March 2011 

EPA/600/R-10/076A 

Integrated Science Assessment for Ozone and 

Related Photochemical Oxidants
 

National Center for Environmental Assessment-RTP Division
 

Office of Research and Development

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Research Triangle Park, NC
 
 

Disclaimer
 

This document is the first external review draft for review purposes only and does not constitute 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy. Mention of trade names or commercial products does 

not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. 

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Table of Contents
 

LIST OF TABLES _________________________________________________________XIII 

LIST OF FIGURES________________________________________________________ XVII
 

OZONE PROJECT TEAM __________________________________________________XXVIII 

AUTHORS, CONTRIBUTORS, AND REVIEWERS ___________________________________XXXI 

CLEAN AIR SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY COMMITTEE OZONE NAAQS REVIEW PANEL________XXXVI 

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS__________________________________________ XXXVIII 

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION________________________________________________ 1-1
 

1.1. Legislative Requirements________________________________________________________ 1-2
 

1.2. History of the NAAQS for Ozone __________________________________________________ 1-4
 

1.3. ISA Development ______________________________________________________________ 1-7
 

1.4. Document Organization ________________________________________________________ 1-11
 

1.5. Document Scope _____________________________________________________________ 1-12
 

1.6. EPA Framework for Causal Determination _________________________________________ 1-12
 

1.6.1. Scientific Evidence Used in Establishing Causality ____________________________ 1-13
 

1.6.2. Association and Causation _______________________________________________ 1-14
 1.6.3. Evaluating Evidence for Inferring Causation _________________________________ 1-14
 

1.6.4. Application of Framework for Causal Determination ___________________________ 1-18
 1.6.5. Determination of Causality _______________________________________________ 1-20
 

1.6.5.1. Effects on Human Populations ____________________________________ 1-22
 1.6.5.2. Effects on Ecosystems or Public Welfare ____________________________ 1-24
 

1.6.6. Concepts in Evaluating Adversity of Health Effects ____________________________ 1-24
 

1.7. Summary ___________________________________________________________________ 1-25
 

References______________________________________________________________________ 1-26
 

CHAPTER 2. INTEGRATIVE HEALTH AND WELFARE EFFECTS OVERVIEW _______________ 2-1
 

2.1. Atmospheric Chemistry and Ambient Concentrations _________________________________ 2-2
 

2.1.1. Physical and Chemical Processes __________________________________________ 2-3
 2.1.1.1. Gas Phase Reactions Leading to Ozone Formation and Loss ____________ 2-3
 

2.1.1.2. Sources of Precursors Involved in Ozone Formation____________________ 2-4
 

2.1.2. Atmospheric Modeling____________________________________________________ 2-4
 

2.1.3. Policy Relevant Background Concentrations__________________________________ 2-5
 2.1.3.1. Contributions from anthropogenic emissions outside North America _______ 2-6
 

2.1.3.2. Contributions from the stratosphere _________________________________ 2-6
 2.1.3.3. Natural sources of precursors to PRB Ozone formation _________________ 2-6
 

2.1.3.4. Estimating PRB Concentrations ____________________________________ 2-7
 

2.1.4. Monitoring _____________________________________________________________ 2-8
 

2.1.4.1. Routine Monitoring Techniques_____________________________________ 2-8
 2.1.4.2. Ambient Ozone Network Design ____________________________________ 2-8
 2.1.5. Ambient Concentrations __________________________________________________ 2-9
 

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2.1.5.1.	 Urban-Focused Spatial Variability___________________________________ 2-9
 2.1.5.2.	 Rural-Focused Spatial Variability __________________________________ 2-10
 

2.1.5.3.	 National Trends ________________________________________________ 2-11
 2.1.5.4.	 Hourly Variations _______________________________________________ 2-11
 2.1.5.5.	 Associations with Co-pollutants____________________________________ 2-12
 

2.2. Human Exposure _____________________________________________________________ 2-12

2.2.1. Exposure Measurement _________________________________________________ 2-12
 

2.2.1.1.	 Measurement of Ozone Exposure _________________________________ 2-12
 2.2.1.2.	 Co-Exposure to Ozone and Other Pollutants _________________________ 2-14
 2.2.2. Exposure Modeling _____________________________________________________ 2-14
 2.2.3. Implications for Epidemiologic Studies ______________________________________ 2-15
 

2.3. Dosimetry and Mode of Action___________________________________________________ 2-16
 

2.3.1. Human and Animal Ozone Dosimetry ______________________________________ 2-16
 

2.3.2. Possible Pathways/Modes of Action________________________________________ 2-17
 

2.4. Health Effects ________________________________________________________________ 2-21
 

2.4.1. Effects of Short-Term Exposure to Ozone ___________________________________ 2-21
 2.4.1.1.	 Respiratory Effects______________________________________________ 2-21
 

2.4.1.2.	 Cardiovascular Effects___________________________________________ 2-25
 

2.4.1.3.	 Central Nervous System Effects ___________________________________ 2-25
 

2.4.1.4.	 Mortality ______________________________________________________ 2-26
 

2.4.2. Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Ozone ___________________________________ 2-28
 

2.4.2.1.	 Respiratory Effects______________________________________________ 2-28
 2.4.2.2.	 Cardiovascular Effects___________________________________________ 2-29
 

2.4.2.3.	 Reproductive and Developmental Effects____________________________ 2-29
 

2.4.2.4.	 Central Nervous System Effects ___________________________________ 2-30
 

2.4.2.5.	 Cancer, Mutagenicity and Genotoxicity _____________________________ 2-30
 

2.4.2.6.	 Mortality ______________________________________________________ 2-31
 

2.5. Policy Relevant Considerations __________________________________________________ 2-31
 2.5.1. Potentially Susceptible Populations ________________________________________ 2-31
 

2.5.2. Lag Structure of Ozone-Morbidity and Ozone-Mortality Associations______________ 2-32
 

2.5.2.1.	 Ozone-Respiratory Effect Associations _____________________________ 2-33
 

2.5.2.2.	 Ozone-Mortality Associations _____________________________________ 2-33
 

2.5.3. Ozone Concentration-Response Relationship________________________________ 2-34
 2.5.3.1.	 Concentration-Response Relationship Characterized by Controlled 

Human Exposure Studies ________________________________________ 2-34
 2.5.3.2.	 Concentration-Response Relationship Characterized by Epidemiologic

Studies _______________________________________________________ 2-34
 

2.6. Integration of Ozone Health Effects_______________________________________________ 2-35
 

2.6.1. Respiratory Health Effects _______________________________________________ 2-38
 

2.6.2. Mortality Effects ________________________________________________________ 2-45
 2.6.3. Cardiovascular Health Effects ____________________________________________ 2-46
 

2.6.4. Central Nervous System Effects___________________________________________ 2-46
 

2.6.5. Reproductive and Developmental Effects ___________________________________ 2-46
 2.6.6. Cancer and Mutagenicity and Genotoxicity __________________________________ 2-47
 

2.7. Effects on Vegetation and Ecosystems ____________________________________________ 2-47
 

2.7.1. Mechanisms Governing Response_________________________________________ 2-49
 2.7.2. Nature of Effects on Vegetation ___________________________________________ 2-52
 2.7.2.1.	 Effects on Woody and Herbaceous Vegetation _______________________ 2-52
 

2.7.2.2.	 Agricultural Crops ______________________________________________ 2-55
 2.7.2.3.	 Factors That Modify Functional and Growth Response _________________ 2-55
 2.7.3. Ecosystems and Services________________________________________________ 2-56
 

2.7.3.1.	 Productivity and Carbon Sequestration _____________________________ 2-56
 2.7.3.2.	 Water Cycling__________________________________________________ 2-57
 2.7.3.3.	 Below-Ground Processes ________________________________________ 2-57
 2.7.3.4.	 Community Composition _________________________________________ 2-58
 

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2.7.4.	 Air Quality Indices ______________________________________________________ 2-59

2.7.4.1. Modeled Ozone Deposition or "Flux" _______________________________ 2-60
 

2.7.4.2. Night-Time Exposures ___________________________________________ 2-60
 2.7.5.	 Exposure-Response ____________________________________________________ 2-60
 

2.8. The Role of Tropospheric Ozone in Climate Change and UV-B Effects __________________ 2-62
 

2.8.1.	 Tropospheric Ozone as a Greenhouse Gas _________________________________ 2-62
 2.8.2.	 Tropospheric Ozone and UV-B related effects________________________________ 2-63
 

2.9. Summary of Causal Determinations for Health Effects and Welfare Effects _______________ 2-64
 

References______________________________________________________________________ 2-66
 

CHAPTER 3. ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY AND AMBIENT CONCENTRATIONS______________ 3-1
 

3.1. Introduction___________________________________________________________________ 3-1
 

3.2. Physical and Chemical Processes ________________________________________________ 3-1
 3.2.1.	 Sources of Precursors Involved in Ozone Formation ___________________________ 3-4
 3.2.2.	 Gas Phase Reactions Leading to Ozone Formation ____________________________ 3-8
 

3.2.3.	 Multiphase Processes ___________________________________________________ 3-12
 

3.2.4.	 Temperature and Chemical Precursor Relationships __________________________ 3-13
 

3.3. Atmospheric Modeling _________________________________________________________ 3-17
 

3.3.1.	 Global Scale CTMs _____________________________________________________ 3-23
 

3.4. Policy Relevant Background Concentrations _______________________________________ 3-25
 3.4.1.	 Contributions from Anthropogenic Emissions Outside North America _____________ 3-26
 

3.4.2.	 Contributions from the Stratosphere________________________________________ 3-29
 3.4.2.1. Other Natural Sources of Precursors to PRB Ozone Formation __________ 3-30
 

3.4.3.	 Estimating PRB Concentrations ___________________________________________ 3-31
 

3.5. Monitoring ___________________________________________________________________ 3-40
 

3.5.1.	 Routine Monitoring Techniques ___________________________________________ 3-40
 3.5.2.	 Precision and Bias _____________________________________________________ 3-42
 

3.5.2.1. Precision from Co-located UV Ozone Monitors in Missouri ______________ 3-44
 3.5.3.	 Performance Specifications ______________________________________________ 3-46
 

3.5.4.	 Monitor Calibration _____________________________________________________ 3-46
 

3.5.5.	 Other Monitoring Techniques _____________________________________________ 3-47
 3.5.5.1. Portable UV Ozone Monitors______________________________________ 3-47
 3.5.5.2. Teledyne Advanced Pollution Instrumentation Model 265E CLM _________ 3-48
 

3.5.5.3. Passive Air Sampling Devices and Sensors__________________________ 3-48
 3.5.5.4. Differential Optical Absorption Spectrometry _________________________ 3-49
 

3.5.5.5. Satellite Remote Sensing ________________________________________ 3-50
 

3.5.6.	 Ambient Ozone Network Design __________________________________________ 3-50
 3.5.6.1. Monitor Siting Requirements ______________________________________ 3-50
 3.5.6.2. Probe/Inlet Siting Requirements ___________________________________ 3-54
 

3.6. Ambient Concentrations________________________________________________________ 3-55
 

3.6.1.	 Measurement Units, Metrics, and Averaging Times ___________________________ 3-55
 

3.6.2.	 Spatial Variability _______________________________________________________ 3-57
 

3.6.2.1. Urban-Focused Variability ________________________________________ 3-57
 

3.6.2.2. Rural-Focused Variability and Ground-Level Vertical Gradients __________ 3-86
 3.6.3.	 Temporal Variability _____________________________________________________ 3-93
 

3.6.3.1. Multiyear Trends _______________________________________________ 3-93
 3.6.3.2. Hourly Variations _______________________________________________ 3-95
 

3.6.4.	 Associations with Co-pollutants ___________________________________________ 3-97
 

3.7. Chapter 3 References ________________________________________________________ 3-100
 

3.8. Chapter 3 Appendix – Supplemental Figures and Tables_____________________________ 3-111
 3.8.1.	 Time Series of GEOS-Chem Model Predictions and Observations at Selected 

CASTNET Sites_______________________________________________________ 3-111
 

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3.8.2. Ozone Monitor Maps for the Urban Focus Cities_____________________________ 3-119
 3.8.3. Ozone Concentration Box Plots for the Urban Focus Cities ____________________ 3-139
 

3.8.4. Ozone Concentration Relationships for the Urban Focus Cities_________________ 3-152 

3.8.5. Hourly Variations in Ozone for the Urban Focus Cities ________________________ 3-193
 

CHAPTER 4. EXPOSURE TO AMBIENT OZONE ___________________________________ 4-1
 

4.1. Introduction___________________________________________________________________ 4-1
 

4.2. General Exposure Concepts _____________________________________________________ 4-1
 

4.3. Exposure Measurement _________________________________________________________ 4-3
 

4.3.1. Personal Monitoring Techniques____________________________________________ 4-3
 4.3.2. Indoor-Outdoor Concentration Relationships__________________________________ 4-4
 4.3.3. Personal-Ambient Concentration Relationships _______________________________ 4-5
 

4.3.3.1. Personal-Ambient Correlations _____________________________________ 4-5
 4.3.3.2. Personal-Ambient Ratios__________________________________________ 4-7
 4.3.4. Co-Exposure to Other Pollutants and Environmental Stressors ___________________ 4-8
 

4.3.4.1. Personal Exposure to Ozone and Co-pollutants _______________________ 4-8
 

4.3.4.2. Near-Road Exposure to Ozone and Co-pollutants______________________ 4-9
 4.3.4.3. Indoor Exposure to Ozone and Co-pollutants ________________________ 4-10
 

4.3.5. Population Proximity to Fixed-Site Ozone Monitors ___________________________ 4-10
 

4.4. Exposure Modeling____________________________________________________________ 4-12
 4.4.1. Concentration Surface Modeling __________________________________________ 4-12
 

4.4.2. Microenvironmental Models ______________________________________________ 4-14
 

4.4.3. Hybrid Model Approaches________________________________________________ 4-17
 

4.5. Implications for Epidemiologic Studies ____________________________________________ 4-17
 4.5.1. Exposure Measurement Error_____________________________________________ 4-17
 

4.5.2. Nonambient Ozone Exposure_____________________________________________ 4-18
 4.5.3. Spatiotemporal Variability ________________________________________________ 4-18
 

4.5.3.1. Spatial Variability _______________________________________________ 4-18
 

4.5.3.2. Seasonality____________________________________________________ 4-19
 

4.5.4. Exposure to Co-pollutants and Ozone Reaction Products ______________________ 4-20
 

4.5.5. Exposure Estimation Methods in Epidemiologic Studies________________________ 4-20
 

4.6. Summary and Conclusions _____________________________________________________ 4-21
 4.6.1. Exposure Measurement _________________________________________________ 4-21
 4.6.1.1. Measurement of Ozone Exposure _________________________________ 4-21
 

4.6.1.2. Co-Exposure to Ozone and Other Pollutants _________________________ 4-23
 

4.6.2. Exposure Modeling _____________________________________________________ 4-23
 4.6.3. Implications for Epidemiologic Studies ______________________________________ 4-24
 

References______________________________________________________________________ 4-26
 

CHAPTER 5. DOSIMETRY AND MODE OF ACTION _________________________________ 5-1
 

5.1. Human and Animal Ozone Dosimetry ______________________________________________ 5-1
 

5.1.1. Introduction ____________________________________________________________ 5-1
 5.1.2. Ozone Reactions and Reaction Products ____________________________________ 5-2
 

5.1.2.1. Summary of Findings from 2006 Ozone AQCD ________________________ 5-2
 

5.1.2.2. Recent Publications ______________________________________________ 5-6
 5.1.3. Ozone Uptake __________________________________________________________ 5-7

5.1.3.1. Summary of Findings from the 2006 Ozone AQCD _____________________ 5-7
 

5.1.3.2. Recent Publications _____________________________________________ 5-15
 5.1.4. Species Homology, Sensitivity, and Animal-to-Human Dose Extrapolation _________ 5-16
 5.1.4.1. Summary of Findings from 2006 Ozone AQCD _______________________ 5-16
 

5.1.4.2. Recent Publications _____________________________________________ 5-19
 

5.2. Possible Pathways/Modes of Action ______________________________________________ 5-21
 5.2.1. Introduction ___________________________________________________________ 5-21
 

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5.2.2. Formation of Secondary Oxidation Products in the Respiratory Tract _____________ 5-22
 5.2.2.1.	 Summary _____________________________________________________ 5-28
 

5.2.3. Activation of Neural Reflexes _____________________________________________ 5-29
 5.2.3.1.	 New Cellular and Molecular Insights________________________________ 5-32
 5.2.3.2.	 Summary _____________________________________________________ 5-33
 

5.2.4. Respiratory Tract Injury and Inflammation ___________________________________ 5-33
 5.2.4.1.	 New Cellular and Molecular Insights________________________________ 5-39
 

5.2.4.2.	 Summary _____________________________________________________ 5-40
 

5.2.5. Increased Bronchial Reactivity ____________________________________________ 5-41
 

5.2.5.1.	 New Cellular and Molecular Insights________________________________ 5-42
 5.2.5.2.	 Summary _____________________________________________________ 5-44
 5.2.6. Exacerbation and Induction of Asthma and Allergic Responses __________________ 5-44
 

5.2.6.1.	 New Cellular and Molecular Insights________________________________ 5-47
 

5.2.6.2.	 Summary _____________________________________________________ 5-49
 

5.2.7. Impaired Host Defense __________________________________________________ 5-50

5.2.7.1.	 New Cellular and Molecular Insights________________________________ 5-51
 5.2.7.2.	 Summary _____________________________________________________ 5-51
 5.2.8. Extrapulmonary Effects __________________________________________________ 5-52
 

5.2.8.1.	 Cardiovascular Effects___________________________________________ 5-52
 

5.2.8.2.	 Hepatic Effects_________________________________________________ 5-53
 5.2.8.3.	 Summary _____________________________________________________ 5-54
 

5.2.9. Factors Affecting Responses to Ozone _____________________________________ 5-54
 5.2.9.1.	 Gene-Environment Interactions____________________________________ 5-54
 5.2.9.2.	 Preexisting Diseases and Conditions _______________________________ 5-56
 

5.2.9.3.	 Lifestage: Postnatal development __________________________________ 5-57
 

5.2.9.4.	 Lifestage: Aging ________________________________________________ 5-59
 

5.2.9.5.	 Adaptation ____________________________________________________ 5-59
 

5.2.9.6.	 Co-Exposures with Particulate Matter_______________________________ 5-59
 5.2.9.7.	 Summary _____________________________________________________ 5-60
 

5.2.10. Overall Summary_______________________________________________________ 5-60
 

5.2.11. Gaps in Knowledge _____________________________________________________ 5-61
 

References______________________________________________________________________ 5-62
 

CHAPTER 6. INTEGRATED HEALTH EFFECTS OF SHORT-TERM OZONE EXPOSURE ________ 6-1
 

6.1. Introduction___________________________________________________________________ 6-1
 

6.2. Respiratory Effects _____________________________________________________________ 6-1
 6.2.1. Lung Function __________________________________________________________ 6-3
 

6.2.1.1.	 Controlled Human Exposure _______________________________________ 6-3
 6.2.1.2.	 Epidemiology __________________________________________________ 6-16
 

6.2.1.3.	 Toxicology ____________________________________________________ 6-39
 

6.2.2. Airway Hyperresponsiveness _____________________________________________ 6-40
 

6.2.2.1.	 Controlled Human Exposures _____________________________________ 6-40
 

6.2.2.2.	 Toxicology ____________________________________________________ 6-41
 

6.2.3. Pulmonary Inflammation, Injury and Oxidative Stress __________________________ 6-43
 6.2.3.1.	 Controlled Human Exposures _____________________________________ 6-43
 6.2.3.2.	 Epidemiology __________________________________________________ 6-46
 

6.2.3.3.	 Toxicology ____________________________________________________ 6-56
 

6.2.4. Respiratory Symptoms and Medication Use _________________________________ 6-59
 6.2.4.1.	 Epidemiology __________________________________________________ 6-59
 

6.2.4.2.	 Summary of Epidemiologic Studies of Respiratory Symptoms and 

Asthma Medication Use__________________________________________ 6-69
 

6.2.5. Lung Host Defenses ____________________________________________________ 6-70

6.2.5.1.	 Mucociliary Clearance ___________________________________________ 6-71
 

6.2.5.2.	 Alveolobronchiolar Transport Mechanism ___________________________ 6-71
 6.2.5.3.	 Alveolar Macrophages ___________________________________________ 6-72
 6.2.5.4.	 Infection and Adaptive Immunity ___________________________________ 6-73
 

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6.2.6. Allergic and Asthma-Related Responses____________________________________ 6-74
 6.2.7. Hospital Admissions, Emergency Department Visits, and Physicians Visits ________ 6-75
 

6.2.7.1.	 Summary of Findings from 2006 Ozone AQCD _______________________ 6-75
 6.2.7.2.	 Hospital Admission Studies _______________________________________ 6-78
 6.2.7.3.	 Emergency Department Visit Studies _______________________________ 6-87
 

6.2.7.4.	 Outpatient and Physician Visit Studies ______________________________ 6-92
 6.2.7.5.	 Summary _____________________________________________________ 6-92
 

6.2.8. Respiratory Mortality ____________________________________________________ 6-96
 

6.2.9. Summary and Causal Determination _______________________________________ 6-97
 

6.3. Cardiovascular Effects ________________________________________________________ 6-101
 6.3.1. Controlled Human Exposure_____________________________________________ 6-101
 

6.3.2. Epidemiology _________________________________________________________ 6-102
 6.3.2.1.	 Arrhythmia ___________________________________________________ 6-102
 6.3.2.2.	 Heart Rate/Heart Rate Variability _________________________________ 6-104
 

6.3.2.3.	 Stroke _______________________________________________________ 6-107
 

6.3.2.4.	 Biomarkers ___________________________________________________ 6-109
 6.3.2.5.	 Myocardial Infarction (MI) _______________________________________ 6-113
 6.3.2.6.	 Blood Pressure________________________________________________ 6-113
 

6.3.2.7.	 Hospital Admissions and Emergency Department Visits _______________ 6-114
 6.3.2.8.	 Cardiovascular Mortality ________________________________________ 6-127
 

6.3.2.9.	 Summary of Epidemiologic Studies _______________________________ 6-128
 

6.3.3. Toxicology ___________________________________________________________ 6-128
 6.3.3.1.	 Summary of Findings from Previous Ozone AQCDs __________________ 6-128
 

6.3.3.2.	 Recent Ozone-induced Cardiovascular Effects ______________________ 6-129
 6.3.4. Summary and Causal Determination ______________________________________ 6-133
 

6.4. Central Nervous System Effects ________________________________________________ 6-134
 

6.4.1. Neuroendocrine Effects_________________________________________________ 6-137
 6.4.2. Summary and Causal Determination ______________________________________ 6-137
 

6.5. Effects on Other Organ Systems ________________________________________________ 6-138
 

6.5.1. Effects on the Liver and Xenobiotic Metabolism _____________________________ 6-138
 6.5.2. Effects on Cutaneous and Ocular Tissues __________________________________ 6-139
 

6.6. Mortality ___________________________________________________________________ 6-139
 

6.6.1. Summary of Findings from 2006 Ozone AQCD ______________________________ 6-139
 

6.6.2. Associations of Mortality and Short-Term Ozone Exposure ____________________ 6-140
 6.6.2.1.	 Confounding__________________________________________________ 6-144
 

6.6.2.2.	 Effect Modification _____________________________________________ 6-152
 

6.6.2.3.	 Interaction____________________________________________________ 6-160
 6.6.2.4.	 Evaluation of the Ozone-Mortality C-R Relationship and Related Issues __ 6-161
 

6.6.2.5.	 Associations of Cause-Specific Mortality and Short-term Ozone 

Exposure ____________________________________________________ 6-170
 6.6.3. Summary and Causal Determination ______________________________________ 6-174
 

6.7. Overall Summary ____________________________________________________________ 6-176
 

References_____________________________________________________________________ 6-177
 

CHAPTER 7. INTEGRATED HEALTH EFFECTS OF LONG-TERM OZONE EXPOSURE _________ 7-1
 

7.1. Introduction___________________________________________________________________ 7-1
 

7.2. Respiratory Effects _____________________________________________________________ 7-1
 

7.2.1. New Onset Asthma ______________________________________________________ 7-2
 

7.2.2. Asthma Hospital Admissions and ED Visits ___________________________________ 7-9
 

7.2.3. Pulmonary Structure and Function _________________________________________ 7-11
 7.2.3.1.	 Evidence from Toxicological Studies _______________________________ 7-14
 

7.2.4. Pulmonary Inflammation, Injury, and Oxidative Stress _________________________ 7-17
 

7.2.5. Allergic Responses _____________________________________________________ 7-19
 7.2.6. Host Defense__________________________________________________________ 7-20
 

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7.2.7. Respiratory Mortality ____________________________________________________ 7-20
 7.2.8. Summary and Causal Determination _______________________________________ 7-20
 

7.3. Cardiovascular Effects _________________________________________________________ 7-23
 

7.3.1. Cardiovascular Disease _________________________________________________ 7-23
 7.3.1.1. Cardiovascular Epidemiology _____________________________________ 7-23
 

7.3.1.2. Long-Term Cardiovascular Toxicology ______________________________ 7-24
 

7.3.2. Cardiac Mortality _______________________________________________________ 7-26
 

7.3.3. Summary and Causal Determination _______________________________________ 7-26
 

7.4. Reproductive and Developmental Effects __________________________________________ 7-26
 

7.4.1. Effects on Sperm _______________________________________________________ 7-27
 7.4.2. Effects on Reproduction _________________________________________________ 7-28
 

7.4.3. Birth Weight ___________________________________________________________ 7-29
 

7.4.4. Preterm Birth __________________________________________________________ 7-33
 

7.4.5. Fetal Growth __________________________________________________________ 7-37
 7.4.6. Birth Defects __________________________________________________________ 7-40
 

7.4.7. Developmental Respiratory Effects ________________________________________ 7-42
 7.4.8. Developmental Central Nervous System Effects ______________________________ 7-45
 7.4.8.1. Laterality______________________________________________________ 7-45
 

7.4.8.2. Brain Morphology and Neurochemical Changes ______________________ 7-45
 

7.4.8.3. Neurobehavioral Outcomes_______________________________________ 7-46
 

7.4.8.4. Sleep Aberrations after Developmental Ozone Exposure _______________ 7-46
 

7.4.9. Early Life Mortality______________________________________________________ 7-47
 7.4.9.1. Stillbirth_______________________________________________________ 7-47
 7.4.9.2. Infant Mortality, Less than 1 Year __________________________________ 7-48
 

7.4.9.3. Neonatal Mortality, Less than 1 Month ______________________________ 7-48
 

7.4.9.4. Postneonatal Mortality, 1 Month to 1 Year ___________________________ 7-48
 7.4.9.5. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome ___________________________________ 7-50
 

7.4.10. Summary and Causal Determination _______________________________________ 7-52
 

7.5. Central Nervous System Effects _________________________________________________ 7-53
 

7.5.1. Effects on the Brain and Behavior _________________________________________ 7-53
 

7.5.2. Summary and Causal Determination _______________________________________ 7-54
 

7.6. Carcinogenic and Genotoxic Potential of Ozone ____________________________________ 7-54
 

7.6.1. Introduction ___________________________________________________________ 7-54
 

7.6.2. Lung Cancer Incidence and Mortality_______________________________________ 7-56
 7.6.3. DNA Damage__________________________________________________________ 7-57
 

7.6.4. Summary and Causal Determination _______________________________________ 7-59
 

7.7. Mortality ____________________________________________________________________ 7-59
 

7.7.1. Summary and Causal Determination _______________________________________ 7-62
 

References______________________________________________________________________ 7-63
 

CHAPTER 8. POPULATIONS SUSCEPTIBLE TO OZONE-RELATED HEALTH EFFECTS ________ 8-1
 

8.1. Pre-existing Disease/Conditions __________________________________________________ 8-2
 8.1.1. Influenza/Infections ______________________________________________________ 8-3
 

8.1.2. Asthma/Corticosteroid Use ________________________________________________ 8-3
 8.1.3. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) _______________________________ 8-5
 

8.1.4. Cardiovascular Disease __________________________________________________ 8-6
 

8.1.5. Diabetes_______________________________________________________________ 8-7
 

8.2. Lifestage _____________________________________________________________________ 8-7

8.2.1. Children _______________________________________________________________ 8-7
 

8.2.2. Older Adults ___________________________________________________________ 8-10
 

8.3. Sex ________________________________________________________________________ 8-12
 

8.4. Genetics ____________________________________________________________________ 8-14
 

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8.5. Diet ________________________________________________________________________ 8-16
 

8.6. Body Mass Index _____________________________________________________________ 8-17
 

8.7. Socioeconomic Status _________________________________________________________ 8-18
 

8.8. Air Conditioning Use __________________________________________________________ 8-20
 

8.9. Involvement in Outdoor Activities_________________________________________________ 8-20
 

8.10. Race/Ethnicity ______________________________________________________________ 8-21
 

8.11. Physical Conditioning ________________________________________________________ 8-22
 

8.12. Smoking___________________________________________________________________ 8-22
 

8.13. Hyperthyroidism_____________________________________________________________ 8-23
 

8.14. Summary __________________________________________________________________ 8-23
 

References______________________________________________________________________ 8-25
 

CHAPTER 9. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS: OZONE EFFECTS ON VEGETATION AND 

ECOSYSTEMS ________________________________________________________ 9-1
 

9.1. Introduction___________________________________________________________________ 9-1
 

9.2. Summary and Integration________________________________________________________ 9-2
 9.2.1. Introduction ____________________________________________________________ 9-2
 9.2.2. Mechanisms Governing Response__________________________________________ 9-5
 

9.2.3. Nature of Effects on Vegetation ____________________________________________ 9-8
 

9.2.3.1. Effects on Woody and Herbaceous Vegetation ________________________ 9-8
 9.2.3.2. Agricultural Crops ______________________________________________ 9-11
 

9.2.3.3. Factors That Modify Functional and Growth Response _________________ 9-12
 

9.2.4. Ecosystems and Services________________________________________________ 9-12
 9.2.4.1. Productivity and Carbon Sequestration _____________________________ 9-12
 

9.2.4.2. Water Cycling__________________________________________________ 9-13
 9.2.4.3. Below-Ground Processes ________________________________________ 9-14
 9.2.4.4. Community Composition _________________________________________ 9-14
 

9.2.5. Air Quality Indices ______________________________________________________ 9-15

9.2.5.1. Modeled Ozone Deposition or "Flux" _______________________________ 9-16
 9.2.5.2. Night-Time Exposures ___________________________________________ 9-17
 9.2.6. Exposure-Response ____________________________________________________ 9-17
 

9.3. Experimental Exposure Methodologies____________________________________________ 9-18
 9.3.1. Introduction ___________________________________________________________ 9-18
 

9.3.2. “Indoor,” Controlled Environment, and Greenhouse Chambers __________________ 9-18
 9.3.3. Field Chambers ________________________________________________________ 9-19
 9.3.4. Plume and FACE-Type Systems __________________________________________ 9-21
 9.3.5. Ambient Gradients______________________________________________________ 9-22
 9.3.6. Comparative Studies ____________________________________________________ 9-23
 

9.4. Mechanisms Governing Vegetation Response to Ozone ______________________________ 9-24
 

9.4.1. Introduction ___________________________________________________________ 9-24
 9.4.2. Ozone Uptake into the Leaf ______________________________________________ 9-26
 9.4.3. Cellular to Systemic Responses___________________________________________ 9-29
 9.4.3.1. Ozone Sensing and Signal Transduction ____________________________ 9-29
 

9.4.3.2. Gene Expression Changes in Response to Ozone ____________________ 9-31
 

9.4.3.3. Role of Phytohormones in Plant Response to Ozone __________________ 9-34
 9.4.4. Detoxification__________________________________________________________ 9-37
 9.4.4.1. Overview of Ozone-Induced Defense Mechanisms ____________________ 9-37
 9.4.4.2. Role of Antioxidants in Plant Defense Responses _____________________ 9-38
 9.4.5. Effects on Primary and Secondary Metabolism _______________________________ 9-40
 

9.4.5.1. Light and Dark Reactions of Photosynthesis _________________________ 9-40
 

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9.4.5.2. Respiration and Dark Respiration __________________________________ 9-41
 9.4.5.3. Secondary Metabolism __________________________________________ 9-42
 

9.4.6.	 Changes in Stomatal Function ____________________________________________ 9-45
 

9.5. Nature of Effects on Vegetation __________________________________________________ 9-46
 9.5.1.	 Introduction ___________________________________________________________ 9-46
 

9.5.2.	 Effects on Woody and Herbaceous Vegetation _______________________________ 9-47
 

9.5.2.1. Growth and Biomass Allocation ___________________________________ 9-47
 

9.5.2.2. Reproduction __________________________________________________ 9-49
 9.5.2.3. Visible Foliar Injury______________________________________________ 9-51
 9.5.2.4. Leaf Gas Exchange _____________________________________________ 9-54
 9.5.3.	 Agricultural Crops ______________________________________________________ 9-54
 

9.5.3.1. Yield _________________________________________________________ 9-55
 9.5.3.2. Crop Quality ___________________________________________________ 9-58
 9.5.4.	 Factors that Modify Functional and Growth Response _________________________ 9-62
 

9.5.4.1. Genetics ______________________________________________________ 9-62
 

9.5.4.2. Environmental Biological Factors __________________________________ 9-63
 9.5.4.3. Physical Factors________________________________________________ 9-63
 9.5.4.4. Interactions with other Pollutants __________________________________ 9-64
 

9.6. Effects of Ozone on Ecosystems and Services _____________________________________ 9-68
 

9.6.1.	 Ecosystem Scale, Function, and Structure __________________________________ 9-68
 

9.6.1.1. Ecosystem Services ____________________________________________ 9-69
 9.6.1.2. Assessing Ozone Effects at Larger Spatial Scales ____________________ 9-69
 9.6.2.	 Productivity and Carbon Sequestration _____________________________________ 9-70
 

9.6.2.1. Stand Scale ___________________________________________________ 9-70
 

9.6.2.2. Regional and Global Scales ______________________________________ 9-71
 

9.6.3.	 Water Cycling _________________________________________________________ 9-74
 

9.6.4.	 Below-Ground Processes ________________________________________________ 9-76
 9.6.4.1. Litter Carbon Chemistry, Litter Nutrient and Their Ecosystem Budgets ____ 9-77
 9.6.4.2. Decomposer Metabolism and Litter Decomposition____________________ 9-78
 9.6.4.3. Soil respiration and carbon formation _______________________________ 9-79
 

9.6.4.4. Nutrient cycling_________________________________________________ 9-82
 

9.6.4.5. Dissolved Organic Carbon and Biogenic Trace Gases Emission _________ 9-82
 9.6.5.	 Competition and biodiversity______________________________________________ 9-83
 9.6.5.1. Forest ________________________________________________________ 9-83
 9.6.5.2. Grassland and Agricultural Land ___________________________________ 9-84
 9.6.5.3. Microbes______________________________________________________ 9-85
 

9.6.6.	 Insects and Wildlife _____________________________________________________ 9-86
 

9.6.6.1. Insects _______________________________________________________ 9-86
 

9.6.6.2. Wildlife _______________________________________________________ 9-88
 9.6.6.3. Indirect Effects on Wildlife ________________________________________ 9-89
 

9.7. Effects-Based Air Quality Exposure Indices and Dose Modeling________________________ 9-92
 

9.7.1.	 Introduction ___________________________________________________________ 9-92
 9.7.2.	 Description of Exposure Indices Available in the Literature _____________________ 9-93
 

9.7.3.	 Important Components of Exposure Indices _________________________________ 9-98
 

9.7.3.1. Role of Concentration ___________________________________________ 9-98
 

9.7.3.2. Diurnal and Seasonal Exposure __________________________________ 9-102
 9.7.4.	 Ozone Uptake/Dose Modeling for Vegetation _______________________________ 9-108
 9.7.4.1. Canopy Structure ______________________________________________ 9-110
 

9.7.4.2. Site and Climate Factors ________________________________________ 9-110
 9.7.4.3. Plant Defense Mechanism – Detoxification _________________________ 9-110
 

9.8. Ozone Exposure-Plant Response Relationships ___________________________________ 9-111
 9.8.1.	 Introduction __________________________________________________________ 9-111
 9.8.2.	 1996 and 2006 Ozone AQCDs Estimates Of Crop Yield Loss And Tree Seedling 

Biomass Loss ________________________________________________________ 9-114
 9.8.3.	 Validation of 1996 and 2006 Ozone AQCD Models and Methodology Using the 

90 day 12-h W126 and Current FACE Data. ________________________________ 9-120
 

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9.8.3.1.	 Comparison of NCLAN-Based Prediction and SoyFACE Data. _________ 9-122
 9.8.3.2.	 Comparison of NHEERL/WED-Based Prediction of Tree Biomass
 

Response and Aspen FACE Data_________________________________ 9-125
 9.8.3.3.	 Exposure-Response in a Gradient Study ___________________________ 9-128
 9.8.3.4.	 Meta-analyses of growth and yield studies__________________________ 9-130 

9.8.3.5.	 Additional exposure-response data________________________________ 9-131
 

References_____________________________________________________________________ 9-137
 

CHAPTER 10. THE ROLE OF TROPOSPHERIC OZONE IN CLIMATE CHANGE AND 

UV-B EFFECTS _____________________________________________________ 10-1
 

10.1. Introduction ________________________________________________________________ 10-1
 

10.2. Effects of Tropospheric Ozone on Climate ________________________________________ 10-1
 

10.2.1. Background ___________________________________________________________ 10-1

10.2.2. Physics and Chemistry of Climate Change and Radiative Forcing________________ 10-2
 10.2.2.1. Physics of Greenhouse Gases ____________________________________ 10-2
 

10.2.2.2. Climate Change in the Recent Past ________________________________ 10-2
 10.2.2.3. Projections of Future Climate Change ______________________________ 10-3
 10.2.2.4. Metrics of Potential Climate Change________________________________ 10-4
 

10.2.2.5. Tropospheric Ozone as a Greenhouse Gas__________________________ 10-4
 

10.2.3. Factors that Influence the Effect of Tropospheric Ozone on Climate ______________ 10-6
 

10.2.3.1. Trends in the Burden of Tropospheric Ozone_________________________ 10-7
 

10.2.3.2. The Effect of Surface Albedo on Ozone Forcing ______________________ 10-9
 

10.2.3.3. The Effect of Vertical Distribution on Ozone Forcing ___________________ 10-9
 10.2.3.4. Feedback Factors that Alter the Climate Response to Changes in 

Ozone Forcing _________________________________________________ 10-9

10.2.3.5. Indirect Effects of Tropospheric Ozone on the Carbon Cycle ___________ 10-11
 10.2.4. Competing Effects of Ozone Precursors on Climate __________________________ 10-11
 10.2.5. Calculating Radiative Forcing and Climate Response to Past Trends in 

Tropospheric Ozone ___________________________________________________ 10-11
 10.2.6. Calculating the Radiative Forcing and Climate Response to Future Trends in 

Tropospheric Ozone ___________________________________________________ 10-13
 

10.2.6.1. Emissions of Anthropogenic Ozone Precursors across the 21st Century__ 10-14 

10.2.6.2. Impact of 21st Century Trends in Emissions on Tropospheric Ozone ____ 10-15
 

10.2.6.3. Impact of 21st Century Climate on Tropospheric Ozone _______________ 10-16
 

10.2.6.4. Radiative Forcing and Climate Response from 21st Century Trends in 

Tropospheric Ozone ___________________________________________ 10-16
 

10.2.7. Summary of the Effects of Tropospheric Ozone on Climate ____________________ 10-18
 

10.3. UV-B Related Effects and Tropospheric Ozone ___________________________________ 10-18
 

10.3.1. Background __________________________________________________________ 10-18
 

10.3.2. Physics of UV Radiation and Flux ________________________________________ 10-19
 10.3.3. Human Exposure and Susceptibility to Ultraviolet Radiation ___________________ 10-22
 10.3.4. Human Health Effects due to UV-B Radiation _______________________________ 10-24
 10.3.5. Ecosystem and Materials Damage Effects Due to UV-B Radiation ______________ 10-25
 

10.3.6. UV-B Related Effects Associated with Changes in Tropospheric Ozone 

Concentrations _______________________________________________________ 10-26
 

References_____________________________________________________________________ 10-29
 

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List of Tables
 

Table 1-1. Summary of primary and secondary NAAQS promulgated for ozone during the period 1971-2008 _______________ 1-4
 

Table 1-2. Aspects to aid in judging causality_______________________________________________________________ 1-19
 

Table 1-3. Weight of evidence for causal determination_______________________________________________________ 1-21
 

Table 2-1. Summary of causal determinations for short-term exposure to ozone ____________________________________ 2-21
 

Table 2-2. Summary of causal determinations for long-term exposure to ozone_____________________________________ 2-28
 

Table 2-3. Summary of evidence from epidemiologic, controlled human exposure, and animal toxicological studies on the health 

effects associated with short- and long-term exposure to ozone ______________________________________ 2-36
 

Table 2-4. Summary of ozone causal determinations for vegetation and ecosystem effects____________________________ 2-49
 

Table 2-5. Summary of ozone causal determinations by exposure duration and health outcome ________________________ 2-64
 

Table 2-6. Summary of ozone causal determination for welfare effects ___________________________________________ 2-65
 

Table 2-7. Summary of ozone causal determination for climate change and UV-B effects _____________________________ 2-65
 

Table 3-1. Seasonal means of the daily max 8-h avg ozone concentrations in spring and summer at selected CASTNET and other
 

National Park Service monitoring sites in the continental U.S. and in the U.S. Virgin Islands, in 2001. GEOS-Chem 

and PRB are included for comparison__________________________________________________________ 3-38
 

Table 3-2. Seasonal maximums of the daily max 8-h avg ozone concentrations in spring and summer at selected CASTNET and 

other National Park Service monitoring sites in the continental U.S. and in the U.S. Virgin Islands, in 2001. GEOSChem and PRB are included for comparison ____________________________________________________ 3-39
 

Table 3-3. Summary of monitors meeting 40 CFR Part 58, Appendix A Precision and Bias Goals_______________________ 3-43
 

Table 3-4. Performance specifications for ozone based in 40 CFR Part 53 ________________________________________ 3-46
 

Table 3-5. Summary of ozone data sets originating from AQS __________________________________________________ 3-59
 

Table 3-6. Nationwide distributions of ozone concentrations (ppb) from the year-round data set ________________________ 3-61
 

Table 3-7. Nationwide distributions of ozone concentrations (ppb) from the warm-season data set ______________________ 3-62
 

Table 3-8. Seasonally stratified distributions of 8-h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb) from the year-round data set (2007-2009)3-64
 

Table 3-9. Focus cities used in this and previous assessments _________________________________________________ 3-68
 

Table 3-10. City-specific distributions of 8-h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb) from the warm-season data set (2007-2009) 3-69
 

Table 3-11. Rural focus areas __________________________________________________________________________ 3-87
 

Table 4-1. Fraction of the 2009 population living within a specified distance of an ozone monitor in selected U.S. cities_______ 4-11
 

Table 5-1. Human respiratory tract uptake efficiency data_______________________________________________________ 5-8
 

Table 6-1. Mean and upper percentile concentrations of ozone in epidemiologic studies examining lung function in populations with 

increased outdoor exposures ________________________________________________________________ 6-18
 

Table 6-2. Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6-3 ________________________ 6-21
 

Table 6-3. Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6-4 ________________________ 6-23
 

Table 6-4. Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6-5 ________________________ 6-24
 

Table 6-5. Mean and Upper Percentile Concentrations of Ozone in Epidemiologic Studies Examining Lung Function in Asthmatic
 

Children ________________________________________________________________________________ 6-26
 

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Table 6-6. Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6-6 ________________________ 6-27
 

Table 6-8. Mean and upper percentile concentrations of ozone in epidemiologic studies examining lung function in asthmatic adults6-32
 

Table 6-9. Mean and upper percentile concentrations of ozone in epidemiologic studies examining lung function in populations not
 

Table 6-7. Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6-7 ________________________ 6-29
 

restricted to asthmatic subjects_______________________________________________________________ 6-33
 

Table 6-10. Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6-8 _______________________ 6-35
 

Table 6-11. Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies presented in Figure 6-9_________________________ 6-39
 

Table 6-12. Mean and upper percentile ozone concentrations in studies examining biological markers of airway inflammation and 

oxidative stress___________________________________________________________________________ 6-48
 

Table 6-13. Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies presented in Figure 6-10________________________ 6-49
 

Table 6-14. Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies presented in Figure 6-11 ________________________ 6-51
 

Table 6-15. Mean and upper percentile ozone concentrations in studies examining respiratory symptoms, asthma medication use,
 

and activity levels _________________________________________________________________________ 6-60
 

Table 6-16. Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies presented in Figure 6-12 ________________________ 6-63
 

Table 6-17. Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies presented in Figure 6-13.________________________ 6-67
 

Table 6-18. Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies presented in Figure 6-14.________________________ 6-69
 

Table 6-19. Mean and upper percentile concentrations of respiratory-related hospital admission and emergency department visit
 

studies evaluated _________________________________________________________________________ 6-77
 

Table 6-20. Corresponding effect estimates for Figure 6-15 ____________________________________________________ 6-82
 

Table 6-21. Corresponding Effect Estimates for Figure 6-19____________________________________________________ 6-94
 

Table 6-22. Corresponding effect estimates for Figure 6-20 ____________________________________________________ 6-96
 

Table 6-23. Characterization of ozone concentrations (in ppb) from studies of arrhythmias ___________________________ 6-102
 

Table 6-24. Characterization of ozone concentrations (in ppb) from studies of heart rate variability _____________________ 6-105
 

Table 6-25. Characterization of ozone concentrations (in ppb) from studies of biomarkers ____________________________ 6-109
 

Table 6-26. Characterization of ozone concentrations (in ppb) from studies of blood pressure _________________________ 6-113
 

Table 6-27. Characterization of ozone concentrations (in ppb) from studies of HAs and ED visits_______________________ 6-115
 

Table 6-28. Odds ratio (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for overall cardiovascular ED visits or HAs in studies 

presented in Figure 6-22. __________________________________________________________________ 6-120
 

Table 6-29. Odds Ratio (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for congestive heart failure ED visits or HAs for studies 

presented in Figure 6-23___________________________________________________________________ 6-122
 

Table 6-30. Odds Ratio (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for myocardial infarction, angina, ischemic heart disease, and
 

coronary heart disease ED visits or HAs for studies presented in Figure 6-24___________________________ 6-124
 

Table 6-31. Odds Ratio (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for stroke ED visits or HAs for studies presented in Figure 6­

25 6-126
 

Table 6-32. Odds Ratio (95% CI) per increment ppb* increase in ozone for arrhythmia and dysrhythmia ED visits or HAs for studies
 

presented in Figure 6-26___________________________________________________________________ 6-127
 

Table 6-33. Corresponding effect estimates for Figure 6-27 ___________________________________________________ 6-142
 

Table 6-34. Range of mean and upper percentile ozone concentrations in previous and recent multicity studies ___________ 6-143
 

Table 6-35. Correlations between PM and ozone by season and region__________________________________________ 6-145
 

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Table 6-36. Corresponding Effect Estimates for Figure 6-30___________________________________________________ 6-150 

Table 6-37. Sensitivity of ozone risk estimates per 10 μg/m3 increase in 24-h avg ozone concentrations at lag 0-1 to alternative 

methods for adjustment of seasonal trend, for all-cause mortality using Berkey MLE and TLNSE Hierarchical Models6-152 

Table 6-38. Additional percent change in ozone-related mortality for individual-level susceptibility factors ________________ 6-154 

Table 6-39. Percent change in all-cause mortality, for all ages, associated with a 40-ppb increase in 1-h max ozone concentrations 

at Lag 0–1 at the 25th and 75th percentile of the center-specific distribution of selected effect modifiers ______ 6-157 

Table 6-40. Percentage increase in daily mortality for a 10-ppb increase in 24-h avg ozone concentrations during the previous week 

by geographic region in the U.S., 1987-2000 ___________________________________________________ 6-158 

Table 6-41. Estimated effect of a 10-ppb increase in 8-h max ozone concentrations on mortality during the summer months for 

single-day and distributed lag models_________________________________________________________ 6-163 

Table 6-42. Estimated percent increase in cause-specific mortality (and 95% CIs) for a 10-μg/m3 increase in maximum 8-h ozone 

during June-August, for the same day (lag 0), the average of the same and previous day (lag 0-1), the unconstrained 

distributed lag model for the sum of 0-20 days and the penalized distributed lag model (lag 0-20) ___________ 6-165 

Table. 6-43. Percent excess all-cause mortality per 10-ppb increase in daily 8-h max ozone on the same day, by season, month, 

and age groups _________________________________________________________________________ 6-168 

Table 6-44. Corresponding effect estimates for Figure 6-37 ___________________________________________________ 6-173 

Table 6-45. Summary of causal determinations for short-term exposures to ozone _________________________________ 6-176 

Table 7-1. Summary of selected key new studies examining annual ozone exposure and respiratory health effects__________ 7-21 

Table 7-2. Brief summary of epidemiologic studies of birth weight _______________________________________________ 7-32 

Table 7-3. Brief summary of epidemiologic studies of PTB_____________________________________________________ 7-36 

Table 7-4. Brief summary of epidemiologic studies of fetal growth _______________________________________________ 7-40 

Table 7-5. Brief summary of epidemiologic studies of birth defects ______________________________________________ 7-42 

Table 7-6. Brief summary of infant mortality studies__________________________________________________________ 7-51 

Table 7-7. Relative risk (and 95% CI) of death attributable to a 10-ppb change in the ambient ozone concentration _________ 7-62 

Table 8-1. Prevalence of respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes by age and region among individuals 18 

years and older in the U.S. ___________________________________________________________________ 8-3 

Table 9-1 Summary of ozone causal determinations for vegetation and ecosystem effects______________________________ 9-5 

Table 9-2. Ozone effects on plant reproductive processes (derived from Table AX9-22 of the 2006 ozone AQCD) __________ 9-51 

Table 9-3. Summary of recent studies of ozone effects on crops (exclusive of growth and yield) ________________________ 9-60 

Table 9-4. Response of plants to the interactive effects of elevated ozone exposure and N enrichment ___________________ 9-66 

Table 9-5. The effects of ozone on primary production, C exchange, C sequestration and yield loss _____________________ 9-74 

Table 9-6. The effect of elevated ozone on leaf/litter nutrient concentrations _______________________________________ 9-78 

Table 9-7. The temporal variation of ecosystem responses to ozone exposure at AspenFACE site______________________ 9-80 

Table 9-8. Ozone exposures at which 10 and 20% yield loss is predicted for 50 and 75% of crop species, based on composite 

functions for the 50th and 75th percentiles of 34 Weibull curves for relative yield loss data from 34 non-droughted 

NCLAN studies of 12 crop species; curves were standardized to 90-day W126 _________________________ 9-119 

Table 9-9. Ozone exposures at which 10 and 20% yield loss is predicted for 50 and 75% of crop species under drought conditions 

and adequate moisture, based on composite functions for the 50th and 75th percentiles of 16 Weibull curves for 

relative yield loss data from 8 NCLAN studies that paired droughted and watered conditions for the same genotype; 

curves were standardized to 90-day W126 _____________________________________________________ 9-119 

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Table 9-10. Ozone exposures at which 10 and 20% biomass loss is predicted for 50 and 75 % of tree species, based on composite 

functions for the 50th and 75th percentiles of 49 Weibull curves for relative above-ground biomass loss data from 49 

studies of 11 tree species grown under well-watered conditions for 1 or 2 year; curves were standardized to 90-day 

W1269-120 

Table 9-11. Comparison between relative yield observed in the SoyFACE experiment, and relative yield predicted at the same 

values of ozone by the median composite function for NCLAN (two-parameter relative yield model) _________ 9-123 

Table 9-12. Comparison between yield observed in the SoyFACE experiment and yield predicted at the same values of ozone by 

the median composite function for NCLAN (three-parameter absolute yield model), using two scaling methods to 

calculate the intercept_____________________________________________________________________ 9-123 

Table 9-13. Comparison between above-ground biomass observed under elevated ozone in Aspen FACE experiment in 6 year, 

relative to above-ground biomass observed under ambient ozone and relative above-ground biomass above-ground 

biomass at the same values of ozone predicted by the median composite function for NHEERL/WED (two-parameter 

relative biomass model) ___________________________________________________________________ 9-126 

Table 9-14. Comparison between above-ground biomass observed in Aspen FACE experiment in 6 year and biomass predicted by 

the median composite function based on NHEERL/WED (three-parameter absolute biomass model), using 2 scaling 

methods to calculate the intercept ___________________________________________________________ 9-127 

Table 9-15. Meta-analyses of growth or yield studies published since 2005 _______________________________________ 9-130 

Table 9-16. Summary of studies of effects of ozone exposure on growth and yield of agricultural crops __________________ 9-132 

Table 9-17. Summary of studies of effects of ozone exposure on growth of natural vegetation_________________________ 9-135 

Table 10-1. 2000-2030 changes in anthropogenic emissions, and CH4 and tropospheric ozone burdens, and the associated 

tropospheric ozone forcing for three scenarios; values are ensemble means ___________________________ 10-15 

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List of Figures
 

Figure 1-1. Identification of studies for inclusion in the ISA. _____________________________________________________ 1-9
 

Figure 2-1. Snapshot of evidence for the spectrum of respiratory health effects associated with short- and long-term exposure to 

ozone. _________________________________________________________________________________ 2-39
 

Figure 2-2. Schematic depicting key events in the ozone toxicity pathway. ________________________________________ 2-40
 

Figure 2-3. The effects of ozone at leaf, plant and ecosystem scales. ____________________________________________ 2-48
 

Figure 3-1. Schematic overview of photochemical processes influencing stratospheric and tropospheric ozone. _____________ 3-2
 

Figure 3-2. Estimated anthropogenic emissions of ozone precursors for 2005 including NOX (top), VOCs (middle), and CO (bottom)
 

in the U.S. in million metric tons (MT) per year.____________________________________________________ 3-5
 

Figure 3-3. Measured concentrations of ozone and NOZ (NOY–NOX) during the afternoon at rural sites in the eastern U.S. (grey
 

circles) and in urban areas and urban plumes associated with Nashville, TN (gray dashes); Paris, France (black
 

Figure 3-4. Sample CMAQ modeling domains: 36 km-grid-spacing; outer parent domain in black; 12 km western U.S. (WUS) 

Figure 3-5. Main components of a comprehensive atmospheric chemistry modeling system, such as the U.S. EPA’s Community
 

Figure 3-6. Comparison of global CTM predictions of maximum daily 8-h avg ozone concentrations and multi-model mean with 

Figure 3-7. Time series of daily maximum 8-h avg ozone concentrations (ppm) measured at Trinidad Head, CA, from April 18, 2002 

diamonds); and Los Angeles, CA (Xs). _________________________________________________________ 3-16
 

domain in red; 12 km eastern U.S. (EUS) domain in blue. __________________________________________ 3-18
 

Model for Air Quality (CMAQ) System. _________________________________________________________ 3-19
 

monthly averaged CASTNET observations in the Mountain West and Southeast regions of the U.S. __________ 3-24
 

through December 31, 2009. ________________________________________________________________ 3-28
 

Figure 3-8. Time series of measured ozone and model calculated ozone at Trinidad Head, CA, during April and May, 2002. __ 3-29
 

Figure 3-9. Mean daily 8-h max ozone concentrations in surface air for the base case (top) and PRB case (bottom) in April-May,
 

2001. 3-34
 

Figure 3-10. Mean daily 8-h max ozone concentrations in surface air for base case (top) and PRB case (bottom) in June-August, 

Figure 3-11. Distribution of ozone measured at CASTNET sites (blue diamonds), ozone calculated by the GEOS-Chem base model
 

(red squares) and PRB ozone (green triangles) at (a) sites <1500 m elevation and (b) at sites >1500 m elevation for
 

2001. 3-35
 

April – May; and (c) at sites <1500 m elevation and (d) at sites >1500 m elevation for June-July-August._______ 3-36
 

Figure 3-12. Box plots of precision data by year (2005-2009) for all ozone monitors reporting single-point QC check data to AQS.3-43
 

Figure 3-13. Box plots of percent-difference data by year (2005-2009) for all ozone monitors reporting single-point QC check data to 

AQS. 3-44
 

Figure 3-15. Box plots of RPD data by year for all U.S. ozone sites reporting single-point QC check data to AQS from 2005-2009.3-45
 

Figure 3-17. U.S. Rural NCore, CASTNET and NPS POMS current and proposed sites as of October, 2010.______________ 3-54
 

Figure 3-18. Distribution in nation-wide year-round site-level correlations between daily ozone metrics including 24-h avg, 1-h daily
 

Figure 3-14. Box plots of RPD data by year for the two co-located sites in Missouri from 2006-2009. ____________________ 3-45
 

Figure 3-16. U.S. ozone sites reporting data to AQS as of 2009. ________________________________________________ 3-53
 

max and 8-h daily max using AQS data, 2007-2009. ______________________________________________ 3-57
 

Figure 3-19. Required ozone monitoring time periods (ozone season) identified by monitoring site. _____________________ 3-58
 

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Figure 3-20. Location of the 458 ozone monitors meeting the year-round completeness criterion for all 3 years between 2007 and 

2009. 3-59 

Figure 3-21. Location of the 1,064 ozone monitors meeting the warm-season completeness criteria for all 3 years between 2007 

and 2009. _______________________________________________________________________________ 3-60 

Figure 3-22. Highest monitor (by county) 3-year avg (2007-2009) of the 8-h daily max ozone concentration based on the year-round 

data set (top map) with seasonal stratification (bottom 4 maps).______________________________________ 3-65 

Figure 3-23. Highest monitor (by county) 3-year avg (2007-2009) of the 8-h daily max ozone concentration based on the warmseason data set (top map) with annual stratification (bottom 3 maps). _________________________________ 3-66 

Figure 3-24. Map of the Atlanta CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major 

roadways._______________________________________________________________________________ 3-70 

Figure 3-25. Map of the Boston CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major 

roadways._______________________________________________________________________________ 3-71 

Figure 3-26. Map of the Los Angeles CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major 

roadways._______________________________________________________________________________ 3-72 

Figure 3-27. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data set 

inclusion criteria within the Atlanta CSA.________________________________________________________ 3-74 

Figure 3-28. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data set 

inclusion criteria within the Boston CSA.________________________________________________________ 3-74 

Figure 3-29. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data set 

inclusion criteria within the Los Angeles CSA. ___________________________________________________ 3-75 

Figure 3-30. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Atlanta CSA. __________________________________________________ 3-77 

Figure 3-31. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Boston CSA. __________________________________________________ 3-78 

Figure 3-32. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Los Angeles CSA.______________________________________________ 3-79 

Figure 3-33. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Atlanta CSA. __________________________________________________ 3-80 

Figure 3-34. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Boston CSA. __________________________________________________ 3-81 

Figure 3-35. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Los Angeles CSA.______________________________________________ 3-82 

Figure 3-36. Terrain map showing the location of two nearby AQS ozone monitoring sites (red dots) along the western edge of the 

Los Angeles CSA. Site AL is near shore, 3 m above sea level._______________________________________ 3-84 

Figure 3-37. Rural focus area site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the 

warm-season data set inclusion criteria ________________________________________________________ 3-87 

Figure 3-38. Terrain map showing the location of five AQS ozone monitoring sites (green/black stars) in Great Smoky Mountain 

National Park, NC-TN (SMNP)._______________________________________________________________ 3-89 

Figure 3-39. Pair-wise monitor correlations (left) and coefficients of divergence _____________________________________ 3-90 

Figure 3-40. Terrain map showing the location of the AQS ozone monitoring site in Rocky Mountain National Park, CO (black/green 

star) and the Denver CSA (red dots)___________________________________________________________ 3-91 

Figure 3-41. Terrain map showing the location of two AQS ozone monitoring sites (black/green stars) in Sequoia National Park, CA.3-93 

Figure 3-42. National 8-h ozone trends, 2001-2008 (average of the annual fourth highest 8-h daily max concentrations in ppm). 3-94 

March 2011 xviii DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 3-43. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for Atlanta, Boston and Los Angeles between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data 

set for the cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend 

comparison (right half)._____________________________________________________________________ 3-96
 

Figure 3-44. Distribution of Pearson correlation coefficients for comparison of 8-h daily max ozone from the year-round data set with 

co-located 24-h avg CO, SO2, NO2, PM10 and PM2.5 from AQS, 2007-2009 _____________________________ 3-98
 

Figure 3-45. Distribution of Pearson correlation coefficients for comparison of 8-h daily max ozone from the warm-season (MaySept) data set with co-located 24-h avg CO, SO2, NO2, PM10 and PM2.5 from AQS, 2007-2009.______________ 3-99
 

Figure 3A-1. Time series of observed and GEOS-Chem base model and PRB model 8-h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb) with
 

PRB estimates for Acadia NP, ME.___________________________________________________________ 3-112
 

Figure 3A-2. Time series of observed and GEOS-Chem base model and PRB model 8-h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb) with 

PRB estimates for Everglades NP, FL. ________________________________________________________ 3-112
 

Figure 3A-3. Time series of observed and GEOS-Chem base model and PRB model 8-h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb) with
 

PRB estimates for Crockett, KY._____________________________________________________________ 3-113
 

Figure 3A-4. Time series of observed and GEOS-Chem base model and PRB model 8-h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb) with
 

PRB estimates for Coffeeville, MS.___________________________________________________________ 3-113
 

Figure 3A-5. Time series of observed and GEOS-Chem base model and PRB model 8-h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb) with
 

PRB estimates for Voyageurs NP, MN.________________________________________________________ 3-114
 

Figure 3A-6. Time series of observed and GEOS-Chem base model and PRB model 8-h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb) with
 

PRB estimates for Big Bend NP, TX. _________________________________________________________ 3-114
 

Figure 3A-7. Time series of observed and GEOS-Chem base model and PRB model 8-h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb) with
 

PRB estimates for Rocky Mountain NP, CO. ___________________________________________________ 3-115
 

Figure 3A-8. Time series of observed and GEOS-Chem base model and PRB model 8-h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb) with
 

PRB estimates for Mesa Verde NP, CO._______________________________________________________ 3-115
 

Figure 3A-9. Time series of observed and GEOS-Chem base model and PRB model 8-h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb) with
 

PRB estimates for Yellowstone NP, WY. ______________________________________________________ 3-116
 

Figure 3A-10. Time series of observed and GEOS-Chem base model and PRB model 8-h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb)
 

with PRB estimates for Centennial, WY._______________________________________________________ 3-116
 

Figure 3A-11. Time series of observed and GEOS-Chem base model and PRB model 8-h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb)
 

with PRB estimates for Canyonlands NP, UT.___________________________________________________ 3-117
 

Figure 3A-12. Time series of observed and GEOS-Chem base model and PRB model 8-h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb)
 

with PRB estimates for Glacier NP, MT. _______________________________________________________ 3-117
 

Figure 3A-13. Time series of observed and GEOS-Chem base model and PRB model 8-h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb)
 

with PRB estimates for Mt. Rainier NP, WA.____________________________________________________ 3-118
 

Figure 3A-14. Time series of observed and GEOS-Chem base model and PRB model 8-h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb)
 

with PRB estimates for Lassen Volcanic NP, CA. ________________________________________________ 3-118
 

Figure 3A-15. Time series of observed and GEOS-Chem base model and PRB model 8-h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb)
 

with PRB estimates for Pinnacles NM, CA._____________________________________________________ 3-119
 

Figure 3A-16. Map of the Atlanta CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major
 

roadways.______________________________________________________________________________ 3-120
 

Figure 3A-17. Map of the Baltimore CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major
 

roadways.______________________________________________________________________________ 3-121
 

Figure 3A-18. Map of the Birmingham CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major
 

roadways.______________________________________________________________________________ 3-122
 

March 2011 xix DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
Figure 3A-19. Map of the Boston CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major
 

roadways._________________________________________________________________________________3-123
 

Figure 3A-20. Map of the Chicago CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major
 

roadways._________________________________________________________________________________3-124
 

Figure 3A-21. Map of the Dallas CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major
 

roadways._________________________________________________________________________________3-125
 

Figure 3A-22. Map of the Denver CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major
 

roadways._________________________________________________________________________________3-126
 

Figure 3A-23. Map of the Detroit CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major
 

roadways._________________________________________________________________________________3-127
 

Figure 3A-24. Map of the Houston CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major
 

roadways._________________________________________________________________________________3-128
 

Figure 3A-25. Map of the Los Angeles CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major
 

roadways._________________________________________________________________________________3-129
 

Figure 3A-26. Map of the Minneapolis CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major
 

roadways._________________________________________________________________________________3-130
 

Figure 3A-27. Map of the New York CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major
 

roadways._________________________________________________________________________________3-131
 

Figure 3A-28. Map of the Philadelphia CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major 

roadways._________________________________________________________________________________3-132
 

Figure 3A-29. Map of the Phoenix CBSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major
 

roadways._________________________________________________________________________________3-133
 

Figure 3A-30. Map of the Pittsburgh CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major
 

roadways._________________________________________________________________________________3-134
 

Figure 3A-31. Map of the Salt Lake City CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major 

roadways._________________________________________________________________________________3-135
 

Figure 3A-32. Map of the San Antonio CBSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major 

roadways._________________________________________________________________________________3-136
 

Figure 3A-33. Map of the San Francisco CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major
 

roadways._________________________________________________________________________________3-137
 

Figure 3A-34. Map of the Seattle CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major
 

roadways._________________________________________________________________________________3-138
 

Figure 3A-35. Map of the St. Louis CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major
 

roadways._________________________________________________________________________________3-139
 

Figure 3A-36. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data 

set inclusion criteria within the Atlanta CSA. ______________________________________________________3-140
 

Figure 3A-37. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data 

set inclusion criteria within the Baltimore CSA. ____________________________________________________3-140
 

Figure 3A-38. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data 

set inclusion criteria within the Birmingham CSA. __________________________________________________3-141
 

Figure 3A-39. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data 

set inclusion criteria within the Boston CSA. ______________________________________________________3-141
 

March 2011 xx DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
Figure 3A-40. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data 

set inclusion criteria within the Chicago CSA. _____________________________________________________3-142
 

Figure 3A-41. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data 

set inclusion criteria within the Dallas CSA. _______________________________________________________3-142
 

Figure 3A-42. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data 

set inclusion criteria within the Denver CSA. ______________________________________________________ 3-143
 

Figure 3A-43. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data 

set inclusion criteria within the Detroit CSA._______________________________________________________ 3-143
 

Figure 3A-44. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data 

set inclusion criteria within the Houston CSA. _____________________________________________________ 3-144
 

Figure 3A-45. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data 

set inclusion criteria within the Los Angeles CSA. __________________________________________________3-145
 

Figure 3A-46. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data 

set inclusion criteria within the Minneapolis CSA. __________________________________________________3-146
 

Figure 3A-47. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data 

set inclusion criteria within the New York CSA. ____________________________________________________ 3-146
 

Figure 3A-48. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data 

set inclusion criteria within the Philadelphia CSA. __________________________________________________ 3-147
 

Figure 3A-49. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data 

set inclusion criteria within the Phoenix CBSA. ____________________________________________________ 3-148
 

Figure 3A-50. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data 

set inclusion criteria within the Pittsburgh CSA.____________________________________________________3-149
 

Figure 3A-51. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data 

set inclusion criteria within the Salt Lake City CSA._________________________________________________3-149
 

Figure 3A-52. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data 

set inclusion criteria within the San Antonio CBSA. _________________________________________________3-150
 

Figure 3A-53. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data 

set inclusion criteria within the San Francisco CSA. ________________________________________________3-150
 

Figure 3A-54. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data 

set inclusion criteria within the Seattle CSA. ______________________________________________________3-151
 

Figure 3A-55. Site information, statistics and box plots for 8-h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm-season data 

set inclusion criteria within the St. Louis CSA. _____________________________________________________3-151
 

Figure 3A-56. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus 

distance between monitors (bottom) for the Atlanta CSA. ____________________________________________3-153
 

Figure 3A-57. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus 

distance between monitors (bottom) for the Baltimore CSA. __________________________________________3-154
 

Figure 3A-58. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus 

distance between monitors (bottom) for the Birmingham CSA. ________________________________________3-155
 

Figure 3A-59. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus 

distance between monitors (bottom) for the Boston CSA. ____________________________________________ 3-156
 

Figure 3A-60. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus 

distance between monitors (bottom) for the Chicago CSA. ___________________________________________3-157
 

March 2011 xxi DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

Figure 3A-61. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus 

distance between monitors (bottom) for the Dallas CSA. ____________________________________________3-158
 

Figure 3A-62. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus 

distance between monitors (bottom) for the Denver CSA.____________________________________________3-159
 

Figure 3A-63. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus 

distance between monitors (bottom) for the Detroit CSA. ____________________________________________3-160
 

Figure 3A-64. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus 

distance between monitors (bottom) for the Houston CSA. ___________________________________________3-161
 

Figure 3A-65. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus 

distance between monitors (bottom) for the Los Angeles CSA.________________________________________ 3-162
 

Figure 3A-66. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus 

distance between monitors (bottom) for the Minneapolis CSA. ________________________________________3-163
 

Figure 3A-67. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus 

distance between monitors (bottom) for the New York CSA.__________________________________________3-164
 

Figure 3A-68. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus 

distance between monitors (bottom) for the Philadelphia CSA.________________________________________3-165
 

Figure 3A-69. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus 

distance between monitors (bottom) for the Phoenix CBSA. __________________________________________3-166
 

Figure 3A-70. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus 

distance between monitors (bottom) for the Pittsburgh CSA. _________________________________________3-167
 

Figure 3A-71. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus 

distance between monitors (bottom) for the Salt Lake City CSA. ______________________________________3-168
 

Figure 3A-72. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus 

distance between monitors (bottom) for the San Antonio CBSA. ______________________________________3-169
 

Figure 3A-73. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus 

distance between monitors (bottom) for the San Francisco CSA. ______________________________________ 3-170
 

Figure 3A-74. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus 

distance between monitors (bottom) for the Seattle CSA. ____________________________________________3-171
 

Figure 3A-75. Pair-wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus 

distance between monitors (bottom) for the St. Louis CSA.___________________________________________ 3-172
 

Figure 3A-76. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Atlanta CSA. ___________________________________________________ 3-173
 

Figure 3A-77. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Baltimore CSA. _________________________________________________ 3-174
 

Figure 3A-78. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Birmingham CSA. _______________________________________________ 3-175
 

Figure 3A-79. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Boston CSA. ___________________________________________________ 3-176
 

Figure 3A-80. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Chicago CSA. __________________________________________________ 3-177
 

Figure 3A-81. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Dallas CSA. ____________________________________________________3-178
 

March 2011 xxii DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

Figure 3A-82. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Denver CSA. ___________________________________________________3-179
 

Figure 3A-83. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Detroit CSA. ___________________________________________________3-180
 

Figure 3A-84. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Houston CSA. The colors in the histogram bins correspond to the levels of the 

contour matrix. _____________________________________________________________________________ 3-181
 

Figure 3A-85. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Los Angeles CSA. _______________________________________________3-182
 

Figure 3A-86. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Minneapolis CSA. _______________________________________________ 3-183
 

Figure 3A-87. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the New York CSA. _________________________________________________3-184
 

Figure 3A-88. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Philadelphia CSA. _______________________________________________ 3-185
 

Figure 3A-89. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Phoenix CBSA. _________________________________________________ 3-186
 

Figure 3A-90. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Pittsburgh CSA._________________________________________________ 3-187
 

Figure 3A-91. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Salt Lake City CSA. ______________________________________________ 3-188
 

Figure 3A-92. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the San Antonio CBSA. ______________________________________________3-189
 

Figure 3A-93. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the San Francisco CSA. _____________________________________________3-190
 

Figure 3A-94. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the Seattle CSA. ___________________________________________________ 3-191
 

Figure 3A-95. Pair-wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance 

between monitors (bottom) for the St. Louis CSA.__________________________________________________3-192
 

Figure 3A-96. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for the Atlanta CSA between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data set for the cold 

month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison (right 

half). No year-round monitors were available for the cold month/warm month comparison in this CSA. ________3-193
 

Figure 3A-97. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for the Baltimore CSA between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data set for the
 

cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison 

(right half). ________________________________________________________________________________3-194
 

Figure 3A-98. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for the Birmingham CSA between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data set for the 

cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison 

(right half). ________________________________________________________________________________3-194
 

Figure 3A-99. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for the Boston CSA between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data set for the cold 

month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison (right 

half). 3-195
 

Figure 3A-100. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for the Chicago CSA between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data set for the 

cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison 

(right half). ________________________________________________________________________________3-195
 

March 2011 xxiii DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

Figure 3A-101. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for the Dallas CSA between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data set for the cold 

month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison (right 

half). 3-196
 

Figure 3A-102. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for the Denver CSA between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data set for the 

cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison 

(right half). ________________________________________________________________________________3-196
 

Figure 3A-103. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for the Detroit CSA between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data set for the 

cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison 

(right half). ________________________________________________________________________________3-197
 

Figure 3A-104. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for the Houston CSA between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data set for the 

cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison 

(right half). ________________________________________________________________________________3-197
 

Figure 3A-105. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for the Los Angeles CSA between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data set for
 

the cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend 

comparison (right half)._______________________________________________________________________ 3-198
 

Figure 3A-106. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for the Minneapolis CSA between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data set for
 

the cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend 

comparison (right half)._______________________________________________________________________ 3-198
 

Figure 3A-107. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for the New York CSA between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data set for the
 

cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison 

(right half). ________________________________________________________________________________3-199
 

Figure 3A-108. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for the Philadelphia CSA between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data set for
 

the cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend 

comparison (right half)._______________________________________________________________________ 3-199
 

Figure 3A-109. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for the Phoenix CBSA between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data set for the
 

cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison 

(right half). ________________________________________________________________________________3-200
 

Figure 3A-110. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for the Pittsburgh CSA between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data set for the 

cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison 

(right half). ________________________________________________________________________________3-200
 

Figure 3A-111. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for the Salt Lake City CSA between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data set for
 

the cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend 

comparison (right half)._______________________________________________________________________ 3-201
 

Figure 3A-112. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for the San Antonio CBSA between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data set for
 

the cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend 

comparison (right half)._______________________________________________________________________ 3-201
 

Figure 3A-113. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for the San Francisco CSA between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data set for 

the cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend 

comparison (right half)._______________________________________________________________________ 3-202
 

Figure 3A-114. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for the Seattle CSA between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data set for the 

cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison 

(right half). ________________________________________________________________________________3-202
 

Figure 3A-115. Diel patterns in 1-h avg ozone for the St. Louis CSA between 2007 and 2009 using the year-round data set for the 

cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm-season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison 

(right half). ________________________________________________________________________________3-203
 

Figure 4-1. Correlations between 1-week ozone concentrations and co-pollutants. _____________________________________4-9
 

March 2011 xxiv DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
Figure 4-2. Distribution of time that NHAPS respondents spent in ten microenvironments based on smoothed 1-min diary data.4-16
 

Figure 5-1. Structure of lower airways with progression from the large airways to the alveolus. ___________________________5-3
 

Figure 5-2. Schematic overview of ozone interaction with PUFA in ELF and lung cells. It should be noted that not all secondary
 

reaction products are shown. ____________________________________________________________________5-4
 

Figure 5-3. Total ozone uptake efficiency as a function of breathing frequency at a minute ventilation of 30 L/min. Subjects breathed 

0.25 ppm ozone oronasally through a breathing mask. _______________________________________________5-10
 

Figure 5-4. Ozone uptake fraction as a function of volumetric penetration (Vp) in a representative subject. __________________ 5-11
 

Figure 5-5. Species comparison of antioxidant / protein ratios of: (a) nasal lavage fluid and, (b) bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. __ 5-18
 

Figure 5-6. Schematic depicting key events in ozone's toxicity pathway. Solid arrows denote pathways for which there is greater
 

certainty. Broken arrows represent pathways of emerging interest.______________________________________ 5-60
 

Figure 6-1. Cross-study comparison of mean ozone-induced FEV1 decrements following 6.6 hours of constant, square-wave 

exposure to ozone. ____________________________________________________________________________ 6-5
 

Figure 6-2. Frequency distributions of FEV1 decrements observed by Schelegle et al. (2009) in young healthy adults (16 F, 15 M)
 

following 6.6-h exposures to ozone or filtered air. ___________________________________________________ 6-10
 

Figure 6-3. Changes in FEV1 (mL) or PEF (mL/sec) in association with ambient ozone exposure in studies of children attending 

summer camp. ______________________________________________________________________________ 6-20
 

Figure 6-4. Changes in FEV1 (mL or percent change) or PEF (mL/sec) in association with ambient ozone exposures of adults and 

children during outdoor exercise. ________________________________________________________________6-22
 

Figure 6-5. Changes in lung function parameters in association with ambient ozone exposures among outdoor workers. ______6-24
 

Figure 6-6. Changes in lung function parameters (percent-predicted or %change) in association with ambient ozone exposures 

among asthmatic children. _____________________________________________________________________6-27
 

Figure 6-7. Changes in lung function parameters (L/min or mL/10) in association with ambient ozone exposures among asthmatic 

children. ___________________________________________________________________________________6-28
 

Figure 6-8. Changes in lung function parameters in association with ambient ozone exposures in studies not restricted to asthmatic 

populations. ________________________________________________________________________________6-34
 

Figure 6-11. Associations of ambient ozone exposure with biological markers of airway oxidative stress and airway inflammation.6-50
 

Figure 6-14. Associations of ambient ozone exposure with respiratory symptoms in studies not restricted to asthmatic populations.6-69
 

Figure 6-15. Percent increase in respiratory hospital admissions from natural spline models for a 40-ppb increase in 1-h max ozone 

Figure 6-9. Comparison of ozone-lung function effect estimates in single- and co-pollutant models._______________________6-38
 

Figure 6-10. Associations of ambient ozone exposure with changes in concentrations of exhaled nitric oxide (eNO). __________6-49
 

Figure 6-12. Associations of ambient ozone exposure with respiratory symptoms in asthmatic subjects. ____________________ 6-62
 

Figure 6-13. Associations of ambient ozone exposure with asthma medication use.____________________________________ 6-66
 

concentrations for each location of the APHENA study. ______________________________________________6-81
 

Figure 6-16. Estimated relative risks (RRs) of ozone-related asthma hospital admissions allowing for possible nonlinear relationships 

using natural splines. _________________________________________________________________________ 6-87
 

Figure 6-17. Risk ratio for respiratory ED visits and different ozone exposure metrics in Atlanta from 1993-2004. _____________6-89
 

Figure 6-18. Loess dose-response estimates and twice-standard error estimates from generalized additive models for associations
 

between 3-day avg ozone concentrations and ED visits for pediatric asthma. _____________________________6-91
 

Figure 6-19. Percent increase in respiratory-related hospital admission and ED visits in studies that presented all-year and 

seasonal analyses. ___________________________________________________________________________ 6-93
 

March 2011 xxv DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

 

Figure 6-20. Percent increase in respiratory-related hospital admissions and ED visits for studies that presented single and 

co-pollutant model results. _____________________________________________________________________ 6-95
 

Figure 6-24. Odds Ratio (95% confidence interval) per increment ppb increase in ozone for myocardial infarction, angina, ischemic 

Figure 6-26. Odds Ratio (95% confidence interval) per increment ppb* increase in ozone for arrhythmia and dysrhythmia ED visits or
 

Figure 6-27. Summary of mortality risk estimates for short-term ozone exposure and all-cause (nonaccidental) mortality from all-year 

Figure 6-29. Community-specific ozone-mortality risk estimates for nonaccidental mortality per 10-ppb increase in same-day 24-h
 

Figure 6-30. Percent increase in all-cause (nonaccidental) and cause-specific mortality from the APHENA study for single- and coFigure 7-1. Interaction of gene presence and ozone level on the Hazard Ratio (HR) of new-onset asthma in the 12 Children's Health 

Figure 7-2. Ozone modifies the effect of TNF G-308A genotype on bronchitic symptoms among children with asthma in the CHS.7-7
 

Figure 7-3. Ozone-asthma concentration-response relationship using the mean concentration during the entire follow-up period 

adjusted for child’s sex, age, birth weight, and gestational age; maternal race, ethnicity, age, education, insurance, 

Figure 7-4. Birthweight deficit by decile of 24-h avg ozone concentration averaged over the entire pregnancy compared with the 

Figure 7-5. Adjusted ozone-mortality relative risk estimates (95% CI) by time period of analysis per subject-weighted mean ozone 

Figure 6-21. Odds ratio (95% confidence interval) for stroke by quintiles of ozone. ____________________________________6-108
 

Figure 6-22. Odds ratio (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for over all cardiovascular ED visits or HAs. _________6-119
 

Figure 6-23. Odds Ratio (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for congestive heart failure ED visits or HAs. ________ 6-121
 

heart disease, and coronary heart disease ED visits or HAs. _________________________________________6-123
 

Figure 6-25. Odds Ratio (95% confidence interval) per increment ppb increase in ozone for stroke ED visits or HAs._________ 6-125
 

HAs. 6-126
 

and summer season analyses._________________________________________________________________ 6-141
 

Figure 6-28. Scatter plots of ozone mortality risk estimates with versus without adjustment for PM10 in NMMAPS cities. ______6-146
 

avg summertime ozone concentrations in single-pollutant models and co-pollutant models with sulfate.________ 6-147
 

pollutant models. ___________________________________________________________________________ 6-149
 

Figure 6-31. Ozone mortality risk estimates and community-specific characteristics, U.S., 1987-2000. ____________________ 6-156
 

Figure 6-32. Community-specific Bayesian ozone-mortality risk estimates in 98 U.S. communities._______________________ 6-159
 

Figure 6-33. Map of spatially dependent ozone-mortality coefficients for 8-h max ozone concentrations using summer data. ___6-159
 

Figure 6-34. Estimated combined smooth distributed lag for 48 U.S. cities during the summer months.____________________ 6-164
 

Figure 6-35. Estimated combined smooth distributed lag in 21 European cities during the summer (June-August) months. ____ 6-166
 

Figure 6-36. Estimated combined C-R curve for ozone and nonaccidental mortality using the nonlinear (spline) model._______6-169
 

Figure 6-37. Percent increase in cause-specific mortality. _______________________________________________________ 6-172
 

Study communities. ___________________________________________________________________________7-5
 

and smoking status during pregnancy; and regional poverty level and temperature. ________________________7-11
 

decile group with the lowest ozone exposure. ______________________________________________________ 7-30
 

concentration in the Cancer Prevention Study II by the American Cancer Society. _________________________7-60
 

Figure 9-1. The effects of ozone at leaf, plant and ecosystem scales. _____________________________________________ 9-4
 

Figure 9-2. The microarchitecture of a dicot leaf. _____________________________________________________________9-27
 

Figure 9-3. Possible reactions of ozone within water. _________________________________________________________9-27
 

Figure 9-4. The Crigee mechanism of ozone attack of a double bond. ____________________________________________9-28
 

Figure 9-5 Composite diagram of major themes in the temporal evolution of the genetic response to ozone stress. ________9-34
 

Figure 9-6. The oxidative cell death cycle. __________________________________________________________________ 9-37
 

March 2011 xxvi DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
Figure 9-7. Conceptual diagram showing where ozone disrupts C flow in a tree-soil system, including transfer between biotic and 

abiotic components below ground that influence soil physical and chemical properties. ______________________ 9-77
 

Figure 9-8. Diagrammatic representation of several exposure indices, illustrating how they weight concentration and accumulate 

exposure. __________________________________________________________________________________9-94
 

Figure 9-9. Trends in May to September 12-h SUM06, peak 1-h ozone concentration and number of daily exceedances of 95 ppb for
 

the Crestline site in 1963 to 1999 in relation to trends in mean daily maximum temperature for Crestline and daily 

reactive organic gases (ROG) and oxides of nitrogen (NOX) for San Bernardino County. ___________________9-101
 

Figure 9-10. The number of hourly average concentrations between 50 and 89 ppb for the period 1980-2000 for the Crestline, San
 

Bernardino County, CA, monitoring site. _________________________________________________________9-102
 

Figure 9-11. Mean diurnal. ______________________________________________________________________________ 9-105
 

Figure 9-12. Maximum 3-month, 12-h W126 plotted against maximum 6-month, 12-h W126. __________________________9-108
 

Figure 9-13. Quantiles of predicted relative yield loss for 34 NCLAN crop experiments. ________________________________9-115
 

Figure 9-14. Quantiles of predicted relative yield loss for 4 crop species in NCLAN experiments. ________________________9-116
 

Figure 9-15. Quantiles of predicted relative biomass loss for 49 tree species in NHEERL/WED experiments. _______________9-117
 

Figure 9-16. Quantiles of predicted relative biomass loss for 4 tree species in NHEERL/WED experiments. ________________9-118
 

Figure 9-17. Comparison of yield observed in SoyFACE experiment in a given year with yield predicted by the median composite 

function based on NCLAN.____________________________________________________________________ 9-124
 

Figure 9-18. Comparison of composite functions for the quartiles of 7 curves for 7 genotypes of soybean grown in the SoyFACE 

experiment, and for the quartiles of 11 curves for 5 genotypes of soybean grown in the NCLAN project. _______9-125
 

Figure 9-19. Comparison between above-ground biomass observed in Aspen FACE experiment in 6 year and biomass predicted by 

the median composite function based on NHEERL/WED.____________________________________________ 9-127
 

Figure 9-20. Above-ground biomass for one genotype of cottonwood grown in seven locations for one season in 3 years. ____9-129
 

Figure 10-1. Flow chart for the effects of tropospheric ozone on climate. ____________________________________________10-5
 

Figure 10-2. Global average radiative forcing (RF) estimates and ranges in 2005 for anthropogenic CO2, CH4, ozone and other
 

important agents and mechanisms, together with the typical geographical extent (spatial scale) of the forcing and the 

assessed level of scientific understanding (LOSU).__________________________________________________10-6
 

Figure 10-3. Ensemble average 1900-2000 surface temperature trends (oC per century) in response to tropospheric ozone changes 

and the input radiative forcing (W/m2

), as computed by the NASA GISS chemistry-climate model. ____________ 10-13
 

Figure 10-4. Global mean radiative forcing estimates calculated by a set of models for the 2000-2100 change in tropospheric ozone.10-17
 

Figure 10-5. Diagram of the factors that determine human exposure to ultraviolet radiation. ____________________________10-19
 

Figure 10-6. Monthly stratospheric ozone number density (scaled by 1 × 1012 molecules/cm3

), in 3 latitude belts as a function of time 

(August 2002 - December 2008) and altitude (15-40 km) from the Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultation of Stars 

(GOMOS) instrument onboard the European Space Agency’s ENVISAT satellite. _________________________10-21
 

March 2011 xxvii DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

 

 

Ozone Project Team
 

Executive Direction 

Dr. John Vandenberg (Director)—National Center for Environmental Assessment-RTP Division,

Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle

Park, NC 

Ms. Debra Walsh (Deputy Director)—National Center for Environmental Assessment-RTP Division,

Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle

Park, NC 

Dr. Mary Ross (Branch Chief)—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research 

and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Doug Johns (Acting Branch Chief)—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of

Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Scientific Staff 

Dr. James Brown (O3 Team Leader)—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of

Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Christal Bowman—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Barbara Buckley—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Ms. Ye Cao—Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Center for Environmental

Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research 

Triangle Park, NC 

Mr. Allen Davis—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Jean-Jacques Dubois—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Steven J. Dutton—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Jeffrey Herrick—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Erin Hines—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Dennis Kotchmar—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

March 2011 xxviii DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

 

Dr. Meredith Lassiter—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Lingli Liu— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Center for Environmental

Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research 

Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Thomas Long—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Thomas Luben—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Qingyu Meng— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Center for

Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Kristopher Novak—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Elizabeth Oesterling Owens—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of

Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Molini Patel—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Joseph P. Pinto—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Ms. Joann Rice—on detail to the National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research 

and Development, from the Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and 

Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Mr. Jason Sacks—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Lisa Vinikoor-Imler—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Technical Support Staff 

Mr. Kenneth J. Breito–Senior Environmental Employment Program, National Center for

Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Ms. Ellen Lorang—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Mr. J. Sawyer Lucy–Student Services Authority, National Center for Environmental Assessment,

Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle

Park, NC 

Ms. Deborah Wales—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

March 2011 xxix DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

Mr. Richard N. Wilson–National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Ms. Barbara Wright—Senior Environmental Employment Program, National Center for

Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

March 2011 xxx DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

Authors, Contributors, and Reviewers
 

Authors 

Dr. James Brown (O3 Team Leader)—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of

Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Christal Bowman—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Barbara Buckley—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Maggie Clark—Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, Colorado State

University, Fort Collins, CO 

Dr. Jean-Jacques Dubois—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Steven J. Dutton—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Kelly Gillespie— Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, MO 

Dr. Terry Gordon—Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of

Medicine, Tuxedo, NY 

Dr. Jeffrey Herrick—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Erin Hines—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Kazuhiko Ito—Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of

Medicine, Tuxedo, NY 

Dr. Dennis Kotchmar—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Meredith Lassiter—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Lingli Liu— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Postdoctoral Research Fellow to 

National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development,

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Thomas Long—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Thomas Luben—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

March 2011 xxxi DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

 

 

 

Dr. Loretta J. Mickley—School of Engineering & Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge,

MA 

Dr. Kristopher Novak—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Elizabeth Oesterling Owens—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of

Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Molini Patel—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Jennifer Peel—Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, Colorado State

University, Fort Collins, CO 

Dr. Joseph Pinto—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Ms. Joann Rice—on detail to the National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research 

and Development, from the Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and 

Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Mr. Jason Sacks—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. George Thurston—Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of

Medicine, Tuxedo, NY 

Dr. Lisa Vinikoor-Imler—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Cosima Wiese—Department of Biology, Misericordia University, Dallas, PA 

Contributors 

Mr. Brian Adams—Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Center for

Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Halil Cakir—Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Center for Environmental

Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research 

Triangle Park, NC 

Ms. Ye Cao—Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Center for Environmental

Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research 

Triangle Park, NC 

Mr. Allen Davis—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Mr. Mark Evangelista—Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation,

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. E. Henry Lee—National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis, OR 

March 2011 xxxii DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Dr. Qingyu Meng—Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Postdoctoral Research Fellow to 

National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Mr. David Mintz—Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Mr. Mark Schmidt—Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Huiquin Wang, School of Engineering and Applied Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 

Mr. Benjamin Wells—Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation,

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Reviewers 

Dr. Christian Andersen—National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis, OR 

Ms. Lea Anderson—Office of General Counsel, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,

D.C.
 

Dr. Robert Arnts—National Exposure Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development,

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
 

Dr. John Balmes— Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco and School of

Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA 

Dr. Souad Benromdhane—Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and 

Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Fitzgerald Booker—USDA-ARS Plant Science Research Unit, Raleigh, NC 

Dr. Philip Bromberg—School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 

Dr. Kent Burkey—USDA-ARS Plant Science Research Unit, Raleigh, NC 

Dr. David DeMarini—National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of

Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Russ Dickerson—Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Science, University of Maryland,

College Park, MD
 

Mr. Patrick Dolwick—Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation,

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
 

Dr. Aimen Farraj—National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of

Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Arlene Fiore—NOAA/Geophysical Dynamics Laboratory, Princeton, NJ 

Dr. Ian Gilmour—National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of

Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

March 2011 xxxiii DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Dr. Tara Greaver—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Gary Hatch—National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of

Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Bryan Hubbel—Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation,

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Karl Jensen—National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of

Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Urmila Kodavanti—National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of

Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Petros Koutrakis—Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health,

Boston, MA 

Mr. John Langstaff—Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation,

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Christopher Lau—National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of

Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Mr. Gary Lear—Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of

Administration and Policy, Washington, DC 

Dr. Morton Lippmann—Nelson Institute of Environmental Medicine, New York University, Tuxedo,

NY 

Dr. Karen Martin—Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation,

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Ms. Connie Meacham—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Mr. David Mintz—Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Pradeep Rajan—Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation,

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. John Rogers—National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of

Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Ms. Vicki Sandiford—Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation,

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Ms. Susan Stone—Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation,

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. John Vandenberg—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. James G. Wagner—Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, Michigan State

University, East Lansing, MI 

March 2011 xxxiv DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

Ms. Debra Walsh—National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and 

Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 

Dr. Jason West—Department of Environmental Sciences & Engineering, University of North 

Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 

March 2011 xxxv DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee

Ozone NAAQS Review Panel
 

Chair of the Environmental Protection Agency’s Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee 

Dr. Jonathan M. Samet*, Department of Preventive Medicine at the Keck School of Medicine, and 

Director of the Institute for Global Health at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 

Chair of the Ozone Review Panel 

Dr. Jonathan M. Samet*, Department of Preventive Medicine at the Keck School of Medicine, and 

Director of the Institute for Global Health at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 

Members 

Dr. George A. Allen*, Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management (NESCAUM), Boston,

MA
 

Professor Ed Avol, Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of

Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
 

Dr. John Bailar, The National Academies, Washington, D.C.
 

Dr. Michelle Bell, School of Forestry & Environmental Studies, Yale University, New Haven, CT
 

Dr. Joseph Brain*, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Harvard 

University, Boston, MA
 

Dr. David Chock, Independent Consultant, Bloomfield Hills, MI
 

Dr. William Michael Foster, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Duke

University Medical Center, Durham, NC
 

Dr. H. Christopher Frey*, Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering,

College of Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC
 

Dr. Judith Graham, Independent Consultant, Pittsboro, NC
 

Dr. David Grantz, College of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Air Pollution Research Center,

University of California Riverside, Parlier, CA
 

Dr. Jack Harkema, Center for Integrated Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI
 

Dr. Daniel Jacob, Atmospheric Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Harvard University,

Cambridge, MA
 

Dr. Steven Kleeberger, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of

Health, Research Triangle Park, NC
 

March 2011 xxxvi DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

 

 

 

Dr. Frederick J. Miller, Independent Consultant, Cary, NC 

Dr. Howard Neufeld, Department of Biology, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC 

Dr. Armistead (Ted) Russell*, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute

of Technology, Atlanta, GA 

Dr. Helen Suh MacIntosh*, Environmental Health, NORC at the University of Chicago, and the

School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA 

Dr. James Ultman, Department of Chemical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University 

Park, PA 

Dr. Sverre Vedal, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public

Health and Community Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 

Dr. Kathleen Weathers*, Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY 

Dr. Peter Woodbury, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 

* Members of the statutory Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee (CASAC) appointed by the

EPA Administrator 

Science Advisory Board Staff 

Dr. Holly Stallworth, Designated Federal Officer, Environmental Protection Agency, Mail Code

1400R, 1300 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Washington, DC, 20004, Phone: 202-564-2073, Email:

stallworth.holly@epa.gov 

March 2011 xxxvii DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

Acronyms and Abbreviations
 

α alpha, ambient exposure factor 

α-TOH	 Alpha tocopherol 

Ångström, angstrom (10-10 Å, A meter) 

AA arachidonic acid; ambient air; atomic absorption; ascorbic acid 

AADT	 annual average daily traffic 

AAS	 atomic absorption (spectrophotometry, spectrometry, 

spectroscopy) 

ABA	 abscisic acid 

ABI2	 phospho-tyrosine-specific protein phosphatase 

AC	 air conditioning 

ACC	 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate 

ACE	 angiotensin converting enzyme 

ACGIH American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists 

ACh	 acetylcholine 

AChE	 acetylcholinesterase 

ACS	 American Cancer Society; 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylase 

synthase 

ACS-CPS-II ACS Cancer Prevention Study II 

ADC	 arginine decarboxylase 

ADSS aged and diluted sidestream cigarette smoke 

AED	 aerodynamic equivalent diameter 

AER	 air exchange rate 

AEROCE	 Atmospheric/Ocean Chemistry Experiment 

AF atrial fibrillation; absorption fraction; adsorbed fraction 

AGL	 above ground level 

AH2	 ascorbic acid 

AHCs	 aromatic hydrocarbons 

A horizon uppermost layer of soil (litter and humus) 

AHR	 airway(s) hyperresponsiveness, airway(s) hyperreactivity 

AhR	 aryl hydrocarbon receptor 

AHSMOG (California Seventh Day) Adventist Heath and Smog (Study) 

AirPEx Air Pollution Exposure (model) 

AirQUIS	 Air Quality Information System (model, Norwegian Institute for

Air Research [NILU]) 

AIRS	 Aerometric Information Retrieval System; Atmospheric Infrared 

Sounder (instrument) 

March 2011	 xxxviii DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

 

ALI air liquid interface 

AM alveolar macrophage(s) 

Amax maximum photosynthesis rate 

ANF atrial natriuretic factor 

ANN artificial neural network 

ANOVA analysis of variance 

ANP Acadia National Park 

AOP2 antioxidant protein 2 

AOS allene oxide synthase 

AOT40 seasonal sum of the difference between an hourly concentration

at the threshold value of 40 ppb, minus the threshold value of 40 

ppb 

AOT60	 seasonal sum of the difference between an hourly concentration

at the threshold value of 60 ppb, minus the threshold value of 60 

ppb 

AOTx	 family of cumulative, cutoff concentration-based exposure 

indices 

AP	 alkaline phosphatase 

AP-CIMS	 Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometer 

APEX	 Air Pollutants Exposure (model) 

APHEA Air Pollution on Health: a European Approach (study) 

APHENA	 Air Pollution and Health: A European and North American 

Approach 

APX	 ascorbate peroxidase 

AQCD	 Air Quality Criteria Document 

AQS	 (U.S. EPA) Air Quality System (database) 

AR	 Acoustic rhinometry 

AR4	 Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) from the IPCC 

ARE	 antioxidant response element 

ARG	 arginase 

ARIC Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities 

Asat	 photosynthetic assimilation in saturating light 

ASC	 ascorbate 

ASTM	 American Society for Testing and Materials 

ATLAS	 atmospheric model (by Kurucz) 

ATP	 adenosine triphosphate 

ATPase adenosine triphosphatase; adenosine triphosphate synthase 

ATS	 American Thoracic Society 

ATSDR	 Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Research 

March 2011	 xxxix DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

A/V surface-to-volume ratio 

AVG 1-aminoethoxyvinyl-glycine 

avg average 

AZO azoxystrobin 

β beta, beta coefficient, slope; log relative risk 

β2-AR beta-2-adrenergic receptor 

BNP β -type natriuretic peptide 

BAL bronchoalveolar lavage; British anti-Lewisite (AKA 

dimercaprol) 

BALF bronchoalveolar lavage fluid 

BALT	 bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue(s) 

B[a]P	 benzo[a]pyrene 

BC black carbon 

BCB	 blue copper binding protein 

BEIS	 Biogenic Emissions Inventory System 

BERLIOZ Berlin Ozone Experiment 

BHC biogenic hydrocarbons 

BLD	 below limit of detection 

BME	 Bayesian Maximum Entropy (framework) 

BMI	 body mass index 

BMZ basement membrane zone 

BP	 blood pressure 

bpm breaths per minute 

BrdU	 bromodeoxyuridine 

BS	 black smoke 

BSA bovine serum albumin; body surface area 

Bscatter	 back scatter 

bw	 body weight 

C carbon; concentration 

C3	 plants that use only the Calvin cycle for fixing the carbon 

dioxide from the air 

C3a	 complement protein fragment 

C4	 plants that use the Hatch-Slack cycle for fixing the carbon 

dioxide from the air 

CA Conducting airways 

Ca calcium 

Ca2+ calcium ion 

CAA Clean Air Act 

March 2011	 xl DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

CAAA Amendments to the Clean Air Act (1990) 

Cab chlorophyll a/b binding protein 

CADS Cincinnati Activity Diary Study 

CAM plants that use crassulacean acid metabolism for fixing the 

carbon dioxide from the air 

CAP(s) concentrated ambient particles 

CAPMoN Canadian Air and Precipitation Monitoring Network 

CAR centriacinar region 

CARB California Air Resources Board 

CASAC Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee 

CASTNET Clean Air Status and Trends Network 

CAT catalase; computer-aided tomography 

CB carbon black 

CBL convective boundary layer 

CBU cumulative breath units 

CBVD cerebrovascular disease 

% C/C percent carbon of total carbon 

CC16 Clara cell protein, Clara cell 16 protein 

CCh carbachol 

CCSP Climate Change Science Program; Clara cell secretory protein 

CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 

cDNA complementary DNA 

CDPHE Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment 

CDT Central Daylight Time 

Cdyn , Cdyn dynamic lung compliance 

CE continuous exercise 

CEC controlled environment chambers 

CEPEX Central Equatorial Pacific Experiment 

CF charcoal-filtered 

CFA charcoal/Purafil-filtered air 

CFCs chlorinated fluorocarbons 

CFD computational fluid dynamics (modeling) 

CFI continuous forest inventory 

CFR Code of Federal Regulations; reference method 

CG cloud-to-ground (lightning flash) 

CGRP Calcitonin gene-related peptide 

CH3 methyl group 

March 2011 xli DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

CH4 

C2H4 

C5H8 

C6H6 

C10H16 

CHAD 

ChAT 

CH3Br 

CH2=C(CH3)–CHO 

CH3CCl3 

C6H5CH3 

CH3CHO 

CH3CH(ONO2)CHO 

CHCl3 

CH3Cl 

CH3CN 

CH3–CO 

CH3–C(O)–CH=CH2 

CH3C(O)CH2ONO2 

CH3CO3NO2 

CH3–C(O)O2, CH3–C(O)OO 

C2H5–H; C2H6 

CH2O 

CH3O 

CH3O2

• 

CH3OH 

CH3–O(O)CH3 

CH3 OOH 

CHD 

CHF 

CH3I 

CHIP 

CHO 

CIE 

CIMS 

methane 

ethene 

isoprene 

benzene 

terpene 

Consolidated Human Activity Database 

choline acetyl-transferase 

methyl bromide 

methacrolein 

Methyl chloroform 

toluene 

acetaldehyde 

2-nitratopropanol 

chloroform 

Methyl chloride 

acetonitrile 

acetyl 

methyl vinyl ketone 

1-nitratopropanone 

PAN, peroxyacetyl nitrate 

acetyl peroxy radical; peroxyacetyl 

ethane 

formaldehyde 

methoxy 

methyl peroxy (radical) 

methanol 

acetone 

acetic acid; methyl hydroperoxide 

coronary heart disease 

congestive heart failure 

methyl iodide 

Effects of Elevated Carbon Dioxide and Ozone on Potato Tuber 

Quality in the European Multiple Site Experiment 

Chinese hamster ovary cells 

confidence interval(s) 

Commission Internationale de l’Eclaiarage (International

Commission on Illumination) 

chemical ionization mass spectroscopy 

March 2011 xlii DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 

CI 
 

 

 

CINC cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant 

CIU cumulative inhalation units 

CL chemiluminescence 

Cl chlorine 

CLM chemiluminescence method 

CMAQ Community Multi-scale Air Quality modeling system; 

Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality 

CMBO chloromethylbutenone 

CMD count median diameter 

CMSA consolidated metropolitan statistical area 

CN condensation nuclei 

CO carbon monoxide; Cardiac output 

CO2 carbon dioxide 

COD coefficient of divergence; coefficient of determination 

ConA concanavalin A 

COP Conference of Parties 

COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 

C-R concentration-response 

CRKs cysteine-rich RLKs, which are part of the receptor-like/Pelle 

kinase (RLKs) group 

CRP C-reactive protein 

CS corticosteroid 

CSA Combined Statistical Area 

CSTR continuous stirred tank reactor 

CTL cytotoxic T lymphocyte 

CTM chemical transport model 

CU cumulative uptake (coefficient of variation) 

CUOt The cumulative stomatal uptake of O3, using a constant O3 

uptake rate threshold of t nmol/m2/s 

CV; c.v.; cv Cultivar 

CV cardiovascular 

C.V. coefficient of variation 

CVD cardiovascular disease 

CYP cytochrome (e.g., CYP1A, CYP-2A6, CYP3A4, CYP450) 

CYP 1A1 cytochrome P450 1A1 

CyS Protein cysteines 

cyt cytochrome 

Δ, δ delta, difference; change 

March 2011 xliii DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

2-D two-dimensional 

3-D three-dimensional 

d50 50 percent cut point or 50 percent diameter 

Da aerodynamic diameter 

Da Dalton 

DA dry airstream; dopamine; dopaminergic 

DAHPS 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonat-7-phosphate synthase 

DBP diastolic blood pressure 

DD doubling dose 

df degrees of freedom 

DG diacylglycerol 

DGDG digalactosyldiacylglycerol 

DHA dehydroascorbate; docosahexaenoic acid 

DHAR dehydroascorbate reductase 

DHBA 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid 

DI dry intrusion 

DIAL differential absorption lidar (system) 

DLEM Dynamic Land Ecosystem Model 

DMPO dimethylphrrolise 1-oxide; 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide 

DNA deoxyribonucleic acid 

DOAS differential optical absorption spectroscopy 

DOC dissolved organic carbon 

DOE U.S. Department of Energy 

DOPAC 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid 

DPCC 1,2-dipalmitoyl-SN-glycero-3-phosphocholine 

DR disulfide reductase 

DTPA diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid 

DU Dobson units 

ε epsilon; convergence precision 

EBC exhaled breath condensate (fluid) 

EC elemental carbon 

EC0.05% 0.05% excess risk in mortality 

EC50 effect concentration for 50% of test population 

ECG electrocardiography; electrocardiogram 

ECM ectomycorrhizal fungi 

ECOPHYS whole-tree ecophysiological growth process model 

EC-SOD extracellular superoxide dismutase 

March 2011 xliv DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

ED emergency department 

EDMAS Exposure and Dose Modeling and Analysis System 

EDTA ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid 

EDU ethylenediurea 

EE energy expenditure (average EE rate) 

EEA(s) Essential Ecological Attribute(s) 

EEG electroencephalogram; electroencephalographic 

eGPx extracellular glutathione peroxidase 

EGTA ethyleneglycoltetraacetic acid 

EGU(s) electricity generating unit(s) 

EKG, ECG electrocardiogram 

ELF epithelial lining fluid; extracellular lining fluid 

ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay 

EM electron microscopy 

ENA-78 epithelial cell-derived neutrophil-activating peptide 78 

eNO exhaled nitric oxide 

eNOS endothelial nitric oxide synthase 

ENSO El Niño-Southern Oscillation 

EOFs empirical orthogonal functions 

EOTCP European Open Top Chamber Programme 

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

EPEM Event Probability Exposure Model 

EPO epoxyconazole 

EPR Electron Paramagnetic Resonance 

EPRI Electric Power Research Institute 

ER emergency room; excess risk 

ERAQS Eastern Regional Air Quality Study 

ERD1 ethylene response 

ESPACE-wheat European Stress Physiology and Climate Experiment on the

Effects of Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen on Spring Wheat 

ESR electron spin resonance (spectroscopy); EPR 

EST Eastern Standard Time 

ET ethylene; endotracheal 

ETS environmental tobacco smoke 

EU endotoxin units; European Union 

EVR equivalent ventilation rate 

F female 

March 2011 xlv DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

 

 

 

f, f, fB frequency of breathing 

F344 Fischer 344 strain of rats 

FA filtered air; fatty acid; fractional absorption; absorbed fraction 

FAA Federal Aviation Administration 

FACE free-air CO2 enrichment (system) 

fB breathing frequency 

FDA Food and Drug Administration 

FEF forced expiratory flow 

FEF25-75 forced expiratory flow between the times at which 25% and 75%

of the vital capacity is reached 

FEFx	 forced expiratory flow after (x)% vital capacity (e.g., after 25,

50, or 75% vital capacity) 

FEM	 Federal equivalent method 

FEV1	 forced expiratory volume in 1 second 

FFAs	 free fatty acids 

FGF fibroblast growth factor 

FGFR	 fibroblast growth factor receptor 

FHM	 Forest Health Monitoring 

FIA	 USDA Forest Inventory and Analysis Program 

Finf	 infiltration factor 

FIVC	 forced inspiratory vital capacity 

FLAG	 Federal Land Managers’ Air Quality Related Values Workgroup 

FN; Fn fibronectin 

FP	 fluticasone propionate 

FPM	 Forest Pest Management 

FR	 Federal Register; fixed-ratio operant conditioning; fixed ratio 

schedule 

FRAP	 ferric reducing ability of plasma 

FRC functional residual capacity 

FRM	 Federal reference method 

FS	 field stimulation 

FTIR	 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 

FVC	 forced volume vital capacity 

Fv/Fm	 a measure of the maximum efficiency of Photosystem II 

FVI	 fruit and vegetable index 

G	 plants rooted in ground 

GAM	 generalized additive model(s) 

GBS	 group B streptococcus 

March 2011	 xlvi DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

GC gas chromatography 

GCE Goddard Cumulus Ensemble (model) 

GC-FID gas chromatography-flame ionization detection 

GCM(s) general circulation model(s), global climate model 

GC/MS gas chromatography/mass spectrometry 

GD gestational day 

GDP guanosine diphosphate 

GDT glutathione-disulfide transhydrogenase 

GEE generalized estimating equations 

GEOS Goddard Earth Observing System 

GEOS-1DAS Goddard Earth Observing System Data Assimilation System 

GEOS-Chem Goddard Earth Observing System-Chemistry (model) 

GHG greenhouse gas 

GLM(s) generalized linear model(s) 

GLMM(s) generalized linear mixed model(s) 

GLRAG Great Lakes Regional Assessment Group 

GLU glutamate 

GM-CSF granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor 

GMD Global Monitoring Division 

GMT Greenwich mean time 

G6P glucose-6-phosphate 

G6PD glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase 

GPP Gross Primary Production 

GPx glutathione peroxidase 

GR glutathione reductase 

GRSM Great Smoky Mountains National Park 

GSFC NASA Goddard Space Flight Center 

GSH glutathione; reduced glutathione 

GSHPx, GPx glutathione peroxidase 

GSMNP Great Smoky Mountains National Park 

GSSG oxidized glutathione; glutathione disulfide 

GST glutathione transferase; glutathione S-transferase 

GSTM1 glutathione S-transferase polymorphism M1 

GSTM1null glutathione S-transferase μ-1 null (genotype) 

GSTP1 glutathione S-transferase P 1 

GSx glutathione; glutathione-containing material 

H; H+; H• atomic hydrogen, hydrogen ion; hydrogen radical 

March 2011 xlvii DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

3

H 

h 

H2 

HA 

ha 

HC(s) 

HCFC(s) 

HCHO 

HCO• 

H2CO, HCHO 

HDM 

2HDM, 2ndHDM 

HDMA 

HEPA 

HERO 

HF 

HFCs 

Hg 

HHP-C9 

HIST 

HLA 

HMOX 

HMOX1 

HNE 

HNO2, HONO 

HNO3 

HNO4 

HO 

HO• 

HO2

• 

HO3

• 

H2O 

H3O+ 

H2O2 

HOCH2OOH 

radiolabeled hydrogen; tritium 

hour 

molecular hydrogen 

hospital admission 

hectare 

hydrocarbon(s) 

hydrochlorofluorocarbon(s) 

formaldehyde 

formyl (radical) 

formaldehyde 

house dust mite 

second-highest daily maximum 1-h concentration 

house dust mite allergen 

high efficiency particle air (filter) 

Health and Environmental Research Online, NCEA Database 

System 

hydrogen fluoride; hydrofluoride; Howland Forest site;

(HRV signal) high-frequency power 

hydrofluorocarbons 

mercury 

1-hydroxy-1-hydroperoxynonane 

histamine 

human leukocyte antigen 

Heme oxygenase 

heme-oxygenase (decycling)-1 

4-hydroxynonenal 

nitrous acid 

nitric acid 

pernitric acid 

hydroxyl; heme oxygenase 

hydroxyl radical 

hydroperoxyl; hydroperoxy radical; protonated superoxide 

protonated ozone radical 

water 

Hydronium ion 

hydrogen peroxide 

hydroxymethylhydroperoxide 

March 2011 xlviii DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

HONO nitrous acid 

HO2NO2 peroxynitric acid 

HOONO pernitrous acid 

HOX hydrogen radical(s) 

HPLC high-pressure liquid chromatography 

HPOT 13-hydroperoxide linolenic acid 

HR heart rate, hazard ratio; hypersensitive response 

HRmax maximum heart rate 

HRP horseradish peroxidase 

HRV heart rate variability 

hs-CRP high-sensitivity C-reactive protein 

H2SO4 sulfuric acid 

5-HT 5-hydroxytryptamine 

hv Energy per photon of electromagnetic energy at frequency v 

HVAC heating, ventilation, and air conditioning 

Hz hertz 

I iodine 

I/O indoor-outdoor ratio 

IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer 

IAS interalveolar septum 

IBM individual-based model or modeling 

IC inspiratory capacity; intracloud (lightning flash) 

ICAM-1 intercellular adhesion molecule 

ICAS Inner City Asthma Study 

ICD implantable cardioverter defibrillator(s); International

Classification of Diseases 

ICD-9 International Classification of Disease 9th revision 

ICD-10 International Classification of Disease 10th revision 

ICEM Indoor Chemistry and Exposure Model 

ICNIRP	 International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection 

ICP Forests	 International Cooperative Programme on Assessment of Air

Pollution Effects on Forests 

ICS	 inhaled steroids 

ID# identification number 

IDW inverse-distance-weighted 

IE	 intermittent exercise 

IFN	 interferon (e.g., IFN-()) 

IFN-γ interferon-gamma 

March 2011	 xlix DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

Ig immunoglobulin (e.g., IgE) 

IgA immunoglobin A 

IgE immunoglobin E 

IGF1 insulin-like growth factor 1 

IgG immunoglobin G 

IgM Immunoglobulin M fraction 

IHD ischemic heart disease 

IL interleukin 

Ile isoleucine 

IL-x interleukin-6, 8, etc. 

i.m. intramuscular (route) 

IMPACT Interactive Modeling Project for Atmospheric Chemistry and 

Transport 

IMPROVE Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environment 

IN intranasal 

INF interferon 

inh inhalation 

iNOS inducible nitric oxide synthase 

INTRASTAND a stand-level model designed for hourly, daily and annual

integration of forest carbon and water cycle fluxes 

IL-1β Interleukin-1Beta 

IOM Institute of Medicine 

i.p. intraperitoneal (route) 

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 

IPCC-AR4 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 4th Assessment

Report 

IPCC-TAR Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment 

Report 

IPMMI International Photolysis Frequency Measurement and Modeling 

Inter-comparison 

IQR interquartile range 

IR infrared 

ISA Integrated Science Assessment 

ISCCP International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project 

ISO International Standards Organization 

8-iso-PGF 8-isoprostane 

IT intratracheal, intratracheally 

IU International Units 

IUGR intrauterine growth restriction 

March 2011 l DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

i.v. intravenous (route) 

IVF in vitro fertilization 

JA jasmonic acid 

Jmax maximum rate of electron transport (for regeneration of RuBP) 

J(NO2) photolysis rate coefficient for NO2 

J(O3) photolysis rate coefficient for O3 

JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory 

Jsat saturating light 

κB kappa B 

k dissociation rate; root:shoot allometric coefficient 

K+ potassium ion 

Ka intrinsic mass transfer coefficient/parameter 

Kg mass transfer coefficient for gas phase 

kHz kilohertz 

kJ kilojoules 

Kl mass transfer coefficient for liquid phase 

km kilometer 

KM particle optical reflectance 

KO knockout 

Kr reaction rate constant 

KROFEX Krauzberg Ozone Fumigation Experiment 

KTB tracheobronchial region overall mass transfer coefficient 

L, dL, mL, μL Liter, deciLiter, milliLiter, microLiter 

LAI leaf area index 

LBW low birth weight 

LC50 median lethal concentration 

LCL lower 95th% confidence limit 

LDH lactate dehydrogenase, lactic acid dehydrogenase 

LDL low-density lipoprotein 

LF (HRV signal) low-frequency power 

LFHFR low frequency/high frequency (ratio) 

LFT lower free troposphere 

labeling index 

LIDAR Light Detection and Ranging (remote sensing system) 

LIF laser-induced fluorescence 

LINKAGES individual-based model of forest succession 

LIS lateral intercellular space 

March 2011 li DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 

LI 
 

 

 

LLJ low-level jet 

LM light microscopy 

Ln Natural logarithm 

LnRMSSD natural log of RMSSD; measure of HRV 

lnSDNN natural log of the standard deviation of NN intervals in an EKG 

LOAEL lowest observed adverse effect level 

LOD limit of detection 

LOEL lowest-observed-effect level 

LOESS locally weighted scatterplot smoothing 

LOP lipid ozonation products 

LOWESS locally weighted scatter plot smoother 

LOX-1 Lipoxygenase; lectin-like oxidized low density lipoprotein 

receptor-1 

LPS lipopolysaccharide 

LRS lower respiratory symptoms 

LRT lower respiratory tract; lower airways; Long range transport 

LST local standard time 

LT leukotriene (e.g., LTB4 , LTC 4, LTD4 , LTE4); local time 

LTA lymphotoxin-alpha 

LT-α lymphotoxin-α 

LUR land use regression 

LWC liquid water content 

μ mu, micro 

μeq microequivalent 

μg microgram 

μg/m3 micrograms per cubic meter 

μm micrometer, micron 

M male; maximum number of iterations; air molecule 

M7 7-hour seasonal mean 

M12 12-hour seasonal mean of O3 

M, mM, μM, nM, pM Molar, milliMolar, microMolar, nanoMolar, picoMolar 

m, cm, μm, nm meter(s), centimeter(s), micrometer/[micron](s), nanometer(s) 

ma moving average 

mAOT modified accumulated exposure over threshold 

MAP mitogen-activated protein; mean arterial pressure 

MAPK mitogen-activated protein kinase(s), MAP kinase 

MAQSIP Multiscale Air Quality Simulation Platform (model) 

March 2011 lii DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

 

MARAT Mid-Atlantic Regional Assessment Team 

MARCO Macrophage receptor with collagenous structure 

max maximum 

MBL marine boundary layer 

MCCP Mountain Cloud Chemistry Program 

Mch; MCh methacholine 

MCM master chemical mechanism 

MCP monocyte chemotactic protein 

MDA malondialdehyde 

MDAR monodehydroascorbate reductase 

MDI Mediterranean diet index 

MDL minimum detection level 

MED minimal erythema dose 

MEF50% maximal midexpiratory flow at 50% of forced vital capacity 

MeJA methyl jasmonate 

MENTOR Modeling Environment for Total Risk Studies 

METs metabolic equivalent unit(s) [of work] 

MGDG monogalactosyldiacylglycerol 

MHC major histocompatibility complex 

MI myocardial infarction, “heart attack” 

MIESR matrix isolation electron spin resonance (spectroscopy) 

min minute; minimum 

MIP macrophage inflammatory protein 

mL milliliter 

MLN mediastinal lymph node 

Mm megameter 

MM Mt. Mt. Mitchell site 

MM5 National Center for Atmospheric Research/Penn State 

Mesoscale Model, version 5 

MMAD	 mass median aerodynamic diameter; mass median aerodynamic

density 

MMEF	 maximal midexpiratory flow 

mmHg millimeters of mercury 

MMMD	 mean maximum mixing height depth 

MnSOD	 Manganese superoxide dismutase 

mo	 month 

MOA(s)	 mode(s) of Action 

March 2011	 liii DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

 

MONICA 

MoOx 

MOSES 

MOZAIC 

MPAN 

MPO 

MQL 

MRI 

mRNA 

MS 

ms 

MS/MS 

MSA 

MSL 

MT 

MT, Mt 

MT1 

Mtn 

MV 

MW 

N 

15N 

n, N 

N2 

N100 

NA 

NA; N/A 

Na 

Na+ 

NAAQS 

NAD 

NADH 

NADP 

NADPH; NAD(P)H 

Monitoring of Trends and Determinants in Cardiovascular

Disease 

molybdenum oxides 

Met Office Surface Exchange Scheme 

Measurement of Ozone and Water Vapor by Airbus In-Service 

Aircraft 

peroxymethacryloyl nitrate; peroxy-methacrylic nitric anhydride 

myeloperoxidase 

Minimum quantification limit 

magnetic resonance imaging; Midwest Research Institute;

Meteorological Research Institute 

messenger RNA 

mass spectrometry; Mt. Moosilauke site 

millisecond 

tandem mass spectrometry 

Metropolitan Statistical Area; methane sulfonic acid 

mean sea level 

million tons; metric ton 

metallothionein 

mitochondria 

mountain 

methyl viologen 

molecular weight 

nitrogen; North 

nitrogen-15, stable isotope of nitrogen 

number; number of observations 

molecular nitrogen; nonreactive nitrogen 

number of hours ≥ 0.10 ppm 

noradrenaline 

not available 

sodium 

sodium ion 

National Ambient Air Quality Standards 

nicotinamide adenine nucleotide 

reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; nicotinamide 

adenine dinucleotide dehydrogenase 

National Atmospheric Deposition Program 

reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate 

March 2011 liv DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

NADPH-CR reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide 

phosphatecytochrome c reductase 

NaE sodium erythorbate 

Na-K-ATPase sodium-potassium-dependent adenosine triphosphatase 

NAMS National Ambient Monitoring Stations 

NAMS/SLAMS National Ambient Monitoring Stations and State and Local Air

Monitoring Stations 

NAPAP National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program 

NAPBN National Air Pollution Background Network 

NARE North Atlantic Regional Experiment 

NARSTO North American Regional Strategy for Atmospheric Ozone 

NAS National Academy of Sciences; Normative Aging Study 

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

NBS National Bureau of Standards 

NBTH 3-methyl-2-benzothiazolinone acetone azine 

NCEA National Center for Environmental Assessment 

NCEA-RTP NCEA Division in Research Triangle Park, NC 

NCHS National Center for Health Statistics 

NCICAS National Cooperative Inner-City Asthma Study 

NCLAN National Crop Loss Assessment Network 

NCore National Core multi-pollutant monitoring network 

NC-R resistant clones of white clover 

NC-S sensitive clones of white clover 

ND; n.d. not detectable; not detected; no data 

NDF neutral detergent fiber 

NEE net ecosystem CO2 exchange 

NEI National Emissions Inventory 

NEM National Ambient Air Quality Standards Exposure Model 

NEP Net Ecosystem Production 

+NERAG New England Regional Assessment Group 

NERL National Exposure Research Laboratory 

NESCAUM Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management 

NF National Forest; non-filtered 

NF-κB nuclear factor kappa B 

NH northern hemisphere 

NH3 ammonia 

NH4 

+ ammonium ion 

NHANES National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 

March 2011 lv DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

NHAPS 

NHEERL/WED 

NH4HSO4 

(NH4)2SO4; (NH4)2HSO4 

NHIS 

NIH 

NIST 

NK 

NKT 

NL 

NLF 

NM 

NMHC(s) 

NMMAPS 

NMOC(s) 

NMVOCs 

NN 

NNK 

nNOS 

NO 

NO2 

NO3; NO3

• 

NO3 

− 

N2O 

N2O5 

NOAA 

NOAEL 

NOS 

NOS-1 

NOS-2 

NOS-3 

NOX 

NOY 

NOZ 

National Human Activity Pattern Survey 

EPA National Health and Environmental Effects Research 

Laboratory, Western Ecology Division 

Ammonium bisulfate 

ammonium sulfate 

National Health Interview Survey 

National Institutes of Health 

National Institute of Standards and Technology 

natural killer cells; neurokinin 

Natural killer T cells 

nasal lavage 

nasal lavage fluid 

National Monument 

nonmethane hydrocarbon(s) 

National Morbidity, Mortality, and Air Pollution Study 

nonmethane organic compound(s) 

nonmethane volatile organic compounds 

normal-to-normal (NN or RR) time interval between each QRS

complex in the EKG 

4-(N-nitrosomethylamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone 

neuronal nitric oxide synthase (NOS) 

nitric oxide 

nitrogen dioxide 

nitrate, nitrate radical 

nitrate, nitrate ion 

nitrous oxide 

dinitrogen pentoxide 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

no observed adverse effect level 

nitric oxide synthase 

neuronal nitric oxide synthase 

inducible nitric oxide synthase; iNOS 

endothelial nitric oxide synthase 

nitrogen oxides, oxides of nitrogen (NO + NO2) 

sum of NOX and NOZ; odd nitrogen species; total oxidized 

nitrogen 

sum of all inorganic and organic reaction products of NOX 

(HONO, HNO3, HNO4, organic nitrates, particulate nitrate, 

nitro-PAHs, etc.) 

March 2011 lvi DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

 

 

NP National Park 

NPP net primary production 

NPS National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior 

NQO1 NAD(P)H-quinone oxidoreductase (genotype) 

NQO1wt NAD(P)H-quinone oxidoreductase wild type (genotype) 

NR not reported 

Nr reactive nitrogen 

NRC National Research Council 

Nrf-2 nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 

NS; n.s. nonsignificant; non-smoker; national seashore; natural spline 

NSAID non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent 

NSBR nonspecific bronchial responsiveness 

NSF National Science Foundation 

NTE nasal turbinate epithelial (cells) 

NTN National Trends Network 

NTP National Toxicology Program 

NTRMs NIST Traceable Reference Materials 

NTS nucleus of the solitary tract (in brainstem) 

NWR national wildlife refuge 

NWS National Weather Service 

NZW New Zealand white (rabbit) 

O oxygen; horizon forest floor 

1

O2 singlet oxygen 

18O oxygen-18, stable isotope of oxygen 

O2 molecular oxygen 

O2 

− superoxide 

O2

• superoxide radical 

O3 ozone 

18O3 (oxygen-18 labeled) ozone 

O3* electronically excited ozone 

OAQPS Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards 

OAR Office of Air and Radiation 

OBMs observationally based methods 

OC organic carbon 

OD outer diameter; optical density 

O(1D) electronically excited oxygen atom 

OH, OH• hydroxyl group, hydroxyl radical 

March 2011 lvii DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

8-OHdG 8-hydroxy-2 ́-deoxyguanosine 

OLS ordinary least squares 

OMI Ozone Monitoring Instrument 

O(3P) ground-state oxygen atom 

OPE ozone production efficiency 

OPECs Outdoor Plant Environment Chambers 

OR odds ratio 

ORD Office of Research and Development 

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration 

OTC open-top chamber 

OVA ovalbumin 

OX odd oxygen species; total oxidants 

OxComp oxidative capacity of the atmosphere 

Ф Phi; calculated efficiency 

ФPSII-max maximum photochemical effective quantum yield of PSII 

P pressure in atmospheres; plants grown in pots 

p probability value 

P90 90th percentile of the absolute difference in concentrations 

P450 cytochrome P450 

PAD peripheral arterial disease; pollutant applied dose 

PAF platelet-activating factor; paroxysmal atrial fibrillation 

PAH(s) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon(s) 

PAL phenylalanine ammonia lyase 

PAMS Photochemical Assessment Monitoring Stations network 

PAN peroxyacetyl nitrate; peroxyacetic nitric anhydride 

PaO2 arterial oxygen pressure 

PAR photosynthetically active radiation; proximal alveolar region 

Patm Pressure in atmospheres 

p-ATP para-acetamidophenol 

PBL planetary boundary layer; peripheral blood lymphocytes 

PBM population-based model or modeling 

PBN C-phenyl N-tert-butyl nitrone 

PBPK physiologically based pharmacokinetic (model) 

PBS phosphate buffered saline 

PC phosphatidylchloline 

PC20 provocative concentration that produces a 20% decrease in

forced expiratory volume in 1 second 

March 2011 lviii DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

 

PC20FEV1	 provovative concentration that produces a 20% decrease in

FEV1 

PC50	 provocative concentration that produces a 50% decrease in

forced expiratory volume in 1 second 

PCA principal component analysis 

PC-ALF	 1-palmitoyl-2-(9-oxonononoyl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine 

PCD	 programmed cell death 

PCl picryl chloride 

pCNEM Canadian version of National Ambient Air Quality Standards

Exposure Model 

PCO2	 Average partial pressure of O2 in lung capillaries 

pCO2	 partial pressure of carbon dioxide 

PCR polymerase chain reaction 

PCR-DGGE	 PCR–denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis 

PD100	 provocative dose that produces a 100% increase in sRAW 

PD100SRaw	 provocative dose that produces a 100% increase in SRaw 

PD20; PD20FEV1	 provocative dose that produces a 20% decrease in FEV1 

PE	 post exposure, phosphatidylethanolamine 

PEF peak expiratory flow 

PEF0.75	 peak expiratory flow in 0.75 second 

PEFR	 peak expiratory flow rate 

PEFT time to peak flow 

PEG-CAT	 polyethylene glycol-catalase 

PEG-SOD polyethylene glycol-superoxide dismutase 

PEM(s)	 personal exposure monitor(s) 

Penh	 enhanced pause 

PEPc	 phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase 

PFD	 photosynthetic flux density 

PG prostaglandin (e.g., PGE2 ,PGF2); phosphatidylglycerol 

6PGD 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase 

PGHS-2 prostaglandin endoperoxide G/H synthase 2 

PGP protein gene product (e.g., PGP9.5) 

PGSM	 Plant Growth Stress Model 

pH	 relative acidity; Log of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion 

concentration 

PHA phytohemagglutinin A 

PI	 phosphatidylinositol; probability interval; posterior interval 

PIF peak inspiratory flow 

PK pharmacokinetics 

March 2011	 lix DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

pKa dissociation constant 

PLFA Phospholipid fatty acid 

PM particulate matter 

PM0.1 particulate matter with a nominal mobility diameter less than or

equal to 0.1 μm (referred to as ultrafine PM) 

PM1	 particulate matter with a nominal aerodynamic diameter less

than or equal to 1 μm 

PM2.5	 particulate matter with a nominal aerodynamic diameter less

than or equal to 2.5 μm (a surrogate for fine PM) 

PM10-2.5	 particulate matter with a nominal aerodynamic diameter greater

than 2.5 μm and less than or equal to 10 μm (a surrogate for

thoracic coarse particulate matter or the coarse fraction of PM10).

Concentration may be measured or calculated as the difference 

between measured PM10 and measured PM2.5 concentrations. 

PMx-y	 particulate matter with a nominal diameter greater than x μm and 

less than y μm where x and y are the numeric mean aerodynamic 

or mobility diameters (μm). 

PM10	 particulate matter with a nominal aerodynamic diameter less

than or equal to 10 μm 

PM13	 particulate matter with a nominal aerodynamic diameter less

than or equal to 13 μm 

PM15	 particulate matter with a nominal aerodynamic diameter less 

than or equal to15 μm 

PMx	 particulate matter of a specific size range. X refers to the 

diameter at which the sampler collects 50% of the particles and 

rejects 50% of the particles. Collection efficiency increases for

particles with smaller diameters and decreases for particles with

larger diameters. The variation of collection efficiency with size 

is given by a collection efficiency curve. The definition of PMx 

is frequently abbreviated as “particles with a nominal 

aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to x μm. See 40 CFR

58.1 for a full definition. 

PM-CAMx Comprehensive Air Quality Model with extensions and with 

particulate matter chemistry 

PMN(s) polymorphonuclear leukocyte(s) 

PMT photomultiplier tube 

PND post natal day 

pNEM probabilistic National Exposure Model 

PnET Photosynthetic EvapoTranspiration model 

PNN proportion of interval differences of successive normal-beat 

intervals in EKG 

PNN50 proportion of interval differences of successive normal-beat 

intervals greater than 50 ms in EKG 

POC particulate organic carbon 

POD peroxidase 

polyADPR poly(adenosinediphosphate-ribose)
 

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ppb parts per billion 

ppbv parts per billion by volume 

pphm parts per hundred million 

ppm parts per million 

ppm-h parts per million hours; weighted concentration values based on 

hourly concentrations: usually summed over a certain number of

hours, day(s), months, and/or season. 

ppmv parts per million by volume 

PPN	 peroxypropionyl nitrate; peroxypropionic nitric anhydride 

PPPs	 power plant plumes 

ppt	 parts per trillion 

pptv	 parts per trillion by volume 

PQH2 plastoquinone 

PR pathogenesis-related (protein) 

PR-1 promoter region 1 

PRB policy-relevant background 

PRYL predicted relative yield (biomass) loss 

PS	 penalized spline 

PS II	 Photosystem II: enzyme that uses light to obtain electrons from

water (for photosynthesis). 

PSA	 picryl sulfonic acid 

PSC	 polar stratospheric clouds 

PTB	 preterm birth 

PTR-MS	 proton-transfer-reaction mass spectroscopy 

PU, PUL	 pulmonary 

PUFA(s)	 polyunsaturated fatty acid(s) 

PV potential vorticity 

PVCD peripheral vascular and cerebrovascular disease 

PVD	 peripheral vascular disease 

PVOCs	 photochemical volatile organic compounds 

PWM	 pokeweed mitogen 

Pxase peroxidase 

QCE	 quasi continuous exercise 

qNP	 non-photochemical quenching 

qP	 photochemical quenching 

QRS	 A complex of three distinct electrocardiogram waves which

represent the beginning of ventricular contraction 

QT	 interval measure of the time interval between the start of the Q 

wave and the end of the T wave in the heart’s electrical cycle 

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r Pearson correlation coefficient 

R, r correlation coefficient 

r

2 correlation coefficient 

R2 multiple regression correlation coefficient 

R2 2 , r coefficient of determination 

RACM	 Regional Atmospheric Chemistry Mechanism 

RADM	 Regional Acid Deposition Model 

rALP	 recombinant antileukoprotease 

RAMS	 Regional Atmospheric Modeling System 

RANTES	 regulated upon activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted 

(cells) 

Raw, Raw	 airway resistance 

RB respiratory bronchiole 

RBC(s)	 red blood cell(s); erythrocyte(s) 

rbcL	 Rubisco large subunit 

rbcS	 Rubisco small subunit 

rcd1	 Arabidopsis mutant radical induced cell death 

R'C(O)–O2	 acyl peroxy 

RDBMS Relational Database Management Systems 

Re	 Reynolds number 

REHEX Regional Human Exposure Model 

RER rough endoplasmic reticulum; Respiratory exchange ratio 

RF radiative forcing 

RGR	 Relative growth rate 

RH	 relative humidity 

RIOPA Relationship of Indoor, Outdoor, and Personal Air (study) 

RL	 total pulmonary resistance 

RLKs	 receptor-like/Pelle kinase group 

RMR resting metabolic rate 

rMSSD	 root mean squared differences between adjacent normal-to­ normal heartbeat intervals 

Rn	 nasal resistance 

RNA ribonucleic acid 

RO2	 organic peroxyl; organic peroxy 

ROG reactive organic gases 

ROI	 reactive oxygen intermediate/superoxide anion 

RONO2	 organic nitrate 

ROOH organic peroxides 

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ROONO2, RO2NO2 peroxy nitrate 

ROS reactive oxygen species 

RR normal-to-normal (NN or RR) time interval between each QRS

complex in the EKG; ribonucleotide reductase; risk ratio; 

relative risk 

RRMS relatively remote monitoring sites 

RT respiratory tract 

RT transepithelial resistance 

RTLF respiratory tract lining fluid 

RuBisCO; Rubisco ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase 

RuBP ribulose bisphosphate 

σ sigma, standard deviation 

σg sigma-g; geometric standard deviation 

S smoker; sulfur; South 

s second 

SA salicylic acid 

SAB Science Advisory Board 

SAC Staphylococcus aureus Cowan 1 strain 

SAG21 senescence 

SAI Systems Applications International 

SAMD S-adenosyl methionine decarboxylase 

SaO2 oxygen saturation of arterial blood 

SAPALDIA Study of Air Pollution and Lung Diseases in Adults 

SAR systemic acquired resistance 

SAROAD Storage and Retrieval of Aerometric Data (U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency centralized database; superseded by

Aerometric Information Retrieval System [AIRS]) 

SAWgrp small airway function group 

SBP systolic blood pressure 

SBUV Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Spectrometer 

SC stratum corneum 

Sc scandium 

s.c. subcutaneous 

SCAQS Southern California Air Quality Study 

SCE(s) sister chromatid exchange(s) 

SD standard deviation; Sprague-Dawley rat 

SDNN standard deviation normal-to-normal (NN or RR) time interval

between each QRS complex in the EKG 

SE standard error 

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SEBAS Social Environment and Biomarkers of Aging Study
 

SEM simultaneously extracted metal; standard error of the mean;

scanning electron microscopy 

SES socioeconomic status 

SF6 sulfur hexafluoride (tracer gas) 

SGA small for gestational age 

SGaw specific airway conductance 

SH Shenandoah National Park site 

SHEDS Stochastic Human Exposure and Dose Simulation 

SHEN Shenandoah National Park 

sICAM-1 soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 

SIDS sudden infant death syndrome 

SIGMOID sigmoid weighted summed concentration 

SINIC Simple Nitrogen Cycle model 

SIPK salicylic acid (SA) induced protein kinase 

SK shikimate kinase 

SLA specific leaf area 

SLAMS State and Local Air Monitoring Stations 

SMD soil moisture deficit 

SME soybean oil methyl ester 

SNAAQS Secondary National Ambient Air Quality Standards 

SNP(s) single-nucleotide polymorphism 

SO2 sulfur dioxide 

SO4

2− sulfate 

SOA secondary organic aerosol 

SOD superoxide dismutase 

SOS Southern Oxidant Study 

SOX sulfur oxides 

SoyFACE Soybean Free Air gas Concentration Enrichment Facility 

SP surfactant protein (e.g., SPA, SPD); substance P 

SPF specific pathogen free 

SRaw, sRaw, specific airway resistance 

SRBC sheep red blood cell 

SRES Special Report on Emissions Scenarios 

SRM standard reference method 

SSCP single-strand conformation polymorphism 

STE stratosphere-troposphere exchange 

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STEP Stratospheric-Tropospheric-Exchange Project 

STN speciation trends network 

STP standard temperature and pressure 

STPD standard temperature and pressure, dry 

STRF Spatio-Temporal Random Field (theory) 

SUM00 sum of all hourly average concentrations 

SUM06 seasonal sum of all hourly average concentrations≥ 0.06 ppm 

SUM07 seasonal sum of all hourly average concentrations≥ 0.07 ppm 

SUM08 seasonal sum of all hourly average concentrations≥ 0.08 ppm 

SURE Sulfate Regional Experiment Program 

SZA solar zenith angle 

τ tau, photochemical lifetime; atmospheric lifetime 

T time; duration of exposure 

t t-test statistical value; t statistic 

T cell T lymphocyte 

T lymphocytes thymus-dependent lymphocytes 

T3 triiodothyronine 

T4 thyroxine 

TAR IPCC Third Assessment Report 

TAR WGI IPCC Third Assessment Report of Working Group I 

TB tracheobronchial; terminal bronchioles; tuberculosis 

TBA thiobarbituric acid 

TBARS thiobarbituric acid reactive substances 

TC total carbon 

99mTc Technetium-99m 

99mTc-DTPA 99mTc-diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid 

T-ce1ls Thymus-derived lymphocytes 

Tco core temperature 

TCTL cytotoxic T-lymphocytes 

TDLAS Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectrometer 

Te expiratory time 

TEM transmission electron microscopy; Terrestrial Ecosystem Model 

TexAQS Texas Air Quality Field Study 

Tg teragram(s) 

TGF transforming growth factor 

TGF β β transforming growth factor 

Th T helper type 

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tHcy total homocysteine 

Ti inspiratory time 

Ti titanium 

TIA transient ischemic attack 

TiO2 titanium dioxide 

TLC total lung capacity 

TLNISE two-level normal independent sampling estimation 

TLR Toll-like receptor 

TMPO tetramethylphrrolise 1-oxide 

TNC total nonstructural carbohydrate 

TNF tumor necrosis factor (e.g., TNF-α) 

TNFR tumor necrosis factor receptor 

TNF-α tissue necrosis factor alpha 

TOMS Total Ozone Mapping/Monitoring Satellite; total ozone mapping 

spectrometer 

TOPSE Tropospheric Ozone Production About the Spring Equinox 

TPLIF two-photon laser-induced fluorescence 

TREGRO Tree Growth Model 

TRIFFID Top-down Representation of Interactive Foliage and Flora 

Including Dynamics 

TRIM Total Risk Integrated Methodology (model) 

TRIM.Expo Total Risk Integrated Methodology Exposure Event (model) 

TSH thyroid stimulating hormone 

TSP total suspended particles 

TTFMS two-tone frequency-modulated spectroscopy 

TVA Tennessee Valley Authority 

TWA time-weighted average 

TX tromboxane (e.g., TXB2) 

U.K. United Kingdom 

U.S. United States of America 

U.S.C.; USC U.S. Code 

UA uric acid 

UAM Urban Airshed Model 

UCL upper 95th% confidence limit 

UDGT UDP -galactose-1,2,-diacylglycerol galactosyltransferase 

UDP uridine diphosphate 

ULLI unit length labeling index 

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UN ECE ICP- Vegetation 

UNECE 

UNEP 

UNFCCC 

URI 

URS 

URT 

USDA 

USFS 

USGCRP 

USGS 

UT 

UTC 

UV 

UV-A 

UV-B 

UV-C 

UV-DIAL 

V 

V, mV, μV 

VA 

Val 

VC 

VCAM 

Vd 

VD 

VE 

VE 

VEmax 

Vmax 

Vmax25% 

Vmax50% 

Vmax75% 

VMD 

Vn 

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe International

Cooperative Programme on effects of air pollution and other

stresses on crops and non-woody plants (UN/ECE-Vegetation;

formerly -Crops) 

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe 

United Nations Environmental Programme 

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 

upper respiratory infection 

upper respiratory symptoms 

upper respiratory tract; upper airways 

U.S. Department of Agriculture 

U.S. Forest Service 

U.S. Global Change Research Program 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Universal Time 

Coordinated Universal Time 

ultraviolet radiation 

ultraviolet radiation at wavelengths of 320 to 400 nm 

ultraviolet radiation at wavelengths of 280 to 320 nm 

ultraviolet radiation at wavelengths of 200 to 280 nm 

Ultraviolet Differential Absorption Lidar 

vanadium 

volt, millivolt, microvolt 

alveolar ventilation 

valine 

vital capacity 

vascular cell adhesion molecule 

deposition rate, deposition velocity (cm/s) 

volume of the anatomic or physiological dead space 

ventilatory volume 

ventilation rate; minute ventilation 

maximum minute ventilation 

maximum velocity 

maximum expiratory flow at 25% of the vital capacity 

maximum expiratory flow at 50% of the vital capacity 

maximum expiratory flow at 75% of the vital capacity 

volume median diameter 

Nasal volume 

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VO2 oxygen consumption 

VO2max maximum volume per time, of oxygen (maximal oxygen

consumption, maximal oxygen uptake or aerobic capacity) 

VOC(s) volatile organic compound(s) 

VP volumetric penetration 

VP50% volume at which 50% of an inhaled bolus is absorbed 

VPD vapor pressure deficit; Vehicles per day; Ventricular premature 

depolarization 

VT tidal volume 

VTB terminal bronchiole region volume 

VTmax maximum tidal volume 

VUA volume of the upper airways 

vWF von Willebrand factor 

W width; wilderness 

W/m2, W m-2 watts per square meter 

w/v weight per volume 

W126 cumulative integrated exposure index with a sigmoidal

weighting function 

W95 cumulative integrated exposure index with a sigmoidal

weighting function 

WBC white blood cell 

WBGT wet bulb globe temperature 

WCB warm conveyor belt 

WF, WFM White Face Mountain site 

WHI Women’s Health Initiative 

WHO World Health Organization 

wk week(s) 

WMO World Meteorological Organization 

WMO/UNEP World Meteorological Organization/United Nations

Environment Program 

Ws Wassilewskija Arabidopsis ecotype 

WS wood smoke 

WT wild type; White Top Mountain site 

wt % percent by weight 

yr year 

ZAPS Zonal Air Pollution System 

ZELIG a forest succession simulation model 

Zn zinc 

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