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*

Honorable Lloyd D. George, U.S. District Judge for the District of Nevada, sitting by

designation.

[PUBLISH]

IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE ELEVENTH CIRCUIT

________________________

No. 01-14305

________________________

D. C. Docket No. 97-00333 CR-T-30

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

Plaintiff-Appellee,

versus

HARRY BOWMAN, a.k.a. Taco, a.k.a. T,

Defendant-Appellant.

________________________

Appeal from the United States District Court

for the Middle District of Florida

_________________________

(August 20, 2002)

Before BIRCH and COX, Circuit Judges, and GEORGE*

, District Judge.

PER CURIAM:
2

Harry Joseph Bowman, the international president of the Outlaws Motorcycle

Club, was convicted of racketeering, conspiracy to murder, and various drug and

firearm offenses. He was sentenced to life in prison. He appeals his convictions,

contending that the district court erred by refusing to disclose the juror’s names and

by refusing to redact the Outlaws’ Constitution to eliminate the whites-only

membership policy. He also challenges the sufficiency of the evidence. We affirm.

I. BACKGROUND

A. FACTS

1. The Outlaws Motorcycle Club

The Outlaws Motorcycle Club was founded at a bar just outside of Chicago in

1935. It has since grown to include 64 chapters in the United States and chapters in

eight other countries. The United States is divided into five regions, and each other

country is considered a region. Chapter presidents report to their regional president.

The regional presidents report to the international president.

Each chapter has a clubhouse. These clubhouses are used for “church

meetings,” parties, and privacy, and they are usually secured by concrete walls, steel

doors, razor wire, guard dogs, and video surveillance.

The Outlaws profess to be “1%ers,” or the one-percent of bikers who have

rejected societal norms and dedicated their lives to the club. Membership is limited
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to men who own American-made motorcycles of a particular size, and membership

dues are divided between the chapter and the region. A prospective member is first

a “hang-around” or associate. He then becomes a probate and, finally, a patched

member.

A patched member is entitled to wear a leather or denim vest bearing an

Outlaws emblem, called “colors.” The patch is surrounded by chapter and club

membership information, called “rockers.” These emblems are purchased directly

from the international president. A patched member is also allowed to attend the

weekly church meetings, while associates, probates, and “old ladies” wait outside.

After being a member in good standing for a year, an Outlaw may wear a tattoo

depicting the Outlaws emblem.

An Outlaw’s tattoos can reflect other membership information as well. An

Outlaw who commits murder, attempts murder, or explodes a bomb on behalf of the

Outlaws is entitled to wear “lightning bolts,” a Nazi-style “SS” tattoo. An Outlaw

who has spent time in jail may receive an “LL” tattoo, which stands for “Lounge

Lizard.”

Membership in the Outlaws has its privileges. The Outlaws maintain a list of

Lounge Lizards, or incarcerated Outlaws, and collect money on their behalf. Chapters
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also encourage the Lounge Lizards’ “old ladies” and fellow Outlaws to send letters

to imprisoned members.

While the Outlaws are allied with the Bandidos, a Southwestern motorcycle

club, they have rivalries with several other clubs. Their dislike of Hell’s Angels is

expressed in their slogans “AHAMD,” or “All Hell’s Angels Must Die,” and

“ADIOS,” or “Angel’s Die in Outlaws States.” They also dislike the Pagans and the

Warlocks.

The Outlaws collect information on their rivalries with other clubs. They

primarily collect newspaper clippings regarding incidents with other clubs. On

occasion, though, an Outlaws member will bribe a law enforcement officer to obtain

information on the location of a rival club’s members. Outlaws also travel, at the

club’s direction, to the funerals of fellow bikers.

2. Harry Bowman

Harry “Taco” Bowman held various administrative positions within the

Outlaws Motorcycle Club. He served as a regional president and national vicepresident before becoming international president in 1984. Bowman conducted his

presidential activities from the Outlaws clubhouse in Detroit, while living in an

affluent Detroit suburb, sending his children to private schools, and driving an armorplated Cadillac. He served as international president for thirteen years, until 1997.
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As international president, Bowman handled matters large and small, from setting the

Outlaws’ policies regarding other biker gangs to monitoring the activities of members.

For most of Bowman’s presidency, Wayne “Joe Black” Hicks was Bowman’s

right-hand man. In 1984, during the early part of his presidency, Bowman became

concerned that a former Outlaw would reveal the whereabouts of an Outlaw fugitive.

To alleviate his concerns, Bowman asked Hicks, then the vice president of the Toledo

chapter, to kill the former Outlaw. Hicks was unable to complete this assignment

because he failed to locate the former Outlaw. Nevertheless, impressed by Hicks’s

dedication, Bowman transferred Hicks to Florida so Hicks could help revive the Fort

Lauderdale chapter. Hicks eventually became chapter president.

As chapter president, Hicks accompanied “Wild” Bill Pilgrim, Florida’s

regional president, to national meetings of regional presidents. At these meetings,

held every couple of months, the regional presidents discussed chapter membership,

the status of Lounge Lizards, the Outlaws’ community activities, and the activities of

rival clubs. Bowman, as international president, chaired these meetings, and the

regional presidents were obligated to seek his permission before taking action against

rival clubs.

Hicks became Florida’s regional president in 1990. At a meeting with

Bowman, Hicks reported that Alan “Greaser” Wolfe, an Outlaw, had testified before
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a grand jury. Bowman, who distributed Outlaws tee shirts bearing the slogan

“snitches are a dying breed,” told Hicks to kick Wolfe out of the club and otherwise

take care of him. Hicks and another member revoked Wolfe’s membership and beat

him.

3. Murder of Raymond Chaffin

In the early 1990s, the Warlocks, another Florida club, allied with the Hell’s

Angels and began selling drugs on their behalf. This ignited a war between the

Outlaws and the Warlocks. When the Outlaws learned that Raymond “Bear” Chaffin,

a former member, was the leader of a Warlocks chapter in Edgewater, Bowman told

Hicks to find Chaffin and kill him. Hicks asked Houston Murphy, the Fort Lauderdale

president, to recommend an Outlaw who could gather intelligence on Chaffin.

Murphy recommended Alex “Dirt” Ankerich, an Outlaws probate. Ankerich traveled

to Edgewater and spent the night with Chaffin, who was unaware that Ankerich was

affiliated with the Outlaws.

At the next regional presidents meeting, Hicks told Bowman about Ankerich’s

adventure, and Bowman asked Hicks if Ankerich could be trusted to kill Chaffin.

Bowman then asked Ankerich if he was willing to do anything to become an Outlaw

and told Ankerich that he could earn some lightning bolts. Ultimately, Ankerich and

Murphy were directed to kill Chaffin and given a number to call when the murder was
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complete. Bowman and Hicks then agreed to present themselves in public to establish

an alibi.

Murphy and Ankerich arrived in Edgewater on February 21, 1991. Murphy

gave Ankerich a .22 pistol equipped with a silencer and told him to aim for Chaffin’s

head to facilitate the kill. Ankerich went into Chaffin’s garage, shot Chaffin four

times in the back of the head, and ran away. Murphy reported the murder to Hicks,

and Hicks reported it to Bowman, who, in turn, complimented Hicks on his work.

Murphy also told Ankerich that he had earned his patch and lightning bolts.

Newspaper articles on Chaffin’s murder were mailed to other chapters.

4. Kidnapping of Irwin Nissen

In March 1992, during Daytona Bike Week, Irwin “Hitler” Nissen, a former

Outlaws probate, got into a fight with James “Moose” McLean, the president of the

Outlaws’ Atlanta chapter. Bowman heard about the fight and directed Murphy to

bring Nissen to him. Christopher “Slasher” Maiale, another Outlaw, placed a lock on

Nissen’s motorcycle to prevent him from leaving.

The next morning, Dennis “Dog” Hall, an Outlaw, brought Nissen to Bowman’s

motel room. Bowman greeted Nissen by punching him in the face. Murphy then held

Nissen while Bowman put a knife to Nissen’s ear and threatened to kill him if he ever

raised his hand against another Outlaws officer. Murphy and Maiale, at Bowman’s
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direction, began beating and kicking Nissen until Bowman told them to get rid of him.

Murphy then proceeded to push Nissen off of a three-story balcony, which resulted

in severe injuries to Nissen, including a broken ankle.

5. Kidnapping of Kevin Talley

In 1993, a Florida Outlaws member named Kevin “Turbo” Talley was arrested

in Canada while visiting an Outlaws chapter there. Talley was to be deported to

Massachusetts, where a warrant for him was outstanding, but Canadian officials first

had him sign a statement admitting that the Outlaws were a criminal enterprise.

Incensed by Talley’s action, Bowman ordered Hicks to bring Talley to Detroit and

detain him there. Hicks called Talley in Massachusetts and told him to fly to Detroit.

Two Outlaws, “Broda” and “Bolt,” met Talley at the Detroit airport. They escorted

Talley to the Detroit clubhouse and locked him inside for several days.

Eventually, Bowman and Hicks arrived in Detroit and met with Talley. They

told Talley that they were upset that he signed the statement. After the meeting, Hicks

told Bowman that he would handle the problem. Hicks sent Talley to Florida, where

Hicks planned to beat up Talley and kick him out of the club. Believing he was in

danger, Talley resigned his membership upon his return to Florida.

6. 1994
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On New Year’s Eve 1993, Bowman called a meeting of all Outlaws at a party

in Fort Lauderdale. During the meeting, Bowman announced that the Outlaws would

escalate their hostilities in 1994, showing no tolerance for Hell’s Angels or their

sympathizers. In the following year, Outlaws nationwide conducted an increased

number of attacks on their rival clubs and circulated newspaper articles documenting

these attacks.

a. The War Wagon Incident

In June 1994, numerous Outlaws descended on Gary, Indiana, to attend an

event at a local speedway. This event was also customarily attended by the Invaders,

another motorcycle club. The Outlaws suspected that the Invaders were affiliated with

the Hell’s Angels.

On the night before the event, Bowman met with attending Outlaw presidents.

Randy “Mad” Yager, the president of the Gary Outlaws, also held a meeting with the

attending Outlaws and announced that they were to attack the Invaders at the

speedway. To carry out this attack, the Outlaws planned to use a “war wagon,” or a

vehicle modified with steel plating and several gun ports. The war wagon was

equipped with firearms and other weapons to facilitate the attack.
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The Outlaws drove the war wagon to the speedway, but no Invaders ever

arrived. After the war wagon left, it was stopped by Gary police officers. The officers

seized firearms, ammunition, and smoke grenades from inside the war wagon.

b. Hell’s Henchmen

While visiting Chicago in the spring of 1994, Bowman complained about the

presence of Hell’s Henchmen in the area and the failure of the Chicago chapter

president, Pete “Greased Lightning” Rogers, to do anything about it. Rogers, it turns

out, was reluctant to take action for fear that it might draw the attention of federal

authorities. Bowman decided to take matters into his own hands by ordering Hicks

and Walter “Buffalo Wally” Posnjak to surveil the Hell’s Henchmen clubhouse.

Murphy also participated in this surveillance and, on one occasion, observed Hell’s

Angels memorabilia in the clubhouse. In September, Carl “Jay” Warneke, Yager, and

another Outlaw met with Bowman at his Detroit residence, and Bowman gave them

permission to bomb the clubhouse.

Then, in November, Outlaws Kevin “Spike” O’Neill and Raymond “Shemp”

Morgan Jr. set off a car bomb outside of the Hell’s Henchmen clubhouse. The bomb

damaged nearby structures, parked cars, and commuters but failed to destroy the

clubhouse. The Chicago Outlaws finished the job in December by dousing the

clubhouse in gasoline and burning it down. The clubhouse was condemned and put
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up for sale, and the Outlaws celebrated by visiting the site and giving it “the onefinger salute.”

c. Warlocks

Bowman, in 1994, also asked the Outlaws to do anything they could to destroy

the Warlocks. Hicks asked Stephen “DK” Lemunyon, a Daytona Outlaw, to

determine how best to destroy the Warlocks clubhouse in Orlando. Lemunyon and

Steve “Stevo” Hilton, another Outlaw, constructed a bomb, and Hicks kept Bowman

informed of the operation. Meanwhile, several Daytona Outlaws kept an eye on the

clubhouse.

Lemunyon, Hilton, and Louis Musher detonated the bomb in October 1994.

Bowman told the Florida Outlaws that he was proud of their work. Bowman also told

Hicks to keep up the good work and to continue to watch and kill the Warlocks.

A few months later, Lemunyon, Musher, Hilton, and Robert Gunther joined

forces to plan another firebombing, this time of the Warlocks clubhouse in Brevard

County. Again, Outlaws watched the clubhouse while Lemunyon constructed a bomb

identical to the one used in Orlando. The plan was thwarted, however, when

authorities arrested the Daytona Outlaws and, during a search of Lemunyon’s

residence, seized the firebomb.
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d. Fifth Chapter Motorcycle Club

The Fifth Chapter Motorcycle Club was a family-oriented club made up of men

and women who were recovering from substance-abuse problems. They sought to be

neutral, maintaining good relationships with all clubs, and the Outlaws allowed them

to exist in Florida, which was generally considered Outlaw turf. But the Outlaws also

targeted the FCMC in 1994.

In September of that year, a Hell’s Angel named Michael Quale was killed in

an altercation with some Outlaws. At Quale’s funeral, a photographer took a picture

of an FCMC member hugging a Hell’s Angel. Bowman believed that this hug was

disrespectful to the Outlaws because one of their own, “Buffalo Wally” Posnjak, had

also been killed in the altercation. Bowman showed the photograph to Hicks and

ordered Hicks to shut down the FCMC in Florida.

In December, Lemunyon invited members of the FCMC to the Outlaws

clubhouse in Orlando. About fifteen members of the FCMC accepted the invitation

and rode to Orlando. As they entered the compound, the FCMC members were

searched by Outlaws.

Once inside, the members were seated at two picnics tables and surrounded by

armed Outlaws. Lemunyon then announced that there was a problem, displayed the

newspaper photograph, and began beating FCMC national president Mike Malone
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with a flashlight while the other FCMC members were held at gunpoint. Lemunyon

told the FCMC that they could no longer exist and ordered them to remove any

clothing that bore the FCMC logo. After the FCMC members complied with

Lemunyon’s instruction, the Outlaws began beating them as well.

After the beatings, the Outlaws allowed the FCMC members to wash

themselves. They were told to return home without congregating or visiting hospitals.

Once home, Lemunyon instructed, the FCMC members were to mail all of their

FCMC memorabilia to the Outlaws. The FCMC members returned to their

motorcycles to find that many of their personal belongings had been stolen.

e. Murder of Donald Fogg

At a 1994 meeting in Chicago, Bowman told Hicks and others that an Outlaw

had become a snitch. Bowman said that the snitch would be killed and explained that

the killing would be made to look like an enemy had done it. He also said that the

murdered snitch would be given an Outlaw funeral.

A few weeks later, authorities found the body of Donald Fogg, an Outlaw, lying

face down in the snow. Fogg had been shot in the head in a field near an Outlaws

clubhouse. Fogg received an Outlaw funeral. At the funeral, a story was circulated

that a policeman interested in Fogg’s girlfriend had shot him, but none of the Outlaws
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seemed interested in revenge. Bowman later acknowledged that Fogg was the snitch

he had targeted. Fogg, it turned out, had been talking to the police.

f. Hell’s Angels

At a meeting in 1994, Outlaws regional president “Mad Mike” Markham was

criticized for failing to take action against the Hell’s Angels. Markham, however, was

reluctant to take on the Hell’s Angels because the two clubs had peacefully coexisted

in his region. An Outlaw from Markham’s region, Harold “Bullwinkle” Brewington,

suggested an alternative: attack the Hell’s Angels in California. Markham liked the

idea and told Brewington that he would bring it up at the next regional presidents

meeting.

At a meeting near the end of 1994, Bowman, apparently adopting Markham’s

idea, announced that the Outlaws would take the war against the Hell’s Angels to

California. Bowman planned to send a group of trustworthy Outlaws to California to

conduct surveillance on, and possibly assassinate, either Sonny Barger, the

international president of the Hell’s Angels, or George Christie, a national officer.

Ultimately, Murphy and Brewington were selected for the mission, but Murphy,

uncomfortable with Brewington, went to California alone.

Murphy stayed in Ventura, California, for four days, locating and mapping out

Christie’s residence. He returned to Florida, but, after the Daytona Outlaws were
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arrested on federal RICO charges, Bowman directed Murphy to bring the map to

Tennessee. Murphy presented his report at a meeting in Tennessee, and Bowman

thanked him for his service. Eventually, Bowman dispatched other Outlaws to follow

up on Murphy’s findings, but Christie was never harmed.

7. Other Activities

In addition to his managerial activities, Bowman also, at various times, used and

distributed illegal drugs. He was generally accompanied by a bodyguard who carried

a gun for him.

Bowman was indicted in 1997. The indictment was unsealed soon thereafter,

but the FBI was unable to serve the indictment at Bowman’s residence. Bowman then

became a fugitive on the FBI’s ten-most-wanted list. He was finally captured in 1999,

while visiting his family in Sterling Heights, Michigan.

B. PROCEDURAL HISTORY

1. The Indictment

Bowman’s indictment includes ten counts. Four counts allege violations of the

Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (“RICO”). Count One alleges

that Bowman conspired to conduct and participate in the affairs of an enterprise

affecting interstate commerce through a pattern of racketeering, in violation of 18

U.S.C. § 1962(d). This count includes seventeen alleged racketeering acts. Count
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Two alleges that Bowman in fact conducted or participated in these affairs, in

violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1962(c). Count Four charges Bowman with threatening and

assaulting members of the Fifth Chapter Motorcycle Club to maintain and increase his

position in the RICO enterprise, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1959(a)(3) and (a)(4).

Count Five charges him with maintaining and increasing his position by conspiring

to murder members of the Hell’s Angels Motorcycle Club, in violation of 18 U.S.C.

§ 1959(a)(5).

Four counts charge Bowman with drug offenses. Count Three charges Bowman

with conspiracy to possess with intent to distribute opium, cocaine, methamphetamine,

marijuana, and Valium, in violation of 21 U.S.C. § 846. Count Six charges him with

distributing methamphetamine, in violation of 21 U.S.C. § 841(a)(1). Count Seven

charges him with distributing opium, and Count Eight charges him with distributing

Valium.

Count Nine charges Bowman with destroying the Warlocks clubhouse in

Orlando, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 844(i). Count Ten charges Bowman, a convicted

felon, with possessing a .45 caliber semiautomatic pistol.
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We will refer to the jury as “innominate” rather than “anonymous” because, after a

thorough voir dire, the parties knew everything about the jurors except their names. See United

States v. Carpa, 271 F.3d 962, 963 n.1 (11th Cir. 2001).

17

2. Empaneling the Jury

Bowman proceeded to trial. Before empaneling the jury, the court sua sponte

decided to keep the jury innominate1

 by withholding their names, addresses, and

places of employment. The court explained its decision in a written order, citing prior

incidents of Outlaws attempting to interfere with judicial proceedings. (R.1-63.)

Bowman objected, but the jurors remained innominate throughout the trial.

3. Trial and Motions for Judgment of Acquittal

At the close of the Government’s case, Bowman moved for judgment of

acquittal on all counts. The court granted the motion in part, entering judgment of

acquittal on Count Seven and on two Racketeering Acts, numbers Five and Six. The

court otherwise denied the motion. Bowman did not renew his motion at the close of

all of the evidence.

The jury found Bowman guilty of Counts One through Six, Eight, and Ten and

not guilty on Count Nine. The jury also found proved Racketeering Acts Two through

Four and Seven through Seventeen. Bowman made a post-verdict motion for

judgment of acquittal as to Count Four and Racketeering Acts Two, Eight, Thirteen,
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and Fifteen. (R.2-98.) The court granted the motion as to Racketeering Act Two but

otherwise denied it.

Bowman stands convicted on Counts One, Two, Three, Four, Five, Six, Eight,

and Ten. He also stands convicted of thirteen racketeering acts: Three is the murder

of Raymond Chaffin; Four is the kidnapping of Irwin Nissen; Seven is the distribution

of Valium; Eight is the kidnapping of Kevin Talley; Nine is the conspiracy to murder

members of other motorcycle clubs; Ten is the bombing of the Warlocks clubhouse;

Eleven is the bombing of the Hell’s Henchmen clubhouse; Twelve is the conspiracy

to destroy the Warlocks clubhouse in Brevard County; Thirteen is the assault on the

Fifth Chapter Motorcycle Club; Fourteen is the conspiracy to murder members of the

Warlocks; Fifteen is the murder of Don Fogg; Sixteen is the conspiracy to murder

members of the Hell’s Angels; and Seventeen is the distribution of various illegal

substances.

4. Sentencing

Bowman was sentenced to concurrent terms of life imprisonment on Counts

One and Two. He received twenty years each on Counts Three, Four, and Six, ten

years each on Counts Five and Ten, and three years on Count Eight. These sentences

were to run concurrently with his life sentence.
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The Government argues that, because the post-verdict motion challenged only a few

counts of conviction, we should review the unchallenged counts for “a manifest miscarriage of

justice.” United States v. Adams, 91 F.3d 114, 116 (11th Cir. 1996). In light of our conclusion

that the evidence was sufficient on all counts, we need not be detained in a search for the

appropriate standard of review.

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II. ISSUES ON APPEAL

Bowman raises three issues on appeal: (1) Whether the district court erred by

denying his motion for judgment of acquittal based on insufficiency of the evidence;

(2) Whether the district court abused its discretion by empaneling an innominate jury;

and (3) Whether the district court abused its discretion by refusing to redact the

whites-only statement in the Outlaws Constitution.

III. DISCUSSION

A. SUFFICIENCY OF THE EVIDENCE

Bowman made a post-verdict motion for judgment of acquittal, arguing that the

evidence was not sufficient to support the jury’s guilty verdicts. The district court

denied the motion, and Bowman appeals. We review the denial of a motion for

judgment of acquittal de novo. United States v. Perez-Tosta, 36 F.3d 1552, 1556

(11th Cir. 1994). When the motion raises a challenge to the sufficiency of the

evidence, we review the sufficiency of the evidence de novo, drawing all reasonable

inferences in the Government’s favor. Id.2

 A review of the record indicates that the
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evidence against Bowman was sufficient on all counts of conviction, and only Count

Four and Racketeering Acts Eight, Thirteen, and Fifteen warrant discussion.

Count Four and Racketeering Act Thirteen charge Bowman with ordering the

assault on members of the Fifth Chapter Motorcycle Club. In support of the count,

the Government offered the testimony of Hicks, who was, for a time, Bowman’s righthand man. Hicks testified that, after Bowman saw a picture in the newspaper of an

FCMC member hugging a Hell’s Angel, Bowman was enraged and told Hicks to

return to Florida. (R.15 at 121-22.) Upon Hicks’s return to Florida, he was to meet

with the FCMC, shove the newspaper in the president’s mouth, and shut down the

FCMC. (R.15 at 122.) Hicks understood “shut down” to mean the assaults and

threats of violence that were issued to the FCMC. (R.15 at 124.) Although the assault

was ultimately carried out by Lemunyon rather than Hicks, the jury could infer that

Lemunyon was following Hicks’s, and thus Bowman’s, order. This evidence was

sufficient to support the jury’s verdict on this count.

Racketeering Act Eight accuses Bowman of participating in the kidnapping of

Kevin Talley. Bowman argues that there is no evidence indicating that he ordered the

Outlaws to restrain Talley against his will. However, Murphy testified that Bowman

issued an order that Talley be brought to Detroit and locked in the Detroit clubhouse.

(R.22 at 100.) Hicks and Talley also testified that Talley was indeed brought to the
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Detroit clubhouse and was not free to leave. (R.15 at 79; R.24 at 75-76.) This

testimony is sufficient to support Bowman’s conviction.

Racketeering Act Fifteen concerns the murder of Don Fogg. Hicks testified that

Bowman, at a presidents meeting, reported that there was a snitch among them and

that the snitch would be killed. (R.15 at 124.) The murder would be staged to appear

as if an enemy had committed it, and the Outlaws would hold a regular Outlaws

funeral. (R.15 at 124-25.) Fogg was murdered, a story was circulated that an enemy

had done it, and a regular funeral was held. (R.15 at 125-26.) Later, Bowman told

Hicks that Fogg was the snitch he had mentioned at the meeting. (R.15 at 128.) The

jury could reasonably infer from this evidence that Bowman ordered Fogg’s murder.

Because the evidence was sufficient on all counts of conviction, we find

Bowman’s challenge to the district court’s denial of his motion for judgment of

acquittal to be without merit.

B. INNOMINATE JURY

The district court sua sponte decided to empanel an innominate jury and entered

an order detailing its reasons. Bowman objected to the use of an innominate jury and,

on appeal, argues that the district court abused its discretion by using one in this case.

The district court’s decision to empanel an innominate jury is reviewed for an abuse

of discretion. United States v. Ross, 33 F.3d 1507, 1519 (11th Cir. 1994).
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The district court has the discretion to empanel an innominate jury upon a

showing of a combination of several factors, including (1) the defendant’s

involvement in organized crime, (2) the defendant’s participation in a group with the

capacity to harm jurors, (3) the defendant’s past attempts to interfere with the judicial

process, (4) the potential that, if convicted, the defendant will suffer a lengthy

incarceration and substantial monetary penalties, and (5) extensive publicity that

enhances the possibility that jurors’ names may become public and expose them to

intimidation or harassment. Ross, 33 F.3d at 1520.

In this case, all of the Ross factors were present to some degree. Bowman was

accused of being the international president of a motorcycle gang that had a history

of violent conduct. The Outlaws, on several occasions, interfered with the judicial

process by seeking to intimidate witnesses into not testifying against them and by

observing and reporting on the testimony that witnesses did give. Bowman himself

was accused of kidnapping Talley and murdering Don Fogg to punish them for their

communication with law-enforcement authorities. Furthermore, Bowman was facing

a life sentence, and his capture and trial had already garnered a significant amount of

publicity. While Bowman argues that the Outlaws had no history of juror

intimidation, jurors had been accosted by members of the news media in prior trials
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involving the Outlaws. Under these circumstances, the district court did not abuse its

discretion by empaneling an innominate jury.

Bowman argues that the district court nevertheless abused its discretion by

failing to give the jury a special instruction regarding the unusual voir-dire procedure.

Bowman is correct that the district court gave such an instruction in Ross and that the

instruction was said to have eliminated any potential prejudice that the procedure

might have caused in that case. See Ross, 33 F.3d at 1521-22. While the jury may

have benefitted from a similar instruction in this case, the district court’s failure to

give the instruction does not warrant reversal. Because Bowman did not request such

an instruction, he waived any right he had to the instruction and may not be heard to

complain now absent plain error. See United States v. Zlatogur, 271 F.3d 1025, 1030

(11th Cir. 2001) (explaining that failure to request instruction precludes reversal

absent plain error which “significantly and substantially” prejudices defendant);

United States v. Vario, 943 F.2d 236, 241 (2d Cir. 1991) (discussing waiver of

instruction on anonymous jury where defendant failed to object to charge given). In

any event, the evidence against Bowman was overwhelming, and the lack of an

instruction did not affect his substantial rights.
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C. REDACTION OF THE WHITES-ONLY POLICY

The Outlaws Constitution states that only white males may be members.

During its search of various Outlaws clubhouses, the FBI seized copies of the Outlaws

Constitution, four of which contained this provision. In the first indictment against

Bowman, the Government included the whites-only policy among its allegations. The

court struck this allegation as irrelevant. At trial, the Government introduced the

seized Constitutions, attempting to show a unity of purpose among the various

Outlaws chapters. Bowman objected to the documents and asked the court to strike

the whites-only policy from them. (R.10 at 174-75 & 202; R.12 at 12; R.29 at 6.) The

court refused to do so. When the Government published the documents on an

overhead projector at trial, the whites-only policy was visible to the jury. (R.10 at

177.) Bowman argues on appeal that the district court should have stricken the

whites-only policy and that its admission was inflammatory and prejudicial. We

review the district court’s evidentiary rulings for an abuse of discretion. United States

v. Mills, 138 F.3d 928, 935 (11th Cir. 1998).

Bowman mounts his attack under Federal Rule of Evidence 403, which states

that, “[a]lthough relevant, evidence may be excluded if its probative value is

substantially outweighed by the danger of unfair prejudice, confusion of the issues,

or misleading the jury, or by considerations of undue delay, waste of time, or needless
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presentation of cumulative evidence.” Fed. R. Evid. 403. Since Bowman was not

charged with any racially-motivated crimes, his allegiance to a racist organization is

not relevant to his guilt or innocence in this case. Still, the repetition of the policy was

not entirely irrelevant since it tended to show the uniformity of the Outlaws enterprise.

But there was other evidence of this uniformity, as many of the constitutional

provisions were repeated; each of the constitutions for instance, included the

requirements that Outlaws must be twenty-one years-old and own their own

motorcycles. Because it was cumulative, the evidence of the whites-only policy had

limited probative value.

This limited probative value was, in our view, outweighed by the danger of

unfair prejudice. The uneasy racial history of criminal law in the United States has

yielded a simple rule-of-thumb: “There is no place in a criminal prosecution for

gratuitous references to race, especially when a defendant’s life hangs in the balance.

Elementary concepts of equal protection and due process alike forbid a prosecutor to

seek to procure a verdict on the basis of racial animosity.” Smith v. Farley, 59 F.3d

659, 663 (7th Cir. 1995). In this case, the Government, whose interest “is not that it

shall win a case, but that justice shall be done,” Berger v. United States, 295 U.S. 78,

88, 55 S. Ct. 629, 633 (1935), should have scrupulously avoided the possibility that

the jury’s verdict might be clouded by racial issues. Furthermore, the court could
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have, and should have, prevented the injection of racial issues by simply redacting the

whites-only policy.

Nevertheless, the whites-only policy comprised but a single phrase in a single

sentence on each of four documents admitted into evidence. Over the course of the

trial, these four phrases became buried in the mountain of documentary evidence

against Bowman, which included thousands of documents and photographs.

Furthermore, over fifty witnesses testified regarding Bowman’s criminal activity.

Since the evidence against Bowman was overwhelming, and the whites-only policy

was but a brief flicker in Bowman’s month-long trial, the admission of the policy,

while error, did not affect Bowman’s substantial rights. See Fed. R. Crim. P. 52.

IV. CONCLUSION

Because we find no reversible error in Bowman’s convictions, his convictions

are affirmed.

AFFIRMED.