorbed dose is 

calculated. Film badges can also measure beta 

and neutron radiation. 

fireball. The luminous sphere of hot gases that 

forms a few millionths of a second after a nuclear explosion as the result of the absorption 

by the surrounding medium of the thermal X-rays 

emitted by the extremely hot (several tens of 

millions of degrees) device residues. The exterior of the fireball In air is initially 

sharply defined by the luminous shock front 

and later by the limits of the hot gases 

themselves. 

fission. The process of the nucleus of a particular heavy element splitting into two nuclei of 

lighter elements, with the release of substantial amounts of energy. The most important fissionable materials are uranium-235 and plutonium-239; fission is caused by the absorption 

of neutrons. 

fission detectors. Radiation pulse detector of 

the proportional counter type in which a foil 

or film of fissionable materials is lncorporated to make it respond to neutrons. 

fission products. A general term for the complex 

mixture of substances produced as a result of 

nuclear fission. A distinction should be made 

between these and the direct fission products 

or fission fragments that are formed by the 

actual splitting of the heavy-element nuclei 

into nuclei of medium atomic weight. Approximately 80 different fission fragments result 

from roughly 40 different modes of fission of 

a given nuclear species (e.g.. uranium-235 or 

plutonlum-239). The fission fragments, being 

radioactive. immediately begin to decay, forming additional (daughter) products. with the 

result that the complex mixture of fission 

products so formed contains over 300 different 

radionuclides of 36 elements. 

HE 

fixed alpha. Alpha radioactivity that cannot be 

easily removed as evidenced by no activity 

removed on a swipe of a lOO-cm2 area. 

fluorescence. The emission of light (electromagnetic radiation) by a material as a result of 

the absorption of energy from radiation. The 

term may refer to the radiation emitted, as 

well as to the emission process. 

forward area. The PPG and adjoining areas (e.g., 

Kwajaleln). 

m. Fleet Post Office (Navy). 

fusion. The combination of two light nuclei to 

form a heavier nucleus, with the release of the 

difference of the nuclear binding energy of the 

fusion products and the sum of the binding energies of the two light nuclei. 

gamma rays. Electromagnetic radiations of high 

photon energy originating in atomic nuclei and 

accompanying many nuclear reactions (e.g.. fission. radioactivity, and neutron capture) . 

Physically, gamma rays are identical with 

X-rays of high energy: the only essential difference Is that X-rays do not originate from 

atomic nuclei of high energy. Gamma rays can 

travel great distances through air and can 

penetrate considerable thickness of material, 

although they can neither be seen nor felt by 

human beings except at very high intensities. 

which cause an itching and tingling sensation 

of the skin. They can produce harmful effects 

even at a long distance from their source. 

Geiqer-Mueller (GM) counter. A gas discharge 

pulse counter for ionizing radiation. See also 

Ion-chamber-type survey meter. 

GUT Greenwich Mean Time. -* 

gray (Gy). A recently introduced ICRP term: 1 Gy 

equals 100 rad. 

ground zero (GZ) . See surface zero. 

gunk. A viscous commercial preparation that is 

soluble both in water and petroleum derivatlves. It acts as a wetting agent in removing 

grease and particulate matter from metal and 

other nonporous surfaces. 

H-hour Time zero, or time of detonation. When 

used in connection with planning operations it 

is the specific time at which the operation 

event commences. H-l indicates 1 hour before 

the detonation, and H+l indicates 1 hour after 

detonation, etc. Uinutes and seconds may also 

be indicated using this system, but the units 

used must then be shown, e.g., H-30 minutes. 

H+55 seconds. See also D_dav. 

-f 

half-life. The time required for a radioactive 

material to lose half of Its radioactivity due 

to decay. Each radionucllde has a unique 

half-life. 

!i&. High explosive. 

189 
high-altitude burst megaton (energy) 

hiqh-altitude burst. Defined, somewhat arbitracily. as a detonation in or above the stratosphere. The distribution of the energy of the 

explosion between blast and thermal radiation 

changes appreciably wlth increasing altitude. 

hodoqraph. A common hodograph in meteorology represents the soeed and direction of winds at 

different altitude Increments. 

hot : hot spot. Commonly used colloquial term 

meaning a spot or area relatively more radioactive than some adjacent area. 

w. International Commission on Radiological 

Protection. 

initial radiation. Electromagnetic radiations of 

high energy emitted from both the fireball and 

the radioactive cloud within the first minute 

after a detonation. It includes neutrons and 

gamma rays given off almost instantaneously 

(usually defined as prompt radiation, which 

see), as well as the gamma rays emitted by the 

fission products and other radioactive species 

In the rising cloud. Initial neutrons from 

ground or near-ground bursts react with both 

earth materials and device debrls to create 

activation products. 

inverse square law. The decrease In radiation 

intensity with distance from a single-point 

source Is proportional to the square of the 

distance removed. 

Ion-chamber-type survey meter. A device for measurins the amount of ionizina radiation. Consists of a gas-filled chamber containing two 

electrodes (one of which may be the chamber 

wall) between which a potential difference Is 

maintained. The radiation ionizes gas in the 

chamber and an instrument connected to one 

elect rode measures the ionization current 

produced. 

ionization. The process of adding electrons to, 

or knocking electrons from. atoms or molecules, 

thereby creating ions. High temperatures, electrical discharges. and nuclear radiation can 

cause Ionization. 

ionizinq radiation. Any particulate or electromagnetic radiation capable of producing ions, 

directly or indirectly, In its passage through 

matter. Alpha and beta particles produce Ion 

pairs directly, while gamma rays and X-rays 

liberate electrons as they traverse matter, 

which in turn produce ionization in their 

paths. 

ionosphere. The region of the atmosphere, extending from roughly 40 to 250 miles (about 64 to 

400 km) above the Earth. in which there is appreciable ionization. The presence of charged 

particles in this region profoundly affects 

the propagation of radio and radar waves. 

irradiation. Exposure of matter to radiation. 

isodose lines. Dose or dose-rate contours. In 

fallout, contours plotted on a radiation field 

at which the dose rate or the total accumulated 

dose is the same. 

Lsotopes. Atoms with the same atomic number (same 

chemical element) but different atomic weight: 

i.e., the nuclei have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons. 

$3. Joint Chiefs of Staff. 

JE. Joint Task Force 7 was a combined force 

of personnel of the Department of Defense (Air 

Force, Army, Marine Corps, Navy). the AEC. and 

their contractors. JTF 7 was responsible for 

all aspects of nuclear weapon tests in the 

PaciElc during 1948. 

kiloton convention. Relates nuclear explosion 

energy to TNT explosion energy by using the 

approximate energy releast of 1.000 tons of 

TNT as the measuring unit. 

kinetic enerqy. Energy associated with the 

motion of matter. 

L-5, L_13. Single-engine. propeller-driven light 

planes. 

-* LASL Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, LOS

Alamos, New Mexico. 

LCI (L) Infantry landing craft (large) (Navy). -* 

m. Mechanized landing craft (Navy). 

p. LCP(L) Personnel landing craft (large) (Navy). 

__. 

LCP(R) Personnel landing craft (ramp) (Navy).

g. Tank landing craft (Navy). 

LB. Utility landing craft (Navy). 

Lcvp. Vehicle and personnel landing craft (Navy). 

LM&. Lookout Mountain Laboratory. Hollywood. 

California (Air Force). 

_ Loran. Long-range aid to navigation system. 

Loran stations were maintained by the U.S. 

Coast Guard Station on Enewetak Isldnd and 

Johnston Atoll. 

Dock landing ship (Navy). 

Infantry landing ship (large) (Navy). 

Tank landing ship (Navy). 

Utility landing ship (Navy). 

maqnetometer. An lnst rument for measur lng 

changes in the geomagnetic field. 

meqaton (enerqv). Approximately the amount of 

energy that would be released by the explosion 

of one million tons of TNT. 

190 
mlcrocurie ONR 

microcurie. One-millionth of a curie. 

micron -. One-millionth of a meter (I.e., lo+

meter or 10-4 centimeter): it :s roughly 

four one-hundred-thousandths (4 x 10-5) of 

an inch. 

milliroentqen. One-thousandth of a roentgen. 

MPL. Haxlmum Permissible Limit. That amount of 

radioactive material In air, water, foodstuffs, 

etc. that Is established by authorities as the 

maximum that would not create undue risk to 

human health. 

mR; mr. Abbreviation for milliroentgen. 

mushroom cap. Top of the cloud formed from the 

fireball of a nuclear detonation. 

nv_. Motor vessel. 

Naval Air Development Center. 

Naval Aic Station. 

National Bureau of Standards. 

_-

NC0 Noncommissioned officer. 

KRP. National Committee on Radiation Protection 

and Measurements. Before 1956 simp1.y the National Committee on Radiation Protection. 

m. Naval Electronics Laboratory. 

neutron. A neutral elementary particle (i.e., 

with neutral electrical charge) of approximately unit mass (i.e., the mass of a proton) 

that is present In all atomic nuclei, except 

those of ordinary (light) hydrogen. Neutrons 

are required to initiate the fission process, 

and large numbers of neutrons are produced by 

both fission and fuslon reactions In nuclear 

explosions. 

neutron flux. The intensity of neutron radiation. 

It is expressed as the number of neutrons passing through 1 cm* in 1 second. 

m. Naval Materials Laboratory. 

E. Naval Medical Research Institute. 

m. Naval Operating Base. 

NOL Naval Ordnance Laboratory. -* 

NE. Nevada Proving Ground, now the Nevada Test 

Site (NTS). 

Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory. 

Naval Research Laboratory. 

Nuclear Test Personnel Review. 

Nevada Test Site. 

nuclear device (or weapon or bomb). Any device in 

which the explosion results from the energy 

released by reactions involving atomic nuclei. 

either fission or fusion, or both. Thus, the 

A- (or atomic) bomb and the H- (or hydrogen) 

bomb are both nuclear weapons. It would be 

equally true to call them atomic weapons, 

since the energy of atomic nuclei is involved 

In each case. However. it has become more or 

less customary, although it is not strictly 

accucate. to refer to weapons in which all the 

energy results from fission as A-bombs. In 

order to make a distinction, those weapons in 

which part of the energy results from thermonuclear (fusion) reactions of the isotopes of 

hydrogen have been called H-bombs OK hydrogen 

bombs. 

nuclear explosion. Explosive release of energy

due to the splitting. or jolnlng. of atoms. 

The explosion is observable by a violent emlsslon of ultraviolet, visible, and infrared 

(heat) radiation, gamma rays, neutrons, and 

other particles. This is accompanied by the 

formation of a fireball. A large part of the 

energy from the explosion is emitted as blast 

and shock waves when detonated at the Earth’s 

surface or in the atmosphere. The fireball 

produces a mushroom-shaped mass of hot gases 

and debris, the top of which rises rapidly. 

See also radiation, gamma rays, fireball. 

nuclear weapon, fission, fusion, ba. 

nuclear fusion. See thermonuclear fusion. 

nuclear radiation. Particulate and electromagnetic radiation emitted from atomic nuclei in 

various nuclear processes. The important nuclear radiations. from the weapons standpoint. 

are alpha and beta particles, gamma rays. and 

neut tons. All nuclear radiations are ionizing 

radiations, but the reverse is not true; 

X-rays, for example, are Included among lonizing radiations. but they are not nuclear radiations since they do not originate from atomic 

nuclei. 

nuclear tests. Tests carried out to supply information reaulred for the desian and imorovement 

of nuclear weapons and to study the phenomena 

and effects associated with nuclear explosions. 

nuclide. Any species of atom that exists for a 

measurable length of time. The term nuclide is 

used to describe any atomic species dlstinguished by the composition of its nucleus: 

I.e., by the number of protons and the number 

of neutrons. Isotopes of a given element ace 

nuclides having the normal number of protons 

but different numbers of neutrons in these 

nuclei. A radionuclide is a radloactive 

nuclide. 

off-scale. Radiation (or other physical phenomena) greater than the capacity of a measuring 

device to measure. 

ONR. Office of Naval Research, Washington. D.C. 

191 
ORNL 

ORNL. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee. 

oscilloscope. The name generally applied to a 

cathode-ray device. 

overpressure. The transient pressure. usually expressed in pounds per square inch, exceeding 

the ambient pressure, manifested in the shock 

(or blast) wave from an explosion. 

pBn. Twin-engine, patrol-bomber flying boat, developed by Martin for the U.S. Navy. 

PC Patrol craft (Navy). -* 

peak overpressure. The maximum value of the overpressure (which see) at a given location. 

permissible dose. That dose of ionizing radiation 

that Is not expected to cause appreciable 

bodily injury to a person at any time during 

his lifetime. See also HpL. 

phantom. A volume of material closely approximating the density and effective atomic number 

of tissue. The phantom absorbs ionizing radlatlon in the same manner as tissue. thus radiation dose measurements made within the phantom 

provide a means of approximating the radiation 

dose within a human or animal body under simllar exposure conditions. Materials conznonly 

used for phantoms are water, masonlte. pressed 

wood, beeswax. and plexlglas. 

piq. A heavily shielded container (usually lead) 

used to ship or store radioactive materials. 

PGL. Petroleum, oil. and lubricants. The storage 

<tea for these products is referred to as a 

PGL farm. 

PpG. Pacific Proving Ground (after 1956 designated the Eniwetok Proving Ground, or EPGl. 

prompt radiation. Neutrons and gamma rays emitted 

almost instantaneously following a nuclear fission or fusion. 

proton. A particle carrying a positive charge 

and physically identical to the nucleus of the 

ordinary hydrogen atom. 

Purple conditions. A shipboard warning system 

used in radloloaical defense. Various numbered 

conditions were-sounded when radioactive fallout was to be encountered. Responses to the 

sounded warnings included closing of various 

hatches and fittings, turning off parts of the 

ventilation system. and removing personnel 

from a ship’s open decks. The higher the Purple 

condition number, the more severe the radlological situation. 

QB-17. Radlo-controlled version of the B-17. 

“Q”-clearance. A security clearance granted by 

the Atomic Energy Commission. based upon a 

background investigation. 

radlatlon intensity 

R;. Symbol for roentgen. 

m. Chemical symbol for radium. 

tad. Radiation absorbed dose. A unit of absorbed 

dose of radiation: it represents the absorption 

of 100 ergs of ionizing radiation per gram (or 

0.01 J/kg) of absorbing material, such as body 

tissue. This unit Is presently being replaced 

in scientific literature by the Gray (Gy), numerical equal to the absorption of 1 joule of 

energy per kilogram of matter. 

HdDefense. Radiological defense. Defense against 

the effects of radioactivity from atomic weapons . It Includes the detection and measurement 

of radioactivity, the protection of persons 

from radioactivity. and decontamination of 

areas. places, and equipment. See also radsafe. 

radex area. Radiological exclusion area. Following each detonation there were areas of surface 

radioactivity and areas of air radioactivity. 

These areas were designated as radex areas. 

Radex areas were used to chart actual or predicted fallout and also used for control of 

entry and exit. 

radiac. Radiation detection, indication. and computation. 

radiation. The emission of any rays, electromagnetic waves, or particles (e.g., gamma rays, 

alpha particles, beta particles, neut cons 1 

from a source. 

radiation decay. See decay (radioactive). 

radlation detectors. Any of a wide variety of 

materials or instruments that provide a signal 

or Indication when stimulated by the passage 

of ionizing radiation: the sensitive element 

in radiation detection instruments. The most 

widely used media for the detection of ionizing 

radiation are photographic fllm and ionization 

of gases in detectors (e.g.. Geiger counters), 

followed by materials in which radiation induces scintillation. 

gdiation exposure. Exposure to radiation may be 

described and modified bv a number of terms. 

The type of radiation Is’ important: alpha and 

beta particles, neutrons, gma rays and 

X-rays, and cosmic radiation. Radiation exposure may be from an external radiation source, 

such as gamma rays, X-rays, or neutrons. or it 

may be from radionuclldes retained within the 

body emitting alpha, beta. or gamma radiation. 

The exposure may result from penetrating or 

nonpenetrating radiation in relation to its 

ability to enter and pass through matter 

-- alpha and beta particles being considered 

as nonpenetrating and other types of radiation 

as penetrating. Exposure may be related to a 

part of the body or to the whole body. See 

also whole body irradiation. 

radiation intensity. Radiation rate. Measured 

and reported in roentgens (Rl. cads, cems, and 

multlples and divisions of these units as a 

192 
radioactlve cloud 

function of exposure time (per hour, day, 

etc.). 

radioactive cloud. An all-inclusive term for the 

cloud of hot gases, smoke, dust, and other particulate matter from the weapon itself and from 

the environment, which is carried aloft in conjunction with the rising fireball produced by 

the detonation of a nuclear device. 

radioactive nuclide. See radionucllde. 

radioactlve particles. See radioactivity. 

radioact-. The spontaneous emission of radiation, generally alpha or beta particles. often 

accompanied by gamma rays, from the nuclei of 

an (unstable) nuclide. As a result of this 

emission the radioactive nuclide is converted 

(decays) into the isotope of a different 

(daughter) element, which may (or may not) 

also be radioactive. Ultimately, as a result 

of one or more stages of radioactive decay, a 

stable (nonradioactive) end product is formed. 

radioloqical survey. The directed effort to determlne the distribution and exposure rate of 

radiation in an area. 

radionuclide. A radioactive nuclide (or radloactive atomic species). 

radiosonde. A balloon-borne instrument for the 

simultaneous measurement and transmission of 

meteorological data, consisting of transducers 

for the measurement of pressure, temperature, 

and humidity: a modulator for the conversion 

of the output of the transducers to a quantity 

that controls a property of the radiofrequency 

signal : a selector switch. which determines 

the sequence In which the parameters are to be 

transmitted; and a transmitter, which generates 

the radiofrequency carrier. 

radiosonde balloon. A balloon used to carry a 

radiosonde aloft. These balloons have davtlnre 

bursting altitudes of about 80,000 fee< (25 

km) above sea level. The balloon measures about 

5 feet (1.5 meters) In diameter when first inflated and may expand to 20 feet (6 meters) or 

more before bursting at high altitude. 

-.radium An intensely radioactive metallic element . In nature, radium Is found associated 

with uranium, which decays to radium by a series of alpha and beta emissions. Radium is 

used as a radiation source for instrument 

calibration. 

radsafe. Radiological safety. ‘General term used 

to cover the training. operations. and equipment used to protect personnel from unnecessary 

exposures to ionizing radiation. 

rainout. Removal of radioactive particles from a 

nuclear cloud by rain. 

-arawin Radar wind sounding tests that determine 

the winds aloft patterns by radar observation 

of a balloon. 

scattering 

rawinsonde. Radar wind sounding and radiosonde 

(combined). 

REI-29 Reconnaissance version of the 0-29. -. _* 

REIJ. Relative biological effectiveness. A factor 

used to compare the biological effectiveness 

of absorbed radiation doses (i.e., rads) due 

to different types of ionizing radiation. For 

radlat ion protection the term has been 

superseded by Quality Factor. 

rem. A special unit of biological radiation dose 

equivalent; the name Is derived from the initial letters of the term “roentgen equivalent 

man (or mammal).” The number of rems of radiation is equal to the number of rads absorbed 

multiplied by the RSE of the given radiation 

(for a specified effect). The rem Is also the 

unit of dose equivalent, which is equal to the 

product of the number of rads absorbed multiplied by the “quality factor” and distribution 

factor for the radiation. The unit is presently 

being replaced by the sievert VW). 

E. An obsolete special unit of absorbed dose. 

residual nuclear radiation. Nuclear radiation. 

chiefly beta particles and gamma rays. that 

persists after 1 minute following a nuclear 

explosion. The radiation Is emitted mainly by 

the fission products and other bomb residues 

in the fallout, and to some extent by Earth 

and water constituents. and other materials, 

in which radioactivity has been induced by the 

capture of neutrons. 

R-hour Recovery or reentry hour. -* 

roentqen. (R; r) A special unit of exposure to 

gamma (or X-) radiation. It Is defined precisely as the quantity of gamma (or XX) rays 

that will produce electrons (in ion pairs) 

with a total charge of 2.58 x 10-4 coulomb in 

1 kilogram of dry air under standard conditions. An exposure of 1 roentgen results in 

the deposition of about 94 ergs of energy in 

1 gram of soft body tissue. Hence, an exposure 

of 1 roentgen is approximately equivalent to 

an absorbed dose of 1 rad in soft tissue. 

roll-up. The process for orderly dismantling of 

Eacillties no longer required for nuclear test 

operations and their transfer to other areas. 

sampler aircraft. Aircraft used Eor collection of 

gaseous and particulate samples from nuclear 

clouds to determine the level of radioactivity 

or the presence of radioactive substances. 

w. Search and rescue operations. 

SIB-17 SAR version of the B-17. -* 

SC. Sandia Corporation. Albuquerque, New Mexico. 

scattering. The diversion of radiation (thermal, 

electromagnetic and nuclear) from its origlnal path as a result of interactions (or collisions) with atoms, molecules, or larger 

193 
___ 

SCEL 

particles in the atmosphere or other media between the source of the radiations (e.g., a 

nuclear explosion) and a point some distance 

away. As a result of scattering. radiations 

(especially gamma rays and neutrons) will be 

received at such a point f corn many directions 

instead of only from the direction of the 

source. See also skyshine. 

B. Slgnal Corps Engineering Laboratories. Ft. 

Honmouth. New Jersey (Army). 

scintillation. A flash of light produced by ionizing radiation in a fluor or a phosphor, which 

may be crystal, plastic, gas. or liquid. 

seamoun t . A submarine mountain rising above the 

deeo sea floor, commonly from 3,000 to 10,000 

fee’t (1 to 3 km) and having the summit 1,000 

to 6,000 feet (0.3 to 1.8 km) below sea level. 

shear (wind). Refers to differences in direction 

(directional shear) of wind at different 

altitudes. 

shielding. Any material or obstruction that absorbs (or attenuates) radiation and thus tends 

to protect personnel or equipment from the effects of a nuclear explosion. A moderately 

thick layer of any opaque material will provlde 

satisfactory shielding from thermal radiation. 

but a considerable thickness of material of 

high density may be needed for gamma radiation 

shielding. See also attenuation. 

shock. Term used to describe a destructive force 

moving in air, water, or earth caused by detonation of a nuclear detonation. 

shot k wave. A continuously propagated pressure 

pulse (or wave) In the surrounding medium. 

which may be air, water, or earth. initiated 

by the expansion of the hot gases produced in 

an explosion. 

slevert (Svl. A recently introduced ICRP measure 

of “dose equivalent” that takes into account 

the “quality factor” of different sources of 

ionizing radiation. One slevert equals 100 rem. 

skyshine. Radiation. particularly gamma rays from 

a nuclear detonation. reaching a target from 

many directions as a result of scattering by 

the oxygen and nitrogen In the intervening 

atmosphere. 

slant range. The straight-line distance of an 

aircraft at any altitude from ground zero or 

the distance from an airburst to a location on 

the ground. 

stratosphere. Upper portion of the atmosphere, 

approximately 7 to 40 miles (11 to 64 km) above 

the Earth’s surface. in which temperature 

changes but little with altitude and cloud 

formations are rare. 

streamline. In meteoroloqy, the dlrecrion of the 

wlnti at ar-my given time. 

trapped radlatlon 

surface burst. A nuclear explosion on the land 

surface, an Island surface or reef, or on a 

barge. 

surface zero The point on the ground or water 

surface directly above or below the detonatlon 

point of a nuclear device. 

_ __.-* 

survey meters. Portable radiation detection Instruments especially adapted for surveying or 

Inspecting an area to establish the existence 

and amount of radiation present, usually from 

the standpoint of radiological protection. 

Survey instruments are customarily powered by 

self-contained batteries and are designed to 

respond quickly and to indicate directly the 

exposure rate conditions at the point of interest. See Ceiqer-Mueller counter, and ion_ 

chamber-type survey meter. 

survey, radiation Evaluation of the radiation 

levels assakd with radioactive materials 

or areas. 

m. Temporary duty assignment. 

TG. Task Group. Subordinate unit of Task Force. 

TD. Task Detachment. 

thermal radiation. Electromagnetic radlat ion 

emitted in two pulses from a surface or airburst from the fireball as a consequence of 

its very high temperature; it consists essentially of ultraviolet. visible, and infrared 

radiation. In the first pulse, when the temperature of the fireball Is extremely high. 

ultraviolet radiation predominates: In the 

second pulse, the temperatures are lower and 

most of the thermal radiation lies in the vlsible and infrared regions of the spectrum. 

thermonuclear fusion. Refers to the processes in 

which a very high temperature and pressure is 

used to bring about the fusion of light nuclei, 

such as those of the hydrogen isotopes (deuterlum and tritium), with the accompanying liberation of energy. The high temperature and pressure required to initiate the fusion reaction 

are obtained by means of a fission explosion. 

See also -. Eusion

TNT equivalent. A measure of the energy released 

as the result of the detonation of a nuclear 

device or weapon, expressed in terms of the 

mass of TNT that would release the same amount 

of energy when exploded. The TNT equivalent is 

usually stated in kilotons (1,000 tons) or 

megatons (1 million tons). The basis of the 

TNT equivalence is that the explosion of 1 ton 

of TNT is assumed to release 1 billion calories of energy. See also meqaton. yield. 

trapped radiation. Electrically charged particles 

moving back and forth in spirals along the 

north-south orientatlon of the Earth’s magnetic 

fieid between mirror points, called conjugate 

points. Negdtlvely ctlarged particles drift 

eastward as they bouncp ktween northern and 

wut hnyr: .XHljlJgdt@2 p,.,11::1; and po.~i:ively 
tropopause 

charged pactlcles drift westward, thus forming 

shells or belts of radiation above the Earth. 

The source of the charged particles may be 

natural, from solar activity (often called Van 

Allen belts), or artifical, resulting from 

high-altitude nuclear detonations. 

tropopause. The boundary dividing the stratosphere from the lower part of the atmosphere, 

the troposphere. The tropopause normally occurs 

at an altitude of about 25,000 to 45,000 feet 

17.6 to 13.7 km) in polar and temperate zones. 

and at 55,000 feet (16.8 km) in the tropics. 

See also stratosphere, troposphere. 

troposphere. The region of the atmosphere, iparediately above the Earth’s surface and up to 

the tropopause. in which the temperature falls 

fairly regularly with increasinq altitude. 

clouds form, convection Is active. and mixing 

Is continuous and more or less complete. 

Trust Territory. The Marshall Islands were included in the Trust Territory of the Pacific 

Islands under the jurisdiction of the Unlted 

Nations. Assigned by the United Nations to the 

United States in trust for administration, development, and training. 

TJ. Task Unit. Subordinate unit of Task Group. 

tvpe commander. The officer or agency having cognizance over all Navy ships of a given type. 

This is in addition to the particular ship’s 

operational assignment in a task force, fleet, 

. or other tactical subdivision. 

UCLA University of California, Los Anqeles. -* 

E. University of California Radiation Laboratory, Livermore. California. 

ultraviolet. Electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths between the shortest visible violet 

(about 3,850 angstroms) and soft X-rays (about 

100 angst rams) . 

m. U.S. Forest Service. 

USNS. United States Navy Ship: vessels of this 

designation are manned by civilian crews. 

VA_. Veterans’ Administration. 

VC Fleet composite squadron (formerly VU). -* 

Versene. A detergent. 

VR_. Naval air transport squadron. 

E!!E. Wright Air Development Center, WrlghtPatterson AF8, Ohio (Air Force). 

warhead. The Portion of the missile or bomb containing the nuclear device. 

yB-29. Weather reconnaissance version of B-29 

used for cloud tracking and sampling. 

ZI 

weapon debris. The radioactive residue of a nuclear device after it has been detonated. consisting of fission products, various products 

of neutron capture, weapon casing and other 

components, and uranium or plutonium that has 

escaped fission. 

whole body irradiation. Exposure of the body to 

ionizing radiation from external radiation 

sources. Critical organs for the whole body 

are the lens of the eye, the gonads. and the 

red-blood-forming marrow. As little as only 1 

cm3 of bone marrow constitutes a whole-body 

exposure. Thus. the entire body need not be 

exposed to be classed as a whole-body exposure. 

Wilson cloud. A mist or fog of minute water droplets that temporarily surrounds a fireball 

following a nuclear detonation in a humid 

atmosphere. This is caused by a sudden lowering of the pressure (and temperature) after 

the passing of the shock wave (cloud chamber 

effect) and quickly dissipates as temperatures 

and pressures return to normal. 

worldwide fallout. Consists of the smaller radioactive nuclear detonation particles that ascend into the upper troposphere and the stratosphere and are carried by winds to all parts 

of the Earth. The delayed (or worldwide) fallout is brought to Earth, mainly by rain and 

snow, over extended periods ranging from 

months to years. 

EC. open lighter (nonself-propelled: Navy). 

m. Covered lighter (nonself-propelled; Navy). 

yield. The total effective energy released in a 

nuclear detonation. It is usually expressed in 

terms of the equivalent tonnage of TNT required 

to produce the same energy release in an explosion. The total energy yield is manifested as 

nuclear radiation (including residual radiation), thermal radiation, and blast and shock 

energy, the actual distribution depending upon 

the medium in which the explosion occurs and 

also upon the type of weapon. See TNT equivalent. 

yield (blast). That portion of the total energy 

of a nuclear detonation that is identified as 

the blast or shock wave. 

yield (fission). That portion of the total energy 

released bv a nuclear exolosion attributable 

to nuclear’flssion. as op&ed to fusion. The 

interest In fission yield stems from the interest in fission product formation and its relationship to radioactive fallout. 

yo. Fuel 011 barge: self-propelled (Navy). 

yoG. Gasoline barge: self-propelled (Navy). 

yoGN. Gasoline barge; nonself-propelled (Navy). 

yV. Self-propelled water barge (Navy). 

2. Zone of Interior (conterminous United 

States). 

195 
196 
-- 

-- 

APPENDIX C 

ISLAND SYNONYMS 

ENEWETAK ATOLL 

CAPITALIZED entries are the code names used by the joint task force for 

the islands. 

report. All 

other literature. 

Aaraanbi ru 

Ae-i 

Ai tsu 

Alembel 

ALICE 

ALVIN 

Anani j_ 

Anerowi j 

Aniyaanii 

Aomon 

Arambi ru 

BELLE 

Bii jiri 

Bi jile 

Bijire 

Biken 

Bikile 

Billae 

Bi 1 lee 

Bogairikk 

Bogallua 

Bogan 

Bogeirik 

Bogen 

Bogombogo 

Bogon 

Bokaidrik 

Bokaidrikdrik 

Bokandretok 

Boken 

Boken 

Bokenelab 

Bokinwotme 

Boko 

Bokoluo 

Bokombako 

Bokonaarappu 

Bokonarppu 

BRUCE 

Underscored entries are the names of the islands as used in this 

other entries are spellings of the islands that may appear in 

VERA - Alembel - Arambiru 

OLIVE - Aitsu 

OLIVE - Ad 

VERA - Aaraanbiru - Arambiru 

Bokoluo - Bogallua 

Jinedrol - Chinieeco 

BRUCE - Aniyaanii 

TOM - Munjor - Munjur 

BRUCE - Ananij 

SALLY 

VERA - Alembel - Aaraanbiru 

Bokombako - Bogombogo 

TILDA -

TILDA -

TILDA -

LEROY - 

TILDA -

WILMA - 

LUCY -

HELEN -

ALICE -

IRWIN -

HELEN -

Bi-fire - Bijile - Bikile 

Bijire - Biijiri - Bikile 

Bijile - Biijiri - Bikile 

Rigile - Rigili 

Biiire - Bijile - Biijiri 

Piiraai - Piirai 

Kidrinen - Kirinian 

Bokaidrikdrlk - Bogeirik - Bokaidrik 

Bokoluo 

Boken - Pokon 

Bokaidrikdrik - Bogairikk - Bokaidrik 

REX - Jedrol - Jieroru 

BELLE -

IRENE -

HELEN -

HELEN -

WALT 

IRENE 

IRWIN 

MARY - 

EDNA - 

SAM 

ALICE 

BELLE 

MARYMARYAnanij 

-

-

-

-

Bokombako 

Boken 

Bokaidrikdrik - Bogairikk - Bogeirik 

Bogairikk - Bogeirik - Bokaidrik 

Bogon 

Pokon - Bogan 

Bokonaarappu - Bokonarppu 

Sanildefonso 

Bogallua 

Bogombogo 

Bokenelab - Bokonarppu 

Bokenelab - Bokonaarappu 

- Aniyaanii 

Buganegan HENRY - Mut - Mui 

197 
Chinieero ALVIN - Jinedrol 

Chinimi CL.YDE - Jinimi 

CLARA Kirunu - Eybbiyae - Ruchi 

CLYDE Jinimi - Chinimi 

Cochi ta DAISY - Louj - Lidilbut 

DAISY Lou1 - Cochita - Lidilbut 

DAVID Japtan - Muti 

Drekatimon OSCAR 

Dridrilbwi 1 GENE - Teiteiripucchi 

Eberi ru RUBY - Eleleron 

EDNA Bokinwotme - Sanildefonso 

Eleleron RUBY - Eberiru 

Elle NANCY - Yeiri 

ELMER Parry - Medren 

Elugelab FLORA - Eluklab 

Eluklab FLORA - Elugelab 

Enewetak FRED - Eniwetok 

Engebi JANET - Enlebi 

Eniwetok FRED - Enewetak 

Eniebi JANET - Engebi 

Eybbiyae CLARA - Kirunu - Ruchi 

FLORA Eluklab - Elugelab 

FRED Enewetak - Eniwetok 

GENE Dridrilbwil - Teiteiripucchi 

Giriinien KEITH - Kidrenen - Grinem 

GLENN Ikuren - Igurin 

Grinem KEITH - Kidrenen - Giriinien 

HELEN Bokaidrikdrik - Bogairikk - Bogeirik - Bokaidrik 

HENRY Mut - Buganegan - Mui 

Igur in GLENN - Ikuren 

Ikuren GLENN - Igurin 

Inedral URIAH 

IRENE Boken - Bogon 

IRWIN Boken - Bogan - Pokon 

JAMES Ribewon - Libiron - Ribaion 

JANET Enlebi - Engebi 

Japtan DAVTD - Muti 

Jedrol REX - Jieroru - Bogen 

Jieroru REX - Jedrol - Bogen 

Jinedrol ALVIN - Chinieero 

Jinimi CLYDE - Chinimi 

KATE Mi_likadrek - Mujinkarikku - Muzinbaarikku 

KEITH Kidrenen - Giriinien - Grinem 

Kidrenen KEITH - Giriinien - Grinem 

198 
-- 

-- 

-- 

-- 

Kidrinen 

Kirinian 

Ki runu 

LEROY 

Libi ron 

Lidi lbut 

Lo iwa 

Louj 

LUCY 

Lujor 

MACK 

MARY 

Medren 

Mijikadrek 

Mui 

Mujinkarikku 

Munjor 

Munjur 

Mut 

Muti 

Muzinbaarikku 

NANCY 

OLIVE 

OSCAR 

Parry 

PEARL 

PERCY 

Piiraai 

Piirai 

Pokon 

REX 

Ribaion 

Ribewon 

Rigi le 

Rigi li 

Rojoa 

RUBY 

Ruchl 

Rujiyoru 

Ru joru 

Runi t 

SALLY 

SAM 

Sanildefonso 

LUCY - Billee - Kirinian 

LIJCY - Kidrinen - Billee 

CLARA - Eybbiyae - Ruchi 

Biken - Rigile - Rigili 

JAMES - Ribewon ~- - Ribaion

DAISY - Lou1 .- Cochita 

URSULA- Rojoa 

DAISY - Cochita - Lidilbut 

Kidrinen - Billee - Kirinian 

PEARL - Rujiyoru - Rujoru 

Unibor 

Bokenelab - Bokonaarappu - Bokonarppu 

EI.MER - Parry 

KATE - Mujinkarikku - Muzinbaarikku 

HENRY - Mut - Buganegan 

KATE - Mi)ikadrek - Muzinbaarikku 

TOM - Anerowij - Munjur 

TOM - Munlor - Anerowij 

HENRY - Buganegan - Mui 

DAVID - Japtan 

KATE - Milikadrek - Mujinkarikku 

Elle - Yeiri 

Aej - Aitsu 

Drekatimon 

ELMER - Medren 

Lujor - Rujiyoru - Rujoru 

Taiwel 

WILMA - Billae - Piirai 

WILMA - Billae - Piiraai 

IRWIN - Boken - Bogan 

Jedrol - Bogen - Jieroru 

JAMES - Ribewon - Libiron 

JAMES - Libiron - Rib&on 

LEROY - Biken - Rigili 

LEROY - Biken - Rigi le 

URSULA - 

Eleleron %zriru 

CLARA - Kirunu - Eybbiyae 

PEARL - Luior, - Rojoru 

PEARL - Lulor, - Rujlfyoru 

YVONNE 

Aomon 

Boko 

EDNA - Bokinwotme -.-

199 
Taiwel PERCY 

Teiteiripucchl GENE - Dridrilbwil 

TILDA Bijire - Bijile - Biijiri - Bikile 

TOM Munjor - Anerowij - Munjur 

Unibor MACK 

URIAH Inedral 

URSULA Lojwa - Rojoa 

VAN Enewetak Atoll 

VERA Alembel - Aaraanbiru - Arambiru 

WALT Bokandretok 

WILMA Billae - Piirai - Piiraai 

Yeiri NANCY - Elle 

YVONNE Runi t 

200 
DISTRIBUTION LIST 

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE 

Armed forces Staff College 

ATTN: Library 

Asst. Secy of Defense 

Public Affairs 

ATTN: PA0 

Asst to the Secy of Defense 

Atomic Energy 

ATTN: Executive Asst 

ATTN: Military Applications 

Defense Nuclear Agency 

ATTN: PA0 

ATTN: GC 

ATTN: STBE 

5 cy ATTN: NTPR 

25 cy ATTN: TITL 

Defense Tech Info Center 

12 cy ATTN: DO 

Field Command 

Defense Nuclear Aqency 

ATTN: FCLS, MAJ D. Norton 

ATTN: FCLS 

ATTN: FCTT, G. Ganong 

ATTN: FCTXE 

ATTN: FCTT, W. Summa 

Interservice Nuclear Weapons School 

ATTN: TTV 

National Defense University 

ATTN: ICAF, Tech Library 

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY __-__ 

Army Library 

ATTN: Military Documents Sect 

Army Nuclear Test Personnel Review 

L cy ATTN: DAAG-AMR, R. Tago 

U.S. Army Center of Military History 

ATTN: DAMH-HSO 

U.S. Army Chemical School 

ATTN: ATZN-CM-AL 

ATTN: ATZN-CM-CS 

U.S. Army Comd & General Staff College 

ATTN: Library 

U.S. Army Nuclear & Chemical Agency 

ATTN: Library 

U.S. Army War College 

ATTN: Library 

U.S. Military Academy 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY 

Aviation History Unit 

ATTN: Library 

Bureau of Medicine and Surqery 

ATTN: Asst. for Medical Surgery 

James Carson Breckinridge Lib 

ATTN: Library Div 

Marine Corps Base 

ATTN: Document Custodian 

Marine Corps Dev & Education Command 

ATTN: J. C. Breckinridge Lib 

Marine Corps Historical Center 

2 cy ATTN: Code HDH-2 

Marine Corps Nut Test Personnel Review 

ATTN: Code MSRB-60 

Merchant Marine Academy 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

Naval Historical Center 

ATTN: Operational Archives Branch 

Naval Hospital Corps School 

ATTN: Library 

Naval Ocean Systems Center 

ATTN: Library 

Naval Oceanographic Office 

ATTN: Code 025, Historian 

Naval Postgraduate School 

ATTN: Code 1424, Library 

Naval Research Laboratory 

ATTN: Library 

Naval School 

ATTN: Librarian 

Naval Sea Systems Command 

ATTN: Nuclear Technology Div 

Naval Surface Weapons Center 

ATTN: Library 

Naval War College 

ATTN: Professor 8 Libraries 

Naval Weapons Center 

ATTN: Code 343 

Naval Weapons Evaluation Facility 

ATTN: Library 

201 
DEPAKTMENT OF THE NAVY (Continued) DEPARTMENT OF THE AIR FORCE (Continued! 

Ndvy Department Library U.S. Air Force Academy Library 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Library 

Navy Nuclear Power School U.S. Air Force Occupational & Env Health Lab 

ATTN: Library ATTN: NTPR 

Navy Nuclear Test Personnel Review USAF School of Aerospace Medicine 

2 cy ATTN: W. Loeffler ATTN: Strughold Library 

Nimitz Library DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY 

ATTN: Documents & Reports Dept 

Department of Energy 

Office of the Judge Adv Gen ATTN: OMA, DP-22 

ATTN: Code 73 

Nevada Operations Office 

U.S. Merchant Marine Academy ATTN: Health Physics Oiv 

ATTN: Librarian 2 cy ATTN: R. Nutley 

U.S. Naval Air Station Library Human Health & Assessments Div 

ATTN: Library ATTN: Librarian 

DEPARTMENT OF THE AIR FORCE DEPARTMENT OF ENEKGY CONTRACTORS 

Aerospace Defense Command Holmes & Narver, Inc 

ATTN: Historian ATTN: JNATDR. Mr. Green 

Air Force Communications Command Lawrence Livermore National Lab 

ATTN: Historian ATTN: Technical Info Dept Library 

Air Force Institute of Technology Los Alamos National Laboratory 

ATTN: Library ATTN: M. Walz, ADLA MS Al83 

ATTN: D. Cobb, ESS MSS 0466 

Air Force Logistics Command 

ATTN: Historian 

2 cy ATTN: Library 

2 cy ATTN: ADPA MMS 195 

Air Force Nuclear Test Personnel Review Reynolds Electrical & Engr Co, Inc 

ATTN: HQ USAF/SGES ATTN: CIC 

ATTN: W. Brady 

Air Force Systems Command 

ATTN: Historian Sandia National Lab 

ATTN: Central Library 

Air Force Technical Applications Ctr ATTN: W. Hereford 

ATTN: Historian 

OTHER GOVERNMENT AGENCIES 

Air Force Weapons Laboratory 

ATTN: Tech Library U.S. Public Health Service 

ATTN: G. Caldwell 

Air National Guard 

ATTN: Historian Central Intelligence Agency 

ATTN: Office of Medical Services 

Air Training Command 

ATTN: Historian Dept of Health & Human Svcs 

ATTN: Office of General Counsel 

Air University Library 

ATTN: AUL-LSE Exec Oft of the President 

Management & Budget Oft Lib 

Military Airlift Command ATTN: Librarian 

ATTN: Historian 

Library of Congress 

Pacific Air Forces ATTN: Library Service Division 

ATTN: Historian ATTN: Science & Technology Div 

ATTN: Serial & Govt Publication 

Strategic Air Command 

ATTN: Historian 

ATTN: NRI-STINFO, Library 

202 
OTHER GOVERNMENT AGENCIES (Continued_) 

National Archives 

ATTN: Librarian 

National Atomic Museum 

ATTN: Historian 

Department of Commerce 

ATTN: Librarian 

Occupational Safety & Health Admin 

ATTN: Library 

Office of Health & Disability 

ATTN: R. Copeland 

Office of Workers Compensation Pgrm 

ATTN: R. Larson 

U.S. Coast Guard Academy Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

U.S. House of Representatives 

2 cy ATTN: Committee on Armed Services 

U.S. House of Representatives 

ATTN: Subcommittee on Health 11 Envir 

U.S. Senate 

ATTN: Committee on Veterans A-ffairs 

U.S. Senate 

ATTN: Committee on Veterans Affairs 

Veterans Administration - RO 

Providence, RI 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration 

Washington, D.C. 

ATTN: Board of Veteran Appeal 

Veterans Administration - Oft Central 

Washington, D.C. 

ATTN: Dept Veterans Benefit, Central Oft 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration - RO 

Montgomery, Al 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration - RO 

Anchorage, AK 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration - RO 

Phoenix, AZ 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration - RO 

Little Rock, AR 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration -RO 

Los Angeles, CA 

ATTN: Director 

OTHER GOVERNMENT AGENCIES (Continued) 

Veterans Administration 

San Francisco, CA 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Denver, CO 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Hartford, CT 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Wilmington, DE 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

St. Petersburg, FL 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Atlanta, GA 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Honolulu, HI 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Chicago, IL 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Seattle, WA 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Indianapolis, IN 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Des Moines, IA 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Wichita, KS 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Louisville, KY 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

New Orleans, LA 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Togus, ME 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Baltimore, MD 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Boston, MA 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

203 
OTHER GOVERNMENT AGENCIES (Continued) 

Veterans Administration 

St. Paul, MN 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Jackson, MS 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Huntington, WV 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

St. Louis, MO 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Fort Harrison, MT 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Lincoln, NE 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Reno, NV 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Manchester, NH 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Newark, NJ 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Milwaukee, WI 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Albuquerque, NM 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Buffalo, NY 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

New York, NY 

ATTN: Director 

-RO 

Veterans Administration 

Winston Salem, NC 

ATTN: Director 

-RO 

Veterans Administration 

Fargo, ND 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Cleveland, OH 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

Veterans Administration 

Muskogee, OK 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

OTHER GOVERNMENT AGENCIES (Continued) 

Veterans Administration - RO 

Portland, OR 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration 

Pittsburgh, PA 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration 

Philadelphia, PA 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration 

APO San Francisco 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration 

San Juan, Puerto Rico 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration 

Columbia, SC 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration 

Sioux Falls, SD 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration 

Houston, TX 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration 

Waco, TX 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration 

Salt Lake City, UT 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration 

White River Junction, 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration 

Roanoke, VA 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration 

Cheyenne, WY 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration 

San Diego, CA 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration 

Boise, ID 

ATTN: Director 

Veterans Administration 

Detroit, MI 

ATTN: Director 

- RO 

- RO 

- RO 

- RO 

- RO 

- RO 

- RO 

- RO 

- RO 

- RO 

VT 

- RO 

- RO 

- RO 

- RO 

- RO 

204 
OTHER GOVERNMENT AGENCIES (Continued) 

Veterans Administration - RO 

Nashville, TN 

ATTN: Director 

The White House 

ATTN: Oomestic Policy Staff 

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE CONTRACTORS 

Advanced Research & Applications Carp 

ATTN: H. Lee 

JAYCOR 

ATTN: A. Nelson 

10 cy ATTN: Health & Environment Div 

Kaman Tempo 

ATTN: DASIAC 

6 cy ATTN: E. Martin 

Kaman Tempo 

AITN: R. Miller 

Kaman Tempo 

ATTN: OASIAC 

National Academy of Sciences 

ATTN: C. Robinette 

ATTN: Medical Follow-up Agency 

ATTN: National Materials Advisory Board 

Pacific-Sierra Research Corp 

ATTN: H. Brode, Chairman SAGE 

R & D Associates 

ATTN: P. Haas 

Rand Corp 

Al-TN: P. Davis 

Rand Corp 

ATTN: B. Bennett 

Science Applications, Inc 

ATTN: Tech Library 

Science Applications, Inc 

10 cy ATTN: L. Novotney 

OTHER 

Adams State College 

ATTN: Govt Publication Lib 

Akron Public Library 

ATTN: Govt Publication Librarian 

University of Alabama 

ATTN: Reference Dept/Oocuments 

University of Alaska 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

University of Alaska 

ATTN: Govt Publication Librarian 

OTHER (Continued) 

Albany Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Alexander City State Jr College 

ATTN: Librarian 

Allegheny College 

ATTN: Librarian 

Allen County Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Altoona Area Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

American Statistics Index 

ATTN: Cathy Jarvey 

Anaheim Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Andrews Library, College of Wooster 

ATTN: Government Documents 

Angelo State University Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Angelo lacoboni Pub Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

Anoka County Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Appalachian State University 

ATTN: Library Documents 

Arizona State University Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

University of Arizona 

ATTN: Gov Dot Dept. C. Bower 

Arkansas College Library

ATTN: Library 

Arkansas Library Comm 

ATTN: Library 

Arkansas State University 

ATTN: Library 

University of Arkansas 

ATTN: Government Documents Div 

Austin College

Arthur Hopkins Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Atlanta Public Library 

AITN: Ivan Allen Dept 

Atlanta University Center 

ATTN: Librarian 

205 
OTHER (Continued) 

Auburn Univ at Montgomery Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

8. Davis Schwartz Mem Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

Bangor Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Bates College Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Baylor University Library 

ATTN: Dots Dept 

Beloit College Libraries 

ATTN: Serials Dots Dept 

Bemidji State College 

ATTN: Library 

Benjamin F. Feinberg Library 

State University College 

ATTN: Government Documents 

Bierce Library, Akron University 

ATTN: Government Documents 

Boston Public Library 

ATTN: Documents Department 

Bowdoin College 

ATTN: Librarian 

Bowling Green State Univ 

ATTN: Govt Dots Services 

Bradley University 

ATTN: Govt Publication Librarian 

Brandeis University Lib 

ATTN: Documents Section 

Brigham Young University 

ATTN: Librarian 

Brigham Young University 

ATTN: Documents Collection 

Brookhaven National Laboratory 

ATTN: Technical Library 

Brooklyn College 

ATTN: Documents Division 

Broward County Library Sys 

ATTN: Librarian 

Brown University 

ATTN: Librarian 

Bucknell University 

ATTN: Reference Dept 

OTHER (Continued) 

Buffalo & Erie Co Pub Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

Burlinoton Librarv 

ATTN: Librarian 

Cal ifornia at Fresno State Univ Lib 

ATTN: Library 

Cal fornia at San Diego University 

ATTN: Documents Department 

Cal ifornia at Stanislavs St Clg Lib 

ATTN: Library 

Cal fornia St Polytechnic Univ Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

Cal i,fornia St Univ at Northridge 

ATTN: Gov Dot 

Cal fornia State Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

California State Univ at Long Beach Lib 

ATTN: Librarian, Govt Pubs 

California State University 

ATTN: Librarian 

Cal ifornia State University 

ATTN: Librarian 

Cal i-fornia Univ Library 

ATTN: Govt Publications Dept 

Cal Fornia Univ Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

California University Library 

ATTN: Govt Documents Dept 

California University Library 

ATTN: Documents Set 

California University 

ATTN: Government Documents Dept 

Calvin College Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Calvin T. Ryan Library 

Kearney State College 

ATTN: Govt Documents Dept 

Carlet;;Tpllege Library 

: Librarian 

Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh 

ATTN: Librarian 

Carnegie Mellon University 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

206 
OTHER (Continued) OTHER (Continued) 

Carson Regional Library Colgate Univ Library 

ATTN: Gov Publications Unit ATTN: Reference Library 

Case Western Reserve University Colorado State Univ Libs 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

University of Central Florida Colorado University Libraries 

ATTN: Library Oocs Dept ATTN: Director of Libraries 

Central Michigan University Columbia University Library 

ATTN: Library Documents Section ATTN: Documents Service Center 

Central Missouri State Univ Columbus & Franklin Cty Public Lib 

ATTN: Government Documents ATTN: Gen Ret Div 

Central State University Compton Library 

ATTN: Library Documents Dept ATTN: Librarian 

Central Washington University Connecticut State Library 

ATTN: Library Dots Section ATTN: Librarian 

Central Wyoming College Library University of Connecticut 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Govt of Connecticut 

Charleston County Library Connecticut University 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Director of Libraries 

Charlotte & Mechlenburg County Pub Lib Cornell University Lib 

ATTN: E. Correll ATTN: Librarian 

Chattanooga Hamilton Co Corpus Christi State University Lib 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

Chesapeake Pub Lib System CSIA Library 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

Culver City Library 

ATTN: Governments Publications Oept ATTN: Librarian

Chicago Public Library 

State University of Chicago Curry College Library 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

Dallas County Public Library 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

Chicago University Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

ATTN: Documents Processing 

Dallas Public Library 

Cincinnati University Library ATTN: Librarian 

ATTN: Librarian 

Dalton Jr College Library 

Claremont Colleges Libs ATTN: Librarian 

ATTN: Dot Collection 

Dartmouth College 

ATTN: Librarian Clemson University 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

Davenport Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian Cleveland Public Library 

ATTN: Documents Collection 

Davidson College 

ATTN: Librarian Cleveland State Univ Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

Dayton & Montgomery City Pub Lib 

ATTN: Librarian Coe Library 

ATTN: Documents Division 

University of Dayton 

ATTN: Librarian 

207 
OTHER (Continued OTHER (Continued) 

Decatur Public Library East Texas State University 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Library 

Dekalb Comm Co11 So Cpus Eastern Branch 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

Delaware Pauw University Eastern Illinois University 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

University of Delaware Eastern Kentucky University 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

Delta College Library Eastern Michigan University Lib 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Documents Libn 

Delta State University Eastern Montana College Library 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Documents Dept 

Denison Univ Library Eastern New Mexico Univ 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

Denver Public Library Eastern Oregon College Library 

ATTN: Documents Div ATTN: Librarian 

Dept of Lib & Archives Eastern Washington Univ 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

Detroit Public Library El Paso Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Documents & Geneology Dept 

Dickinson State College Elko County Library 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

Drake Memorial Learning Resource Ctr Elmira College 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

Drake University Elon College Library 

ATTN: Cowles Library ATTN: Librarian 

Drew University Enoch Pratt Free Library 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Documents Office 

Duke University Emory University 

ATTN: Public Dots Dept ATTN: Librarian 

Duluth Public Library Evansville & Vanderburgh County Pub Lib 

ATTN: Documents Section ATTN: Librarian 

Earlham Colleae Everett Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

East Carolina University Fairleigh Dickinson Univ 

ATTN: Library Dots Dept ATTN: Depository Dept 

East Central University Florida A & M Univ 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

East Islip Public Library Florida Atlantic Univ Lib 

ATTN: Libt-dridn ATTN: Div of Public Documents 

East Orange Public Lib Florida Institute of Tech Lib 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Federal Documents Dept 

East Tennessee State Univ Sherrod Lib Florida Intl Univ Library 

ATTN: Documents Dept ATTN: Dots Section 

208 
OTHER (Continued) 

Florida State Library 

ATTN: Documents Section 

Florida State Universitv 

ATTN: Librarian 

Fond Du Lac Public Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

Fort Hays State University 

ATTN: Librarian 

Fort Worth Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Free Pub Lib of Elizabeth 

ATTN: Librarian 

Free Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Freeport Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Fresno County Free Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Gadsden Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Garden Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Gardner Webb College 

ATTN: Documents Librn 

Gary Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Georgetown Univ Library 

ATTN: Govt Dots Room 

Georgia Inst of Tech 

ATTN: Librarian 

Georgia Southern College 

ATTN: Librarian 

Georgia Southwestern College 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

Georgia State Univ Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

University of Georgia 

ATTN: Dir of Libraries 

Glassboro State College 

ATTN: Librarian 

Gleeson Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

OTHER (Continued) 

Government Publications Library-M 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

Graceland College 

ATTN: Librarian 

Grand Forks Public City-County Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Grand Rapids Public Library 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

Greenville County Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Guam RFK Memorial University Lib 

ATTN: Fed Depository Collection 

University of Guam 

ATTN: Librarian 

Gustavus Adolphus College 

ATTN: Library 

Hardin-Simmons University Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Hartford Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Harvard College Library 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

University of Hawaii 

ATTN: Government Dots Collection 

Hawaii State Library 

ATTN: Federal Documents Unit 

University of Hawaii at Monoa 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

University of Hawaii 

ATTN: Librarian 

Haydon Burns Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Henry Ford Comm College Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

Herbert H. Lehman College 

ATTN: Library Documents Division 

Hofstra Univ Library 

ATTN: Documents Dept 

Hollins College 

ATTN: Librarian 

Hoover Institution 

ATTN: J. Bingham 

209 
OTHER (Continued) OTHER (Continued) 

Hopkinsville Comm College Butler University, Irwin Library 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

University of Houston, Library Isaac Delchdo College 

ATTN: Documents Div ATTN: Librarian 

Houston Public Library James Madison University 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

Hoyt Public Library Jefferson County Public Lib 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

Humboldt State College Library Jersey City State College 

ATTN: Documents Dept ATTN: Librarian 

Huntington Park Library Johns Hopkins University 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Documents Library 

Hutchinson Public Library John J. Wright Library, La Roche College 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

Idaho Public Lib & Info Center Johnson Free Public Lib 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

Idaho State Library Kahului Library 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

Idaho State University Library Kalamazoo Public Library 

ATTN: Documents Dept ATTN: Librarian 

University of Idaho Kansas City Public Library 

ATTN: Documents Sect ATTN: Documents Div 

ATTN: Dir of Libraries 

Kansas State Library 

University of Illinois, Library ATTN: Librarian 

ATTN: Documents Section 

Kansas State Univ Library 

Illinois State Library ATTN: Documents Dept 

ATTN: Government Documents Branch 

University of Kansas 

Illinois Univ at Urbana Champaign ATTN: Director of Libraries 

ATTN: P. Watson, Documents Library 

Kent State University Library 

Illinois Valley Comm Co11 ATTN: Documents Div 

ATTN: Library 

Kentucky Dept of Library & Archives 

Indiana State Library ATTN: Documents Section 

ATTN: Serial Section 

University of Kentucky 

Indiana State University ATTN: Governments Publication Dept 

ATTN: Documents Libraries ATTN: Director of Libraries 

Indiana University Library Kenyon College Library 

ATTN: Documents Department ATTN: Librarian 

Indianapolis Marion Cty Pub Library Lake Forest College 

ATTN: Social Science Div ATTN: Librarian 

Iowa State University Library Lake Sumter Comm Co11 Lib 

ATTN: Govt Documents Dept ATTN: Librarian 

Iowa University Library Lakeland Public Library 

ATTN: Government Documents Dept ATTN: Librarian 

210 
OTHER (Continued) 

Lancaster Regional Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Lawrence University 

ATTN: Documents Dept 

Lee Library, Brigham Young University 

ATTN: Documents & Map Section 

Library & Statutory Distribution & Svc 

2 cy ATTN: Librarian 

Little Rock Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Long Beach Pub1 Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Los Angeles Public Library 

ATTN: Serials Div U.S. Documents 

Louisiana State University 

ATTN: Government Dot Dept 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

Louisville Free Pub Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

Louisville Univ Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Lyndon B. Johnson Sch of Pub Affairs Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

Maine Maritime Academy 

ATTN: Librarian 

Maine University at Oreno 

ATTN: Librarian 

University of Maine 

ATTN: Librarian 

Manchester City Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Mankato State College 

ATTN: Govt Publications 

Mantor Library 

Univ of Maine-at Farmington 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

Marathon County Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Marshall Brooks Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

University of Maryland 

ATTN: McKeldin Libr Dots Div 

University of Maryland 

ATTN: Librarian 

OTHER (Continued) 

University of Massachusetts 

ATTN: Government Dots College 

McNeese State Univ 

ATTN: Librarian 

Memphis Shelby County Pub Lib & Info Ctr 

ATTN: Librarian 

Memphis State University 

ATTN: Librarian 

Mercer University 

ATTN: Librarian 

Mesa County Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

University of Miami, Library 

ATTN: Government Publications 

Miami Public Library 

ATTN: Documents Division 

Miami Univ Library 

ATTN: Documents Dept 

Michel Orradre Library 

University of Santa Clara 

ATTN: Documents Div 

Michigan State Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Michigan State University Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Michigan Tech University 

ATTN: Library Documents Dept 

University of Michigan 

ATTN: Acq Set Documents Unit 

Middlebury College Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Millersville State Colt 

ATTN: Librarian 

Milne Library 

State University of New York 

ATTN: Dots Librn 

Milwaukee Pub Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

Minneapolis Public Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

Minnesota Div of Emergency Svcs 

ATTN: Librarian 

Minot State College 

ATTN: Librarian 

Mississippi State University 

ATTN: Librarian 

211 
OTHER (Continued) 

University of Mississippi 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

Missouri Univ at Kansas City Gen 

ATTN: Librarian 

Missouri University Library 

ATTN: Government Documents 

M.I.T. Libraries 

ATTN: Librarian 

Mobile Public Library 

ATTN: Governmental Info Division 

Moffett Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Montana State Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Montana State University, Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

University of Montana 

ATTN: Documents Div 

Moorhead State College 

ATTN: Library 

Mt Prospect Public Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

Murray State Univ Lib 

ATTN: Library 

Nassau Library System 

ATTN: Librarian 

Natrona County Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Nebraska Library Comm 

ATTN: Librarian 

Univ of Nebraska at Omaha 

ATTN: Librarian 

Nebraska Western College Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Univ of Nebraska at Lincoln 

ATTN: Acquisitions DePt 

Univ of Nevada at Reno 

ATTN: Governments Pub Dept 

Univ of Nevada at Las Vegas 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

New Hampshire University Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

New Hanover County Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Nebraska University 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

OTHER (Continued) 

New Mexico State Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

New Mexico State University 

ATTN: Lib Documents Div 

University of New Mexico 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

University of New Orleans Library 

ATTN: Govt Documents Div 

New Orleans Public Lib 

ATTN: Library 

New York Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

New York State Library 

ATTN: Dot Control, Cultural Ed Ctr 

New York State Univ at Stony Brook 

ATTN: Main Lib Dot Sect 

New York State Univ Co1 at Cortland 

ATTN: Librarian 

State Univ of New York 

ATTN: Library Documents Set 

State Univ of New York 

ATTN: Librarian 

New York State University 

ATTN: Documents Center 

State University of New York 

ATTN: Documents Dept 

New York University Library 

ATTN: Documents Dept 

Newark Free Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Newark Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Niagara Falls Pub Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

Nicholls State Univ Library 

ATTN: Dots Div 

Nieves M. Flores Memorial Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

Norfolk Public Library 

ATTN: R. Parker 

North Carolina Agri & Tech State Univ 

ATTN: Librarian 

Univ of North Carolina at Charlotte 

ATTN: Atkins Library Documents Dept 

Univ of North Carolina at Greensboro, Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

212 
OTHER (Continued) 

North Carolina Central University 

ATTN: Librarian 

North Carolina State University 

ATTN: Librarian 

North Carolina University at Wilmington 

ATTN: Librarian 

University of North Carolina 

ATTN: BA SS Division Documents 

North Dakota State University Lib 

ATTN: Dots Librarian 

University of North Dakota 

ATTN: Librarian 

North Georgia College 

ATTN: Librarian 

North Texas State University Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Northeast Missouri State University 

ATTN: Librarian 

Northeastern Illinois University 

ATTN: Library 

Northeastern Oklahoma State Univ 

ATTN: Librarian 

Northeastern University 

ATTN: Dodge Library 

Northern Arizona University Lib 

ATTN: Government Documents Dept 

Northern Illinois University 

ATTN: Librarian 

Northern Iowa University

ATTN: Library 

Northern Michigan Univ 

ATTN: Documents 

Northern Montana College Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Northwestern Michigan College 

ATTN: Librarian 

Northwestern State UniV 

ATTN: Librarian 

Northwestern State Univ Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Northwestern University Library 

ATTN: Govt Publications Dept 

Norwalk Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

OTHER (Continued) 

University of Notre Dame 

ATTN: Document Center 

Oakland Comm College 

ATTN: Librarian 

Oakland Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Oberlin College Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Ocean County College 

ATTN: Librarian 

Ohio State University 

ATTN: Libraries Documents Division 

Ohio University Library 

ATTN: Dots Dept 

Oklahoma City University Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Oklahoma City University Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Oklahoma Dept of Libraries 

ATTN: U.S. Govt Documents 

University of Oklahoma, Library 

ATTN: Govt Dot Collection 

Old Dominion University 

ATTN: Dot Dept Univ Library 

Olivet College Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Omaha Pub Lib Clark Branch 

ATTN: Librarian 

Oregon State Library

ATTN: Librarian 

University of Oregon 

ATTN: Documents Section 

Ouachita Baptist University 

ATTN: Librarian 

Pan American University Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Passaic Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Paul Klapper Library

ATTN: Documents Dept 

Pennsylvania State Library 

ATTN: Government Publications Section 

213 
OTHER (Continued) 

Pennsylvania State University 

ATTN: Library Document Set 

University of Pennsylvania 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

Penrose Library 

University of Denver 

ATTN: Penrose Library 

Peoria Public Library 

ATTN: Business, Science & Tech Dept 

Free Library of Philadelphia 

ATTN: Govt Publications Dept 

Philipsburg Free Public Library 

ATTN: Library 

Phoenix Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

University of Pittsburg 

ATTN: Documents Office G 8 

Plainfield Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Popular Creek Public Lib District 

ATTN: Librarian 

Association of Portland Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

Portland Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Portland State University Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Prescott Memorial Lib 

Louisiana Tech Univ 

ATTN: Librarian 

Princeton University Library 

ATTN: Documents Division 

Providence College 

ATTN: Librarian 

Providence Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Cincinnati & Hamilton County Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Public Library of Nashville and Davidson County 

ATTN: Library 

University of Puerto Rico 

ATTN: Dot & Maps Room 

Purdue University Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

OTHER (Continued) 

Quinebaug Valley Community Co1 

ATTN: Librarian 

Ralph Brown Draughon Lib 

Auburn University 

ATTN: Microforms & Documents Dept 

Rapid City Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Reading Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Reed College Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Reese Library 

Augusta College 

ATTN: Librarian 

University of Rhode Island Library 

ATTN: Govt Publications Office 

University of Rhode Island 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

Rice University 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

Richard W. Norton Mem Lib 

Louisiana College 

ATTN: Librarian 

Richland County Pub Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

University of Richmond 

ATTN: Library 

Riverside Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

University of Rochester Library 

ATTN: Documents Section 

Rutqers University, Camden Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Rutgers State University 

ATTN: Librarian 

Rutgers University, Library of Sci & Medicine 

ATTN: Govt Dots Dept 

Rutgers University Law Library 

ATTN: Federal Documents Dept 

Salem College Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Samford University 

ATTN: Librarian 

San Antonio Public Library 

ATTN: Bus Science & Tech Dept 

214 
OTHER (Continued)_ 

San Diego County Library 

ATTN: C. Jones, Acquisitions 

San Diego Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

San Diego State University Library 

ATTN: Govt Pubs Dept 

San Francisco Public Library 

ATTN: Govt Documents Dept 

San Francisco State College 

ATTN: Govt Pub Collection 

San Jose State College Library 

ATTN: Documents Dept 

San Luis Obispo City-County Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Savannah Pub & Effingham Libty Reg Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

Scottsbluff Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Scranton Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Seattle Public Library 

ATTN: Ref Dot Asst 

Selby Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Shawnee Library System 

ATTN: Librarian 

Shreve Memorial Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Silas Sronson Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Simon Schwab Mem Lib 

Columbus College 

ATTN: Librarian 

Sioux City Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Skidmore College 

ATTN: Librarian 

Slippery Rock State College Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

South Carolina State Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

University of South Carolina 

ATTN: Librarian 

OTHER (Continued) 

University of South Carolina 

ATTN: Government Documents 

South Dakota Sch of Mines & Tech 

ATTN: Librarian 

South Oaknta State ILibrary 

ATTN: Federal Documents Department 

University of South Dakota 

ATTN: Documents Librarian 

South Florida University Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Southdale-Hennepin Area Library 

ATTN: Government Documents 

Southeast Missouri State University 

ATTN: Librarian 

Southeastern Massachusetts University Library 

ATTN: Documents Set 

University of Southern Alabama 

ATTN: Librarian 

Southern California University Library 

ATTN: Documents Dept 

Southern Connecticut State College 

ATTN: Library 

Southern Illinois University 

ATTN: Librarian 

Southern Illinois University 

ATTN: Documents Ctr 

Southern Methodist University 

ATTN: Librarian 

University of Southern Mississippi 

ATTN: Library 

Southern Oregon College 

ATTN: Library 

Southern University in New Orleans, Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Southern Utah State College Library 

ATTN: Documents Department 

Southwest Missouri State College 

ATTN: Library 

Southwestern University of Louisiana, Libraries 

ATTN: Librarian 

Southwestern University School of Law Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

215 
OTHER (Continued) 

Spokane Public Library 

ATTN: Reference Dept 

Springfield City Library 

ATTN: Documents Section 

St. Bonaventure University 

ATTN: Librarian 

St. Joseph Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

St. Lawrence University 

ATTN: Librarian 

St. Louis Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

St. Paul Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Stanford University Library 

ATTN: Govt Documents Dept 

State Historical Sot Lib 

ATTN: Dots Serials Section 

State Library of Massachusetts 

ATTN: Librarian 

State University of New York 

ATTN: Librarian 

Stetson Univ 

ATTN: Librarian 

University of Steubenville 

ATTN: Librarian 

Stockton & San Joaquin Public Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

Stockton State College Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Superior Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Swarthmore College Lib 

ATTN: Reference Dept 

Syracuse University Library 

ATTN: Documents Div 

Tacoma Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Tampa, Hillsborough County Public Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

Temple University 

ATTN: Librarian 

Tennessee Technological University 

ATTN: Librarian 

OTHER (Continued) 

University of Tennessee 

ATTN: Dir of Libraries 

Terteling Library 

College of Idaho 

ATTN: Librarian 

Texas A & M University Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

University of Texas at Arlington 

ATTN: Library Documents 

University of Texas at San Antonio 

ATTN: Library 

Texas Christian University 

ATTN: Librarian 

Texas State Library 

ATTN: U.S. Documents Sect 

Texas Tech University Library 

ATTN: Govt Dots Dept 

Texas University at Austin 

ATTN: Documents Co11 

Texas University at El Paso 

ATTN: Documents and Maps Lib 

University of Toledo Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Toledo Public Library 

ATTN: Social Science Dept 

Torrance Civic Center Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Traverse City Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Trenton Free Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Trinity College Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Trinity University Library 

ATTN: Documents Collection 

Tufts University Library 

ATTN: Documents Dept 

Tulane University 

ATTN: Documents Dept 

University of Tulsa 

ATTN: Librarian 

UCLA Research Library 

ATTN: Public Affairs Svc/US Dots 

216 
OTHER (Continued) 

Uniformed Svcs Univ of the Hlth Sci 

ATTN: LRC Library 

University Libraries 

ATTN: Dir of Libraries 

Upper Iowa College 

ATTN: Documents Collection 

Utah State University 

ATTN: Librarian 

University of Utah 

ATTN: Special Collections 

Universitv of Utah 

ATTN: Dept of Pharmacology 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

Valencia Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Vanderbilt University Library 

ATTN: Govt Dots Sect 

University of Vermont 

ATTN: Director of Libraries 

Virginia Commonwealth University 

ATTN: Librarian 

Virginia Military Institute 

ATTN: Librarian 

Virginia Polytechnic Inst Lib 

ATTN: Dots Dept 

Virginia State Library 

ATTN: Serials Section 

University of Virginia 

ATTN: Public Documents 

Volusia County Public Libraries 

ATTN: Librarian 

Washington State Library 

ATTN: Documents Section 

Washington State University 

ATTN: Lib Documents Section 

Washington University Libraries 

ATTN: Dir of Libraries 

University of Washington 

ATTN: Documents Div 

Wayne State University Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Wayne State University Law Library 

ATTN: Documents Dept 

Weber State College Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Wagner College 

ATTN: Librarian 

OTHER (Continued) 

Wesleyan University 

ATTN: Documents Librarian 

West Chester State Co11 

ATTN: Documents Dept 

West Covina Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

University of West Florida 

ATTN: Librarian 

West Hills Community Co?1 

ATTN: Library 

West Texas State University 

ATTN: Library 

West Virginia Co11 of Grad Studies Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

University of West Virginia 

ATTN: Dir of Libraries 

Westerly Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Western Carolina University 

ATTN: Librarian 

Western Illinois University Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

Western Washington Univ 

ATTN: Librarian 

Western Wyoming Community College Lib 

ATTN: Librarian 

Westmoreland Cty Comm Co11 

ATTN: Learning Resource Ctr 

Whitman College 

ATTN: Librarian 

Wichita State Univ Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

William & Mary College 

ATTN: Dots Dept 

William Allen White Library 

Emporia Kansas State College 

ATTN: Govt Documents Div 

William College Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Willimantic Public Library 

ATTN: Librarian 

Winthrop College 

ATTN: Documents Dept 

University of Wisconsin at Whitewater 

ATTN: Government Documents Library 

217 
- 

OTHER (Continued) OTHER (Continued) 

Wisconsin Milwaukee University Yale University 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Director of Libraries 

Wisconsin Oshkosh University Yeshiva University 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

Wisconsin Platteville University Yuma City County Library 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

Wisconsin University at Stevens Point Wright State Univ Library 

ATTN: Dots Section ATTN: Govts Documents Dept 

University of Wisconsin Wyoming State Library 

ATTN: Govt Pubs Dept ATTN: Librarian 

University of Wisconsin University of Wyoming 

ATTN: Acquisitions Dept ATTN: Documents Div 

Worcester Public Library State Library of Ohio 

ATTN: Librarian ATTN: Librarian 

218