# SOUTH FLORIDA

ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION:

SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION NEEDS

A Science Subgroup Report

to the Working Group of the

South Florida Ecosystem Restoration Task Force

1996

i

# SCIENCE SUBGROUP

OTHER FEDERAL CONTRIBUTORS

Tom Armentano, NPS/ENP Joan Browder, NOAA/NMFS Bradford Brown, NOAA/NMFS, Co-chair Gary Buckingham, USDA/ARS Lawrence Burns*, EPA Michael Crosby, NOAA/NOS Kenneth Cummins, SFWMD Truman Duncan, Miccosukee Tribe

Barry Glaz, USDA/ARS Robert Halley, USGS James Harriman, BIA Lorraine Heisler, FGFWFC Greg Hendricks, USDA/NRCS Aaron Higer, USGS Ronald Hilton, COE Wiley Kitchens, USGS/BRD Leo Minasian, FDEP Douglas Morrison*, FWS John Ogden, SFWMD Peter Ortner, NOAA/OAR Robert Pace, FWS Mary Ann Poole, FGFWFC, Co-chair Dan Scheidt, EPA Hanley Smith, COE Craig Tepper, Seminole Tribe Michael Troyer, EPA James Weaver, USGS/BRD, Co-chair

*Former SSG member integral to preparation of this report.



# _______________________________

OTHER FEDERAL CONTRIBUTORS

Robert Ambrose, EPA Rochelle Araujo, EPA M. Craig Barber, EPA Russell Bullock, EPA Robert Fennema, NPS/ENP Carole Goodyear, NOAA/NMFS John Klein, NOAA/NOS John Kucklick, NOAA/NMFS Elmar Kurzbach, COE William Loftus, USGS/BRD Nicholas Loux, EPA Mark Powell, NOAA/OAR Patricia Richards, FWS Michael Robblee, USGS/BRD William Robertson, USGS/BRD James Snyder, USGS/BRD Michael Soukup, NPS Nancy Thompson, NOAA/NMFS



# ______________________________ EDITOR
Carole Goodyear, NOAA/NMFS

This report should be cited as:

Science Subgroup. 1996. South Florida Ecosystem Restoration: Scientific Information Needs. Report to the Working Group of the South Florida Ecosystem Restoration Task Force.



# i iSUMMARY



# EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This report on information needs is the first step in development of an ecosystem-based South Florida Comprehensive Science Plan required for the ecosystem approach mandated by the Interagency Task Force in its September 23, 1993, Agreement on South Florida Ecosystem Restoration. The modeling, monitoring, and special studies recommended in this document will provide the information basis for ecosystem management.

South Florida is a heterogeneous system of wetlands, uplands, and coastal and marine areas comprising at least 11 major physiographic provinces. It is dominated by the watersheds of the Kissimmee River, Lake Okeechobee, and the Everglades. Prior to drainage, wetlands covered most of central and southern Florida. Productivity of the predrainage wetlands was dependent on dynamic hydrologic storage and sheetflow, large spatial scale, and heterogeneity in habitat. The biological abundance and diversity the habitats once supported were maintained by the complex annual and long-term hydrologic patterns of the natural system, over which were superimposed sporadic events such as storms, fires, and freezes.

Human alterations in the hydrologic system beginning in the late 1800s have created water quality and water quantity problems for South Florida's natural systems, including the Everglades and the estuaries. Hydroperiods and hydropatterns, which relate to the duration, timing, and extent that wetlands are wet, have been greatly distorted. The quantity, timing, location, and quality of freshwater flow to estuaries have been greatly modified. The pace of deterioration seems to be increasing. Known wildlife populations are now a fraction of their size of even 30 years ago. Florida Bay is experiencing obvious catastrophic change manifested in massive seagrass dieoffs and noxious algal blooms. Even the reef tract is not immune to probable land-based detrimental influences.

South Florida's human population currently exceeds 5 million and is expanding rapidly. This expanding human presence has dramatically changed the South Florida Ecosystem. In addition to hydrologic alterations for flood control, the changes include an increasing water demand by agricultural and urban uses, while, at the same time, the water supply has actually been decreased by the conversion of land to agricultural and urban uses and by the shunting to the coast of fresh water that previously was stored in the wetlands, the soils, and the aquifers. Other changes are water quality and treatment problems, soil subsidence in the Everglades Agricultural Area, nutrient enrichment, pollution by contaminants, introduction of invasive non-native plants and animals, fragmentation of habitats and landscapes, loss of wetland areas and functions, altered fire regimes, and declines in reef and estuarine resources.

The problems of nonindigenous species, mercury contamination, pollution by pesticides and other contaminants, and preservation of endangered species are so serious and pervasive throughout South Florida that individual chapters are devoted to these cross-cutting problems on a region-wide basis, in addition to discussions in most of the subregion chapters. Holistic solutions to these problems will provide for more sustainable economic opportunities while at the same time improve the sustainability of the natural portions of the South Florida Ecosystem.

The overall goal of the restoration effort is to restore a sustainable ecosystem that preserves the valued properties of South Florida's natural systems and supports productive agriculture-, fishery-, and tourist-based economies and a high quality of urban life. The basic premise is that better water management will provide sustainability across both human and natural systems. Therefore, the working hypothesis is that hydrologic restoration is the prerequisite to ecosystem restoration. The highest priority science is that which determines how to modify the structure and operation of the hydrologic system to accomplish restoration.

The overall objective of the Science Subgroup is to develop an interagency, interdisciplinary science program that will guide restoration actions by determining relationships between ecosystem function and hydrologic regime and describing hydrologic conditions required to support the characteristic landscapes, biodiversity, and wildlife abundance of predrainage South Florida. The information needs presented in this document are directed at obtaining the data required to provide a scientific basis for management decisions and the information that could lead to increased beneficial interactions between natural and human communities.



# iiiSUMMARY


# The scientific investigations identified in this report are directed at characterizing the predrainage system, particularly its hydrology, and comparing it to the present system; determining the key characteristics of the former natural hydrologic system that supported the rich diversity and abundance of wildlife that have been lost; designing structural and operational modifications of the C&SF Project that would recreate the key characteristics of the natural hydrologic system; assessing the hydrologic and ecological results of these modifications; and modifying the design to make improvements. Particularly appropriate is the adaptive management approach, in which the measured outcome of management actions is used to make corrections and adjustments in those actions in order to improve the probability of achieving objectives. Adaptive management has three elements -- models, restoration support studies, and monitoring -- that must be used as coordinated, supportive tools. The operational foundation of the adaptive management approach is periodic environmental assessment, which utilizes models to predict outcomes, monitoring to test the predictions, and field and laboratory studies to provide critical supporting information.

The scientific information needs in relation to the restoration goal and the restoration and science objectives for the South Florida Region, each of the 10 geographic subregions, and each region-wide topic are summarized in the following figures. The many information needs reflect the diversity of habitats and biotic communities within South Florida -- and also the diversity of ecological problems.



# ivRestore the landscapes, biodiversity, and wildlife abundance characteristic of predrainage South Florida, while allowing for sustainable use.

Reestablish hydropatterns in wetlands and volume and timing of freshwater flow to estuaries required by characteristic landscapes and wildlife.

Develop technically sound

site-specific and landscape-level wetland functionality assessment methods. Determine the relationships between hydrologic regime and ecosystem structure and function. Reestablish the water quality required to support healthy natural ecosystems.

Develop a scientific methodology to restore characteristic salinity and circulation patterns to estuaries. Describe and quantify linkages between nutrient and contaminant loads and storages and ecosystem structure and function. Restore native habitat, flora, and fauna

and reestablish natural landscape heterogeneity, connectivity, and biologic diversity.

Develop control methods on exotics at entry, distribution, and landscape levels.

Threshold nutrient concentrations eliciting responses of key species and communities.
Effect of soil storages on recovery times and trajectories under reduced loading.
Nutrient cycling and sequestering in communities based on peat and marl soils.

Influence of nutrients on trophic structure and energy flow.
Major contaminants, hot spots, and sources.

Pollution load reduction goals and strategies for achieving goals. Ecologically safe

biocontrol agents.

Environmental management control approaches.

Effective native plant community restoration methods. Standardized criteria for:

Hydrologic value. Landscape value. Wildlife value. Value to regional hydrologic and ecologic systems. 

# SOUTH FLORIDA REGION

RESTORATION OBJECTIVES RESTORATION GOAL

INFORMATION NEEDS Develop scientific foundation for a sustainable agriculture. Develop scientifically based methods to restore plant communities and wildlife habitat.

Major aspects of natural hydrologic system that supported characteristic landscapes and wildlife.
Effect of hydropattern on trophic structure, energy flow.
Appropriate indicator species and communities for assessing effects of water management strategies.

Role of coastal mangrove zone in supporting regional populations of freshwater, estuarine, marine species. Paleoecological

information on past conditions.

Freshwater flow to Florida Bay and Biscayne Bay in relation to upstream flow, local rain, tide.
Water depth and salinity patterns in mangrove zone in relation to freshwater inflow, local rain, tide.
Salinity and habitat requirements of characteristic fish and invertebrate species. Water table requirements and schedule for eliminating soil loss.

Influence of water table management strategy on EAA water storage capacity, water delivery to downstream systems, and water releases to St. Lucie and Caloosahatchee estuaries.

Engineering requirements for maintaining a higher water table.

Water tolerant cultivars, planting and harvesting methods.
Effective low-impact pest management practices. Successional processes in planted communities.

Relationship between planted species diversity and restoration
success.
Effects of edge, land contours, connectivity, and other design factors on wildlife use of restored habitat.
Opportunities for establishment of effective wildlife corridors, flyways. Provide direct

scientific support for restoration projects.

Relationships between land use and hydrologic function.

Potential benefits of water preserves to natural and human systems.
Storage, seepage control, water treatment functions in relation to scale.



## South Florida region-wide goal, objectives, and information needs. Provide the scientific base for reestablishing native wildlife populations.

Critical habitat requirements of threatened and endangered species, SSCs, fishery species, and keystone species (e.g., corals).
Community relationships (e.g., trophic dynamics, commensalism.) Reduce negative human impacts on

ecosystem structure and function and encourage beneficial linkages. Increase functional wetland area and dynamic water storage.

SCIENCE OBJECTIVESPromote recovery of a broad range of threatened and endangered species, while ensuring actions will not jeopardize any individual listed species. 

## THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES

For upland species, provide recommendations to private property owners and public land managers to promote recovery. Identify and carry out high-priority recovery actions that are already feasible from both scientific and public policy standpoints. For wetland-dependent species, provide guidance for Federal/State proposals to restore natural hydropattern and improve water quality in the Everglades that will best promote recovery of listed species.

Identify factors limiting recovery of each species for use in PVA. Conduct status surveys

for State-listed and candidate species; perform actions to preclude need for Federal listing. Develop information for multispecies recovery plan to maximize benefits to a variety of listed species. Conduct ecological studies for listed species to answer critical management questions. Conduct censuses of breeding and wintering populations of listed species.

Expanded monitoring of crocodile nesting.

Expanded sea turtle nest surveys in ENP and Dry Tortugas.

Improved snail kite census for more accurate population estimate.

Expanded red-cockaded woodpecker surveys in BC; identification of reintroduction sites in ENP (Long Pine Key). Lake Okeechobee

management strategies to benefit Okeechobee gourd.

Documentation of Florida Bay habitat values for sea turtles; prediction of benefits of restoration.
Radiotelemetry of Cape Sable seaside sparrows.
Ecology of apple snail as food for snail kite.
Impact of exotic species on listed species. Factors limiting recovery

of American crocodile (to plan Taylor Slough and C-111 projects).
Water and fire management regimes that affect distribution and density of Cape Sable seaside sparrow.
Detailed demographic study of wood storks nesting in the Everglades.
Life history table data to refine PVA for Florida panther. Methodology to evaluate benefits of restoration projects on listed species.
Matrix of interactions among proposed restoration actions and across all species.
Compilation of species accounts with scientific information from species experts.



## Goal, objectives, and information needs for efforts on threatened and INFORMATION NEEDS SCIENCE OBJECTIVES RESTORATION OBJECTIVES RESTORATION GOAL

Identification and implementation of pre-listing actions for rare plants of Fakahatchee Strand.
Survey of white-crowned pigeon habitat in Keys and expanded acquisition of tropical hammocks used by the species.

### Protect natural ecosystems from invasive exotic species.

Halt and reverse spread of invasive naturalized exotics. Prevent invasions by new exotic species.



### Develop biological controls. Develop

multispecies monitoring plan. Develop

multispecies management plan. Develop screening and risk assessment methods. Develop

sterile cultivars of popular exotics that regenerate readily in South Florida.

Autecology in land of origin.
Controlling insects/ pathogens in land of origin.

Environmental relationships in land of origin.
Effect of potential non-native control agents on native species. Distributions of

exotics in the wild.

Status of exotics in natural communities.
Impacts, by species, on native ecosystems.

Effects of exotics on recovery of native ecosystems from natural disturbances. 

### Documentation of

problem species.

Criteria for determining greatest threats and documenting problem species.

Factors that affect invasibility of natural areas.

Environmental requirements and phenology of problem species.

Common characteristics of invasive exotics.

Effective control methods. 

### Horticultural experiments to create podless or seedless cultivars. 

### Determine and enhance natural controls.

Autecology of various exotics in South Florida.

Relationships with hydropattern and fire.

Interactions with native species. 

### INFORMATION NEEDS SCIENCE OBJECTIVES RESTORATION OBJECTIVES 

### RESTORATION GOAL

Technical approaches to assessing risk at entry, distribution, escape, early invasion stages. Develop effective restoration methods that discourage reinvasion by exotics.

Planting approaches that discourage reinvasion by exotics.

Planting approaches that lead to establishment of native ecosystems with low invasibility. 

## HARMFUL NONINDIGENOUS SPECIES



## Goal, objectives, and information needs for efforts on nonindigenous species.

### Eliminate significant ecological and human health risks posed by mercury contamination. 

# MERCURY

Manage water and nutrients to sequester in-place Hg. Monitor ongoing damage and risk due to mercury contamination. Eliminate impact of external sources of Hg.



### Inventory and characterize potential sources. Determine

contributions of external and internal sources to present Hg contamination problems. Understand role of

water and nutrients in Hg transport and mobilization. Understand

impacts of Hg on health of Everglades biota. Build risk

characterization and forecasting capability. Monitor and

evaluate Hg risks in response to ecosystem management and source control.

Emissions from urban sources.
Hg speciation in emission streams.
Hg vapor exchange rates.

Vertical and horizontal transport fields. 

### Spatial and

temporal patterns of present deposition.
Importance of species other thanmonomethylmercury.

Present levels of contamination in water, soils, biota.

Models of atmospheric chemistry, transport. Hg species

binding to DOC; DOC/FPOM biogeochemistry.

Porewater chemistry and Hg migration.

Rates of microbialmethylationdemethylation and biogeochemical control forces.
Models of Hgtransport in canalmarsh landscape. Measurements of

reproductive and toxic impacts on biota.

Delineation of food webs for impacted biota.

Food-web structure as function of restoration scenarios.

Models of ecosystem response to Hg contamination. Conceptual models

of food webs and habitat utilization.
Algorithmic description of Hg and water-quality effects on habitat selection.
Sensitivity of models to structure, parameterization, and aggregation.

Models for bioaccumulation, sorption of Hg species. Methods and

protocols for measurements in parts per trillion.
Spatially distributed food-web models that include Hg gradients.

Linked landscapescale aquatic fate and food-web models for restoration scenarios.

Multimedia (atmosphere, wetlands, aquatic system) Hg fate models. RESTORATION OBJECTIVES

SCIENCE OBJECTIVES

INFORMATION NEEDS



### Goal, objectives, and information needs for efforts on mercury. RESTORATION GOALRecover the health and vigor of native wildlife populations and reduce environmental threats to human health.

Determine regional usage patterns regarding pesticides and other contaminants. Review and

synthesize results of previous and ongoing contaminants monitoring studies. Construct linked land use/runoff model to determine potential transport of organic contaminants. Conduct detailed monitoring of contaminants in water, sediments, atmosphere, and biota. Determine loads

and concentrations associated with storm events in comparison to everyday conditions. Assess chronic toxicity risks to aquatic organisms under existing ambient and episodic concentrations. Assess surface microlayers of coastal waters for importance in community exposure to contaminants. Assess lethal and sublethal effects of contaminants found in the South Florida Ecosystem.

Methods to determine individual, population, and community impacts.

Role of noncontaminant stressors on health of aquatic organisms (e.g., primary causal, synergistic with contaminants).

Risk assessment models.

Effects on tropical ecosystems. Contaminant

concentrations in the microlayer.
Extent of species and life-stage contact with the microlayer. Relationships between types and quantities applied and concentrations in the environment (by land use and water basin).

Mass balance descriptions of land use/ water basin contaminant flows and storages. Contaminants in use in South Florida.
Types of land use involving contaminant applications.

Names of contaminants applied.

Amounts applied per unit area. Contaminants found

in South Florida waters, sediments, and biota.

Locations where highest concentrations of each contaminant are found.

Government standards (limits) regarding each contaminant.
Analysis of spatial distribution of contaminants in relation to land use and water flow patterns.
Gaps in coverage by existing monitoring. Information to fill gaps in current monitoring coverage of specific contaminants and locations. Contaminant loads

and concentrations during episodic events.
Comparisons of loads from episodic events to everyday loads. Develop effective management strategies for reducing the greatest threats.

Methods to assess chronic responses such as decreased fecundity, feeding rate decreases, increased predation,or immunosuppression.
Approaches relating individual responses to effects on local populations. Identify the major contaminants, sources, and hot spots. Determine effects on local wildlife under South Florida conditions. RESTORATION GOAL

RESTORATION OBJECTIVES

SCIENCE OBJECTIVES

INFORMATION NEEDS 

# PESTICIDES AND URBAN CONTAMINANTS

Goal, objectives, and information needs for efforts on pesticides and urban

### Formulate and evaluate alternative management strategies using a regional-scale system of integrated interdisciplinary models

that provide input to each other.

Determine linkage between water management and rainfall with meteorologic model linked to hydrologic models (SFARPS). 

### Determine targets

and strategy to recreate natural quantity, timing, quality, and distribution of water using natural and water management hydrologic models (NSM, SFWMM). Determine how water management affects salinity and circulation in Florida Bay using hydrodynamic models. Quantify water management effects on salinities, water depths and water flow in mangrove zone using hydrologic-salinity model. Evaluate

ecosystem impacts of alternative water management strategies usinglinked trophiclevel models (ATLSS). Restore hydrologic characteristics that will lead to re-establishment of native landscapes and wildlife communities.



### Determine effects of alternative water management on landscape structure and function using landscape models (ELM, ATLSS). Determine

abundance and diversity of native flora and fauna on the basis of available habitat using GAP.



### Vegetation effects on ET and flow rate parameters.
Discharge rates for calibration.

Elevations in SW Florida, including Big Cypress. 

### High-resolution salinity patterns.

Internal flow paths, exchange rates.
Volume flux through Keys passes, banks.

Freshwater inflow.
Groundwater inputs.

Boundary fluctuations of salinity, water level.
Forcing from West Florida shelf waves.

Wind fields and wind-generated surface waves.

Bottom community maps.
Precipitation, Topography.

Freshwater flow rates.
Tidal amplitude and phase lag along transects perpendicular to coast. 

### Hydropatterns.

Salinity patterns in mangrove zone.
Trophic interactions.

Energetics.

Fecundity.

Growth rates.

Biomass.

Nesting site selection criteria. Hydropatterns.

Soil/water nutrient concentrations.

Influence of hydropattern and nutrients on plant communities.

Effects of disturbance (storm, freeze, fire).
ET/vegetation relationships. Habitat

requirements of native species.

Area of various plant communities. Salinity patterns.

Salinity requirements of species. Area of surface water.

Land use and
cover.
Atmospheric boundary and initial conditions. INFORMATION NEEDS 

### RESTORATION GOAL

SCIENCE OBJECTIVES Determine acreage of favorable estuarine habitat in terms of salinity and bottom features using a seascape model linked to hydrologic models.



## Goal, objectives, and information needs for modeling efforts. 

# MODELS

RESTORATION OBJECTIVESRestore the ecological integrity of the Kissimmee River basin ecosystem.

Restore water quality in the Kissimmee River basin and ensure fishable, swimmable waters.



# KISSIMMEE RIVER BASIN

Restore modern historic hydroperiods and flows, river/floodplain connectivity, connectivity to Lake Okeechobee, upland detention storage capacity, and landscape mosaics. Implement plan to restore ecological integrity.

Determine impacts of channelization on wetlands, fish and wildlife resources. Evaluate extent of

water quality degradation in Kissimmee River basin. Reduce high

nutrient loads. Improve dissolved

oxygen regimes. Evaluate measures to restore fish and wildlife resources in the basin. Document and evaluate

ecosystem responses to restoration actions and provide for scientifically informed finetuning of restoration efforts.

Pre- and postchannelization maps of plant community distributions.
Relationships between physical/ hydrologic alterations and biological population trends, community structure, and use patterns.

Lake drawdown periods via NSM and historic patterns. Spatial and

temporal patterns of N, P, and DO.

Environmental conditions causing these patterns. Relationships

between implementation of BMPs and nitrogen and phosphorus loads.

Nutrient absorption and retention capability of floodplain wetlands. Causes of low

summer and fall DO levels.

Effects of instream flow, other hydrologic characteristics, and tributary inflows on DO levels. Ecologic responses to hydrologic restoration.

Relationship between supplemental management measures and fish and wildlife

resources. Conceptual and

mathematical models of evaluation components, reference and baseline conditions.

Measurements of construction impacts, post-construction comparisons with reference and baseline conditions.

Assessment of supplemental resource INFORMATION NEEDS SCIENCE OBJECTIVES



## Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 1. RESTORATION OBJECTIVES Restore basin wetlands, reestablish littoral zone vegetation and fish spawning habitat, and preserve adjacent upland habitats. Restore conditions necessary

to sustain populations of native flora and fauna (warmwater fish, wading birds, wintering waterfowl) and to recover populations of endangered and threatened species.

Evaluate measures to restore lost or degraded wetlands and uplands.

Relationships between reestablishment of physical habitat and hydrologic determinants and restoration of fish and wildlife

resources.

Extent to which alternative restoration measures reestablish determinants of ecological integrity. RESTORATION GOALRestore the hydrologic linkages, water quality, lake levels, and littoral zone that will support a sustainable ecosystem, while maintaining flood protection, water supply, and a sustainable economy. 

# LAKE OKEECHOBEE

Reduce nutrient inputs to predisturbance levels. Reduce

contaminant loads. Restore

water quality. Reestablish and

maintain recreational and commercial fisheries. Eliminate/control exotic species in littoral zone. Integrate southern lake islands into overall management plan. Reestablish the ecologic function of the littoral zone.

Determine spatial extent and hydrologic character of expanded littoral
zone.

System-wide water budget.
Topographic survey of area behind Hoover Dike.
Integration of hydrologic model output to GIS databases. Determine impacts on

southern islands of different management regimes.

Grid-based topographic survey of SW islands.

Incorporation of islands into spatially based hydrologic and nutrient models.
Integration of hydrologic model output into GIS databases. Determine

distribution, response, and means of control of exotic species.

Distribution maps of exotic species.
Gradient analyses to determine controlling factors in distribution and spread.
Priority list of exotics to control.
Biological control methods. Determine sources

and impacts of internal vs. external nutrient loading on phytoplankton blooms and spread of cattails.

Data on local, regional, global

sources.

Trends in nutrient concentrations, loading, bloom development and composition.

Trends in cattail spread in littoral zone.

Gradient analyses relating sediment chemistry , types, hydroperiods. Data on local,

regional, global

sources.
Transport mechanisms, fates, effects.

List of contaminants warranting investigation.

Monitoring programs to assess contamination. Determine sources and fates of contaminants. Determine land-use

patterns consistent with minimizing nonpoint-source pollution.

Mitigation strategies for point/nonpoint pollution.
Mitigation alternatives for water quality improvements.
Models to predict system-wide impacts of proposed mitigation. Determine water

qualities and ecological processes to support necessary trophic dynamics of desired fisheries.

Census and resource surveys to assess resource partitioning.

Trophic analyses.
Relationship between fisheries, habitat, and lake stages.



# Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion RESTORATION GOAL

RESTORATION OBJECTIVES

SCIENCE OBJECTIVES



### INFORMATION NEEDSMaintain or restore more natural hydrology, including freshwater inflow to estuaries, while managing water resources to meet multiobjective demands.

Determine sources, fates, and effects of chemical constituents. Determine

effectiveness of measures to improve water quality. Develop tools to

determine longterm water resource needs. Maintain healthy

estuarine lagoons. Assess

ecosystem hydrology and hydrodynamic status and trends. Restore upland, wetland, estuarine, and lagoon ecosystems, while allowing for sustainable use.

Assess upland, wetland, and estuarine biological
resources. Assess land use

and minimize impacts of habitat loss due to land conversion.

Effectiveness of agricultural BMPs.

Quantitative relationships between land use and water quality.

Quantitative ability of attenuation areas to cleanse stormwater. System-wide

water budget.
Urban/agricultural water supply tradeoffs.

Flood control demands.

Methods to minimize damaging freshwater flows to estuaries.
Implications of increasing Lake Okeechobee storage capacity.

RAFs. Develop and

evaluate hydrodynamic models.

Evaluate effectiveness and design criteria for RAFs.

Evaluate effectiveness of reconnecting mosquito impoundments. Hydrodynamic

and circulation models of lagoons and estuaries.

Surface and groundwater hydrologic assessment, monitoring, and modeling. Inventory and

trends of floral and faunal components of ecosystems.

Trends in habitat coverage and quality.

Status and trends in ecosystem functions. GIS-based

land-use trend analysis.

Effect of loss of wetlands and 404 permitting.
Ecological effect of land conversion to urban uses.
Ecological effect of land conversion to agricultural
uses.

Effectiveness of mitigation techniques and programs. Roles of fire,

storms, and other natural phenomena.

Causative factors of perceived degradation in all habitats.
Opportunities and potentials of wildlife corridors/ flyways.Source(s) of finegrained organic sediments.

Effects of mosquito control pesticides, stormwater runoff, agricultural practices.
Estuarine/lagoon response to increased nutrients.
Relationships between water quality, natural communities, ecological response. INFORMATION NEEDS Evaluate role of natural disturbance or variability relative to human impacts. Eliminate or minimize habitat loss and degradation. Improve or maintain water quality.

Determine water quality status and trends.

Relationships between water quality and hydrologic conditions.
Long-term water quality monitoring.

Nutrient and contaminant loading assessments.

Concentrations and loadings of water quality parameters. 

# UPPER EAST COAST - ST. LUCIE RIVER

Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 3. RESTORATION GOAL

RESTORATION OBJECTIVES

SCIENCE OBJECTIVES

### Support sustainable agriculture in the EAA that contributes to the economic, hydrologic, and ecological sustainability of South Florida.



### Develop a sustainable agriculture. Create a hydrologic system that meets agricultural and natural needs. Provide ecological enhancement.

Design a profitable agriculture that controls soil subsidence. Determine appropriate rates, timings, and storage. Evaluate habitat

for native wildlife. Study dynamics of

soil accretion. Evaluate BMPs.

Short term:
Sugarcane cultivar selection.
Sugarcane rice rotation.

Rice cultivar selection.

Flooded rice harvest methods.

Flooded rice planting methods. On-farm hydrologic models.
Evapotranspiration.
Logistics of planting, harvesting, etc.

Link on-farm with user and natural models.

Design hydrologic system for management of higher water table. Baseline wildlife

census.

BMP effectiveness.
Soil monitoring.

Native wildlife enhancement methods.
Crop nutrition.

Alternate road, canal-side landscapes. Mid-long term:

Genetic enhancement of sugarcane for flood tolerance.

Agronomic studies of sugarcane water-tolerance limits.
Crop nutrition, physiology.
Improved IPM.
Conservation tillage.

Byproduct utilization.

Alternate crops, land uses.



## EVERGLADES AGRICULTURAL AREA



## Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 4. RESTORATION GOAL

RESTORATION OBJECTIVES

SCIENCE OBJECTIVES

INFORMATION NEEDSRestore predrainage water quality, hydrologic gradients, sheetflow, hydropatterns, dynamic storage, biodiversity, and sustainability of flora and fauna to WCAs.

Restore historic gradients, dynamic storage, and sheetflow. Restore predrainage water quality. Restore connectivity among WCAs. Reestablish rainfall event-driven hydrology. Reestablish predrainage hydrologic gradients and hydropatterns. Conserve water for a sustainable South Florida. Restore hydrology necessary to sustain native flora and fauna. Restore predrainage landscape and ecological integrity. Control exotic plants and animals. Restore

predrainage fire frequency and extents. 

## WATER CONSERVATION AREAS

Develop systemwide water budget and future projections under growth and restoration scenarios. Examine

hydropattern variability on various spatial/ temporal scales annually and continuously. Determine

landscape responses to climatic extremes, fire, storms. Relate landscape pattern and function to degree of connectivity. Determine compatability of estuarine inflow requirements and upstream restoration objectives. Determine ecological impacts of nutrient concentrations, loadings, storages. Determine mechanisms regulating community populations of native flora, fauna. Determine feasibility of restoring predrainage landscape. Determine extent and impacts of exotic invasions. Determine

predrainage fire extent and frequency.

Water requirements for restoration scenarios (volume, timing, placement, conveyance).
Capacity of restored system to accommodate rainfall extremes, while providing flood protection and consumptive needs. Refinement of

NSM.
Synthesized information on topography, climatic events, vegetation, soils.
Paleoecology studies on predrainage climates, vegetation, hydropatterns. Paleoecologic

analyses of event frequencies, effects of basement topography on landscape structure and function. Integration of NSM and ELM.

Refinement of SFWMM.
Comparison of NSM and SFWMM.

Peat survey.
Analysis of hydrologic regime effects on accretion/ dissolution rates.
Trend analyses.

Landscape patterns comparison. Threshold studies (examine responses at species, community, landscape levels).

Peat accumulation and nutrient sequestering capacity of vegetative communities along loading gradients.

Multivariate analyses. Synthesis of existing information.

Population status.
Population ecology of selected indicator and endangered species.
Trophic studies. Landscape succession models.

Indices of ecological integrity.
GAP analysis.
System-wide survey of nutrient and contaminant presence.

Threshold values for selected nutrients and contaminants for native flora, fauna. Maps of distribution and abundance of exotic species.

Relationship between spread of exotics and hydrologic alterations.

Procedures for prioritizing exotic controls.
Biological control mechanisms. Capability of restored system to convey adequate fresh water to estuaries.
Feasibility studies. Coring studies.

Integration of fire ecology into hydrologic models.



## Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 5. RESTORATION GOAL

RESTORATION OBJECTIVES

SCIENCE OBJECTIVES

INFORMATION NEEDSRestore structure and function of Everglades and Big Cypress ecosystems as nearly as possible to predrainage condition.

Restore natural vegetation and soil patterns and control by natural factors. Increase populations of top predators to the maximum sustainable by the reduced natural landscape.

Quantify and model factors controlling ambient water quality.

Define nutrient thresholds for major wetland communities.

Define contaminant thresholds for major wetland communities. Determine historic and current patterns in soils and vegetation distribution and productivity (incl. periphyton).
Determine processes controlling soil formation and vegetation community development. Quantify and model

dynamics of productivity and composition of fish and invertebrate communities across landscapes and within wetland types. Determine factors

controlling foraging behavior, reproductive success, survival, and population size of key species. Model relationships

between changing landscape patterns and the loss of species, communities, and ecological heterogeneity.

Long-term responses of key plant and animal communities to P, N, and other nutrients under varying conditions.

Fates and pathways of nutrients and contaminants.

Models for simulating and predicting ecosystem responses to water quality alterations. Conceptual

reconstruction of vegetation patterns and soil changes over past 75 years.

Role of storms, drought, fire, and exotics in structuring vegetation communities and forming soils. Food-web

relationships.

Life histories of key species.

Competitive interactions.

Biocontaminant trends.
Climatic impacts on productivity and population size. Critical factors controlling population size and distribution of endemic upland plant species and pineland vertebrates.

Habitat modification and management strategies for enhancing and restoring decimated populations.

Role of long-term change such as sea-level rise and human population growth on habitat diversity. Spatial distribution of surface and groundwater.
Aquifer and canal interactions.
Storm and drought effects on flow.

Elevation data.

Role of ET.

Soil infiltration rates.

Storage capacity. INFORMATION NEEDS RESTORATION OBJECTIVES RESTORATION GOAL

Landscape scale relationships among predators and prey, nesting patterns, reproduction, productivity, hydrologic conditions.

Alligator population dynamics among wetland types.
Hydrologic restoration effects on deer, panther, snail kite, Cape Sable sparrow, feral hog. Quantify and model flows and water levels within and between drainage basins.

Determine role of rainfall, climate, soils, vegetation, and water management. Restore quantity, distribution, and timing of hydrologic flows and levels. Restore (or maintain)

water quality as close as possible to pristine conditions. Increase long-term natural productivity of fish and invertebrate communities to maximum sustainable levels. Reverse or arrest biodiversity declines in all landscapes, particularly uplands. 

# BIG CYPRESS BASIN AND EVERGLADES NATIONAL PARK

Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregions 6 and 7.

SCIENCE OBJECTIVES

### Restore naturally functioning ecosystems that allow for long-term sustainable use and resource conservation.

Restore water budgets, circulation dynamics, and salinity. Restore water quality. Restore seagrass,

mangrove, and hardbottom habitats. Preserve upland

natural areas. Restore wildlife
resources.

Determine sources, sinks, quantities, qualities, and effects of "external" inputs. Determine environmental variables that dictate distribution and condition of seagrass, mangrove, sponge, and coral habitats.



### Critical habitat.

Linkages between upland, coastal, and reef habitat.

Impacts of fragmentation on populations and processes. Protect natural
areas. Expand wildlife corridors, flyways, and greenways. Determine impacts of changes in habitat and environmental conditions on recruitment, growth, and survival.

Relationship of recruitment to habitat changes and distribution in estuaries and reef tract.

Relationship between altered conditions and growth and survival.
Relationship between habitat degradation/loss and fisheries productivity.
Relationship between Florida Bay habitat changes and changes in coral reefs and southern coastal areas. 

### Develop information on factors that influence salinity, currents, and exchange rates.



### Principal environmental factors that explain observed distribution and recent die-off of seagrasses, corals, sponges, and mangroves. Quantitative data on inputs and outputs for nutrient budget.

Nutrient exchange rates between sediment, water column, and plants.
Controls on magnitude and flux directions.

Phytoplankton, macroalgal, and coral nutrient assimilation rates.

Sources, quantities, and effects of toxic pollutants.
Cause of turbidity in Florida Bay and relation to water quality. Historical relationship of surface and groundwater flows through the Everglades, flow restriction through Keys channels, and Florida Bay salinity.

Effects of climate extremes on accumulation of sediments, nutrients, and organic matter in Florida Bay.

Effects of increased water residence time in Florida Bay caused by restricted Keys channel flow, shoaling, and reduced freshwater inflows. 

# SOUTHERN COASTAL AREAS

Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 8. INFORMATION NEEDS 

### SCIENCE OBJECTIVES RESTORATION OBJECTIVES RESTORATION GOAL



### Increase populations of protected and other native species.



### Impacts of fragmentation.
Data necessary for recovery of endangered and threatened species.Contaminant sources/ loadings to Biscayne Bay.

Sediment toxicity of Biscayne Bay.

Contaminant sources/ loadings to Florida Bay from South Dade agricultural area.

Effects of pesticides in subtropical estuaries.

Determination of subtropical bioindicators for contaminant assays/pollution monitoring.
Water quality criterion for transparency. Reduce or reverse impacts of population growth and land development on natural systems

and enhance quality of life in urban and rural areas.

Restore hydrodynamics of Biscayne Aquifer water table ridge. Avoid/reduce expansion of development into wetlands. Ensure fishable, swimmable waters and increase native aquatic populations. Eliminate invasive exotic species. Ensure protected

wildlife habitat and increase native wildlife populations. Reduce dependence on Lake Okeechobee/ WCA water

Develop water budgets that mutually benefit natural and developed areas. Conserve and

improve quality of runoff. Reduce

dry-season recession rate. Improve

hydroperiods of overdrained wetlands. Restore quality of estuarine/coastal waters. Restore volume,

timing, distribution of freshwater flow to estuaries. Develop control methods. Expand wildlife corridors, greenways, flyways, mitigation banks.

Effects of water
reuse alternatives.

Effects of treatment techniques on various substrates, land

uses.
GIS analysis to locate sites for treatment/storage facilities. Effects of water reuse alternatives.

Effects of buffer area scenarios and canal operations on Biscayne Aquifer.

Methods to reduce water use in landscaping. Effects of

water reuse alternatives.
Relationships between natural, urban, and agricultural systems. Effects of buffer area designs and development scenarios.

Alternatives for potential uses of buffer areas.

Relationships between natural, urban, and agricultural systems.

Cumulative effects of Ecology

of areas contaminated with exotic plants.
Ecological impacts of non-native fauna.
Methodology to screen/rank species for invasive potential.

Horticultural research to develop sterile cultivars of invasive landscape plants. Data to

restore hydric components.

Comparative, quantitative vegetation analyses.

Life history of endemic plants, candidates for listing, species threatened by imminent development.

Research on techniques for successful restoration.
Impacts of habitat fragmentation.
GIS (GAP) analysis to identify critical lands, linkages between areas. Extent of

wildlife use in remaining wetlands, interior western areas, and existing urban landscapes.

Effects on corridors of wildlife and human use.
GIS (GAP) analysis to identify corridor sites. Model of natural flow to Biscayne Bay.

Predrainage salinity patterns in Biscayne Bay.

Model to relate freshwater discharge to salinity in Biscayne Bay.
Significance of seasonal/storm runoff on coastal production.

Effects of buffer area scenarios and canal operations on discharge to Biscayne Bay, Florida Bay. RESTORATION GOAL



# Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 9. LOWER EAST COAST URBAN AREA

Ensure quality of groundwater.

Maintain safe, uncontaminated drinking water.

Sources of contamination.

Methods to reduce contaminant inputs.

Methods to reduce trihalomethanes.

Effects of buffer areas on groundwater quality. RESTORATION OBJECTIVES

INFORMATION NEEDS SCIENCE OBJECTIVES Expand ecotone/ buffer
areas. Protect/ restore natural
areas.

Effects of redirecting stormwater to catchment
areas.Protect and restore the natural ecosystems of Southwest Florida in the face of rapid population growth and urban and agricultural expansion.

Improve or maintain water quality. Eliminate or minimize habitat loss and degradation and restore degraded habitats. Maintain or restore more natural hydrology, including freshwater inflow to estuaries.

Assess water quality and pollutant loading status and trends. Determine effects

of pollutants on biological
resources. Develop and

evaluate water quality BMPs. Assess habitat,

biological resources, and land-use status and trends. Evaluate influence

of natural disturbance relative to human disturbance effects. Assess and

minimize impacts of habitat loss due to land conversion. Assess and

minimize impacts of invasive exotics. Assess

ecosystem hydrology and hydrodynamic status and trends. Restore more

natural freshwater flow into estuaries. Minimize

hydrologic alterations and ecosystem impacts. 

# CALOOSAHATCHEE RIVER BASIN AND SOUTHWEST FLORIDA

Nutrient and contaminant loading assessments.
Water quality monitoring and trend analyses. For seagrass

community: nutrient threshold experiments, light limitation and sedimentation experiments, and predictive model of response to water quality changes.

Effects of mosquito control pesticides.

Effects of agriculture pollutants. BMPs to reduce

agricultural pollutants.

BMPs to reduce urban pollutants.

Pollutant reduction goals.

Non-pesticide mosquito control methods. GIS-based habitat

and land-use trend analyses, recognizing hydric pine flatwoods as distinct habitat type.

Floral and faunal inventory and trend analyses.

Ecosystem function assessment and trend analyses. Role of fire,

storms, and biological disturbance on restoration actions.

Ecosystem function assessment and trend analyses. Ecological effects

of habitat conversion to agriculture, especially citrus.
Ecological effects of urban/suburban development.
Studies supporting development of more ecologically compatible land
use.
Better mitigation techniques and
success assessment methodology.

Habitat restoration techniques. Ecological and

hydrological effects on hydric pinelands, CREW, and other wetlands.

Exotic eradication and control methods. Hydrodynamic and

circulation models for estuaries.

Surface and groundwater hydrologic assessment, modeling, and monitoring in wetlands and hydric pine flatwoods. Ecological impacts

of altered freshwater inflow.

Hydrodynamic and hydrologic models.
Methodology (bioindicators) to assess success of restoration actions.

Effectiveness of and design options for spreader waterways. Impacts of

agriculture, urban development, and wellfields.
Agricultural BMPs (e.g., to improve irrigation efficiency and water conservation).
Urban hydrologic BMPs. RESTORATION GOAL

RESTORATION OBJECTIVES

SCIENCE OBJECTIVES

INFORMATION NEEDS



## Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion

# ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many scientists and resource managers throughout South Florida provided information for this report and participated in workshops leading to its publication. These included numerous representatives of State, county, and municipal agencies, as well as universities and research institutions, who contributed substantially to development of many sections of the report. Many of these persons also reviewed and commented on drafts of various chapters. We thank all who contributed information and helpful suggestions.

We also wish to thank those outside the Science Subgroup who graciously provided assistance in generating graphics files for this report: Jennifer Bexley of the FDEP Florida Marine Research Institute, Larry Massey and Anthony Martinez of the NOAA/NMFS Southeast Fisheries Science Center, Leonard Pearlstine of the University of Florida, and Barbara Welch of the South Florida Water Management District.



# xx

# CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .............................................................................................................iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

............................................................................................................... xx

LIST OF FIGURES

................................................................................................................... xxii

LIST OF TABLES .....................................................................................................................xxiii

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

..................................................................... xxiv

PREFACE

................................................................................................................................. xxviii

THE REGIONAL ECOSYSTEM

................................................................................................... 1

SCIENTIFIC APPROACH

............................................................................................................. 6

REGION-WIDE TOPICS

THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES....................................................................... 25

HARMFUL NONINDIGENOUS SPECIES

............................................................................... 38

MERCURY IN THE ECOSYSTEM......................................................................................... 49

PESTICIDES AND URBAN CONTAMINANTS

....................................................................... 72

MODELS

........................................................................................................................... 79

SUBREGION CHAPTERS

SUBREGION 1: Kissimmee River Basin...................................................................................112

SUBREGION 2: Lake Okeechobee...........................................................................................146

SUBREGION 3: Upper East Coast-St. Lucie River Area .............................................................158

SUBREGION 4: Everglades Agricultural Area ...........................................................................194

SUBREGION 5: Everglades Water Conservation Areas.................................................................247

SUBREGIONS 6 and 7: Big Cypress Basin and Everglades National Park (Mainland Portion)...........................................271

SUBREGION 8: Southern Coastal Areas...................................................................................307

SUBREGION 9: Lower East Coast Urban Area...........................................................................365

SUBREGION 10: Caloosahatchee River Basin and Southwest Florida .............................................470



# xxi

# LIST OF FIGURES

(List does not include figures that are part of attached appendices.)

Figure 1. South Florida subregions............................................................................................... 4

Figure 2. South Florida region-wide goal, objectives, and information needs......................................... 9

Figure 3. Goal, objectives, and information needs for efforts on

threatened and endangered species................................................................................... 27

Figure 4. Goal, objectives, and information needs for efforts on nonindigenous species......................... 44

Figure 5. Goal, objectives, and information needs for efforts on mercury

........................................... 51

Figure 6. Goal, objectives, and information needs for efforts on pesticides

and urban contaminants............................................................................................... 74

Figure 7. Pathways of model interdependencies

............................................................................. 80

Figure 8. Goal, objectives, and information needs for modeling efforts............................................... 81

Figure 9. Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 1 ...................................................113

Figure 10. Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 2...................................................150

Figure 11. Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 3 ...................................................162

Figure 12. Theoretical subsidence scenarios in the EAA using the equation

of Stephens et al. (1984)

...........................................................................................205

Figure 13. Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 4...................................................219

Figure 14. Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 5 ...................................................250

Figure 15. Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregions 6 and 7...........................................273

Figure 16. Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 8 ...................................................308

Figure 17. Areas included under science and management plans for Subregion 8 ...................................311

Figure 18. Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 9 ...................................................388

Figure 19. Goal, objectives, and information needs for Subregion 10 .................................................481



# xxii

# LIST OF TABLES

(List does not include tables that are part of attached appendices.)

Table 1.Proposed special studies........................................................................................................... 15

Table 2.Proposed studies on protected species and species of special concern................................................. 16

Table 3.Studies that will help develop an information base for

assessment indicators and models................................................................................... 17

Table 4.Fallow and successive sugarcane planting systems .......................................................................203

Table 5.Phosphorus fertilizer recommendations for crops grown on Histosols

in the EAA across a wide range of soil-test-P index levels .................................................206

Table 6.Science projects funded by the NPS Hurricane Andrew Program (1993-96) .......................................281

Table 7.Status of endangered and threatened species in Subregion 8.............................................................310



# xxiii

# LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ADID Advance Identification (EPA) AIW Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway AOML Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (NOAA) APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA) AREAL Atmospheric Research and Exposure Assessment Laboratory (EPA) ARPS Advanced Regional Prediction System ARS Agricultural Research Service (USDA) ASAE American Society of Agricultural Engineers ATLSS Across-Trophic-Level System Simulation AWRA American Water Resources Association

BAF bioaccumulation factor BBSWQMP Biscayne Bay Routine Surface Water Quality Monitoring Program (Dade County) BC Big Cypress BCF bioconcentration factor BCNP Big Cypress National Preserve BCPC Broward County Planning Council BIA Bureau of Indian Affairs (DOI) BMPs best management practices BNP Biscayne National Park BRD Biological Resources Division (USGS)

CARL Conservation and Recreation Lands C-CAP Coastal Change Analysis Program (NOAA) CCMP Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan CDM Camp, Dresser, and McKee CMEA Center for Marine and Environmental Analyses (UM) COE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers COVER Colloqui of Vegetation Everglades Research CREW Corkscrew Regional Ecosystem Watershed CSA Continental Shelf Associates C&SF FCD Central and Southern Florida Flood Control District C&SF Project Central and Southern Florida Project for Flood Control and Other Purposes (COE) CWA Clean Water Act

DERM Department of Environmental Resources Management (Dade County or Palm Beach County) DIMS Data and Information Management Strategy DNRP Department of Natural Resource Protection (Broward County) DO dissolved oxygen DOC dissolved organic carbon DOI U.S. Department of the Interior DOT U.S. Department of Transportation DSDL Distributed Spatial Data Library (USGS)

EAA Everglades Agricultural Area ECFRPC East Central Florida Regional Planning Council EELAP Environmentally Endangered Lands Acquisition Program (Dade County) EFA Everglades Forever Act ELM Everglades Landscape Model EMAP Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (EPA)



# xxivACRONYMS



# ENP Everglades National Park ENR Everglades Nutrient Removal Project EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency EPD Environmental Protection District EPD Everglades Protection District ERD Ecosystems Research Division (EPA) EREC Everglades Research and Education Center (IFAS) ERP Everglades Research Plan ESA Endangered Species Act ESL Environmentally Sensitive Land (Broward County and Palm Beach County) ET evapotranspiration

FAA Federal Aviation Administration (DOT) FASS Florida Agricultural Statistics Service (FDACS) FAU Florida Atlantic University FCD Flood Control District FCMP Florida Coastal Management Program (FDCA) FCREPA Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals FDACS Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services FDCA Florida Department of Community Affairs FDEP Florida Department of Environmental Protection FDER Florida Department of Environmental Regulation FDHRS Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services FDM Feature Design Memorandum FDNR Florida Department of Natural Resources FDOF Florida Division of Forestry (FDACS) FDOT Florida Department of Transportation FECR Florida East Coast Railway FGDC Federal Geographic Data Committee FGETS Food and Gill Exchange of Toxic Substances model FGFWFC Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission FHWA Federal Highway Administration (DOT) FIO Florida Institute of Oceanography FIU Florida International University FKNMS Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary FLEPPC Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council FMRI Florida Marine Research Institute (FDEP) FNAI Florida Natural Areas Inventory FOF 1000 Friends of Florida FPL Florida Power & Light Company FPOM fine particulate organic matter FSCL Florida Sugar Cane League, Inc. FSU Florida State University FWQA Federal Water Quality Administration FWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (DOI)

GAP Gap Analysis Program GIS Geographic Information System GPO U.S. Government Printing Office (Superintendent of Documents) GPS Global Positioning System

Hg mercury HMG Hydrologic Modeling Group (COE)



# xxvACRONYMS



# ICSB International Consortium of Sugarcane Biotechnologists IFAS Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (University of Florida) IPM integrated pest management IRL Indian River Lagoon IRLNEP Indian River Lagoon National Estuary Program

KRRP Kissimmee River Research Plan

LEC Lower East Coast LORP Lake Okeechobee Research Plan LOTAC-I Lake Okeechobee Technical Advisory Committee LOTAC-II Lake Okeechobee Technical Advisory Council LSU Louisiana State University

MCL maximum contaminant level MCM Mercury Cycling Model MeHg methyl mercury MTF Melaleuca Task Force

N nitrogen NAS National Audubon Society NAWQA National Water-Quality Assessment Program (USGS) NBS National Biological Service (DOI) (NBS is now the Biological Resources Division of USGS) NEP National Estuary Program NERR National Estuarine Research Reserve NESDIS National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NOAA) NEXRAD Next Generation Radar NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service (NOAA) NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NOS National Ocean Service (NOAA) NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System NPS National Park Service (DOI) NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA) NSM Natural System Model NWI National Wetlands Inventory NWR National Wildlife Refuge NWS National Weather Service (NOAA)

OAR Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (NOAA) ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory OTA Office of Technology Assessment (U.S. Congress)

P phosphorus PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon PAR photosynthetically active radiation PCB polychlorinated biphenyl PRD Parks and Recreation Division (Broward County) PRD Park and Recreation Department (Dade County) PVA Population Viability Analysis

RADM Regional Atmospheric Deposition Model RAF Regional Attenuation Facility RELMAP REgional Lagrangian Model of Air Pollution R-EMAP Regional Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (EPA)



# xxviACRONYMS



# RFLP restriction fragment length polymorphism RSMAS Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science (UM) SAF Small Attenuation Facility SAV submerged aquatic vegetation SCS Soil Conservation Service (USDA) SEFCAR Southeast Florida and Caribbean Recruitment Program SFARPS South Florida Advanced Regional Prediction System SFERTF South Florida Ecosystem Restoration Task Force SFRC South Florida Research Center (NPS) SFRPC South Florida Regional Planning Council SFRRM South Florida Regional Routing Model SFRSM South Florida Regional Simulation Model SFWMD South Florida Water Management District SFWMM South Florida Water Management Model SJRWMD St. Johns River Water Management District SOR Save Our Rivers SRA State Recreation Area SSC Species of Special Concern SSG Science Subgroup SRF Systematic Reconnaissance Flight STA Stormwater Treatment Area SWFWMD Southwest Florida Water Management District SWIM Surface Water Improvement and Management

TAS Tropical Audubon Society TLCM Toxics Linear Chemistry Model THM trihalomethane

UF University of Florida UM University of Miami USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture USGS U.S. Geological Survey (DOI) UT University of Tennessee

WASAD Water and Sewer Authority Department (Miami-Dade) WCA Water Conservation Area WFS West Florida Shelf WWIPA West Wellfield Interim Protection Area (Dade County)



# xxvii

# PREFACE

The Interagency Task Force, in its Agreement on South Florida Ecosystem Restoration (September 23, 1993), observed that the restoration effort needs to be founded on scientific information and mandated that the effort take an ecosystem approach. This document is structured to provide information in support of the ecosystem approach. It is the first step in development of an ecosystem-based South Florida Integrated Science Plan that includes monitoring, modeling, and empirical studies.

Anecosystemis the entire dynamic complex of interrelating plants, animals, and microorganisms at a location and their abiotic environment. The ecosystem includes humans and their influences, when present. Ecosystem managementrecognizes and attempts to conserve the structure of natural ecosystems as embodied in species composition, food webs, and major functions of ecosystems, such as primary productivity and mineral cycling. It addresses the need to sustain viable populations of multiple species over the long term. Ecosystem management extends beyond management of natural communities to address the balancing of human needs with resource protection. Grumbine (1994) lists the following mandates of ecosystem management: 1) maintain viable populations of all native speciesin situ; 2) represent within protected areas all native ecosystem types across their natural range of variation; 3) maintain evolutionary and ecological processes (e.g., disturbance regimes, hydrologic processes, nutrient cycles); 4) manage over long enough periods of time to maintain the evolutionary potential of species and ecosystems; and 5) accommodate human use and occupancy within these constraints. He refers to several dominant themes of ecosystem management, paraphrased as follows:



# > Ecosystem management mandates examining a problem at more than one hierarchial scale (genes, species, populations, ecosystems, landscapes) and seeking connections between all levels. A major tenet of ecosystem management is conservation of ecological integrity. Ecological integrity is conserved by protecting native diversity and the ecological patterns and processes that maintain diversity. This is done by maintaining viable populations of native species, allowing natural disturbance regimes, reintroducing native extirpated species, and preserving ecosystems across natural ranges of variation.



# > Ecosystem management requires new research and data collection (i.e., habitat inventory classification, disturbance regime dynamics, baseline species and population assessment, as well as better management and use of existing information). Managers must track the results of their actions so success or failure can be evaluated quantitatively. Monitoring creates an ongoing feedback loop of useful information.



# > Adaptive managementis part of the ecosystem approach. It assumes scientific knowledge is provisional and focuses on management as a learning process for continuous experiment in which incorporating results of previous actions allows managers to remain flexible and adapt to uncertainty.



# > Humans are part of the ecosystem and cannot be separated from it in ecosystem management. Humans exert fundamental influences on ecological patterns and processes and are in turn affected by them. Human values play a dominant role in ecosystem management goals.



# > Management requires working across administrative political boundaries to address issues within ecological boundaries. Using ecological boundaries requires cooperation between federal, state, and local management agencies, as well as private parties. Managers must learn to work together and integrate conflicting legal mandates and management goals. Implementing ecosystem management requires changes in the structure of land management agencies and the way they operate. These may range from the simple (forming an interagency committee) to the complex (changing professional norms, alternating power relationships).

The Science Subgroup was formed as a science advisory group to provide scientific information to the South Florida Interagency Management and Coordination Working Group. The following responsibilities, not listed



# xxviiiPREFACE



# in priority order, were identified in the Science Subgroup Charter (September 21, 1993) under the Interagency Agreement on South Florida Ecosystem Restoration:



# > Recommend South Florida Ecosystem boundaries. 

# > Identify key information gaps and plan an integrated science program, revising the plan periodically. 

# > Develop a process to coordinate science efforts. 

# > Evaluate models. 

# > Develop a monitoring plan. 

# > Develop a computerized guide to all relevant data sets.

The Science Subgroup will not accomplish these alone or in isolation. In fact, the Science Subgroup may act mainly in an oversight capacity in accomplishing some of the above tasks. Special committees made up of scientists appointed by various agencies and governments will do various aspects of the work.

This Scientific Information Needs report is the first step in development of the Integrated Science Plan to support region-wide South Florida Ecosystem Restoration. The Science Subgroup decided that organizing the information needs into a document that could be critically reviewed was a necessary preamble to development of a coordinated science plan. The draft report was circulated for comment by science peers, managers, and the public, and we have attempted to incorporate all relevant input. This revised document identifies gaps and sets priorities in planning an integrated interagency and intergovernmental science program. The framework of the Science Plan will be strategic questions that relate to restoration objectives and an assessment protocol that integrates modeling, monitoring, and special restoration support studies.

The first two sections of this document are: 1) a brief description of the South Florida Ecosystem that addresses issues of sustainability and 2) a description of the approach needed to obtain the scientific basis for restoration, as well as the issues involved in applying this approach. Next are individual chapters on nonindigenous species, endangered species, mercury, pesticides and other contaminants, and modeling (hydrologic, hydrodynamic, meteorologic, and ecologic). These special topics are discussed here from a region-wide, holistic perspective; they are not summaries of information from the subsequent subregion chapters. The major portion of the report is divided into chapters that detail the science needs of each of the subregions identified in the 1993 Science Subgroup report, modified to include a Subregion 10. Subregions 6 and 7 are combined into a single chapter because of similar science needs and restoration goals. Discussion of Indian lands (Seminole and Miccosukee Tribes) is included in the chapter on Subregions 6 and 7 since all of the Seminole Big Cypress Reservation and one-third of the Miccosukee Reservation are contained in the Big Cypress Basin. The subregion chapters were developed by convening workshops of experts and gaining consensus regarding information needs or by obtaining information from knowledgeable experts on an individual basis. The information in each subregion chapter is generally organized into sections on introduction, background, major issues, objectives, information needs, and bibliography (which may include many references in addition to those cited in the text). For some subregions, this format was modified to accommodate special information. For example, science plans are already in place for Subregion 1 (Kissimmee River), Subregion 2 (Lake Okeechobee), and some areas of Subregion 8 (e.g., Florida Bay), and these chapters integrate the existing plans into the region-wide restoration initiative.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Grumbine, R.E. 1994. What is ecosystem management? Conservation Biology 8:27-38.

Interagency Task Force. 1993. Interagency agreement on South Florida Ecosystem Restoration. September 23, 1993.

Science Sub-Group. 1993. Federal objectives for the South Florida Restoration. Report by the Science Sub-Group of the South Florida Management and Coordination Working Group.



# xxixREGIONAL ECOSYSTEM


# THE REGIONAL ECOSYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

The South Florida Ecosystem, as defined by the Science Subgroup (SSG 1993), covers the area within the jurisdiction of the South Florida Water Management District. It includes coastal waters and islands, including Florida Bay, Biscayne Bay, and other estuaries and the Florida Keys and reef tract to the Dry Tortugas. The South Florida Ecosystem encompasses an area of approximately 28,000 km2

# (10,800 mi2

# ) comprising at least 11 major physiographic provinces. These include the Kissimmee River Valley, Lake Okeechobee, the Immokalee Rise, the Big Cypress, the Everglades, Florida Bay, the Atlantic Coastal Ridge, Biscayne Bay, the Florida Keys, the Florida reef tract, and nearshore coastal waters.

BACKGROUND

South Florida is a heterogeneous system of wetlands, uplands, and coastal and marine areas, dominated by the watersheds of the Kissimmee River, Lake Okeechobee, and the Everglades. Prior to drainage, wetlands covered most of central and southern Florida. Wetland landscapes included swamp forests; sawgrass plains; mosaics of sawgrass, tree islands, and ponds; marl-forming prairies dominated by periphyton; wet prairies dominated by Eleocharis

andNymphaea; freshwater marshes; saltwater marshes; cypress strands; and a vast lake-river system draining into Lake Okeechobee. Elevated areas that seldom were inundated supported pine flatwoods, pine rocklands, scrub, tropical hardwood hammocks, and xeric hammocks dominated by oaks. The natural seascapes of South Florida consisted of riverine and fringe mangrove forests, beaches and dunes, seagrass beds, intertidal flats, mud banks, hardbottom communities, coral reefs, and open, inshore shallows. These habitats were interconnected on an extremely low topographic gradient of 2.8 cm/km (1.8 in/mi) in which elevations ranged from about 6 m (20 ft) at Lake Okeechobee to below sea level at Florida Bay.

The biological abundance and diversity these habitats once supported were maintained by the complex annual and long-term hydrologic patterns of the natural system, as expressed in wet-dry cycles, rates of expansion and contraction of water area, surface water and water depth patterns, annual hydroperiods, flow volumes, and, at the coast, salinity and mixing patterns. Superimposed over the periodic changes were sporadic events such as storms, fires, and freezes, which helped to establish and maintain habitat heterogeneity. Productivity of the predrainage wetlands of South Florida was dependent on:



# > Dynamic hydrologic storage and sheetflow.Contributing to dynamic storage were the very shallow elevation gradient, vast expanses of emergent vegetation, thick peat substrates, sand hills, and highly permeable limestones. Water masses were constantly progressing downslope but so slowly that, in effect, water was banked during one season to use in another. Transport varied between structural elements from on the order of months to years. Throughout the system, groundwater seepage driven by hydraulic gradients provided the base flow of creeks, rivers, and possibly even surface runoff across the mangrove zone. The extended hydroperiods of the natural system depended more on the large dynamic storage capacity and delayed flow-through than on the immediate effects of rainfall. Because of the dynamic storage and slow rate of water flow throughout the natural system, wet seasonrainfall kept the wetlands flooded and maintained freshwater flow to the estuaries well into the dry season. This carryover effect was so great that a year of high rainfall maintained surface water in wetlands and freshwater flow to estuaries even into one (Walters et al. 1992; Fennema et al. 1994) or more (Browder 1976) subsequent drought years. The dynamic storage made wetlands and estuaries less vulnerable to South Florida's spatially and temporally variable rainfall.



# > Large spatial scale.The vastness of the predrainage wetland made it possible for the natural ecosystem to support genetically viable numbers and subpopulations of species with large feeding ranges or narrow habitat requirements, provide the aquatic production to support large numbers of higher vertebrate animals in a naturally nutrient-poor environment, and sustain habitat diversity through natural disturbance (DeAngelis 1994; DeAngelis and White 1994). Population resiliency was undoubtedly proportional to the extent of these wetlands because habitat



# 1REGIONAL ECOSYSTEM



# diversity, number of seasonal refugia, and number of dispersal options are proportional to wetland area. The same is true of other habitat types, such as the pinelands, which extended for vast distances.



# > Heterogeneity in habitat.Habitat heterogeneity was a major contributor to biotic diversity and the persistence of populations (DeAngelis 1994; DeAngelis and White 1994). The vegetative landscape resulting from the vast, low-relief, low-gradient landform was a diverse mosaic of plant communities that varied in extent from patches on the order of tens of meters to areas approaching physiographic provinces. Heterogeneity was maintained by micro-topographic features, small-scale climatic variation, and natural disturbances such as freezes, fire, and storms, acting on the large spatial scale (DeAngelis 1994). The mosaic of habitat types and water depths provided the spatial framework for production and survival of animals under a wide seasonal and annual range of hydrologic conditions.

South Florida is home to two federally recognized Indian tribes, the Seminoles and the Miccosukees, whose reservations are an integral part of the ecosystem. Native Americans have inhabited southern Florida for at least 10,000 years, predating formation of the "Everglades" by about 5000 years (Carr and Beriault 1984). The modern Seminoles and Miccosukees in the Everglades began establishing their populations (collectively as Seminoles) circa 1720 (Paige and Vanhorn 1982). The historical presence of Native Americans can be regarded as part of the natural ecosystem (Lodge 1994). The Miccosukee and Seminole Tribes of Florida became Federally recognized in 1962 and 1957, respectively, and their reservations became Federal trust lands to be held in trust for the tribes, their resources protected by the Federal Government. Today, approximately 462,000 acres of land in South Florida are considered Indian lands. This includes much of WCA 3A, which is perpetually leased by the State of Florida to the Miccosukee Tribe. The traditional and modern lifestyles of approximately 2500 tribal members are dependent on fulfillment of the Federal Government's trust responsibility to protect their lands, resources, and use rights.

MAJOR ISSUES

Water quality and water quantity problems for South Florida's natural systems, including the Everglades and estuaries, have resulted from man-made changes in the hydrologic system. These changes began before the turn of the century with dredging that channelized the Caloosahatchee River and connected it to Lake Okeechobee. With increasing population growth after 1900 came massive modification of the natural system. Changes in the hydrologic structure of South Florida culminated in creation and implementation of the C&SF Project in 1948. The enabling legislation gave the COE responsibility for construction and oversight of water management structures throughout the Kissimmee-Okeechobee-Everglades basin. In 1949, the State created the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control District, which has since become the SFWMD. Project purposes were: 1) flood control; 2) drainage; 3) water supply (municipal, industrial, and agricultural); 4) protection against salt water intrusion; 5) preservation of fish and wildlife resources in the Everglades; 6) water supply to ENP; and 7) recreation and navigation. Initial focus was on flood control, drainage, and water supply.

Flood control made possible massive land-use changes that decreased the land available for water storage and recharge. These land-use changes and associated population growth resulted in a three-part ecosystem consisting of an urban component, an agricultural component, and part of the original natural system that is largely undeveloped but still impacted by man. These three components are interconnected by the flow of energy and resources (Browder et al. undated; McPherson et al. 1976; Odum et al. 1993). A comprehensive discussion of the natural and altered systems of South Florida was presented by McPherson et al. (1976).

A rapidly expanding human population approaching 6 million has developed in South Florida, mainly in upland areas such as the Atlantic Coastal Ridge but also in wetlands. The South Florida Ecosystem (i.e., the SFWMD area) encompasses all or portions of 16 counties. The combined population of the counties included in entirety (Broward, Collier, Dade, Glades, Hendry, Lee, Martin, Monroe, Palm Beach, and St. Lucie) was 4.9 million in 1990 and estimated at 5.1 million in 1993. The population of counties partially included (Charlotte, Highlands, Okeechobee, Orange, Osceola, and Polk) was 1.4 million in 1990 and estimated at 1.5 million in 1993 (Bur. Econ. Bus. Res. 1994). Although much of the population of some of these boundary counties resides outside the defined area, it still impacts South Florida. For instance, the city of Orlando is outside the boundary, but it lies just



# 2REGIONAL ECOSYSTEM



# upstream of the head of the Kissimmee-Okeechobee-Everglades drainage. The large tourist area of Kissimmee-Walt Disney World is actually within the SFWMD boundary.

Most of the population of South Florida is concentrated along the Lower East Coast in Palm Beach, Broward, and Dade counties, the most heavily urbanized area in the state. With a combined population of 4.1 million people in 1990, these three counties are home to more than 30% of Florida residents. Dade County alone comprises almost 15% of the state's population. Dade, Broward, and Palm Beach counties are first, second, and third, respectively, in the state's population rankings. Collier County on the West Coast has been the fastest growing county in South Florida. Between 1970 and 1990, its population quadrupled from 38,000 to 152,000 (Bur. Econ. Bus. Res. 1994).

This expanding human presence, with all its needs and demands, has dramatically changed the South Florida Ecosystem. In addition to hydrologic alterations that have decreased the natural ability of the system to store water in wetlands, soils, and the aquifer, the expanding population has created an increased demand for water for both urban and agricultural uses. When wetlands are developed, demand for water is increased by new users while, at the same time, the supply of consistently available water is decreased by loss of places to temporarily store water. Other changes that have accompanied population growth and economic expansion are water quality and treatment problems, soil subsidence in the Everglades Agricultural Area, nutrient enrichment, pollution by contaminants, fragmentation of habitats and landscapes by urban development, loss of wetland areas and functions to development, altered fire regimes, declines in reef and estuarine resources, and invasion of parks and natural areas by many non-native plants and animals introduced into South Florida. By addressing these problems, restoration of the South Florida Ecosystem will support more sustainable economic opportunities while at the same time improve the sustainability of the natural ecosystem.

Quality of life in South Florida is strongly affected by the condition of its natural systems, which provide many benefits to agriculture and urban communities. These benefits include adequate supplies of clean water, clean air, aesthetically pleasing natural landscapes, natural controls on agricultural pests, and an interesting diversity of wildlife and fishery resources. If the natural systems are destroyed or reduced, their free services are diminished or lost (Browder et al. undated; McPherson et al. 1976).

Agriculture is a significant land use in South Florida. Major products include cattle, sugarcane, vegetables, citrus, tropical fruits, rice, sod, and ornamental plants. Much of the U.S. winter supply of vegetables such as tomatoes, green beans, peppers, and yellow squash is provided by South Florida agriculture. Some South Florida crops are not grown commercially anywhere else in the U.S. Recently, land conversion to citrus has increased substantially as a result of interregional movement of citrus farming from Central to Southwest Florida following several severe freezes in the mid-1980s.

The South Florida Ecosystem is nationally and internationally significant for its wildlife and fish. Tourism is a major industry in the Region, and much of the attraction is due to the remaining natural areas and their resources. Recreational fishing and diving are significant to the overall economy of South Florida, both directly and through their stimulation of tourism. For example, recreational activities and tourism account for 50% of the total employment in Monroe County, which consists of the Florida Keys and much of ENP. Recreational fishing contributes about $77 million to the economy per year, while diving contributes about $354 million to the Florida Keys alone. ENP (a designated World Heritage Site and Biosphere Reserve), BNP, and other scenic wetland areas are large tourist magnets, as are many State, county, and municipal lands maintained as parks and natural areas. The future of this segment of the tourism industry is directly tied to the condition of the South Florida Ecosystem. Clearly, ecosystem restoration means improvement in local quality of life and the regional economy.

A comprehensive discussion of the natural and altered systems of South Florida was presented by McPherson et al. (1976). The SSG (1993) described the defining characteristics of the South Florida Ecosystem and the problems that have resulted from hydrologic alterations and other anthropogenic changes. Nine geographic subregions were delineated, and restoration objectives were proposed for the Region as a whole and each of the subregions. For the present report, boundaries of the subregions were slightly modified and scientific information needs are presented for 10 subregions (Figure 1).



# 3REGIONAL ECOSYSTEM



# Figure 1. South Florida subregions

4REGIONAL ECOSYSTEM



# GOAL

The overall goal of the restoration effort is to restore a sustainable South Florida Ecosystem that preservesthe valued properties of South Florida's natural systems and supports productive agriculture-, fishery-, and touristbased economies and a high quality of urban life. Sustainability means high natural productivity, human and ecosystem health, and resiliency to climatic extremes and catastrophic events. It also means long-term accommodation of needs of human systems, such as flood control, irrigation, and drinking water supply.

The scientific approach to accomplish this goal is presented in the following chapter.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Browder, J.A. 1976. Water, wetlands, and wood storks. Ph.D. dissertation. UF, Gainesville, Florida.

Browder, J.A., C. Littlejohn, and D. Young. Undated. The South Florida study, South Florida: Seeking a Balance of Man and Nature. UF Center for Wetlands and Florida Bureau of Comprehensive Planning.

Bureau of Economic and Business Research, College of Business Administration, University of Florida. 1994. 1994 Florida Statistical Abstract. University Press of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.

Carr, R.S., and J.C. Beriault. 1984. Prehistoric man in southern Florida. Pages 1-9 inP.J. Gleason, editor. Environments of South Florida, Present and Past II. Memoir II, Miami Geological Society, Miami, Florida.

DeAngelis, D.L. 1994. Synthesis: spatial and temporal characteristics of the environment. Pages 307-322inS.M. Davis and J.C. Ogden, editors. Everglades: The Ecosystem and Its Restoration. St. Lucie Press, Delray Beach, Florida.

DeAngelis, D.L., and P.S. White. 1994. Ecosystems as products of spatially and temporally varying driving forces, ecological processes, and landscapes: a theoretical perspective. Pages 9-28inS.M. Davis and J.C. Ogden, editors. Everglades: The Ecosystem and Its Restoration. St. Lucie Press, Delray Beach, Florida.

Fennema, R.J., C.J. Neidrauer, R.A. Johnson, W.A. Perkins, and T.K. MacVicar. 1994. A computer model to simulate natural South Florida hydrology. Pages 249-290 inS. M. Davis and J. C. Ogden, editors. Everglades: The Ecosystem and Its Restoration. St. Lucie Press, Delray Beach, Florida.

Lodge, T.E. 1994. The Everglades Handbook. St. Lucie Press, Delray Beach, Florida.

McPherson, B.F., G.Y. Hendrix, H. Klein, and H.M. Tyus. 1976. The environment of South Florida, a summary report. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1011. GPO, Washington, D.C.

Odum, H.T., E.C. Odum, and M.T. Brown. 1993. Environment and Society in Florida. Draft, August 1993. Center for Environmental Policy, UF, Gainesville, Florida.

Paige, J.C., and L.F. Vanhorn. 1982. An ethnohistory of Big Cypress National Preserve, Florida. DOI, NPS.

Science Sub-Group. 1993. Federal objectives for the South Florida Restoration. Report by the Science Sub-Group of the South Florida Management and Coordination Working Group.

Walters, C., L. Gunderson, and C.S. Holling. 1992. Experimental policies for water management in the Everglades. Ecological Applications 2:189-202.

Science Subgroup. 1996. South Florida Ecosystem Restoration: Scientific Information Needs. Report to the Working Group of the South Florida Ecosystem Restoration Task Force.



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