SOUTH FLORIDA

ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION:

SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION NEEDS

A Science Subgroup Report

to the

Working Group

of the

South Florida

Ecosystem Restoration Task Force

1996

i
SCIENCE SUBGROUP

OTHER FEDERAL CONTRIBUTORS

Tom Armentano, NPS/ENP

Joan Browder, NOAA/NMFS

Bradford Brown, NOAA/NMFS, Co-chair

Gary Buckingham, USDA/ARS

Lawrence Burns*, EPA

Michael Crosby, NOAA/NOS

Kenneth Cummins, SFWMD

Truman Duncan, Miccosukee Tribe

Barry Glaz, USDA/ARS

Robert Halley, USGS

James Harriman, BIA

Lorraine Heisler, FGFWFC

Greg Hendricks, USDA/NRCS

Aaron Higer, USGS

Ronald Hilton, COE

Wiley Kitchens, USGS/BRD

Leo Minasian, FDEP

Douglas Morrison*, FWS

John Ogden, SFWMD

Peter Ortner, NOAA/OAR

Robert Pace, FWS

Mary Ann Poole, FGFWFC, Co-chair

Dan Scheidt, EPA

Hanley Smith, COE

Craig Tepper, Seminole Tribe

Michael Troyer, EPA

James Weaver, USGS/BRD, Co-chair

*Former SSG member integral to preparation of this report.

_______________________________

OTHER FEDERAL CONTRIBUTORS

Robert Ambrose, EPA

Rochelle Araujo, EPA

M. Craig Barber, EPA

Russell Bullock, EPA

Robert Fennema, NPS/ENP

Carole Goodyear, NOAA/NMFS

John Klein, NOAA/NOS

John Kucklick, NOAA/NMFS

Elmar Kurzbach, COE

William Loftus, USGS/BRD

Nicholas Loux, EPA

Mark Powell, NOAA/OAR

Patricia Richards, FWS

Michael Robblee, USGS/BRD

William Robertson, USGS/BRD

James Snyder, USGS/BRD

Michael Soukup, NPS

Nancy Thompson, NOAA/NMFS

______________________________

EDITOR

Carole Goodyear, NOAA/NMFS

This report should be cited as:

Science Subgroup. 1996. South Florida Ecosystem Restoration: Scientific Information Needs. Report to the

Working Group of the South Florida Ecosystem Restoration Task Force.

i i
SUMMARY

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This report on information needs is the first step in development of an ecosystem-based South Florida

Comprehensive Science Plan required for the ecosystem approach mandated by the Interagency Task Force in its

September 23, 1993, Agreement on South Florida Ecosystem Restoration. The modeling, monitoring, and special

studies recommended in this document will provide the information basis for ecosystem management.

South Florida is a heterogeneous system of wetlands, uplands, and coastal and marine areas comprising at

least 11 major physiographic provinces. It is dominated by the watersheds of the Kissimmee River, Lake

Okeechobee, and the Everglades. Prior to drainage, wetlands covered most of central and southern Florida.

Productivity of the predrainage wetlands was dependent on dynamic hydrologic storage and sheetflow, large spatial

scale, and heterogeneity in habitat. The biological abundance and diversity the habitats once supported were

maintained by the complex annual and long-term hydrologic patterns of the natural system, over which were

superimposed sporadic events such as storms, fires, and freezes. 

Human alterations in the hydrologic system beginning in the late 1800s have created water quality and water

quantity problems for South Florida's natural systems, including the Everglades and the estuaries. Hydroperiods and

hydropatterns, which relate to the duration, timing, and extent that wetlands are wet, have been greatly distorted. The

quantity, timing, location, and quality of freshwater flow to estuaries have been greatly modified. The pace of

deterioration seems to be increasing. Known wildlife populations are now a fraction of their size of even 30 years

ago. Florida Bay is experiencing obvious catastrophic change manifested in massive seagrass dieoffs and noxious

algal blooms. Even the reef tract is not immune to probable land-based detrimental influences.

South Florida's human population currently exceeds 5 million and is expanding rapidly. This expanding

human presence has dramatically changed the South Florida Ecosystem. In addition to hydrologic alterations for flood

control, the changes include an increasing water demand by agricultural and urban uses, while, at the same time, the

water supply has actually been decreased by the conversion of land to agricultural and urban uses and by the shunting

to the coast of fresh water that previously was stored in the wetlands, the soils, and the aquifers. Other changes are

water quality and treatment problems, soil subsidence in the Everglades Agricultural Area, nutrient enrichment,

pollution by contaminants, introduction of invasive non-native plants and animals, fragmentation of habitats and

landscapes, loss of wetland areas and functions, altered fire regimes, and declines in reef and estuarine resources. 

The problems of nonindigenous species, mercury contamination, pollution by pesticides and other

contaminants, and preservation of endangered species are so serious and pervasive throughout South Florida that

individual chapters are devoted to these cross-cutting problems on a region-wide basis, in addition to discussions in

most of the subregion chapters. Holistic solutions to these problems will provide for more sustainable economic

opportunities while at the same time improve the sustainability of the natural portions of the South Florida

Ecosystem.

The overall goal of the restoration effort is to restore a sustainable ecosystem that preserves the valued

properties of South Florida's natural systems and supports productive agriculture-, fishery-, and tourist-based

economies and a high quality of urban life. The basic premise is that better water management will provide

sustainability across both human and natural systems. Therefore, the working hypothesis is that hydrologic

restoration is the prerequisite to ecosystem restoration. The highest priority science is that which determines how to

modify the structure and operation of the hydrologic system to accomplish restoration.

The overall objective of the Science Subgroup is to develop an interagency, interdisciplinary science

program that will guide restoration actions by determining relationships between ecosystem function and hydrologic

regime and describing hydrologic conditions required to support the characteristic landscapes, biodiversity, and

wildlife abundance of predrainage South Florida. The information needs presented in this document are directed at

obtaining the data required to provide a scientific basis for management decisions and the information that could lead

to increased beneficial interactions between natural and human communities.

iii
SUMMARY

The scientific investigations identified in this report are directed at characterizing the predrainage system,

particularly its hydrology, and comparing it to the present system; determining the key characteristics of the former

natural hydrologic system that supported the rich diversity and abundance of wildlife that have been lost; designing

structural and operational modifications of the C&SF Project that would recreate the key characteristics of the natural

hydrologic system; assessing the hydrologic and ecological results of these modifications; and modifying the design

to make improvements. Particularly appropriate is the adaptive management approach, in which the measured

outcome of management actions is used to make corrections and adjustments in those actions in order to improve the

probability of achieving objectives. Adaptive management has three elements -- models, restoration support studies,

and monitoring -- that must be used as coordinated, supportive tools. The operational foundation of the adaptive

management approach is periodic environmental assessment, which utilizes models to predict outcomes, monitoring

to test the predictions, and field and laboratory studies to provide critical supporting information.

The scientific information needs in relation to the restoration goal and the restoration and science objectives

for the South Florida Region, each of the 10 geographic subregions, and each region-wide topic are summarized in

the following figures. The many information needs reflect the diversity of habitats and biotic communities within

South Florida -- and also the diversity of ecological problems.

iv
 Restore the landscapes, biodiversity, and wildlife 

abundance characteristic of predrainage South Florida,

 while allowing for sustainable use.

Reestablish hydropatterns in wetlands and

volume and timing of freshwater flow

to estuaries required by characteristic 

landscapes and wildlife.

Develop technically sound

site-specific and

landscape-level wetland

functionality assessment methods.

Determine the 

relationships 

between hydrologic 

regime and 

ecosystem structure

and function.

Reestablish the water quality 

required to support

healthy natural ecosystems.

Develop a scientific 

methodology to

restore characteristic 

salinity and

circulation patterns

to estuaries.

Describe and quantify

linkages between

nutrient and contaminant 

loads and storages

and ecosystem structure

and function.

Restore native habitat, flora, and fauna

and reestablish natural landscape 

heterogeneity, connectivity,

and biologic diversity.

 Develop control methods on exotics 

at entry, distribution, 

and landscape 

levels.

Threshold nutrient 

concentrations

eliciting responses

of key species

and communities.

Effect of soil storages

on recovery times

and trajectories

under reduced loading.

Nutrient cycling and 

sequestering in

communities based on

peat and marl soils.

Influence of nutrients

on trophic structure

and energy flow.

Major contaminants,

hot spots, and sources.

Pollution load reduction

goals and strategies for

achieving goals.

Ecologically safe 

biocontrol agents.

Environmental management 

control approaches.

Effective native 

plant community

restoration methods.

Standardized

 criteria for:

Hydrologic value.

Landscape value. Wildlife value.

Value to regional

 hydrologic and

 ecologic systems.

SOUTH FLORIDA REGION

RESTORATION OBJECTIVES

RESTORATION GOAL

INFORMATION

NEEDS

Develop 

scientifically based methods to restore 

plant communities 

and wildlife habitat.

Major aspects of

natural hydrologic

system that supported 

characteristic

landscapes and wildlife.

Effect of hydropattern

on trophic structure,

 energy flow.

Appropriate indicator

species and

communities for

assessing effects of

water management 

strategies.

Role of coastal mangrove zone in

supporting regional 

populations of 

freshwater, estuarine, 

marine species.

Paleoecological 

information on past 

conditions.

Freshwater flow to

Florida Bay and

Biscayne Bay

in relation to

upstream flow,

local rain, tide.

Water depth and

salinity patterns in mangrove zone

in relation to

freshwater inflow,

local rain, tide.

Salinity and habitat 

requirements of 

characteristic fish

and invertebrate

species.

Successional 

processes

in planted 

communities.

Relationship between 

planted species 

diversity

and restoration 

success.

Effects of edge,

land contours,

connectivity, and

other design factors

on wildlife use of

restored habitat.

Opportunities for 

establishment of

effective wildlife

corridors, flyways.

b

Po

w

n

s

fu

South Florida region-wide goal, objectives, and information needs.

Provide the scientific 

base for 

reestablishing 

native wildlife 

populations.

Critical habitat 

requirements of 

threatened and 

endangered 

species, SSCs, 

fishery species,

and keystone 

species

(e.g., corals).

Community 

relationships

(e.g., trophic 

dynamics, 

commensalism.)

 Increase functional wetland area and

dynamic water storage.

SCIENCE OBJECTIVES
Promote recovery of a broad range of threatened and endangered species, 

while ensuring actions will not jeopardize any individual listed species.

THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES

For upland species, provide 

recommendations to

private property owners and

public land managers

to promote recovery.

Identify and carr

high-priority recover

that are already fe

from both scientif

public policy stand

For wetland-dependent species,

provide guidance for Federal/State proposals 

to restore

natural hydropattern and

improve water quality in the

Everglades that will best promote

recovery of listed species.

Identify factors

limiting recovery

of each species

for use in PVA.

Conduct status surveys

for State-listed and

candidate species;

perform actions to preclude 

need for Federal listing.

Conduct ecological studies

for listed species

to answer critical management 

questions.

Conduct censuses

of breeding and

wintering populations

of listed species.

Expanded monitoring

of crocodile nesting.

Expanded sea turtle

nest surveys in

ENP and Dry Tortugas.

Improved snail kite

census for more

accurate population 

estimate.

Expanded red-cockaded 

woodpecker surveys

in BC;

identification of 

reintroduction sites

in ENP

(Long Pine Key).

Lake Okeechobee management strategies

to benefit

Okeechobee gourd.

Documentation of

Florida Bay habitat

values for sea turtles; 

prediction of benefits

of restoration.

Radiotelemetry of

Cape Sable

seaside sparrows.

Ecology of apple snail

as food for snail kite.

Impact of exotic species

on listed species.

Factors limiting recovery

of American crocodile

(to plan Taylor Slough

and C-111 projects).

Water and fire management 

regimes

that affect

distribution and density

of Cape Sable

seaside sparrow.

Detailed demographic study 

of wood storks nesting in the 

Everglades.

Life history table

data to refine PVA

for Florida panther.

Goal, objectives, and information needs for efforts on threatened and 

INFORMATION NEEDS

SCIENCE OBJECTIVES

RESTORATION OBJECTIVES

RESTORATION GOAL

Identification and 

implementation of

pre-listing actions

for rare plants of Fakahatchee 

Strand.

Survey of

white-crowned pigeon

habitat in Keys and

expanded acquisition

of tropical hammocks

used by the species.
Protect natural ecosystems from 

invasive exotic species.

Halt and reverse spread of

invasive naturalized exotics.

Develop biological 

controls.

Develop 

multispecies 

monitoring plan.

Develop 

multispecies 

management plan.

De

scr

an

asse

me

Autecology in land 

of origin.

Controlling insects/

pathogens in land of 

origin.

Environmental 

relationships in land 

of origin.

Effect of potential 

non-native control 

agents on native 

species.

Distributions of 

exotics in the wild.

Status of exotics in 

natural 

communities.

Impacts, by 

species, on native 

ecosystems.

Effects of exotics 

on recovery of 

native ecosystems 

from natural 

disturbances.

Documentation of 

problem species.

Criteria for

determining

greatest threats and 

documenting

problem species.

Factors that

affect invasibility

of natural areas.

Environmental 

requirements and 

phenology of problem 

species.

Common

characteristics

of invasive exotics.

Effective

control methods.

Determine and 

enhance natural 

controls.

Autecology of 

various exotics in 

South Florida.

Relationships with 

hydropattern and 

fire.

Interactions with 

native species.

INFORMATION

SCIENCE

NEEDS

OBJECTIVES

RESTORATION

RESTORATION

OBJECTIVES

GOAL

Te

app

to as

risk 

dist

es

early 

st

Develop effective 

restoration 

methods that 

discourage 

reinvasion by 

exotics.

Planting approaches 

that discourage 

reinvasion by 

exotics.

Planting approaches 

that lead to 

establishment of 

native ecosystems 

with low invasibility.

HARMFUL NONINDIGENOUS SPECIES

Goal, objectives, and information needs for efforts on nonindigenous species.
Eliminate significant ecological and human health risks 

posed by mercury contamination.

MERCURY

Manage water and nutrients

to sequester in-place Hg.

Monitor ongoing da

to mercury co

Eliminate impact of 

external sources of Hg.

Inventory and 

characterize 

potential sources.

Determine 

contributions of 

external and 

internal sources to 

present Hg 

contamination 

problems.

Understand role of 

water and nutrients 

in Hg transport and 

mobilization.

Understand 

impacts of Hg

on health of 

Everglades biota.

Build risk 

characterization 

and forecasting 

capability.

Emissions from 

urban sources.

Hg speciation in 

emission streams.

Hg vapor 

exchange rates.

Vertical and 

horizontal 

transport fields.

Spatial and 

temporal patterns 

of present 

deposition.

Importance of 

species other than 

monomethylmercury.

Present levels of 

contamination in 

water, soils, biota.

Models of 

atmospheric 

chemistry, 

transport.

Hg species

binding to DOC;

 DOC/FPOM 

biogeochemistry.

Porewater 

chemistry and

Hg migration.

Rates of microbial 

methylationdemethylation and 

biogeochemical 

control forces.

Models of Hg 

transport in canalmarsh landscape.

Measurements of 

reproductive and 

toxic impacts on 

biota.

Delineation of food 

webs for impacted 

biota.

Food-web 

structure as 

function of 

restoration 

scenarios.

Models of 

ecosystem 

response to Hg 

contamination.

Conceptual models 

of food webs and 

habitat utilization.

Algorithmic 

description of Hg 

and water-quality 

effects on habitat 

selection.

Sensitivity of 

models to 

structure, 

parameterization, 

and aggregation.

Models for 

bioaccumulation, 

sorption of Hg 

species.

RESTORATION 

OBJECTIVES

SCIENCE 

OBJECTIVES

INFORMATION 

NEEDS

Goal, objectives, and information needs for efforts on mercury.

RESTORATION 

GOAL
Recover the health and vigor of native wildlife populations

and reduce environmental threats to human health.

Determine regional 

usage patterns

regarding 

pesticides

and other 

contaminants.

Review and 

synthesize results 

of previous

and ongoing 

contaminants 

monitoring studies.

Conduct detailed 

monitoring of 

contaminants in 

water, sediments, 

atmosphere, and 

biota.

De

co

ass

sto

co

c

Assess chronic 

toxicity risks to 

aquatic organisms 

under existing 

ambient and 

episodic 

concentrations.

Assess surface 

microlayers of 

coastal waters for 

importance in 

community 

exposure to 

contaminants.

Assess lethal and 

sublethal effects 

of contaminants 

found in the

South Florida 

Ecosystem.

Methods to 

determine individual, 

population, and 

community impacts.

Role of 

noncontaminant 

stressors on

health of aquatic 

organisms

(e.g., primary causal, 

synergistic with 

contaminants).

Risk assessment 

models.

Effects on

tropical 

ecosystems.

Contaminant 

concentrations in 

the microlayer.

Extent of species 

and life-stage 

contact with the 

microlayer.

Contaminants

in use in 

South Florida.

Types of

land use

involving 

contaminant 

applications.

Names of 

contaminants 

applied.

Amounts applied 

per unit area.

Contaminants found 

in

South Florida waters, 

sediments, and biota.

Locations

where highest 

concentrations of 

each contaminant are 

found.

Government 

standards (limits) 

regarding each 

contaminant.

Analysis of spatial 

distribution of 

contaminants in 

relation to land use 

and water

flow patterns.

Gaps in coverage by 

existing monitoring.

Information to fill 

gaps in current 

monitoring 

coverage

of specific 

contaminants

and locations.

Cont

and c

epis

Co

loads 

even

Develop effecti

for reducin

Methods to assess 

chronic responses

such as

decreased fecundity,

feeding rate 

decreases, 

increased predation, 

or immunosuppression.

Approaches relating

individual responses 

to effects on

local populations.

Identify the major contaminants,

sources, and hot spots.

Determine effects on local wildlife

under South Florida conditions.

RESTORATION

 GOAL

RESTORATION

OBJECTIVES

SCIENCE

OBJECTIVES

INFORMATION

NEEDS

PESTICIDES AND URBAN CONTAMINANTS

Goal, objectives, and information needs for efforts on pesticides and urban 
Formulate and evaluate alternative management strategies using a 

regional-scale system of integrated interdisciplinary models

that provide input to each other.

Determine linkage 

between water 

management and 

rainfall with 

meteorologic 

model linked to 

hydrologic models 

(SFARPS).

Determine targets 

and strategy to 

recreate natural 

quantity, timing, 

quality, and 

distribution of 

water using

natural and water 

management 

hydrologic models 

(NSM, SFWMM).

Quantify water 

management 

effects on 

salinities, water 

depths and water 

flow in mangrove 

zone using 

hydrologic-salinity 

model.

Evaluate 

ecosystem 

impacts of 

alternative water 

management 

strategies using 

linked trophiclevel models 

(ATLSS).

Restore hydrologic characteristics that will lead to

re-establishment of native landscapes and wildlife communities.

Determine effects 

of alternative water 

management on 

landscape 

structure and 

function using 

landscape models 

(ELM, ATLSS).

Determine 

abundance and 

diversity of native 

flora and fauna on 

the basis of 

available habitat 

using GAP.

Vegetation effects 

on ET and

 flow rate 

parameters.

Discharge rates for 

calibration.

Elevations in SW 

Florida, including 

Big Cypress.

Topography.

Freshwater flow 

rates.

Tidal amplitude and 

phase lag along 

transects 

perpendicular

to coast.

Hydropatterns.

Salinity patterns in 

mangrove zone.

Trophic 

interactions.

Energetics.

Fecundity.

Growth rates.

Biomass.

Nesting site 

selection criteria.

Hydropatterns.

Soil/water nutrient 

concentrations.

Influence of 

hydropattern and 

nutrients on plant 

communities.

Effects of 

disturbance (storm, 

freeze, fire).

ET/vegetation 

relationships.

Habitat 

requirements of 

native species.

Area of various 

plant communities.

Salinity 

Sa

requir

sp

Area of surface 

water.

Land use and 

cover.

Atmospheric 

boundary and 

initial conditions.

INFORMATION

 NEEDS

RESTORATION

GOAL

SCIENCE

OBJECTIVES Determin

of fav

estuari

in terms 

and 

feature

seasca

link

hydrolog

Goal, objectives, and information needs for modeling efforts.

MODELS

RESTORATION

OBJECTIVES
Restore the ecological integrity of the

Kissimmee River basin ecosystem.

Restore water quality in the

Kissimmee River basin and

ensure fishable, swimmable waters.

KISSIMMEE RIVER BASIN

Restore modern historic 

hydroperiods and flows,

 river/floodplain connectivity, 

connectivity to Lake 

Okeechobee, upland 

detention storage capacity, 

and landscape mosaics.

Determine impacts 

of channelization on 

wetlands, fish and 

wildlife resources.

Evaluate extent of 

water quality 

degradation in 

Kissimmee River 

basin.

Reduce high 

nutrient loads.

 Improve dissolved 

oxygen regimes.

Evaluate measures

to restore fish and 

wildlife resources

in the basin.

Pre- and postchannelization maps 

of plant community 

distributions.

Relationships 

between physical/

hydrologic alterations 

and biological 

population trends, 

community structure, 

and use patterns.

Lake drawdown 

periods via NSM and 

historic patterns.

Spatial and 

temporal

patterns of

N, P, and DO.

Environmental 

conditions 

causing these 

patterns.

Relationships 

between 

implementation of 

BMPs and 

nitrogen and 

phosphorus 

loads.

Nutrient 

absorption and 

retention 

capability of 

floodplain 

wetlands.

Causes of low 

summer and fall 

DO levels.

 Effects of 

instream flow, 

other hydrologic 

characteristics, 

and tributary 

inflows on

DO levels.

Ecologic 

responses to 

hydrologic 

restoration.

Relationship 

between 

supplemental 

management 

measures and 

fish and wildlife 

resources.

INFORMATION 

NEEDS

SCIENCE 

OBJECTIVES

Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 1.

RESTORATION

OBJECTIVES Restore basin wetlands, 

reestablish littoral zone 

vegetation and fish

spawning habitat, and

preserve adjacent upland 

habitats.

Restore conditions necessary 

to sustain populations of native 

flora and fauna (warmwater fish

wading birds, wintering

waterfowl) and to recover 

populations of endangered

and threatened species.

Evaluate measures to 

restore lost or 

degraded wetlands 

and uplands.

Relationships 

between

reestablishment

of physical habitat

and hydrologic

determinants

and restoration of

fish and wildlife 

resources.

Extent to which 

alternative restoration 

measures reestablish 

determinants of 

ecological integrity.

RESTORATION

GOAL
Restore the hydrologic linkages, water quality, lake levels, and littoral zone

that will support a sustainable ecosystem, while maintaining

flood protection, water supply, and a sustainable economy.

LAKE OKEECHOBEE

Reduce nutrient 

inputs to 

predisturbance 

levels.

Reduce

 contaminant loads.

Resto

water qu

Eliminate/control 

exotic species in 

littoral zone.

Integrate southern 

lake islands

into overall 

management plan.

Reestablish the 

ecologic function of 

the littoral zone.

Determine spatial 

extent and hydrologic 

character of 

expanded littoral 

zone.

System-wide water 

budget.

Topographic survey of 

area behind Hoover 

Dike.

Integration of 

hydrologic model 

output to GIS 

databases.

Determine impacts on 

southern islands of 

different management 

regimes.

Grid-based 

topographic survey

of SW islands.

Incorporation of 

islands into spatially 

based hydrologic and 

nutrient models.

Integration of 

hydrologic model 

output into

GIS databases.

Determine 

distribution, 

response, and

means of control

of exotic species.

Distribution maps

of exotic species.

Gradient analyses to 

determine controlling 

factors in distribution

and spread.

Priority list of

exotics to control.

Biological control 

methods.

Determine sources 

and impacts of 

internal vs. external 

nutrient loading on 

phytoplankton blooms 

and spread of cattails.

Data on local, 

regional, global 

sources.

Trends in nutrient 

concentrations, 

loading, bloom 

development and 

composition.

Trends in 

cattail spread in

littoral zone.

Gradient analyses 

relating sediment 

chemistry , types, 

hydroperiods.

Data on local, 

regional, global 

sources.

Transport 

mechanisms,

fates, effects.

List of

contaminants 

warranting 

investigation.

Monitoring

programs to assess 

contamination.

Determine sources 

and fates of 

contaminants.

Determine 

patterns co

with min

nonpoint

pollut

Mitigation 

for point/n

pollut

Mitiga

alternat

water q

improve

Models to 

system-wid

of prop

mitiga

Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 

RESTORATION 

GOAL

RESTORATION 

OBJECTIVES

SCIENCE 

OBJECTIVES

INFORMATION 

NEEDS
Maintain or restore more natural hydrology,

including freshwater inflow to estuaries, while managing 

water resources to meet multiobjective demands.

Determine 

sources, fates, 

and effects of 

chemical 

constituents.

Determine 

effectiveness of 

measures to 

improve water 

quality.

Develop tools to 

determine longterm water 

resource needs.

Maintain healthy 

estuarine lagoons.

Assess 

ecosystem 

hydrology and 

hydrodynamic 

status and trends.

Restore upland, wetland, estuarine, and lagoon ecosystems, 

while allowing for sustainable use.

Assess upland, 

wetland, and 

estuarine 

biological 

resources.

Effectiveness of 

agricultural BMPs.

Quantitative 

relationships 

between land use 

and water quality.

Quantitative

ability of 

attenuation

areas to cleanse 

stormwater.

System-wide 

water budget.

Urban/agricultural 

water supply 

tradeoffs.

Flood control 

demands.

Methods to 

minimize 

damaging 

freshwater flows 

to estuaries.

Implications of 

increasing Lake 

Okeechobee 

storage capacity.

RAFs.

Develop and 

evaluate 

hydrodynamic 

models.

Evaluate 

effectiveness

and design criteria 

for RAFs.

Evaluate 

effectiveness of 

reconnecting 

mosquito 

impoundments.

Hydrodynamic

and circulation 

models of lagoons 

and estuaries.

Surface and 

groundwater 

hydrologic 

assessment, 

monitoring, and 

modeling.

Inventory and 

trends of floral and 

faunal 

components of 

ecosystems.

Trends in habitat 

coverage and 

quality.

Status and trends 

in ecosystem 

functions.

Source(s) of finegrained organic 

sediments.

Effects of 

mosquito control 

pesticides, 

stormwater runoff,

agricultural 

practices.

Estuarine/lagoon 

response to 

increased 

nutrients.

Relationships 

between water 

quality, natural 

communities, 

ecological 

response.

INFORMATION

NEEDS

Eliminate or minImprove or maintain water quality.

Determine water 

quality status and 

trends.

Relationships 

between water 

quality and 

hydrologic 

conditions.

Long-term water 

quality monitoring.

Nutrient and 

contaminant 

loading 

assessments.

Concentrations 

and loadings of 

water quality 

parameters.

UPPER EAST COAST - ST. LUCIE RIVER

Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 3.

RESTORATION 

GOAL

RESTORATION 

OBJECTIVES

SCIENCE 

OBJECTIVES
Support sustainable agriculture in the EAA that contributes to the 

economic, hydrologic, and ecological sustainability of South Florida.

Develop a

sustainable agriculture.

Create a hydrologic system 

that meets agricultural and 

natural needs.

Provide 

enha

Design a profitable 

agriculture that controls soil 

subsidence.

Determine appropriate 

rates, timings, 

and storage.

Evaluate habitat 

for native wildlife.

Study d

soil a

Short term:

Sugarcane cultivar selection.

Sugarcane rice rotation.

Rice cultivar selection.

Flooded rice

harvest methods.

Flooded rice

planting methods.

On-farm hydrologic 

models.

Evapotranspiration.

 Logistics of planting, 

harvesting, etc.

Link on-farm with user 

and natural models.

Design hydrologic 

system for 

management of higher 

water table.

Basel

ce

BMP eff

Soil m

Nativ

enha

me

Crop 

Altern

can

land

Mid-long term:

Genetic enhancement

of sugarcane for

flood tolerance.

Agronomic studies

of sugarcane

water-tolerance limits.

Crop nutrition, physiology.

Improved IPM.

Conservation tillage.

Byproduct utilization.

Alternate crops, land uses.

EVERGLADES AGRICULTURAL AREA

Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 4.

RESTORATION 

GOAL

RESTORATION 

OBJECTIVES

SCIENCE 

OBJECTIVES

INFORMATION 

NEEDS
Restore predrainage water quality, hydrologic gradients,

sheetflow, hydropatterns, dynamic storage, biodiversity,

and sustainability of flora and fauna to WCAs.

Restore historic 

gradients,

dynamic storage, 

and sheetflow.

Restore 

predrainage

water quality.

Restore 

connectivity 

among WCAs.

Reestablish rainfall 

event-driven 

hydrology.

Reestablish 

predrainage 

hydrologic 

gradients and 

hydropatterns.

Conserve water for 

a sustainable 

South Florida.

Restore

hydrology 

necessary to 

sustain native 

flora and fauna.

Restore 

predrainage 

landscape and 

ecological 

integrity.

WATER CONSERVATION AREAS

Develop systemwide water

budget and future 

projections under 

growth and 

restoration 

scenarios.

Examine 

hydropattern 

variability on 

various spatial/

temporal scales 

annually and 

continuously.

Determine 

landscape 

responses to 

climatic extremes, 

fire, storms.

Relate landscape 

pattern and 

function to

degree of 

connectivity.

Determine 

compatability of 

estuarine inflow 

requirements

and upstream 

restoration 

objectives.

Determine 

ecological impact

of

nutrient 

concentrations, 

loadings, 

storages.

Determine 

mechanisms 

regulating 

community 

populations

of native

flora, fauna.

Determine 

feasibility of 

restoring 

predrainage 

landscape.

Water 

requirements for 

restoration 

scenarios (volume, 

timing, placement, 

conveyance).

Capacity of 

restored system to 

accommodate 

rainfall extremes, 

while providing 

flood protection 

and consumptive 

needs.

Refinement of 

NSM.

Synthesized 

information on 

topography, 

climatic events, 

vegetation, soils.

Paleoecology 

studies on 

predrainage 

climates, 

vegetation, 

hydropatterns.

Paleoecologic 

analyses

of

event

frequencies, 

effects of 

basement 

topography on 

landscape 

structure and 

function.

Integration of NSM 

and ELM.

Refinement of 

SFWMM.

Comparison of 

NSM and SFWMM.

Peat survey.

Analysis of 

hydrologic

regime effects

on accretion/

dissolution rates.

Trend analyses.

Landscape 

patterns 

comparison.

Threshold studie

(examine 

responses at 

species, 

community, 

landscape levels

Peat accumulatio

and nutrient 

sequestering 

capacity of 

vegetative 

communities alon

loading gradients

Multivariate 

analyses.

Synthesis of 

existing 

information.

Population 

status.

Population ecology 

of selected 

indicator and 

endangered 

species.

Trophic studies.

Landscape 

succession 

models.

Indices of 

ecological 

integrity.

GAP analysis.

System-wide 

survey of nutrient 

and contaminant 

presence.

Threshold values 

for selected 

nutrients and 

contaminants for 

native flora, fauna.

Capability of 

restored system

to convey

adequate fresh 

water to

estuaries.

Feasibility

studies.

Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 5.

RESTORATION 

GOAL

RESTORATION 

OBJECTIVES

SCIENCE 

OBJECTIVES

INFORMATION 

NEEDS
Restore structure and function of Everglades and Big Cypress ecosystems 

as nearly as possible to predrainage condition.

Restore natural 

vegetation and soil 

patterns and control 

by natural factors.

Increase populations 

of top predators to the 

maximum sustainable 

by the reduced 

natural landscape.

Quantify and model 

factors controlling 

ambient water quality.

Define nutrient 

thresholds for major 

wetland communities.

Define contaminant 

thresholds for major 

wetland communities.

Determine historic and 

current patterns in 

soils and vegetation 

distribution and 

productivity 

(incl. periphyton).

Determine processes 

controlling soil 

formation and 

vegetation community 

development.

Quantify and model 

dynamics of 

productivity and 

composition of fish 

and invertebrate 

communities across 

landscapes and within 

wetland types.

Determine factors 

controlling foraging 

behavior, 

reproductive 

success, survival, 

and population size of 

key species.

Long-term responses of 

key plant and animal 

communities to P, N, 

and other nutrients 

under varying 

conditions.

Fates and pathways of 

nutrients and 

contaminants.

Models for simulating 

and predicting 

ecosystem responses 

to water quality 

alterations.

Conceptual 

reconstruction of 

vegetation patterns

and soil changes

over past 75 years.

Role of storms,

drought, fire, and

exotics in structuring 

vegetation

communities and forming 

soils.

Food-web 

relationships.

Life histories

of key species.

Competitive 

interactions.

Biocontaminant 

trends.

Climatic impacts

on productivity

and population size.

Spatial distribution

of surface and

groundwater.

Aquifer and canal 

interactions.

Storm and drought

effects on flow.

Elevation data.

Role of ET.

 Soil infiltration rates.

Storage capacity.

INFORMATION

NEEDS

RESTORATION

OBJECTIVES

RESTORATION

GOAL

Landscape scale 

relationships among 

predators and prey, 

nesting patterns, 

reproduction, productivity

 hydrologic conditions.

Alligator population 

dynamics among

wetland types.

Hydrologic restoration 

effects on deer,

panther, snail kite,

Cape Sable sparrow,

feral hog. 

Quantify and model 

flows and water levels 

within and between 

drainage basins.

Determine role of 

rainfall, climate, soils, 

vegetation, and water 

management.

Restore quantity, 

distribution, and 

timing of hydrologic 

flows and levels.

Restore (or maintain) 

water quality as close 

as possible to pristine 

conditions.

Increase long-term 

natural productivity of 

fish and invertebrate 

communities to 

maximum sustainable 

levels.

BIG CYPRESS BASIN AND EVERGLADES NATIONAL PARK

Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregions 6 and 7.

SCIENCE 

OBJECTIVES
 Restore naturally functioning ecosystems that allow for

 long-term sustainable use and resource conservation.

Restore water 

budgets, 

circulation 

dynamics, and 

salinity.

Restore water 

quality.

 Restore seagrass, 

mangrove, and 

hardbottom 

habitats.

Preserve upland 

natural areas.

Restore w

resourc

Determine 

sources, sinks, 

quantities, 

qualities, and 

effects of 

"external" inputs.

 Determine

environmental

variables that

dictate distribution

and condition

of seagrass,

mangrove,

sponge, and coral

habitats.

 Critical habitat.

Linkages between 

upland, coastal, 

and reef habitat.

Impacts of 

fragmentation on 

populations and 

processes.

Protect natural 

areas.

Expand wildlife 

corridors, flyways, 

and greenways.

h

Develop 

information on 

factors that 

influence salinity, 

currents, and 

exchange rates.

Principal 

environmental 

factors that 

explain observed 

distribution and 

recent die-off of 

seagrasses, 

corals, sponges, 

and mangroves.

Quantitative data on

inputs and outputs for 

nutrient budget.

Nutrient exchange rates 

between sediment, water 

column, and plants.

Controls on magnitude

and flux directions.

Phytoplankton, macroalgal, 

and

coral nutrient

assimilation rates.

Sources, quantities,

and effects of

toxic pollutants.

Cause of turbidity

in Florida Bay and

relation to water quality.

Historical relationship

of surface and

groundwater flows

through the Everglades, 

flow restriction

through Keys channels,

and Florida Bay salinity.

Effects of climate 

extremes on

accumulation of 

sediments, nutrients,

and organic matter

in Florida Bay.

Effects of increased

water residence time in 

Florida Bay caused by 

restricted Keys

channel flow, shoaling,

and reduced

freshwater inflows.

SOUTHERN COASTAL AREAS

Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 8.

INFORMATION 

NEEDS

SCIENCE 

OBJECTIVES

RESTORATION 

RESTORATION 

OBJECTIVES

GOAL

Increase 

populations of 

protected and 

other native 

species.

Impacts of 

fragmentation.

Data necessary for 

recovery of 

endangered and 

threatened 

species.
Reduce or reverse impacts of population growth and land development on natural systems 

and enhance quality of life in urban and rural areas.

Restore 

hydrodynamics of 

Biscayne Aquifer 

water table ridge.

Avoid/reduce 

expansion of 

development into 

wetlands.

Eliminate invasive 

exotic species.

Ensure protected 

wildlife habitat and 

increase native 

wildlife populations.

Reduce 

dependence on 

Lake 

Okeechobee/ WCA water

Develop water 

budgets that 

mutually benefit 

natural and 

developed areas.

Conserve and 

improve 

quality of 

runoff.

Reduce 

dry-season 

recession 

rate.

Improve 

hydroperiods

of

overdrained 

wetlands.

Develop 

control 

 methods.

Expand wildlife 

corridors, 

greenways, 

flyways,

mitigation banks.

Effects of 

water 

reuse 

alternatives.

Effects of 

treatment 

techniques on 

various 

substrates, land 

uses.

GIS analysis to 

locate sites for 

treatment/storage 

facilities.

Effects of 

water reuse 

alternatives.

Effects of 

buffer area 

scenarios 

and canal 

operations 

on Biscayne 

Aquifer. 

Methods

 to reduce 

water use in 

landscaping.

Effects of 

water reuse 

alternatives.

Relationships 

between 

natural, 

urban, and 

agricultural 

systems. 

Effects of 

buffer area 

designs and 

development 

scenarios.

Alternatives 

for 

potential 

uses of 

buffer areas.

Relationships 

between 

natural, 

urban, and 

agricultural 

systems.

Cumulative 

effects of 

Ecology 

of areas 

contaminated 

with 

exotic plants.

Ecological 

impacts of 

non-native 

fauna.

Methodology 

to screen/rank 

species for 

invasive 

potential.

Horticultural 

research to 

develop sterile 

cultivars of 

 invasive 

landscape 

plants. 

Data to 

restore hydric 

components.

Comparative, 

quantitative 

vegetation 

analyses.

Life history 

of endemic 

plants, 

candidates for 

listing, species 

threatened 

by imminent 

development.

Research on 

techniques for 

successful 

restoration.

Impacts of 

habitat 

fragmentation.

GIS (GAP) 

analysis to 

identify critical 

lands, linkages 

between areas. 

Extent of 

wildlife use in 

remaining 

wetlands, 

interior 

western 

areas, and 

existing urban 

landscapes.

Effects on 

corridors of 

wildlife and 

human use.

GIS (GAP) 

analysis to 

identify 

corridor 

sites. 

RESTORATION

GOAL

Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 9.

LOWER EAST COAST URBAN AREA

Ensure quality 

of 

groundwater.

Maintain safe, 

uncontaminated 

drinking water.

Sources of 

contamination.

Methods 

to reduce 

contaminant 

inputs.

Methods 

to reduce 

trihalomethanes.

Effects of

 buffer areas on 

groundwater 

quality.

RESTORATION

OBJECTIVES

INFORMATION

NEEDS

SCIENCE

OBJECTIVES

Expand

ecotone/

buffer

areas.

Protect/

restore

natural

areas.

Effects of

redirecting

stormwater

to

catchment

areas.
Protect and restore the natural ecosystems of Southwest Florida

in the face of rapid population growth and urban and agricultural expansion.

Improve or maintain water quality.

Eliminate or minimize habitat loss and degradation

and restore degraded habitats.

Maintain or restore 

freshw

Assess water 

quality and 

pollutant loading 

status and trends.

Determine effects 

of pollutants on 

biological 

resources.

Develop and 

evaluate water 

quality BMPs.

Assess habitat, 

biological 

resources, and 

land-use status 

and trends.

Evaluate influence 

of natural 

disturbance 

relative to human 

disturbance 

effects.

Assess and 

minimize impacts 

of habitat loss due 

to land conversion.

Assess and 

minimize impacts 

of invasive 

exotics.

Assess 

ecosystem 

hydrology and 

hydrodynamic 

status and trends.

n

flo

CALOOSAHATCHEE RIVER BASIN AND SOUTHWEST FLORIDA

Nutrient and 

contaminant 

loading 

assessments.

Water quality 

monitoring and 

trend analyses.

For seagrass 

community: 

nutrient threshold 

experiments, light 

limitation and 

sedimentation 

experiments, and 

predictive model 

of response to 

water quality 

changes.

Effects of 

mosquito control 

pesticides.

Effects of 

agriculture 

pollutants.

BMPs to reduce 

agricultural 

pollutants. 

BMPs to reduce 

urban pollutants.

Pollutant reduction 

goals.

Non-pesticide 

mosquito control 

methods.

GIS-based habitat 

and land-use trend 

analyses, 

recognizing hydric 

pine flatwoods as 

distinct habitat 

type.

Floral and faunal 

inventory and 

trend analyses.

Ecosystem 

function 

assessment and 

trend analyses.

Role of fire, 

storms, and 

biological 

disturbance on 

restoration 

actions.

Ecosystem 

function 

assessment and 

trend analyses.

Ecological effects 

of habitat 

conversion to 

agriculture, 

especially citrus.

Ecological effects 

of urban/suburban 

development.

Studies supporting 

development of 

more ecologically 

compatible land 

use.

Better mitigation 

techniques and 

success 

assessment 

methodology.

Habitat restoration 

techniques.

Ecological and 

hydrological 

effects on hydric 

pinelands, CREW, 

and other 

wetlands.

Exotic eradication 

and control 

methods.

Hydrodynamic and 

circulation models 

for estuaries.

Surface and 

groundwater 

hydrologic 

assessment, 

modeling, and 

monitoring in 

wetlands and 

hydric pine 

flatwoods.

Ec

fr

Hy

hy

(b

as

E

an

RESTORATION

GOAL

RESTORATION

OBJECTIVES

SCIENCE 

OBJECTIVES

INFORMATION

NEEDS

Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many scientists and resource managers throughout South Florida provided information for this report and

participated in workshops leading to its publication. These included numerous representatives of State, county, and

municipal agencies, as well as universities and research institutions, who contributed substantially to development of

many sections of the report. Many of these persons also reviewed and commented on drafts of various chapters. We

thank all who contributed information and helpful suggestions.

We also wish to thank those outside the Science Subgroup who graciously provided assistance in generating

graphics files for this report: Jennifer Bexley of the FDEP Florida Marine Research Institute, Larry Massey and

Anthony Martinez of the NOAA/NMFS Southeast Fisheries Science Center, Leonard Pearlstine of the University of

Florida, and Barbara Welch of the South Florida Water Management District.

xx
CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .............................................................................................................iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS............................................................................................................... xx

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... xxii

LIST OF TABLES .....................................................................................................................xxiii

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................... xxiv

PREFACE ................................................................................................................................. xxviii

THE REGIONAL ECOSYSTEM ................................................................................................... 1

SCIENTIFIC APPROACH ............................................................................................................. 6

REGION-WIDE TOPICS

THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES....................................................................... 25

HARMFUL NONINDIGENOUS SPECIES ............................................................................... 38

MERCURY IN THE ECOSYSTEM......................................................................................... 49

PESTICIDES AND URBAN CONTAMINANTS ....................................................................... 72

MODELS ........................................................................................................................... 79

SUBREGION CHAPTERS

SUBREGION 1: Kissimmee River Basin...................................................................................112

SUBREGION 2: Lake Okeechobee...........................................................................................146

SUBREGION 3: Upper East Coast-St. Lucie River Area .............................................................158

SUBREGION 4: Everglades Agricultural Area ...........................................................................194

SUBREGION 5: Everglades Water Conservation Areas.................................................................247

SUBREGIONS 6 and 7: Big Cypress Basin and

Everglades National Park (Mainland Portion)...........................................271

SUBREGION 8: Southern Coastal Areas...................................................................................307

SUBREGION 9: Lower East Coast Urban Area...........................................................................365

SUBREGION 10: Caloosahatchee River Basin and Southwest Florida .............................................470

xxi
LIST OF FIGURES

(List does not include figures that are part of attached appendices.)

Figure 1. South Florida subregions............................................................................................... 4

Figure 2. South Florida region-wide goal, objectives, and information needs......................................... 9

Figure 3. Goal, objectives, and information needs for efforts on

threatened and endangered species................................................................................... 27

Figure 4. Goal, objectives, and information needs for efforts on nonindigenous species......................... 44

Figure 5. Goal, objectives, and information needs for efforts on mercury ........................................... 51

Figure 6. Goal, objectives, and information needs for efforts on pesticides

and urban contaminants............................................................................................... 74

Figure 7. Pathways of model interdependencies ............................................................................. 80

Figure 8. Goal, objectives, and information needs for modeling efforts............................................... 81

Figure 9. Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 1 ...................................................113

Figure 10. Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 2 ...................................................150

Figure 11. Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 3 ...................................................162

Figure 12. Theoretical subsidence scenarios in the EAA using the equation

of Stephens et al. (1984) ........................................................................................... 205

Figure 13. Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 4 ...................................................219

Figure 14. Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 5 ...................................................250

Figure 15. Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregions 6 and 7...........................................273

Figure 16. Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 8 ...................................................308

Figure 17. Areas included under science and management plans for Subregion 8 ...................................311

Figure 18. Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 9 ...................................................388

Figure 19. Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 10 .................................................481

xxii
LIST OF TABLES

(List does not include tables that are part of attached appendices.)

Table 1. Proposed special studies........................................................................................................... 15

Table 2. Proposed studies on protected species and species of special concern................................................. 16

Table 3. Studies that will help develop an information base for

assessment indicators and models................................................................................... 17

Table 4. Fallow and successive sugarcane planting systems .......................................................................203

Table 5. Phosphorus fertilizer recommendations for crops grown on Histosols

in the EAA across a wide range of soil-test-P index levels .................................................206

Table 6. Science projects funded by the NPS Hurricane Andrew Program (1993-96) .......................................281

Table 7. Status of endangered and threatened species in Subregion 8.............................................................310

xxiii
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ADID Advance Identification (EPA)

AIW Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway

AOML Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (NOAA)

APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA)

AREAL Atmospheric Research and Exposure Assessment Laboratory (EPA)

ARPS Advanced Regional Prediction System

ARS Agricultural Research Service (USDA)

ASAE American Society of Agricultural Engineers

ATLSS Across-Trophic-Level System Simulation

AWRA American Water Resources Association

BAF bioaccumulation factor

BBSWQMP Biscayne Bay Routine Surface Water Quality Monitoring Program (Dade County)

BC Big Cypress

BCF bioconcentration factor

BCNP Big Cypress National Preserve

BCPC Broward County Planning Council

BIA Bureau of Indian Affairs (DOI)

BMPs best management practices

BNP Biscayne National Park

BRD Biological Resources Division (USGS)

CARL Conservation and Recreation Lands

C-CAP Coastal Change Analysis Program (NOAA)

CCMP Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan

CDM Camp, Dresser, and McKee

CMEA Center for Marine and Environmental Analyses (UM)

COE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

COVER Colloqui of Vegetation Everglades Research

CREW Corkscrew Regional Ecosystem Watershed

CSA Continental Shelf Associates

C&SF FCD Central and Southern Florida Flood Control District

C&SF Project Central and Southern Florida Project for Flood Control and Other Purposes (COE)

CWA Clean Water Act

DERM Department of Environmental Resources Management (Dade County or Palm Beach County)

DIMS Data and Information Management Strategy

DNRP Department of Natural Resource Protection (Broward County)

DO dissolved oxygen

DOC dissolved organic carbon

DOI U.S. Department of the Interior

DOT U.S. Department of Transportation

DSDL Distributed Spatial Data Library (USGS)

EAA Everglades Agricultural Area

ECFRPC East Central Florida Regional Planning Council

EELAP Environmentally Endangered Lands Acquisition Program (Dade County)

EFA Everglades Forever Act

ELM Everglades Landscape Model

EMAP Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (EPA)

xxiv
ACRONYMS

ENP Everglades National Park

ENR Everglades Nutrient Removal Project

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

EPD Environmental Protection District

EPD Everglades Protection District

ERD Ecosystems Research Division (EPA)

EREC Everglades Research and Education Center (IFAS)

ERP Everglades Research Plan

ESA Endangered Species Act

ESL Environmentally Sensitive Land (Broward County and Palm Beach County)

ET evapotranspiration

FAA Federal Aviation Administration (DOT)

FASS Florida Agricultural Statistics Service (FDACS)

FAU Florida Atlantic University

FCD Flood Control District

FCMP Florida Coastal Management Program (FDCA)

FCREPA Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals

FDACS Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services

FDCA Florida Department of Community Affairs

FDEP Florida Department of Environmental Protection

FDER Florida Department of Environmental Regulation

FDHRS Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services

FDM Feature Design Memorandum

FDNR Florida Department of Natural Resources

FDOF Florida Division of Forestry (FDACS)

FDOT Florida Department of Transportation

FECR Florida East Coast Railway 

FGDC Federal Geographic Data Committee

FGETS Food and Gill Exchange of Toxic Substances model

FGFWFC Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission

FHWA Federal Highway Administration (DOT)

FIO Florida Institute of Oceanography

FIU Florida International University

FKNMS Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary

FLEPPC Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council

FMRI Florida Marine Research Institute (FDEP)

FNAI Florida Natural Areas Inventory

FOF 1000 Friends of Florida

FPL Florida Power & Light Company

FPOM fine particulate organic matter

FSCL Florida Sugar Cane League, Inc.

FSU Florida State University

FWQA Federal Water Quality Administration

FWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (DOI)

GAP Gap Analysis Program

GIS Geographic Information System

GPO U.S. Government Printing Office (Superintendent of Documents)

GPS Global Positioning System

Hg mercury

HMG Hydrologic Modeling Group (COE)

xxv
ACRONYMS

ICSB International Consortium of Sugarcane Biotechnologists

IFAS Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (University of Florida)

IPM integrated pest management

IRL Indian River Lagoon

IRLNEP Indian River Lagoon National Estuary Program

KRRP Kissimmee River Research Plan

LEC Lower East Coast

LORP Lake Okeechobee Research Plan

LOTAC-I Lake Okeechobee Technical Advisory Committee

LOTAC-II Lake Okeechobee Technical Advisory Council

LSU Louisiana State University

MCL maximum contaminant level

MCM Mercury Cycling Model

MeHg methyl mercury

MTF Melaleuca Task Force

N nitrogen

NAS National Audubon Society

NAWQA National Water-Quality Assessment Program (USGS)

NBS National Biological Service (DOI) (NBS is now the Biological Resources Division of USGS)

NEP National Estuary Program

NERR National Estuarine Research Reserve

NESDIS National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NOAA)

NEXRAD Next Generation Radar

NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service (NOAA)

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOS National Ocean Service (NOAA)

NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System

NPS National Park Service (DOI)

NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA)

NSM Natural System Model

NWI National Wetlands Inventory

NWR National Wildlife Refuge

NWS National Weather Service (NOAA)

OAR Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (NOAA)

ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory

OTA Office of Technology Assessment (U.S. Congress)

P phosphorus

PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

PAR photosynthetically active radiation

PCB polychlorinated biphenyl

PRD Parks and Recreation Division (Broward County)

PRD Park and Recreation Department (Dade County)

PVA Population Viability Analysis

RADM Regional Atmospheric Deposition Model

RAF Regional Attenuation Facility

RELMAP REgional Lagrangian Model of Air Pollution

R-EMAP Regional Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (EPA)

xxvi
ACRONYMS

RFLP restriction fragment length polymorphism

RSMAS Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science (UM)

SAF Small Attenuation Facility

SAV submerged aquatic vegetation

SCS Soil Conservation Service (USDA)

SEFCAR Southeast Florida and Caribbean Recruitment Program

SFARPS South Florida Advanced Regional Prediction System

SFERTF South Florida Ecosystem Restoration Task Force

SFRC South Florida Research Center (NPS)

SFRPC South Florida Regional Planning Council

SFRRM South Florida Regional Routing Model

SFRSM South Florida Regional Simulation Model

SFWMD South Florida Water Management District

SFWMM South Florida Water Management Model

SJRWMD St. Johns River Water Management District

SOR Save Our Rivers

SRA State Recreation Area

SSC Species of Special Concern

SSG Science Subgroup

SRF Systematic Reconnaissance Flight

STA Stormwater Treatment Area

SWFWMD Southwest Florida Water Management District

SWIM Surface Water Improvement and Management

TAS Tropical Audubon Society

TLCM Toxics Linear Chemistry Model

THM trihalomethane

UF University of Florida

UM University of Miami

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture

USGS U.S. Geological Survey (DOI)

UT University of Tennessee

WASAD Water and Sewer Authority Department (Miami-Dade)

WCA Water Conservation Area

WFS West Florida Shelf

WWIPA West Wellfield Interim Protection Area (Dade County)

xxvii
PREFACE

The Interagency Task Force, in its Agreement on South Florida Ecosystem Restoration (September 23,

1993), observed that the restoration effort needs to be founded on scientific information and mandated that the effort

take an ecosystem approach. This document is structured to provide information in support of the ecosystem

approach. It is the first step in development of an ecosystem-based South Florida Integrated Science Plan that

includes monitoring, modeling, and empirical studies.

An ecosystem is the entire dynamic complex of interrelating plants, animals, and microorganisms at a

location and their abiotic environment. The ecosystem includes humans and their influences, when present.

Ecosystem management recognizes and attempts to conserve the structure of natural ecosystems as embodied in

species composition, food webs, and major functions of ecosystems, such as primary productivity and mineral

cycling. It addresses the need to sustain viable populations of multiple species over the long term. Ecosystem

management extends beyond management of natural communities to address the balancing of human needs with

resource protection. Grumbine (1994) lists the following mandates of ecosystem management: 1) maintain viable

populations of all native species in situ; 2) represent within protected areas all native ecosystem types across their

natural range of variation; 3) maintain evolutionary and ecological processes (e.g., disturbance regimes, hydrologic

processes, nutrient cycles); 4) manage over long enough periods of time to maintain the evolutionary potential of

species and ecosystems; and 5) accommodate human use and occupancy within these constraints. He refers to several

dominant themes of ecosystem management, paraphrased as follows:

> Ecosystem management mandates examining a problem at more than one hierarchial scale (genes, species,

populations, ecosystems, landscapes) and seeking connections between all levels. A major tenet of ecosystem

management is conservation of ecological integrity. Ecological integrity is conserved by protecting native diversity

and the ecological patterns and processes that maintain diversity. This is done by maintaining viable populations of

native species, allowing natural disturbance regimes, reintroducing native extirpated species, and preserving

ecosystems across natural ranges of variation.

> Ecosystem management requires new research and data collection (i.e., habitat inventory classification,

disturbance regime dynamics, baseline species and population assessment, as well as better management and use of

existing information). Managers must track the results of their actions so success or failure can be evaluated

quantitatively. Monitoring creates an ongoing feedback loop of useful information.

> Adaptive management is part of the ecosystem approach. It assumes scientific knowledge is

provisional and focuses on management as a learning process for continuous experiment in which incorporating

results of previous actions allows managers to remain flexible and adapt to uncertainty.

> Humans are part of the ecosystem and cannot be separated from it in ecosystem management. Humans exert

fundamental influences on ecological patterns and processes and are in turn affected by them. Human values play a

dominant role in ecosystem management goals.

> Management requires working across administrative political boundaries to address issues within ecological

boundaries. Using ecological boundaries requires cooperation between federal, state, and local management agencies,

as well as private parties. Managers must learn to work together and integrate conflicting legal mandates and

management goals. Implementing ecosystem management requires changes in the structure of land management

agencies and the way they operate. These may range from the simple (forming an interagency committee) to the

complex (changing professional norms, alternating power relationships).

The Science Subgroup was formed as a science advisory group to provide scientific information to the

South Florida Interagency Management and Coordination Working Group. The following responsibilities, not listed

xxviii
PREFACE

in priority order, were identified in the Science Subgroup Charter (September 21, 1993) under the Interagency

Agreement on South Florida Ecosystem Restoration:

> Recommend South Florida Ecosystem boundaries.

> Identify key information gaps and plan an integrated science program, revising the plan periodically. 

> Develop a process to coordinate science efforts.

> Evaluate models.

> Develop a monitoring plan.

> Develop a computerized guide to all relevant data sets. 

The Science Subgroup will not accomplish these alone or in isolation. In fact, the Science Subgroup may

act mainly in an oversight capacity in accomplishing some of the above tasks. Special committees made up of

scientists appointed by various agencies and governments will do various aspects of the work.

This Scientific Information Needs report is the first step in development of the Integrated Science Plan to

support region-wide South Florida Ecosystem Restoration. The Science Subgroup decided that organizing the

information needs into a document that could be critically reviewed was a necessary preamble to development of a

coordinated science plan. The draft report was circulated for comment by science peers, managers, and the public, and

we have attempted to incorporate all relevant input. This revised document identifies gaps and sets priorities in

planning an integrated interagency and intergovernmental science program. The framework of the Science Plan will

be strategic questions that relate to restoration objectives and an assessment protocol that integrates modeling,

monitoring, and special restoration support studies.

The first two sections of this document are: 1) a brief description of the South Florida Ecosystem that

addresses issues of sustainability and 2) a description of the approach needed to obtain the scientific basis for

restoration, as well as the issues involved in applying this approach. Next are individual chapters on nonindigenous

species, endangered species, mercury, pesticides and other contaminants, and modeling (hydrologic, hydrodynamic,

meteorologic, and ecologic). These special topics are discussed here from a region-wide, holistic perspective; they are

not summaries of information from the subsequent subregion chapters. The major portion of the report is divided

into chapters that detail the science needs of each of the subregions identified in the 1993 Science Subgroup report,

modified to include a Subregion 10. Subregions 6 and 7 are combined into a single chapter because of similar science

needs and restoration goals. Discussion of Indian lands (Seminole and Miccosukee Tribes) is included in the chapter

on Subregions 6 and 7 since all of the Seminole Big Cypress Reservation and one-third of the Miccosukee

Reservation are contained in the Big Cypress Basin. The subregion chapters were developed by convening workshops

of experts and gaining consensus regarding information needs or by obtaining information from knowledgeable

experts on an individual basis. The information in each subregion chapter is generally organized into sections on

introduction, background, major issues, objectives, information needs, and bibliography (which may include many

references in addition to those cited in the text). For some subregions, this format was modified to accommodate

special information. For example, science plans are already in place for Subregion 1 (Kissimmee River), Subregion

2 (Lake Okeechobee), and some areas of Subregion 8 (e.g., Florida Bay), and these chapters integrate the existing

plans into the region-wide restoration initiative.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Grumbine, R.E. 1994. What is ecosystem management? Conservation Biology 8:27-38.

Interagency Task Force. 1993. Interagency agreement on South Florida Ecosystem Restoration. September 23, 1993.

Science Sub-Group. 1993. Federal objectives for the South Florida Restoration. Report by the Science Sub-Group of

the South Florida Management and Coordination Working Group.

xxix
REGIONAL ECOSYSTEM

THE REGIONAL ECOSYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

The South Florida Ecosystem, as defined by the Science Subgroup (SSG 1993), covers the area within the

jurisdiction of the South Florida Water Management District. It includes coastal waters and islands, including Florida

Bay, Biscayne Bay, and other estuaries and the Florida Keys and reef tract to the Dry Tortugas. The South Florida

Ecosystem encompasses an area of approximately 28,000 km2 (10,800 mi2) comprising at least 11 major

physiographic provinces. These include the Kissimmee River Valley, Lake Okeechobee, the Immokalee Rise, the

Big Cypress, the Everglades, Florida Bay, the Atlantic Coastal Ridge, Biscayne Bay, the Florida Keys, the Florida

reef tract, and nearshore coastal waters.

BACKGROUND

South Florida is a heterogeneous system of wetlands, uplands, and coastal and marine areas, dominated by

the watersheds of the Kissimmee River, Lake Okeechobee, and the Everglades. Prior to drainage, wetlands covered

most of central and southern Florida. Wetland landscapes included swamp forests; sawgrass plains; mosaics of

sawgrass, tree islands, and ponds; marl-forming prairies dominated by periphyton; wet prairies dominated by

Eleocharis and Nymphaea; freshwater marshes; saltwater marshes; cypress strands; and a vast lake-river system

draining into Lake Okeechobee. Elevated areas that seldom were inundated supported pine flatwoods, pine rocklands,

scrub, tropical hardwood hammocks, and xeric hammocks dominated by oaks. The natural seascapes of South Florida

consisted of riverine and fringe mangrove forests, beaches and dunes, seagrass beds, intertidal flats, mud banks,

hardbottom communities, coral reefs, and open, inshore shallows. These habitats were interconnected on an

extremely low topographic gradient of 2.8 cm/km (1.8 in/mi) in which elevations ranged from about 6 m (20 ft) at

Lake Okeechobee to below sea level at Florida Bay.

The biological abundance and diversity these habitats once supported were maintained by the complex

annual and long-term hydrologic patterns of the natural system, as expressed in wet-dry cycles, rates of expansion and

contraction of water area, surface water and water depth patterns, annual hydroperiods, flow volumes, and, at the

coast, salinity and mixing patterns. Superimposed over the periodic changes were sporadic events such as storms,

fires, and freezes, which helped to establish and maintain habitat heterogeneity. Productivity of the predrainage

wetlands of South Florida was dependent on:

> Dynamic hydrologic storage and sheetflow. Contributing to dynamic storage were the very

shallow elevation gradient, vast expanses of emergent vegetation, thick peat substrates, sand hills, and highly

permeable limestones. Water masses were constantly progressing downslope but so slowly that, in effect, water was

banked during one season to use in another. Transport varied between structural elements from on the order of

months to years. Throughout the system, groundwater seepage driven by hydraulic gradients provided the base flow

of creeks, rivers, and possibly even surface runoff across the mangrove zone. The extended hydroperiods of the natural

system depended more on the large dynamic storage capacity and delayed flow-through than on the immediate effects

of rainfall. Because of the dynamic storage and slow rate of water flow throughout the natural system, wet season

rainfall kept the wetlands flooded and maintained freshwater flow to the estuaries well into the dry season. This carryover effect was so great that a year of high rainfall maintained surface water in wetlands and freshwater flow to

estuaries even into one (Walters et al. 1992; Fennema et al. 1994) or more (Browder 1976) subsequent drought years.

The dynamic storage made wetlands and estuaries less vulnerable to South Florida's spatially and temporally variable

rainfall.

> Large spatial scale. The vastness of the predrainage wetland made it possible for the natural ecosystem

to support genetically viable numbers and subpopulations of species with large feeding ranges or narrow habitat

requirements, provide the aquatic production to support large numbers of higher vertebrate animals in a naturally

nutrient-poor environment, and sustain habitat diversity through natural disturbance (DeAngelis 1994; DeAngelis and

White 1994). Population resiliency was undoubtedly proportional to the extent of these wetlands because habitat

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REGIONAL ECOSYSTEM

diversity, number of seasonal refugia, and number of dispersal options are proportional to wetland area. The same is

true of other habitat types, such as the pinelands, which extended for vast distances.

> Heterogeneity in habitat. Habitat heterogeneity was a major contributor to biotic diversity and the

persistence of populations (DeAngelis 1994; DeAngelis and White 1994). The vegetative landscape resulting from

the vast, low-relief, low-gradient landform was a diverse mosaic of plant communities that varied in extent from

patches on the order of tens of meters to areas approaching physiographic provinces. Heterogeneity was maintained

by micro-topographic features, small-scale climatic variation, and natural disturbances such as freezes, fire, and

storms, acting on the large spatial scale (DeAngelis 1994). The mosaic of habitat types and water depths provided the

spatial framework for production and survival of animals under a wide seasonal and annual range of hydrologic

conditions.

South Florida is home to two federally recognized Indian tribes, the Seminoles and the Miccosukees, whose

reservations are an integral part of the ecosystem. Native Americans have inhabited southern Florida for at least

10,000 years, predating formation of the "Everglades" by about 5000 years (Carr and Beriault 1984). The modern

Seminoles and Miccosukees in the Everglades began establishing their populations (collectively as Seminoles) circa

1720 (Paige and Vanhorn 1982). The historical presence of Native Americans can be regarded as part of the natural

ecosystem (Lodge 1994). The Miccosukee and Seminole Tribes of Florida became Federally recognized in 1962 and

1957, respectively, and their reservations became Federal trust lands to be held in trust for the tribes, their resources

protected by the Federal Government. Today, approximately 462,000 acres of land in South Florida are considered

Indian lands. This includes much of WCA 3A, which is perpetually leased by the State of Florida to the Miccosukee

Tribe. The traditional and modern lifestyles of approximately 2500 tribal members are dependent on fulfillment of

the Federal Government's trust responsibility to protect their lands, resources, and use rights.

MAJOR ISSUES

Water quality and water quantity problems for South Florida's natural systems, including the Everglades and

estuaries, have resulted from man-made changes in the hydrologic system. These changes began before the turn of the

century with dredging that channelized the Caloosahatchee River and connected it to Lake Okeechobee. With

increasing population growth after 1900 came massive modification of the natural system. Changes in the

hydrologic structure of South Florida culminated in creation and implementation of the C&SF Project in 1948. The

enabling legislation gave the COE responsibility for construction and oversight of water management structures

throughout the Kissimmee-Okeechobee-Everglades basin. In 1949, the State created the Central and Southern Florida

Flood Control District, which has since become the SFWMD. Project purposes were: 1) flood control; 2) drainage;

3) water supply (municipal, industrial, and agricultural); 4) protection against salt water intrusion; 5) preservation of

fish and wildlife resources in the Everglades; 6) water supply to ENP; and 7) recreation and navigation. Initial focus

was on flood control, drainage, and water supply.

Flood control made possible massive land-use changes that decreased the land available for water storage and

recharge. These land-use changes and associated population growth resulted in a three-part ecosystem consisting of an

urban component, an agricultural component, and part of the original natural system that is largely undeveloped but

still impacted by man. These three components are interconnected by the flow of energy and resources (Browder et al.

undated; McPherson et al. 1976; Odum et al. 1993). A comprehensive discussion of the natural and altered systems

of South Florida was presented by McPherson et al. (1976).

A rapidly expanding human population approaching 6 million has developed in South Florida, mainly in

upland areas such as the Atlantic Coastal Ridge but also in wetlands. The South Florida Ecosystem (i.e., the

SFWMD area) encompasses all or portions of 16 counties. The combined population of the counties included in

entirety (Broward, Collier, Dade, Glades, Hendry, Lee, Martin, Monroe, Palm Beach, and St. Lucie) was 4.9 million

in 1990 and estimated at 5.1 million in 1993. The population of counties partially included (Charlotte, Highlands,

Okeechobee, Orange, Osceola, and Polk) was 1.4 million in 1990 and estimated at 1.5 million in 1993 (Bur. Econ.

Bus. Res. 1994). Although much of the population of some of these boundary counties resides outside the defined

area, it still impacts South Florida. For instance, the city of Orlando is outside the boundary, but it lies just

2
REGIONAL ECOSYSTEM

upstream of the head of the Kissimmee-Okeechobee-Everglades drainage. The large tourist area of Kissimmee-Walt

Disney World is actually within the SFWMD boundary.

Most of the population of South Florida is concentrated along the Lower East Coast in Palm Beach,

Broward, and Dade counties, the most heavily urbanized area in the state. With a combined population of 4.1 million

people in 1990, these three counties are home to more than 30% of Florida residents. Dade County alone comprises

almost 15% of the state's population. Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach counties are first, second, and third,

respectively, in the state's population rankings. Collier County on the West Coast has been the fastest growing

county in South Florida. Between 1970 and 1990, its population quadrupled from 38,000 to 152,000 (Bur. Econ.

Bus. Res. 1994).

This expanding human presence, with all its needs and demands, has dramatically changed the South Florida

Ecosystem. In addition to hydrologic alterations that have decreased the natural ability of the system to store water in

wetlands, soils, and the aquifer, the expanding population has created an increased demand for water for both urban

and agricultural uses. When wetlands are developed, demand for water is increased by new users while, at the same

time, the supply of consistently available water is decreased by loss of places to temporarily store water. Other

changes that have accompanied population growth and economic expansion are water quality and treatment problems,

soil subsidence in the Everglades Agricultural Area, nutrient enrichment, pollution by contaminants, fragmentation

of habitats and landscapes by urban development, loss of wetland areas and functions to development, altered fire

regimes, declines in reef and estuarine resources, and invasion of parks and natural areas by many non-native plants

and animals introduced into South Florida. By addressing these problems, restoration of the South Florida Ecosystem

will support more sustainable economic opportunities while at the same time improve the sustainability of the

natural ecosystem.

Quality of life in South Florida is strongly affected by the condition of its natural systems, which provide

many benefits to agriculture and urban communities. These benefits include adequate supplies of clean water, clean

air, aesthetically pleasing natural landscapes, natural controls on agricultural pests, and an interesting diversity of

wildlife and fishery resources. If the natural systems are destroyed or reduced, their free services are diminished or lost

(Browder et al. undated; McPherson et al. 1976).

Agriculture is a significant land use in South Florida. Major products include cattle, sugarcane, vegetables,

citrus, tropical fruits, rice, sod, and ornamental plants. Much of the U.S. winter supply of vegetables such as

tomatoes, green beans, peppers, and yellow squash is provided by South Florida agriculture. Some South Florida

crops are not grown commercially anywhere else in the U.S. Recently, land conversion to citrus has increased

substantially as a result of interregional movement of citrus farming from Central to Southwest Florida following

several severe freezes in the mid-1980s.

The South Florida Ecosystem is nationally and internationally significant for its wildlife and fish. Tourism

is a major industry in the Region, and much of the attraction is due to the remaining natural areas and their

resources. Recreational fishing and diving are significant to the overall economy of South Florida, both directly and

through their stimulation of tourism. For example, recreational activities and tourism account for 50% of the total

employment in Monroe County, which consists of the Florida Keys and much of ENP. Recreational fishing

contributes about $77 million to the economy per year, while diving contributes about $354 million to the Florida

Keys alone. ENP (a designated World Heritage Site and Biosphere Reserve), BNP, and other scenic wetland areas are

large tourist magnets, as are many State, county, and municipal lands maintained as parks and natural areas. The

future of this segment of the tourism industry is directly tied to the condition of the South Florida Ecosystem.

Clearly, ecosystem restoration means improvement in local quality of life and the regional economy.

A comprehensive discussion of the natural and altered systems of South Florida was presented by

McPherson et al. (1976). The SSG (1993) described the defining characteristics of the South Florida Ecosystem and

the problems that have resulted from hydrologic alterations and other anthropogenic changes. Nine geographic

subregions were delineated, and restoration objectives were proposed for the Region as a whole and each of the

subregions. For the present report, boundaries of the subregions were slightly modified and scientific information

needs are presented for 10 subregions (Figure 1).

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REGIONAL ECOSYSTEM

Figure 1. South Florida subregions

4
REGIONAL ECOSYSTEM

GOAL

The overall goal of the restoration effort is to restore a sustainable South Florida Ecosystem that preserves

the valued properties of South Florida's natural systems and supports productive agriculture-, fishery-, and touristbased economies and a high quality of urban life. Sustainability means high natural productivity, human and

ecosystem health, and resiliency to climatic extremes and catastrophic events. It also means long-term

accommodation of needs of human systems, such as flood control, irrigation, and drinking water supply.

The scientific approach to accomplish this goal is presented in the following chapter.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Browder, J.A. 1976. Water, wetlands, and wood storks. Ph.D. dissertation. UF, Gainesville, Florida.

Browder, J.A., C. Littlejohn, and D. Young. Undated. The South Florida study, South Florida: Seeking a Balance of

Man and Nature. UF Center for Wetlands and Florida Bureau of Comprehensive Planning.

Bureau of Economic and Business Research, College of Business Administration, University of Florida. 1994. 1994

Florida Statistical Abstract. University Press of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.

Carr, R.S., and J.C. Beriault. 1984. Prehistoric man in southern Florida. Pages 1-9 in P.J. Gleason, editor.

Environments of South Florida, Present and Past II. Memoir II, Miami Geological Society, Miami,

Florida.

DeAngelis, D.L. 1994. Synthesis: spatial and temporal characteristics of the environment. Pages 307-322 in S.M.

Davis and J.C. Ogden, editors. Everglades: The Ecosystem and Its Restoration. St. Lucie Press, Delray

Beach, Florida.

DeAngelis, D.L., and P.S. White. 1994. Ecosystems as products of spatially and temporally varying driving forces,

ecological processes, and landscapes: a theoretical perspective. Pages 9-28 in S.M. Davis and J.C. Ogden,

editors. Everglades: The Ecosystem and Its Restoration. St. Lucie Press, Delray Beach, Florida.

Fennema, R.J., C.J. Neidrauer, R.A. Johnson, W.A. Perkins, and T.K. MacVicar. 1994. A computer model to

simulate natural South Florida hydrology. Pages 249-290 in S. M. Davis and J. C. Ogden, editors.

Everglades: The Ecosystem and Its Restoration. St. Lucie Press, Delray Beach, Florida.

Lodge, T.E. 1994. The Everglades Handbook. St. Lucie Press, Delray Beach, Florida.

McPherson, B.F., G.Y. Hendrix, H. Klein, and H.M. Tyus. 1976. The environment of South Florida, a summary

report. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1011. GPO, Washington, D.C.

Odum, H.T., E.C. Odum, and M.T. Brown. 1993. Environment and Society in Florida. Draft, August 1993. Center

for Environmental Policy, UF, Gainesville, Florida.

Paige, J.C., and L.F. Vanhorn. 1982. An ethnohistory of Big Cypress National Preserve, Florida. DOI, NPS.

Science Sub-Group. 1993. Federal objectives for the South Florida Restoration. Report by the Science Sub-Group of

the South Florida Management and Coordination Working Group.

Walters, C., L. Gunderson, and C.S. Holling. 1992. Experimental policies for water management in the Everglades.

Ecological Applications 2:189-202.

Science Subgroup. 1996. South Florida Ecosystem Restoration: Scientific Information Needs. Report to the Working Group

of the South Florida Ecosystem Restoration Task Force.

5