CHAPTER 3. MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

3.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 3-1 

3.1.1 Definitions............................................................................................................ 3-1 

3.1.2 Description of Refrigerated Bottled or Canned Beverage Vending 

Machines.............................................................................................................. 3-2 

3.2 TEST PROCEDURES ..................................................................................................... 3-4 

3.2.1 Department of Energy .......................................................................................... 3-4 

3.3 DOMESTIC AND INTERNATIONAL REGULATORY AND NON-REGULATORY 

ACTIVITIES.................................................................................................................... 3-5 

3.3.1 ENERGY STAR .................................................................................................. 3-5 

3.3.2 Canadian Standards Association.......................................................................... 3-7 

3.3.3 California Energy Commission ............................................................................ 3-7 

3.3.4 Australia............................................................................................................... 3-8 

3.3.5 Rebate Programs .................................................................................................. 3-9 

3.4 MARKET ASSESSMENT .............................................................................................. 3-9 

3.4.1 Trade Associations ............................................................................................... 3-9 

3.4.2 Manufacturers and Market Share....................................................................... 3-10 

3.4.2.1 Small Businesses .................................................................................... 3-11 

3.4.3 Equipment Classes ............................................................................................. 3-11 

3.4.4 Typical Refrigeration System ............................................................................ 3-12 

3.4.5 Energy Savings Potential ................................................................................... 3-14 

3.4.6 Barriers to Efficiency Improvements ................................................................. 3-15 

3.4.7 Market Performance Data .................................................................................. 3-15 

3.5 TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT.................................................................................. 3-18 

3.5.1 Higher Efficiency Lighting................................................................................ 3-18 

3.5.2 Higher Efficiency Lighting Ballasts .................................................................. 3-19 

3.5.3 Higher Efficiency Evaporator Fan Motors ........................................................ 3-19 

3.5.4 Evaporator Fan Controls .................................................................................... 3-20 

3.5.5 Higher Efficiency Evaporator Fan Blades ......................................................... 3-20 

3.5.6 Improved Evaporator Design ............................................................................. 3-20 

3.5.7 Low Pressure Differential Evaporators.............................................................. 3-21 

3.5.8 Improved or Thicker Insulation ......................................................................... 3-21 

3.5.9 Improved Glass Pack (for Class A machines) ................................................... 3-22 

3.5.10 Defrost Mechanism ............................................................................................ 3-22 

3.5.11 Thermoacoustic Refrigeration ........................................................................... 3-23 

3.5.12 Magnetic Refrigeration ...................................................................................... 3-23 

3.5.13 Electro-Hydrodynamic Enhanced Heat Transfer ............................................... 3-23 

3.5.14 Copper Rotor Motors ......................................................................................... 3-24 

3.5.15 Higher Efficiency Compressors ......................................................................... 3-24 

3.5.16 Improved Condenser Design .............................................................................. 3-24 

3.5.17 Higher Efficiency Condenser Fan Motors ......................................................... 3-25 

3.5.18 Higher Efficiency Condenser Fan Blades.......................................................... 3-25 

3.5.19 Higher Efficiency Expansion Valves................................................................. 3-25 

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3.5.20 Variable-Speed Compressors ............................................................................. 3-26 

3.5.21 Liquid Suction Heat Exchangers ....................................................................... 3-26 

3.5.22 Condenser Fan Motor Controllers ..................................................................... 3-26 

REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 3-27 

LIST OF TABLES 

Table 3.2.1 American Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers 

Standard 32.1-2004 – Standard Test Conditions .................................................... 3-5 

Table 3.3.1 ENERGY STAR Criteria for Beverage Vending Machines ................................... 3-6 

Table 3.3.2 California Energy Commission – Performance Standards ..................................... 3-8 

Table 3.3.3 Beverage Vending Machine Rebate Programs ....................................................... 3-9 

Table 3.4.1 Beverage Vending Machine Census and Energy Use Data .................................. 3-11 

Table 3.4.2 Small Business Manufacturers of Beverage Vending Machines .......................... 3-11 

Table 3.4.3 Energy Use by Component for Typical Vending Machines ................................. 3-13 

Table 3.4.4 Potential Energy Savings Estimates for Beverage Vending Machines ................ 3-14 

LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 3.1.1 A Typical Glass-Front Beverage Vending Machine ............................................... 3-3 

Figure 3.1.2 A Typical Solid-Door Beverage Vending Machine ................................................ 3-4 

Figure 3.3.1 ENERGY STAR Qualified Refrigerated Beverage Vending Machine 

Models..................................................................................................................... 3-6
 

Figure 3.4.1 Market Performance Data for California Energy Commission Qualified 

Class A Equipment Class ...................................................................................... 3-16 

Figure 3.4.2 Market Performance Data for California Energy Commission Qualified 

Class A Equipment Class ...................................................................................... 3-16 

Figure 3.4.3 Market Performance Data for California Energy Commission Qualified 

Class B Equipment Class ...................................................................................... 3-17 

Figure 3.4.4 Market Performance Data for ENERGY STAR Class A Equipment Class ......... 3-17 

Figure 3.4.5 Market Performance Data for ENERGY STAR Class B Equipment Class ......... 3-18 

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CHAPTER 3. MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT
 

3.1 INTRODUCTION 

This chapter details the market and technology assessment that the U.S. Department of 

Energy (DOE) has carried out in support of the energy conservation standards rulemaking for 

beverage vending machines. This rulemaking is mandated by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 

(EPACT 2005) and is effective for equipment manufactured on or after August 8, 2012. The 

beverage vending machines have never before been the subject of energy conservation 

regulations at the federal level. 

This chapter consists of two sections: the market assessment and the technology 

assessment. The goal of the market assessment is to develop a qualitative and quantitative 

characterization of the beverage vending machine industry and market structure, based on 

publicly available information as well as data and information submitted by manufacturers and 

other stakeholders. Issues that are addressed include manufacturer characteristics and market 

shares, existing regulatory and non-regulatory efficiency improvement initiatives, equipment 

classes, and trends in equipment markets and characteristics. The goal of the technology 

assessment is to develop a preliminary list of technologies that could be used to improve the 

efficiency of beverage vending machines. 

Refrigerated beverage vending machines are used to cool and dispense bottled and 

canned beverages upon payment. This equipment is primarily used in manufacturing facilities, 

office buildings, retail sites, schools, colleges and other institutional buildings. The current 

installed base of beverage vending machines operating in the United States consumes more than 

12 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity annually.1 

3.1.1 Definitions 

Section 135(c)(4) of EPACT 2005 amended section 325 of the Energy Policy and 

Conservation Act (EPCA) to include new subsections 325(v)(2), (3) and (4) (42 U.S.C. 

6295(v)(2)-(4)), which mandates that DOE issue by rule, no later than August 8, 2009, energy 

conservation standards for refrigerated bottled or canned beverage vending machines 

manufactured three years after the date of publication of the final rule establishing the energy 

conservation standards. 

Section 135(a)(3) of EPACT 2005 amended section 321 of EPCA by adding, in part, new 

subsection 321(40), 42 U.S.C. 6291(40), which establishes the following definitions: 

	 The term “refrigerated bottled or canned beverage vending machine” means a 

commercial refrigerator (defined below) that cools bottled or canned beverages and 

dispenses the bottled or canned beverages on payment. 

In addition, section 136(a)(3) of EPACT 2005 amended section 340 of EPCA by 

replacing subsection 340(9), 42 U.S.C 6311(9), with, in part, definitions for the following terms 

relating to commercial refrigeration equipment that are relevant to beverage vending machines: 

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(9) (A) The term “commercial refrigerator, freezer, and refrigerator-freezer” 

means refrigeration equipment that— 

(i) is not a consumer product (as defined in section 321); 

(ii) is not designed and marketed exclusively for medical, scientific, or 

research purposes; 

(iii) operates at a chilled, frozen, combination chilled and frozen, or 

variable temperature; 

(iv) displays or stores merchandise and other perishable materials 

horizontally, semivertically, or vertically; 

(v) has transparent or solid doors, sliding or hinged doors, a 

combination of hinged, sliding, transparent, or solid doors, or no 

doors; 

(vi) is designed for pull-down temperature applications or holding 

temperature applications; and 

(vii) is connected to a self-contained condensing unit or to a remote 

condensing unit.

 As presented above, section 135(a)(3) of EPACT 2005 defines a “refrigerated bottled or 

canned beverage vending machine,” in part, as equipment that cools bottled or canned beverages 

and dispenses them on payment. In the framework document, DOE considered the definitions for 

“bottle” and “can” established in American National Standards Institute (ANSI)/American 

Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standard 32.1– 

2004, which are: 

bottle: a glass or plastic container in which a beverage is sealed. 

can: a container made of metal or paperboard or a combination of both in which a 

beverage is sealed. 

A bottle or can in this context refers to “a sealed container for beverages,” so a bottled or 

canned beverage is “a beverage in a sealed container.” DOE expects that such broad definitions 

for “bottled beverage” and “canned beverage” would allow for more comprehensive coverage of 

existing beverage vending machine equipment, and particularly of certain types of equipment 

that are currently experiencing market growth. 

3.1.2	 Description of Refrigerated Bottled or Canned Beverage Vending Machines 

Refrigerated bottled or canned beverage vending machines can be divided into categories 

by either machine use designation (indoor use only or indoor/outdoor use) or by door type (glassfront or solid-door). The classification of beverage vending machines by machine use 

designation of indoor use only and indoor/outdoor use is explained in detail below. 

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Figure 3.1.1 A Typical Glass-Front Beverage Vending Machine 

The beverage vending machines intended for indoor use only are dominated by glassfront models (Figure 3.1.1) that have a transparent panel which enables a purchaser to see the 

merchandise as it is vended. In this type of machine, the merchandise itself is illuminated and 

used to attract the purchaser’s attention.2 These machines are found primarily indoors because 

the glass fronts make them vulnerable to vandalism in addition to introducing the problem of 

solar gain and heat loss through the glass front. These machines are marked “For Indoor Use 

Only” in accordance with Underwriters Laboratories (UL) Standard 541–2003.3

 The glass-front 

vending machines are also known as “multi-package” vending machines. This design allows the 

consumer to see the merchandise inside the machine—commonly displayed on shelves—with 

some models displaying as many as 45 different varieties of drinks. Product packaging is not 

limited to cans and bottles, and may also include cartons, juice packs, and non-standard bottle 

and can shapes. Upon dispensation, many machines have a mechanism to move the merchandise 

to the door gently rather than dropping the beverage from the upper shelves. With the increasing 

market for non-carbonated soft drinks, such as energy drinks, fruit juices and water (which come 

in a variety of packaging types and sizes), these machines provide a much wider choice for the 

consumer. These glass-front machines are also referred in the industry as “shelf-style” or “fullycooled” machines, because the entire refrigerated volume needs to be cooled, not just the next-tobe-vended product. 

The most common beverage vending machine that is intended for both indoor and 

outdoor use is the solid-door machine (or closed-front machine; Figure 3.1.2) Closed-front 

machines house cans or bottles inside a completely opaque insulated compartment. With soliddoor machines, the vended product cannot be seen and the machine either has signage or a 

backlit panel on the front advertising the contents. The unlit machine (signage only) is typical of 

machines placed in external locations. Depending on the model, these machines can contain up 

to 800 cans and up to 12 varieties of beverages. A small fraction of solid-door vending machines 

are classified as having a “live display” door type, where a sample of product offerings is visible 

to the consumer. Some of these machines show a non-vendible version of the product in a small 

glass window, although the front door is predominantly solid. 

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Figure 3.1.2 A Typical Solid-Door Beverage Vending Machine 

These machines are typically designed so they can be placed outdoors and can withstand 

weather effects. The machines intended for both indoor and outdoor use are marked “Suitable for 

Outdoor Use” or “Suitable for Protected Locations” in accordance with UL Standard 541-2003.3 

These solid-door machines are referred to in the industry as “stack-style” or “zone-cooled” 

machines, because cold air is directed only at the fraction (or zone) of the refrigerated volume 

that contains the next-to-be-vended product. 

3.2 TEST PROCEDURES 

3.2.1 Department of Energy 

Section 135(b) of EPACT 2005 amends section 323 of EPCA by adding, in part, new 

subsection 323(b(15), 42 U.S.C. 6293(b)(15), which requires that the test procedure for 

refrigerated bottled or canned beverage vending machines be based on ANSI/ASHRAE) 

Standard 32.1–-2004, Methods of Testing for Rating Vending Machines for Bottled, Canned or 

Other Sealed Beverages.4

 DOE therefore published a final rule on December 8, 2006, 

incorporating the ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 32.1-2004 with two modifications by reference into 

section 431.294 of subpart Q to Title 10, Code of Federal Regulations Part 431 (10 CFR Part 

431) for the measurement of energy consumption and determination of capacity of this 

equipment. The first modification DOE made in adopting ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 32.1–2004 

was to specify in the final rule that in section 6.2, “Voltage and Frequency,” equipment with dual 

nameplate voltages should be tested at the lower of the two voltages only. The second 

modification DOE made was to specify that the measurement of “vendible capacity” of 

refrigerated bottled or canned beverage vending machines should be in accordance with the 

second paragraph of section 5, “Vending Machine Capacity,” of ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 32.1– 

2004, and that the measurement of “refrigerated volume” of refrigerated bottled or canned 

beverage vending machines should be in accordance with the methodology specified in section 

5.2, “Total Refrigerated Volume,” (excluding subsections 5.2.2.2 through 5.2.2.4) of the 

ANSI/Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers (AHAM) HRF Standard 1–2004, 

‘‘Energy, Performance and Capacity of Household Refrigerators, Refrigerator-Freezers and 

Freezers.”5 

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The current version of ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 32.1–2004: 

	 Defines standard bottled, canned, or other sealed beverage storage capacity, 

	 Establishes uniform methods of testing for determining laboratory performance of 

vending machines for bottled, canned, or other sealed beverages 

	 Defines the following tests and test conditions as shown in Table 3.2.1 below: 

○	 Energy Consumption Test is designed to determine the stabilized daily and unit 

energy consumption of the vending machine over a 24-hour period. 

○	 Vend Test is designed to determine how much cold product a machine will deliver, at 

the required temperature, when products are vended at a rate of two per minute, 3 

hours after a half-full machine is refilled. 

○	 Recovery Test is designed to determine the product temperature recovery time of a 

vending machine when loaded with product at a specified temperature. 

Table 3.2.1 American Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers 

Standard 32.1-2004 – Standard Test Conditions 

Test and Pretest Conditions Energy Consumption Tests Vend Test Recovery Test 

Ambient Temperature Perform twice: At 90±2 °F 

(32.2±1 °C) and at 75 °F±2 °F 

(23.9±1 °C) 

90±2 °F (32.2±1 °C) 90±2 °F (32.2±1 °C) 

Relative Humidity 65±5% for 90±2 °F test 

and 45±5% for 75±2 °F test 

65±5% 65±5% 

Reloaded Product Temperature -­ 90±1 °F (32.2±0.5 °C) 90±1 °F (32.2±0.5 °C) 

Average Beverage Temperature 

(for test) 

36±1 °F (2.2±0.5 °C) 

Throughout Test 

40 °F or less 

(4.4 °C or less) 

Final Temperature 

33-40 °F 

(0.6-4.4 °C) 

Final Temperature 

Average Beverage Temperature 

(for pretest conditions) 

Not Applicable 36±1 °F (2.2±0.6 °C) 

Pretest Conditions 

36±1 °F (2.2±0.6 °C) 

Pretest Conditions 

3.3	 DOMESTIC AND INTERNATIONAL REGULATORY AND NONREGULATORY ACTIVITIES 

Both Canada and the State of California have efficiency standards in place for 

refrigerated beverage vending machines. Australia has several efficiency standards in place for 

beverage vending machines. In addition, the voluntary ENERGY STAR labeling program has 

been in place since 2004. 

3.3.1 ENERGY STAR 

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed voluntary performance 

standards for beverage vending machines as part of the ENERGY STAR labeling program. 

ENERGY STAR is a two-tiered standard with the first tier effective since April 1, 2004, for new 

machines and April 31, 2006, for rebuilt machines. Tier 2 went into effect on July 1, 2007, for 

new machines. Originally, the Tier I standard was set to qualify the top 25 percent most efficient 

machines. With Tier 2 now implemented, some manufacturers are already producing even more 

efficient machines. 

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ENERGY STAR performance criteria for qualification are dependent on vendible 

capacity. Vendible capacity is defined in ASHRAE Standard 32.1-2004 as “the maximum 

quantity of standard product that can be dispensed from one full loading of the vending machine 

without further reload operations when used as recommended by the manufacturer. The standard 

product shall be 12-oz (355 ml) cans for machines that are capable of dispensing 12-oz (355 ml) 

cans. For all other machines, the standard product shall be the product specified by the 

manufacturer as the standard product.” In order to qualify, models must meet the requirements 

for energy use shown in Table 3.3.1. 

Table 3.3.1 ENERGY STAR Criteria for Beverage Vending Machines 

Equipment 

Type 

ENERGY STAR Definition Energy Consumption Under Test Conditions 

Beverage 

vending 

machines 

A self-contained system designed 

to accept consumer payments and 

dispense bottled, canned, and 

other sealed beverages at 

appropriate temperatures without 

on-site labor intervention. 

Tier 1 (effective April 1, 2004) Tier 2 (effective July 1, 2007) 

Y = 0.55  [8.66 + (0.009 

C)]* 

Y = 0.45  [8.66 + (0.009 

C)]* 

*

 Y=24-hour consumption (kWh/day) after the machine has stabilized; C=vendible capacity (number of cans). 

Figure 3.3.1 shows the energy consumption of manufactured units that qualify for 

ENERGY STAR Tier II, as of May 1, 2009.6 

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Figure 3.3.1 ENERGY STAR Qualified Refrigerated Beverage Vending Machine Models 

3.3.2 Canadian Standards Association 

The Canadian Standards Association (CSA) test standard for beverage vending machines 

is CAN/CSA Standard C804–96, Energy Performance of Vending Machines. The CSA standard 

sets out minimum performance criteria for annual energy consumption that vary with the 

category of vending machine. The standard also contains the test procedure. The standard is 

voluntary in all jurisdictions in Canada, except in: 

	 Ontario, where these criteria are regulated by the Province of Ontario's Energy Efficiency 

Act (Ontario Regulation 82/95, amended to O. Reg 18/02) and apply to products 

manufactured, sold or leased after April 1, 2003, and 

	 New Brunswick, where these criteria are regulated in Regulation 95-70 of the New 

Brunswick Energy Efficiency Act (O.C. 95-555), and apply to products manufactured, 

sold, or leased after August 31, 2004. 

In Canada, beverage vending machines are regulated to the CSA standard and not 

covered under a voluntary labeling program. The maximum daily energy consumption allowed 

under the CSA standard is described by the following: 

Y = 8.66 + (0.009 x C)	 Eq. 3.1 

Where: 

Y = 24-hour consumption (kWh/day) after the machine has reached a stable operating 

condition, and 

C = vendible capacity. 

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The ENERGY STAR performance levels are 45–55 percent more efficient than those 

specified in the CSA standard. In 2004, CSA proposed to regulate the energy efficiency levels of 

bottled and canned beverage vending machines to the ENERGY STAR Tier 1 levels, thereby 

harmonizing with the California Energy Commission (CEC). The California levels were chosen 

rather than those of CSA Standard C804–96 because the market data available to the CSA 

indicate that regulating to the CSA standard would have little effect on the market, since the 

major manufacturers are already working toward the more stringent California standard. The 

only major difference is that the CSA proposes to move to the ENERGY STAR Tier 2 levels 

effective January 1, 2008. 

3.3.3 California Energy Commission 

CEC’s tiered specification regulates the minimum energy performance of equipment sold 

in California. The Amendments to Appliance Efficiency Regulations, 

Regulations7

 propose both an energy efficiency standard and a design 

vending machines, as of January 1, 2006 ( 

Table 3.3.2). 

Table 3.3.2 California Energy Commission – Performance Standards 

Product CEC Definition Maximum Daily Energy 

Consumption 

kWh 

Design Standard 

January 1, 

2006 

January 1, 

2007 

Beverage 

Vending 

Machine 

Refrigerated 

canned and 

bottled beverage 

vending 

machines when 

tested at 90°F 

ambient 

temperature 

except multipackage units. 

0.55  (8.66 + 

(0.009  C) 

0.55  (8.66 + 

(0.009  C) 

Refrigerated canned and bottled beverage 

vending machines shall be equipped with hard 

wired controls and/or software capable of 

automatically placing the machine into a lowpower mode during periods of extended 

inactivity while still connected to its power 

source. The machine shall be capable of 

operating in each of the low power mode states 

described below: 

(A) Lighting low power state – lights off for an 

Refrigerated 0.55  extended period. (8.66 + 0.55  (8.66 + 

multi-package 

canned and 

bottled beverage 

vending 

machines when 

(0.009  C) (0.009  C) (B) Refrigeration low power state – the average 

beverage temperature is allowed to rise above 

40 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) for an extended 

period of time. 

tested at 75°F (C) Whole machine low power state – the lights 

ambient are off and the refrigeration operates in its low 

temperature. power state. 

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(D) The machine shall be capable of 

automatically returning itself back to its normal 

operating conditions at the conclusion of the 

inactivity period. The low power mode related 

controls/software shall be capable of on-site 

adjustments by the vending operator or 

machine owner. 

3.3.4 Australia 

The National Appliance and Equipment Energy Efficiency Committee (NAEEEC) has 

15 minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) for a variety of technologies. Report No: 

2008/10, Refrigerated Beverage Vending Machines, released in September 2008.8

 Its standards 

are based on the North American work of the Canadian Standards Association, the California 

Energy Commission, and the U.S. ENERGY STAR program. 

NAEEEC has introduced efficiency regulations by: 

	 MEPS should be implemented based on daily energy consumption. Units will also be 

required to automatically access low power modes and be shipped with those modes 

enabled. 

	 A specific test should be developed by the Standards Australia Working Group under 

ME-008, based on ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 32.1–2004. 

	 The final MEPS levels shall be equivalent to the ENERGY STAR criteria, as amended 

December 2004. 

	 A category of products shall be established as “high efficiency” products that shall be 

equivalent to the higher efficiency tier in ENERGY STAR requirements. 

3.3.5 Rebate Programs 

Several rebate programs for beverage vending machines are offered by local utilities, 

including Austin Energy, Avista Utilities, Connecticut Light and Power, Efficiency Vermont, 

Puget Sound Electricity, San Diego Gas and Electric, Seattle City Light, and Southern California 

Edison. 

The majority of rebate programs offered by the previous organizations involve a cash 

incentive for installing an energy-saving machine sensor control system. This device uses a 

motion detector and a time clock to shut off the lighting and compressor in refrigerated vending 

machines and the entire snack machine when the machines are not being used, particularly 

overnight. These controllers are “smart” and operate to ensure that the beverage is cold, yet can 

save 20–50 percent on the electricity used by these machines. The most widely used device is the 

VendingMiser, created by USA Technologies. 

Table 3.3.3 summarizes some of the rebates available for beverage vending machines. 

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Table 3.3.3 Beverage Vending Machine Rebate Programs 

Utility Condition Rebate/Incentive 

$ 

Austin Energy Installation of VendingMiser Free VendingMiser (listed 

as 200 value) 

Avista Utilities Installation of Machine Sensor Control System 90/unit 

Connecticut Light and Power Installation of Machine Sensor Control System 75/unit 

Efficiency Vermont Installation of Machine Sensor Control System 45/unit 

Puget Sound Electricity Installation of VendingMiser 80/unit 

San Diego Gas and Electric Installation of Machine Sensor Control System 90–125/unit 

Seattle City Light Installation of VendingMiser 80/unit 

Southern California Edison Installation of Machine Sensor Control System 90/unit 

Installation upgrade of shaded-pole evaporator fan 

motor to either permanent split capacitor (PSC) motors 

or electronically commutated motors (ECMs) 

20/motor 

3.4 MARKET ASSESSMENT 

The following market assessment identifies the manufacturer trade association, domestic 

manufacturers of beverage vending machines, manufacturer market share; defines equipment 

classes; provides energy savings potential data; presents barriers to efficiency improvements; and 

summarizes market performance data. 

3.4.1 Trade Associations 

The National Automatic Merchandising Association (NAMA) is the trade association for 

manufacturers of refrigerated beverage vending machines, and the American Beverage 

Association (ABA) is the trade association for the bottlers and syrup companies in the beverage 

industry. 

NAMA was founded in 1933 and serves all food and refreshment vending, coffee service, 

and food management industries. Members of the organization include service companies, 

equipment manufacturers, and suppliers.9 

The technical department of NAMA was founded in 1957 to ensure the vending industry 

serve public health by dispensing safe and wholesome food. To this end, NAMA provides 

various technical services to group members: 

	 Establishment of voluntary “Standard for Sanitary Design and Construction of Food and 

Beverage Vending Machines” 

	 Inspection of vending machines for compliance with Food and Drug Administration and 

NAMA requirements; 

	 Certification of companies and individual vending machines as “NAMA” approved, 

which may be advertised as a service mark; 

	 Training for technicians on effective vending machine maintenance; and 

	 Industry Publications on technical services, health, and safety. 

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ABA is the trade association for America’s non-alcoholic refreshment beverage industry. 

It is closely linked with the refrigerated beverage vending machine industry in so far as ABA’s 

members (e.g., Pepsi-Cola Co., Coca-Cola Co.) are the largest purchasers of beverage vending 

machines. The association provides a forum for the members to discuss common issues and 

serves as an industry liaison to the government and public. It offers technical and non-technical 

services to its members. In addition, ABA projects a unified voice for the non-alcoholic 

refreshment beverage industry in legislative and regulatory matters.10 

3.4.2 Manufacturers and Market Share 

The three manufacturers that hold a majority of domestic market share for beverage 

vending machines are listed below. 

 Crane Merchandising/Dixie-Narco, Inc. 

 Royal Vendors, Inc. 

 Sanden-Vendo America 

Other manufacturers of refrigerated beverage vending machines are listed below. 

 Seaga Manufacturing
 

 Automatic Merchandising Systems 

 Multi-Max Distributed Vending System 

 Distributed Vending Company 

 Edina Technical Products 

 Jofemar USA 

 Wittern Group 

Table 3.4.1 summarizes relevant market and performance data for beverage vending 

machines. Values are presented for installed base, annual shipments, equipment lifetime, unit 

energy consumption, and national aggregate energy consumption. 

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Table 3.4.1 Beverage Vending Machine Census and Energy Use Data 

Census and Energy Use Data Source of the Data 

Installed Base (units): 

 Cans 2,400,000 

 Bottles 1,125,000 

 Other 186,000 

Total 3,711,000 

Arthur D. Little, Inc. (ADL) (1996)11 

Annual Shipments (units): 342,000 Appliance Magazine 51st Annual Report (2003 values) 

Unit Energy Consumption: 

3,000 kWh/year 

3,644 kWh/year 

ADL (1996)11 

E-SOURCE (1996)1 

Primary Annual Energy Consumption: 0.121 quad ADL (1996)11 

3.4.2.1 Small Businesses 

DOE considered the possibility that small businesses would be particularly impacted by 

the promulgation of energy conservation standards for beverage vending machines. The Small 

Business Administration (SBA) defines small business manufacturing enterprises for automatic 

vending machine manufacturing as those having 500 employees or fewer.12 SBA lists small 

business size standards for industries as they are described in the North American Industry 

Classification System (NAICS). The size standard for an industry is the largest that a for-profit 

concern can be in that industry and still qualify as a small business for Federal Government 

programs. These size standards are generally expressed in terms of the average annual receipts or 

the average employment of a firm. For beverage vending machines, the size standard is matched 

to NAICS code 333311, Automatic Vending Machine Manufacturing, and is 500 employees. 

DOE studied the potential impacts on these small businesses in detail and presented the 

results in the manufacturer impact analysis (MIA; chapter 12 of this TSD). Table 3.4.2 lists the 

small business beverage vending machine manufacturers that DOE has identified. 

Table 3.4.2 Small Business Manufacturers of Beverage Vending Machines 

Royal Vendors, Inc. Seaga Manufacturing, Inc. Automatic Merchandising Systems, Inc. 

Multi-Max Vending Wittern Group Edina Technical Products 

3.4.3 Equipment Classes 

Beverage vending machines can be divided into different equipment classes categorized 

by physical characteristics that affect the efficiency of the equipment. Most of these 

characteristics affect the merchandise that the equipment cools and vends, and how that 

merchandise is accessed by the customer. Key physical characteristics are the door type (glassfront or solid-front) and the vendible capacity (or the refrigerated volume) of the machine. The 

energy consumption of the refrigerated beverage vending machine also depends on where the 

machine is placed (indoors or outdoors) and the ambient conditions (temperature and relative 

humidity) to which it is exposed. DOE proposed the following four equipment classes in its 

Framework document, defined according to equipment use designation and physical 

characteristics such as door type: 

Beverage vending machines for indoor use only: 

(a) Class A Machine (glass front or fully cooled) 

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(b) Class B Machine (any beverage vending machine) 

Beverage vending machines for indoor/outdoor use: 

(a) Class A Machine (glass-front or fully-cooled) 

(b) Class B Machine (closed-front or zone-cooled) 

However, based on comments made by the stakeholders at the Framework public 

meeting, and data showing that there are few Class A machines installed outdoors (because of 

safety and vandalism reasons) and hardly any Class B machines that are certified for indoor use 

only, DOE has decided to use the following two equipment classes of beverage vending 

machines: 

(a) Class A Machine (glass front or fully cooled) 

(b) Class B Machine (any beverage vending machine not considered to be Class A) 

DOE has reduced the number of equipment classes from four to two. Energy usage has 

been proven to be unaffected by machine location. Research has also proven there are not any 

locations in the U.S. whose annual temperature gradient would warrant a separate equipment 

class to differentiate indoor and outdoor machines. Therefore, DOE is using the following two 

equipment class descriptions: 

	 Class A beverage vending machines manufactured today typically utilize a transparent 

(glass or transparent polymer) front and generally use “shelf-style” vending mechanisms. 

Because the next-to-be-vended product is visible to the consumer and any product can be 

selected by the consumer off of the shelf, all bottled or canned beverage containers are 

necessarily enclosed within the refrigerated volume. 

	 Class B beverage vending machines in use today generally have an opaque front and 

utilize a “stack-style” vending mechanism. The next-to-be vended bottled or canned 

beverage is not generally visible to the consumer and is located at the bottom of a vertical 

stack of beverage containers. Any products visible to a consumer in this class of 

machines are for display purposes only. 

3.4.4 Typical Refrigeration System 

Vending machines use self-contained refrigeration systems consisting of a compressor, 

evaporator, condenser, and expansion device. In Class A machines, the compressor and 

condenser are typically located in a compartment to one side of the refrigerated cabinet. In Class 

B machines, the compressor and condenser are typically located in the bottom portion of the unit, 

between the ground and the refrigerated cabinet. Refrigerant is piped through the expansion 

device to an evaporator inside the refrigerated cabinet. The compressor consumes by far the most 

energy in the vending machine. Laboratory test results of a single Class A and a Class B machine 

for a 24-hour test with ambient conditions at 90 °F and 65 percent relative humidity indicate the 

compressor accounts for 65–75 percent of the total energy consumed (Table 3.4.3).13 Oversized 

single-speed compressors are commonly used to provide excess cooling capacity to pull down 

product temperatures quickly after the machine is restocked. A condenser fan operates 

concurrently with compressor cycling and uses less than 10 percent of the total energy. The 

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evaporator fan runs continuously to distribute air through the refrigerated cabinet and consumes 

about 8 percent of total machine energy. Lighting systems usually remain on the entire time a 

vending machine is plugged in. Different lighting systems are used, depending on the machine, 

but usually consume 5–20 percent of the total energy. Dispensing mechanisms operate 

intermittently, whenever a product is purchased, and therefore do not use a significant amount of 

energy (1–3 percent) compared to other components. 

Table 3.4.3 Energy Use by Component for Typical Vending Machines 

Component Class A Machine 

% 

Class B Machine 

% 

Compressor

Condenser Fan 

Evaporator Fan 

Lighting 

Money-Handling Mechanism 

76 

9 

8 

4 

3 

65 

7 

8 

19 

1 

Heat enters the refrigerated section of the cabinet by the following methods: 

	 Released by the evaporator fan motor 

	 Released by the lighting (glass-front units only) 

	 Conduction through the insulated envelope 

	 Infiltration through imperfections in construction such as cracks in the box or improperly 

sealed delivery doors 

	 Radiation through the glass front (glass-front units only) 

	 Product restocking (warm product placed into the machine must be cooled to acceptable 

temperature). 

A vending machine’s refrigeration system is highly vulnerable to changes in its 

surroundings. Cooling load can be increased by high ambient temperatures, which raise head 

pressure, resulting in loss of refrigeration effect and increased compression ratio. High ambient 

temperatures also increase conduction, radiation, and sensible infiltration loads. High humidity 

increases latent infiltration load, and can cause extreme ice build-up on the evaporator coil. This 

may severely restrict airflow through the unit and minimize the amount of heat absorbed by the 

refrigerant. Exposure to sunlight greatly increases heat gain into the refrigerated space through 

direct solar radiation (especially in glass-front machines) raises the sol-air temperature of the 

cabinet exterior, and increases conduction load. Exposure to high-intensity lighting fixtures can 

have a similar (but smaller) effect. 

Condenser coils are usually located in the bottom of the machine, with air intakes at 

ground level. Because coils often get dirty and clogged, condensers often lose their heat rejection 

effectiveness, which reduces refrigeration capacity and increases compressor power use. Steel 

security cages are often placed around machines, especially when they are outdoors. These cages 

trap heat rejected by the condenser as it exits the rear of the machine. Trapped heat increases the 

inlet air temperature at the condenser, causing operations at higher condensing temperatures. 

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The site owner can improve vending machine efficiency by keeping machines in 

cool/shaded locations to minimize sun exposure, keeping condenser coils clean, and installing a 

controller that will shift the unit to low power mode based on low traffic or low sales rate. 

3.4.5 Energy Savings Potential 

In the Priority Setting Document (October 2005),14 DOE estimated that the cumulative 

energy savings potential in 2010–2035 ranges from 0.48–1.11 quads for beverage vending 

machines, depending on the energy efficiency technologies implemented, as shown in Table 

3.4.4. 

Table 3.4.4 Potential Energy Savings Estimates for Beverage Vending Machines 

Technology/Standard Level Energy 

Savings 

Potential 

% 

Annual Energy 

Savings 

Potential 

quads 

Energy Saving 

Potential 

(2010-2035) 

quads 

Source 

Combination (high efficiency 

compressor and brushless DC 

evaporator fan motor) 

28 0.034 0.71 ADL (1996) 

<2 Years Payback (ECM for 

evaporator fans and high efficiency 

compressor) 

32 0.039 0.85 ADL (1996) 

<5 Years Payback (add high 

efficiency condenser fan motor) 

42 0.051 1.11 ADL (1996) 

ENERGY STAR Tier 1 18 0.022 0.48 ENERGY STAR website 

ENERGY STAR Tier 2 33 0.040 0.87 ENERGY STAR website 

CEC January 1, 2006 18 0.022 0.48 CEC Appliance 

Efficiency Regulations 

CEC January 1, 2007 18 0.022 0.48 CEC Appliance 

Efficiency Regulations 

Source: “FY2006 Appliance Standards Program Priority-Setting Summary Report and Actions Proposed,” Beverage 

Vending Machines – Energy Saving Potential Estimates, DOE (October 2005). 

The technologies shown in the above table are described below. 

	 Combination of technologies: This is a theoretical “combination” of two technologies 

presented in the ADL 1996 report—a high efficiency compressor and a brushless directcurrent (DC) evaporator fan motor. Both the compressor and the evaporator fan motor are 

relatively simple to change and could be deployed on a retrofit basis. The energy savings 

potential for vending machines was shown at 28 percent of annual energy consumption, 

with simple payback periods of about 1 year for the high efficiency compressor and about 

two years for the brushless DC evaporator fan motor. 

	 Less than 2-year payback technologies: The 1996 ADL report details beverage vending 

machine designs including energy efficient technologies that individually have either a 

less than 2-year or a less than 5-year PBP. A combination of high efficiency compressor, 

electronic lighting ballast and an ECM evaporator fan motor was shown to have a 

payback of less than 2 years. These energy efficient technologies gave an energy savings 

potential of 32 percent. 

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	 Less than 5-year payback technologies: A combination of variable-speed compressor, 

electronic lighting ballast, an ECM evaporator fan motor and improved insulation was 

shown to have a payback of less than 5 years, giving a 42 percent total energy savings 

potential. 

 ENERGY STAR and CEC do not specify a specific technology but require 

manufacturers to design equipment to meet performance specification levels. 

3.4.6 Barriers to Efficiency Improvements 

A split-incentive system is where bottling companies or distributors purchase nearly all 

vending machines from the equipment manufacturers but do not pay the utility bills associated 

with their operation. The split-incentive system, described in a 2002 report by the American 

Council for an Energy Efficient Economy15 is the largest barrier to improved efficiency for 

beverage vending machines. In general, the bottlers or distributors place the machines at the enduser’s site for free in exchange for the exclusive right to service the machine and/or to split the 

coin-box revenues with the end user. In almost all cases, the end user, not the bottler or 

distributor, pays the electric bill. Consequently, most bottling companies and distributors are 

concerned primarily with first costs and have little interest in energy efficiency because they do 

not pay the utility bills. Accordingly, manufacturers do not include efficiency measures in their 

designs if the measures increase initial cost, despite the short payback periods. 

In short, barriers to adoption of energy efficiency technologies include a focus by 

equipment purchaser on first costs, lack of awareness of the availability of energy efficiency 

improvements, and a lack of incentive since the equipment purchaser generally does not pay the 

utility bills. 

3.4.7 Market Performance Data 

DOE conducted a survey of existing beverage vending machines and compiled a 

performance database. The primary source of information for the database was equipment data 

sheets that were publicly available on the CEC and ENERGY STAR websites.16,17 From these 

data sheets, equipment data such as capacity and daily energy consumption (DEC), according to 

the test procedure in ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 32.1–2004, are known. Figure 3.4.1, Figure 3.4.3, 

Figure 3.4.4 and Figure 3.4.5 show DEC values as a function of vendible capacity, while Figure 

3.4.2 shows DEC values as a function of refrigerated volume (in cubic feet). 

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Figure 3.4.1 Market Performance Data for California Energy Commission Qualified 

Class A Equipment Class 

Figure 3.4.2 Market Performance Data for California Energy Commission Qualified 

Class A Equipment Class 

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Figure 3.4.3 Market Performance Data for California Energy Commission Qualified 

Class B Equipment Class 

Figure 3.4.4 Market Performance Data for ENERGY STAR Class A Equipment Class 

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Figure 3.4.5 Market Performance Data for ENERGY STAR Class B Equipment Class 

3.5 TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT 

The purpose of the technology assessment is to develop a preliminary list of technologies 

that could potentially be used to improve the efficiency of beverage vending machines. 

3.5.1 Higher Efficiency Lighting 

Refrigerated beverage vending machines often include lighting to illuminate the contents, 

an exterior sign, or both. Class A machines typically include interior lighting to illuminate the 

merchandise on display, while Class B machines have an illuminated sign on the exterior. Higher 

efficiency lighting leads to energy savings in two ways: less energy is used directly for lighting 

and, in those units with lighting internal to the refrigerated space, less heat energy is dissipated 

into the refrigerated volume by the lamp and ballast. 

Efficiency in lighting is commonly measured as efficacy (lumens/watt), or the quantity of 

light output (measured in lumens) per electrical energy input (measured in watts). Recently, the 

vending machine industry has been moving toward the use of T-8 fluorescent lighting in all 

cases, which is substantially more efficacious than T-12 lighting, and is predominantly used with 

electronic ballasts, which are more efficient than magnetic ballasts commonly used in T-12 

lighting. 

An even more recent trend is the use of light emitting diode (LED) technology. Although 

LEDs are currently less efficacious than fluorescent technology, they are more directional than 

linear fluorescent bulbs, allowing for comparable illumination with less total wattage. There have 

been recent advancements in LED efficacy as well as the adoption of LED technology by Seaga 

Manufacturing in their new Premium Collection of refrigerated beverage vending machines. 

Research by the Lighting Resource Center indicates that lighting display cases using LEDs were 

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found desirable by consumers. LEDs are predicted to steadily increase in efficacy and decrease 

in cost as technology improves.18 These predicted trends have been proven true since the 

ANOPR. See chapter 5 of the TSD for a detailed description of the changes made to LED prices 

and specifications for the final rule. 

3.5.2 Higher Efficiency Lighting Ballasts 

Most illuminated beverage vending machines use fluorescent lighting with magnetic 

ballasts, which use inductance to modulate power flow to fluorescent lamps. Magnetic ballasts 

have significant electrical resistance losses. Electronic ballasts use solid state electronics to 

modulate power provided to fluorescent lamps. Electronic ballasts, which convert power at high 

frequency, have lower electrical resistance losses compared to magnetic ballasts which operate at 

line frequency. In addition, fluorescent lamps operate more efficiently at the higher frequency 

provided by electronic ballasts. In addition to the direct reductions in electrical power 

consumption, heat generated by the lighting and the lighting ballast contribute to the heat load. 

By increasing ballast efficiency, the compressor load is also reduced. 

3.5.3 Higher Efficiency Evaporator Fan Motors 

Evaporator fan motors move air across the evaporator coil and typically run at one speed. 

Manufacturers match the motor size and blade to the evaporator coil to meet the expected load 

under most conditions. Higher efficiency evaporator fan motors reduce energy consumption by 

requiring less electrical power to generate motor shaft output power. 

Electric motors operate based on the interaction between a field magnet and a magnetic 

rotor. In a brushed motor, the field magnets are permanent magnets and the rotor is an 

electromagnet; the situation is reversed in a brushless motor. The electromagnetic interactions 

between these two magnets cause the rotor to rotate. 

The simplest type of electric motor—the single-phase electric motor—suffers from a 

serious shortcoming. Single-phase motors only produce a rotating magnetic field when the rotor 

is rotating, and simply powering the electromagnet is therefore not sufficient to start such a 

motor. One of the most significant differences between different types of single-phase motors is 

the way in which they handle this start-up problem. 

Nearly all inexpensive fan motors are of either the shaded-pole or the permanent split 

capacitor (PSC) variety, and the same is most likely true for standard beverage vending machine 

fan motors (fan motors not marketed as “high efficiency”). In both cases, the electromagnet 

consists of windings of electrical wire through which current is driven. In a shaded-pole motor, a 

portion of these windings is “shaded” by a copper loop. The interactions between the magnetic 

field generated by the shaded portion and that generated by the un-shaded portion induce rotation 

when the motor is powered. The imbalance between the shaded and un-shaded portions of the 

magnet remains throughout operation. As a result, shaded-pole motors are inefficient, with 

typical motor efficiencies less than 20 percent.19 Shaded-pole motors are, however, electrically 

simple and inexpensive. 

In a PSC motor, a smaller, start-up winding is present in addition to the main winding. 

The start-up winding is electrically connected in parallel with the main winding and in series 

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with a capacitor. At start-up, the interactions between the magnetic field generated by the start up 

winding and that generated by the main winding induce rotation. Because of the capacitor, 

however, the current to the start-up winding is cut off as the motor reaches steady state. Because 

of this, PSC motors are more energy efficient than their shaded-pole counterparts, with motor 

efficiencies ranging from 50–70 percent. Like shaded-pole motors, PSC motors are produced in 

large quantities and are relatively inexpensive.20 Beverage vending machine equipment fan 

energy efficiency can be substantially improved by replacing shaded-pole motors, in the models 

that use them, with PSC motors. 

A third type of electric motor, the electronically commutated permanent magnet (ECM) 

motor (also known as a brushless permanent magnet motor), is more energy-efficient than either 

shaded-pole or PSC motors. ECM motors, which are sold in high volumes, are three-phase 

electric motors with efficiencies even greater than PSC motors. However, ECM motors can 

weigh about twice as much and are more expensive than equivalent PSC motors. 

3.5.4 Evaporator Fan Controls 

Typically, evaporator fan controls are programmed such that the evaporator fan runs at a 

100 percent duty cycle to circulate cold air at all times and to prevent frost build up on the 

evaporator fan coil. However, refrigerated beverage vending machine utility can be maintained 

with a lower duty cycle. This could be accomplished through software reprogramming and the 

addition of relays and switches. 

3.5.5 Higher Efficiency Evaporator Fan Blades 

High efficiency evaporator fan blades, or tangential evaporator fans, move air more 

efficiently, yielding energy consumption savings by reducing the required fan shaft power. The 

evaporator fans typically used in beverage vending machines have sheet metal blades. The blades 

are typically supplied by a fan blade manufacturer and mounted to the motor by the equipment 

manufacturer. These fan blades are not optimized for refrigerated beverage vending machines. 

Evaporator fans may have lower efficiencies due to the higher required pressure drops, for which 

sheet metal fans are not well suited. Required fan shaft power could be reduced if the fan blades 

were optimized for each given application. 

Tangential fans also provide an opportunity to decrease equipment energy consumption.21 

Tangential fans utilize a vortex builder to generate a uniform airflow over a large surface. This 

makes them better suited to evaporator and condenser fans, which need to distribute airflow over 

a large coil surface area. A single long tangential fan can meet the airflow requirements for an 

entire refrigerated cabinet, while requiring a single high efficiency fan motor. 

3.5.6 Improved Evaporator Design 

The evaporator is a refrigerant-to-air heat exchanger composed of metals with high 

thermal conductivity such as aluminum and copper. It is responsible for evaporating and 

superheating the entering refrigerant liquid-vapor mixture while extracting heat from the air in 

the refrigerated space. The internal heat-exchanging surfaces in contact with refrigerant are 

commonly referred to as “refrigerant-side” while the external heat-exchanging surfaces in 

contact with the air are referred to as “air-side.” 

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Depending on the requirements of the equipment, the evaporator will have a discharge air 

temperature (DAT) that can be up to 10 F colder than the desired temperature of the product in 

the refrigerated space. Because a temperature difference is necessary to drive heat from the air 

into the refrigerant, the saturated evaporator temperature (SET) must be considerably colder than 

the DAT. The magnitude of this driving force is directly related to the total refrigeration load and 

the thermal characteristics of the evaporator as shown in Eq. 3.2: 

(CAT  DAT ) Q   TLM  Eq. 3.2  CAT  SET  UA ln

 

 DAT  SET 

Where: 

Q = the total refrigeration load in British thermal units per hour (Btu/h), 

U = the heat transfer coefficient of the evaporator in Btu/F/square foot (ft2

),
 

A = the area of the evaporator in ft2, 

CAT = the case air temperature, and 

ΔTLM = the log mean temperature difference of the coil in F.
 

Increasing the area of the coil decreases the necessary ΔTLM and therefore decreases the 

SET. This results in an increased compressor energy efficiency ratio (EER) and lower 

compressor energy consumption. 

Enhancements to the refrigerant-side surface area of the evaporator typically include 

rifled or diamond-pattern tubing and increased number of tube passes. Enhancements to the 

air-side surface area include increased fin pitch (decreased fin spacing), fin patterns (wavy or 

zig-zag), and increased numbers of tube passes. 

Increasing the overall size of the coil in one or more dimensions without changing other 

aspects of the coil is another way to increase the area. However, most applications limit the 

amount of coil size increase. Most approaches to increasing the evaporator surface area also 

result in an increase in required fan motor power and an increase in refrigerant pressure drop. 

3.5.7 Low Pressure Differential Evaporators 

Decreasing the air-side pressure drop of an evaporator coil allows for the use of lowerpower evaporator fan motors. This requires reducing restrictions to the flow of air across the coil 

such as high fin pitch, and high numbers of tube passes. Large spaces between fins and tubes 

also reduce frost “bridging,” which can completely block airflow through portions of the coil. 

3.5.8 Improved or Thicker Insulation 

Either increasing the insulation thickness or reducing insulation thermal conductivity will 

reduce the energy consumption of beverage vending machines. Typical insulation thickness for 

refrigerated beverage vending machines ranges from 1.5–2 inches. Blow-in polyurethane foam is 

used for most machines. The impact of an increase in insulation thickness and insulation quality 

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is limited for glass-front machines by the fact that a large portion of the cooling load is due to 

infiltration. 

Improved-technology polyurethane foam insulation has a reduced conductivity, which 

reduces the heat load. The improvement is due mainly to the formation of smaller air cells within 

the foam insulation structure and better cell-size consistency. Use of better foam reduces the heat 

load, assuming no wall thickness change. 

The importance of refrigerated volume suggests that technologies that allow reduction in 

insulation thickness while maintaining thermal resistivity (R-value) would be of interest. 

Vacuum panels could provide such performance. Vacuum panels are airtight panels sealed with 

glass or plastic, which are evacuated to eliminate a conduction path. They are generally filled 

with supporting powder that prevents collapse of the external seal. Much work needs to be done 

to demonstrate the reliability of vacuum panels to show that they will perform for many years 

without leaking and losing their insulating value. In addition, current-technology vacuum panels 

do not provide the necessary structural rigidity between sheet metal panels that is possible with 

foamed-in-place polyurethane insulation. 

3.5.9 Improved Glass Pack (for Class A machines) 

For Class A machines, the glass front allows consumers to view the merchandise they can 

purchase. However, the glass front (referred to as a glass pack) allows heat transfer due to 

radiation and glass packs typically are not good insulators of heat compared to solid walls. Thus, 

any improvements made to the glass pack to reduce radiation and conduction heat loads will also 

reduce compressor power. Glass pack improvements can be accomplished in several ways: 

addition of spectrally selective coatings (referred to as low-E coatings), adding panes of glass, 

using argon instead of air as a filler gas, and switching from an aluminum frame to a vinyl frame. 

3.5.10 Defrost Mechanism 

As the air in the refrigerated space is cooled, water vapor condenses on the surface of the 

evaporator coil. In refrigerators and freezers, where the evaporator coil is below 32 °F, this water 

freezes as it collects, forming a growing layer of frost. The frost reduces cooling performance by 

increasing the thermal resistance to heat transfer from the coil to the air, and by obstructing 

airflow. Both the method in which defrost is performed and control of the defrost cycle can lead 

to increased energy savings. 

There are two methods available for defrosting the evaporator coil in this case: off-cycle 

defrost and electric defrost. Off-cycle defrost involves shutting off refrigerant flow to the coil 

while leaving the evaporator fan running. This method is used where cabinet air is above the 

freezing point of water and can be used to melt the frost. Electric defrost is used where the air 

temperature is not high enough to defrost the coil, and where defrost must occur quickly to 

prevent any significant rise in product temperature. Electric defrost involves melting frost by 

briefly turning on an electric resistance heater, which is in contact with or near the evaporator 

coil. 

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3.5.11 Thermoacoustic Refrigeration 

Thermoacoustic refrigeration is a technology that uses high-amplitude sound waves in a 

pressurized gas to pump heat from one place to another. A device consisting of a series of small 

parallel channels, referred to as a “stack,” is fixed in place at a set location inside a resonator 

tube. In the case of a thermoacoustic refrigerator, external work is supplied by the standing 

sound wave in the resonator. 

The longitudinal standing sound wave causes the gas particles to oscillate back and forth 

parallel to the walls of the stack. The alternating compression and rarefaction of the gas causes 

the local temperature of the gas to oscillate due to the adiabatic nature of sound waves. If the 

local temperature of the gas becomes higher than that of the nearby stack wall, heat is transferred 

from the gas to the stack wall. If the local temperature of the gas drops below that of the stack 

wall, heat is transferred from the wall to the gas. 

Prototypes of thermoacoustic refrigerators have been demonstrated for refrigeration 

applications. A prototype thermoacoustic refrigeration unit designed for an ice-cream freezer has 

been measured to be as efficient as the vapor compression unit it replaces. This technology is 

expected to improve in efficiency with further development of heat exchangers and other 

subsystems. It is also likely that efficiency in many applications could improve because 

thermoacoustic refrigerators are well suited to proportional control, where the cooling capacity 

can be continuously controlled so that the output can be adjusted accurately for varying load 

conditions. Although this technology currently does not improve upon the efficiencies of 

conventional refrigeration technology, thermoacoustic refrigeration has the environmental 

benefit of being refrigerant-free. 

3.5.12 Magnetic Refrigeration 

Magnetic refrigeration utilizes the magneto-caloric effect where magneto-caloric 

materials like gadolinium absorb heat from their surroundings when entering a magnetic field, 

then reject heat to their surroundings when exiting a magnetic field. When magneto-caloric 

materials are circulated through magnetic fields and combined with heat exchangers to transfer 

heat, they can be used to remove heat from a refrigerated space and reject heat to the 

surroundings. 

This refrigeration technology could be used in any possible application where cooling, 

heating or power generation is used today. Because of the early stage of development, many 

technical issues need to be addressed for this technology to be commercially viable. 

3.5.13 Electro-Hydrodynamic Enhanced Heat Transfer 

Electro-hydrodynamic (EHD) enhanced heat transfer is the result of applying a highvoltage electrostatic potential field across a heat transfer fluid, such as a refrigerant or refrigerant 

mixture. The applied field destabilizes the thermal boundary layer, thereby producing better 

mixing of the bulk fluid flow and increasing the net heat transfer coefficient. This procedure 

appears to be more effective when applied to phase-change processes (e.g., boiling and 

condensation). 

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This phenomenon is typically used to electronically control the capacity of a heat 

exchanger by raising the applied voltage to increase the heat transfer. This can lead to improved 

efficiencies by using smaller capacity equipment, most of the time without EHD, and then 

utilizing the EHD effect during peak loads. EHD can replace, or work in conjunction with, 

enhanced surface heat exchangers. To use EHD, an electrical voltage (from a few volts to 

thousands of volts) is applied to the heat transfer device. However, because the heat transfer 

fluids are typically dielectric (of low electrical conductivity), even high voltages produce very 

little current. This low current helps keep the power (voltage x current) and the associated energy 

penalty low. 

3.5.14 Copper Rotor Motors 

Making the critical components of an induction motor’s rotor (e.g., conductor bars and 

end rings) out of copper instead of aluminum, which is the current practice, improves the energy 

efficiency of the motor. The greater electrical conductivity of copper results in lower resistance 

heating losses in the rotor and thus lower losses in the motor. Further improvements in the design 

and fabrication of copper motors, such as optimization of the steel laminations, could further 

increase the efficiency of copper motors over aluminum motors. 

3.5.15 Higher Efficiency Compressors 

Several technologies exist to increase the efficiency of beverage vending machine 

compressors. High efficiency reciprocating and scroll compressors, sometimes incorporating 

variable-speed motors, all have higher efficiencies than the traditional reciprocating compressors 

commonly used in beverage vending machines. 

Scroll compressors compress gas in a fundamentally different manner from traditional 

compressors—between two spirals, one fixed and one rotating. High efficiency reciprocating 

compressors are as efficient, or more efficient, than scroll compressors. However, some 

drawbacks exist including noise, cost and reliability, compared to scroll compressors. 

3.5.16 Improved Condenser Design 

Like the evaporator, the condenser is a refrigerant-to-air heat exchanger composed of 

metals with high thermal conductivity such as aluminum and copper. It is responsible for 

condensing and sub-cooling the entering refrigerant vapor while rejecting heat from the 

refrigerant to the ambient air. 

Depending on the requirements of the equipment, the condenser will have a saturated 

condenser temperature (SCT) that is about 10 °F warmer than the ambient air. As with 

evaporator coils, increasing the area of the condenser coil will decrease the necessary ΔTLM of the 

coil and therefore decrease the SCT, resulting in increased compressor efficiency (increased 

EER). 

Enhancements to the refrigerant-side surface area of the condenser typically include 

rifled or diamond-pattern tubing and increased number of tube passes. Enhancements to the airside surface area include increased fin pitch (decreased fin spacing), fin patterns (wavy or 

zigzag), and increased numbers of tube passes. 

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Increasing the overall size of the coil in one or more dimensions without changing other 

aspects of the coil is another way to increase the area. However, most applications limit the 

amount of coil size increase in order to maintain overall equipment dimensions. Most approaches 

to increasing the condenser surface area also result in an increase in required fan motor power 

and an increase in refrigerant pressure drop. 

3.5.17 Higher Efficiency Condenser Fan Motors 

Condenser fan motors are responsible for moving air across the condenser coil and 

typically run at one speed. The manufacturer will match the motor size and blade to the 

evaporator coil to meet the expected load on the case under most conditions. Higher efficiency 

condenser fan motors reduce energy consumption by requiring less electrical power to generate 

motor shaft output power. Condenser fan motors are generally of the same size and type as 

evaporator fan motors. See section 3.5.3 for a discussion of higher efficiency evaporator fan 

motor technology. 

3.5.18 Higher Efficiency Condenser Fan Blades 

High efficiency condenser fan blades, or tangential condenser fans, move air more 

efficiently, yielding energy consumption savings by reducing the required fan shaft power. The 

condenser fans typically used in refrigeration equipment have sheet metal blades. The blades are 

typically supplied by a fan blade manufacturer and mounted to the motor by the equipment 

manufacturer. These fan blades are not optimized for beverage vending machines. Required fan 

shaft power could be reduced if the fan blades were optimized for each given application. 

Tangential fan also provide an opportunity to decrease refrigeration equipment energy 

consumption. Tangential fans utilize a vortex builder to generate a uniform airflow over a large 

surface. This makes them ideal for evaporator and condenser fans that need to distribute airflow 

over a large surface area. A single long tangential fan can meet the airflow requirements for an 

entire condenser, while only requiring one high efficiency fan motor. 

3.5.19 Higher Efficiency Expansion Valves 

Expansion valves are refrigerant metering devices whose purpose is to control the amount 

of refrigerant flowing to the evaporator coil. In doing so, they simultaneously decrease the 

temperature and pressure of the refrigerant, creating a cold liquid-vapor mixture. The low 

temperature of the refrigerant leaving the expansion valve creates the driving force to move heat 

out of the refrigerated space and into the evaporator. 

The most basic type of expansion device is a capillary tube, which is used in beverage 

vending machines. The capillary tube is a long, thin piece of pipe that creates a pressure drop in 

the refrigerant through frictional losses. Capillary tubes must be sized to the particular 

application and cannot adjust for variations in load or ambient operating conditions. They are 

often oversized for worst-case conditions, and therefore may operate at reduced efficiency during 

normal operation. However, using an alternate technology such as a thermostatic expansion 

valve (i.e., TXV) or an electronic expansion valve (i.e., EEV) will likely not provide significant 

energy savings over a properly sized capillary tube under steady-state conditions. 

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3.5.20 Variable-Speed Compressors 

Variable-speed compressors are implemented through the use of an electronic control on 

the compressor motor, which allows the motor to operate at different speeds. Variable-speed 

compressors typically increase efficiency over a broad operating range but do not inherently 

increase maximum efficiency at the compressor rating point. Variable-speed compressors reduce 

energy consumption in three ways: 

1.	 When refrigerant flow is reduced during part-load operation, the condenser and 

evaporator (designed for full flow conditions) are more effective and thus more efficient. 

Temperature drops decrease, resulting in reduced pressure rise across the compressor, 

which also improves efficiency. 

2.	 Close matching of load eliminates the cycling that occurs with single-stage compressors. 

Maintaining a constant pressure is more efficient because losses at higher pressure rise 

are greater than gains at lower pressure rise. 

3.	 During the off-cycle, the pressure in the system equilibrates. At the intermediate pressure, 

refrigerant vapor condenses in the cold evaporator rather than the condenser. Essentially, 

some of the heat rejection load is rejected to the evaporator during this time, reducing 

overall system performance. Variable-speed operation would eliminate or significantly 

reduce compressor off-time and the related inefficiencies. 

3.5.21 Liquid Suction Heat Exchangers 

The purpose of a liquid suction heat exchanger is to further cool the flow of liquid 

refrigerant entering the expansion valve using the flow of gaseous refrigerant leaving the 

evaporator, thus providing additional sub-cooling for the entering liquid by super-heating the 

exiting suction vapor. Hotter suction vapor is desirable because it is less susceptible to heat gains 

in the return piping to the compressor, provides an additional margin of safety as superheated 

vapor for compressor operation (since any liquid entering the compressor may cause damage). 

Additional sub-cooling of the liquid entering the expansion valve is desirable because it provides 

additional cooling capacity in the evaporator. However, the compressor work is increased 

because the suction vapor has greater enthalpy. In addition, the possibility of compressor 

overheating brought on by the combination of increased compressor work and hotter vapor limits 

the use of this method in some situations. The possibility for these problems and the potential 

gains of liquid suction heat exchangers depend on several factors, including evaporator 

temperature, type of refrigerant used, and system pressures. 

3.5.22 Condenser Fan Motor Controllers 

Condenser fan motor controllers allow fan motors to run at variable speed, to match 

changing conditions in the vending machine. Matching the fan speed to all conditions improves 

coil performance. This allows the refrigeration system to run more efficiently at different 

ambient humidity and temperature levels. However, under steady-state conditions, there is no 

energy savings benefit with condenser fan motor controllers. 

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REFERENCES
 

1. Houghton, D. 1996. “Refrigerated Vending Machines – Overlooked Devices Hold 

Opportunities for Efficiency, New Services”, Tech Update TU-96-7, E Source, 

Inc., Boulder, Colorado 

2. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. 

(ASHRAE) Handbook “2006 Refrigeration”, ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA. 

3. Underwriters Laboratories (UL) Standard 541-2003, Refrigerated Vending 

Machines. 

4. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, 

Inc.(ASHRAE), 2004. Methods of Testing for Rating Vending Machines for 

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14. U.S. Department of Energy. 2005. FY2006 Appliance Standards Program 

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18. Lighting Resource Center, LRC, Ramesh Raghavan and Nadarajah Narendran, 

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<http://www.iprocessmart.com/leeson/leeson_singlephase_article.htm> 

20. U.S. Department of Energy. “Technical Support Document for Energy 

Conservation Standards for Room Air Conditioners.” September 1997. 

21. “Investigation of Energy-Efficient Supermarket Display Cases,” Oak Ridge 

National Laboratory, December 2004. 

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