## Importation of **Fresh Sw** **iss Chard ,**  **Beta vulgaris L. ssp.**  **cicla**

**(L.) Koch**  **, from Colombia**  **into the Continental United States**

**A Pathway -**  **initiated Risk**  **Analysis**

**July 15 ,**  **20 1**  **1 Version**  **5**

**Agency Contact**  **:** Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory Center for Plant Health Science and Technology United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service Plant Protection and Quarantine 1730 Varsity Drive , Suite 300 Raleigh, NC 27606Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 ii 

### Executive Summary The Republic of Colombia requested authorization to export fresh Swiss chard, Beta vulgaris ssp. cicla (L.) Koch , into the c ontinental United States. We prepared a list of pests associated with Swiss chard from Colombia based on documents submitted by the Colombian Ministry

for Agriculture and Rural Development, the Colombian Agricultural Institute, USDA records of intercepted pests , scientific literature, and the opinions o f experts in Swiss chard production. The Colombian Department of Agriculture proposes that all fresh Swiss chard destined for consumption to the continental United States undergo the following packinghouse procedures: washing with potable water , culling of yellowing or blemished leaves, and hand

- grading/sorting for quality
. As a supplement to these standard practices, all fresh Swiss chard from Colombia destined for the continental United States is to be shipped in p acking boxes (not field boxes). The commodity

is to be clean and free of soil, extraneous plant parts (besides the leaf/upper stem), quarantine pests, and contaminating pests ( e.g ., hitchhikers like Colapsis lebasi and Diabrotica species) before shipping boxes are closed and sealed. We identif

ied two quarantine pests associated with Swiss chard which could be introduced into the United States via imports of the fresh commodity :

 L iriomyza huidobrensis Blanchard (Diptera: Agromy zidae)

 Copitarsia incommoda Walker (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) We gave both pests ratings o f High Pest Risk Potential, and summarized some mitigation options in Appendix B
.Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 iii 

### T **able of Contents Executive Summary**  **................................ ................................**  **................................ ......................**  **ii 1. Introduction**  **................................ ................................**  **................................ ...............................**  **1 2. Risk Assessment**  **................................ ................................**  **................................ ........................**  **2** 2.1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action 2 2.2. Assessment of Weed Potential of Beta vulgaris 2 2.3. Current Status, Decision

- making History and Pest Interceptions 3 2.4. Pest Categorization

- Id entification of Beta vulgaris pests in Colombia 3 2.5. Quarantine Pests Not Considered for Further Mitigati on 14 2.6. Quarantine Pests Likely to Follow the Pathway 14 2.7. Cons equences of Introduction 15 2.8. Likelihood of Introduction 18 2.9. Conclusions 20 **3. Literature Cited ................................**  **................................ ................................**  **...................... 21**  **4. Preparers & Reviewers ................................**  **................................ ................................**  **........... 29**  **5. Appendices ................................**  **................................ ................................**  **............................... 30**  Appendix A. Pest Interceptions on Swiss Chard (Beta vulgaris) Entering the United States from 1985

- 2006 30 Appendix B. Risk Mitigation Options for Quarantine Pests Associated with Imports of Fresh Swiss chard from Colombia 32Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 1 

### 1 **. Introduction**  This pest risk assessment was prepared b y the Center for Phytosanitary Excellence (CEF) in Bogota, Colombia, with assistance from USDA, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHI S) , P lant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ)
. The assessment was done in response to a request from the Colombian Agricultural Institute (ICA) to examine potential pest risks associated with the exportation of Swiss chard ( Beta vulgaris L. ssp. cicla (L.) Koch) from Colombia into the continental United States
. Th e a ssessment is pathway

- initiated because it is based on the importation of the commodity
. This risk assessment is also qualitative ; risk is expressed in terms of H igh, Medium , and Lo w rather than in probabilities or frequencies. The methodology

and rating criteria are explained in Pathway

- initiated Pest Risk Assessments: Guidelines for Qualitative Assessments , Version 5.02 (PPQ, 2000 ). The International Plant Prote ction Convention (IPPC) provide s standards for conducting pest risk anal ys es (IPPC, 2004, 2006 a). The methods used to initiate, conduct, and report this assessment, as well as the use of biological and phytosanitary terms , are based on these standards. IPP C standards describe three stages of pest risk analysis: Stage 1, Initiation; Stage 2, Risk Assessment; and Stage 3, Risk Management. This document satisfies the requirements of IPPC Stages 1 and 2 , and provides risk mitigation options for Stage 3. Swiss chard belongs to the goosefoot famil y, Chenopodiaceae ; it is also known as chard, leaf beet, or spinach beet. Swiss chard lacks the fleshy root of the garden beet. Its large, glossy, dark green leaves are borne on white, fleshy leafstalks ( Stephens, 2003)
. Chard is commonly found in gardens throughout Florida as a winter vegetable and a summer cooking green ( Stephens, 2003). The ancestral form of all beets (Swiss chard , beetroot, fodder beet , and sugar beet) is the wild Sea Beet (

Beta maritima ), which is distributed throughout the Mediterranean and near Asian areas (Klapp, 1967)
. The wild form is variable and adaptable, with branched tap

- roots and varying sugar content. Swiss chard, the main root of which is not swollen, was cultivated as a leaf vegetable in Greece around 400 B
. C. Through mutation, varieties have been developed with widened leaf stalks , which are used as a vegetable similar to asparagus (Klapp, 1967)
. The crop is produced by

removing the outer leaves and allowing the center leaves to grow. Stems of the outer leaves are cut while still tender , 1
- 2 inches above the soil surface. When carefull y harvested, chard will continue to produce leaves through the summer into late fall (Hodges, 1995). The process for preparing Swiss chard for market includes thoroughl y washing the leaves , discarding yellowed or damaged leaves , and bunching them (Hodges, 1995). The succulent, gloss y, dark green leaves, which are slightl y crinkled, are eaten as cooking greens. Chard is ready to eat 50
- 60 days from seeding ( Stephens, 2003). F avorite varieties are the green

- leaved “Lucullus” and " Fordhook Giant , ” and the red

- leaved “Rhubarb ” variety ( Stephens, 2003).Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 2 

### 2 **. Risk Assessment**  **2.1 .**  **Initiating Event: Proposed Action**  This commodity

-based, pathway

- initiated assessment is in response to a request made by the Colombian Agricultural Institute (ICA) (letter No. 04840 dated 03 Jun 2003 ) to the USDA to allow the importation of Swiss chard, grown in Colombia, into the continental United States. Title 7 of the Code of Federal Regulations 319, Part 56 (7 CFR § 319 .56 , 2007 ) provides regulatory

authority for the importation of fruits and vegetables from foreign sources into the United States. **2.2 .**  **Assessment of Weed Potential of**  **Beta vulgaris** The results of the screening of weed potential for B

. vulgaris did not prompt a weed

- initiated risk assessment (Table 1).
**Table 1.** Assessment of Weediness Potential of Beta vulgaris L. ssp. cicla (L .) Koch **Commodity:** Swiss chard **Scientific name and author:** Beta vulgaris L. ssp. cicla (L.) Koch (NCRS, 2004) **Synonyms:** Beta cicla (L.) L .; Beta vulgaris L. var. cicla L. (NCRS, 2004) **Plant family:** Chenopodiaceae (NCRS, 2004) **Common name:** chard (NCRS, 2004) **Phase 1:** Beta vulgaris was introduced to the United States from other countries. It occurs throughout the United States and is grown commercially (NCRS, 2004 ). **Phase 2:** Is the species listed in: NO Geographical Atlas of World Weeds (Holm et al ., 1991) NO World’s Worst Weeds (Holm et al ., 1977 ) NO Report of the Technical Committee to Evaluate Noxious Weeds; Exotic Weeds for the Federal Noxious Weed Act (Gunn and Ritchie, 1982) NO Economicall y Important Foreign Weeds (Reed, 1977) NO Composite List of Weeds (WSSA , 1989) NO AGRICOLA, CABI , AGRI S Other literature and database search indicating weediness: NO World weeds: natural histories and distributions (Holm et al ., 1997) NO World Economic Plants (Wiersema and León, 1999) NO Florida's Invasive Species List , Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council (FLEPPC, 200 3 ) NO Federal Noxious Weed List (APHI S , 2000) NO State Regulated Noxious Weeds (NPB, 2003) **Phase 3:** There is no need for a weed

- initiated risk assessment for Beta vulgaris L. ssp. cicla (L .) Koch
. The species is widely prevalent as a common crop in the United States and there is no evidence of invasive characteristics in the above references ; onl y the species Beta vulgaris L. is listed in the Geographical Atlas of World Weeds (Holm et al ., 1991).Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 3 **2.3 .**  **Current Status, Decision -**  **m aking History and Pest Interceptions**  Fresh Swiss chard is currently authorized for import to the United States from the West Indies, Belize, Bermuda, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Germany, Guatemala, Honduras, Italy, Korea, Mexico, the Netherlands, Panama, Peru and Portugal (PPQ, 2004 )
. In 1970 and 1972, beets without tops could enter Puerto Rico and New York (subject to inspection) from Venezuela. In 1997, a pest risk assessment was drafted to assess the risk associated with Swiss chard export from Peru into the c ontinental United States. Between 1985
- 200 6, many different species of pests were intercepted on Beta vulgaris entering the United States (PestID, 2007; Appendix A). **2 .**  **4 .**  **Pest Categorization -**  **Identification of Beta vulgaris**  **pests in Colombia**  Below we present information on: (1) the presence of pests in Colombia relative to presence in the United States, (2) the generall y affected plant part( s ) , (3) the quarantine status o f the pest in the United States, (4) whether the pest is likel y to follow the pathway into the United States on Swiss chard, and (5) pertinent citations for either the distribution or the biology of the pest ( Table 2 )
. This table was the basis for selecting pests for anal ys is. Most literature references were not specific to the subspecies of B

. vulgaris ssp. c icla . Consequently , we emphasized the plant parts attacked when considering pests of B

. vulgaris
. Many organisms were eliminated from consideration because they did not satisfy the definition of a quarantine pest
. A quarantine pest is defined as, “ a pest of potential economic importance to the area endangered thereby and not yet present there, or present but not widel y distributed and being officially controlled” ( IPPC , 2006 ).
**Table 2.** Pests of Beta vulgaris (in any country) and present in Colombia (on any host). **Pest Scientific Name and Taxonomic Classification**  **Geographic Distribution**  **1 Plant**  **p art** 

**a ffected**  **Quaran******

**tine Pest 2**  **Follow**

**Pathway References**  **ARTHROPODA ACARI**  **Tetranychus desertorum** Banks (Acari: Tetranychidae) CO 3 , US Leaf No Yes Bolland et al ., 1998 **Tetranychus ludeni** Zacher CO 3 , US Leaf No Yes Bolland et al ., 1998 **Tetranychus urticae** Koch = T. cinnabarinus (Acari: Tetranychidae) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes Bolland et al ., 1998; CABI, 2002; Lightfield, 1997

1 Distribution Legend: CO =Colombia; US = United States. 2 Brackets indicate that the pest is in limited distribution in the United States and is either under official control or under consideration for official control 3 Pest interceptions (or reports) on Swiss chard from countries other than Colombia; intercepti ons or reports of these pests on other hosts from Colombia.Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 4 **Pest Scientific Name and Taxonomic Classification**  **Geographic Distribution**  **1 Plant**  **p art** 

**a ffected**  **Quaran******

**tine Pest 2**  **Follow**

**Pathway References**  **INSECTA Agromyzidae**  **sp.** (Diptera: Agromyzidae) CO 3 Leaf Yes Yes Figueroa, 1977; PestID, 2007 **Agrotis ipsilon** (Hufnagel) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) CO 3 , US Leaf, Seedling, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002; Figueroa, 1977; Lightfield, 1997; Toth & Stinner, 2001 **Aphis fabae** Scopoli (Homoptera: Aphididae) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes Figueroa, 1977; Lightfield, 1997 **Aphis gossypii** Glover (Homoptera: Aphididae) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes Arnett, 2000; Figueroa, 1977; Lightfield, 1997 **Aulacorthum solani** (Kaltenbach) (Homoptera: Aphididae) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes Figueroa, 1977; Lightfield, 1997 **Bem isia argentifolii**  Bellows Perring Gill & Hendrick = Bemisia tabaci (B biotype) (Gennadius) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) CO 3 , US Leaf, Seedling (Leaf, Stem) No Yes CABI, 2002; Toth & Stinner, 2001

**Bem isia tabaci**  (Gennadius) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) CO 3 , US Leaf, Seedling (Leaf, Stem) No Y es Arnett, 2000; CABI, 2002; Toth & Stinner, 2001 **Blapstinus sp.**  (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) CO 3 Seedling (Leaf, Stem) Yes No PestID, 2007 ; Toth & Stinner, 2001 **Colaspis lebasi** Lefevre (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) CO, US (FL) Leaf [ Yes ] No 4 Figueroa, 1977 ; PestID, 2007 ; Thomas, 2002 **Copitarsia incommoda** Walker (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) CO 3 Leaf Yes Yes 5 Bautista et al ., 200 3 ; Gould et al ., 2000 ; Robinson et al

. , 200 4 **Diabrotica speciosa** (Germar) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) CO 3 Leaf, Stem Yes No 6 CABI, 2002; Figueroa, 1977; Lightfield, 1997 **Diabrotica undecimpunctata**  Mannerheim (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) CO 3 , US Leaf Yes 7 No 6 CABI, 2002; Courneya, 2004; Figueroa, 1977; Hollingsworth, 2003

4 Only the adults of C. lebasi are associated with the leaves of the host (Figueroa, 1977). Information on a related species ( C. brunnea ) of grapes states that larvae are only associated with the roots (Pfiiffer, 1986). P est interceptions ( PestID, 2007 ) of Colaspis species suggest it travels as hitchhiker; however, it is not anticipated that adults would survive standard post

harvest treatments of Swiss chard from Colombia ( culling, selection, grading, thoroughly washing, discarding any yellowed or damaged leaves, and bunching the leaves)
. 5 Copitarsia species have been intercepted over 8,200 times on a variety of hosts (and plant parts) from Colombia. These pests were primarily found in permit carg o shipments ( mo st only identified to the g enus level) ( PestID, 2007 ). Almost all the interceptions were living, immature specimens. Based on the high numbers of interceptions on commodities that may have undergone similar post

-harvest treatments, C. incommoda are likely to survive the standard post

-harvest treatments of Colombian Swiss chard destined for the United States. 6 Although the pest attacks Swiss chard, it is not likely to remain with the commodity during standard processing
. T hese pests could be detected with the naked eye and removed from the commodity b y culling, selection, grading, thoroughly washing, discarding any yellowed or damaged leaves , and bunching the leaves. 7 Part of a species complex; undescribed species in the complex are of quarantine concern to the United States (Courneya,Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 5 **Pest Scientific Name and Taxonomic Classification**  **Geographic Distribution**  **1 Plant**  **p art** 

**a ffected**  **Quaran******

**tine Pest 2**  **Follow**

**Pathway References**  **Diabrotica viridula** Fabricius (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) CO 3 Leaf, Stem Yes No 6 Figueroa, 1977; Lightfield, 1997 **Epicauta sp.**  ( Coleoptera: Meloidae) CO 3 Leaf Yes Yes PestID, 2007 ; Hollingsworth, 2003 **Epitrix cucumeris** (Harris) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) CO 3 , US Leaf No Yes Arnett, 2000; CABI, 2005; Figueroa, 1977; Toth & Stinner, 2001 **Estigmene acrea** Drury (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) CO 3 , US Seedling (Leaf, Stem) No No Arnett, 2000; CABI, 2002; Toth & Stinner, 2001 **Frankliniella occidentalis** (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) CO 3 , US Leaf No Yes Arnett, 2000; CABI, 2002; Toth & Stinner, 2001 **Gryllus sp.**  ( Orthoptera: Gryllidae) CO 3 Seedling (Leaf, Stem) Yes No PestID, 2007 ; Toth & Stinner, 2001 **Helicoverpa zea** (Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) CO 3 , US Leaf, Seedling (Leaf, Stem) No Yes Arnett, 2000; CABI, 2002; Toth & Stinner, 2001 **Heliothis virescens** (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) CO 3 , US Leaf, Seedling (Leaf, Stem) No Yes Arnett, 2000; CABI, 2002; Toth & Stinner, 2001 **Herpetogramma bipunctalis** (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes Arnett, 2000; Figueroa, 1977; Lightfield, 1997 **Hortensia similis** (Walker) (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) CO, US Leaf No Yes Figueroa, 1977; Neartica, 1998 **Hyperomyzus lactucae** Linnaeus (Homoptera: Aphididae) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002 **Liriomyza brasiliensis**  (Frost) (Diptera: Agromyzidae) CO Root , Stem Yes No 8 Barranco, 2003; Figueroa, 1977 ; Squire, 1972 **Liriomyza huidobrensis**  **8** (Blanchard) (Diptera: Agromyzidae) CO Leaf Yes 9 Yes Arnett, 2000; EPPO, 2003; Figueroa, 1977; Lightfield, 1997; PestID, 2007 ; Posada, 1989 2004) 8 Literature suggests that Liriomyza brasiliensis only attacks the roots of this commodity (Figueroa, 1977), although in one case it attacks the stems of potato (Squire, 1972). We found no reference s depicting activity of this pest in the stem of Swiss chard. If additional information later indicates that this pest could attack the stems of Swiss chard , we may re evaluate its status with regard to this pathway. In this document , we analyzed the related species L. huidobrensis
. Any mitigation options used for L. huidobrensis should offer comparable protection against L. brasiliensis
. 9 Liriomyza huidobrensis is present in California and is not under official control; this is the only report within the continental United States ( CABI , 2005). However, according to Scheffer (2000; 2004) and Scheffer et al. (2001), the records on L. huidobrensis within the United States really refer to Liriomyza langei Frick, which is a cryptic species of Liriomyza huidobrensis . According to Reitz (2004), “there is no evidence that what is currently known as Liriomyza huidobrensis isPest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 6 **Pest Scientific Name and Taxonomic Classification**  **Geographic Distribution**  **1 Plant**  **p art** 

**a ffected**  **Quaran******

**tine Pest 2**  **Follow**

**Pathway References**  **Liriomyza sativae** Blanchard (Diptera: Agromyzidae) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes Arnett, 2000; Figueroa, 1977; Lightfield, 1997 **Liriomyza sp.**  (Diptera: Agromyzidae) CO 3 Leaf Yes Yes Toth & Stinner, 2001 **Liriomyza trifolii** Burgess in Comstock (Diptera: Agromyzidae) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002; EPPO, 2003; Lightfield, 1997 **Macrosiphum euphorbiae** (Thomas) (Homoptera: Aphididae) CO 3 , US Leaf No Yes CABI, 2002; Figueroa, 1977; Lightfield, 1997; Toth & Stinner, 2001 **Metopolophium dirhodum**  (Walker) (Homoptera: Aphididae) CO, US Leaf No Yes CABI, 2003; PestID, 2007 **Mythimna unipuncta** Haworth

= Pseudaletia unipuncta (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) CO, US Leaf, Stem, Seed No Yes CABI, 2003; Robinson et al ., 2004 **Myzus persicae** Sulzer (Homoptera: Aphididae) CO 3 , US Leaf No Yes Figueroa, 1977; Lightfield, 1997; Toth & Stinner, 2001 **Omiodes indicata** (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) CO 3 , US (GA, FL) Leaf No Yes Adams, 2003; CABI, 2002; Neartica, 1998 **Onychiurus armatus** (Tullberg) (Collembola: Onychiuridae) CO, US Root No No CABI, 2003; Corredor et al ., 1999 **Peridroma saucia** (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) CO 3 , US Seedling (Leaf, Stem) No No Arnett, 2000; CABI, 2002; Toth & Stinner, 2001 **Phthorimaea operculella** (Zeller) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes Arnett, 2000; Figueroa, 1977; Lightfield, 1997 **Plutella xylostella** Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Plutellinae) CO 3 , US Seedling (Leaf, Stem) No No CABI, 2002; Toth & Stinner, 2001 **Pseudoplusia includens**  (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) CO, US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2003; Robinson et al ., 2004 **Spodoptera eridania** Stoll (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes Arnett, 2000; EPPO, 2003; Figueroa, 1977; Lightfield, 1997 **Spodoptera exigua** Hübner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) CO, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Mowlam & Vega , 1977; Zhang, 1994

established in the US.” Because of this recent evidence , we are presuming that L

. huidobrensis does not occur in the United States , and is a quarantine pest
. However, a final PPQ policy decision about its quarantine pest status is pending until surveys in Oregon and Washington are completed (Colpetzer, 2007). If the final decision is that this species is not a quarantine pest, we will need to change the quarantine status of L. huidobrensis accordingly and eliminate it from the list of analyzed quarantine pests.Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 7 **Pest Scientific Name and Taxonomic Classification**  **Geographic Distribution**  **1 Plant**  **p art** 

**a ffected**  **Quaran******

**tine Pest 2**  **Follow**

**Pathway References**  **Spodoptera frugiperda** J.E. Smith (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes Arnett, 2000; Figueroa, 1977; Lightfield, 1997 **Spodoptera ornithogalli** (Guenee) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) CO, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Mowlam & Vega , 1977; Robinson et al ., 2004 **Spoladea recurvalis** (Fabricius) ( Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes Arnett, 2000; CABI, 2002 ; Lightfield, 1997 **Systena taeniata** Say (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) CO, US Leaf No Yes CPMAB, 2003; Figueroa, 1977; **Thrips tabaci** Lindeman (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes Arnett, 2000; Figueroa, 1977; Lightfield, 1997; Toth & Stinner, 2001 **Trichoplusia ni** (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) CO 3 , US Leaf No Yes Arnett, 2000; CABI, 2002; Toth & Stinner, 2001 **BACTERIA Agrobacterium tumefaciens**  (Smith & Townsend) Conn.

= Rhizobium radiobacter (Rhizobiales) CO 3 , US Root, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002; Lightfield, 1997
**Erwinia carotovora var.**  **carotovora** (Jones) Bergey (Enterobacteriales) CO 3 , US Leaf, Root, Stem No Yes CABI, 200 3 ; Lightfield, 1997 **Erwinia sp.**  (Enterobacteriales) CO 3 Leaf Yes Yes Buriticá, 1999 ; Toth & Stinner, 2001 **Pseudomonas fluorescens**  (Trevisan) Migula CO, US Leaf No Yes CABI, 2003 ; Ramirez et al ., 2001 **Ralstonia solanacearum** (Smith) Yabuuchi et al

. **Race 1**  = Pseudomonas s olanacearum (Smith) Smith (Burkholderiales) CO, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Buriticá, 1999; Lightfield, 1997 ; IPM, 1990 ; CABI, 2004 ; CIAT, 2004 ; Garcia et al

. 1999 **Ralstonia solanacearum** (Smith) Yabuuchi et al

. **Race 3, Biovar 2**  **=** Pseudomonas solanacearum (Smith) Smith (Burkholderiales) CO 10 Leaf, Stem, Roots , Soil (natural latent infections ) Yes Ye s 11 Buriticá, 1999; Lightfield, 1997 ; Ja

nse et al

. 2004; CABI, 2004 ; CIAT, 2004 ; Garcia et al

. 1999 ; Elphinstone, 2005

10 The presence of R. solanacearum Race 3 B iovar 2 in Colombia is currently under review. Testing and surveys in Colombia may prove older, published records to no longer accurately represent its distribution, but until those tests are completed we must consider the bacterium to be present. 11 Although Ralstonia solanacearum race 3 biovar 2 may follow the pathway, it is highly unlikely to become established in the United States via the pathway of vegetables for consumption (PERAL, 2011). Therefore, we did not further analyze it. See below

for further details.Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 8 **Pest Scientific Name and Taxonomic Classification**  **Geographic Distribution**  **1 Plant**  **p art** 

**a ffected**  **Quaran******

**tine Pest 2**  **Follow**

**Pathway References**  **Rhizobium rhizogenes** (Riker et al

. ) Young et al

. CO, US Root, Stem No Yes CABI, 2003 **Rhodococcus fascians** (Tilford) Goodfellow (Actinomycetales) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002 **Streptomyces scabiei** (ex Thaxter) Lambert & Loria (Actinomycetales) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002
**FUNGI and CHROMISTANS**  **12 Albugo candida**  (Pers.) Kunze (Oomycetes: Peronosporales) CO, US Leaf, Seed No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al ., 2004 **Alternaria alternata** (Fr.)

= Alternaria tenuis (Ascomycetes: Pleosporales ) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002; Farr et al

. , 1989; Lightfield, 1997 **Alternaria brassicae** (Berk.) Sacc. (Asc omycetes : Pleosporales ) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002; Farr et al

. , 1989; Lightfield, 1997 **Alternaria brassicicola** (Schwein.) Wiltshire (Ascomycetes: Pleosporales) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002; Duke, 1983; Farr et al

. , 1989 **Arm illaria mellea**  (Vahl:Fr.) P. Kumm. (Basidiomycetes: Agaricales) CO, US Root No No CABI, 2003; Farr et al ., 2004; Salazar, 1998 **Aspergillus niger** Tiegh. (Asc omycetes : Eurotiales ) CO, US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2003; Yung et al ., 1995 **Botrytis cinerea** Pers (anamorph) **=**

Botryotinia fuckeliana (de Bary) Whetzel (teleomorph) (Asc omycetes : Helotiales ) CO 3 , US Leaf , Stem No Yes CABI, 2003; Buriticá, 1999 ; Farr et al

. , 1989; Farr et al

. , 2004; Toth & Stinner, 2001 **Cercospora beticola Sacc.**  (Asc omycetes : Mycosphaerellales ) CO, US Leaf, Seed, Stem No Yes Buriticá, 1999; CABI, 2003; CAES, 2003; Farr et al

. , 1989; Lightfield, 1997 **Choanephora cucurbitarum** (Berk. & Ravenel) Thaxt. (Zygomycetes: Mucorales) CO 3 , US Leaf, Seed, Stem No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al

. , 1989; Munoz and Tamayo, 1994 **Cladosporium herbarum** (Pers.:Fr.) Link (Ascomycetes: Mycosphaerellales) CO, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Farr et al

. , 2004; Torres et al ., 2000

12 Fungal names and synonyms are based on the taxonomy presented in the USDA

- ARS Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory Fungal Names Database (http://nt.ars

- grin.gov/fungaldatabases/index.cfm) or the Index Fungorum (http://www.indexfungorum.org/). If datasheets in the SBML were prepared prior to 1989, the Index Fungorum was resourced for taxonomy.Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 9 **Pest Scientific Name and Taxonomic Classification**  **Geographic Distribution**  **1 Plant**  **p art** 

**a ffected**  **Quaran******

**tine Pest 2**  **Follow**

**Pathway References**  **Cylindrocladium scoparium** Morg. (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales) CO, US Leaf, Root, Stem No Yes Farr et al

. , 2004; Rivera et al ., 1998 **Epicoccum nigrum** Link (Asc omycetes : Incertae sedis ) CO, US Leaf No Yes Farr et al

. , 2004; Yung et al ., 1995 **Erysiphe communis** (Wallr.) Link = E. pisi DC. var. pisi (Ascomycetes: Erysiphales) CO, US Leaf, Seed, Stem No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al

. , 2004 **Erysiphe polygoni** DC. = E. betae (Vañha)Weltzien (Ascomycetes: Erysiphales) CO, US Leaf, Seed, Stem, No Yes Farr et al

. , 2004; Whitney et al ., 1986 **Fusarium culmorum** (Wm.G. Sm.) Sacc. (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales) CO, US Leaf, Root, Seed , Stem No Yes Farr et al

. , 2004; Rojas et al ., 2003 **Fusarium equiseti** (Corda) Sacc. (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales) CO, US Leaf, Root , Stem No Yes Farr et al

. , 2004; Rojas et al ., 2003 **Fusarium moniliforme** J. Sheld. (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales) CO, US Leaf, Root, Seed, Stem, No Yes Farr et al

. , 2004; Gonzales et al ., 1992 **Fusarium oxysporum** Schlechtend.:Fr. (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales) CO, US Root, Stem No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al

. , 2004 **Fusarium reticulatum** (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales) CO, US Root, Stem No Yes Farr et al

. , 2004; Rojas et al ., 2003 **Fusarium sambucinum** Fuckel (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales) CO, US Root, Stem No Yes Farr et al

. , 2004; Rojas et al ., 2003 **Fusarium semitectum** Berk. & Ravenel =

F. pallidoroseum (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales) CO, US Leaf, Root, Stem No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al ., 2004; Restrepo et al ., 1978 **Fusarium solani** (Mart.) Sacc. (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales) CO, US Root, Stem No Yes Farr et al ., 2004 **Fusarium sp.**  (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales) CO 3 Leaf, Root, Stem Yes Yes CABI, 2002; Duke, 1983 **Gibberella avenacea** R.J. Co. Anamorph: Fusarium avenaceum (Fr.:fr.) Sacc. (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales) CO, US Root, Stem, No Yes CABI, 2003; Rojas et al ., 2003 **Leptosphaerulina trifolii** (Ros tr.) Petr. (Ascomycetes: Pleosporales) CO, US Leaf No Yes Farr et al

. , 2004 **Macrophomina phaseolina** (Tassi) Goid (Asc omycetes : Incertae sedis) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002; Farr et al

. , 1989; Lightfield, 1997Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 10 **Pest Scientific Name and Taxonomic Classification**  **Geographic Distribution**  **1 Plant**  **p art** 

**a ffected**  **Quaran******

**tine Pest 2**  **Follow**

**Pathway References**  **Myrothecium roridum** Tode:fr. (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales ) CO, US Leaf No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al

. , 2004 **Olpidium brassicae** (Woronin) Dang (Chytridiomycetes: Incertae sedis) CO 3 , US Root No No CABI, 2003; Farr et al

. , 1989 , 2004 **Peronospora farinosa f.sp.**  **betae** Byford =

Peronospora schachtii (Oomycetes: Peronosporales ) CO, US Leaf, Stem, Seed, No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al

. , 1989; Lightfield, 1997; Jaramillo & Lobo, 1983 **Phoma betae** Frank = Pleospora betae (Ascomycetes: Pleosporales ) CO, US Leaf, Seed, Stem No Yes Buriticá, 1999; CABI, 2003; Farr et al

. , 1989; Lightfield, 1997 ; Whitney et al

. , 1986 **Physalospora rhodina** Berk. & M.A. Curtis

= Botryosphaeria rhodina ; Anamorph: L asiodiplodia theobromae (Ascomycetes: Xylariales ) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002; Duke, 1983; Farr et al

. , 2004

**Phytophthora drechsleri** Tucker (Oomycetes: Pythiales ) CO 3 , US Leaf, Root, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002; Duke, 1983; Farr et al

. , 1989; Whitney et al ., 1986 **Pythium debaryanum** Hesse (Oomycetes: Pythiales ) CO 3 , US Root, Stem, Seedling (Leaf, Stem) No Yes CABI, 2003 **Pythium sp.**  (Oo mycetes: Pythiales ) CO 3 Root, Seedling,Ste m Yes Yes Buriticá, 1999 ; Toth & Stinner, 2001 **Pythium ultimum** Trow (Oomycetes: Pythiales ) CO, US Root, Seedling, Stem No Yes Farr et al

. , 2004
**Rhizoctonia solani** Kuhn = Thanatephorus cucumeris ( Basidiomycetes: Ceratobasidiales ) CO 3 , US Leaf, Root, Seedling, Stem No Yes Buriticá, 1999; Farr et al

. , 1989; Lightfield, 1997; Toth & Stinner, 2001; Whitney et al

. , 1986 **Rhizoctonia violacea** Tul. & C.Tul. = Helicobasidium brebissonii, Teleomorph: Helicobasidium purpureum Pat. (Ustilaginomycetes: Incertae sedis) C O 3 , US Root , Stem No Yes CABI, 2003; Duke, 1983; Farr et al

. , 1989; Farr et al

. , 2004Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 11 **Pest Scientific Name and Taxonomic Classification**  **Geographic Distribution**  **1 Plant**  **p art** 

**a ffected**  **Quaran******

**tine Pest 2**  **Follow**

**Pathway References**  **Rhizoctonia zeae** Voorhees Teleomorph: Wa itea circinata Warcup & Talbot ( Basidiomycetes: Ceratobasidiales ) CO, US Leaf, Root, Stem No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al

. , 2004

**Rhizopus arrhizus** Fisch er (Zygomycetes: Mucorales) CO, US Root No No CABI, 2003; Patino et al ., 1991; Whitney et al

. , 1986 **Rosellinia necatrix** Prill = Dematophora necatrix (Ascomycetes: Xylariales) CO 3 , US Root, Stem No Yes CABI, 2003; Farr et al

. , 1989 **Sclerotinia sclerotiorum** (Lib.) de bary (Ascomycetes: Helotiales) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes Buriticá, 1999 ; Farr et al

. , 1989; Lightfield, 1997 **Sclerotium rolfsii** Sacc. ( Basidiomycetes : Agaricales ) CO 3 , US Leaf, Stem No Yes Buriticá, 1999; Farr et al

. , 1989; Lightfield, 1997 **Stemphylium botryosum** Wallr. (Ascomycetes: Pleosporales ) CO, US Leaf No Yes Baquero et al

. , 1992; Farr et al

. , 2004 **Thielaviopsis basicola** (Berk. & Broome) Ferraris (Ascomycetes: Microascales ) CO 3 , US Root No No CABI, 2003; Farr et al

. , 1989 **Uromyces betae** Kickx fil (Urediniomycetes: Uredinales) CO, US Leaf, Stem No Yes Buriticá, 1999; CABI, 2003; Farr et al

. , 1989; Jaramillo & Lobo, 1983; Lightfield, 1997 **Verticillium albo -** **atrum** Reinke & Berthier (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales ) CO 3 , US Leaf, Root, Stem No Yes CABI, 2003; Duke, 1983; Farr et al

. , 1989 **Verticillium dahliae** Kleb. (Ascomycetes: Hypocreales) CO, US Leaf, Root, Stem No Yes CABI, 2003 **MOLLUSK S**  **Deroceras laeve** (O.F. Műller) ( Limacidae ) CO, US Leaf, Root No N o 6 Baker, 1 994; Hausdorf, 2002;McGrath et al ., 2003 **Deroceras panormitanum** Lessona & Pollonera ( Limacidae ) CO, US Leaf, Root, Flower, Stem [ Yes ] No 13 Fruitfed, 2002; PestID, 2007 ; Roth, 2003; Hausdorf, 2002; Robinson, 2005

13 T his species typically lays its eggs

— roughly 2

- 2.8 mm in size for genus Deroceras , p 428

—on the soil surface. Consequently, they are highly unlikely to be transported with the commodity (Heller, 2001; Iglesias et al ., 2002

– reproductive biology based on re lated species, D. reticulatum ). Young slugs may be small (3 mm), and adults range in size from 2.5

- 3.0 cm

(rarely reach 3.5 cm) (Dvorak, 2003). Adults are light brow n to black and grey underneath, so they are unlikely to be detected in inspections (Dvorak, 2003). However, slugs would likely be removed when the leaves are cut, wa shed and bundled for shipment
. Few pests have been intercepted on Beta vulgaris (126 total; only one of these is aPest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 12 **Pest Scientific Name and Taxonomic Classification**  **Geographic Distribution**  **1 Plant**  **p art** 

**a ffected**  **Quaran******

**tine Pest 2**  **Follow**

**Pathway References**  **Deroceras reticulatum** O.F.Mull er (Limacidae) CO, US Leaf No No 6 Avila et al ., 1996; CABI, 2002 **Helix aspersa** Műller (Helicidae) CO, US Leaf, Stem, Flower, Root No No 6 CABI, 2005; PestID, 2007 **Lehmannia valentiana** (Férussac) (Limacidae) CO, US Whole plant No No 6 Hausdorf, 2002; Robinson, 2005 **Limax marginatus** (O. F
. Műller) = Lehmannia poirieri (Limacidae) CO, US Leaf No No 6 Avila et al ., 1996; NCSU, 2003 **Milax gagates** (Draparnaud) (Limacidae) CO, US Leaf No No 6 Avila et al ., 1996; NCSU, 2003 **Theba pisana** (Műller) (Helicidae) CO, US Leaf [ Yes ] N o 14 Deisler & Stange, 2001; PestID, 2007 **Vaginulus sp.**  (Veronicellidae) CO Leaf Yes No 6 Avila et al ., 1996 **NEMATODES Aphelenchoides**  **sp.** (Aphelenchoididae) CO Root. Leaf, Soil, Stem Yes Yes Buriticá, 1999; CABI, 2002 ; CABI, 2003 **Aphelenchus sp.**  (Aphelenchidae) CO Leaf, Soil, Stem Yes Yes Buriticá, 1999; CABI, 2002 **Criconemoides sp.**  (Criconematidae) CO Root, Soil Yes No Buriticá, 1999 **Ditylenchus dipsaci** (Kühn) Filip'ev (Anguinidae) CO 3 , US Leaf, Soil, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002; EPPO, 2003 ; Whitney et al

. , 1986 **Heterodera glycines** Ichinohe (Heteroderidae) CO 3 , US Root, Soil, Stem No Yes CABI, 2002 **Heterodera trifolii** (Heteroderidae) CO, US Root 15 , Soil, Stem No Yes Arbelaez et al ., 1999; CABI, 2003 **Helicotylenchus dihystera** (Cobb) Sher (Hoplolaimidae) CO 3 , US Root, Soil No No CABI, 2002 **Helicotylenchus multicinctus** (Cobb, ) Golden (Hoplolaimidae) CO, US Root, Soil No No CABI, 2003 **Helicotylenchus sp.**  ( Hoplolaimidae) CO Root, Soil Yes No Buriticá, 1999; CABI, 2002

mo llusk interception, Cryptomphalus aspersus in 2005 ). Given this evidence, the pest seems highly unlikely to follow the pathway on this commodity. 14 This snail is hermaphroditic. It lays e ggs buried in the soil , in nests of 52

- 226 (avg 120) eggs . Thus, the eggs are unlikely to be directly transported on the commodity (Garrison, 1993). The newly hatched snails are tiny (2 mm diam.), emerging to feed on tender plant parts until reaching adult size (12

- 15 mm [rarely 25 mm]). They may not be readily detected by inspection, but the standard post

- harvest measures ( culling, sele ction, grading, thoroughly washing, discarding any yellowed or damaged leaves, and bunching the leaves) are highly likely remove mollusks from the pathway
. 15 Based on biology of H. glycines (CABI, 2003).Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 13 **Pest Scientific Name and Taxonomic Classification**  **Geographic Distribution**  **1 Plant**  **p art** 

**a ffected**  **Quaran******

**tine Pest 2**  **Follow**

**Pathway References**  **Hoplolaimus sp.**  ( Hoplolaimidae) CO Root, Soil Yes No Buriticá, 1999; CABI, 2002 **Longidorus sp.**  ( Longidoridae) CO Root, Soil Yes No CABI, 2002 **Meloidogyne arenaria** (Neal) Chitwood ( Heteroderidae) CO 3 , US Root, Soil No No CABI, 2002; Duke, 1983 **Meloidogyne hapla** Chitwood (Heteroderidae) CO, US Root, Soil No No CABI, 2003 **Meloidogyne javanica** (Treub) Chitwood (Heteroderidae) CO 3 , US Root, Soil No No CABI, 2002; CABI, 2003; Duke, 1983 **Meloidogyne sp.**  (Heteroderidae) CO Root, Soil Yes No Buriticá, 1999; CABI, 2002 **Rotylenchulus reniformis** ( Hoplolaimidae) CO, US Root, Soil No No Buriticá, 1999 ; CABI, 2002; Ferreira & Boley, 1991 **Trichodorus sp.**  (Trichodoridae) CO 3 Root, Soil Yes No CABI, 2002 ; CABI, 2003 **VIRUS ES**  **Alfalfa mosaic alfamovirus**  ( Bromoviridae) CO 3 , US Whole Plant No No 16 CABI, 2002 ; Brunt et al., 1996 onwards **Clover yellow vein potyvirus**  ( Potyviridae) CO 3 , US Whole Plant No No 15 CABI, 2002; Brunt et al., 1996 onwards **Cucumber mosaic virus** ( Bromoviridae) CO 3 , US Whole Plant No No 1 5 CABI, 2002; CDFA, 2003; Lightfield, 1997 ; Brunt et al., 1996 onwards **Tomato spotted wilt tospovirus**  ( Bunyaviridae) CO 3 , US Whole Plant No No 1 5 CABI, 2002; CDFA, 2003

16 Viruses generally require a vector ( e.g . insects, nematodes) or some sort of mechanical inoculation into other host plants ( Brunt et al., 1996 onwards ). Chard leaves for consumption are highly unlikely to come into contact with the necessary vectors for transmission or be mechanically transferred to other other hosts in the United States.Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 14 **2.5 . Quarantine Pests Not Considered for Further Mitigation**  Plant pests not chosen for further scrutiny may be potentially harmful if introduced into the United States; however, there were a variety of reasons for not subjecting them to further anal ys is. First, the pest’s primary association is with plant parts oth er than Swiss chard leaves and stems; this is the case for the Arthropod: Aspidiella hartii
. Should this pest be intercepted in shipments of Swiss chard from Colombia, quarantine action will be taken, and additional risk anal ys is may

be required. Second, many externally feeding pests are unlikely to be present with the commodity being shipped. Snails, such as Deroceras reticulatum , Limax marginatus, Vaginulus sp. and Milax gagates, are not anticipated to remain with the commodity (in a viable form) during harvesting, culling, selection, grading, packaging and shipping procedures. In the same way , the colorful adult insects of Diabrotica speciosa, D. viridula, D

. undecimpunctata and Colaspis lebasi are 5
- 7.5 mm long and externally feed on the leaves. When vi sually inspected, these pests can be detected and removed from the commodity during harvest and post

- harvest processing; as a result, it is unlikely

that these pests will remain with the commodity (CABI, 2002; Li ghtfield, 1997; Hodges, 1995). Additionally, leaves with pest damage will not be chosen for processing
. Organisms identified only to the genus, or higher, taxonomic level are not further analyzed if the group already occurs in the United States, even though individual species within those taxonomi c groups are potential pests that may or may not occur within the United States. By necessity, pest risk assessments focus on those organisms for which adequate biological and taxonomic information is available. Lack of species identification may indicate the limits of current taxonomic knowledge, the life stage or the quality of the specimen submitted for identification. The lack of identification at the specific level does not rule out the possibility that a high risk quarantine pest was intercepted. This applies to the insects: Agromyz idae spp., Blapstinus sp., Epicauta sp., Gryllus sp., Liriomyza sp.; b acterium: Erwinia sp .; f ungi: Fusarium sp. , Pythium sp.; mollusk: Vaginulus sp.; and nematodes: Aphelenchoides sp., Aphelenchus sp., Criconemoides sp ., Helicotylenchus sp., Hoplolaimus sp., Longidorus sp., Meloidogyne sp., and Trichodorus sp. **Ralstonia solanacearum R3B2.**  We did not further anal yz e R. solanacearum R3B2, however, because a recent pest specific risk anal ys is concluded that pathogen was highl y unlikel y to establish in the United States via the pathway of fruits and vegetables for consumption (PERAL , 2011). Anal ys ts examined potential pathways for estab lishment of R3B2 via disposal of infected produce in landfill waste, treated wastewater, and compost. They did not find any likely pathways for R3B2

- infected commodities imported for consumption to transfer to the environment, mostly

because of the low likelihood of several required intermediate steps all happening within the proper timeframe (e.g., viable bacteria present in run

- off flowing into a stream, uptake into an irrigation s ys tem, and contact with a susceptible host). **2.6 . Quarantine Pests Likely**  **to Follow the Pathway** Quarantine pests expected to follow the pathway, i.e

. , be associated with commercial shipments of Swiss chard are identified below ( Table 3 ) , and we anal yz ed these pests further in this riskPest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 15 assessment [Steps 5
- 7 (PPQ, 2000 )].
**Table 3.** Quarantine Pests Likel y to Follow the Pathway and Selected for Further Anal ys is **Pest Taxonomy**  Copitarsia incommoda Lepidoptera: Noctuidae Liriomyza huidobrensis Diptera: Agromyz idae
**2.7 .**  **Consequences of Introduction** For L

. huidobrensis , and C. incommoda , the potential Consequences of Introduction are rated using five Risk Elements: Climate

- Host Interaction, Host Range, Dispersal Potential, Economic Impact and Environmental Impact. For each Risk Element, the pest is assigned a rating of Lo w (1 point), Medium (2 points) or High (3 points). A Cumulative Risk Rating is calculated b y summing all Risk Element values ( T able 4 ). The Cumulative Risk Rating is a biological indicator of the pest’s potential to establish, spread, and cause economic a

nd environmental impacts. 2.7 .1. Copitarsia incommoda Copitarsia consueta is a taxonomically invalid name; its designated replacement name is C. incommoda (Gould et al ., 2000). Because Copitarsia has not been examined in a modern phylogenetic framework, these names might possibly represent geographic variants of one or two species. Larval associations with adults have not been made for members of Copitarsia (Gould et al ., 2000); as a result, benign species may be mistaken for pest species, and may result in the rejection of a commodity for importation (Gould et al ., 2000). **Climate -**  **Host Interaction**
. Climate matching and biological models within the Climex (model) indicate that the probability of Copitarsia establishment in California, Oregon, and Washington is  90 percent , and is between 50 and 70 percent in western Idaho (Gould et al ., 2000). Each model gives a slightl y different degree of risk; however, both models suggest that the probability o f establishment is >50 percent in portions of New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, Florida, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Indiana and Il linois (Gould et al ., 2000). P opulations could remain at low density levels for years. Outside of South America, there are no references of Copitarsia establishing viable populations (Gould et al ., 2000). Potential hosts for C. incommoda occur throughout the United State s and Copitarsia can establish in more than three U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones (ARS, 1990). The rating for Climate

- Host interaction is **High**
. **Host Range**

. Copitarsia incommoda feeds on different species in several families : Alliaceae, Amaryllidaceae , Asparagaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Compositae, Cruciferae, Leguminosae, Plumbaginaceae, Solanaceae, and Umbelliferae, (Angulo and Olivares, 2003; Bautista et al ., 2003; Gould et al ., 2000). The rating for Host Range is **High**
. **Dispersal Potential**
. Small larvae of C. incommoda produce silk threads and can be carried great distances b y wind (Gould et al ., 2000). Although a small proportion of Copitarsia larvae couldPest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 16 be transported greater distances under the right environmental conditions, larval dispersal is unl ikely to allow populations to spread far or rapidly (Gould et al ., 2000). However, many adult noctuids are capable of utilizing prevailing winds to disperse distances greater than 500 mi (Gould et al ., 2000). Copitarsia are likely moved throughout the United States by the shipment of infested commodities to different parts of the country (Gould et al ., 2000). Copitarsia reproduces sexually ; as a result, a Copitarsia larva that enters the United States must locate a suitable mate for reproduction, which help s reduce the probability of its establishment. Copitarsia incommoda females are reported to lay 1,638 eggs on an artificial diet. In Colombia, Copitarsia is reported to lay 550 eggs per female and the entire life

- cycle, from egg to adult, is of 61 days (Cardona, et al ., 2002; Cardona, et al ., 2003). In the field C. incommoda completed development on potato in 62 days (Gould et al ., 2000). Because long distance spread is possible, and the reproductive potential is high, the rating for Dispersal Potential is **High**
. **Economic Impact**
. Damage from Copitarsia feeding reduces marketability and overall crop yi elds. In South America, Copitarsia reduced marketability of certain vegetables by

24 percent , and yields of grains by

80
- 90 percent (Cardona et al ., 2003). Copi tarsia is an important pest in Colombia, and attacks the shoots and leaves of some plants, reducing their marketability (Cardona et al ., 2002; Cardona et al ., 2003). Copitarsia can affect U.S. export markets as well , because countries without Copitarsia would likely reject U.S. commodities containing Copitarsia larvae. The United States exports at least 15 commodities on which Copitarsia could feed (Gould et al ., 2000). The rating for Economic Impact is **High**
. **Environmental Impact**
. If established, Copitarsia can damage the environment both directly, through feeding on native plants, and indirectl y, due to the use of environmentally harsh methods utilized in controlling pest populations. N early 700 plants native to the United States are attacked by C opitarsia larvae. Seven of the native species ( Allium munzii, Helianthus eggertii, Helianthus paradoxus, Helianthus schweinitzii, Trifolium amoenum, Trifolium stoloniferum, and Trifolium trichocalyx) at risk (from Copitarsia ) are listed as Threatened or Endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS, 2004)
. Indirect environmental damage could be caused when pesticides, applied for controlling Copitarsia , leave treated fields, either as drift or contaminated groundwater, and affect other species within the ecosystem (Cardona et al ., 2003; Gould et al ., 2000). The rating for Environmental Impact is **High**
. 2.7
. 2
. Liriomyza huidobrensis **Climate -**  **Host Interaction**
. Fifteen plant families are hosts for L

. huidobrensis ( CABI , 2002; Braun and Shephard, 1997; DEFRA, 2001; EPPO 2003 ; Parrella, 1982; Posada, 1989; Saldarriaga et al

. , 1987; Steck, 1999) , and these hosts are present in more than three U.S. P lant H ardiness Z ones (ARS, 1990)
. Liriomyza huidobrensis is from a tropical to warm temperate region but is also considerably cold hardy, with a freezing point of

- 18.7°C (

- 65.66°F)
. Consequently, it can establish in the United States ( CABI , 2002). The closely related species, L. langei (erroneous ly identified as L. huidobrensis in previous reports) , is a major pest in the Salinas Valley

of California and Hawaii (Scheffer et al

. , 2001; Steck, 1999)
. The behavior of L. huidobrensis gives it a greater climatic range for survival ( CABI , 2002). In some parts of Europe, it is a major pest to ornamental or vegetable crops grown under glass. The temperature range corresponds to four (or more) U
. S
. Plant H ardiness Z ones (ARS, 1990) , therefore we gave L. huidobrensis a **High** rating for Climate

- Host Interaction.Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 17 **Host Range**
. The primary hosts for L

. huidobrensis include Abelmoschus esculentus, Allium cepa , A. porrum , A. sativum , Apium graveolens , Capsicum frutescens , Chrysanthemum x morifolium , Cichorium sp., Cineraria sp., Cucurbita maxima, C. moschata, C. pepo, Cynara scolymus , Daucus carota , Delilia sp., Dendranthema sp., Dendranthema x grandiflorum , Galinsoga sp. , Hordeum vulgare , the Inulae family, Lactuca sativa , Matthiola incana, Parthenium argentatum, Pastinaca sativa , Phaseolus vulgaris , P. vulgaris var. humilis , Phlox sp., Piper nigrum , Pisum sativu m , P. sativum var. arvense , Pterocaulon sp., Taraxacum officinale , and Senecio vulgaris ( CABI , 2002; Braun and Shephard, 1997; DEFRA, 2001; EPPO 2003; Parrella, 1982; Posada, 1989; Saldarriaga et al

. , 1987; Steck, 1999). S econdary hosts for L

. huidobrensis are: Amaranthus sp. , A. retroflexus , Aster sp. , Beta vulgaris , B. vulgaris var. cicla , B. vulgaris var. saccharifera , Calendula sp. , Cannabis sativa subsp. sativa , Capsicum annuum , Citrullus lanatus , Cucumis sp., C. melo , C. sativus , the Cruciferae family, Dahlia sp., Datura sp. , Dianthus caryophyllus , Gerbera sp. , Gypsophila paniculata , Lathyrus sp., L. odoratus , Linum sp. , L. usitatissimu m , Lisianthus russelianus , Lycopersicon esculentum , Medicago sp., M. sativa , Melilotus sp. , Petun ia sp. , Primula polyanthus , Raphanus sativus , Solanum melongena , S. tuberosum , S. tuberosum ssp. andigena , Spinacia oleracea , Tagetes sp. , Tropaeolum sp. , T. majus, Valerianella locust, Verbena sp. , Vicia faba , Viola sp., Zinnia sp., and Z. elegans
. W ild hosts for L

. huidobrensis are: Oxalis sp. , Bidens pilosa , Emilia sonchifolia , Galinsoga parviflora , Portulaca oleracea , and Sonchus sp. (Braun and Shephard, 1997; CABI , 2002; DEFRA, 2001; DEFRA, 2004; EPPO 2003 ; Parrella, 1982; Posada, 1989; Saldarriaga et al

. , 1987; Steck, 1999). Liriomyza huidobrensis was also found in consignments on Dendranthema morifolium , Eryngium sp., and Gypsophila sp. (EPPO, 2003 ). In Guatemala, L

. huidobrensis attacks Cichorium intybus (MacVean and Pérez, 1996). Weeds , such as Trianthema portulacastrum , Stachys arvensis , Chenopodium murale , C. album, Datura stramonium , Bidens pilosa , Galinsoga parviflora , Diplotaxis muralis , Malva parviflora , Ricinus communis , and Stellaria media also are hosts (Mujica and Cisneros, 1996) . In Colombia, L

. huidobrensis has been found on the following hosts: Alstroemeria sp., Capsella bursa

- pastoris , Chrysanthemum sp., Galinsoga caracasana , Gazania sp., Gypsophila elegans , Petunia sp., and Phaseolus vulga ris humilis (Spencer, 1984). The list of hosts increases as L

. huidobrensis invades new countries ( Tømmerås et al ., 2002). The rating for Host Range is **High** because L

. huidobrensis attacks multiple species among multiple plant families
. **Dispersal Potential** 
. Adults can fly, but leaves and seedlings are liable to carry L

. huidobrensis in trade/transport
. Transport pathways for long distance movement include conveyances (road and transport/air) , travelers , and baggage (land/sea air) ( CABI , 2002). Long distance dispersal occurs on plant material, cut flowers and in soil , in addition to poorly cleaned equipment or containers (Tømmerås et al ., 2002). Liriomyza huidobrensis mating occurs within 24 h of emergence ; a single mating is sufficient to fertilize all eggs. In California, L. langei Frick completes its life

- cycle in 17

- 30 days in the summer , and in 50

- 65 days during the winter ( Scheffer, 2000; Scheffer et al

. , 2001; Scheffer, 2004) . Adults live for 15

- 30 days ( CABI , 2002). The rating for Dispersal Potential is **High**
. **Economic I**  **mpact**
. Liriomyza leafminers can destroy young seedlings, reduc e crop yi elds , and reduc e the quality of ornamental plants (Parrella, 198 2 ). Liriomyza huidobrensis damage is caused b y larvae mining into leaves and petioles. Adult sting s (feeding punctures) and larvalPest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 18 mining of leaves reduce photosy nthetic capacity, render leaves unmarketable, and provide an entrance for pathogens (Mou and Ryder, 2003). Severel y infe sted leaves may fall, exposing plant stems to the wind. The presence of unsightly larval mines and adult punctures in the leaf palisade of ornamental plants can further reduce value (CABI, 2002)
. An uncontrolled leafminer infestation of L

. langei Frick ( Scheffer, 2000; Scheffer et al

. , 2001; Scheffer, 2004) reduce d yi eld s in California of 1500 , 24
- count cartons to as few as 500 30

- 48
- count cartons (USDA, 2000 )
. Insect debris contamination from puparia in the harvested plant reduce sale price and export po tential (USDA, 2000 ). In young plants and seedlings, mining may cause considerable delay in plant development, leading to plant loss. L iriomyza huidobrensis is a major quarantine pest in many

areas of the world ; thus, the introduction and establishment of this pest in the United States could cause a loss of international and domestic markets (CABI, 2002). The rating for the potential Economic Impact is **High**
. **Environmental Impact**

. Liriomyza huidobrensis is reported on many diff erent plant species (see above) . Some genera of these species are li sted as endangered and threatened , i.e ., Allium, Amaranthus, Bidens, Cucurbita, Eryngium, Phlox, Portulaca, Primula, Taraxacum, Senecio, Solanum, Verbena, Vicia , and Viola (USFWS, 200 4 )
. Liriomyza huidobrensis has spread to other continents , where e stablished populations continue to grow and are difficult to control. The closel y related species , L. langei (errone ous ly labeled L. huidobrensis in previous reports (Scheffer et al

. , 2001)) , went from a sporatic, manageable, fall pest in the Salinas Valley of CA, to a difficult to control pest that is present throughout much of the vegetable growing season (Steck, 1999). Should L. huidobrensis be introduced , insecticide programs would be used to control this pest. The rating for Environmental Impact i s **High**
. **Table 4.** Risk Rating s for Consequences of Introduction **Pest Risk Elements**  **Cumulative Risk**  **Rating a**  **Climate/ Host**  **Interaction Host** 

**Range Dispersal** 

**Potential Economic** 

**Impact Environ**  ****

**mental Impact**  Liriomyza huidobrensis High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (15) Copitarsia incommoda High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (15) a Low: 5
- 8 points ; Medium: 9

- 12 points ; High: 13

- 15 points
**2.8 .**  **Likelihood of Introduction** Pests are rated for the Likelihood of Introduction based on two separate components : an estimate of the amount of commodity likely to be imported (Sub

- element #1) , and pest opportunity (Sub

elements #2

- 6). Details of the rating criteria are explained in USDA (2000). Below we summarize these ratings and the value for the Likelihood of Introduction ( Table 5 )
.Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 19 2.8
. 1
. Quantity

of commodity

annuall y imported In 2003, Colombia produced 2,184 tons of commercial Swiss chard on 130 hectares (Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo, 2003 [Ministry for Agriculture and Rural Development]). That year the country

exported 123.8 tons of fresh and frozen chard (Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo, 2003 [Ministry for Agriculture and Rural Development])
. Exports between 2002 and 2003 rose from 53.2 tons to 123.8 tons , and the volume is expected to increase further
. We anticipate that 85
- 120 tons would be shipped to the United S tates
. By current records, the annual quantity of the commodity

exported during the first five ye ars would be at least 4 to 6 , 40
- foot shipping containers per year. The risk for this Sub

- element is **L ow**  . 2.8
. 2
. Survive post

- harvest treatment Colombian producers hav e a post- harvest process of rating and washing the product. Copitarsia incommoda is a tiny pest that feeds externall y . This pest c ould be dislodged from the leaf surfaces during washing or processing but Swiss chard leaves are ty picall y crinkled , and larvae could find sufficient shelter during washing and inspection . Therefore , the rating is **Medium**
. Liriomyza huidobrensis mines within host leaves , and would be protected from washing . The mines and feeding punctures may be visible (CABI, 2005) , however, and subject to culling. Thus, the rating for L. huidobrensis is **Medium**
. 2.8
. 3
. Survive shipment C o pitarsia and Liriomyza are routinel y intercepted live at U.S
. ports - of

- entry on various commodities in permit cargo (PestID, 2007 ) indicating the y can with stand a range of packing and shipping procedures. B oth C. incommoda and L. huidobrensis would likely survive shipment from Colombia to the continental United States , so the rating is **High**
. 2.8 .4. Not detected at the port

- of

- entry Colombia does not have a point

- of

- origin protocol for vegetable inspection. In the case of L. huidobrensis , feeding punctures appear as white speckles between 0.13 and 0.15 mm in diameter (CABI, 2002). Punctures related to ovipositioning are smaller (0.05 mm) , and uniformly rounded
. Larvae are primarily leaf miners. Mines are usuall y white with dampened black and dried brown areas ; they are ty picall y associated with the midrib and lateral leaf veins (CABI, 2002). Mines are typically serpentine, tightly coiled , and irregularly shaped, increasing in width as larvae mature
. Several larvae feeding on a single leaf may produce a secondary

'blotch' mine ty pe , and leaves may wilt (CABI, 2002). Since leaves attacked b y L. huidobrensis can be visually detected, the risk asso ciated with the inability to detect thi s pest is **Medium**
. PPQ officers at port

- of

- entry are instructed to inspect 2 percent of a given shipment arriving at a U.S. port (Gould et al ., 2000) ; in other words, they are to inspect two boxes out of every 100 boxes of a certain commodity . To have a 95 percent probability of detecting a pest species, given this rate of inspection, often 25 percent or more of the boxes must be inspected. Smaller shipments may

be even more heavil y infested , but still pass inspecti on (Gould et al ., 2000)
. PPQ officers consider that more than 10 percent of the viable larvae of Copitarsia arriving at a port would not be detected b y routine inspections
. Thus , we gave this pest a **High** risk rating
.Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 20 2.8
. 5
. Imported or moved to area with environment suitable for survival Swiss chard from Colombia will probably be sold in every state
. But i f the demand for it is proportional to population in potential markets, imports might be more concentrated in some regions of the United States than in others , not all of which may be in areas conducive for pest survival. According to the latest census data (U
. S
. C ensus B ureau , 200 1 ), approximately 70 percent of the population resides in states wholly or partl y in U.S. Plant Hardiness Zones 6
- 10
. Assuming that infestations will be randomly distributed among shipments, and both pests are capable of surviving in Zone 6 and above (see H ost- C limate Interaction section) , all pests present a **High** likelihood of being moved to a habitat suitable for survival. 2.8
. 6
. Come into contact with host material suitable for reproduction Since numerous hosts of L. huidobrensis and C. incommoda are present in the continental United States , and both pests are capable of movement (by flight or wind) , the likelihood that these imported insect s can find host material suitable for reproduction is **High**
.

. **Table 5.** Risk Rating for Likelihood of Introduction **Pest Sub**  **- Elements**  **Cumulative risk**  **rating a**  **Quantity imported**  **annually Survive** 

**post****** **harvest treatment**  **Survive**

**shipment Not** 

**detected at port** **** **of -**  **entry Moved to**  **suitable habitat**  **Contact**

**w/ host material**  Liriomyza huidobrensis Low (1) Med (2) High (3) Med (2) High (3) High (3) Medium (14) Copitarsia incommoda Low (1) Med (2) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (15) a Low = 6
- 9 ; Medium = 10

- 14 ; High = 15

- 18
**2.9 . Conclusions**  The Pest Risk Potentials were High for L. huidobrensis , and C. incommoda on Swiss chard from Colombia (Table 6). Identification and selection of appropriate sanitary and phy tosanitary measures to mitigate risk for pests with High Pest Risk Potential ratings is part of the risk management phase. Below we provide risk mitigation options for L. huidobrensis , and C. incommoda (Appendix B)

. The appropriate risk management strategy for a particular pest depends on the risk posed by that pest. APHIS risk management programs are dependent on the availability

of appropriate mitigation methods. APHI S’ risk management programs are published in the Federal Register as quarantine notices.
**Table 6.** Pest Risk Potential s **Organism Consequences of**  **Introduction Likelihood of** 

**Introduction Pest risk** 

**potential a**  Liriomyza huidobrensis High (15) Medium(14) High (29) Copitarsia incommoda High (15) High (15) High (30) a Low = 11
- 18; Medium = 19

- 26; High = 27

- 33Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 21 

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. 2000. Fungal and bacterial diseases in passion fruit Passiflora edulis Sims var. flavicarpa Degener in two agroecosystems. Fitopat. Colomb. 24 (1

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### 4 **. Preparers & Reviewers**  **Preparers:** Guiovanni Zambrano , Heather Hartzog, Marina Zlotina, Li sa M. Ferguson, Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory, Center for Plant Health Science and Technology (CPHST) Raleigh, North Carolina and Bogota, Colombia. **Reviewers:** Hernan Arango, M. Sc. Phy tosanitary Protection Colombian Agricultural Institute (ICA), Risk Analysis Group Agricultural and Rural Development , Bogata, Colombia Ron A. Sequeira, USDA APHI S PPQ CPHSTPest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 30 

### 5 **. Appendices**  **Appendix A.** Pest Interceptions on Swiss C hard ( Beta vulgaris ) Entering the United States from 1985
- 2006 Source: PestID, 2007 **Pest Origin**  **(s) Where**  Agromyzidae, species of (Agromyz idae) Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Italy, Mexico, Peru, Trinidad and Tobago, Unknown Baggage, Permit Cargo, Quarters, Ships Stores Aley rodidae, species of (Aley rodidae) India Baggage Anomala sp. (Scarabaeidae) Mexico Baggage Aphididae, species of (Aphididae) Hawaii , Mexico Baggage, General Cargo, Permit Cargo Ascochyta sp. United Kingdom Permit Cargo Aspidiella hartii ( C ockerell) (Diaspididae) India Baggage Brachycaudus sp. (Aphididae) Mexico Permit Cargo Cercospora beticola Canada, Costa Rica General Cargo, Permit Cargo Chrysomelidae, species of (Chrysomelidae) Turkey Ships Stores Cicadellidae, species of (Cicadellidae) Guatemala, Mexico Permit Cargo Copitarsia sp. (Noctuidae) Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico Baggage, Permit Cargo, Ships Stores Cornu aspersum (Helicidae) Mexico Permit Cargo Cuscuta sp. (Cuscutaceae) India Baggage Cylas sp. (Curculionidae) Philippines Baggage Diaspididae, species of (Diaspididae) Japan , Dominican Republic Baggage Duponchelia fovealis (Crambidae) Japan General Cargo Emesinae sp. (Reduvinae) Canada General Cargo Emex spinosa ( Linnaeus) Is rael Baggage Empoasca sp. (Cicadellidae) Mexico Permit Cargo Epitrix sp. (Chrysomelidae) France Ships Stores Eumerus sp. (Sy

rphidae) South Korea Baggage Frankliniella williamsi (Thripidae) Mexico Baggage Gracillariidae, species of (Gracillariidae) Japan General Cargo Helicoverpa sp. (Noctuidae) Guyana Baggage Heterodera avenae W ollenweber France Permit Cargo Heterodera cruciferae Franklin Netherlands Ships StoresPest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 31 **Pest Origin**  **(s) Where**  Heterodera latipons Franklin France Ships Stores Heterodera sp. Russian Federat Ships Stores Heterodera sp. (Goettingiana group) Netherlands Ships Stores Hypera sp. (Curculionidae) Mexico Baggage Lepidoptera, species of Mexico Permit Cargo Listroderes sp. (Curculionidae) Mexico Permit Cargo Meloidogyne incognita Costa Rica Permit Cargo Margarodidae, species of (Margarodidae) Is rael Baggage Myzus persicae (Aphididae) Mexico Permit Cargo Noctuidae, species of (Noctuidae) Guatemala, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua, United Kingdom, Venezuela Baggage, Mail, Permit Cargo, Ships Stores Ny mphalidae, species of (Nymphalidae) Guatemala , Mexico Permit Cargo Opogona sp. (Tineidae) India Baggage Phaedon sp. (Chrysomelidae) France Ships Stores Phlaeothripidae, species of (Phlaeothripidae) Guatemala Ships Stores Phoma betae Ital y Permit Cargo Phoma sp. United Kingdom General Cargo, Permit Cargo Phyllophaga sp. (Scarabidae) Mexico Permit Cargo Plutellidae, species of (Plutellidae) Guyana Baggage Pseudococcidae, species of (Pseudococcidae) Is rael , India Baggage Sphingidae, species of (Sphingidae) Liberia Baggage Spodoptera sp. (Noctuidae) Guatemala , Italy Permit Cargo Spoladea recurvalis (Crambidae) Mexico Permit Cargo, Baggage Syrphidae sp. Mexico Permit Cargo Trogoderma sp. (Dermestidae) Australia Permit Cargo Udea rubigalis (Crambidae) Mexico General Cargo Uromyces betae Mexico Permit CargoPest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 32 **Appendix B**  **.** Ri sk Mitigation Options for Quarantine Pests Associated with Imports of Fresh Swiss chard from Colombia The list of quarantine significant pests that attack Swiss chard , and are present in Colombia , was developed b y searching scientific literature, previous APHI S commodity risk assessments, U.S. port interception records, and infor mation provided by

the exporting country
. Two pests of quarantine significance to the continental United States are likel y to follow the pathway and were anal yz ed in the pest risk a ssessment. Liriomyza huidobrensis Blanchard (Diptera: Agromy zidae) Copitarsia incommoda Walker (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) The overall Pest Risk Potential for these pests is High. Specific phytosanitary measures are strongl y recommended for those pests with High Pest Risk Potential
. We summarized the mitigation options spec ific to Liriomyza huidobrensis , and Copitarsia incommoda below (Table B 1)
. The Colombians have proposed that all fresh Swiss chard destined for the continental United States will undergo the following packinghouse procedures: washing with potable water , culling of ye llowing or blemished leaves, and hand

- grading/sorting for quality
. As a supplement to these standard practices, all fresh Swiss chard from Colombia destined for consumption into the continental United States is to be shipped in p acking boxes (not field boxes)
. The commodity will be clean and free of soil, plant parts besides the leaf/upper stem, quarantine pests, and any contaminating pests ( e.g . , hitchhikers like Colapsis lebasi and Diabrotica species ) before the box is closed and seale d.
**Table B**  **1.** Summary

of Risk Mitigation Options for Swiss Chard from Colombia **Measure(s) Pests**  **Efficacy** Pest
- free areas or places of production L. huidobrensis , and C.

incommoda As a sole mitigative measure, the establishment of pest- free areas , or pest- free places of production , may serve to satisfy

the appropriate level of phy tosanitary protection (IPPC, 1996, 1999). This option has proven successful in practice, obviating the need for post

- harvest commodity treatments to achieve even probit

- 9
- level security for certain pests (TDOA, 2003). Establishment and maintenance of pest

- free areas , or production sites , are to be in compliance with international standards (IPPC, 1996, 1999; NAPPO, 2004). Areas of low pest prevalence L. huidobrens is , and C.

incommoda May satisfy requirements for appropriate level of protection alone , or in combination with other measures. Practices for low pest prevalence statusPest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 33 **Measure(s) Pests**  **Efficacy** are to be in compliance with international standards (IPPC, 2005). Irradiation * L. huidobrensis and C.

incommoda ( larvae only) PPQ
- recognized generic dose (400 Grays ) quarantine treatment on all regulated plant articles for all insect pests , except for Lepidopteran pupae and adults (USDA, 2006)
. MB Fumigation* C. incommoda There is a PPQ recognized treatment (T101

-b

- 1 ) for Copitarsia spp. on asparagus. L. h uidobrensis and C. incommoda (as an ‘ external feeder ’ ) PPQ recognized quarantine treatment for leaf miners and external feeders on Swiss chard (T101

- n - 2) (USDA, 2006)
. Effectiveness on C. incommoda is not specifically mentioned ; however , the only

difference between T101

- n - 2 and the option listed above for Copitarsia species is a higher temperature treatment option of 80 ° F @ 1.5lbs , with minimum concentration readings of 19 oz for 0.5 hours or 14 oz for two hours. Control measures at production site: Pest
- free, insect

proof greenhouses L. huidobrensis ; and C.

incommoda This measure can be very effective if plants are grown solely

in a greenhouse that practices strict sanitary procedures. Sanitation effectively controls or eliminates all ty pes of pests by directly eliminating the pests, and indirectl y b y eliminating safe hiding places , reducing food sources , and inoculum levels (Agrios, 1997; Bessin, 2001; Greer and Diver, 2000; Jones and Benson, 2001; Roosjen et al ., 1999). Adults of C. incommoda insects have a forewing length of 14

- 1 9 mm (Simmons & Pogue, 2004) ; L. huidobrensis adults are much small er (wing length is 1.3

- 2.3 mm) (CABI, 2005) , and m esh screening would have to be be finer than 1.3mm to exclude adults
. Entry ways equipped with doors that automatically close exclude fl ying adults ( of these pests ) (Kahn and Mathur, 1999). Maintaining a sound greenhouse structure help s ensure pest exclusion. Regular inspections and monitoring are to be included as an important part of a pest management program (Kahn and Mathur, 1999).Pest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 34 **Measure(s) Pests**  **Efficacy** Control measures at production site: chemical, biological, cultural, or physical means. L. huidobrensis , and C.

incommoda A combination of field level controls (insecticidal sprays, natural enemies, trapping, sanitation, etc .) , followed b y inspection at the packinghouse, and the sampling of the produce, could give a level of confidence that the produce is free of the quarantine pests or to help meet requirements for areas of low pest prevalence or pest- free areas (IPPC, 2005, 1999)
. Research is necessary to demonstrate effectiveness
. Some specifics for Liriomyza : In the United Kingdom , researchers found that soil treatment was critical to Liriomyza control since the pupae may

remain viable in the s oil and re - establish in the following crop (DEFRA, 1997). In Israel, Weintraub (2002) stated that L. huidobrensis adults were resistant to conventional insecticides and the onl y effective insecticides were translaminar, which penetrate the leaves to affect the leafminer larvae (abamectin, cy romazine, neem and spinosad) (Weintraub, 2002). Inspections and monitoring L. huidobrensis , and C.

incommoda , but must be used in combination with other measures The Crop Protection Compendium (2005) reports the following external s ymptoms from L. huidobrensis : “Feeding punctures appear as white speckles between 0.13 and 0.15mm in diameter. Punctures related to oviposition are smaller (0.05 mm) and are more uniformly rounded. Larvae are primarily leaf miners. Mines are usually white with dampened black and dried brown areas, and are usuall y associated with the midrib and lateral leaf veins. Mines are typi cally serpentine, tightly coiled and irregularl y shaped, increasing in width as larvae mature. Several larvae feeding on a single leaf may

produce a secondary ‘blotch’ typ e mine and leaf wilting may occur.” Mines may also undulate between the upper and lower leaf surface, so the complete mine may onl y be visible when the leaf is held up to light (DEFRA, 1997)
. Adult populations of L. huidobrensis can bePest Risk Assessment for Swiss Chard from Colombia

Ver. 5 July 15, 2011 35 **Measure(s) Pests**  **Efficacy** monitered with yellow sticky traps placed in production and packing areas (DEFRA, 1997). In a report from Israeli potato fields , optimum catches of L. huidobrensis occured when yellow sticky traps were placed at, or slightl y above, plant height (Weintraub, 2002). In a L. huidobrensis management study in the Philippines , researchers discovered that trapping between the hours of 10am and 2pm was most effective for the detection of adults (Molitas Colting et al ., 2002). For Copitarsia , li ghts traps (specifically blacklights) can be used to monitor populations because adults are night fliers that are attracted to light ( CAPS, 2000 )
. Visual inspection of Swiss chard for larvae may

not be effective due to the natural hiding places (or folds (crinkles) ) in the leaves. PPQ officers estimate that more than 10 percent of the viable larvae of Copitarsia arriving at a port would not be detected b y routine inspections (Gould et al

. , 2000)
. *The high level of security afforded b y a quarantine treatment may be overwhelmed by

a large volume of an infested commodity (as demonstrated in a fruit fly study by Powell (2003 ). For this reason, adoption of a particular quarantine treatment is to be used in conjunction with efforts that maintain pest populations in production zones below specified densities as would satisfy requirements for the establishment of areas of low pest prevalence (IPPC, 2005).
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