Importation of Fresh Swiss Chard, Beta vulgaris L. ssp. cicla 

(L.) Koch, from Colombia into the Continental United States

A Pathway-initiated Risk Analysis

July 15, 2011

Version 5

Agency Contact:

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology

United States Department of Agriculture

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Plant Protection and Quarantine

1730 Varsity Drive, Suite 300

Raleigh, NC 27606
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 ii

Executive Summary

The Republic of Colombia requested authorization to export fresh Swiss chard, Beta vulgaris ssp.

cicla (L.) Koch, into the continental United States. We prepared a list of pests associated with 

Swiss chard from Colombia based on documents submitted by the Colombian Ministry for 

Agriculture and Rural Development, the Colombian Agricultural Institute, USDA records of 

intercepted pests, scientific literature, and the opinions of experts in Swiss chard production. 

The Colombian Department of Agriculture proposes that all fresh Swiss chard destined for 

consumption to the continental United States undergo the following packinghouse procedures:

washing with potable water, culling of yellowing or blemished leaves, and hand-grading/sorting 

for quality. As a supplement to these standard practices, all fresh Swiss chard from Colombia 

destined for the continental United States is to be shipped in packing boxes (not field boxes). The 

commodity is to be clean and free of soil, extraneous plant parts (besides the leaf/upper stem), 

quarantine pests, and contaminating pests (e.g., hitchhikers like Colapsis lebasi and Diabrotica 

species) before shipping boxes are closed and sealed.

We identified two quarantine pests associated with Swiss chard which could be introduced into the 

United States via imports of the fresh commodity:

 Liriomyza huidobrensis Blanchard (Diptera: Agromyzidae)

 Copitarsia incommoda Walker (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

We gave both pests ratings of High Pest Risk Potential, and summarized some mitigation options 

in Appendix B.
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 iii

Table of Contents

Executive Summary......................................................................................................................ii

1. Introduction...............................................................................................................................1

2. Risk Assessment ........................................................................................................................2

2.1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action 2

2.2. Assessment of Weed Potential of Beta vulgaris 2

2.3. Current Status, Decision-making History and Pest Interceptions 3

2.4. Pest Categorization - Identification of Beta vulgaris pests in Colombia 3

2.5. Quarantine Pests Not Considered for Further Mitigation 14

2.6. Quarantine Pests Likely to Follow the Pathway 14

2.7. Consequences of Introduction 15

2.8. Likelihood of Introduction 18

2.9. Conclusions 20

3. Literature Cited ......................................................................................................................21

4. Preparers & Reviewers...........................................................................................................29

5. Appendices...............................................................................................................................30

Appendix A. Pest Interceptions on Swiss Chard (Beta vulgaris) Entering the United States 

from 1985-2006 30

Appendix B. Risk Mitigation Options for Quarantine Pests Associated with Imports of Fresh 

Swiss chard from Colombia 32
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 1

1. Introduction

This pest risk assessment was prepared by the Center for Phytosanitary Excellence (CEF) in 

Bogota, Colombia, with assistance from USDA, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service 

(APHIS), Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ). The assessment was done in response to a 

request from the Colombian Agricultural Institute (ICA) to examine potential pest risks 

associated with the exportation of Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris L. ssp. cicla (L.) Koch) from 

Colombia into the continental United States. The assessment is pathway-initiated because it is 

based on the importation of the commodity. This risk assessment is also qualitative; risk is 

expressed in terms of High, Medium, and Low rather than in probabilities or frequencies. The 

methodology and rating criteria are explained in Pathway-initiated Pest Risk Assessments: 

Guidelines for Qualitative Assessments, Version 5.02 (PPQ, 2000).

The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) provides standards for conducting pest risk 

analyses (IPPC, 2004, 2006a). The methods used to initiate, conduct, and report this assessment, 

as well as the use of biological and phytosanitary terms, are based on these standards. IPPC 

standards describe three stages of pest risk analysis: Stage 1, Initiation; Stage 2, Risk 

Assessment; and Stage 3, Risk Management. This document satisfies the requirements of IPPC 

Stages 1 and 2, and provides risk mitigation options for Stage 3. 

Swiss chard belongs to the goosefoot family, Chenopodiaceae; it is also known as chard, leaf 

beet, or spinach beet. Swiss chard lacks the fleshy root of the garden beet. Its large, glossy, dark 

green leaves are borne on white, fleshy leafstalks (Stephens, 2003). Chard is commonly found in 

gardens throughout Florida as a winter vegetable and a summer cooking green (Stephens, 2003).

The ancestral form of all beets (Swiss chard, beetroot, fodder beet, and sugar beet) is the wild 

Sea Beet (Beta maritima), which is distributed throughout the Mediterranean and near Asian 

areas (Klapp, 1967). The wild form is variable and adaptable, with branched tap-roots and 

varying sugar content. Swiss chard, the main root of which is not swollen, was cultivated as a 

leaf vegetable in Greece around 400 B.C. Through mutation, varieties have been developed with 

widened leaf stalks, which are used as a vegetable similar to asparagus (Klapp, 1967).

The crop is produced by removing the outer leaves and allowing the center leaves to grow. Stems 

of the outer leaves are cut while still tender, 1-2 inches above the soil surface. When carefully

harvested, chard will continue to produce leaves through the summer into late fall (Hodges, 

1995).

The process for preparing Swiss chard for market includes thoroughly washing the leaves, 

discarding yellowed or damaged leaves, and bunching them (Hodges, 1995). The succulent, 

glossy, dark green leaves, which are slightly crinkled, are eaten as cooking greens. Chard is 

ready to eat 50-60 days from seeding (Stephens, 2003). Favorite varieties are the green-leaved 

“Lucullus” and "Fordhook Giant,” and the red-leaved “Rhubarb” variety (Stephens, 2003).
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 2

2. Risk Assessment

2.1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action

This commodity-based, pathway-initiated assessment is in response to a request made by the 

Colombian Agricultural Institute (ICA) (letter No. 04840 dated 03 Jun 2003) to the USDA to 

allow the importation of Swiss chard, grown in Colombia, into the continental United States.

Title 7 of the Code of Federal Regulations 319, Part 56 (7 CFR § 319.56, 2007) provides 

regulatory authority for the importation of fruits and vegetables from foreign sources into the 

United States. 

2.2. Assessment of Weed Potential of Beta vulgaris

The results of the screening of weed potential for B. vulgaris did not prompt a weed-initiated risk 

assessment (Table 1).

Table 1. Assessment of Weediness Potential of Beta vulgaris L. ssp. cicla (L.) Koch

Commodity: Swiss chard

Scientific name and author: Beta vulgaris L. ssp. cicla (L.) Koch (NCRS, 2004)

Synonyms: Beta cicla (L.) L.; Beta vulgaris L. var. cicla L. (NCRS, 2004)

Plant family: Chenopodiaceae (NCRS, 2004)

Common name: chard (NCRS, 2004)

Phase 1: Beta vulgaris was introduced to the United States from other countries. It occurs 

throughout the United States and is grown commercially (NCRS, 2004).

Phase 2: Is the species listed in:

NO Geographical Atlas of World Weeds (Holm et al., 1991)

NO World’s Worst Weeds (Holm et al., 1977)

NO Report of the Technical Committee to Evaluate Noxious Weeds; Exotic Weeds

for the Federal Noxious Weed Act (Gunn and Ritchie, 1982)

NO Economically Important Foreign Weeds (Reed, 1977)

NO Composite List of Weeds (WSSA, 1989)

NO AGRICOLA, CABI, AGRIS

Other literature and database search indicating weediness:

NO World weeds: natural histories and distributions (Holm et al., 1997)

NO World Economic Plants (Wiersema and León, 1999)

NO Florida's Invasive Species List, Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council (FLEPPC, 2003)

NO Federal Noxious Weed List (APHIS, 2000)

NO State Regulated Noxious Weeds (NPB, 2003)

Phase 3: There is no need for a weed-initiated risk assessment for Beta vulgaris L. ssp. cicla 

(L.) Koch. The species is widely prevalent as a common crop in the United States and there is no 

evidence of invasive characteristics in the above references; only the species Beta vulgaris L. is 

listed in the Geographical Atlas of World Weeds (Holm et al., 1991).
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 3

2.3. Current Status, Decision-making History and Pest Interceptions 

Fresh Swiss chard is currently authorized for import to the United States from the West Indies, 

Belize, Bermuda, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Germany, Guatemala, Honduras, Italy, Korea, 

Mexico, the Netherlands, Panama, Peru and Portugal (PPQ, 2004).

In 1970 and 1972, beets without tops could enter Puerto Rico and New York (subject to 

inspection) from Venezuela. In 1997, a pest risk assessment was drafted to assess the risk 

associated with Swiss chard export from Peru into the continental United States. Between 1985-

2006, many different species of pests were intercepted on Beta vulgaris entering the United 

States (PestID, 2007; Appendix A).

2.4. Pest Categorization - Identification of Beta vulgaris pests in Colombia

Below we present information on: (1) the presence of pests in Colombia relative to presence in 

the United States, (2) the generally affected plant part(s), (3) the quarantine status of the pest in 

the United States, (4) whether the pest is likely to follow the pathway into the United States on 

Swiss chard, and (5) pertinent citations for either the distribution or the biology of the pest

(Table 2). This table was the basis for selecting pests for analysis. Most literature references 

were not specific to the subspecies of B. vulgaris ssp. cicla. Consequently, we emphasized the 

plant parts attacked when considering pests of B. vulgaris. Many organisms were eliminated 

from consideration because they did not satisfy the definition of a quarantine pest. A quarantine 

pest is defined as, “a pest of potential economic importance to the area endangered thereby and 

not yet present there, or present but not widely distributed and being officially controlled” (IPPC, 

2006).

Table 2. Pests of Beta vulgaris (in any country) and present in Colombia (on any host).

Pest Scientific Name and 

Taxonomic Classification

Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant part 

affected

Quarantine Pest2Follow 

Pathway

References

ARTHROPODA

ACARI

Tetranychus desertorum 

Banks (Acari: 

Tetranychidae)

CO3, US Leaf No Yes Bolland et al., 1998

Tetranychus ludeni Zacher CO3, US Leaf No Yes Bolland et al., 1998

Tetranychus urticae Koch =T. 

cinnabarinus (Acari: 

Tetranychidae)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Bolland et al., 1998; 

CABI, 2002; Lightfield, 

1997

 

1 Distribution Legend: CO =Colombia; US = United States.

2 Brackets indicate that the pest is in limited distribution in the United States and is either under official control or under

consideration for official control

3

Pest interceptions (or reports) on Swiss chard from countries other than Colombia; interceptions or reports of these pests on 

other hosts from Colombia.
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 4

Pest Scientific Name and 

Taxonomic Classification

Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant part 

affected

Quarantine Pest2Follow 

Pathway

References

INSECTA

Agromyzidae sp. (Diptera: 

Agromyzidae)

CO3 Leaf Yes Yes Figueroa, 1977; PestID, 

2007

Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel)

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

CO3, US Leaf, 

Seedling, 

Stem

No Yes CABI, 2002; Figueroa, 

1977; Lightfield, 1997; 

Toth & Stinner, 2001

Aphis fabae Scopoli

(Homoptera: Aphididae)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Figueroa, 1977; 

Lightfield, 1997

Aphis gossypii Glover

(Homoptera: Aphididae)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Arnett, 2000; Figueroa, 

1977; Lightfield, 1997

Aulacorthum solani

(Kaltenbach) (Homoptera: 

Aphididae)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Figueroa, 1977; 

Lightfield, 1997

Bemisia argentifolii Bellows 

Perring Gill & Hendrick =

Bemisia tabaci (B biotype) 

(Gennadius) (Homoptera: 

Aleyrodidae)

CO3, US Leaf, 

Seedling

(Leaf, Stem)

No Yes CABI, 2002; Toth & 

Stinner, 2001

Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius)

(Homoptera: Aleyrodidae)

CO3, US Leaf, 

Seedling 

(Leaf, Stem)

No Yes Arnett, 2000; CABI, 

2002; Toth & Stinner, 

2001

Blapstinus sp. (Coleoptera: 

Tenebrionidae)

CO3Seedling

(Leaf, Stem)

Yes No PestID, 2007; Toth & 

Stinner, 2001

Colaspis lebasi Lefevre

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

CO, US (FL) Leaf [Yes] No4Figueroa, 1977; PestID, 

2007; Thomas, 2002

Copitarsia incommoda Walker

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

CO3 Leaf Yes Yes5 Bautista et al., 2003;

Gould et al., 2000; 

Robinson et al., 2004

Diabrotica speciosa (Germar)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

CO3 Leaf, Stem Yes No6 CABI, 2002; Figueroa, 

1977; Lightfield, 1997

Diabrotica undecimpunctata

Mannerheim (Coleoptera: 

Chrysomelidae)

CO3, US Leaf Yes7 No6 CABI, 2002; Courneya, 

2004; Figueroa, 1977; 

Hollingsworth, 2003

 

4 Only the adults of C. lebasi are associated with the leaves of the host (Figueroa, 1977). Information on a related species (C. 

brunnea) of grapes states that larvae are only associated with the roots (Pfiiffer, 1986). Pest interceptions (PestID, 2007) of 

Colaspis species suggest it travels as hitchhiker; however, it is not anticipated that adults would survive standard postharvest treatments of Swiss chard from Colombia (culling, selection, grading, thoroughly washing, discarding any 

yellowed or damaged leaves, and bunching the leaves).

5 Copitarsia species have been intercepted over 8,200 times on a variety of hosts (and plant parts) from Colombia. These 

pests were primarily found in permit cargo shipments (most only identified to the genus level) (PestID, 2007). Almost all 

the interceptions were living, immature specimens. Based on the high numbers of interceptions on commodities that may 

have undergone similar post-harvest treatments, C. incommoda are likely to survive the standard post-harvest treatments of 

Colombian Swiss chard destined for the United States.

6 Although the pest attacks Swiss chard, it is not likely to remain with the commodity during standard processing. These pests 

could be detected with the naked eye and removed from the commodity by culling, selection, grading, thoroughly washing, 

discarding any yellowed or damaged leaves, and bunching the leaves.

7

Part of a species complex; undescribed species in the complex are of quarantine concern to the United States (Courneya, 
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 5

Pest Scientific Name and 

Taxonomic Classification

Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant part 

affected

Quarantine Pest2Follow 

Pathway

References

Diabrotica viridula Fabricius

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

CO3 Leaf, Stem Yes No6Figueroa, 1977; 

Lightfield, 1997

Epicauta sp. (Coleoptera: 

Meloidae)

CO3 Leaf Yes Yes PestID, 2007;

Hollingsworth, 2003

Epitrix cucumeris (Harris)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

CO3, US Leaf No Yes Arnett, 2000; CABI, 

2005; Figueroa, 1977; 

Toth & Stinner, 2001

Estigmene acrea Drury

(Lepidoptera: Arctiidae)

CO3, US Seedling

(Leaf, Stem)

No No Arnett, 2000; CABI, 

2002; Toth & Stinner, 

2001

Frankliniella occidentalis

(Pergande) (Thysanoptera: 

Thripidae)

CO3, US Leaf No Yes Arnett, 2000; CABI, 

2002; Toth & Stinner, 

2001

Gryllus sp. (Orthoptera: 

Gryllidae)

CO3Seedling

(Leaf, Stem)

Yes No PestID, 2007; Toth & 

Stinner, 2001

Helicoverpa zea (Boddie)

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

CO3, US Leaf, 

Seedling

(Leaf, Stem)

No Yes Arnett, 2000; CABI, 

2002; Toth & Stinner, 

2001

Heliothis virescens (Fabricius)

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

CO3, US Leaf, 

Seedling

(Leaf, Stem)

No Yes Arnett, 2000; CABI, 

2002; Toth & Stinner, 

2001

Herpetogramma bipunctalis

(Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: 

Pyralidae)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Arnett, 2000; Figueroa, 

1977; Lightfield, 1997

Hortensia similis (Walker)

(Homoptera: Cicadellidae)

CO, US Leaf No Yes Figueroa, 1977; 

Neartica, 1998

Hyperomyzus lactucae

Linnaeus (Homoptera: 

Aphididae)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002

Liriomyza brasiliensis (Frost)

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

CO Root, Stem Yes No8 Barranco, 2003; 

Figueroa, 1977; Squire, 

1972

Liriomyza huidobrensis8

(Blanchard) (Diptera: 

Agromyzidae)

CO Leaf Yes9 Yes Arnett, 2000; EPPO, 

2003; Figueroa, 1977; 

Lightfield, 1997; PestID,

2007; Posada, 1989

 

2004)

8 Literature suggests that Liriomyza brasiliensis only attacks the roots of this commodity (Figueroa, 1977), although in one 

case it attacks the stems of potato (Squire, 1972). We found no references depicting activity of this pest in the stem of 

Swiss chard. If additional information later indicates that this pest could attack the stems of Swiss chard, we may reevaluate its status with regard to this pathway. In this document, we analyzed the related species L. huidobrensis. Any 

mitigation options used for L. huidobrensis should offer comparable protection against L. brasiliensis.

9

Liriomyza huidobrensis is present in California and is not under official control; this is the only report within the continental 

United States (CABI, 2005). However, according to Scheffer (2000; 2004) and Scheffer et al. (2001), the records on L. 

huidobrensis within the United States really refer to Liriomyza langei Frick, which is a cryptic species of Liriomyza 

huidobrensis. According to Reitz (2004), “there is no evidence that what is currently known as Liriomyza huidobrensis is 
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 6

Pest Scientific Name and 

Taxonomic Classification

Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant part 

affected

Quarantine Pest2Follow 

Pathway

References

Liriomyza sativae Blanchard

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Arnett, 2000; Figueroa, 

1977; Lightfield, 1997

Liriomyza sp. (Diptera: 

Agromyzidae)

CO3 Leaf Yes Yes Toth & Stinner, 2001

Liriomyza trifolii Burgess in 

Comstock (Diptera: 

Agromyzidae)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002; EPPO, 

2003; Lightfield, 1997

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

(Thomas) (Homoptera: 

Aphididae)

CO3, US Leaf No Yes CABI, 2002; Figueroa, 

1977; Lightfield, 1997; 

Toth & Stinner, 2001

Metopolophium dirhodum

(Walker) (Homoptera: 

Aphididae)

CO, US Leaf No Yes CABI, 2003; PestID, 

2007

Mythimna unipuncta Haworth

=Pseudaletia unipuncta

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

CO, US Leaf, Stem, 

Seed

No Yes CABI, 2003; Robinson 

et al., 2004

Myzus persicae Sulzer

(Homoptera: Aphididae)

CO3, US Leaf No Yes Figueroa, 1977; 

Lightfield, 1997; Toth & 

Stinner, 2001

Omiodes indicata (Fabricius)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

CO3, US (GA, 

FL)

Leaf No Yes Adams, 2003; CABI, 

2002; Neartica, 1998

Onychiurus armatus

(Tullberg) (Collembola: 

Onychiuridae)

CO, US Root No No CABI, 2003; Corredor et 

al., 1999

Peridroma saucia (Hübner)

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

CO3, US Seedling

(Leaf, Stem)

No No Arnett, 2000; CABI, 

2002; Toth & Stinner, 

2001

Phthorimaea operculella

(Zeller) (Lepidoptera: 

Gelechiidae)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Arnett, 2000; Figueroa, 

1977; Lightfield, 1997

Plutella xylostella Linnaeus

(Lepidoptera: Plutellinae)

CO3, US Seedling

(Leaf, Stem)

No No CABI, 2002; Toth & 

Stinner, 2001

Pseudoplusia includens 

(Walker) (Lepidoptera: 

Noctuidae)

CO, US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2003; Robinson 

et al., 2004

Spodoptera eridania Stoll

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Arnett, 2000; EPPO, 

2003; Figueroa, 1977; 

Lightfield, 1997

Spodoptera exigua Hübner

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

CO, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Mowlam & Vega, 1977;

Zhang, 1994

 

established in the US.” Because of this recent evidence, we are presuming that L. huidobrensis does not occur in the 

United States, and is a quarantine pest. However, a final PPQ policy decision about its quarantine pest status is pending 

until surveys in Oregon and Washington are completed (Colpetzer, 2007). If the final decision is that this species is not a 

quarantine pest, we will need to change the quarantine status of L. huidobrensis accordingly and eliminate it from the list 

of analyzed quarantine pests.
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 7

Pest Scientific Name and 

Taxonomic Classification

Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant part 

affected

Quarantine Pest2Follow 

Pathway

References

Spodoptera frugiperda J.E. 

Smith (Lepidoptera: 

Noctuidae)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Arnett, 2000; Figueroa, 

1977; Lightfield, 1997

Spodoptera ornithogalli

(Guenee) (Lepidoptera: 

Noctuidae)

CO, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Mowlam & Vega, 1977; 

Robinson et al., 2004

Spoladea recurvalis (Fabricius)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Arnett, 2000; CABI,

2002; Lightfield, 1997

Systena taeniata Say

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

CO, US Leaf No Yes CPMAB, 2003; 

Figueroa, 1977; 

Thrips tabaci Lindeman

(Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Arnett, 2000; Figueroa, 

1977; Lightfield, 1997; 

Toth & Stinner, 2001

Trichoplusia ni (Hübner)

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

CO3, US Leaf No Yes Arnett, 2000; CABI, 

2002; Toth & Stinner, 

2001

BACTERIA

Agrobacterium tumefaciens

(Smith & Townsend) Conn.

= Rhizobium radiobacter

(Rhizobiales)

CO3, US Root, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002; Lightfield, 

1997

Erwinia carotovora var.

carotovora (Jones) Bergey

(Enterobacteriales)

CO3, US Leaf, Root, 

Stem

No Yes CABI, 2003; Lightfield, 

1997

Erwinia sp. (Enterobacteriales) CO3 Leaf Yes Yes Buriticá, 1999; Toth & 

Stinner, 2001

Pseudomonas fluorescens

(Trevisan) Migula

CO, US Leaf No Yes CABI, 2003; Ramirez et 

al., 2001

Ralstonia solanacearum

(Smith) Yabuuchi et al. Race 

1 =Pseudomonas 

solanacearum (Smith) Smith

(Burkholderiales)

CO, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Buriticá, 1999; 

Lightfield, 1997; IPM, 

1990; CABI, 2004; 

CIAT, 2004; Garcia et 

al. 1999

Ralstonia solanacearum

(Smith) Yabuuchi et al. Race 

3, Biovar 2 = Pseudomonas 

solanacearum (Smith) Smith

(Burkholderiales)

CO10 Leaf, Stem, 

Roots, Soil 

(natural 

latent 

infections)

Yes Yes

11 Buriticá, 1999; 

Lightfield, 1997; Janse

et al. 2004; CABI, 2004;

CIAT, 2004; Garcia et 

al. 1999; Elphinstone, 

2005

 

10 The presence of R. solanacearum Race 3 Biovar 2 in Colombia is currently under review. Testing and surveys in Colombia 

may prove older, published records to no longer accurately represent its distribution, but until those tests are completed we

must consider the bacterium to be present. 

11 Although Ralstonia solanacearum race 3 biovar 2 may follow the pathway, it is highly unlikely to become established in 

the United States via the pathway of vegetables for consumption (PERAL, 2011). Therefore, we did not further analyze it. 

See below for further details.
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 8

Pest Scientific Name and 

Taxonomic Classification

Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant part 

affected

Quarantine Pest2Follow 

Pathway

References

Rhizobium rhizogenes (Riker 

et al. ) Young et al.

CO, US Root, Stem No Yes CABI, 2003

Rhodococcus fascians

(Tilford) Goodfellow

(Actinomycetales)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002

Streptomyces scabiei (ex 

Thaxter) Lambert & Loria

(Actinomycetales)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002

FUNGI and CHROMISTANS12

Albugo candida (Pers.) Kunze

(Oomycetes: Peronosporales)

CO, US Leaf, Seed No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2004

Alternaria alternata (Fr.) 

=Alternaria tenuis

(Ascomycetes: Pleosporales)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002; Farr et al., 

1989; Lightfield, 1997

Alternaria brassicae (Berk.) 

Sacc. (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002; Farr et al., 

1989; Lightfield, 1997

Alternaria brassicicola

(Schwein.) Wiltshire

(Ascomycetes: Pleosporales)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002; Duke, 

1983; Farr et al., 1989

Armillaria mellea (Vahl:Fr.) P. 

Kumm. (Basidiomycetes: 

Agaricales)

CO, US Root No No CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2004; Salazar, 1998

Aspergillus niger Tiegh.

(Ascomycetes: Eurotiales)

CO, US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2003; Yung et 

al., 1995

Botrytis cinerea Pers 

(anamorph) =Botryotinia 

fuckeliana (de Bary) Whetzel 

(teleomorph) (Ascomycetes : 

Helotiales)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2003; Buriticá, 

1999; Farr et al., 1989; 

Farr et al., 2004; Toth & 

Stinner, 2001

Cercospora beticola Sacc.

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

CO, US Leaf, Seed, 

Stem

No Yes Buriticá, 1999; CABI, 

2003; CAES, 2003; Farr 

et al., 1989; Lightfield, 

1997

Choanephora cucurbitarum

(Berk. & Ravenel) Thaxt.

(Zygomycetes: Mucorales)

CO3, US Leaf, Seed, 

Stem

No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

1989; Munoz and 

Tamayo, 1994

Cladosporium herbarum

(Pers.:Fr.) Link

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

CO, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Farr et al., 2004; Torres 

et al., 2000

 

12 Fungal names and synonyms are based on the taxonomy presented in the USDA-ARS Systematic Botany and Mycology 

Laboratory Fungal Names Database (http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/index.cfm) or the Index Fungorum 

(http://www.indexfungorum.org/). If datasheets in the SBML were prepared prior to 1989, the Index Fungorum was 

resourced for taxonomy.
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 9

Pest Scientific Name and 

Taxonomic Classification

Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant part 

affected

Quarantine Pest2Follow 

Pathway

References

Cylindrocladium scoparium

Morg. (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CO, US Leaf, Root, 

Stem

No Yes Farr et al., 2004; Rivera 

et al., 1998

Epicoccum nigrum Link

(Ascomycetes: Incertae 

sedis)

CO, US Leaf No Yes Farr et al., 2004; Yung 

et al., 1995

Erysiphe communis (Wallr.) 

Link =E. pisi DC. var. pisi

(Ascomycetes: Erysiphales)

CO, US Leaf, Seed, 

Stem

No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2004 

Erysiphe polygoni DC. =E. 

betae (Vañha)Weltzien

(Ascomycetes: Erysiphales)

CO, US Leaf, Seed, 

Stem, 

No Yes Farr et al., 2004; 

Whitney et al., 1986

Fusarium culmorum (Wm.G. 

Sm.) Sacc. (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CO, US Leaf, Root, 

Seed, Stem

No Yes Farr et al., 2004; Rojas 

et al., 2003

Fusarium equiseti (Corda) 

Sacc. (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CO, US Leaf, Root,

Stem

No Yes Farr et al., 2004; Rojas 

et al., 2003

Fusarium moniliforme J. 

Sheld. (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CO, US Leaf, Root, 

Seed, Stem,

No Yes Farr et al., 2004; 

Gonzales et al., 1992

Fusarium oxysporum

Schlechtend.:Fr.

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

CO, US Root, Stem No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2004

Fusarium reticulatum

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

CO, US Root, Stem No Yes Farr et al., 2004; Rojas 

et al., 2003

Fusarium sambucinum Fuckel

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

CO, US Root, Stem No Yes Farr et al., 2004; Rojas 

et al., 2003

Fusarium semitectum Berk. & 

Ravenel =F. pallidoroseum

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

CO, US Leaf, Root, 

Stem

No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2004; Restrepo et al., 

1978

Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc.

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

CO, US Root, Stem No Yes Farr et al., 2004

Fusarium sp. (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CO3 Leaf, Root, 

Stem

Yes Yes CABI, 2002; Duke, 

1983

Gibberella avenacea R.J. Co.

Anamorph: Fusarium 

avenaceum (Fr.:fr.) Sacc.

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

CO, US Root, Stem, No Yes CABI, 2003; Rojas et 

al., 2003

Leptosphaerulina trifolii

(Rostr.) Petr. (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CO, US Leaf No Yes Farr et al., 2004

Macrophomina phaseolina

(Tassi) Goid (Ascomycetes: 

Incertae sedis)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002; Farr et al., 

1989; Lightfield, 1997
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 10

Pest Scientific Name and 

Taxonomic Classification

Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant part 

affected

Quarantine Pest2Follow 

Pathway

References

Myrothecium roridum Tode:fr.

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

CO, US Leaf No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2004

Olpidium brassicae (Woronin) 

Dang (Chytridiomycetes: 

Incertae sedis)

CO3, US Root No No CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

1989, 2004

Peronospora farinosa f.sp. 

betae Byford =Peronospora 

schachtii (Oomycetes: 

Peronosporales)

CO, US Leaf, Stem, 

Seed, 

No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

1989; Lightfield, 1997; 

Jaramillo & Lobo, 1983

Phoma betae Frank = 

Pleospora betae

(Ascomycetes: Pleosporales)

CO, US Leaf, Seed, 

Stem

No Yes Buriticá, 1999; CABI, 

2003; Farr et al., 1989;

Lightfield, 1997; 

Whitney et al., 1986

Physalospora rhodina Berk. & 

M.A. Curtis

=Botryosphaeria rhodina ;

Anamorph: Lasiodiplodia 

theobromae (Ascomycetes: 

Xylariales)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002; Duke, 

1983; Farr et al., 2004

Phytophthora drechsleri

Tucker (Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

CO3, US Leaf, Root, 

Stem

No Yes CABI, 2002; Duke, 

1983; Farr et al., 1989; 

Whitney et al., 1986

Pythium debaryanum Hesse

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

CO3, US Root, Stem, 

Seedling

(Leaf, Stem)

No Yes CABI, 2003

Pythium sp. (Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

CO3 Root, 

Seedling,Ste

m

Yes Yes Buriticá, 1999; Toth & 

Stinner, 2001

Pythium ultimum Trow

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

CO, US Root, 

Seedling, 

Stem

No Yes Farr et al., 2004

Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn = 

Thanatephorus cucumeris

(Basidiomycetes: 

Ceratobasidiales)

CO3, US Leaf, Root, 

Seedling, 

Stem

No Yes Buriticá, 1999; Farr et 

al., 1989; Lightfield, 

1997; Toth & Stinner, 

2001; Whitney et al., 

1986

Rhizoctonia violacea Tul. & 

C.Tul. = Helicobasidium 

brebissonii, Teleomorph: 

Helicobasidium purpureum

Pat. (Ustilaginomycetes: 

Incertae sedis)

CO

3

, US Root, Stem No Yes CABI, 2003; Duke, 

1983; Farr et al., 1989; 

Farr et al., 2004
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 11

Pest Scientific Name and 

Taxonomic Classification

Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant part 

affected

Quarantine Pest2Follow 

Pathway

References

Rhizoctonia zeae Voorhees

Teleomorph:Waitea 

circinata Warcup & 

Talbot

(Basidiomycetes: 

Ceratobasidiales)

CO, US Leaf, Root, 

Stem

No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

2004

Rhizopus arrhizus Fischer

(Zygomycetes: Mucorales)

CO, US Root No No CABI, 2003; Patino et 

al., 1991; Whitney et al., 

1986

Rosellinia necatrix Prill =

Dematophora necatrix

(Ascomycetes: Xylariales)

CO3, US Root, Stem No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

1989

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) 

de bary (Ascomycetes: 

Helotiales)

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Buriticá, 1999; Farr et 

al., 1989; Lightfield, 

1997

Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc.

(Basidiomycetes : 

Agaricales) 

CO3, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Buriticá, 1999; Farr et 

al., 1989; Lightfield, 

1997

Stemphylium botryosum Wallr.

(Ascomycetes: Pleosporales)

CO, US Leaf No Yes Baquero et al., 1992; 

Farr et al., 2004

Thielaviopsis basicola (Berk. 

& Broome) Ferraris

(Ascomycetes: Microascales)

CO3, US Root No No CABI, 2003; Farr et al., 

1989

Uromyces betae Kickx fil

(Urediniomycetes: 

Uredinales)

CO, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Buriticá, 1999; CABI, 

2003; Farr et al., 1989; 

Jaramillo & Lobo, 1983; 

Lightfield, 1997

Verticillium albo-atrum

Reinke & Berthier

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

CO3, US Leaf, Root, 

Stem

No Yes CABI, 2003; Duke, 

1983; Farr et al., 1989

Verticillium dahliae Kleb.

(Ascomycetes: Hypocreales)

CO, US Leaf, Root, 

Stem

No Yes CABI, 2003

MOLLUSKS

Deroceras laeve (O.F. Műller) 

(Limacidae)

CO, US Leaf, Root No No

6 Baker, 1994; Hausdorf, 

2002;McGrath et al., 

2003

Deroceras panormitanum 

Lessona & Pollonera 

(Limacidae)

CO, US Leaf, Root, 

Flower, 

Stem

[Yes] No13 Fruitfed, 2002; PestID, 

2007; Roth, 2003; 

Hausdorf, 2002;

Robinson, 2005

 

13 This species typically lays its eggs—roughly 2-2.8 mm in size for genus Deroceras, p 428—on the soil surface. 

Consequently, they are highly unlikely to be transported with the commodity (Heller, 2001; Iglesias et al., 2002 –

reproductive biology based on related species, D. reticulatum). Young slugs may be small (3 mm), and adults range in size 

from 2.5-3.0 cm (rarely reach 3.5 cm) (Dvorak, 2003). Adults are light brown to black and grey underneath, so they are

unlikely to be detected in inspections (Dvorak, 2003). However, slugs would likely be removed when the leaves are cut, 

washed and bundled for shipment. Few pests have been intercepted on Beta vulgaris (126 total; only one of these is a 
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 12

Pest Scientific Name and 

Taxonomic Classification

Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant part 

affected

Quarantine Pest2Follow 

Pathway

References

Deroceras reticulatum

O.F.Muller (Limacidae)

CO, US Leaf No No6 Avila et al., 1996; 

CABI, 2002

Helix aspersa Műller 

(Helicidae)

CO, US Leaf, Stem, 

Flower, 

Root

No No6 CABI, 2005; PestID, 

2007

Lehmannia valentiana 

(Férussac) (Limacidae)

CO, US Whole plant No No6 Hausdorf, 2002; 

Robinson, 2005

Limax marginatus (O.F. 

Műller) = Lehmannia 

poirieri (Limacidae)

CO, US Leaf No No6 Avila et al., 1996; 

NCSU, 2003

Milax gagates (Draparnaud)

(Limacidae)

CO, US Leaf No No6 Avila et al., 1996; 

NCSU, 2003

Theba pisana (Műller) 

(Helicidae)

CO, US Leaf [Yes] No

14 Deisler & Stange, 2001; 

PestID, 2007

Vaginulus sp. (Veronicellidae) CO Leaf Yes No6 Avila et al., 1996

NEMATODES

Aphelenchoides sp.

(Aphelenchoididae)

CO Root. Leaf, 

Soil, Stem

Yes Yes Buriticá, 1999; CABI, 

2002; CABI, 2003

Aphelenchus sp.

(Aphelenchidae) 

CO Leaf, Soil, 

Stem

Yes Yes Buriticá, 1999; CABI, 

2002

Criconemoides sp.

(Criconematidae)

CO Root, Soil Yes No Buriticá, 1999

Ditylenchus dipsaci (Kühn) 

Filip'ev (Anguinidae)

CO3, US Leaf, Soil, 

Stem

No Yes CABI, 2002; EPPO, 

2003; Whitney et al., 

1986

Heterodera glycines Ichinohe

(Heteroderidae)

CO3, US Root, Soil, 

Stem 

No Yes CABI, 2002

Heterodera trifolii

(Heteroderidae)

CO, US Root15, Soil, 

Stem

No Yes Arbelaez et al., 1999; 

CABI, 2003

Helicotylenchus dihystera

(Cobb) Sher (Hoplolaimidae)

CO3, US Root, Soil No No CABI, 2002

Helicotylenchus multicinctus

(Cobb, ) Golden 

(Hoplolaimidae)

CO, US Root, Soil No No CABI, 2003

Helicotylenchus sp.

(Hoplolaimidae)

CO Root, Soil Yes No Buriticá, 1999; CABI, 

2002

 

mollusk interception, Cryptomphalus aspersus in 2005). Given this evidence, the pest seems highly unlikely to follow the 

pathway on this commodity.

14 This snail is hermaphroditic. It lays eggs buried in the soil, in nests of 52-226 (avg 120) eggs. Thus, the eggs are unlikely to 

be directly transported on the commodity (Garrison, 1993). The newly hatched snails are tiny (2 mm diam.), emerging to 

feed on tender plant parts until reaching adult size (12-15 mm [rarely 25 mm]). They may not be readily detected by 

inspection, but the standard post-harvest measures (culling, selection, grading, thoroughly washing, discarding any 

yellowed or damaged leaves, and bunching the leaves) are highly likely remove mollusks from the pathway.

15 Based on biology of H. glycines (CABI, 2003).
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 13

Pest Scientific Name and 

Taxonomic Classification

Geographic 

Distribution1

Plant part 

affected

Quarantine Pest2Follow 

Pathway

References

Hoplolaimus sp.

(Hoplolaimidae)

CO Root, Soil Yes No Buriticá, 1999; CABI, 

2002

Longidorus sp. (Longidoridae) CO Root, Soil Yes No CABI, 2002

Meloidogyne arenaria (Neal) 

Chitwood (Heteroderidae)

CO3, US Root, Soil No No CABI, 2002; Duke, 

1983

Meloidogyne hapla Chitwood 

(Heteroderidae)

CO, US Root, Soil No No CABI, 2003

Meloidogyne javanica (Treub) 

Chitwood (Heteroderidae)

CO3, US Root, Soil No No CABI, 2002; CABI, 

2003; Duke, 1983

Meloidogyne sp.

(Heteroderidae)

CO Root, Soil Yes No Buriticá, 1999; CABI, 

2002

Rotylenchulus reniformis

(Hoplolaimidae)

CO, US Root, Soil No No Buriticá, 1999; CABI, 

2002; Ferreira & Boley, 

1991

Trichodorus sp.

(Trichodoridae)

CO3 Root, Soil Yes No CABI, 2002; CABI, 

2003

VIRUSES

Alfalfa mosaic alfamovirus

(Bromoviridae)

CO3, US Whole Plant No No16 CABI, 2002; Brunt et 

al., 1996 onwards

Clover yellow vein potyvirus

(Potyviridae)

CO3, US Whole Plant No No15 CABI, 2002; Brunt et 

al., 1996 onwards

Cucumber mosaic virus

(Bromoviridae)

CO3, US Whole Plant No No15 CABI, 2002; CDFA, 

2003; Lightfield, 1997; 

Brunt et al., 1996 

onwards

Tomato spotted wilt 

tospovirus (Bunyaviridae)

CO3, US Whole Plant No No15 CABI, 2002; CDFA, 

2003

 

16 Viruses generally require a vector (e.g. insects, nematodes) or some sort of mechanical inoculation into other host plants 

(Brunt et al., 1996 onwards). Chard leaves for consumption are highly unlikely to come into contact with the necessary 

vectors for transmission or be mechanically transferred to other other hosts in the United States.
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 14

2.5. Quarantine Pests Not Considered for Further Mitigation

Plant pests not chosen for further scrutiny may be potentially harmful if introduced into the 

United States; however, there were a variety of reasons for not subjecting them to further 

analysis. First, the pest’s primary association is with plant parts other than Swiss chard leaves 

and stems; this is the case for the Arthropod: Aspidiella hartii. Should this pest be intercepted in 

shipments of Swiss chard from Colombia, quarantine action will be taken, and additional risk 

analysis may be required.

Second, many externally feeding pests are unlikely to be present with the commodity being 

shipped. Snails, such as Deroceras reticulatum, Limax marginatus, Vaginulus sp. and Milax 

gagates, are not anticipated to remain with the commodity (in a viable form) during harvesting, 

culling, selection, grading, packaging and shipping procedures. In the same way, the colorful 

adult insects of Diabrotica speciosa, D. viridula, D. undecimpunctata and Colaspis lebasi are 5-

7.5 mm long and externally feed on the leaves. When visually inspected, these pests can be 

detected and removed from the commodity during harvest and post-harvest processing; as a 

result, it is unlikely that these pests will remain with the commodity (CABI, 2002; Lightfield, 

1997; Hodges, 1995). Additionally, leaves with pest damage will not be chosen for processing.

Organisms identified only to the genus, or higher, taxonomic level are not further analyzed if the 

group already occurs in the United States, even though individual species within those taxonomic 

groups are potential pests that may or may not occur within the United States. By necessity, pest 

risk assessments focus on those organisms for which adequate biological and taxonomic 

information is available. Lack of species identification may indicate the limits of current 

taxonomic knowledge, the life stage or the quality of the specimen submitted for identification. 

The lack of identification at the specific level does not rule out the possibility that a high risk 

quarantine pest was intercepted. This applies to the insects: Agromyzidae spp., Blapstinus sp.,

Epicauta sp., Gryllus sp., Liriomyza sp.; bacterium: Erwinia sp.; fungi: Fusarium sp., Pythium 

sp.; mollusk: Vaginulus sp.; and nematodes: Aphelenchoides sp., Aphelenchus sp., 

Criconemoides sp., Helicotylenchus sp., Hoplolaimus sp., Longidorus sp., Meloidogyne sp., and 

Trichodorus sp.

Ralstonia solanacearum R3B2. We did not further analyze R. solanacearum R3B2, however, 

because a recent pest specific risk analysis concluded that pathogen was highly unlikely to 

establish in the United States via the pathway of fruits and vegetables for consumption (PERAL, 

2011). Analysts examined potential pathways for establishment of R3B2 via disposal of infected 

produce in landfill waste, treated wastewater, and compost. They did not find any likely 

pathways for R3B2-infected commodities imported for consumption to transfer to the 

environment, mostly because of the low likelihood of several required intermediate steps all 

happening within the proper timeframe (e.g., viable bacteria present in run-off flowing into a 

stream, uptake into an irrigation system, and contact with a susceptible host). 

2.6. Quarantine Pests Likely to Follow the Pathway

Quarantine pests expected to follow the pathway, i.e., be associated with commercial shipments 

of Swiss chard are identified below (Table 3), and we analyzed these pests further in this risk 
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 15

assessment [Steps 5-7 (PPQ, 2000)].

Table 3. Quarantine Pests Likely to Follow the Pathway and Selected for Further Analysis

Pest Taxonomy

Copitarsia incommoda Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Liriomyza huidobrensis Diptera: Agromyzidae

2.7. Consequences of Introduction

For L. huidobrensis, and C. incommoda, the potential Consequences of Introduction are rated 

using five Risk Elements: Climate-Host Interaction, Host Range, Dispersal Potential, Economic 

Impact and Environmental Impact. For each Risk Element, the pest is assigned a rating of Low 

(1 point), Medium (2 points) or High (3 points). A Cumulative Risk Rating is calculated by 

summing all Risk Element values (Table 4). The Cumulative Risk Rating is a biological indicator 

of the pest’s potential to establish, spread, 

and cause economic and environmental impacts.

2.7.1. Copitarsia incommoda

Copitarsia consueta is a taxonomically invalid name; its designated replacement name is C. 

incommoda (Gould et al., 2000). Because Copitarsia has not been examined in a modern 

phylogenetic framework, these names might possibly represent geographic variants of one or two 

species. Larval associations with adults have not been made for members of Copitarsia (Gould et 

al., 2000); as a result, benign species may be mistaken for pest species, and may result in the 

rejection of a commodity for importation (Gould et al., 2000).

Climate - Host Interaction. Climate matching and biological models within the Climex (model) 

indicate that the probability of Copitarsia establishment in California, Oregon, and Washington 

is 90 percent, and is between 50 and 70 percent in western Idaho (Gould et al., 2000). Each 

model gives a slightly different degree of risk; however, both models suggest that the probability 

of establishment is >50 percent in portions of New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, 

Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, West 

Virginia, Maryland, Florida, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Indiana and Illinois (Gould et al., 2000). 

Populations could remain at low density levels for years. Outside of South America, there are no 

references of Copitarsia establishing viable populations (Gould et al., 2000). Potential hosts for 

C. incommoda occur throughout the United States and Copitarsia can establish in more than 

three U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones (ARS, 1990). The rating for Climate-Host interaction is High.

Host Range. Copitarsia incommoda feeds on different species in several families: Alliaceae, 

Amaryllidaceae, Asparagaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Compositae, Cruciferae, Leguminosae, 

Plumbaginaceae, Solanaceae, and Umbelliferae, (Angulo and Olivares, 2003; Bautista et al., 

2003; Gould et al., 2000). The rating for Host Range is High.

Dispersal Potential. Small larvae of C. incommoda produce silk threads and can be carried great 

distances by wind (Gould et al., 2000). Although a small proportion of Copitarsia larvae could 
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 16

be transported greater distances under the right environmental conditions, larval dispersal is 

unlikely to allow populations to spread far or rapidly (Gould et al., 2000). However, many adult 

noctuids are capable of utilizing prevailing winds to disperse distances greater than 500 mi 

(Gould et al., 2000). Copitarsia are likely moved throughout the United States by the shipment 

of infested commodities to different parts of the country (Gould et al., 2000). Copitarsia

reproduces sexually; as a result, a Copitarsia larva that enters the United States must locate a 

suitable mate for reproduction, which helps reduce the probability of its establishment.

Copitarsia incommoda females are reported to lay 1,638 eggs on an artificial diet. In Colombia, 

Copitarsia is reported to lay 550 eggs per female and the entire life-cycle, from egg to adult, is of 

61 days (Cardona, et al., 2002; Cardona, et al., 2003). In the field C. incommoda completed 

development on potato in 62 days (Gould et al., 2000). Because long distance spread is possible, 

and the reproductive potential is high, the rating for Dispersal Potential is High.

Economic Impact. Damage from Copitarsia feeding reduces marketability and overall crop 

yields. In South America, Copitarsia reduced marketability of certain vegetables by 24 percent, 

and yields of grains by 80-90 percent (Cardona et al., 2003). Copitarsia is an important pest in 

Colombia, and attacks the shoots and leaves of some plants, reducing their marketability

(Cardona et al., 2002; Cardona et al., 2003). Copitarsia can affect U.S. export markets as well, 

because countries without Copitarsia would likely reject U.S. commodities containing 

Copitarsia larvae. The United States exports at least 15 commodities on which Copitarsia could 

feed (Gould et al., 2000). The rating for Economic Impact is High.

Environmental Impact. If established, Copitarsia can damage the environment both directly, 

through feeding on native plants, and indirectly, due to the use of environmentally harsh methods 

utilized in controlling pest populations. Nearly 700 plants native to the United States are attacked 

by Copitarsia larvae. Seven of the native species (Allium munzii, Helianthus eggertii, Helianthus 

paradoxus, Helianthus schweinitzii, Trifolium amoenum, Trifolium stoloniferum, and Trifolium 

trichocalyx) at risk (from Copitarsia) are listed as Threatened or Endangered by the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service (USFWS, 2004). Indirect environmental damage could be caused when 

pesticides, applied for controlling Copitarsia, leave treated fields, either as drift or contaminated 

groundwater, and affect other species within the ecosystem (Cardona et al., 2003; Gould et al., 

2000). The rating for Environmental Impact is High.

2.7.2. Liriomyza huidobrensis

Climate - Host Interaction. Fifteen plant families are hosts for L. huidobrensis (CABI, 2002; 

Braun and Shephard, 1997; DEFRA, 2001; EPPO 2003; Parrella, 1982; Posada, 1989; 

Saldarriaga et al., 1987; Steck, 1999), and these hosts are present in more than three U.S. Plant 

Hardiness Zones (ARS, 1990). Liriomyza huidobrensis is from a tropical to warm temperate 

region but is also considerably cold hardy, with a freezing point of -18.7°C (-65.66°F). 

Consequently, it can establish in the United States (CABI, 2002). The closely related species, L. 

langei (erroneously identified as L. huidobrensis in previous reports), is a major pest in the 

Salinas Valley of California and Hawaii (Scheffer et al., 2001; Steck, 1999). The behavior of L. 

huidobrensis gives it a greater climatic range for survival (CABI, 2002). In some parts of 

Europe, it is a major pest to ornamental or vegetable crops grown under glass. The temperature 

range corresponds to four (or more) U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones (ARS, 1990), therefore we gave

L. huidobrensis a High rating for Climate-Host Interaction.
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 17

Host Range. The primary hosts for L. huidobrensis include Abelmoschus esculentus, Allium 

cepa, A. porrum, A. sativum, Apium graveolens, Capsicum frutescens, Chrysanthemum x 

morifolium, Cichorium sp., Cineraria sp., Cucurbita maxima, C. moschata, C. pepo, Cynara 

scolymus, Daucus carota, Delilia sp., Dendranthema sp., Dendranthema x grandiflorum, 

Galinsoga sp., Hordeum vulgare, the Inulae family, Lactuca sativa, Matthiola incana, 

Parthenium argentatum, Pastinaca sativa, Phaseolus vulgaris, P. vulgaris var. humilis, Phlox 

sp., Piper nigrum, Pisum sativum, P. sativum var. arvense, Pterocaulon sp., Taraxacum 

officinale, and Senecio vulgaris (CABI, 2002; Braun and Shephard, 1997; DEFRA, 2001; EPPO 

2003; Parrella, 1982; Posada, 1989; Saldarriaga et al., 1987; Steck, 1999). Secondary hosts for L.

huidobrensis are: Amaranthus sp., A. retroflexus, Aster sp., Beta vulgaris, B. vulgaris var. cicla, 

B. vulgaris var. saccharifera, Calendula sp., Cannabis sativa subsp. sativa, Capsicum annuum, 

Citrullus lanatus, Cucumis sp., C. melo, C. sativus, the Cruciferae family, Dahlia sp., Datura sp., 

Dianthus caryophyllus, Gerbera sp., Gypsophila paniculata, Lathyrus sp., L. odoratus, Linum 

sp., L. usitatissimum, Lisianthus russelianus, Lycopersicon esculentum, Medicago sp., M. sativa, 

Melilotus sp., Petunia sp., Primula polyanthus, Raphanus sativus, Solanum melongena, S.

tuberosum, S. tuberosum ssp. andigena, Spinacia oleracea, Tagetes sp., Tropaeolum sp., T.

majus, Valerianella locust, Verbena sp., Vicia faba, Viola sp., Zinnia sp., and Z. elegans. Wild 

hosts for L. huidobrensis are: Oxalis sp., Bidens pilosa, Emilia sonchifolia, Galinsoga parviflora, 

Portulaca oleracea, and Sonchus sp. (Braun and Shephard, 1997; CABI, 2002; DEFRA, 2001; 

DEFRA, 2004; EPPO 2003; Parrella, 1982; Posada, 1989; Saldarriaga et al., 1987; Steck, 1999). 

Liriomyza huidobrensis was also found in consignments on Dendranthema morifolium, 

Eryngium sp., and Gypsophila sp. (EPPO, 2003). In Guatemala, L. huidobrensis attacks 

Cichorium intybus (MacVean and Pérez, 1996). Weeds, such as Trianthema portulacastrum, 

Stachys arvensis, Chenopodium murale, C. album, Datura stramonium, Bidens pilosa, Galinsoga 

parviflora, Diplotaxis muralis, Malva parviflora, Ricinus communis, and Stellaria media also are 

hosts (Mujica and Cisneros, 1996). In Colombia, L. huidobrensis has been found on the 

following hosts: Alstroemeria sp., Capsella bursa-pastoris, Chrysanthemum sp., Galinsoga 

caracasana, Gazania sp., Gypsophila elegans, Petunia sp., and Phaseolus vulgaris humilis

(Spencer, 1984). The list of hosts increases as L. huidobrensis invades new countries (Tømmerås

et al., 2002). The rating for Host Range is High because L. huidobrensis attacks multiple species 

among multiple plant families.

Dispersal Potential. Adults can fly, but leaves and seedlings are liable to carry L. huidobrensis

in trade/transport. Transport pathways for long distance movement include conveyances (road 

and transport/air), travelers, and baggage (land/sea air) (CABI, 2002). Long distance dispersal 

occurs on plant material, cut flowers and in soil, in addition to poorly cleaned equipment or

containers (Tømmerås et al., 2002).

Liriomyza huidobrensis mating occurs within 24 h of emergence; a single mating is sufficient to 

fertilize all eggs. In California, L. langei Frick completes its life-cycle in 17-30 days in the 

summer, and in 50-65 days during the winter (Scheffer, 2000; Scheffer et al., 2001; Scheffer, 

2004). Adults live for 15-30 days (CABI, 2002). The rating for Dispersal Potential is High.

Economic Impact. Liriomyza leafminers can destroy young seedlings, reduce crop yields, and

reduce the quality of ornamental plants (Parrella, 1982). Liriomyza huidobrensis damage is 

caused by larvae mining into leaves and petioles. Adult stings (feeding punctures) and larval 
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 18

mining of leaves reduce photosynthetic capacity, render leaves unmarketable, and provide an 

entrance for pathogens (Mou and Ryder, 2003). Severely infested leaves may fall, exposing plant 

stems to the wind. The presence of unsightly larval mines and adult punctures in the leaf palisade 

of ornamental plants can further reduce value (CABI, 2002). An uncontrolled leafminer 

infestation of L. langei Frick (Scheffer, 2000; Scheffer et al., 2001; Scheffer, 2004) reduced

yields in California of 1500, 24-count cartons to as few as 500 30-48-count cartons (USDA, 

2000). Insect debris contamination from puparia in the harvested plant reduce sale price and 

export potential (USDA, 2000). In young plants and seedlings, mining may cause considerable 

delay in plant development, leading to plant loss. Liriomyza huidobrensis is a major quarantine 

pest in many areas of the world; thus, the introduction and establishment of this pest in the 

United States could cause a loss of international and domestic markets (CABI, 2002). The rating 

for the potential Economic Impact is High.

Environmental Impact. Liriomyza huidobrensis is reported on many different plant species (see 

above). Some genera of these species are listed as endangered and threatened, i.e., Allium, 

Amaranthus, Bidens, Cucurbita, Eryngium, Phlox, Portulaca, Primula, Taraxacum, Senecio, 

Solanum, Verbena, Vicia, and Viola (USFWS, 2004). 

Liriomyza huidobrensis has spread to other continents, where established populations continue to 

grow and are difficult to control. The closely related species, L. langei (erroneously labeled L.

huidobrensis in previous reports (Scheffer et al., 2001)), went from a sporatic, manageable, fall 

pest in the Salinas Valley of CA, to a difficult to control pest that is present throughout much of 

the vegetable growing season (Steck, 1999). Should L. huidobrensis be introduced, insecticide 

programs would be used to control this pest. The rating for Environmental Impact is High.

Table 4. Risk Ratings for Consequences of Introduction

Pest Risk Elements Cumulative

Risk 

Ratinga

Climate/

Host

Interaction

Host 

Range

Dispersal

Potential

Economic

Impact

Environmental 

Impact

Liriomyza huidobrensis High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (15)

Copitarsia incommoda High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (15)

a Low: 5-8 points; Medium: 9-12 points; High: 13-15 points

2.8. Likelihood of Introduction

Pests are rated for the Likelihood of Introduction based on two separate components: an estimate 

of the amount of commodity likely to be imported (Sub-element #1), and pest opportunity (Subelements #2-6). Details of the rating criteria are explained in USDA (2000). Below we 

summarize these ratings and the value for the Likelihood of Introduction (Table 5).
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 19

2.8.1. Quantity of commodity annually imported

In 2003, Colombia produced 2,184 tons of commercial Swiss chard on 130 hectares (Ministerio 

de Agricultura y Desarrollo, 2003 [Ministry for Agriculture and Rural Development]). That year

the country exported 123.8 tons of fresh and frozen chard (Ministerio de Agricultura y

Desarrollo, 2003 [Ministry for Agriculture and Rural Development]). Exports between 2002 and 

2003 rose from 53.2 tons to 123.8 tons, and the volume is expected to increase further. We

anticipate that 85-120 tons would be shipped to the United States. By current records, the annual 

quantity of the commodity exported during the first five years would be at least 4 to 6, 40-foot

shipping containers per year. The risk for this Sub-element is Low.

2.8.2. Survive post-harvest treatment

Colombian producers have a post-harvest process of rating and washing the product. Copitarsia

incommoda is a tiny pest that feeds externally. This pest could be dislodged from the leaf 

surfaces during washing or processing but Swiss chard leaves are typically crinkled, and larvae 

could find sufficient shelter during washing and inspection. Therefore, the rating is Medium.

Liriomyza huidobrensis mines within host leaves, and would be protected from washing. The 

mines and feeding punctures may be visible (CABI, 2005), however, and subject to culling.

Thus, the rating for L. huidobrensis is Medium.

2.8.3. Survive shipment

Copitarsia and Liriomyza are routinely intercepted live at U.S. ports-of-entry on various

commodities in permit cargo (PestID, 2007) indicating they can withstand a range of packing 

and shipping procedures. Both C. incommoda and L. huidobrensis would likely survive shipment 

from Colombia to the continental United States, so the rating is High.

2.8.4. Not detected at the port-of-entry

Colombia does not have a point-of-origin protocol for vegetable inspection. In the case of L.

huidobrensis, feeding punctures appear as white speckles between 0.13 and 0.15 mm in diameter

(CABI, 2002). Punctures related to ovipositioning are smaller (0.05 mm), and uniformly

rounded. Larvae are primarily leaf miners. Mines are usually white with dampened black and 

dried brown areas; they are typically associated with the midrib and lateral leaf veins (CABI, 

2002). Mines are typically serpentine, tightly coiled, and irregularly shaped, increasing in width 

as larvae mature. Several larvae feeding on a single leaf may produce a secondary 'blotch' mine 

type, and leaves may wilt (CABI, 2002). Since leaves attacked by L. huidobrensis can be 

visually detected, the risk associated with the inability to detect this pest is Medium.

PPQ officers at port-of-entry are instructed to inspect 2 percent of a given shipment arriving at a 

U.S. port (Gould et al., 2000); in other words, they are to inspect two boxes out of every 100 

boxes of a certain commodity. To have a 95 percent probability of detecting a pest species, given 

this rate of inspection, often 25 percent or more of the boxes must be inspected. Smaller 

shipments may be even more heavily infested, but still pass inspection (Gould et al., 2000). PPQ 

officers consider that more than 10 percent of the viable larvae of Copitarsia arriving at a port 

would not be detected by routine inspections. Thus, we gave this pest a High risk rating.
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 20

2.8.5. Imported or moved to area with environment suitable for survival

Swiss chard from Colombia will probably be sold in every state. But if the demand for it is 

proportional to population in potential markets, imports might be more concentrated in some 

regions of the United States than in others, not all of which may be in areas conducive for pest 

survival. According to the latest census data (U.S. Census Bureau, 2001), approximately 70

percent of the population resides in states wholly or partly in U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 6-10.

Assuming that infestations will be randomly distributed among shipments, and both pests are 

capable of surviving in Zone 6 and above (see Host-Climate Interaction section), all pests present 

a High likelihood of being moved to a habitat suitable for survival.

2.8.6. Come into contact with host material suitable for reproduction

Since numerous hosts of L. huidobrensis and C. incommoda are present in the continental United 

States, and both pests are capable of movement (by flight or wind), the likelihood that these

imported insects can find host material suitable for reproduction is High.

.

Table 5. Risk Rating for Likelihood of Introduction

Pest Sub-Elements Cumulative

risk rating a

Quantity 

imported 

annually

Survive 

postharvest 

treatment

Survive 

shipment

Not 

detected 

at portof-entry

Moved to 

suitable 

habitat

Contact 

w/ host 

material

Liriomyza huidobrensis Low (1) Med (2) High (3) Med (2) High (3) High (3) Medium (14) 

Copitarsia incommoda Low (1) Med (2) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (15) 

a

Low = 6-9; Medium = 10-14; High = 15-18

2.9. Conclusions

The Pest Risk Potentials were High for L. huidobrensis, and C. incommoda on Swiss chard from 

Colombia (Table 6). Identification and selection of appropriate sanitary and phytosanitary

measures to mitigate risk for pests with High Pest Risk Potential ratings is part of the risk 

management phase. Below we provide risk mitigation options for L. huidobrensis, and C. 

incommoda(Appendix B). The appropriate risk management strategy for a particular pest 

depends on the risk posed by that pest. APHIS risk management programs are dependent on the 

availability of appropriate mitigation methods. APHIS’ risk management programs are published 

in the Federal Register as quarantine notices.

Table 6. Pest Risk Potentials

Organism Consequences of 

Introduction 

Likelihood of 

Introduction 

Pest risk 

potentiala

Liriomyza huidobrensis High (15) Medium(14) High (29)

Copitarsia incommoda High (15) High (15) High (30)

a

Low = 11-18; Medium = 19-26; High = 27-33
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 21

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4. Preparers & Reviewers

Preparers:

Guiovanni Zambrano, Heather Hartzog, Marina Zlotina, Lisa M. Ferguson, Plant Epidemiology

and Risk Analysis Laboratory, Center for Plant Health Science and Technology (CPHST)

Raleigh, North Carolina and Bogota, Colombia.

Reviewers:

Hernan Arango, M. Sc. Phytosanitary Protection

Colombian Agricultural Institute (ICA), Risk Analysis Group

Agricultural and Rural Development, Bogata, Colombia

Ron A. Sequeira, USDA APHIS PPQ CPHST
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5. Appendices

Appendix A. Pest Interceptions on Swiss Chard (Beta vulgaris) Entering the United States from 

1985-2006

Source: PestID, 2007

Pest Origin(s) Where

Agromyzidae, species of

(Agromyzidae)

Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, 

Guatemala, Italy, Mexico, Peru, 

Trinidad and Tobago, Unknown

Baggage, Permit 

Cargo, Quarters, Ships 

Stores

Aleyrodidae, species of

(Aleyrodidae)

India Baggage

Anomala sp. (Scarabaeidae) Mexico Baggage

Aphididae, species of (Aphididae) Hawaii, Mexico Baggage, General 

Cargo, Permit Cargo

Ascochyta sp. United Kingdom Permit Cargo

Aspidiella hartii (Cockerell) 

(Diaspididae)

India Baggage

Brachycaudus sp. (Aphididae) Mexico Permit Cargo

Cercospora beticola Canada, Costa Rica General Cargo, Permit 

Cargo

Chrysomelidae, species of

(Chrysomelidae)

Turkey Ships Stores

Cicadellidae, species of

(Cicadellidae)

Guatemala, Mexico Permit Cargo

Copitarsia sp. (Noctuidae) Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico Baggage, Permit 

Cargo, Ships Stores

Cornu aspersum (Helicidae) Mexico Permit Cargo

Cuscuta sp. (Cuscutaceae) India Baggage

Cylas sp. (Curculionidae) Philippines Baggage

Diaspididae, species of

(Diaspididae)

Japan, Dominican Republic Baggage

Duponchelia fovealis (Crambidae) Japan General Cargo

Emesinae sp. (Reduvinae) Canada General Cargo

Emex spinosa (Linnaeus) Israel Baggage

Empoasca sp. (Cicadellidae) Mexico Permit Cargo

Epitrix sp. (Chrysomelidae) France Ships Stores

Eumerus sp. (Syrphidae) South Korea Baggage

Frankliniella williamsi (Thripidae) Mexico Baggage

Gracillariidae, species of

(Gracillariidae)

Japan General Cargo

Helicoverpa sp. (Noctuidae) Guyana Baggage

Heterodera avenae Wollenweber France Permit Cargo

Heterodera cruciferae Franklin Netherlands Ships Stores
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Pest Origin(s) Where

Heterodera latipons Franklin France Ships Stores

Heterodera sp. Russian Federat Ships Stores

Heterodera sp. (Goettingiana 

group)

Netherlands Ships Stores

Hypera sp. (Curculionidae) Mexico Baggage

Lepidoptera, species of Mexico Permit Cargo

Listroderes sp. (Curculionidae) Mexico Permit Cargo

Meloidogyne incognita Costa Rica Permit Cargo

Margarodidae, species of

(Margarodidae)

Israel Baggage

Myzus persicae (Aphididae) Mexico Permit Cargo

Noctuidae, species of (Noctuidae) Guatemala, Jamaica, Mexico, 

Nicaragua, United Kingdom, 

Venezuela

Baggage, Mail, Permit 

Cargo, Ships Stores

Nymphalidae, species of

(Nymphalidae)

Guatemala , Mexico Permit Cargo

Opogona sp. (Tineidae) India Baggage

Phaedon sp. (Chrysomelidae) France Ships Stores

Phlaeothripidae, species of

(Phlaeothripidae)

Guatemala Ships Stores

Phoma betae Italy Permit Cargo

Phoma sp. United Kingdom General Cargo, Permit 

Cargo

Phyllophaga sp. (Scarabidae) Mexico Permit Cargo

Plutellidae, species of (Plutellidae) Guyana Baggage

Pseudococcidae, species of

(Pseudococcidae)

Israel, India Baggage

Sphingidae, species of

(Sphingidae)

Liberia Baggage

Spodoptera sp. (Noctuidae) Guatemala, Italy Permit Cargo

Spoladea recurvalis (Crambidae) Mexico Permit Cargo, 

Baggage

Syrphidae sp. Mexico Permit Cargo

Trogoderma sp. (Dermestidae) Australia Permit Cargo

Udea rubigalis (Crambidae) Mexico General Cargo

Uromyces betae Mexico Permit Cargo
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 32

Appendix B. Risk Mitigation Options for Quarantine Pests Associated with Imports of Fresh 

Swiss chard from Colombia

The list of quarantine significant pests that attack Swiss chard, and are present in Colombia, was 

developed by searching scientific literature, previous APHIS commodity risk assessments, U.S. 

port interception records, and information provided by the exporting country. Two pests of 

quarantine significance to the continental United States are likely to follow the pathway and were 

analyzed in the pest risk assessment. 

Liriomyza huidobrensis Blanchard (Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Copitarsia incommoda Walker (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

The overall Pest Risk Potential for these pests is High. Specific phytosanitary measures are 

strongly recommended for those pests with High Pest Risk Potential. We summarized the 

mitigation options specific to Liriomyza huidobrensis, and Copitarsia incommoda below (Table 

B1).

The Colombians have proposed that all fresh Swiss chard destined for the continental 

United States will undergo the following packinghouse procedures: washing with

potable water, culling of yellowing or blemished leaves, and hand-grading/sorting for 

quality.

As a supplement to these standard practices, all fresh Swiss chard from Colombia 

destined for consumption into the continental United States is to be shipped in 

packing boxes (not field boxes). The commodity will be clean and free of soil, plant 

parts besides the leaf/upper stem, quarantine pests, and any contaminating pests (e.g.,

hitchhikers like Colapsis lebasi and Diabrotica species) before the box is closed and 

sealed.

Table B1. Summary of Risk Mitigation Options for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Measure(s) Pests Efficacy

Pest-free areas or 

places of 

production

L. huidobrensis, and C. 

incommoda

As a sole mitigative measure, the establishment of 

pest-free areas, or pest-free places of production,

may serve to satisfy the appropriate level of 

phytosanitary protection (IPPC, 1996, 1999). This 

option has proven successful in practice, 

obviating the need for post-harvest commodity

treatments to achieve even probit-9-level security

for certain pests (TDOA, 2003). Establishment 

and maintenance of pest-free areas, or production 

sites, are to be in compliance with international 

standards (IPPC, 1996, 1999; NAPPO, 2004).

Areas of low pest 

prevalence

L. huidobrensis, and C. 

incommoda

May satisfy requirements for appropriate level of 

protection alone, or in combination with other 

measures. Practices for low pest prevalence status 
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 33

Measure(s) Pests Efficacy

are to be in compliance with international 

standards (IPPC, 2005).

Irradiation * L. huidobrensis and C. 

incommoda (larvae 

only)

PPQ-recognized generic dose (400 Grays) 

quarantine treatment on all regulated plant articles 

for all insect pests, except for Lepidopteran pupae 

and adults (USDA, 2006).

MB Fumigation* C. incommoda There is a PPQ recognized treatment (T101-b-1) 

for Copitarsia spp. on asparagus.

L. huidobrensis and C. 

incommoda (as an 

‘external feeder’)

PPQ recognized quarantine treatment for leaf 

miners and external feeders on Swiss chard 

(T101-n-2) (USDA, 2006). Effectiveness on C.

incommoda is not specifically mentioned;

however, the only difference between T101-n-2 

and the option listed above for Copitarsia species 

is a higher temperature treatment option of 80°F 

@ 1.5lbs, with minimum concentration readings 

of 19 oz for 0.5 hours or 14 oz for two hours.

Control measures 

at production site: 

Pest-free, insectproof greenhouses

L. huidobrensis; and C. 

incommoda

This measure can be very effective if plants are 

grown solely in a greenhouse that practices strict 

sanitary procedures. Sanitation effectively

controls or eliminates all types of pests by

directly eliminating the pests, and indirectly by 

eliminating safe hiding places, reducing food 

sources, and inoculum levels (Agrios, 1997; 

Bessin, 2001; Greer and Diver, 2000; Jones and 

Benson, 2001; Roosjen et al., 1999).

Adults of C. incommoda insects have a forewing 

length of 14-19mm (Simmons & Pogue, 2004); L. 

huidobrensis adults are much smaller (wing 

length is 1.3-2.3 mm) (CABI, 2005), and mesh 

screening would have to be be finer than 1.3mm 

to exclude adults. 

Entryways equipped with doors that automatically

close exclude flying adults (of these pests) (Kahn 

and Mathur, 1999). Maintaining a sound 

greenhouse structure helps ensure pest exclusion.

Regular inspections and monitoring are to be 

included as an important part of a pest 

management program (Kahn and Mathur, 1999).
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 34

Measure(s) Pests Efficacy

Control measures 

at production site: 

chemical, 

biological, cultural, 

or physical means.

L. huidobrensis, and C. 

incommoda

A combination of field level controls (insecticidal

sprays, natural enemies, trapping, sanitation, etc.),

followed by inspection at the packinghouse, and

the sampling of the produce, could give a level of 

confidence that the produce is free of the 

quarantine pests or to help meet requirements for 

areas of low pest prevalence or pest-free areas 

(IPPC, 2005, 1999). Research is necessary to 

demonstrate effectiveness.

Some specifics for Liriomyza:

In the United Kingdom, researchers found that 

soil treatment was critical to Liriomyza control

since the pupae may remain viable in the soil and 

re-establish in the following crop (DEFRA, 

1997).

In Israel, Weintraub (2002) stated that L.

huidobrensis adults were resistant to conventional 

insecticides and the only effective insecticides 

were translaminar, which penetrate the leaves to 

affect the leafminer larvae (abamectin, 

cyromazine, neem and spinosad) (Weintraub, 

2002).

Inspections and 

monitoring

L. huidobrensis, and C. 

incommoda, but must be 

used in combination 

with other measures

The Crop Protection Compendium (2005) reports 

the following external symptoms from L. 

huidobrensis: “Feeding punctures appear as white 

speckles between 0.13 and 0.15mm in diameter.

Punctures related to oviposition are smaller (0.05

mm) and are more uniformly rounded. Larvae are 

primarily leaf miners. Mines are usually white 

with dampened black and dried brown areas, and 

are usually associated with the midrib and lateral 

leaf veins. Mines are typically serpentine, tightly

coiled and irregularly shaped, increasing in width 

as larvae mature. Several larvae feeding on a 

single leaf may produce a secondary ‘blotch’ type 

mine and leaf wilting may occur.” Mines may

also undulate between the upper and lower leaf 

surface, so the complete mine may only be visible 

when the leaf is held up to light (DEFRA, 1997).

Adult populations of L. huidobrensis can be 
Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 35

Measure(s) Pests Efficacy

monitered with yellow sticky traps placed in 

production and packing areas (DEFRA, 1997). In 

a report from Israeli potato fields, optimum 

catches of L. huidobrensis occured when yellow 

sticky traps were placed at, or slightly above, 

plant height (Weintraub, 2002). In a L. 

huidobrensis management study in the 

Philippines, researchers discovered that trapping 

between the hours of 10am and 2pm was most 

effective for the detection of adults (Molitas 

Colting et al., 2002).

For Copitarsia, lights traps (specifically

blacklights) can be used to monitor populations 

because adults are night fliers that are attracted to 

light (CAPS, 2000). Visual inspection of Swiss 

chard for larvae may not be effective due to the 

natural hiding places (or folds (crinkles)) in the 

leaves. PPQ officers estimate that more than 10

percent of the viable larvae of Copitarsia arriving 

at a port would not be detected by routine 

inspections (Gould et al., 2000).

*The high level of security afforded by a quarantine treatment may be overwhelmed by a large 

volume of an infested commodity (as demonstrated in a fruit fly study by Powell (2003). For this 

reason, adoption of a particular quarantine treatment is to be used in conjunction with efforts that 

maintain pest populations in production zones below specified densities as would satisfy

requirements for the establishment of areas of low pest prevalence (IPPC, 2005). 

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