Molds, Toxic Molds, and 

Indoor Air Quality 

By Pamela J. Davis 

Prepared at the Request of 

Assemblymember Alan Lowenthal 

MARCH 2001 

CRB Note. Vol. 8, No. 1 

ISBN: 1-58703-133-7 
Molds and Indoor Air Quality 

Molds are essential components of our planets ecosystem providing 

decomposition of many organic substances necessary to plant, animal, and 

human life . However, it is also the case that excessive exposure to molds has 

been a health issue for humans for many, many years. The earliest known 

writings that appear to discuss mold infestation and remediation (cleaning up, 

removal) are found in the Old Testament.' Molds have been implicated as the 

cause of a variety of health effects in humans ranging from minor allergic 

reactions and exacerbation of asthma, to brain damage . Molds have been found 

growing in private homes, office buildings, schools, autorriobiles, and other 

locations where organic matter and water are left unattended. This is not a new 

issue --just one which, until now, has received little attention by policy makers 

in the United States. 

There are no state or federal statutes or regulations regarding molds and indoor 

air quality. However, some public agencies do make various publications 

regarding mold and indoor air quality available to the public . The majority of the 

publications available regarding mold and indoor air quality focus on 

commercial and school building infestation and remediation. However, there are 

a few publications available which are geared specifically toward the general 

public and residential exposure. 

The key to limiting mold exposure is to prevent the germination and growth of 

mold. Individuals, landlords, building maintenance personnel, architects, and 

builders need to know effective means of avoiding mold growth which might 

arise from lifestyle choices or maintenance and construction practices. Likewise, 

effective means of locating and cleaning existing growths are paramount to 

decreasing the health effects of mold contamination . 

This paper was prepared at the request of Assemblymember Alan Lowenthal and 

provides background information on molds, their potential health effects, and 

how they relate to indoor air quality. 

WHAT TYPE OF ORGANISM IS MOLD? 

Molds are the most typical form of fungus found on earth, comprising approximately 

25% of the earth's biomass.2 Other fungi include yeasts and mushrooms. Molds are 

ubiquitous on our planet and are essential decomposers of organic substances necessary 

for sustaining plant and animal life .3 Molds are made up of masses of filament-like cells 

called hyphae. Under the appropriate conditions, the hyphae will grow into long 

intertwining strings that form the main body of the fungus, or the mycelium. It is the 

California Research Bureau, California State Library 
mass of mycelium that is visible to the human eye. Molds reproduce via spores . 

However, molds can also spread if a fragment of broken hyphae is transplanted to an area 

with adequate moisture and organic matter for food.4 

What causes mold to grow? Molds are incredibly resilient and adaptable . Molds gain 

the nutrients they need through the decomposition of organic matter . Most molds found 

in indoor air are saprotropic, meaning they gather their food from dead moist organic 

matter such as wood, paper, paint, fabric, plant soil, dust, and cooked or raw foods. 

However, molds can also grow on the surface of damp inorganic matter such as glass and 

bare concrete covered by an invisible biofilm (an extremely thin layer of organic matter).5 

In short, all mold needs to germinate and grow is a readily available food source, 

undisturbed water, and time . Some molds can germinate in as little as four to 12 hours . b 

Left undisturbed, mold can grow and spread in 24 to 72 hours. 

7 

In their paper on health effects of molds, Peter Kozak, et al state, "Endogenous mold 

problems generally occur after prolonged or repeated water damage to a variety of 

organic materials." They further explain that mold spores can be brought into the home 

from outside. Outdoor factors that seem to affect indoor mold spore concentrations 

include marked shade, increased levels of available organic debris, and "natural or 

basically uncared for property ."8 

Floods, leaking pipes, leaking windows, and leaking roofs are all potential sources of 

moisture that can lead to mold infestation. Increased ambient humidity as a result of 

inadequate ventilation or improper drying of flooded areas can also lead to mold growth . 

Lifestyle choices such as overpopulating a residence, keeping a house closed up without 

running an air conditioner or dehumidifier, the presence of multiple indoor houseplants 

(especially if over watered and without adequate ventilation), and poor housecleaning 

habits can also lead to mold growth .9 

What are the reproductive properties of molds? Molds reproduce through the 

production of spores . The environment in which a given mold may grow prolifically is 

very likely different from the environment necessary for spore production. 10 After the 

spores are formed they are released into the air to be carried elsewhere for germination 

and growth. Mold spores can survive for many years in dry or hot environments, 

requiring only moisture and available organic matter to allow them to germinate.~l 

WHAT ARE "TOXIC" MOLDS? 

Journalists have used the term "toxic mold" when writing about molds that have been 

implicated in severe health reactions in humans. As used in the press, this term generally 

refers only to those molds capable of producing mycotoxins. (A detailed description of 

fungal properties, including the production of mycotoxins is included in the next section 

of this paper.) However, all molds under proper conditions are capable of eliciting a 

negative health response in humans through other methods such as inflammation, allergy, 

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or infection . 12 Therefore, limiting the discussion to just those molds that potentially 

produce mycotoxins is inappropriate . 

PROPERTIES OF MOLDS WHICH POTENTIALLY POSE A THREAT TO HUMAN 

HEALTH 

Molds can elicit a variety of health responses in humans. The severity of the impact 

depends upon the type and amount of mold present as well as the susceptibility and 

sensitivity of the individual experiencing mold exposure. 

13 Humans are exposed to 

molds via ingestion, inhalation, and skin contact with mold or mold infested material .1 4 

Although molds are living, multiplying organisms, they do not have to be alive to cause 

adverse health effects.' s 

Below is a list of mold components known to elicit a response in humans : Selected 

health effects of mold exposure are discussed in a later section of this paper. 

Volatile Organic Compounds. In the paper "Fungi & Indoor Air Quality" Sandra 

McNeel and R. Kreutzer state that "[m]olds produce a large number of volatile organic 

compounds. These chemicals are responsible for the musty odors produced by growing 

molds." 16 Volatile organic compounds also provide the odor in cheese, and the "off' 

taste of mold infested foods. Exposure to high levels of volatile organic compounds, 

from any source, such as industrial work places, can irritate the mucous membranes and 

affect the central nervous system, producing such symptoms as headaches, attention 

deficit, inability to concentrate, and dizziness. 

17 

According to McNeel, at present the specific contribution of mold volatile organic 

compounds to building-related health problems has not been studied. Also, mold volatile 

organic compounds are likely responsible for only a small fraction of total volatile 

organic compounds indoors. 

18 

Allergens. Due to the presence of allergens on spores, all molds studied to date have the 

potential to cause an allergic reaction in susceptible humans.19 Allergic reactions are 

believed to be the most common exposure reaction to molds. These reactions can range 

from mild, transitory responses, like runny eyes, runny nose, throat irritation, coughing, 

and sneezing; to severe, chronic illnesses such as sinusitis and asthma. 

20 

Mycotoxins. Some molds are capable of producing mycotoxins, natural organic 

compounds that are capable of initiating a toxic response in vertebrates . 

21 Molds known 

to potentially produce mycotoxins and which have been isolated in infestations causing 

adverse health effects include certain species of Acremonium, Alternaria, Aspergillus, 

California Research Bureau, California State Library 
Chaetomium, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Paecilomyces, Penicillium, Stachybotrys, and 

Trichoderma.22 This list is not all-inclusive .* 

While a certain type of mold or mold strain type may have the genetic potential for 

producing mycotoxins, specific environmental conditions are believed to be needed for 

the mycotoxins to be produced. In other words, although a given mold might have the 

potential to produce mycotoxins, it will not produce them if the appropriate 

environmental conditions are not present. Currently, the specific conditions that cause 

mycotoxin production are not fully understood. The United States Environmental 

Protection Agency (U.S . EPA) recognizes that mycotoxins have a tendency to 

concentrate in fungal spores and that there is limited information currently available 

regarding the processes involved in fungal spore release . As a result, the agency is 

currently conducting research on Stachybotrys chartarum in an effort to determine "the 

environmental conditions required for sporulation, emission, aerosolization, 

dissemination and transport of [Stachybotrys] into the air."23 

POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS OF MOLDS 

Certain health effects, such as those related to allergic reactions like irritation of the eyes, 

nose, and throat, dermatitis, exacerbation of asthma, and respiratory distress, have been 

proven to be associated with mold exposure. Other reported effects such as fever, flu-like 

symptoms, fatigue, respiratory dysfunction (including coughing up blood), excessive and 

regular nose bleeds, dizziness, headaches, diarrhea, vomiting, liver damage, and impaired 

or altered immune function have been identified in persons who have been exposed to 

mold via inhalation, however, limitations in existing science hinder the ability of 

researchers to conclusively cite mold exposure as the cause of these health effects. 

Similarly, while kidney damage, infertility, reproductive cycle disruption, and 

neurotoxicity have been reported in animals exposed to molds under laboratory 

conditions, no evidence of these effects has been noted in humans. 

24 

The extent to which an individual may be affected depends upon his or her state of 

health, susceptibility to disease, the organism with which he or she came in contact, and 

the duration and severity of exposure. 

25 Some people experience temporary effects that 

disappear when they vacate infested areas. 

26 In others, the effects of exposure may be 

long-term or permanent . 

27 Selected incidence of injury related to mold exposure will be 

discussed in a later section of this paper. 

The University of Minnesota Department of Environmental Health and Safety has compiled a glossary of 

common fungi and their allergenic/toxic potential . The list is currently available on the internet at 

http ://www.dehs .umn.edu/iaq/funeus/ ssarv Ig .html . 

California Research Bureau, California State Library 
Systemic infections caused by molds are not common. 28 Normal, healthy individuals can 

resist systemic infection from airborne molds . Those at risk for systemic fungal infection 

are severely immunocompromised individuals such as those undergoing chemotherapy, 

individuals who have had organ or bone marrow transplants, and persons with 

HIV/AIDS.29 

A National Academy of Sciences report titled Clearing the Air: Asthma and Indoor Air 

Exposures determined there was sufficient evidence to show an association between mold 

exposure and the aggravation of asthma in individuals who are sensitized to the disease . 

However, researchers report inadequate or insufficient evidence to determine whether or 

not an association exists regarding mold exposure and the development of asthma.3o 

An outbreak of Stachybotrys chartarum in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1994 was believed by 

some to have caused pulmonary hemorrhage in infants . Sixteen of the infants died. A 

Center for Disease Control sponsored a review of the cases concluded that the scientific 

evidence provided did not warrant the conclusion that inhaled mold was the cause of the 

illnesses in the infants . However, the panel also stated that further research was 

warranted, as the study design for the original research appeared to be faulty . 

31 

CHALLENGES WITH REGARD TO SETTING EXPOSURE LIMITS 

Unfortunately, due to the variances in personal sensitivities and the vast array of molds 

(by some estimates over 100,000) it has been impossible to set exposure limits for molds 

that can be applied to all humans. 

Research regarding exposure limits and the effects of ingested molds is readily available . 

However, due to the limitations of currently available science, few studies exist regarding 

the exposure limits and effects of inhaled molds on individuals . 

32 This is due primarily to 

the absence of biomarkers specific to molds. Biomarkers are chemicals in the body which 

have a particular molecular feature that make it possible to measure if an individual has 

been exposed to disease causing organisms as well as the progress of disease or the 

effects of treatment . At present time there are no known biomarkers that can prove that an 

individual has been exposed to molds. Therefore, traditional means of proving the 

correlation between exposure and symptoms is impossible. The lack of biomarkers limits 

our ability to genuinely link indoor mold exposure to specific illnesses . New York City 

Department of Health Guidelines explain: "[S]usceptibility varies with the genetic 

predisposition, age, state of health, and concurrent exposures. For this reason, and 

because measurements of exposure are not standardized and biological markers of 

exposure are largely unknown, it is not possible to determine `safe' or `unsafe' levels of 

exposure for people in general ."33 

Regarding infant exposure, the American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on 

Environmental Health in April 1998 stated that physicians should make every effort to 

ensure that infants less than one year of age avoid chronically moldy, water-damaged 

environments. 

34 

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Several population-based studies make the correlation between mold exposure via 

inhalation and health effects . A comprehensive review of available literature relating to 

the health effects of mold performed by the Federal-Provincial Working Group on 

Mycology Air Quality in Public Buildings (a Canadian Government sponsored group) 

showed that such studies "have consistently detected an association between respiratory 

symptoms and home dampness and mould growth, but causality in these studies has not 

been established . Until the magnitude of population risk is known, it would be prudent, 

based on current evidence, to remediate indoor sources conducive to fungal growth . 

,35 

All resources reviewed agree that those most at risk for adverse health effects related to 

mold exposure are infants, the elderly, the chronically ill, severely immunocompromised 

individuals such as those undergoing chemotherapy, individuals who have had organ or 

bone marrow transplants, and persons with HIV/AIDS. 

TOXIC MOLDS AS AN INDOOR AIR QUALITY ISSUE 

While there are no state or federal statues or regulations regarding mold exposure and 

indoor air quality, molds are increasingly being suspected as the cause of a variety of 

illnesses related to inhalation exposure . 

McNeel and Kreutzer explain that in the 1970s and 1980s mold contamination was 

identified as the primary cause for poor air quality in only 5% of more than 500 National 

Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) indoor air quality investigations . 

From 1986 to 1996, however, molds were the primary source of contamination 35-50% 

of the time . They note, "This change has been attributed at least partially to a paradigm 

shift from chemical contaminant-based investigations to an interdisciplinary approach 

combining evaluation of physical, chemical and microbial constituents of indoor air 

environments ."36 In other words, until recently, we didn't look for molds. 

According to Chris Gerber, an environmental consultant with nationally recognized 

testing and consulting firm Restoration Consultants, 70-80% of mold problems 

investigated by his employer in the past five to seven years have been in newly 

constructed buildings and newly constructed residences. Mr. Gerber attributes this high 

incidence of growth primarily to poor construction practices, the use of substandard 

materials, and increased air tightness of new construction techniques. He explains that 

increased air-tightness of newly constructed residences and office buildings can allow 

moisture to become trapped in exterior walls, creating an environment conducive to mold 

growth . Gerber further explains that in buildings with mold problems, centralized heating 

and air-conditioning systems can pick up contaminants and recirculate them throughout 

the building thus potentially spreading the infestation . 

37 

Jed Waldman, Chief of the California Department of Health Services Indoor Air Quality 

Program, suggests that regardless of construction practices, certain climate related events, 

such as flooding and the La Nina experienced two years ago (which left most of 

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California very cold and very wet), can cause even the most carefully constructed 

building to support mold growth .3g 

With regard to indoor air quality, molds have been implicated in office buildings, 

schools, and residences as contributing to the cause of illness in humans : 

" Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) : Although not attributed exclusively to molds, 

this is a term "used to describe situations in which building occupants experience 

acute health and comfort effects that appear to be linked to time spent in a 

building" because all other probable causes have been ruled out. 3 Symptoms 

include headaches; eye, nose, and throat irritation ; dry cough; dry or itchy skin ; 

dizziness and nausea ; difficulty in concentrating; fatigue ; and sensitivity to 

odors.ao 

Sick building syndrome is attributed to inadequate ventilation, chemical 

contaminants from indoor and outdoor sources, and biological contaminants such 

as molds, bacteria, pollens, and viruses . 

41 

In the paper, Sick-Building Syndrome and Building Related Illnesses, Theodore 

Passon, James W. Brown, and Seth Mante explain how increased air tightness of 

buildings in the 1970s, as a means of reducing energy consumption, has created 

environmental conditions conducive to the "proliferation of microorganisms 

[including mold] in indoor environments."4z Once growth has occurred, harmful 

organisms can be spread by improperly designed and maintained ventilation 

systems.a3 

" Poor Indoor Air Quality in Schools: A 1998 survey of literature published on 

indoor air quality, ventilation and health symptoms in schools performed by 

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory states that health problems in schools 

related to indoor air quality are very similar to those symptoms reportedly 

experienced as sick building syndrome. The survey also revealed that 

microbiological pollutants, along with volatile organic compounds, CO, and CO2, 

were some of the most commonly measured air pollutants in schools, adding that 

fungal spores, bacteria, and allergens may be of particular concern . The survey 

cites water damage leading to mold contamination as the second most frequently 

reported building-related problem. 

44 

The United States government's General Accounting Office reports that 

nationwide one in five schools reports having indoor air quality problems. 

45 

Consequences of poor indoor air quality in schools include: increasing risk of 

long and short-term health problems in teachers and students ; a negative impact 

on students' ability to learn due to physical symptoms ; reduced productivity of 

teachers ; destruction of school equipment, including text books ; and negative 

publicity for the school resulting in strained relationships among teachers, parents, 

and administrators . 

46 

California Research Bureau, California State Library 
" Illness related to residential exposure: Molds are believed to be one possible 

cause of certain severe adverse health impacts in children and adults in their 

homes. A few extreme examples include : 

1 . A Foresthill, California, couple, after realizing remediation was too expensive, 

recently burned their home to the ground. The family claims that exposure to 

mold infestation caused respiratory problems, nose bleeds, rashes, and other 

illnesses in family members.47 They believe, in their case, that rebuilding is 

less costly than remediation. 

2. Residents of four low-income housing apartment complexes in the Hunters 

Point section of San Francisco, California, blame toxic molds for a myriad of 

illnesses including rashes, hacking coughs, respiratory problems, headaches, 

nosebleeds, and high blood pressure. 

48 Similar claims have occurred in other 

complexes statewide . 

3 . A Dripping Springs, Texas, couple's 11,500 square-foot home was 

quarantined after molds were alleged to have caused stomach problems, 

diarrhea, vomiting, severe respiratory scarring, and other maladies in their 

son, as well as severe memory loss in the husband, ultimately resulting in his 

inability to work .49 

Is climate an issue? While molds are commonly thought to grow only in warm, moist, 

dark environments, recent research has shown that mold can grow even in dry climates. 

Since 1991, the U.S. EPA has been conducting research to determine what environmental 

conditions permit mold infestation . The focus of the investigation has been on material 

properties, climate conditions, and microorganism interactions . According to the 

executive summary, "One of the most significant technical results from this project is that 

the effect of relative humidity is indirect and that very small amounts of moisture, well 

below those commonly cited, will permit growth .,,50 Therefore, while dry climates may 

experience a reduced incidence of mold growth, they are not immune to infestation . 

ACTION BY STATE AND FEDERAL AGENCIES 

There are no mandated actions specific to molds and indoor air quality required by any 

state or federal agencies. The U.S . EPA Indoor Air Quality website states, "Standards or 

Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for airborne concentrations of mold, or mold spores, 

have not been set . Currently, there are no EPA regulations or standards for airborne mold 

contaminants ."s 1 

However, no mandates does not mean no action . In response to public concern, some 

state and federal agencies have made available a variety of documents related to mold 

and indoor air quality . The majority of these publications focus on commercial building 

and school building infestation and remediation. However, there are a few publications 

available which are geared specifically toward the general public and residential 

exposure. 

52 

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Every attempt was made to ensure that this list is all inclusive, however, it is possible that 

at the time of publication some documents may not have been discovered. 

California State Government. In response to increasing queries with regard to mold 

toxicity, the California Department of Health Services Indoor Air Quality Program has 

developed a website that includes a variety of documents related to this issue . Included in 

the selection is a document specific to residential exposure titled Mold In My Home: 

What Do I Do? These documents are currently available on-line at http ://www.calia .or . 

The Occupational Health Branch of California Department of Health Services (OHB) is 

mandated to review new and emerging occupational hazards and propose new regulations 

to the California Division of Occupational Safety and Health (Cal OSHA). As a result of 

a proposal by the OHB, Cal OSHA is looking at adding molds to the sanitation standard 

for office buildings and workspaces. OHB has created a "Molds in the Indoor 

Workplace" handout which addresses these concerns . The handout is currently available 

on-line at http ://www.dhs .ca.gov/ohb/HESIS/molds .pdf.s3 

Federal Government. The U.S. EPA has published recommendations on the cleanup of 

mold and control of moisture as part of its informational package titled "IAQ Tools for 

Schools ."54 Federal guidelines regarding mold remediation are anticipated in a 

subsequent publication, "Mold Remediation in Schools and Commercial Buildings ." 

EPA staff states that the guidelines are practical and thorough and focus on commercial 

buildings (including multi-family dwellings) and schools. Staff also asserts that the 

guidelines have applicability to residential infestation as the underlying principles for 

remediation are the same . The document is anticipated to be available online at the U.S. 

EPA website by the third week in March 200 1

.55 

Federal OSHA refers to molds as a potential indoor air quality concern in the OSHA 

Technical Manual, Section 111, Chapter 2. This document suggests guidelines to 

employers on how to respond to employee complaints regarding indoor air quality, 

including recommendations for increasing indoor air quality and removal of offending 

organisms. Molds are one of several air contaminants mentioned as possible causes of 

building-related illnesses . According to Ira Wainless, an industrial hygienist with OSHA, 

there are no plans for further action with regard to mold as an indoor air contaminant at 

this time. 

56 

Nationwide, other state and local governments. Several state and local agencies and 

universities across the United States have begun to address the issue of mold as an indoor 

air contaminant through the publication of articles and informational pamphlets 

discussing health effects, prevention, and remediation of indoor molds. Nationwide, 

agencies and universities offering informational materials include : Kansas Department of 

Health and Environment; Kansas State University; Minnesota Department of Health; 

Montana State University; New Jersey Department of Health and Senior Services, Public 

Employees Occupational Safety and Health Program; New York City Department of 

Health, Bureau of Environmental & Occupational Disease Epidemiology; North Carolina 

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State University; Texas Department of Health ; and Washington State Department of 

Health . 

The Canadian government has also conducted research regarding mold and indoor air 

quality . 

Why are molds not on the Proposition 65 list of chemical contaminants? Proposition 

65 requires that the Governor publish a list of chemicals that are known to the State of 

California to cause birth defects, reproductive harm, or cancer. Given that toxic molds 

are not classified as chemicals, they do not currently qualify for inclusion on the list . 

WHAT TO DO WHEN MOLDS ARE DISCOVERED : TESTING AND REMEDIATION 

Molds are resilient organisms . Because molds are capable of permeating porous 

materials surface cleaning is often insufficient to eradicate mold colonies. Also, because 

dead molds can damage human health, complete removal of all mold is required. 

Is testing to determine toxicity warranted? In a word, no. According to Harriett 

Ammann, a Senior Toxicologist for the Washington State Department of Health, "While 

testing for toxins is useful for establishing [the cause] of disease, and adds to knowledge 

about mold toxicity in the indoor environment, prudent public health practice might 

advise speedy clean-up, or removal of heavily exposed populations from exposure as a 

first resort ." 57 

Further, according to John Banta, of Restoration Consultants, testing for mycotoxins that 

may be present in indoor air or structures is still experimental and not routinely offered .sg 

Banta and Gerber explain that most testing routinely performed at sites of infestation 

focuses on determining the type and quantity of mold present at the main site of mold 

infestation. This information is then used to determine to what extent the mold may have 

migrated throughout the building in an effort to reveal other, as yet not visible, locations 

of contamination. 

59 

Knowing the type of mold present or whether it produces toxins is not necessary to 

determine the appropriate method for clean up . Testing for type and quantity of molds is 

useful primarily when litigation is imminent (or in process), or in cases of severe health 

effects (for example, when physicians are trying to isolate an offending organism) .bo 

Unnecessary testing is also cost prohibitive . Determination of toxicity and differentiation 

of various mold strains requires expert testing . There is currently no home test for the 

layperson that will identify mycotoxin-producing molds. This is due primarily to the vast 

variety of molds that have multiple identity strains of which only some can potentially 

produce mycotoxins.b1 According to Chris Gerber, of Restoration Consultants, a basic 

investigation for a single-family dwelling can start at $1,000 to $1,500. Testing in an 

attempt to document fault (for example, for use in determining financial responsibility in 

litigation) can increase the cost to $2,000 or more. 

62 

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As previously discussed, molds are capable of eliciting a variety of adverse health effects. 

These effects are not limited only to exposure of mycotoxins, but are due to exposure of 

other fungal properties as well . Therefore, it is generally agreed that regardless of the 

type of mold present, any visible mold should be removed . Given the risks of large 

amounts of visible mold in cases of extreme growth, if testing is desired, remediation 

should not be postponed until all test results are complete unless the building is to be 

unoccupied and dehumidified in the interim. 

No State or Federal entities currently offer testing services of mold samples for 

mycotoxin production. 

How is mold remediated? No State or Federal statues or regulations exist with regard to 

removing mold. 

The New York City Department of Health was the first government entity to produce 

guidelines on mold. The document, "Guidelines on Assessment and Remediation of 

Fungi in Indoor Environments," has been cited by many as useful in planning mold 

cleanup procedures primarily because it was the only document available. However, 

some believe that the New York City guidelines are too arbitrary and focus too much on 

the size of visible mold when determining appropriate cleanup methods. For example, 

Jim Holland, of Remediation Consultants, states that the New York City guidelines do 

not take into consideration hidden molds which may be revealed when walls are opened. 

Thus, he claims, the guidelines can actually increase the risk of spreading the mold 

throughout the building as they do not require containment of small areas of infestation 

during the cleanup process. 

Recommendations regarding mold remediation in commercial and school buildings are 

offered by a variety of federal, state, and private organizations and are not standardized . 

The soon-to-be-available U.S . EPA guidelines are widely anticipated and many hope they 

will clear the air with regard to differing schools of thought regarding mold cleanup in 

commercial and school buildings. However, there are certain aspects of mold cleanup 

which are agreed upon by all. 

" Persons with respiratory problems, a compromised immune system, or fragile 

health, should not participate in cleanup operations. 

" The source of moisture must be stopped and all areas infested with mold 

thoroughly cleaned. If thorough cleaning is not possible due to the nature of 

the material (porous versus semi- and non-porous), all contaminated areas 

should be removed.63 

" Cleanup crews should be properly attired. Mold should not be allowed to 

touch bare skin . Eyes and lungs should be protected from aerosol exposure. 

" All efforts should be made to contain the infestation, while still allowing 

adequate ventilation for the cleanup crew during the cleanup process, in an 

effort to avoid spreading mold to other areas . 

California Research Bureau, California State Library 11 
Experts consulted agree that a common sense approach should be taken when assessing 

mold growth . For example, it is generally believed that small amounts of growth, like 

those commonly found on shower walls, pose no immediate health risk to most 

individuals. 

The California Department of Health Services information sheet, "Mold in My Home : 

What Do I Do?" contains guidelines for cleanup of large areas of mold that mirror those 

for commercial buildings and schools : persons with fragile health should not be involved 

in mold cleanup, wear protective gear, keep the area of infestation isolated, and maintain 

adequate ventilation for cleanup crew in area being cleaned . Residents are also cautioned 

to work over short time spans with rest periods in locations with access to fresh air, and 

to air out their home well after cleanup . This document also encourages residents to start 

the cleanup process with a small test patch. If the resident experiences any adverse health 

effects while cleaning the test area, it is advised that they consider hiring a professional to 

complete the job. 

ba 

Do insurance policies cover the remediation of mold infestation and subsequent 

structural repairs? Unless the infestation can be linked to an insurable event, the costs 

of testing and remediation fall on the property owner. 

Some insurance companies will cover remediation if the precipitating event is considered 

insurable under the terms of the policy purchased by the property owner. Reading and 

understanding the coverage that is available under any given policy is advised. Because 

policy language can be difficult to interpret, in order to truly understand the coverage 

offered under their policy property owners should consult with an attorney specializing in 

insurance litigation . 

65 

Precipitating events that may be considered insurable include water accumulation as a 

result of sudden and accidental flooding, wind-driven rain, fire damage, and sewer backup . 

66 Specific covered events are detailed in the homeowner's policy . 

According to an article in the August 2000 issue of Claims magazine "Some of these 

losses are covered, some are not. If the water damage is the result of a covered loss, the 

resultant damage, mold (including fungi, mildew, etc), is probably also covered ."67 In 

order to avoid paying for remediation of pre-existing mold this article urges adjusters to 

make a site visit within the first 24 to 72 hours, stating that any molds visible in the first 

two days post flooding are pre-existing and therefore not covered under the claim of loss . 

Litigation to determine responsibility is not uncommon . Lawsuits have been filed against 

former property owners, builder's and insurance companies . Mealey's, a nationally 

recognized source for litigation information, released a publication in June 2000 which 

reports on 25 cases from around the country, with references to 29 available complaints, 

motions, and decisions in the field .68 These 25 cases represent only a small portion of 

what is believed, by one account, to be thousands of mold related cases nationwide. 

69 

Litigation related to mold was the topic of a recent two-day conference in Philadelhia. 

Other similar conferences are planned across the country over the coming months. 

FO 

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HAZARD REDUCTION - PREVENTION OF ABNORMAL GROWTH IS KEY 

All molds under proper conditions and concentrations are capable of adversely 

affecting human health . Therefore, it is clear, that reduction and prevention of mold 

exposure is needed to decrease the risk of damage to human health . Small amounts of 

mold are always present in the air, the key to decreasing adverse health affects from 

mold exposure is to prevent the germination and growth of mold on indoor surfaces. 

Individuals, landlords, building maintenance personnel, architects and builders need 

to know effective means of avoiding mold growth which might arise from lifestyle 

choices or maintenance and construction practices. Likewise, effective means of 

locating and remediating existing mold growths are paramount to decreasing the 

health affects of mold contamination. 

All agree, the first step in preventing mold growth is to remove the source of moisture . 

Stopping leaks, decreasing indoor air humidity, and proper cleanup of waters after 

flooding are key to stopping the germination and growth of molds. 

71 

In the meantime it is clear that once mold growth has occurred, fixing underlying leaks 

and immediate remediation of growth using proper techniques are required to avoid 

potential damage to health . 

Notes 

' Leviticus, Chapter 14 . 

2 Sandra Mc Neel and R. Kreutzer, "Fungi & Indoor Air Quality" Health & Environment Digest 

Vol 10, No. 2, (May/June 1996), 9-12. Posted online at : 

http://www.dhs.cahwnet . o~ v/org/ps/deodc/ehib/EHIB2/topics/fungi indoor.html . 

3 Harriet Ammann, "Is Indoor Mold Contamination a Threat?" Washington State Department of 

Health. Accessed February 6, 2001 . Posted at : http://www.doh.wa. o~ v/ehp/oehas/mold .html. 

4 Gerald Tortora, Berdell Funke, and Christine Case. Microbiology, An Introduction ; Fourth 

Edition . (Redwood City: Benjamin/Cummings, 1992), 297-299 . 

5 Mc Neel and Kreutzer, "Fungi & Indoor Air Quality;" Dr. Eckhardt Johanning, "Hazardous 

Molds in Homes and Offices: Stachybotrys atra and others . . ." The EnviroVillage Papers. 

Accessed February 6, 2001 . Posted at : http ://www.envirovilla e.~ com/papers/R0000100002.htm. 

Jim Holland, Certified Restorer and CEO of Restoration Consultants, a nationally recognized 

home and office indoor environmental testing and consulting firm, personal communication, 

discussion topics : Mold growth, identification, clean up and prevention . 

6 Holland, personal communication . 

Califorrnia Research Bureau, California State Library 13 
' Everette L. Herndon, Chin S. Yang. "Mold & Mildew : A Creeping Catastrophe" In: Claims 

Magazine on-line, August 2000 edition . Accessed February 6, 2001 . Posted at: 

http ://www.claimsmay.com/issues/aug00/mold asp . 

g Peter P. Kozak, Jr., Janet Gallup, Leo H. Cummins, and Sherwin A. Gillman, "Endogenous 

Mold Exposure: Environmental Risk to Atopic and Nonatopic Patients," in R.V. Gammage and 

S .V. Kay, eds ., Indoor air & Human Health, (Chelsea, MI: Lewis, 1985), 149-167. 

9 Sandra McNeel, Scientist, CA Department of Health Services, Environmental Health 

Investigations Branch, personal communication, discussion topics : mold growth prevalence, 

exposure routes, testing, remediation, human biomonitoring, causes and prevention of toxic 

molds. Jed Waldman, Chief, CA Department of Health Services, Indoor Air Quality Program, 

personal communication, discussion topics : mold growth prevalence, insurance coverage, 

regulatory/statutory oversight, cause, and prevention of toxic molds. California Department of 

Health Services "Mold in my Home : What Do I Do?" Fact sheet dated March 1998 . Accessed 

January 25, 200. Posted at http://www.cal-iaa .orWmo1d9803.p df. 

1° Mc Neel and Kreutzer, "Fungi & Indoor Air Quality." 

" Tortora, Funke, Case, Microbiology. 

lZ Mc Neel and Kreutzer, "Fungi & Indoor Air Quality." 

'3 Ammann, "Is Indoor Mold Contamination a Threat?" 

'4 Mc Neel and Kreutzer, "Fungi & Indoor Air Quality," Ammann, "Is Indoor Mold 

Contamination a Threat?" 

" U.S . EPA, Indoor Environment Management Branch. "Children's Health Initiative : Toxic 

Mold." Accessed February 14, 2001 . Posted at 

http://www .epa.gov/appcdwww/crb/iemb/child htm. 

'6 Mc Neel and Kreutzer, "Fungi & Indoor Air Quality." 

t' Ammann, "Is Indoor Mold Contamination a Threat?" 

18 McNeel, Personal communication. 

'9Cecil F. Rose, Antigens (Cincinnati: American Conference of Governmental Industrial 

Hygienists 1999) ACGIH Bioaerosols Assessment and Control, Ch. 25, 25-1 to 25-11 . 

2° Ammann, "Is Indoor Mold Contamination a Threat?" 

21 Mc Neel and Kreutzer, "Fungi & Indoor Air Quality." 

22 Dr. Chin S. Yang, "Toxic Effects of Some Common Indoor Fungi." Accessed February 6, 

2001 . Posted at http ://www.envirovillaize.com/Newsletters/Enviros/N04 09 htm ; Mc Neel and 

Kreutzer, "Fungi & Indoor Air Quality." 

California Research Bureau, California State Library 14 
23 U.S. EPA, Indoor Environment Management Branch, "Children's Health Initiative : Toxic 

Mold." 

24 Federal-Provincial Working Group on Mycological Air Quality in Public Buildings, Fungal 

Contamination in Pubic Buildings: A Guide to Recognition and Management (Ottawa, Ontario, 

Canada:Federal-Provincial Committee on Environmental and Occupational Health, June 1995) 

Currently available at http ://www hc-sc.lzc .ca/ehp/ehd/catalo u' e/bch pubs/fungal .pdf. Ammann, 

"Is Indoor Mold Contamination a Threat?. McNeel, personal communication. 

ZS Ammann, "Is Indoor Mold Contamination a Threat? Johanning, "Hazardous Molds in Homes 

and Offices: Stachybotrys atra and others . . ." Mc Neel and Kreutzer, "Fungi & Indoor Air 

Quality." New York City Department of Health, Bureau of Environmental & Occupational 

Disease Epidemiology Guidelines on Assessment and Remediation of Fungi in Indoor 

Environments, (November 2000), accessed January 23, 2001, currently posted at 

http://www ci nyc.ny.us/html/doh/html/epi/moldrptl .html;Yang, "Toxic Effects of Some 

Common Indoor Fungi." 

26 Harriet A. Burge, Ph.D., "The Fungi : How They Grow and Their Effects on Human Health" 

Heating/Piping/Air Conditioning (July 1997) 69-75. 

2' Yang, "Toxic Effects of Some Common Indoor Fungi." 

28 Ammann, "Is Indoor Mold Contamination a Threat?" Burge, "The Fungi: How They Grow and 

Their Effects on Human Health." 

29 Ammann, "Is Indoor Mold Contamination a Threat?" Mc Neel and Kreutzer, "Fungi & Indoor 

Air Quality." 

3o National Academy of Sciences, Committee on the Assessment of Asthma and Indoor Air. 

Clearing the Air: Asthma and indoor Air exposures (Washington, D.C . :National Academy Press, 

Prepublication copy, copyright 2000), accessed January 30, 2001, currently posted at 

http ://books nat)edu/catalov_/9610 .htm1. 

31 U.S . Center for Disease Control, Reports of Members of the CDC External Expert Panel on 

Acute idiopathic Pulmonary Hemorrhage in Infants: A Synthesis (Washington, D.C : CDC, 

December 1999.) 

32 McNeel, Personal communication. 

33 New York City Department of Health, Guidelines on Assessment and Remediation of Fungi in 

Indoor Environments . 

34 American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Environmental Health, "Toxic Effects of 

Indoor molds (RE9736)" (policy statement), Pediatrics 101, no. 4 (April 1998), pp. 712-14. 

Currently posted at http ://www aap or olicy/re9736.htm1 ; accessed January 30, 2001 . 

3s The Federal-Provincial Working Group on Mycology Air Quality in Public Buildings review is 

currently available at http-//www hc-sc ~-,c ca/ehp/ehd/catalo ug e/bch pubs/fungal .pdf. 

California Research Bureau, California State Library 15 
36 Mc Neel and Kreutzer, "Fungi & Indoor Air Quality." 

3' Chris Gerber, Environmental Consultant, Restoration Consultants . Personal communication. 

Discussion topics : Prevalence, testing, remediation . 

38 Waldman, Personal communication . 

39 U.S . EPA, Indoor Air Facts No. 4 (revised) Sick Building Syndrome. Accessed February 26, 

2001 . Posted at http ://www .epa . yov/iaq/pubs/sbs .html. 

40 Dr. Theodore Passon Jr ., and others, "Sick-Building Syndrome and Building-Related 

Illnesses ." Medical Laboratory Observer 28, no. 7 (July 1996), 84-95. 

41 U.S . EPA, Indoor Air Facts No. 4 (revised) Sick Building Syndrome. 

42 Passon and others, "Sick-Building Syndrome and Building-Related Illnesses ." 

43 U.S . EPA, Indoor Air Facts No. 4 (revised) Sick Building Syndrome. 

44 Joan Daisey and William Angell, A Survey and Critical Review of the Literature on Indoor Air 

Quality, Ventilation and Health Symptoms in Schools, LBNL-41517 (Berkeley, CA : Lawrence 

Berkeley National Laboratory, March 1998). 

4s United States General Accounting Office, School Facilities: America's Schools Report 

Differing Conditions, GAO/HEHS-96-103 (Washington, D.C.ahe Department, June 1996) 

Available online as text or PDF file (through search for report number) at 

http://www.access .gpo. ov/su docs/aces/acesl60 shtml. 

46 U.S . EPA, Indoor Air Facts No. 4 (revised) Sick Building Syndrome. 

4' Art Campos "Sick of mold, they torch home," Sacramento Bee, February 15, 2001, B1 . 

48 Chronicle staff writer, "A plague on their Houses. Hunters Point residents blame health woes 

on molds that thrive in leaky apartments," San Francisco Chronicle, February 11, 2001, A20. 

49 `'Mold: A Health Alert," USA Weekend December 3-5, 1999, p. 9. Accessed February 6, 2001 . 

Currently posted at http ://www.usaweekend .com/99 issues/991205/991 205mold .html . 

so U.S . EPA, "Children's Health Initiative : Toxic Mold." 

s` U.S . EPA, Molds. Accessed January 24, 2001 . Currently posted at 

http://www.epa. ov/iad/pubs/moldresources html . 

SZ Publications written with the home owner in mind are available from California Department of 

Health Services (currently posted at : http ://www.cal-iaq .orgJmold9803 pdf) , Kansas Department 

of Health & Environment (currently posted at : http ://www .kdhe.state .ks us/pdf/hef/b 2134pdt) , 

Kansas State University (currently posted at : 

http://www.oznet .ksu.edu/library/HOUS2/MF2141 PDF), Minnesota Department of Health 

(currently posted at: http://www.dehs.umn.edu/iaq/flood html), Montana State University 

California Research Bureau, California State Library 16 
(currently posted at : http://www montana .edu/wwwcxair/facts mold.html)and North Carolina 

State University (currently posted at : 

http://www ces .ncsu.edu/depts/fcs/housingldocs/fcs3605 .htm1 .) 

53 Jim Cone, Chief Occupational Health Branch of California Department of Health Services . 

Personal communication . Discussion topic : Mold regulations related to work place exposure. 

sa US EPA, Clean up mold and control moisture. Accessed February 20, 2001 . Posted at 

htttp ://www.epa.~4ov/iaa/schools/asthma/eat-cumcm .htm. 

ss Barbara Spark, Coordinator, US EPA Region 9, Indoor Air Quality Program, discussion topics : 

Resources of information, prevalence, testing, remediation, insurance coverage, and national 

trends regarding regulation/statutory oversight . 

sb Ira Wainless, Industrial Hygenist, U.S . Occupational Safety and Health Administration . 

Personal communication . Discussion topics : Federal regulations regarding molds. 

5' Ammann, "Is Indoor Mold Contamination a Threat?" 

58 John Banta IHIT, Senior Industrial Hygienist, Restoration Consultants . Personal 

communication. Discussion topic: Testing of molds for purpose of determining toxicity. 

59 Banta and Gerber, Personal communications . 

bo Gerber, McNeel, and Spark, personal communications . 

6' Holland, Personal communication; Mc Neel and Kreutzer, "Fungi & Indoor Air Quality." 

62 Gerber, Personal communication . 

63 Porous materials include things such as fabrics, drywall, and plaster. Materials considered to 

be semi-porous are those like wood and concrete. Non-porous materials are substances such as 

metal, glass, and hard plastics . 

64 California Department of Health Services "Mold in my Home : What Do I Do?" 

bs Tim Chang, California State Automobile Association, personal communication, discussion 

topics : Basic ISO homeowners policies and the methods used for defining coverage . Karen Kahn, 

attorney specializing in mold litigation, personal communication, discussion topics : Mold related 

litigation and insurance coverage . Dan King, attorney specializing in mold litigation, personal 

communication, discussion topics : Mold related litigation and insurance coverage. 

66 Kahn, personal communication. 

6' Herndon and Yang, "Mold & Mildew: A Creeping Catastrophe." 

68 The Litigation Resource Mealeys.com, "Mold Contamination: Toxic Tort and Property Claims 

Mealey's Coverage 1995-2000" (June 2000). The report can be ordered online at 

http ://www.mealeys.com. 

California Research Bureau, California State Library 17 
69 Rose Farley, "Planet Mold," Dallas Observer, February 22, 2001, page 1 . 

'° Information online regarding mold conferences is available at : 

http ://www .mealeys.com/sem cal .html . 

'1 U.S . EPA, Molds. 

California Research Bureau, California State Library 18