4-Methyl-N-ethylcathinone (4-MEC), 4-Methyl-alpha-pyrrolidinopropiophenone (4-MePPP), 

Alpha-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (α-PVP), 1-(1,3-Benzodioxol-5-yl)-2-(methylamino)butan-1-

one (Butylone), 2-(Methylamino)-1-phenylpentan-1-one (Pentedrone), 1-(1,3-Benzodioxol-5-

yl)-2-(methylamino)pentan-1-one (Pentylone), 4-Fluoro-N-methylcathinone (4-FMC), 3-

Fluoro-N-methylcathinone (3-FMC), 1-(Naphthalen-2-yl)-2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)pentan-1-one

(Naphyrone), and Alpha-pyrrolidinobutiophenone (α-PBP)

Background Information and Evaluation of ‘Three Factor Analysis’ (Factors 4, 5, and 6) for 

Temporary Scheduling

Drug and Chemical Evaluation Section, Office of Diversion Control, Drug Enforcement 

Administration, Washington, DC 20537

February 2014

I. Introduction

Synthetic cathinones (also commonly referred to as substituted cathinones or cathinone 

derivatives) are β-keto-phenethylamine derivatives. A number of synthetic cathinones produce 

pharmacological effects that are substantially similar to those of the schedule I controlled 

substances cathinone, methcathinone, and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) 

and schedule II stimulants amphetamine, methamphetamine, and cocaine. Products that 

contain synthetic cathinones have been falsely marketed as “research chemicals,” “jewelry 

cleaner,” “stain remover,” “plant food or fertilizer,” “insect repellants,” or “bath salts.” These 

products are sold at smoke shops, head shops, convenience stores, adult book stores, gas 

stations, and can also be purchased on the Internet. The packages of these commercial 

products usually contain the warning “not for human consumption,” most likely in an effort to 

circumvent statutory restrictions for these substances. 

The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) temporarily placed three synthetic cathinones, 

namely, 4-methyl-N-methylcathinone (mephedrone), 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylcathinone 

(methylone), and 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), into schedule I of the Controlled 

DEA/OD/ODE February 11, 2014
Substances Act (CSA) on October 21, 2011. 76 FR 65371. On July 9, 2012, President Obama 

signed the Food and Drug Administration Safety and Innovation Act (FDASIA), which made the 

manufacturing, distribution, dispensing, and possession of mephedrone and MDPV illegal.

1

 On 

April 12, 2013, a final order was issued by the DEA placing methylone into schedule I of the CSA. 

78 FR 21818.

Around the time that these three synthetic cathinones were scheduled, other synthetic 

cathinone substances, as evidenced by law enforcement encounters, emerged in the 

United States illicit drug market. These synthetic cathinone substances contain slight 

alterations of the chemical structure of known schedule I or II psychoactive controlled 

substances (phenethylamines and β-keto-phenethylamines). The other synthetic cathinone

substances are (1) 4-methyl-N-ethylcathinone (“4-MEC”); (2) 4-methyl-alphapyrrolidinopropiophenone (“4-MePPP”); (3) alpha-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (“α-PVP”); (4) 1-

(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-2-(methylamino)butan-1-one (“butylone”); (5) 2-(methylamino)-1-

phenylpentan-1-one (“pentedrone”); (6) 1-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-2-(methylamino)pentan-1-

one (“pentylone”); (7) 4-fluoro-N-methylcathinone (“4-FMC”); (8) 3-fluoro-N-methylcathinone 

(“3-FMC”); (9) 1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-2-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)pentan-1-one (“naphyrone”); and (10) 

alpha-pyrrolidinobutiophenone (“α-PBP”).

Evidence indicates that 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 

3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP, like the schedule I cathinones mephedrone, methylone, and 

MDPV, are being abused for their psychoactive properties. Many of these synthetic cathinone 

substances share substantial similarities with schedule I and schedule II controlled substances

including reported desired and adverse effects. In general, desired effects reported by abusers

of synthetic cathinone substances include euphoria, sense of well-being, increased sociability, 

energy, empathy, increased alertness, and improved concentration and focus. Abusers also 

report experiencing unwanted effects such as tremor, vomiting, agitation, sweating, fever, and

chest pain. Other adverse or toxic effects that have been reported with the abuse of synthetic 

cathinones include tachycardia, hypertension, hyperthermia, mydriasis, rhabdomyolysis, 

1 Subtitle D of Title XI of FDASIA, titled the “Synthetic Drug Abuse Prevention Act of 2012” (SDAPA), amended 

schedule I of section 202 of the CSA.

DEA/OD/ODE Page 2 of 35 February 11, 2014

 
hyponatremia, seizures, altered mental status (paranoia, hallucinations, and delusions), and 

even death. These 10 synthetic cathinone substances have no known medical use in the United 

States, but evidence demonstrates that these substances are being used by individuals. There 

have been documented reports of emergency room admissions and deaths associated with the 

abuse of synthetic cathinone substances. Thus, the abuse of synthetic cathinone substances 

including these 10 synthetic cathinone substances continues to be a serious public health 

threat. 

Evidence from poison centers, emergency departments (EDs), and law enforcement 

indicates that synthetic cathinone substances continue to be abused in the United States. 

According to a press release from the American Association of Poison Control Centers (AAPCC),

2

there were 306 exposure calls related to synthetic cathinones in 2010, 6,137 calls in 2011, and 

2,691 calls in 2012 (AAPCC, 2013). As of December 31, 2013, poison centers received 994 calls 

relating to human exposures to bath salts. In addition, according to the Drug Abuse Warning 

Network (DAWN) report released by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services 

Administration (SAMHSA),

3 in 2011, “bath salts” were involved in 22,904 ED visits.

Both the National Forensic Laboratory Information System (NFLIS), a DEA sponsored 

program that systematically collects drug identification results and associated information from 

drug cases analyzed by Federal, State, and local forensic laboratories, and the System To 

Retrieve Information from Drug Evidence (STRIDE), a Federal database for the drug samples 

analyzed by DEA forensic laboratories, registered encounters of 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, 

butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP (Table 1, Factor 5, and

the Appendix). In 2009, NFLIS registered no reports in State and local law enforcement 

laboratories regarding these synthetic cathinone substances. However, in 2010, there were 13

reports from 5 States related to these substances registered in NFLIS; in 2011 there were 800

reports from 32 States; in 2012 there were 5,519 reports from 41 States; and in 2013 there 

were 2,781 reports from 42 States.

4 From January 2010 to December 2013, 1,789 drug exhibits 

pertaining to the trafficking, distribution, and abuse of 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, 

2 AAPCC is a non-profit, national organization that represents the poison control centers of the United States. 3 DAWN is a public health surveillance system that monitors drug-related ED visits in the United States. 4 NFLIS analyzed on 2/6/ 2014 for State and local forensic drug reports. 

DEA/OD/ODE Page 3 of 35 February 11, 2014

 
pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP were recorded in the STRIDE 

database (which reports data from DEA laboratories).5 Law enforcement has encountered 

these synthetic cathinones substances mainly in powder, crystal, resin, tablet, and capsule 

forms. 

With no legitimate medical use and limited pharmacological information, these substances 

(4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and αPBP) have emerged on the designer drug market and are being abused for their psychoactive 

properties. To protect the public health and safety, the DEA intends to temporarily place 4-

MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP 

into schedule I of the CSA. With respect to finding an imminent hazard to the public safety, the 

DEA has considered the factors required under the CSA for the temporary scheduling of 4-MEC, 

4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP. 21 

U.S.C. 811(h)(3) and 811(c)(4)-(6).

Synthetic Cathinones

4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and 

α-PBP are synthetic cathinones (β-keto-phenethylamines) of the larger phenethylamine 

structural class (amphetamines, cathinones, 2C compounds, aminoindanes, etc.). They are 

designer drugs of the phenethylamine class that are structurally and pharmacologically similar

to amphetamine, MDMA, cathinone, and other related substances. Synthetic cathinones share 

a core phenethylamine structure with substitutions at the β-position, α-position, phenyl ring, or

nitrogen atom (Figure 1). The addition of a beta-keto (β-keto) substituent (i.e., carbonyl (C=O))

to the phenethylamine core structure along with substitutions on the alpha (α) carbon (C) atom 

or the nitrogen (N) atom produce a variety of substances called cathinones or synthetic 

cathinones. 

5 STRIDE data was queried on 2/5/2014 by date submitted to Federal forensic laboratories.

DEA/OD/ODE Page 4 of 35 February 11, 2014

 
1

2

3

4

5

NH2

6

α

β

general phenethylamine structure

with positional designations

O

NH2

β-keto phenethylamine

O H

N

O

N

O

N

O H

O N

O

4-MEC 4-MePPP α-PVP Butylone

O H

N

O H

O N

O

F

O H

N

O

N

Pentedrone Pentylone 4-FMC Naphyrone

O H

F N

O

N

3-FMC α-PBP

Figure 1: Chemical Structures

Although the abuse potential of 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 

4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP has not been systematically studied in humans, the 

available data indicate that the pharmacological actions of these substances are substantially 

similar to those of stimulants and hallucinogens such as mephedrone, MDPV, cathinone,

methcathinone, and MDMA which are schedule I controlled substances with high potential for 

abuse. Scientific studies, which include those done by contract researchers for the National 

Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), evaluating the pharmacological activity of these synthetic

cathinone substances demonstrate that these substances have pharmacological effects on the 

central nervous system that are substantially similar to those of the schedule I and II controlled 

substances, MDPV, methylone, mephedrone, methamphetamine, MDMA, methcathinone, and 

cocaine. Like these schedule I and II controlled substances, 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, 

DEA/OD/ODE Page 5 of 35 February 11, 2014
pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP bind to monoamine transporters 

for dopamine, serotonin, or norepinephrine and promote the release of these monoamines or 

block their uptake (Han and Gu, 2006; Howell and Kimmel, 2008). Actions at these 

transporters, especially actions that alter dopaminergic neurotransmission, are believed to be 

involved in the production of the stimulant effects of the phenethylamine class of drugs

(Rothman et al., 2001; Mori et al., 2012). Data also demonstrate that these synthetic cathinone 

substances are locomotor stimulants and produce discriminative stimulus effects (as 

determined in drug discrimination studies) that are substantially similar to those of the 

schedule I and II controlled substances, methamphetamine and cocaine. In the drug 

discrimination paradigm, if a new drug or substance has discriminative stimulus effects in 

animals similar to a known drug of abuse, it is highly likely that this new drug will produce 

pharmacological effects (including subjective effects) in humans similar to the known drug of 

abuse and would be similarly abused by humans (Balster and Bigelow, 2003).

4-Methyl-N-ethylcathinone (4-MEC)

4-MEC, in addition to the β-keto substituent (a carbonyl (C=O) group which is common 

amongst synthetic cathinones), has a ring substitution of a methyl (-CH3) group on the 

phenethylamine core structure and the nitrogen atom is substituted with an ethyl group (-

CH2CH3) (Figure 1). Scientific studies evaluating the pharmacological activity of 4-MEC 

demonstrate that 4-MEC has pharmacological effects that are substantially similar to those of 

mephedrone, MDPV, cathinone, methcathinone, and other related substances, which are 

schedule I controlled substances with high potential for abuse. In laboratory studies 

investigating the effects of drugs on monoaminergic systems, 4-MEC, like several other 

synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and 

methamphetamine, inhibits the uptake of the monoamine neurotransmitter dopamine in 

transfected cells (Cozzi et al., 1999; Eshleman et al., 2013; NIDA, 2013; Simmler et al., 2013). In 

locomotor activity assays, 4-MEC, like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, 

methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and methamphetamine, is a locomotor stimulant in 

rodents (Glennon et al., 1995; Baumann et al., 2012; NIDA, 2012; Gatch et al., 2013). In drug 

DEA/OD/ODE Page 6 of 35 February 11, 2014
discrimination studies, 4-MEC (ED50

6 = 18.6 and 11.4 mg/kg), like several other synthetic 

cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone), fully substitutes for the 

discriminative stimulus effects produced by 1 mg/kg methamphetamine and 10 mg/kg cocaine, 

respectively, indicating that it is highly likely that this new drug will produce pharmacological 

effects (including subjective effects) in humans similar to the known drugs of abuse (i.e. 

methamphetamine or cocaine) and, thus, would be similarly abused by humans (Balster and 

Bigelow, 2003; NIDA, 2012, 2013; Gatch et al., 2013). 

4-Methyl-α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone (4-MePPP)

4-MePPP, in addition to the β-keto substituent, has a ring substitution of a methyl (-CH3) 

group on the phenethylamine core structure and is substituted on the nitrogen atom to form a 

pyrrolidine ring (Figure 1). Scientific studies evaluating the pharmacological activity of 4-MePPP 

demonstrate that 4-MePPP has pharmacological effects that are substantially similar to those 

of mephedrone, MDPV, cathinone and methcathinone, which are schedule I controlled 

substances with high potential for abuse. In laboratory studies investigating the effects of 

drugs on monoaminergic systems 4-MePPP, like several other synthetic cathinones 

(methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and methamphetamine, inhibits the

uptake of the monoamine neurotransmitter dopamine in transfected cells (Eshleman et al., 

2013; NIDA, 2013; Simmler et al., 2013). In locomotor activity assays, 4-MePPP, like several 

other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and 

methamphetamine, increases locomotor activity in rodents (Glennon et al., 1995; NIDA, 2012; 

Baumann et al., 2013; Gatch et al., 2013). In drug discrimination studies, 4-MePPP (ED50 = 

13.35 and 8.91 mg/kg), like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, 

MDPV, and mephedrone), fully substitutes for the discriminative stimulus effects produced by 1 

mg/kg methamphetamine and 10 mg/kg cocaine, respectively (NIDA, 2012; Gatch et al., 2013).

6 ED50 for drug discrimination studies is the dose at which the subjects would be expected to make 50% of their 

responses on the drug-appropriate lever.

DEA/OD/ODE Page 7 of 35 February 11, 2014

 
Alpha-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (α-PVP)

In addition to the β-keto substituent, α-PVP has a substitution on the nitrogen atom of the 

phenethylamine core structure to form a pyrrolidine ring and a chain of three carbon atoms 

attached to the α-carbon position (Figure 1). α-PVP has pharmacological effects on the central 

nervous system that are substantially similar to those of mephedrone, MDPV, cathinone and 

methcathinone, which are schedule I controlled substances with high potential for abuse. In 

laboratory studies investigating the effects of drugs on monoaminergic systems, α-PVP, like 

several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and 

methamphetamine, inhibits the uptake of the monoamine neurotransmitter dopamine in rat 

brain synaptosomes or in cells that have been transfected with the corresponding transporter 

(Cozzi et al., 1999; Meltzer, 2006; Baumann et al., 2013; Eshleman et al, 2013; NIDA, 2013; 

Simmler et al., 2013). In locomotor activity assays, α-PVP, like several other synthetic 

cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and methamphetamine, 

increases locomotor activity in rodents (Glennon et al., 1995; Baumann et al., 2013; Gatch et 

al., 2013; NIDA, 2013). In drug discrimination studies, α-PVP (ED50 = 0.46 and 2.77 mg/kg), like 

several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone), fully 

substitutes for the discriminative stimulus effects produced by 1 mg/kg methamphetamine and 

10 mg/kg cocaine, respectively (NIDA, 2012, 2013; Gatch et al., 2013).

1-(1,3-Benzodioxol-5-yl)-2-(methylamino)butan-1-one (butylone)

Butylone, in addition to the β-keto substituent, has an ethyl group (-CH2CH3) at the αposition, a methylenedioxy ring attached to the phenyl ring, and a methyl group (-CH3) attached 

to the nitrogen atom (Figure 1). The pharmacological effects of butylone on the central 

nervous system are substantially similar to those of mephedrone, MDPV, cathinone and 

methcathinone, which are schedule I controlled substances with high potential for abuse. In 

laboratory studies investigating the effects of drugs on monoaminergic systems, butylone, like 

several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and 

methamphetamine, inhibits the uptake of the monoamine neurotransmitter dopamine in 

transfected cells (Cozzi et al., 1999; Eshleman et al., 2013; Simmler et al., 2013). In locomotor 

activity assays, butylone, like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, 

DEA/OD/ODE Page 8 of 35 February 11, 2014
MDPV, and mephedrone) and methamphetamine, has been shown to stimulate locomotor 

activity in mice (Glennon et al., 1995; NIDA, 2012; Gatch et al., 2013). In drug discrimination 

studies, butylone (ED50 = 2.52 and 4.78 mg/kg), like several other synthetic cathinones 

(methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone), fully substitutes for the discriminative 

stimulus effects produced by 1 mg/kg methamphetamine and 10 mg/kg cocaine, respectively

(NIDA, 2012; Gatch et al., 2013). 

2-(Methylamino)-1-phenylpentan-1-one (pentedrone)

Pentedrone, in addition to the β-keto substituent, has a chain of three carbon atoms, a

propyl group (-CH2CH2CH3) attached to the α-carbon position, and a methyl group (-CH3)

attached to the nitrogen atom (Figure 1). Pentedrone has pharmacological effects that are 

substantially similar to those of mephedrone, MDPV, cathinone and methcathinone, which are 

schedule I controlled substances with high potential for abuse. In laboratory studies 

investigating the effects of drugs on monoaminergic systems, pentedrone, like several other 

synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and 

methamphetamine, inhibits the uptake of the monoamine neurotransmitter dopamine in 

transfected cells (Cozzi et al., 1999; Eshlemen et al., 2013; NIDA, 2013; Simmler et al., 2013). In 

locomotor activity assays, pentedrone, like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, 

methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and methamphetamine, increases locomotor activity in 

rodents (Glennon et al., 1995; Baumann et al., 2012; NIDA, 2012). In drug discrimination 

studies, pentedrone (ED50= 2.67 and 2.58 mg/kg) like several other synthetic cathinones 

(methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone), fully substitutes for the discriminative 

stimulus effects produced by 1 mg/kg methamphetamine and 10 mg/kg cocaine, respectively

(NIDA, 2012, 2013; Gatch et al., 2013).

1-(1,3-Benzodioxol-5-yl)-2-(methylamino)pentan-1-one (pentylone)

In addition to the β-keto substituent, the α-position alkyl group for pentylone is a propyl (-

CH2CH2CH3) group, the nitrogen atom substitution is a methyl (-CH3) group, and the phenyl ring

substitution is a methylenedioxy group (Figure 1). Pentylone as pharmacological effects that 

are substantially similar to those of mephedrone, MDPV, cathinone and methcathinone, which 

DEA/OD/ODE Page 9 of 35 February 11, 2014
are schedule I controlled substances with high potential for abuse. In laboratory studies 

investigating the effects of drugs on monoaminergic systems, pentylone, like several other 

synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and 

methamphetamine, inhibits the uptake of the monoamine neurotransmitter dopamine in 

transfected cells (Cozzi et al., 1999; Eshlemen et al., 2013; NIDA, 2013). In locomotor activity 

assays, pentylone, like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, 

and mephedrone) and methamphetamine, is a locomotor stimulant (Glennon et al., 1995; 

Baumann et al., 2012; Gatch et al., 2013; NIDA, 2012). In drug discrimination studies, pentylone 

(ED50 = 3.86 and 2.33 mg/kg), like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, 

methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone), fully substitutes for the discriminative stimulus effects 

produced by 1 mg/kg methamphetamine and 10 mg/kg cocaine, respectively (NIDA, 2012; 

Gatch et al., 2013). 

4-Fluoro-N-methylcathinone (4-FMC)

4-FMC (also known as flephedrone), in addition to the β-keto substituent, incorporates a 

methyl (-CH3) group at the α-carbon and a phenyl ring substitution of a fluorine (F) atom (Figure 

1). Additionally, the nitrogen atom is substituted with a methyl group. 4-FMC has 

pharmacological effects that are substantially similar to those of mephedrone, MDPV, 

cathinone and methcathinone, which are schedule I controlled substances with high potential 

for abuse. In laboratory studies investigating the effects of drugs on monoaminergic systems, 

4-FMC, like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and 

mephedrone) and methamphetamine, inhibits the uptake of the monoamine neurotransmitter

dopamine in transfected cells (Cozzi et al., 1999; Eshleman et al., 2013; Simmler et al., 2013). In 

locomotor activity assays, 4-FMC, like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, 

methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and methamphetamine, increases locomotor activity in 

rodents (Glennon et al., 1995; Baumann et al., 2012; Marusich et al., 2012; Gatch et al., 2013). 

In drug discrimination studies, 4-FMC (ED50 = 2.69 and 3.24 mg/kg), like several other synthetic 

cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone), fully substitutes for the 

discriminative stimulus effects produced by 1 mg/kg methamphetamine and 10 mg/kg cocaine, 

respectively (NIDA, 2012; Gatch et al., 2013).

DEA/OD/ODE Page 10 of 35 February 11, 2014
3-Fluoro-N-methylcathinone (3-FMC)

3-FMC, in addition to the β-keto substituent, incorporates a methyl (-CH3) group at the αcarbon and a phenyl ring substitution of a fluorine (F) atom (Figure 1). Additionally, the 

nitrogen atom is substituted with a methyl group. 3-FMC has pharmacological effects that are 

substantially similar to those of mephedrone, MDPV, cathinone and methcathinone, which are 

schedule I controlled substances with high potential for abuse. In laboratory studies 

investigating the effects of drugs on monoaminergic systems, 3-FMC, like several other 

synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and 

methamphetamine, inhibits the uptake of the monoamine neurotransmitter dopamine in 

transfected cells (Cozzi et al., 1999; Eshlemen et al., 2013; NIDA, 2013). In locomotor activity 

assays, 3-FMC, like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and 

mephedrone) and methamphetamine, increases locomotor activity in rodents (Glennon et al., 

1995; NIDA, 2012; Baumann et al., 2012; Marusich et al., 2012; Gatch et al., 2013). In drug 

discrimination studies, 3-FMC (ED50=0.84 and 0.82 mg/kg), like several other synthetic 

cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone), fully substitutes for the 

discriminative stimulus effects produced by 1 mg/kg methamphetamine and 10 mg/kg cocaine, 

respectively (Gatch et al., 2013; NIDA, 2013).

Napthylpyrovalerone (naphyrone) 

Naphyrone, in addition to the β-keto substituent, has a propyl group (-CH2CH2CH3) at the αposition and the nitrogen atom is incorporated into a five membered ring known as a 

pyrrolidine ring (Figure 1). The phenyl ring of naphyrone is in the formation of bicyclic ring 

systems. Naphyrone has pharmacological effects that are substantially similar to those of 

mephedrone, MDPV, cathinone and methcathinone, which are schedule I controlled substances 

with high potential for abuse. In laboratory studies investigating the effects of drugs on 

monoaminergic systems, naphyrone, like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, 

methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and methamphetamine, inhibits the uptake of the 

monoamine neurotransmitter dopamine in rat brain synaptosomes or cells that have been 

transfected with the corresponding transporter (Gygi et al., 1997; Meltzer et al., 2006; Kehr et 

al., 2011; Hadlock et al., 2011; Martinez-Clemente et al., 2011; Bauman et al., 2012; NIDA, 

DEA/OD/ODE Page 11 of 35 February 11, 2014
2012; Simmler et al., 2013; Eshleman et al., 2013; Iversen et al., 2013). In locomotor activity 

assays, naphyrone, like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, 

and mephedrone) and methamphetamine, increases locomotor activity in mice. In drug 

discrimination studies, naphyrone (ED50 = 2.96 and 3.20 mg/kg), like several other synthetic 

cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone), fully substitutes for the 

discriminative stimulus effects produced by 1 mg/kg methamphetamine and 10 mg/kg cocaine, 

respectively (NIDA, 2011; NIDA, 2012).

Alpha-pyrrolidinobutiophenone (α-PBP)

α-PBP, in addition to the β-keto substituent, has a chain of two carbon atoms attached to 

the α-carbon position and the nitrogen atom is incorporated into a pyrrolidine ring (Figure 1). 

α-PBP has pharmacological effects that are substantially similar to those of mephedrone, 

MDPV, cathinone and methcathinone, which are schedule I controlled substances with high 

potential for abuse. In laboratory studies investigating the effects of drugs on monoaminergic 

systems, α-PBP, like several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and 

mephedrone) and methamphetamine, inhibits the uptake of the monoamine neurotransmitter

dopamine in cells that have been transfected with the corresponding transporter (Cozzi et al., 

1999; Eshleman et al., 2013; NIDA, 2013). In locomotor activity assays, α-PBP, like several other 

synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone) and 

methamphetamine, increases locomotor activity in rodents (Baumann et al., 2013; Gatch et al., 

2013; NIDA, 2013). In drug discrimination studies, α-PBP (ED50 = 2.68 and 3.70 mg/kg), like 

several other synthetic cathinones (methcathinone, methylone, MDPV, and mephedrone), fully 

substitutes for the discriminative stimulus effects produced by 1 mg/kg methamphetamine and 

10 mg/kg cocaine, respectively (Gatch et al., 2013; NIDA, 2013).

DEA/OD/ODE Page 12 of 35 February 11, 2014
Factor 4: Its History and Current Pattern of Abuse

The synthetic cathinones 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-

FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP have emerged on the U.S.’ illicit drug market and are being 

perceived as being ‘legal’ alternatives to mephedrone, methylone, MDPV, cocaine, 

methamphetamine, and MDMA. Products containing these substances are falsely marketed as 

“research chemicals,” “jewelry cleaner,” “stain remover,” “plant food or fertilizer,” “insect 

repellants,” or “bath salts.” They are sold at smoke shops, head shops, convenience stores, 

adult book stores, gas stations, and can also be purchased on the Internet. These substances 

are commonly encountered in the form of powders, crystals, resins, tablets, and capsules. The 

packages of these commercial products usually contain the warning “not for human 

consumption,” most likely in an effort to circumvent statutory restrictions for these substances. 

Some products found to contain 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-

FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP include, but are not limited to: “Doves,” “White Ice,”

“Oceanic Deeper,” “Enchanted,” “Platinum,” and others.

4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and 

α-PBP are likely to be abused in the same manner as other synthetic cathinones such as 

mephedrone, methylone, and MDPV. Information from published scientific studies indicate 

that the most common routes of administration for synthetic cathinones like mephedrone, 

methylone, and MDPV are nasal insufflation by snorting the powder and ingestion by 

swallowing capsules or tablets (Psychonaut, 2010a; EMCDDA, 2011; Kelly, 2011; Prosser and 

Nelson, 2012; Vardakou et al., 2011; Forrester, 2012, 2013; Warrick et al., 2013; Zawilska and 

Wojcieszak, 2013). The powder can also be injected or swallowed (EMCDDA et al., 2011; 

Zawilska and Wojcieszak, 2013). Other methods of intake include rectal administration,

ingestion by “bombing” (wrapping a dose of powder in a paper wrap and swallowing), and 

intramuscular injection (ACMD, 2010; Psychonaut, 2010a, c; Miotto et al., 2013; Zawilska and 

Wojcieszak, 2013). 

As demonstrated with the schedule I synthetic cathinones (i.e., MDPV, mephedrone, and 

methylone), the main users of 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-

FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP are likely to be youths and young adults (EMCDDA, 2011; 

DEA/OD/ODE Page 13 of 35 February 11, 2014
Coppola and Mondola, 2012; Forrester, 2012, 2013; Warrick et al., 2013; Stogner and Miller, 

2013; Zawilska and Wojcieszak, 2013). Synthetic cathinone exposures reported to the Texas 

Poison Center Network during 2010 and 2011 involved mostly adolescents (12 to 19-years-old)

and young adults (mean age was 30-years-old) with the majority of patients being males 

(Forrester, 2012, 2013). Stogner and Miller (2013) reported that the lifetime use (used at least 

once) of synthetic cathinones among college students (at a large Southeastern United States

university) in the United States is 25 out of 2,349 students surveyed. A survey of college 

students in 2012 by the Monitoring the Future (MTF)7 showed that 0.2% of full-time college 

students used synthetic cathinone substances (Johnston et al., 2013). The use of synthetic 

cathinone substances among 8th, 10th, and 12th grade students, and young adults (non-college 

peers aged 19 to 28-years-old) was 0.8%, 0.6%, 1.3%, and 0.8%, respectively. 

4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and 

α-PBP are likely to have duration of effects like those of schedule I synthetic cathinones

because of their structural and pharmacological similarities. Users report (AAPCC, drug surveys,

and medical literature) that the effects of synthetic cathinones occur a few minutes to 15 

minutes after administration, depending on the synthetic cathinone and the route of 

administration (oral, insufflation, intravenous, etc.), and the effects can last up to three hours

(Karila et al., 2010; Psychonaut, 2010b; EMCDDA, 2011; German et al., 2013). 

As found with the schedule I synthetic cathinones (mephedrone, methylone, and MDPV)

and sympathomimetic agents (e.g., cocaine, methamphetamine, amphetamine), 4-MEC, 4-

MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP are 

likely to cause stimulant related psychological and somatic effects. Desired effects reported by 

abusers of synthetic cathinone substances include euphoria, sense of well-being, increased 

sociability, energy, empathy, increased alertness, and improved concentration and focus. 

schedule I synthetic cathinones have also been reported to cause stimulant related 

psychological and somatic adverse effects such as headache, nausea, palpitations, seizures,

increased sex drive, paranoia, agitation, tachycardia, hypertension, hyperthermia, mydriasis, 

7 MTF is a research program conducted at the University of Michigan’s Institute for Social Research under grants 

from NIDA. MTF tracks drug use trends among American adolescents in the 8th, 10th, and 12th grades and high 

school graduates into adulthood by conducting national surveys.

DEA/OD/ODE Page 14 of 35 February 11, 2014

 
rhabdomyolysis, hyponatremia, and excessive sweating (ACMD, 2010; Frohlich et al., 2011; 

Karila et al., 2011; Kelly, 2011; Jerry et al., 2012; Prosser and Nelson, 2012; Rojek et al., 2012; 

German et al., 2013; Zawilska and Wojcieszak, 2013). Other adverse effects reported by 

synthetic cathinone users include bruxism (teeth grinding), tremor, chest pain, sore nasal 

passages, hot flashes, fever, sore mouth/throat, nose bleed, suppressed appetite, blurred 

vision, insomnia, hallucinations, addiction/dependence, nausea/vomiting, and nasal burns 

(EMCDDA, 2011; Prosser and Nelson, 2012; Derung et al., 2011).

There is evidence that 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-

FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP are ingested with other substances. This is likely to either heighten 

the effects or ameliorate the come-down effects of the synthetic cathinones (EMCDDA, 2011; 

Vardakou et al., 2011; Zawilska and Wojcieszak, 2013). Co-ingestions can be from the ingestion 

of multiple products separately or a single product that is composed of multiple substances 

(e.g., one tablet containing both 4-MEC and MDPV). Substances that have been found in 

combination with 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, or

naphyrone are: other synthetic cathinones (e.g., methylone and MDPV), common cutting

agents (e.g., lidocaine, caffeine, lignocaine, ephedrine, etc.), or other recreational substances 

(e.g., 4-fluoroamphetamine, cocaine, methamphetamine, amphetamine) (EMCDDA, 2011; 

Vardakou et al., 2011; Coppola and Mondola, 2012; Zuba and Byrska, 2013; Caudevilla-Gálligo 

et al., 2013). Multiple drug use and co-ingestions are confirmed by forensic analysis of seized 

and purchased synthetic cathinone products. Forensic analysis data also showed that some 

products contained multiple substances. 

Summary

4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and 

α-PBP are synthetic cathinones that emerged on the U.S.’ illicit drug market around the time of

the scheduling of mephedrone, methylone, and MDPV. These synthetic cathinones substances, 

like the schedule I synthetic cathinones (mephedrone, methylone, and MDPV), are promoted as 

being a ‘legal’ alternative to cocaine, methamphetamine, and MDMA. Products that contain 4-

MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP 

are falsely marketed as “research chemicals,” “jewelry cleaner,” “stain remover,” “plant food or 

DEA/OD/ODE Page 15 of 35 February 11, 2014
fertilizer,” “insect repellants,” or “bath salts” and are sold at smoke shops, head shops, 

convenience stores, adult book stores, gas stations, and can also be purchased on the Internet 

under a variety of product names (e.g., “White Dove,” “Explosion,” “Tranquility”). They are 

commonly encountered in the form of powders, crystals, resins, tablets, and capsules. The 

packages of these commercial products usually contain the warning “not for human 

consumption.” Information from published scientific studies indicate that the most common 

routes of administration for synthetic cathinone substances is ingestion by swallowing capsules 

or tablets or nasal insufflation by snorting the powder tablets (Psychonaut, 2010a; EMCDDA, 

2011; Kelly, 2011; Prosser and Nelson, 2012; Vardakou et al., 2011; Forrester, 2012, 2013; 

Warrick et al., 2013; Zawilska and Wojcieszak, 2013). Evidence from poison centers and

published reports suggest that the main users of methylone are young adults (EMCDDA, 2011; 

Coppola and Mondola, 2012; Forrester, 2012, 2013; Warrick et al., 2013; Stogner and Miller, 

2013; Zawilska and Wojcieszak, 2013). There is evidence that these synthetic cathinone 

substances are ingested with other substances including other synthetic cathinones, common 

cutting agents, or other recreational substances.

Factor 5: The Scope, Duration, and Significance of Abuse

Around the time that the legislation made the manufacturing, distribution, dispensing, and 

possession of mephedrone, MDPV, and methylone illegal,

8 other synthetic cathinone 

substances, as evidenced by law enforcement encounters, emerged in the United States illicit 

drug market. These substances include, but are not limited to, 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, 

butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP.

The popularity of synthetic cathinones, including these 10 synthetic cathinone substances,

as recreational drugs increased since they first appeared on the United States illicit drug market

in 2009. 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, 

and α-PBP are prevalent and they are abused throughout the United States as evidenced by law 

enforcement seizures. These substances are readily available from the Internet, retail suppliers

8 Subtitle D of Title XI of FDASIA, titled the “Synthetic Drug Abuse Prevention Act of 2012” (SDAPA), amended 

schedule I of section 202 of the CSA to include MDPV and mephedrone. Methylone was permanently controlled 

via the administrative scheduling process. 78 FR 21818. 

DEA/OD/ODE Page 16 of 35 February 11, 2014

 
(e.g., head shops, tobacco shops, convenience stores, adult book stores, and gas stations) or 

street dealers. Data, including law enforcement data, indicate that products that contain 

synthetic cathinone substances are generally sold in 50 to 500 mg packets with prices ranging 

from $25-$70 per 50 mg packet and $60-$70 per gram (Fass et al., 2012; Miotto et al., 2013). 

These substances can also be bought in bulk quantities (e.g., 100 g to over 5 kg). Companies 

located overseas are primarily responsible for the trafficking of these substances. 

Studies suggest that synthetic cathinones may be used as an alternative to illicit substances 

like MDMA and cocaine (ACMD, 2010; EMCDDA, 2011; Ojanperä et al., 2011; Coppola and 

Mondola, 2012). ACMD reported that “Toot” (most commonly identified as a mixture of 

butylone and methylone) and mephedrone were popular among users of heroin (ACMD, 2010). 

Information from poison centers and EDs indicates that synthetic cathinones continue to be 

abused by individuals (see Factor 5). AAPCC reported in a press release that there were 306

exposure calls related to synthetic cathinones in 2010, 6,137 calls in 2011, and 2,691 calls in 

2012 (AAPCC, 2013). As of December 31, 2013, poison centers received 994 calls relating to 

human exposures to bath salts. According to the Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) report 

released by SAMHSA, 22,904 ED visits involved “bath salts” in 2011. 

There are convictions of drug traffickers and indictments against alleged drug traffickers in 

the United States involving most of these substances indicating that these substances are being 

distributed throughout the United States (see Appendix for a list of some of these cases). For 

example, two individuals were convicted of conspiracy to distribute, or to possess with intent to 

distribute, a controlled substance analogue (one of the substances was 4-MEC) in violation of 

21 U.S.C. 846 and conspiracy to import a controlled substance analogue in violation of 21 U.S.C.

963 and other violations after a jury trial in the United States District Court for the Northern 

District of New York. In another case, the jury returned a guilty verdict in the United States

District Court for the Western District of Virginia against an individual for the conspiracy to 

distribute, or to possess with intent to distribute a controlled substance analogue (one of the 

substances was 4-MEC) in violation of 21 U.S.C. 846. Several individuals were indicted and 

subsequently convicted in the United States District Court for the District of Arizona for 

DEA/OD/ODE Page 17 of 35 February 11, 2014
violations of the analogue drug provision (substances included α-PVP, α-PBP, 4-MePPP, 

pentedrone, pentylone, butylone, and MDPV). 

Table 1: Synthetic Cathinones - Number of Reports (State and Local)

Synthetic 

Cathinone

NFLIS

(2010)

NFLIS

(2011)

NFLIS

(2012)

NFLIS

(2013*)

4-MEC 5 175 1,068 704

4-MePPP 0 91 181 17

α-PVP 0 17 2,740 1,779

Butylone 3 173 263 56

Pentedrone 0 122 913 132

Pentylone 0 34 171 33

FMC** 4 168 106 14

Naphyrone 1 20 20 3

α-PBP 0 0 57 43

NFLIS database was queried for drug reports on 2/6/2014 by date submitted to State and local forensic 

laboratories.

*2013 December data are still being reported.

**FMC consists of isomers of FMC including 3-FMC and 4-FMC.

Evidence from law enforcement indicates that 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, 

pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP are being abused in the United 

States (see Table 1 and Appendix). In 2010, NFLIS, a DEA sponsored forensic database,

registered 13 reports from 5 States regarding many of these synthetic cathinone substances

that were analyzed by State and local forensic laboratories.

9

 In 2011, there were 800 reports 

from 33 States related to these substances registered in NFLIS, in 2012 there were 5,519

reports from 41 States, and in 2013 there were 2,781 reports from 42 States. In 2013, 1,789

drug exhibits pertaining to the trafficking, distribution and abuse of 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, 

butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP were recorded in the 

STRIDE database, a Federal database for drug items analyzed by DEA forensic laboratories.10

Among the synthetic cathinone substances, 4-MEC, butylone, FMC and pentedrone were the 

most prevalent substances encountered by law enforcement as reported in NFLIS in 2011. 

However, in 2012 and 2013, α-PVP is the most prevalent substances encountered.

9 NFLIS State and local forensic drug reports queried on February 6, 2014. 10 STRIDE data was queried on 2/5/2014 by date submitted to Federal forensic laboratories.

DEA/OD/ODE Page 18 of 35 February 11, 2014

 
Table 2: Select Encounters of Synthetic Cathinone Substances by the United States Customs and Boarder 

Protection (CBP) (518 Total Shipments)

Synthetic 

Cathinone 2010 2011 2012 2013 2010 - 2013

1 4-MEC 2 29 28 19 78 42 kg, 4000 packets

2 4-MePPP 3 4 1 8 3.6 kg

3 α-PVP 1 18 21 40 70 kg

4 Butylone 2 12 5 2 21 8.4 kg

5 Pentedrone 8 9 1 18 43 kg

6 Pentylone 6 4 10 21.7 kg, 2000 packets

7, 8 FMC* 3 7 3 13 5.4 kg

9 Naphyrone 3 3 4 kg

10 α-PBP 2 8 1 11 7 kg

Data analyzed on December 18, 2013.

*FMC consists of isomers of FMC including 3-FMC and 4-FMC.

At selected United States ports of entry, the United States Customs and Border Protection 

(CBP) has encountered several shipments of products from April 2010 to November 2013

containing these 10 synthetic cathinone substances (see Table 2). These encounters of 4-MEC, 

4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP 

indicate that these substances are popular drugs of abuse. Most of the shipments of these 

synthetic cathinones originated overseas and were destined for delivery throughout the United 

States to States including Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, 

Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Oregon, Texas, 

Virginia, Washington, and Wyoming. 

Concerns over the abuse of synthetic cathinones have prompted many States to control

these substances. Some States have enacted legislation to capture a broad range of synthetic 

cathinones by utilizing a broad definition to define synthetic cathinones. For example, some 

States like Arkansas, Idaho, Mississippi, and North Carolina define controlled synthetic 

cathinones as substances that have certain substitutions (e.g., by substitution in the ring system 

to any extent with alkyl, alkylenedioxy, etc; by substitution at the 2-amino nitrogen atom with 

alkyl, dialkyl, benzyl, etc.) on a defined structure (i.e., 2-aminopropan-1-one, 2-amino-1-phenyl1-propanone). In contrast, other States, like Arizona, Delaware, Massachusetts, Tennessee, and 

Washington specifically control one or more of the synthetic cathinones by name. As of 

June 24, 2013, more than half of the States in the United States have emergency scheduled or 

enacted legislation placing regulatory controls on some or many of the synthetic cathinones

DEA/OD/ODE Page 19 of 35 February 11, 2014
that are listed in this document. In addition, the United States Armed Forces prohibited the use 

of synthetic cathinones for intoxication purposes due to its use by service members of the 

United States Armed Forces (Berry-Caban et al., 2012; Loeffler et al., 2012). Internationally, 

several member countries of the European Union have enacted laws placing controls on the 

possession and/or sale of one or more of these substances (Winstock et al., 2010; EMCDDA, 

2011; Morris, 2010).

Summary

4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and 

α-PBP, like mephedrone, methylone, and MDPV, are popular recreational drugs. Evidence that 

these synthetic cathinone substances are being abused is confirmed by law enforcement 

encounters of these substances. Forensic laboratories have analyzed drug exhibits received 

from state, local, or Federal law enforcement agencies that were found to contain 4-MEC, 4-

MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, or α-PBP. NFLIS 

registered over 9,000 reports from State and local forensic laboratories identifying these 

substances in drug-related exhibits for the period from January 2010 to December 2013 from 

42 states. STRIDE registered over 1,700 reports from DEA forensic laboratories from January 

2010 to December 2013. Additionally, large seizures of these substances have occurred by the 

CBP. Concerns over the abuse of these synthetic cathinone substances have prompted many

States to regulate them.

Factor 6: What, If Any, Risk There is to the Public Health

Synthetic cathinones, in general, have been reported to cause a number of stimulant-like 

adverse effects (ACMD, 2010; Karila et al., 2010; Psychonaut, 2010a, c; EMCDDA, 2011; Prosser 

and Nelson, 2012; Capriola, 2013). Stimulant-like adverse effects include tachycardia,

hypertension, hyperthermia, palpitations, hyponatremia, tremor, seizures, vomiting, sweating, 

headache, rhabdomyolysis, etc. (Frohlich et al., 2011; Spiller et al., 2011; Vardakou et al., 2011; 

Derung et al., 2012; Rojek et al., 2012; Warrick et al., 2012; Zawilska and Wojcieszak, 2013). 

Hyperthermia can be a serious adverse effect and can lead to metabolic acidosis, 

rhabdomyolysis, renal failure, disseminated intravascular coagulation, coma, and death. The 

DEA/OD/ODE Page 20 of 35 February 11, 2014
clinical presentation of intoxication from synthetic cathinones shares some features seen with 

MDMA and stimulants like cocaine. Clinical case reports indicate that synthetic cathinones also 

produce other adverse effects such as hallucinations, psychosis, paranoia, delusions, etc. 

(Frohlich et al., 2011; Spiller et al., 2011; Vardakou et al., 2011; Derung et al., 2011; Thorton et 

al., 2012). 

Law enforcement, forensic laboratories, case reports, and public health officials have 

reported toxic exposure to some of the synthetic cathinone substances that demonstrate the 

public health risks associated with these substances. Substances that have been specifically 

identified include 4-MEC, butylone, 4-FMC, α-PVP, pentylone and naphyrone. According to the 

DAWN report that was released by SAMHSA, 22,904 visits to the ED in 2011 involved “bath 

salts.” As described below, many individuals have presented at EDs following exposure to these 

synthetic cathinone substances or products containing these substances. 

Serious adverse effects including hyperthermia have resulted in documented hospital ED 

admissions from the ingestion of butylone, 4-FMC, or naphyrone. 

Frohlich et al. (2011) described a case of acute liver failure after the ingestion of synthetic 

cathinones which included butylone. A 28-year-old male suffering from bipolar affective 

disorder (but otherwise healthy) ingested 12 stimulant tablets. Following ingestion he suffered 

a seizure. He was transported to the ED. He also had tachycardia, hypertension, hyperpyrexia, 

and profuse sweating. Rhabdomyolysis, a syndrome caused by injury to skeletal muscle, 

developed two days after ingestion and likely caused renal failure. The liver failure eventually 

resolved following treatment and the patient was discharged into psychiatric care. The pills 

that the patient had ingested were analyzed and found to contain MDPV and butylone. 

Derungs et al. (2012) described the case of a 31-year-old male who suffered 

sympathomimetic toxicity after ingesting naphyrone. The patient purchased the powder over 

the Internet. He believed that he was purchasing MDMA, but instead received naphyrone. The 

patient had no knowledge about naphyrone, but chose to ingest the amount that he would 

have ingested if the substance had been MDMA. He ingested 100 mg of the powder with fruit 

juice. After administration, he developed blurred visions, increasing restlessness, and could not 

concentrate. He also experienced insomnia for two nights, hallucinations, paranoia, and felt 

nervous. The patient had a history of heroin use and was on substitution therapy with 

DEA/OD/ODE Page 21 of 35 February 11, 2014
buprenorphine. He presented to the emergency room exhibiting psychotic symptoms. Upon 

examination he had mydriasis and elevated blood pressure indicating that he was suffering 

from acute sympatomimetic toxidrome. Later in the same day of admission, the patient 

discharged himself. A toxicological screen of specimens from the patient identified naphyrone. 

A urine drug screen was positive for benzodiazepines, but did not detect other cathinones, 

cocaine, or amphetamine derivatives.

Thorton et al. (2012) described the case of a 23-year-old male who insufflated 4-FMC. After 

snorting a white powder the patient was agitated, suicidal, and complained of hallucinations. 

He was taken to the hospital via ambulance. Emergency personnel reported that the patient 

was hyperthermic, diaphoretic, and tachycardic with mydriasis. The patient was chemically and 

physically restrained because he was agitated. Symptoms eventually resolved and the patient 

was discharged. The patient was diagnosed to suffer from schizoaffective disorder, bipolar 

disorder, or psychosis secondary to bath salt (4-FMC) ingestion. Testing of the bath salt product 

revealed MDPV and 4-FMC. A toxicological screen of specimens from the patient identified 

MDPV and 4-FMC. A higher concentration of 4-FMC (346 and 257 ng/mL in serum and urine, 

respectively) compared to MDPV (186 and 136 ng/mL in serum and urine, respectively) was 

detected. 

Some individuals under the influence of these synthetic substances have acted violently and 

unpredictably causing harm, or even death, to themselves or others.

Gil et al. (2013) described the case of a 30-year-old male who died in a road traffic accident 

after an alleged ingestion of 4-MEC. 4-MEC was identified in a zipper bag found on the 

decedent. 4-MEC at a concentration of 152 ng/mL (blood) and 122 ng/mL (urine) was also 

detected in biological specimens from the decedent. Ethanol (0.12 g/dL in blood and 0.19 g/dL 

in urine) was also present in these specimens.

Another case reported by Gil et al. (2013) described the case of a 27-year-old male who was 

arrested by the police on suspicion of possession of narcotics (white powder) (Gil et al., 2013). 

4-MEC was identified in the white powder seized from the subject. A toxicological screen 

identified 4-MEC in blood samples from this subject. 

DEA/OD/ODE Page 22 of 35 February 11, 2014
Butylone has been directly implicated in two fatalities reported in the medical literature.

Warrick et al. (2012) described the death of a 24-year-old female who ingested two 

capsules of what was thought to be “Ecstasy” at a concert. After being found unconscious by 

emergency personnel, the decedent was taken to the ED. The comatose patient suffered from 

hyperthermia, tachycardia, mydriasis, tachypnea and some tremors. Despite efforts to save her 

life, the decedent died. Toxicology tests identified methylone and butylone in specimens from 

this individual. Laboratory analysis also identified methylone and butylone in the powder 

obtained from a capsule that was found on the decedent. The cause of death determined by 

the medical examiner was serotonin syndrome secondary to methylone and butylone ingestion. 

Rojek et al. (2012) described the death of a 21-year-old male who ingested butylone for 

suicidal intentions. The decedent was admitted to the hospital after ingesting 10 tablets of a 

substance called “Amph-i-bia.” The decedent purchased the substances at a retail shop. On 

admission, the patient suffered tachycardia, hypertension, mydriasis, and was disoriented. He 

subsequently developed seizures and suffered a cardiac and respiratory arrest. Despite efforts 

to save his life, he died. A toxicological screen of specimens from this patient identified 

butylone. The cause of death was reported as multi-organ failure resulting from malignant 

serotonin syndrome. 

Other synthetic cathinones, like α-PVP and pentylone, have also been implicated in the 

deaths of individuals. 

Marinetti and Antonides (2013) described several postmortem cases in which synthetic 

cathinones such as MPDV, α-PVP, pentylone, methylone and methedrone were detected in 

biological, postmortem specimens. A 44-year-old female with a history of bipolar disorder,

previous attempted suicide, and drug abuse died from multiple drug intoxication. She tested 

positive for pentylone, α-PVP, hydrocodone, promethazine, and other pharmaceutical drugs. A 

35-year-old female with a history of drug abuse including intravenous drug abuse was found 

unresponsive in bed. A toxicological screen detected morphine, codeine, citalopram, α-PVP, 

and 6-MAM (6-monoacetylmorphine; an active metabolite of heroin) in biological specimen 

from this individual. A 50-year-old female with a history of heroin abuse was found 

DEA/OD/ODE Page 23 of 35 February 11, 2014
unresponsive on a sofa at her home. A toxicological screen detected α-PVP, morphine, 

codeine, 6-MAM, and pharmaceutical drugs in biological specimen from this individual. A 51-

year-old male was fatally shot by police officers after a chase. A toxicological screen detected 

α-PVP in biological specimen from this individual. A 34-year-old male was found dead in his 

basement from hanging. A toxicological screen detected α-PVP and pentylone in biological 

specimen from this individual. A 32-year-old female who was morbidly obese was found 

unresponsive on the floor in her home. A toxicological screen detected MDPV, α-PVP, 

morphine, methedrone, 6-MAM, and pharmaceutical drugs in biological specimen from this 

individual. 

The products containing synthetic cathinone substances often do not bear accurate labeling 

information regarding its ingredients or the health risks and potential hazards associated with

these products. In addition, products may not contain the expected active ingredients (Davies 

et al., 2010; Spiller et al., 2011; Ayres and Bond, 2012; Zuba and Byrska, 2013). Thus, 

individuals who purchase these products likely have insufficient knowledge of the exact product 

contents. This lack of information poses significant risk to users who may not know what they 

are purchasing or the risk associated with the abuse of those products. In a study that analyzed 

products offered for sale over a 6 month period, there was significant variation in the active 

substance (i.e., the products did not contain the active ingredients listed or products marketed 

to contain a specific legal substance contained a different substance) in one quarter (5 of 20) of 

the products that were purchased (the same named products such as Head rush, Pure bliss, or 

Xtacy were purchased repeatedly during a 6 month period) and tested (Davies et al., 2010). In a 

separate study, the analysis of a specific brand name synthetic cathinone product (e.g., white 

lightening), that appeared identical in packaging but obtained at different locations, revealed 

different synthetic cathinones as the primary ingredient (Spiller et al., 2011). Accordingly, 4-

MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP

have been identified in varying combinations in packages that have been seized by law 

enforcement. A study by Brandt et al. (2010) showed that 70% of the products analyzed 

contained an illicit substance. Another study showed that there was poor quality of product 

information (Schmidt et al., 2010). Of 1,308 products evaluated, 40% (524) did not list 

DEA/OD/ODE Page 24 of 35 February 11, 2014
ingredients, 92% (1,202) failed to list any side effects, and 86% (1,129) failed to list any 

warnings about potential interactions with other substances or medications. Since abusers 

obtain these drugs through unknown sources, the purity of these drugs is uncertain presenting 

another level of risk to users (EMCDDA, 2011). Thus, the limited knowledge about product 

content and its purity and lack of information about its effects pose significant risks to the 

users.

Summary

In summary, available evidence on the overall public health risks associated with the use of 

synthetic cathinones indicates that 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 

4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP can cause acute health problems leading to ED 

admissions, violent behaviors causing harm to self or others, or death. In addition, products 

containing these synthetic cathinone substances often do not bear labeling information 

regarding their ingredients and if they do, it may not contain the expected active ingredients or 

identify the health risks and potential hazards associated with these products. Acute effects of 

these substance are those typical of a sympathomimetic agents (e.g., cocaine, 

methamphetamine, amphetamine) and include among other effects tachycardia, headache, 

palpitations, agitation, anxiety, mydriasis, tremor, fever or sweating, and hypertension (ACMD, 

2010; Karila and Reynaud, 2010; EMCDDA, 2011; Prosser and Nelson, 2012; Derung et al., 2011; 

Rojek et al., 2012; Thorton et al., 2012; Capriola, 2013). Other effects, with possible public 

health risk implications, that have been reported from the use of synthetic cathinone 

substances include psychological effects such as psychosis, paranoia, hallucinations, and 

agitation (Derung et al., 2011; Rojek et al., 2012; Thorton et al., 2012). Finally, the possibility of 

death for individuals abusing 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-

FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP also indicates that these substances are a serious public 

health threat. 

Conclusion of 3-Factor Analysis

After a careful review of the scientific literature, Factors 4, 5, and 6, NFLIS, STRIDE, and 

other law enforcement data and other data and information, it is evident that 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, 

DEA/OD/ODE Page 25 of 35 February 11, 2014
α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP are trafficked, 

abused, and pose a significant public health risk. These drugs have become popular among 

drug abusers due to their stimulant-like effects and pharmacological similarity to mephedrone, 

MDPV, methylone, cocaine, and methamphetamine.

The DEA has considered the three criteria for placing a substance into schedule I of the CSA 

(21 U.S.C. 812). The data available and reviewed for 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, 

pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP indicated that these substances, 

including their salts, isomers, and salts of isomers, pose an imminent hazard to public safety 

and health, have no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and lack 

accepted safety for use under medical supervision.

DEA/OD/ODE Page 26 of 35 February 11, 2014
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DEA/OD/ODE Page 31 of 35 February 11, 2014
II. APPENDIX

STRIDE, NFLIS, and Examples of Enforcement Activities

System To Retrieve Information from Drug Evidence (STRIDE) Reports

Data from the forensic laboratory database STRIDE, a Federal database for the drug samples 

analyzed by DEA forensic laboratories, indicate illicit activity involving 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, 

butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, 4-FMC, 3-FMC, naphyrone, or α-PBP. From January 2010 to 

December 2013, Federal law enforcement authorities encountered 1,789 drug exhibits 

pertaining to the trafficking, distribution, and abuse of these synthetic cathinone substances 

(Table II.1). 

Table II.1: Synthetic Cathinones Reports (Federal) 

Synthetic 

Cathinone

STRIDE 

(2010)

STRIDE 

(2011)

STRIDE 

(2012)

STRIDE 

(2013*)

STRIDE

(2010-2013*)

4-MEC 4 142 162 69 377

4-MePPP 0 10 101 14 125

α-PVP 0 7 556 126 689

Butylone 0 14 56 5 75

Pentedrone 0 21 262 21 304

Pentylone 0 6 107 8 121

FMC** 0 10 21 6 37

Naphyrone 0 5 17 2 24

α-PBP 0 1 32 4 37

TOTAL 4 216 1,314 255 1,789

STRIDE database was queried on 2/5/2014 by date submitted to Federal forensic laboratories.

*2013 December data are still being reported.

**FMC consists of isomers of FMC including 3-FMC and 4-FMC.

National Forensic Laboratory Information System (NFLIS) Reports

In 2010, the NFLIS registered 13 reports from 5 States containing 4-MEC, butylone, FMC, 

and naphyrone (Table II.2, II.4, and II.5) analyzed by State and local forensic laboratories. 

However, in 2011, there were 800 reports from 32 States related to these substances 

(excluding α-PBP) registered in NFLIS, in 2012 there were 5,519 reports from 41 States, and in 

2013, there were 2,781 reports from 42 States. These substances represented approximately 

DEA/OD/ODE Page 32 of 35 February 11, 2014
28% (9,113/32,205) of all the reports to NFLIS involving synthetic cathinones from January 2010 

to December 2013 (Table II.3).

Table II.2: Synthetic Cathinones - Number of Reports (State and Local)

Synthetic 

Cathinone

NFLIS

(2010)

NFLIS

(2011)

NFLIS

(2012)

NFLIS

(2013*)

NFLIS

(2010-2013*)

4-MEC 5 175 1,068 704 1,952

4-MePPP 0 91 181 17 289

α-PVP 0 17 2,740 1,779 4,536

Butylone 3 173 263 56 495

Pentedrone 0 122 913 132 1,167

Pentylone 0 34 171 33 238

FMC** 4 168 106 14 292

Naphyrone 1 20 20 3 44

α-PBP 0 0 57 43 100

TOTAL 13 800 5,519 2,781 9,113

NFLIS database was queried for drug reports on 2/6/2014 by date submitted to State and local forensic 

laboratories.

*2013 December data are still being reported.

**FMC consists of isomers of FMC including 3-FMC and 4-FMC.

Table II.3: Number of Reports (State and Local) of All Synthetic Cathinones

Substance Category 2010 2011 2012 2013* 2010-2013*

Ten Synthetic Cathinones‡ 13 800 5,519 2,781 9,113

All Synthetic Cathinones 636 6,349 13,016 12,204 32,205

% Ten Synthetic Cathinones‡ 2% 13% 42% 23% 28%

NFLIS database was queried for drug reports on 2/6/2014 by date submitted to State and local forensic 

laboratories.

*2013 December data are still being reported. ‡

Ten Synthetic Cathinones include 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, FMC, naphyrone, 

and α-PBP.

DEA/OD/ODE Page 33 of 35 February 11, 2014
Table II.4: Number of States where Synthetic Cathinones‡ was Identified (State and Local)

Synthetic Cathinone 2010 2011 2012 2013 2010-2013*

4-MEC 3 24 37 36 38

4-MePPP 0 13 21 12 26

α-PVP 0 6 38 35 41

Butylone 1 22 28 17 34

Pentedrone 0 17 28 17 33

Pentylone 0 8 23 16 29

FMC** 2 22 26 7 29

Naphyrone 1 9 10 2 16

α-PBP 0 0 16 9 19

TOTAL STATES 5 32 41 42 42

NFLIS database was queried on 2/6/2014 by date submitted to State and local forensic laboratories.

*2013 December data are still being reported.

**FMC consists of isomers of FMC including 3-FMC and 4-FMC. ‡

Synthetic Cathinones are 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP.

Table II.5: States where Synthetic Cathinones‡ were Identified

States with Exhibits from 2010-2013*

Synthetic

Cathinones

Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut

Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa

Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland 

Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri

Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico

New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma

Oregon Pennsylvania South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee

Texas Utah Virginia Washington West Virginia

Wisconsin Wyoming

NFLIS database was queried on 2/6/2014 by date submitted to State and local forensic laboratories.

*2013 December data are still being reported. ‡

Synthetic Cathinones are 4-MEC, 4-MePPP, α-PVP, butylone, pentedrone, pentylone, FMC, naphyrone, and α-PBP.

Examples of Enforcement Activities

1. On May 14, 2013, two individuals were convicted after a jury trial in the United States 

District Court for the Northern District of New York. The individuals were convicted of 

conspiracy to distribute, or to possess with intent to distribute controlled substance 

analogues (4-MEC and mephedrone) in violation of 21 U.S.C. 846 and conspiracy to 

import a controlled substance analogue in violation of 21 U.S.C. 963 and/or 19 counts of 

money laundering in violation of 18 U.S.C. 1956. A third individual who was arrested in 

this investigation failed to show for trial and is currently a fugitive. Also indicted in this 

DEA/OD/ODE Page 34 of 35 February 11, 2014
investigation was a foreign individual who allegedly shipped the substances to the 

convicted individuals. Eighteen other defendants pled guilty to conspiracy to distribute, 

or to possess with intent to distribute a controlled substance analogue in violation of 

21 U.S.C. 846. 

2. The jury in the United States District Court for the Western District of Virginia returned a 

guilty verdict (May 2013) on nine counts against an individual for the conspiracy to 

distribute, or to possess with intent to distribute a controlled substance analogue (4-

MEC, methylone, and MDPV) in violation of 21 U.S.C. 846.

3. Several individuals were indicted (July 2012) in the United States District Court for the 

District of Arizona for the alleged violation of the analogue drug provision (substances 

included α-PVP, α-PBP, 4-MePPP, pentedrone, pentylone, butylone, and MDPV). Many 

of the indicted pled guilty and one individual was found guilty in a jury trial in July 2013.

4. An individual was indicted (October 2012) in the United States District Court for the 

Western District of Virginia for the alleged violation of the analogue drug provision 

(substance is α-PVP). Two other individuals were also indicted in this case. One 

individual pled guilty and one individual was found guilty in a jury trial in July 2013.

5. Individuals were indicted (July 2012) in the United States District Court for the Southern 

District of New York for conspiring to distribute and possess with intent to distribute a 

controlled substance analogue (the synthetic designer drugs was α-PVP) in violation of 

21 U.S.C. 846. The defendants plead guilty (April 2013).

6. Four individuals were indicted (April 2012) in the United States District Court for the 

Northern District of West Virginia for the conspiracy to distribute controlled substance

analogues (α-PVP was one of the substances) and other related charges in violation of 

21 U.S.C. 846. Three of the individuals pled guilty to some of the charges. 

DEA/OD/ODE Page 35 of 35 February 11, 2014