United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response (5102G) EPA/542-B-99-002 April 1999 www.epa.gov clu-in.org 

# Solidification/Stabilization Resource Guide

# SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION RESOURCE GUIDE

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response Technology Innovation Office Washington, D.C. 20460

April 1999

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### FOREWORD This Solidification/Stabilization Resource Guide is intended to inform site cleanup managers of recently-published materials such as field reports and guidance documents that address issues relevant to solidification/stabilization technologies. In addition to a short abstract for each of the resources listed, the guide includes a look-up table that allows the user to quickly scan the contents. Information on how to obtain a specific document also is included.ii 

### NOTICE This document was prepared by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under EPA Contract Number 68-W5-0055. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. This document is part of a series of technology resource guides prepared by the Technology Innovation Office. The series includes the following technology guides: the Bioremediation Resource Guide (EPA/542/B-93/004); the Ground-Water Treatment Technology Resource Guide (EPA/542/B-94/009); the Physical/Chemical Treatment Technology Resource Guide (EPA/542/B-94/008); the Soil Vapor Extraction Resource Guide (EPA/542/B-94/007); and the Soil Vapor Extraction Enhancement Technology Resource Guide (EPA/542/B-95/003). These and other technology-related documents are available over the Internet at the Hazardous Waste Clean-Up Information (CLU-IN) Web Site at http://clu-in.org

.1 

### TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Page INTRODUCTION

.......................................................... 3 HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE

.................................................. 4 HOW TO ORDER DOCUMENTS LISTED IN THIS GUIDE

......................... 5 TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY

.................................................. 7 SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

........... 9 ABSTRACTS OF SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES

. . 29 GUIDANCE AND POLICY DOCUMENTS

...................................... 31 OVERVIEW AND PROGRAM DOCUMENTS

................................... 34 STUDIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS

......................................... 37 WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

............................. 46 BOOKS AND DISSERTATIONS

.............................................. 55 JOURNAL REFERENCES

................................................... 57 BIBLIOGRAPHIES

........................................................ 74 IN SITU SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION RESOURCES

....................... 75 SOURCES OF SOLIDIFICATION/STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGY INFORMATION/TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE

................................... 79 OTHER RESOURCE GUIDES

............................................... 83 REQUEST FOR COMMENTS

................................................ 85

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### INTRODUCTION EPA is committed to identifying the most effective and efficient means of addressing the thousands of hazardous waste sites in the United States. In addition, EPA seeks to ensure that decision-makers are aware of current information on the performance of remediation technologies, policies, and other sources of assistance. This Guide was prepared to help identify documents that can directly assist Federal and State site managers, contractors, and others responsible for the evaluation of technologies. This Guide was developed for those who are considering solidification/stabilization technologies for the remediation of RCRA, UST, and CERCLA sites. This Guide has abstracts of 125 solidification/stabilization technology guidance and policy documents, overview/program documents, studies and demonstrations, workshops/conference proceedings, books, journal references, bibliographies, in situ solidification/stabilization resources, and other resource guides. A matrix is provided to allow easy screening of the abstracted references. Documents listed in this Guide were found through a literature search conducted using several commercial and Federal databases including EPA’s web site at http://www.epa.gov/, the National Technical Information Service (NTIS), and DIALOG One Search Databases. The selected references are not an exhaustive list of all available literature, but rather a representative sample of the available literature. Because of the inherent lag time between document publication and subsequent listing in electronic databases, there may be more recent references available than those included in the Guide. Most of the references in the Guide are of documents published between 1994 and 1998. The documents are available from sources such as EPA’s National Service Center for Environmental Publications (NSCEP), NTIS, document delivery services, and a variety of libraries. Further, all documents listed in this Guide as having been prepared by the Technology Innovation Office are available over the Internet at http://clu-in.org. Information in this Guide does not represent an endorsement by EPA.4 EPA Document Number: EPA/542/-B-95-003 

### HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE When using this Guide to identify resource information on solidification/stabilization technologies, you may wish to take the following steps: 1. Turn to the Solidification/Stabilization Technology Resource Matrixlocated on page 9. This matrix lists alphabetically by document type 125 solidification/stabilization technology-related documents, identifies the type of information provided by each document, and provides a document ordering number. 2. Select the document(s) that appear to fit your needs based on the information in the matrix. 3. Check the abstract identification number. This number refers to an abstract of the document. 4. Review the abstract that corresponds to the document in which you are interested to confirm that the document will fit your needs. 5. If the document appears to be appropriate, note the document number presented under the abstract. For example:

6. Turn to the section entitled “How to Order Documents Listed in this Guide” on page 5 of this Guide and order your document using the directions provided. 7. When seeking information on technical assistance sources, turn to page 79 of this guide 8. If you would like to comment on this Guide or would like additional information, turn to page 85 of this Guide and follow the directions for mailing or faxing your comments/questions.5



### HOW TO ORDER DOCUMENTS LISTED IN THIS GUIDE Documents listed in this Guide are available through a variety of sources. When ordering documents listed in the Solidification/Stabilization T echnology Abstracts section ofthis Guide, use the number listed in the bar below the abstract. Ifusing the Solidification/Stabilization T echnology Resource Matrix, use the number listed below the document title. Ifmultiple document ordering numbers are identified, select the appropriate numberbased on the directions below

. EP A/530, EP

A/540, EP A/600, and EP

A/625 documents may be available through the Center for Environmental Research Information (CERI); EP

A/540 and EP

A/542 documents may be obtained through the National Service Center for Environmental Publications (NSCEP); and EP A/530 documents may be obtained from the RCRA Information Center (RIC). These document repositories provide in-stock documents free ofcharge, but document supplies may be limited. Documents obtained through the National T echnical Information Service (NTIS) are available for a fee; therefore, prior to purchasing a document through NTIS, you may wish to review a copy at a technical or university library, or a public library that houses government documents. Out-of-stock documents may be ordered from NSCEP or may be purchased from NTIS. Several Portland Cement Association (PCA) publications also can be obtained by contacting PCA’s Publications Order Processing Department.

Document T

ype Document Sour ce Publication numbers with the following T o send a request: National T echnical Information Service prefixes: (NTIS) AD U.S. Department ofCommerce DE 5285 Port Royal Road PB Springfield, V A 22161 PR (free ofcharge) Sales Desk: 1-800-553-NTIS(6847) or (703) 605-6000 Operates Monday

- Friday, 8:00 a.m. -8:00 p.m., Eastern Time Subscriptions: 1-800-363-2068 or (703) 605-6000

Operates Monday

- Friday, 8:30 a.m. - 5:00 p.m., Eastern Time TOD: (703) 487-4639

Operates Monday

- Friday, 8:30 a.m. - 5:00 p.m., Eastern Time T o fax a request: (703) 605-6900

A vailable 24 hrs, 7 days a week. T o verify receipt offax, call (703) 605-6090 Operates Monday

- Friday, 7:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m., Eastern Time Email: orders@ntis.fedworld.gov http://www.ntis.gov/ordering.htm6



### HOW TO ORDER DOCUMENTS LISTED IN THIS GUIDE (CONT’D)

Document T

ype Document Sour ce Publications with the following numbers: T o send a request: Center for Environmental EP A/530 (limited collection) Research Information (CERI) EP A/540 (limited collection) Cincinnati, OH 45268 EP A/600 Sales Desk: (513) 569-7562 EP A/625 T o fax a request: (513) 569-7566

Operates Monday

- Friday, 8:00 a.m. - 4:30 p.m., Eastern Time ORD publications: http://www.epa.gov/docs/ORD ORD T echnologies Transfer highlights:

http://www.epa.gov/ttbnrmrl/ceri.htm Email: ord.ceri@epamail.epa.gov Publications with the following numbers: T o send a request: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency EP A/540 National Service Center for Environmental EP A/542 Publications (NSCEP)

A document title or number is needed to place http://www.epa.gov/ncepihom/ordering.htm an order with NSCEP. Some out-of-stock documents may be ordered from CERI or may be purchased from NTIS. P .O. Box 42419 Cincinnati, OH 45242-2419 Sales Desk: 1-800-490-9198, (513)-489-8190 T o fax a request: (513) 489-8695

Operates Monday

- Friday, 7:00 a.m. - 5:30 p.m., Eastern Time email: ncepi.mail@epamail.epa.gov

Publications with EP

A/530 numbers T o send a request: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

RCRA Information Center (RIC) 401 M St., S.W

. Mailcode: 5305 W W ashington, DC 20460 Sales Desk: (703) 603-9230

Operates Monday

- Friday, 9:00 a.m. - 4:00 a.m., Eastern Time T o fax a request: (703)-603-9234 email: rcra-docket@epamail.epa.gov http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/general/ricorder.htm Ifyou have dif

ficulty finding a document or RCRA/Superfund/EPCRA Hotline: wish to obtain EP

A/510 documents (800) 424-9346, (703) 412-9810 TDD: (800) 553-7672, (703) 412-3323 Operates Monday-Friday, 9:00 a.m. - 6:00 p.m., Eastern Time Publications prepared by PCA T o send a request: Order Processing Department

P .O. Box 726 Skokie, IL 60076-0726 Request Desk: 1-800-868-6733 email: http://www.portcement.org7 

### TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY Solidification and stabilization are generic names applied to a wide range ofdiscrete technologies that are closely related in that both use chemical and/or physical processes to reduce potential adverse impacts on the environment from the disposal ofradioactive, hazardous, and mixed wastes. Stabilization refers to techniques that chemically reduce the hazard potential ofa waste by converting the contaminants into less soluble, mobile, or toxic forms. The physical nature and handling characteristics ofthe waste are not necessarily changed by stabilization. Solidification refers to techniques that encapsulate the waste, forming a solid material, and does not necessarily involve a chemical interaction between the contaminants and the solidifying additives. The product of solidification, often known as the waste form, may be a monolithic block, a clay-like material, a granular particulate, or some other physical form commonly considered “solid.” Solidification as applied to fine waste particles, typically 2 mm or less, is termed microencapsulation and that which applies to a lar ge block or container ofwastes is termed macroencapsulation

. Solidification can be accomplished by a chemical reaction between the waste and solidifying reagents or by mechanical processes. Contaminant migration is often restricted by decreasing the surface area exposed to leaching and/or by coating the wastes with low-permeability materials. The combined process of solidification/stabilization mixes wastes, soils, and sludges with treatment agents to immobilize, both physically and chemically , the hazardous constituents in those substances. The technologies are not regarded as destructive techniques; rather, they eliminate or impede the mobility ofcontaminants.

### [This Page Intentionally Left Blank]*Topics Addressed: [1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness

9 SOLIDIFICATION/ST

ABILIZA

TION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating Number Document Ordering No. Office/AuthorTopics Addressed* TECHNOLOGY TYPE MEDIA CONT AMINANTS Additives and Binder Reagents Inorganic OrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesEx SituIn SituInorganicOrganicMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

GUIDANCE AND POLICY DOCUMENTS 1 Department ofthe Army,

Guide Specification for [1] Construction, [2] Solidification/Stabilization (S/S) ofContaminated Material. USACE DocumentNo. CEGS02160 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! USACE (1998).

2 EP A-HWERL, ORD Handbook for Stabilization/ [1] Solidification ofHazardous [2] W astes. EP ADocumentNo. EP

A/540/2- 86/001 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1986).

3 EP A-OSWER/AAEE Innovative Site Remediation [1] T echnology: Design and [2] Application, V

olume 4, Stabilization/Solidification. EP ADocumentNo. EP

A 542- B-97-007 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1997).

4 EP A-OSWER/AAEE Innovative Site Remediation [1] T echnology: V

olume 4, [2] Solidification/Stabilization. EP ADocumentNo. EP

A 542- B-94-001 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1994).

5 Barth, E. and others.

Stabilization and [1] Solidification ofHazardous [2] (1990). Pollution W astes. T echnology Review No. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 186. 6 EP A-CERI, RREL Stabilization/Solidification of [1] CERCLA and RCRA W astes: Physical T

ests, Chemical T esting Procedures, T echnology Screening, and Field Activities. EP ADocumentNo. EP

A/625/6- 89/022 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1989).SOLIDIFICATION/ST ABILIZA

TION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating Number Document Ordering No. Office/AuthorTopics Addressed* TECHNOLOGY TYPE MEDIA CONT AMINANTS Additives and Binder Reagents Inorganic OrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesEx SituIn SituInorganicOrganicMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed: [1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness

10 GUIDANCE AND POLICY DOCUMENTS (continued) 7 EP A-OSWER/OSW Statutory Interpretive [1] Guidance on the Placement of [2] Bulk Liquid Hazardous W aste in Landfills. OSWER Policy Directive No. 9487.00-2A ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1986).

8 EP A-RREL, ORD T echnical Resource [1] Document: [2] Solidification/Stabilization and Its Application to W aste Materials. EP ADocumentNo. EP A/530/R-93/012 NTIS DocumentNo: PB93- 237535 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1993).

9 Department ofthe Army,

T reatability Studies for [1] Solidification/Stabilization of [2] Contaminated Material. USACE Technical LetterNo. 1110-1-158 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! USACE (1995).

OVER VIEW AND PROGRAM DOCUMENTS 10 EP A-OERR, ORD Engineering Bulletin: [1] Solidification/ Stabilization of [2] Organics and Inorganics. EP ADocumentNo. EP A/540/S-92/015 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1993).

11 Conner, J.R. Portland

Guide to Improving the [2] Effectiveness ofCementBased Solidification/Stabilization. PCA Publication No. EB211 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1997). CementAssociation.

12 EP A-OSWER (1996). Innovative T

reatment [2] T echnologies: Annual Status Report, 8th Edition. EP ADocumentNo. EP

A-542- R-96-010 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !SOLIDIFICATION/ST ABILIZA

TION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating Number Document Ordering No. Office/AuthorTopics Addressed* TECHNOLOGY TYPE MEDIA CONT AMINANTS Additives and Binder Reagents Inorganic OrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesEx SituIn SituInorganicOrganicMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed: [1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness

11 OVER VIEW AND PROGRAM DOCUMENTS (continued) 13 DOE

- INEL, EG&G

Portland Cement: A [2] Solidification Agent for LowLevel Radioactive W

aste. INEL Technical Bulletin No. EGG-LL W-8843 ! ! ! ! ! Idaho, Inc. (1991).

14 W ilk, C.M. Portland Potential [2] Solidification/Stabilization Projects Under the Superfund Program. PCA Publication No. IS500 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1994). CementAssociation.

15 W ilk, C.M. Portland Potential [2] Solidification/Stabilization Superfund Projects - 1995 Update. PCA Publication No. IS501 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1995). CementAssociation.

16 Adaska, A., and others.

Solidification/Stabilization of [1] W astes Using Portland [2] Cement. PCA Publication No. EB071 Edition. (1998). ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Association. Second Portland Cement

17 EP A-CERI (1996). Superfund Innovative [1] T echnology Evaluation [2] Program: T

echnology Profiles, 9th Edition. EP ADocumentNo. EP A/540/R-97/502

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !SOLIDIFICATION/ST ABILIZA

TION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating Number Document Ordering No. Office/AuthorTopics Addressed* TECHNOLOGY TYPE MEDIA CONT AMINANTS Additives and Binder Reagents Inorganic OrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesEx SituIn SituInorganicOrganicMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed: [1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness

12 STUDIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS 18 EP A-RREL, ORD Chemfix T

echnologies, Inc. [1] Solidification/Stabilization [2] Process: Applications Analysis Report. EP ADocumentNo. EP A/540/A5-89/011 NTIS DocumentNo. PB-91- 187054 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1991).

19 Channell, M.G. and K.T

.

Evaluation ofSolidification/ [1] Stabilization for T

reatment of [2] a Petroleum HydrocarbonContaminated Sludge from Fort Polk Army Installation, Louisiana. NTIS DocumentNo. ADA-320- 253/8 ! ! ! ! ! Preston. U.S. ACE-WES (1996).

20 EP A- RREL, ORD Evaluation ofSolidification/ [1] Stabilization T

reatment [2] Processes for Municpal W aste Combustion Residues. EP ADocumentNo. EP A/600/R-93/167 NTIS DocumentNo: PB-93- 229870 ! ! ! ! (1993).

21 EP A-RREL, ORD HAZCON Solidification [1] Process, Douglassville, P A: [2] Applications Analysis Report. EP ADocumentNo. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! EP A/540/A5-89/001 NTIS DocumentNo. PB-89- 206031 (1989).

22 EP A-RREL, ORD International W

aste [1] T echnologies/ Geo-Con In [2] Situ Stabilization/ Solidification: Applications Analysis Report. EP ADocumentNo. EP A/540/A5-89/004 NTIS DocumentNo. PB-90- 269085 ! ! ! ! ! ! (1990).SOLIDIFICATION/ST ABILIZA

TION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating Number Document Ordering No. Office/AuthorTopics Addressed* TECHNOLOGY TYPE MEDIA CONT AMINANTS Additives and Binder Reagents Inorganic OrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesEx SituIn SituInorganicOrganicMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed: [1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness

13 STUDIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS (continued) 23 Environment

Investigation ofT

est Methods [1] for Solidified W

aste [2] Evaluation - A Cooperative Program. ReportEPS 3/HA/8 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Environment (1991). Canada/EP

A/Alberta

24 Mattus, C.H. and T.M.

Literature Review ofMixed [2] W aste Components: Sensitivities and Effects Upon Solidification/Stabilization in Cement-Based Matrices. NTIS DocumentNo. ORNL/TN-12656 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Gilliam. DOE-ORNL (1994).

25 EP A-RREL, ORD Onsite Engineering Report [1] for Solidification/Stabilization [2] T reatment T

esting of Contaminated Soils. NTIS DocumentNo. PB-93- 166965/AS ! ! ! ! (1993).

26 EP A-RREL, ORD/ Physical and Morphological [1] Measures ofW

aste Solidification Effectiveness. EP ADocumentNo. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! EP A/600/D-91/164 NTIS DocumentNo. PB91- 226340/XAB A WMA (1991).

27 EP A-RREL, ORD Project Summary: Evaluation [1] ofSolidification/Stabilization as a Best Demonstrated A vailable T

echnology for Contaminated Soils. EP ADocumentNo. EP A/600/S2-89/013 NTIS DocumentNo. PB89- 169908 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1990).

28 EP A-RREL, ORD Project Summary: [1] Interference Mechanisms in [3] W aste [4] Stabilization/Solidification Process. EP ADocumentNo. EP A/600/S2-89/067 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1990).SOLIDIFICATION/ST ABILIZA

TION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating Number Document Ordering No. Office/AuthorTopics Addressed* TECHNOLOGY TYPE MEDIA CONT AMINANTS Additives and Binder Reagents Inorganic OrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesEx SituIn SituInorganicOrganicMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed: [1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness

14 STUDIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS (continued) 29 EP A-RREL, ORD Project Summary: Onsite [1] Engineering Report for [2] Solidification/Stabilization T reatment T

esting of Contaminated Soils. EP ADocumentNo. EP A/600/SR-93/051 ! ! ! ! (1993).

30 EP A-RREL, ORD Silicate T echnology [1] Corporation’s [2] Solidification/Stabilization T echnology for Organic and Inorganic Contaminants in Soils. Applications Analysis Report. EP ADocumentNo. EP A/540/AR-92/010 NTIS DocumentNo. PB-93- 172948 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1992).

31 EP A- RREL, ORD Silicate T echnology [1] Corporation [2] Solidification/Stabilization T echnology SITE Demonstration at the SELMA Pressure T

reating Site, Selma, CA. T echnology Evaluation Report. EP ADocumentNo. EP A/540/R-95/010. NTIS DocumentNo. PB-95- 255709 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1995).

32 EP A-RREL, ORD Soliditech, Inc. Solidification/ [1] Stabilization Process, [2] Applications Analysis Report. EP ADocumentNo. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! EP A/540/A5-89/005 NTIS DocumentNo. PB-91- 129817 (1990).

33 W ilk, C.M. Portland Stabilization ofHeavy Metals [1] with Portland Cement: [2] Research Synopsis. PCA Publication No. IS007 ! ! ! ! ! CementAssociation. (1997).SOLIDIFICATION/ST ABILIZA

TION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating Number Document Ordering No. Office/AuthorTopics Addressed* TECHNOLOGY TYPE MEDIA CONT AMINANTS Additives and Binder Reagents Inorganic OrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesEx SituIn SituInorganicOrganicMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed: [1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness

15 STUDIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS (continued) 34 EP A-RREL, ORD T echnology Evaluation [1] Report: Chemfix [2] T echnologies, Inc. Solidification/Stabilization Process, Clackamas, Oregon. EP ADocumentNo. EP

A/540/5- 89/011a NTIS DocumentNo. PB-91- 127696 ! ! ! ! ! ! (1990).

35 EP A-RREL, ORD T echnology Evaluation [1] Report: SITE Program [2] Demonstration T

est, HAZCON Solidification, Douglassville, Pennsylvania. EP ADocumentNo. EP

A/540/5- 89/001a NTIS DocumentNo. PB-89- 158810 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1989).

36 EP A-RREL, ORD T echnology Evaluation [1] Report: SITE Program [2] Demonstration T

est, International W

aste T echnologies In Situ Stabilization/Solidification, Hialeah, Florida EP ADocumentNo. EP

A/540/5- 89/004a NTIS DocumentNo. PB-89- 194161 ! ! ! ! ! ! (1990).

37 EP A-RREL, ORD T echnology Evaluation [1] Report: SITE Program [2] Demonstration T

est, Soliditech, Inc. Solidification/ Stabilization Process EP ADocumentNo. EP

A/540/5- 89/005a NTIS DocumentNo. PB-91- 129817 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1990).SOLIDIFICATION/ST ABILIZA

TION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating Number Document Ordering No. Office/AuthorTopics Addressed* TECHNOLOGY TYPE MEDIA CONT AMINANTS Additives and Binder Reagents Inorganic OrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesEx SituIn SituInorganicOrganicMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed: [1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness

16 WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS 38 Poellmann, H. (1993).

Capability ofCementitious [1] Materials in the [2] Immobilization Process of Hazardous W

aste Materials. ! ! ! ! ! ! 15th International Conference on Cement Microscopy

. p. 108-126. 39 Cohen, B., and J.G.

Cement-Based Solidification [1] ofFerro-Alloy Flue Dusts. [2] ! ! ! ! Institute ofMining, Price. (1995). Canadian Metallur gy, and Petroleum. p. 297-308. 40 Testa, S.M. (1994).

Chemical Aspects of [1] Incorporating Contaminated [2] Soil Into Cold-Mix Asphalt. ! ! ! ! ! SuperfundXV

. p. 1439- 1448. 41 Conner, J.R., Cotton, S.

Chemical Stabilization of [1] Contaminated Soils and [2] Sludges Using Cement and [3] Cement By-Products. [4] ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Symposium on Cement and Lear, P

.R. (1992). FirstInternational Industry Solutions to W aste Management. p. 73-97. 42 Spence, R.D. (Editor).

Chemistry and [1] Microstructure ofSolidified [2] W aste Forms. ! ! ! ! ! ! (1993). Lewis Publishers.

43 Bour geois, J.C and Designing a Better Matrix for [2] Solidification/Stabilization of Hazardous W

aste with the Aid ofBagasse (Lignin) as a Polymer Additive to Cement ! ! ! ! ! Chemical Society

. p. others. (1996). American 416.

44 Cote, P

. and T.M.Gillian Environmental Aspects of [1] Stabilization and [2] Solidification ofHazardous and Radioactive W

astes. ASTM Publication No. 04- 010330-56 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (Editors). (1989). ASTM STP-1033. V

olume 1.

45 Badamchian, B., and

Evaluation ofLong-T

erm [1] Effectiveness ofSolidified and [4] Stabilized W

astes. SuperfundXVI Proceedings ! ! ! ! others. (1995). SuperfundXVI. p. 599- 608.SOLIDIFICATION/ST ABILIZA

TION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating Number Document Ordering No. Office/AuthorTopics Addressed* TECHNOLOGY TYPE MEDIA CONT AMINANTS Additives and Binder Reagents Inorganic OrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesEx SituIn SituInorganicOrganicMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed: [1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness

17 WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS (continued) 46 EP A-RREL, ORD Immobilization T

echnology [1] Seminar Speaker Slide Copies [2] and Supporting Information. [3] EP ADocumentNo. CERI-89- 222 [4] ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1998).

47 Gray, K.E., and others.

Laboratory and Field-Scale [1] T est Methodology for Reliable Characterization ofSolidified/ Stabilized Hazardous W astes. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ManagementAssociation (1995). Air & W

aste International Symposium. p.575-582. 48 Stegemann, J.A.,

Laboratory

, Regulatory and [1] Field Leaching ofSolidified [4] W aste. ! ! ! ! Conference on Caldwell, R.J. and Shi, C. (1996). International Incineration and Thermal TreatmentTechnologies. p. 75-80. 49 Lear, P .R., Schmitz, D.J. Material Handling Equipment [1] for the Preparation ofW astes [2] for Stabilization T

reatment. A&WMA ReprintNo. 95- ManagementAssociation RP130.01 88 Annual Meeting & ! ! ! and Brickner, R.J. (1995). Air & W

aste

th Exhibition. 50 W akeley, L.D., and Petrographic T

echniques [1] Applied to Cement Solidified [3] Hazardous W

astes. ! ! ! ! ! ! International Conference others. (1992). 14th

on CementMicroscopy

. p. 274-289. 51 W ilk, C.M. (1998). Portland Cement-Based [1] Solidification/Stabilization [2] T reatment ofW

aste.

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Environmental Fourth International Symposium and Exhibition on Contamination in Central and Eastern Europe. To be available on CD-ROM orby contacting PCA.SOLIDIFICATION/ST ABILIZA

TION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating Number Document Ordering No. Office/AuthorTopics Addressed* TECHNOLOGY TYPE MEDIA CONT AMINANTS Additives and Binder Reagents Inorganic OrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesEx SituIn SituInorganicOrganicMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed: [1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness

18 WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS (continued) 52 Stegemann, J.A., and

Quality Analysis ofField [1] Solidified W

aste. ! ! ! ! others. (1995). 5th Annual Symposium on Groundwater and Soil Remediation. p. 553- 555. 53 Cocke, D.L., and others.

Recent Advances in [1] Stabilization and [2] Solidification. [4] ! ! ! ! ! ! Chemical Society

. p. (1994). American 537-541.

54 Adaska, W .S., Bruin, Remediation ofOil Refinery [1] Sludge Basin. [2]

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! W .T

. and Day, S.R. (1992). First International Symposium, Cement Industry Solutions to W aste Management. P

. 119-134. 55 Gilliam T.M. and

Stabilization and [1] Solidification ofHazardous, [2] Radioactive, and Mixed [4] W astes. ASTM Publication No. 04- 011230-56 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! C.C.W iles (Editors). (1992). ASTM STP-1123. V

olume 2.

56 Gilliam T.M. and

Stabilization and [1] Solidification ofHazardous, [2] Radioactive, and Mixed [3] W astes. [4] ASTM Publication No. 04- 012400-56 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! STP-1240. V olume 3. C.C.W iles (Editors). (1996). ASTM

57 McCarthy, G.J., and

Synthesis, Crystal Chemistry [1] and Stability ofEttringite, a [2] Material W

ith Potential [4] Applications in Hazardous W aste Immobilization. ! ! ! ! ! ! Research Society others. (1992). Materials Symposium.. p. 129- 140.SOLIDIFICATION/ST ABILIZA

TION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating Number Document Ordering No. Office/AuthorTopics Addressed* TECHNOLOGY TYPE MEDIA CONT AMINANTS Additives and Binder Reagents Inorganic OrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesEx SituIn SituInorganicOrganicMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed: [1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness

19 WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS (continued) 58 Bonen, D. and S.L.

The Present State-of-the-Art [3] ofImmobilization of [4] Hazardous Heavy Metals in Cement-Based Materials. ! ! ! ! ! ! Sarkar. (1994). Engineering Foundation Conference on Advances in Cement and Concrete. ASCE. p.481-498. 59 McGahan, J.F

. and D. T reatability Study ofthe [2] Stabilization ofChromiumContaminated W

aste. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Proceedings ofW aste Martin. (1994). Management ‘94. p. 1493-1497. BOOKS 60 McWhinney, H.G.

A Surface Characterization of [1] Priority Metal Pollutants in [2] Portland Cement. ! ! ! ! (1990). Doctoral Dissertation, Texas A&M University

. 61 Conner, J.R. (1990). V an Chemical Fixation and [1] Solidification ofHazardous [2] W astes. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Nostrand Reinhold
62 Lin, S.L. (1995).

Effectiveness ofSulfur for [2] Solidification/Stabilization of Metal Contaminated W

astes. ! ! ! ! ! ! Doctoral Dissertation, Geor gia Institute of Technology

. 63 Klich, I. (1997). Doctoral

Permanence ofMetals [1] Containment in Solidified and [3] Stabilized W

astes. [4] University

. ! ! ! ! ! Dissertation, Texas A&M
64 Taylor, M. and R.W

. Stabilization ofArsenic [2] W astes. ReportNo. HWRIC RR-073 DoE and Natural ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Fuessle. (1994). Illinois Resources and Hazardous W aste Research Information Center

.SOLIDIFICATION/ST ABILIZA

TION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating Number Document Ordering No. Office/AuthorTopics Addressed* TECHNOLOGY TYPE MEDIA CONT AMINANTS Additives and Binder Reagents Inorganic OrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesEx SituIn SituInorganicOrganicMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed: [1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness

20 JOURNAL REFERENCES 65 Conner, J.R. and

A Critical Review of [1] Stabilization/Solidification [2] T echnology. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Hoef fner, S.L. (1998). CriticalReviews in Envir onmental Science and T echnology

. 28(4):397-462. 66 Lee, C.H., and others.

A Long-T

erm Leachability [1] Study ofSolidified W

astes by [4] the Multiple T

oxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure. ! ! ! ! Hazar dous Materials (1994). Journal of 38:65-74.
67 Faschan, A., and others.

A Model to Predict the TCLP [1] Leaching ofSolidified Organic W

astes. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1996). Hazar dous W aste andHazar

dous Materials 13:333-350. 68 Stegemann, J.A. and P .L. A Proposed Protocol for [1] Evaluation ofSolidified W astes. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! the T otalEnvir

onment Cote. (1996)

. Science of 178:103-110.
69 Trussell, S. and R.D.

A Review of [2] Solidification/Stabilization Interferences. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Spence. (1994).W aste Management 14:507- 519. 70 W ilk, C.M. and Arora, R. Cement-Based [1] Solidification/Stabilization of [2] Lead-Contaminated Soil at a Utah Highway Construction Site. PCA Publication No. RP332 T echniques

. ! ! ! ! (1995). Remediation, The Journal of Envir onmental Cleanup Costs, T echnologies &
71 Shin, H.S. and K.S. Jun.

Cement-Based Stabilization/ [2] Solidification ofOrganic Contaminated Hazardous W astes Using Na-Bentonite and Silica Fume. ! ! ! ! ! ! Envir onmental Science (1995). Journal of andHealth 30:651-668.
72 Owens, J. and S. Stewart.

Cement Binders for Organic [2] W astes. ! ! ! ! ! ! (1996). Magazine of Concr ete Resear

ch 48:37-44.SOLIDIFICATION/ST ABILIZA

TION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating Number Document Ordering No. Office/AuthorTopics Addressed* TECHNOLOGY TYPE MEDIA CONT AMINANTS Additives and Binder Reagents Inorganic OrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesEx SituIn SituInorganicOrganicMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed: [1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness

21 JOURNAL REFERENCES (continued) 73 Y ang, G. (1993). Journal Durability Study ofa [1] Solidified Mercury- [2] Containing Sludge. [3] ! ! ! ! ofHazar dous Materials 34:217-223 74 Tamas, F .D., and others. Effect ofAdsorbents on the [1] Leachability ofCement [2] Bonded Electroplating W astes. ! ! ! ! (1992). Cementand Concr ete Resear

ch 22:399-404. 75 Ismail, N., and others.

Effect ofCarbonation on [3] Microbial Corrosion of Concretes. ! ! ! ! ! Construction (1993). Journal of Managementand Engineering 20:133-138. 76 Ivey, D.G., and others.

Electron Microscopy ofHeavy [1] Metal W aste in Cement [2] Matrices. ! ! ! ! ! ! (1990). Journal of Material Science 25: 5055-5062. 77 Albino, V ., and others. Evaluation ofSolid W

aste [1] Stabilization Processes By [4] Means ofLeaching T

ests. ! ! ! ! (1996). Envir onmental T echnology 17:309-315. 78 Herrera, E., and others.

Evaluation ofthe Leaching [1] Properties ofSolidified Heavy [2] Metal W astes. ! ! ! ! Envir onmental Science (1992). Journal of andHealth A27:983- 998. 79 W eitzman, L. (1990). Factors For Selecting [2] Appr opriate Solidification/Stabilization Methods. ! ! ! ! ! ! Journal ofHazar dous Materials 24:457-468.
80 Y ang, G. and K.L. Kao. Feasilibilty ofUsing a [1] Mixture ofan Electroplating [2] Sludge and a Calcium Carbonate Sludge as a Binder for Sludge Solidification. ! ! ! ! ! Hazar dous Materials (1994). Journal of 36:81-88.
81 Roy, A. and F .K. Fundamental Aspects of [1] Cement Solidification and [2] Stabilization. [4] ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1997). Journal of Cartledge. (Editors). Hazar dous Materials 52:151-354.SOLIDIFICATION/ST ABILIZA

TION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating Number Document Ordering No. Office/AuthorTopics Addressed* TECHNOLOGY TYPE MEDIA CONT AMINANTS Additives and Binder Reagents Inorganic OrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesEx SituIn SituInorganicOrganicMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed: [1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness

22 JOURNAL REFERENCES (continued) 82 Cartledge, F

. and others. Immobilization Mechanisms [1] in Solidification/Stabilization [2] ofCadmium and Lead Salts Using Portland Cement Fixing Agents. ! ! ! ! Science and T echnology (1990). Envir

onmental 24:867-873.
83 Kindness, A., and others.

Immobilization ofChromium [1] in Cement Matrices. [2] ! ! ! ! (1994)

. W aste Management 14:3-11. 84 Debroy, M. and S.S.

Immobilization ofZinc and [1] Lead From W

astes Using [2] Simple and Fiber-Reinforced [4] Lime Pozzolana Admixtur es. ! ! ! ! ! Envir onmental Science Dara. (1994). Journal of andHealth A29:339- 355. 85 Macphee, D.E. and F .P

. Immobilization Science of [1] Cement Systems. [2] [4] ! ! ! ! ! ! Glasser

. (1993). MRS Bulletin 3:66-71. 86 Macias, A., and others.

Impact ofCarbon Dioxide on [2] the Immobilization Potential [3] ofCemented W

astes: [4] Chromium. ! ! ! ! (1997). Cementand Concr ete Resear

ch 27:215-225. 87 W ang, S.Y

. and C. Leachability ofLead From [1] Solidified Cement-Fly Ash [2] Binders. ! ! ! ! V ipulanandan. (1996). Cementand Concr

ete Resear ch 26:895-905. 88 Andres, A., and others.

Long-T erm Behaviour of [1] T oxic Metals in Stabilized [2] Steel Foundry Dusts. [4] ! ! ! ! (1995). Journal of Hazar dous Materials 40:31-42. 89 W ebster, M.T

. and R.C. Long-T erm Leaching of [1] Metals From Concrete [2] Products. [4] ! ! ! ! ofEnvir onmental Loehr. (1996). Journal Engineering 122:714- 721. 90 Y ang, G.C.C. and C.F

. Long-T erm Stability of [1] Superplasticized Monoliths of [2] a Solidified Electroplating Sludge. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Chang. (1994). Journal ofHazar dous Materials 37:277-283.SOLIDIFICATION/ST ABILIZA

TION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating Number Document Ordering No. Office/AuthorTopics Addressed* TECHNOLOGY TYPE MEDIA CONT AMINANTS Additives and Binder Reagents Inorganic OrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesEx SituIn SituInorganicOrganicMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed: [1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness

23 JOURNAL REFERENCES (continued) 91 Cheng, K. and P

. Bishop. Metals Distribution in [1] Solidified/Stabilized W

aste Forms After Leaching. ! ! ! ! ! ! (1992). Hazar dous W aste andHazar

dous Materials 9:163-171. 92 Hills, C.D., and others.

Ordinary Portland Cement [1] Based Solidification ofT oxic W astes: The Role ofOPC Reviewed. ! ! ! ! ! (1993). Cementand Concr ete Resear

ch 23:196-212. 93 W ilk, C.M. (1995). Portland Cement Gives [1] Concrete Support to [2] Solidification/Stabilization. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Envir onmental Solutions May

. 94 Albino, V ., and others. Potential Application of [1] Ettringite Generating Systems [2] for Hazardous W

aste Stabilization. ! ! ! ! ! ! (1996). Journal of Hazar dous Materials 51:241-252. 95 Lange, L.C., and others.

Preliminary Investigation into [1] the Effects ofCarbonation on Cement-Solidified Hazardous W astes. ! ! ! ! (1996). Envir onmental Science T echnology 30:25-30. 96 Reddy, K.J., and others.

Reaction ofCO W

ith [1] 2 Alkaline Solid W

astes to [2] Reduce Contaminant Mobility. ! ! ! ! (1994). W aterResear

ch 28:1377-1382.
97 Conner, J.R. (1995).

Recent Findings on [1] Immobilization ofOrganics as [2] Measured by T

otal ConstituentAnalysis. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! W aste Management 15:359-470.
98 Bornstein, R. andW ehr, Soil Stabilization Provides In- [1] Situ T oxic Containment [2] ! ! ! ! F

. (1991). California BuilderandEngineer

. CB&E: 35-36. 99 Roy, A., and others.

Solidification/Stabilization of [1] a Heavy Metal Sludge by a [2] Portland Cement/Fly Ash Binding Mixture. ! ! ! ! (1991). Hazar dous W aste andHazar

dous Materials 8:33-41.SOLIDIFICATION/ST ABILIZA

TION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating Number Document Ordering No. Office/AuthorTopics Addressed* TECHNOLOGY TYPE MEDIA CONT AMINANTS Additives and Binder Reagents Inorganic OrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesEx SituIn SituInorganicOrganicMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed: [1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness

24 JOURNAL REFERENCES (continued) 100 Buechler, P ., and others. Solidification/Stabilization of [1] Arsenic: Effects ofArsenic [2] Speciation. ! ! ! ! ! ! Envir onmental Science (1996). Journal of andHealth A31:747- 754. 101 Roy, A., and others.

Solidification/Stabilization of [1] Hazardous W

aste: Evidence [2] ofPhysical Encapsulation. ! ! ! ! (1992). Envir onmental Science and T

echnology 26:1349-1353. 102 Daniali, S. (1990).

Solidification/Stabilization of [1] Heavy Metals in Latex [2] Modified Portland Cement [3] Matrices. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Journal ofHazar dous Materials 24:225-230.
103 Lin. S.L., and others.

Stabilization and [1] Solidification ofLead in [2] Contaminated Soils. ! ! ! ! (1996). Journal of Hazar dous Materials 48:95-110. 104 Cocke, D.L. (1990).

The Binding Chemistry and [1] Leaching Mechanisms of [2] Hazardous Substances in Cementious Solidification/ Stabilization Systems. ! ! ! ! ! ! Materials 24:231-253. Journal ofHazar

dous

105 Bonen, D. and S.L.

The Effects ofSimulated [1] Environmental Attack on [2] Immobilization ofHeavy [3] Metals Doped in Cement- [4] Based Materials. ! ! ! ! ! ! ofHazar dous Materials Sarkar. (1995). Journal 40:321-335.
106 Conner, J.R. and

The History of [1] Stabilization/Solidification [2] T echnology ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Hoef fner, S.L. (1998). CriticalReviews in Envir onmental Science and T echnology

. 28(4): 325-396. 107 Mollah, Y ., and others. The Interfacial Chemistry of [1] Solidification/Stabilization of [2] Metals. ! ! ! ! ! ! (1995). W aste Management 15:137- 148.SOLIDIFICATION/ST ABILIZA

TION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating Number Document Ordering No. Office/AuthorTopics Addressed* TECHNOLOGY TYPE MEDIA CONT AMINANTS Additives and Binder Reagents Inorganic OrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesEx SituIn SituInorganicOrganicMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed: [1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness

25 JOURNAL REFERENCES (continued) 108 Poon, C.S. and K.W

. Lio. The Limitation ofthe T

oxicity [1] Characteristic Leaching Procedure for Evaluating Cement-Based Stabilized/ Solidified W

aste Forms. ! ! ! ! ! ! Management 17:15-23. (1997). W aste

109 Al’T abbaa, A. and S. Time Effects ofThree [1] Contaminants on the [3] Durability and Permeability [4] ofa Solidified Sand. ! ! ! ! King. (1998). Envir onmental T echnology 19:401-407. 110 W eng, C.H. and C.P

. T reatment ofMetal Industrial [1] W astewater by Flyash and [2] Cement Fixation. ! ! ! ! ofEnvir onmental Huang. (1994). Journal Engineering 120:1470- 1488. 111 Stegemann, J.A.,

V ariability ofField Solidified [1] W aste [2] [3] [4] ! ! ! ! C. (1997). Journal of Caldwell, R.J. and Shi, Hazar dous Materials

. 52: 335-348. BIBLIOGRAPHIES 112 DOE-Ener gy Science and Hazardous W

astes - Fixation, [1] Solidification, and [2] V itrification Excluding Radioactive Materials. NTIS DocumentNo. PB96- 855945INI http://www.ntis.gov ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Technology Database (1998).

113 NTIS Bibliographic

Radioactive W

aste Processing [1]

- Fixation in Cements and [2] Bitumens. NTIS # PB96-855135INI http://www.ntis.gov ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Database (1998).

IN SITU SOLIDIFICATION/ST ABILIZA

TION RESOURCES 114 EP A-OSWER (1993). Engineering Issue: [1] Considerations in Deciding to [2] T reat Contaminated Soils In Situ. EP ADocumentNo. EP A/540/S-94/500 NTIS DocumentNo. PB94- 177771/XAB ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !SOLIDIFICATION/ST ABILIZA

TION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating Number Document Ordering No. Office/AuthorTopics Addressed* TECHNOLOGY TYPE MEDIA CONT AMINANTS Additives and Binder Reagents Inorganic OrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesEx SituIn SituInorganicOrganicMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed: [1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness

26 IN SITU SOLIDIFICATION/ST ABILIZA

TION RESOURCES (continued) 115 EP A- RREL, ORD Handbook on In Situ [1] T reatment ofHazardous [2] W aste-Contaminated Soils. EP ADocumentNo. EP

A/540/2- ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 90/002 NTIS DocumentNo. PB90- 155607/XAB (1990).

116 EP A- RREL, ORD International W

aste [1] T echnologies/ Geo-Con In [2] Situ Stabilization/ Solidification: Applications Analysis Report EP ADocument No.EP A/540/A5-89/004 NTIS DocumentNo. PB-90- 269085 ! ! ! ! ! ! (1990).

117 Hyde, R.A., and others.

Overview ofIn Situ W

aste [2] T reatment T

echnologies. NTIS DocumentNo. DE92- Inc. 018012/XAB ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1992). EG&G Idaho,

118 Al’T abbaa, A. and C. W

. Pilot In Situ Auger Mixing [1] T reatment ofa Contaminated [2] Site, Part I: T

reatability Study . ! ! ! ! Evans. (1998). Geotechnical Engineering 131:52-59 119 EP A-OSWER, TIO Recent Developments for In [1] Situ T reatment ofMetal- [2] Contamianted Soils. EP ADocumentNo. EP A/542/R-97/004 ! ! ! ! (1997).

120 EP A-RREL, ORD T echnology Evaluation [1] Report: SITE Program [2] Demonstration T

est, International W

aste T echnologies In Situ Stabilization/Solidification, Hialeah, Florida. EP ADocumentNo. EP

A/540/5- 89/004A NTIS DocumentNo. PB-89- 194161 ! ! ! ! ! ! (1989).SOLIDIFICATION/ST ABILIZA

TION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE MATRIX

Abstract Document Title Source/Originating Number Document Ordering No. Office/AuthorTopics Addressed* TECHNOLOGY TYPE MEDIA CONT AMINANTS Additives and Binder Reagents Inorganic OrganicSoilSludgesIndustrial WastesEx SituIn SituInorganicOrganicMetalsCyanides or AsbestosRadioactive wastesSVOCsVOCsLow level PCBsTPH

*Topics Addressed: [1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [3] Durability and Degradation [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [4] Long-term Effectiveness

27 OTHER RESOURCE GUIDES TECHNOLOGIES ADDRESSED 1 EP A-OSWER, TIO Bioremediation Resource [1] Guide [2] EP ADocumentNo. EP

A/542- B-93/004 NTIS DocumentNo. PB-94- 112307 [3] Bioremediation (1993).

2 EP A-OSWER, TIO Gr ound W ater T reatment [1] T echnology Resource Guide. [2] EP ADocumentNo. EP

A/542- B-94/009 NTIS DocumentNo. PB-95- 138657 V apor extraction, air stripping, andbiological treatment (1994).

3 EP A-OSWER, TIO Physical/Chemical T

reatment [1] T echnology Resource Guide. [2] EP ADocumentNo. EP

A/542- dehalogenation B-94/008 NTIS DocumentNo. PB-95- 138665 Soil washing/flushing, solventextraction, thermal desorption, and chemical (1994).

4 EP A-OSWER, TIO Soil V apor Extraction (SVE) [1] Enhancement T

echnology [2] Resource Guide. EP ADocumentNo. EP

A/542- B-95/003 Air spar ging, bioventing, hydraulic andpneumatic fracturing, and thermal enhancements (1995).

5 EP A-OSWER, TIO Soil V apor Extraction [1] T reatment T

echnology [2] Resource Guide. EP ADocumentNo. EP

A/542- Soil V aporExtraction B-94/007 NTIS DocumentNo. PB-95- 138681 (1994).

### [This Page Intentionally Left Blank]29 

### ABSTRACTS OF SOLIDIFICA TION/ST ABILIZA TION TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES The abstracts below describe the contents ofpertinent Solidification/Stabilization technology documents. The abstracts are organized alphabetically within each ofthe nine following document types: Begins on Page

C Guidance and Policy Documents

....................................... 31

C Overview and Program Documents

..................................... 34

C Studies and Demonstrations

........................................... 37

C W orkshops and Conference Proceedings

................................. 46

C Books and Dissertations

.............................................. 55

C Journal References

.................................................. 57

C Bibliographies

..................................................... 74

C In Situ Solidification/Stabilization Resources

.............................. 75

C Other Resource Guides

.............................................. 83 T o quickly identify documents pertinent to your interest area, see the Solidification/Stabilization T echnology Resource Matrix beginning on page 6 ofthis Guide. The documents in the matrix are organized alphabetically within the document types identified above. The document listings in the matrix can be cross-referenced with the abstracts using the code to the left ofthe document titles on the matrix. In an ef fort to limitthe number ofresources listed here, Records ofDecision (RODs) and for most part, documents more than five years old are not included. Those seeking RODs may wish to contact the hotlines, dockets, or other sources
.

### [This Page Intentionally Left Blank]Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 31 SOLIDIFICA

TION/ST ABILIZA

TION RESOURCE GUIDE

GUIDANCE AND POLICY DOCUMENTS 1. Guide Specification for Construction, Solidification/Stabilization (S/S) ofContaminated Soil Department ofthe Army

. 1998. United States Army Corps ofEngineers. W ashington, D.C. USACE Document No.: CEGS-02160 This guide specification covers the requirements for solidification/stabilization ofmaterials contaminated with hazardous and toxic waste. The guide is a model specification for actual field work, and USACE and other project personnel can easily incorporate their site- and projectspecific requirements electronically by downloading the document at USACE’s T echInfo web site at <http://w2.hnd.usace.army.mil/techinfo/cegs/pdf/02160.pdf> [1], [2]

. 2. Handbook for Stabilization/Solidification ofHazardous W astes U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1986. Hazardous W aste Engineering Research Laboratory

. Of

fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/540/2-86/001 This handbook is intended for designers and reviewers ofremedial action plans at hazardous waste disposal sites. The handbook provides information and guidance needed tojudge the feasibility of stabilization/solidification technology in controlling contaminant migration from hazardous wastes disposed ofon land. The document describes reagents and methodologies that have been useful in the stabilization/solidification ofhazardous wastes; such information is useful to industrial and engineering firms that work with handling and disposal ofhazardous waste, as well as regulatory agencies and environmental groups that need to assess the feasibility oftechnical solutions proposed at sites requiring remedial action [1], [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 32 3. Innovative Site Remediation T echnology: Design and Application, Stabilization/Solidification, V olume 4. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1997. Of fice ofSolid W

aste and Emer

gency Response. W ashington, DC. EP A Document No.: EP

A 542-B-97-007 The monograph covers the design, applications and implementation of stabilization/ solidification technologies and provides guidance on innovative processes considered ready for full-scale application. It is one ofa series ofmonographs covering the description, evaluation, and limitations ofthe technology

. This monograph’s objective is to furnish guidance for experienced professionals with site remediation responsibility, and it is intended to aid in the implementation of stabilization and solidification technologies at specific sites [1], [2]

. 4. Innovative Site Remediation T echnology: V

olume 4, Solidification/Stabilization U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1994. Of fice ofSolid W

aste and Emer

gency Response. W ashington, DC. EP A Document No.: EP

A 542-B-94-001 This monograph addresses innovative stabilization and solidification technologies that have been suf ficiently developed for use in full-scale applications for site remediation and waste treatment. The purpose ofthe monograph is to further the use ofinnovative solidification and stabilization site remediation and waste-processing technologies, particularly where their use can provide better, more cost-ef

fective performance than conventional methods. The monograph documents the current state ofthe technology for a number ofinnovative solidification and stabilization processes and considers all waste matrices to which solidification and stabilization can be reasonably applied, such as soils, liquids, and sludges [1], [2]

. 5. Stabilization and Solidification ofHazardous W astes Barth E., and others. 1990. Pollution T echnology Review

. No. 186. Noyes Data Corporation. New Y ork, NY

. This handbook provides a detailed overview ofthe state-of-the-art of solidification and stabilization ofhazardous wastes through 1990 and includes inor ganic and organic processes, as well as physical and chemical testing procedures used to evaluate solidification and stabilization technologies. Guidance is also provided on the selection and use of solidification and stabilization technologies through bench- and pilot-scale screening. Full-scale treatment operations are presented with numerous examples ofex situ and in situ technologies. In addition, quality control, safety, and environmental considerations for waste treatment, as well as equipment, costs, and regulatory requirements are discussed [1], [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 33 6. Stabilization/Solidification ofCERCLA and RCRA W astes: Physical T

ests, Chemical T esting Pr ocedures, T

echnology Screening, and Field Activities U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1989. Center for Environmental Research Information. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/625/6-89/022 A practical reference guide used for interpreting information on stabilization and solidification technologies including a comprehensive list ofreferences through 1989. The document covers a wide range ofapplications useful for all technical and professional working in the stabilization/solidification field, including state and local environmental protection agencies, private industry, commercial treatment and disposal facilities, and environmental consultants, as well as EP

A regional staf

fresponsible for reviewing CERCLA remedial action plans and RCRA permit applications [1]

. 7. Statutory Interpretive Guidance on the Placement ofBulk Liquid Hazardous W aste in Landfills U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1986. Of fice ofSolid W

aste and Emer

gency Response. W ashington, D.C. OSWER Policy Directive No.: 9487.00-2A Section 3004(c)(1) was added to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, as amended by the Hazardous and Solid W aste Amendments of 1984. This statutory interpretive guidance addresses the amendment’s prohibition on the placement ofbulk liquid hazardous wastes in landfills. The guidance discusses the legal requirements ofthe amendment and presents technical guidance to assist an owner or operator in complying with the amendment. The guidance recommends the use ofan unconfined compressive strength test to determine that liquid wastes have been chemically stabilized or merely treated by the addition ofa sorbant. The guidance recommends that unconfined compressive strength above 50 pounds per square inch be used to demonstrate that liquids in waste have been chemically stabilized [1], [2]

. 8. T echnical Resource Document: Solidification/Stabilization and Its Application to W aste Materials U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1993. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of fice ofResearch and Development, W ashington, DC. EP A Document No.: EP

A/530/R-93/012 NTIS Document No.: PB93-237535 This technical resource document is intended for site managers considering solidification/ stabilization as an option for treating hazardous wastes. It provides technology transfer to persons responsible for selection and design of solidification/stabilization treatment methods.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 34 Information about solidification/stabilization is presented in detailed text descriptions supported by summary tables, checklists, and figures. The document gives the user a summary of solidification/stabilization technologies through 1993. The technology areas covered include binding agents and binding mechanisms, waste interferences with solidification/stabilization processes, solidification/stabilization treatment oforganic contaminants, air emissions for solidification/stabilization processes, leaching mechanisms, long-term stability, reuse and disposal of solidification/stabilization treated waste, and economics. Information is also provided to clarify the limitations of solidification/stabilization technology and ongoing research to fulfill future development needs [1], [2]

. 9. T r eatability Studies for Solidification/Stabilization ofContaminated Material Department ofthe Army

. 1995. United States Army Corps ofEngineers. W ashington, D.C. USACE T

echnical Letter No.: 1110-1-158
This technical letter provides information and guidance on scoping a treatability study for solidification/stabilization ofcontaminated material. The letter focuses on treatability studies for soils and sludges, and includes an outline oftopics which should be considered for inclusion in a solidification/stabilization treatability scope ofwork [1], [2]

. OVER VIEW AND PROGRAM DOCUMENTS 10. Engineering Bulletin: Solidification/Stabilization ofOrganics and Inorganics. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1993. Of fice ofEmer

gency and Remedial Response. W ashington, DC. Of

fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/540/S-92/015 This bulletin provides general information on the applicability of solidification/stabilization technologies, limitations of solidification/stabilization, and a description ofthe solidification/stabilization treatment processes for organic and inor ganic hazardous waste contaminants. The document summarizes factors that may interfere with the solidification/stabilization process and indicates the ef fectiveness of solidification/stabilization for general contaminant groups in soil and sludges. The report also identifies sites where fullscale solidification/stabilization has been implemented under CERCLA or RCRA [1], [2]

. 11. Guide to Improving the Effectiveness ofCement-Based Solidification/Stabilization Conner, J.R. 1997. Portland Cement Association. Skokie, IL. PCA Publication No.: EB211 This guide discusses additives and techniques that can be applied to specific solidification problems such as development of set, compressive strength, and free liquids. The guide also provides lists and describes additives and techniques that can be applied to immobilization of specific hazardous constituents such as lead, cadmium, and chromium, as well as classes of constituents such as volatile organics, organo-metallics, and soluble salts. The guide includes aTopics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 35 list ofa variety ofgeneric additives for specific desired stabilization/solidification ef fects, including those that can be used to control pH ofwastes; to reduce, oxidize, and co-precipitate constituents; and to accelerate or retard set [2]

. 12. Innovative T

r eatment T

echnologies: Annual Status Report, 8th Edition U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1998. Of fice ofSolid W

aste and Emer

gency Response. T echnology Innovation Of

fice. W ashington, DC. EP A Document No.: EP

A-542-R-96-010 http://clu-in.com This yearly report and website database documents and analyzes the selection and use of innovative treatment technologies at Superfund sites and some non-Superfund sites under the jurisdiction ofDoD and DOE. The information provides information for experienced technology users and those who are considering innovative technologies to clean up contaminated sites. In addition, the information will enable technology vendors to evaluate the market for innovative technologies in Superfund for the next several years. The database is used by the EP A T echnology Innovation Of

fice to track progress in the application ofinnovative treatment technologies. Alternative technologies are defined as alternatives to land disposal; innovative technologies include alternative technologies for which there is a lack ofdata on cost and performance. The ninth edition ofthe report and database (to be released in the Fall of 1998) also tracks the implementation and use of solidification/stabilization technologies. [2]

. 13. Portland Cement: A Solidification Agent for Low-Level Radioactive W aste U.S. Department ofEnergy. 1991. Idaho National Engineering Laboratory

. EG&G Idaho, Inc. INEL T echnical Bulletin No.: EGG-LL W-8843 This technical bulletin provides an understanding of solidification oflow-level radioactive waste to provide the structural stability required by 10 Code ofFederal Regulations 61, Licensing Requirements for Land Disposal ofRadioactive W aste. T opics addressed include regulatory requirements, current and past practices, packaging ef ficiencies, problem wastes, available solidification systems, and quality control [2]

. 14. Potential Solidification/Stabilization Pr ojects Under the Superfund Pr ogram W ilk, C.M. 1994. Portland Cement Association. Skokie, IL. PCA Publication No.: IS500 This publication contains a list of 166 existing and prospective Superfund projects involving the potential use of solidification/stabilization technology for waste remediation. The list is derived from a database developed and maintained by the Public W orks Department ofthe Portland Cement Association. The document is designed to provide a quickreference for general information on each listed site, including location, industry type, contaminated media, contaminants, amount ofcontaminated media, project costs, record ofdecision (ROD) date,Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 36 remediation program, EP

A region number, and a site description. Following the listing is an index of sites grouped into industry types [2]

. 15. Potential Solidification/Stabilization Superfund Pr ojects - 1995 Update W ilk, C.M. 1995. Portland Cement Association. Skokie, IL. PCA Publication No.: IS501 This publication describes 42 Superfund cleanup projects involving the use of solidification/stabilization technology as part ofthe cleanup or site remedy

. The list is mostly derived from EP

A’s Records ofDecisions signed in Fiscal Y ear 1993 and 1994. The publication is an update to PCA’s 1994 publication

- Potential Solidification/Stabilization Projects Under the Superfund Program (IS500) [2]

. 16. Solidification/Stabilization ofW astes Using Portland Cement Adaska A., and others. Second Edition. 1998. Portland Cement Association. Skokie, IL. PCA Publication No.: EB071 This engineering bulletin clarifies the role ofPortland cement in the solidification/stabilization of hazardous wastes and is intended for consulting engineers, material suppliers, government of ficials, waste site owners, and the general public. The publication summarizes the chemistry of Portland cement and the cement hydration process as influenced by solidification/stabilization treatment additives, and organic and inor ganic contaminants. In addition, the report discusses the regulatory basis for use of solidification/stabilization and outlines the various test methods for treatment characterization [1], [2]

. 17. Superfund Innovative T echnology Evaluation Pr ogram: T

echnology Pr

ofiles, 9th Edition U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1996. National RiskManagement and Research Laboratory

. Of

fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/540/R-97/502 The Superfund Innovative T echnology Evaluation (SITE) Program evaluates new and promising treatment, and monitoring, and measurement technologies for cleanup ofhazardous waste sites. The program was created to encourage the development and routine use ofinnovative treatment technologies. As a result, the SITE Program provides environmental decision-makers with data on new, viable treatment technologies that may have performance or cost advantages compared to traditional treatment technologies. Each technology profile presented in the document contains the following: (1) a technology developer and process name; (2) a technology description, including a schematic diagram or photograph ofthe process; (3) a discussion of waste applicability; (4) a project status report; and 5) EP A project manager and technology developer contacts. The profiles also include summaries ofdemonstration results ifavailable.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 37 The technology description and waste applicability sections are written by the developer

. EP A prepares the status and demonstration results sections [2]

. STUDIES AND DEMONSTRA TIONS 18. Chemfix T

echnologies, Inc. Solidification/Stabilization Pr ocess: Applications Analysis Report U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1991. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/540/A5-89/011 NTIS Document No.: PB-91-187054 This Applications Analysis Report evaluates the treatment ef ficiency ofthe Chemfix T echnologies, Inc. (Chemfix), solidification/stabilization technology for on-site treatment of soils contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls, lead, copper, and other metals. The Chemfix demonstration was conducted under EP A’s Superfund Innovative T echnology Evaluation Program in March 1989, at the Portable Equipment Salvage Company site in Clackamas County, Oregon. The Chemfix treatment process was evaluated based on contaminant mobility , measured by numerous leaching tests; structural integrity ofthe solidified material, measured by physical and engineering tests and morphological examinations; and an economic analysis, using cost information supplied by Chemfix and supplemented by information generated during the demonstration. This report summarizes the results ofthe Chemfix demonstration, the vendor’s design and test data, and other laboratory and field applications ofthe technology

. It discusses the advantages, disadvantages, and limitations as well as estimated costs ofthe technology [1], [2]

. 19. Evaluation ofSolidification/Stabilization for T r eatment ofa Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contaminated Sludge fr om Fort Polk Army Installation, Louisiana Channell, M.G., and K.T

. 1996. Preston. Army Corps ofEngineers

- W aterways Experiment Station, V icksbur g, MS. NTIS Document No.: ADA-320-253/8 This study used solidification/stabilization to treat the oily sludge found in the vehicle washrack oil-water separators. Solidification/stabilization is usually used to treat soils and sludges that contain heavy metals. Organic compounds, such as petroleum hydrocarbons found in the sludge, interfere with the setting ofthe solidification binding materials and thus are typically not treated using solidification/stabilization. This study incorporates the use ofdicalcium silicate as an additive to the solidification process to increase the strength and reduce the leachability ofthe petroleum hydrocarbons found in the sludge. This study shows that dicalcium silicate improves the handling characteristics ofthe sludge and reduces contaminant leachability from the washrack sludge [1], [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 38 20. Evaluation ofSolidification/Stabilization T r eatment Pr

ocesses for Municipal W aste Combustion Residues U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1993. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/600/R-93/167 NTIS Document No.: PB-93-229870 This report provides results ofevaluations conducted to determine the ef fectiveness of solidification/stabilization processes, as well as information useful in designing and evaluating solidification/stabilization processes for treating municipal waste combustion residue. A full factorial experimental design was used to evaluate five solidification/stabilization processes to treat bottom ash, airpollution, control residue, and combined ash. The solidification/ stabilization processes included a control using Portland cement only, as well as Portland cement with soluble silicates, dry carbonaceous material, and other proprietary additives; cement kiln dust and proprietary additives; and soluble phosphates. The evaluations included analysis of chemical composition, physical properties, durability, and leaching characteristics. Based on comparison ofuntreated and treated residues, the solidification/stabilization processes evaluated generally did not decrease the potential for the release oftarget contaminants, including metals, dioxins, and furans. However, a phosphate process did reduce the potential oflead to be released [1], [2]

. 21. HAZCON Solidification Pr ocess, Douglassville, P

A: Applications Analysis Report U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1989. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/540/A5-89/001 NTIS Document No.: PB-89-206031 This Applications Analysis Report evaluates the treatment ef ficiency ofthe HAZCON solidification/stabilization technology for on-site treatment of soils containing a wide range of organic and heavy metal contaminants. The HAZCON demonstration was conducted under EP A’s Superfund Innovative T echnology Evaluation Program in October 1987, at the Douglassville, Pennsylvania, Superfund site. The HAZCON treatment process was evaluated based on contaminant mobility , measured by numerous leaching tests; structural integrity ofthe solidified material, measured by physical and engineering tests and morphological examinations; and economic analysis, using cost information supplied by HAZCON and supplemented by information generated during the SITE demonstration. This report summarizes the results ofthe HAZCON SITE demonstration, the vendor’s design and test data, and other laboratory and field applications ofthe technology

. It discusses the advantages, disadvantages, and limitations as well as estimated costs ofthe technology [1], [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 39 22. International W

aste T echnologies/Geo-Con In Situ Stabilization/Solidification: Applications Analysis Report U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1990. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/540/A5-89/004 NTIS Document No.: PB-90-269085 This Application Analysis Report evaluates the International W aste T echnologies HWT-20 additive and the Geo-Con, Inc., deep-soil-mixing equipment for an in situ stabilization/ solidification process and its applicability as an on-site treatment method for waste site cleanup. The in situ treatment technology demonstration was conducted under EP A’s Superfund Innovative T

echnology Evaluation Program in April 1988, at the General Electric Company electric service shop in Hialeah, Florida. Soil at the site contained polychlorinated biphenyls and localized concentrations ofvolatile organics and heavy metal concentrations. This report discusses the in situ process based on test results ofthe demonstration, as well as other data provided by the technology developer and the general capabilities ofcement-based systems. It also discusses the applicability ofthe technology to other sites [1], [2]

. 23. Investigation ofT

est Methods for Solidified W aste Evaluation - A Cooperative Pr ogram Stegemann, J. A., and P

.L. Cote. 1991. Environment Canada, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and Alberta Environment. Report EPS 3/HA/8 This study was initiated by Environment Canada, in conjunction with Alberta Environment, and 15 American, Canadian, and European industrial participants involved in developing or marketing solidification technology

. The purpose ofthe study was to develop and evaluate 16 laboratory test methods for characterizing the physical and chemical properties ofa variety of solidified wastes. The cooperative objectives included (1) developing a set oflaboratory test methods for characterizing the physical and chemical properties ofa wide variety of solidified wastes, (2) evaluating the set oftest methods by using real wastes and actual commercial solidification processes and by generating information on the reproducibility ofthe test methods, (3) developing an international database ofproperties of solidified wastes achievable with present technology to assist regulatory agencies and the waste treatment industry in setting guidelines, (4) providing a basis for continued development oftest methods and mathematical models, and (5) promoting international use ofthe test methods for uniform comparative evaluation of solidified wastes. T o maximize universal applicability ofthe tests, no attempt was made to simulate specific disposal conditions; therefore, the properties measured relate to the waste form and are independent ofthe disposal scenario [1], [2]

. 24. Literature Review ofMixed W aste Components: Sensitivities and Effects Upon Solidification/Stabilization in Cement-Based MatricesTopics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 40 Mattus, C.H., and T.M. Gilliam. 1994. Oak Ridge National Laboratory

. U.S. Department of Energy. NTIS Document No.: ORNL/TN-12656 The report discusses the hydration mechanisms ofPortland cement, mechanisms ofretardation and acceleration ofcement set-factors af fecting the durability ofwaste forms, and regulatory limits as they apply to mixed wastes. This report also reviews (1) inor ganic compounds that interfere with the development ofcement-based waste forms and (2) radioactive species that can be immobilized in cement-based waste forms. In addition, the report also reviews organic species that may interfere with various waste-form properties [2]

. 25. Onsite Engineering Report for Solidification/Stabilization T r eatment T

esting of Contaminated Soils U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1993. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. NTIS Document No.: PB-93-166965/AS This report provides the full documentation ofthe Project Summary: Onsite Engineering Report for Solidification/Stabilization T reatment T

esting ofContaminated Soils (see abstract number 29) [1], [2]

. 26. Physical and Morphological Measures ofW aste Solidification Effectiveness Grube, W .E. 1991. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of

fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/600/D-91/164 NTIS Document No.: PB91-226340/XAB The paper describes and discusses physical testing to characterize wastes treated by the Soliditech cement solidification/stabilization process. Morphological measurements included documented observations and measurements ofthe structure and form ofthe treated materials. The paper provides data to relate easily measured physical and morphological properties with intensive chemical extraction and solute leachability information obtained from standardized tests [1]

. 27. Pr oject Summary: Evaluation ofSolidification/Stabilization as a Best Demonstrated A vailable T

echnology for Contaminated Soils U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1990. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/600/S2-89/013Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 41 NTIS Document No.: PB89-169908 This project summary evaluates the performance of solidification/stabilization as a means of treating contaminated soils at Superfund sites. T ests were conducted on artificially contaminated soils thought to be representative ofthe types ofcontaminated soils found at Superfund sites. Soils were solidified and stabilized using Portland cement, lime kiln dust, and a mixture oflime and fly ash. Solidification/stabilization significantly reduced the amount ofmetal salt contaminants released, as measured by the EP A T oxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP). Because oflar

ge losses oforganics during the mixing process, the ef fect of solidification/stabilization on the organic leachate could not be quantitatively determined. The volatile and semivolatile organic contaminants appeared to decrease as a result ofthe solidification/stabilization process; however, this decrease can be attributed to the compounds’ release to air during processing and curing. No correlation was observed between unconfined compressive strength and the results ofthe leaching tests [1]

. 28. Pr oject Summary: Interference Mechanisms in W aste Stabilization/Solidification Pr ocess U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1990. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/600/S2-89/067 This project summary presents key findings from a literature search and review concerning portland cement and pozzolan chemistry, the ef fects ofadmixtures on concrete setting characteristics, and the ef fects ofcommon organic waste components on the physical and containment properties ofthe final treated waste product. These topics are presented so that conclusions may be drawn as to possible types ofinterferences that may be encountered in typical waste binder systems. The summary concludes that further experimental work is needed to obtain physical and chemical data about cementitious and asphaltic treatment systems and that suf ficientbasic information should be developed so that waste/binder interactions can be modeled and testing ofeach specific waste/binder combination for possible interference can be overcome [1], [3], [4]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 42 29. Pr oject Summary: Onsite Engineering Report for Solidification/Stabilization T r eatment T

esting ofContaminated Soils U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1993. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/600/SR-93/051 This project summary evaluates the mechanism oflead fixation by portland cement, quicklime/fly ash, and cement kiln dust/fly ash on contaminated soil from a Superfund site. The study was performed to supply information to the best demonstrated available technology (BDA T) data base for soil remediation, used to develop soil standards for Land Disposal Restrictions. Results from the study indicate that soil can be treated to reduce the amount of leachable lead below the regulatory limit of5 mg/L with the use ofcertain binder mixtures. Portland cement mixtures appear to provide the best results for stabilizing lead in contaminated soil used in the tests. The results ofthe study also indicate the organic content ofthe soil may ef fect the ability ofbinders to stabilize lead in the soil. Full characterization of soil being treated should therefore be performed to determine characteristics that may inhibit stabilization and what pretreatment procedures should be performed to improve stabilization [1], [2]

. 30. Silicate T

echnology Corporation’s Solidification/Stabilization T echnology for Organic and Inorganic Contaminants in Soils. Applications Analysis Report U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1992. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/540/AR-92/010 NTIS Document No.: PB-93-172948 This Applications Analysis Report evaluates the solidification/stabilization treatment process of Silicate T echnology Corporation (STC) for the on-site treatment ofhazardous waste. The STC treatment technology demonstration was conducted under EP A’s Superfund Innovative T echnology Evaluation Program in November 1990, at the Selma Pressure T reating wood preserving site in Selma, California. STC’s contaminated soil treatment process was evaluated based on contaminant mobility , measured by numerous leaching tests; structural integrity ofthe solidified material, measured by physical and engineering tests and morphological examinations; and an economic analysis, using cost information supplied by STC and supplemented by information generated during the demonstration. This report summarizes the results ofthe STC demonstration, the vendor’s design and test data, and other laboratory and field applications of the technology

. It discusses the advantages, disadvantages, and limitations as well as estimated costs ofthe technology [1], [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 43 31. Silicate T

echnology Corporation Solidification/Stabilization T echnology SITE Demonstration at the SELMA Pr essure T r eating Site, Selma, CA. T echnology Evaluation Report U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1995. Risk Reduction Laboratory, Of fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/540/R-95/010. NTIS Document No.: PB-95-255709 This T echnology Evaluation Report evaluates the solidification/stabilization process ofSilicate T echnology Corporation (STC) for the on-site treatment of soils contaminated with organics, predominantly pentachlorophenol (PCP), and inor ganics, mainly arsenic, chromium, and copper. The STC immobilization technology uses a proprietary product (FMS Silicate) to (1) chemically stabilize and microencapsulate organic and inor ganic wastes and (2) physically solidify the contaminated soils. The STC demonstration was conducted under EP A’s Superfund Innovative T echnology Evaluation Program in November 1990, at the Selma Pressure T reating wood preserving site in Selma, CA. STC’s contaminated soil treatment process was evaluated based on contaminant mobility

, measured by numerous leaching tests, and structural integrity ofthe solidified material, measured by physical, engineering, and morphological examinations. This report provides a comprehensive description ofthe STC demonstration and its results, including a description ofdata collection activities, testing procedures, and quality assurance and quality control results [1], [2]

. 32. Soliditech, Inc., Solidification/Stabilization Pr ocess, Applications Analysis Report U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1990. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/540/A5-89/005 NTIS Document No.: PB-91-129817 This Applications Analysis Report evaluates the treatment ef ficiency ofthe Soliditech, Inc. (Soliditech), solidification/stabilization technology for on-site treatment of soils contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls, various metals, and petroleum hydrocarbons. The Soliditech demonstration was conducted under EP A’s Superfund Innovative T echnology Evaluation Program in December 1988, at the Imperial Oil Company/Champion Chemical Company Superfund site in Morganville, New Jersey

. The Soliditech treatment process was evaluated based on contaminant mobility , measured by numerous leaching tests; structural integrity ofthe solidified material, measured by physical and engineering tests and morphological examinations; and an economic analysis, using cost information supplied by Soliditech and supplemented by information generated during the demonstration. This report summarizes the results ofthe Soliditech demonstration, the vendor’s design and test data, and other laboratory and field applications ofthe technology

. It discusses the advantages, disadvantages, and limitations as well as estimated costs ofthe technology [1], [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 44 33. Stabilization ofHeavy Metals with Portland Cement: Research Synopsis W ilk, C.M. 1997. Portland Cement Association. Skokie, IL. PCA Publication No.: IS007 This publication summarizes research on establishing the mechanisms by which portland cement and portland cement-based reagents immobilize certain toxic heavy metals in inor ganic form by solidification/stabilization treatment. The metals studied include lead, chromium, cadmium, arsenic, and mercury. This work confirms that cement-based stabilization involves far more than simple pH control, and suggests some possible mechanistic explanations for its ef fectiveness. The research also investigated certain additives designed to enhance stabilization mechanisms, and suggests modifications to further improve the immobility ofmetals [1], [2]

. 34. T echnology Evaluation Report: Chemfix T echnologies, Inc. Solidification/ Stabilization Pr ocess, Clackamas, Oregon U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1990. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/540/5-89/011a NTIS Document No.: PB-91-127696 This T echnology Evaluation Report evaluates the treatment ef ficiency ofthe Chemfix T echnologies, Inc. (Chemfix), solidification/stabilization technology for on-site treatment of soils contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls, lead, copper, and other metals. The Chemfix demonstration was conducted under EP A’s Superfund Innovative T echnology Evaluation Program in March 1989, at the Portable Equipment Salvage Company site in Clackamas County, Oregon. The Chemfix treatment process was evaluated based on contaminant mobility , measured by numerous leaching tests; structural integrity ofthe solidified material, measured by physical and engineering tests and morphological examinations; and an economic analysis, using cost information supplied by Chemfix and supplemented by information generated during the demonstration. This report provides a comprehensive description ofthe Chemfix demonstration and its results, including a description ofdata collection activities, testing procedures, and quality assurance and quality control results [1], [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 45 35. T echnology Evaluation Report: SITE Pr ogram Demonstration T est, HAZCON Solidification, Douglassville, Pennsylvania U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1989. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/540/5-89/001a NTIS Document No.: PB-89-158810 This T echnology Evaluation Report evaluates the treatment ef ficiency ofthe HAZCON solidification/stabilization technology for on-site treatment of soils containing a variety of organic and heavy metal contaminants. The HAZCON demonstration was conducted under EP A’s Superfund Innovative T echnology Evaluation Program in October 1987, at the Douglassville, Pennsylvania, Superfund site. The HAZCON treatment process was evaluated based on contaminant mobility , measured by numerous leaching tests; structural integrity ofthe solidified material, measured by physical and engineering tests and morphological examinations; and an economic analysis, using cost information supplied by HAZCON and supplemented by information generated during the demonstration. This report provides a comprehensive description ofthe HAZCON demonstration and its results, including a description ofdata collection activities, testing procedures, and quality assurance and quality control results [1], [2]

. 36. T echnology Evaluation Report: SITE Pr ogram Demonstration T est, International W aste T echnologies In Situ Stabilization/Solidification, Hialeah, Florida U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1989. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/540/5-89/004a NTIS Document No.: PB-89-194161 This T echnology Evaluation Report evaluates the International W aste T echnologies HWT-20 additive and the Geo-Con, Inc., deep-soil-mixing equipment for an in situ stabilization/ solidification process and its applicability as an on-site treatment method for waste site cleanup. The in situ treatment technology demonstration was conducted under EP A’s Superfund Innovative T

echnology Evaluation Program in April 1988, at the General Electric Company electric service shop in Hialeah, Florida. Soil at the site contained polychorinated biphenyls and localized concentrations ofvolatile organics and heavy metal concentrations. This report provides an interpretation ofthe available data and presents conclusions on the results ofthe demonstration, as well as the potential applicability ofthe technology at other sites [1], [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 46 37. T echnology Evaluation Report: SITE Pr ogram Demonstration T est, Soliditech, Inc. Solidification/Stabilization Pr ocess U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1989. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/540/5-89/005a NTIS Document No.: PB-91-129817 This T echnology Evaluation Report evaluates the treatment ef ficiency ofthe Soliditech, Inc. (Soliditech), solidification/stabilization technology for on-site treatment of soils contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls, various metals, and petroleum hydrocarbons. The Soliditech demonstration was conducted under EP A’s Superfund Innovative T echnology Evaluation Program in December 1988, at the Imperial Oil Company/Champion Chemical Company Superfund site in Morganville, New Jersey

. The Soliditech treatment process was evaluated based on contaminant mobility , measured by numerous leaching tests; structural integrity ofthe solidified material, measured by physical and engineering tests and morphological examinations; and an economic analysis, using cost information supplied by Soliditech and supplemented by information generated during the demonstration. This report provides a comprehensive description ofthe Soliditech demonstration and its results, including a description ofdata collection activities, testing procedures, and quality assurance and quality control results [1], [2]

. WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS 38. Capability ofCementitious Materials in the Immobilization Pr ocess ofHazardous W aste Materials Poellmann, H. 1993. In Proceedings ofthe 15th International Conference on Cement Microscopy

. Dallas, TX. Pages 108-126. This paper investigates and summarizes the capabilities ofcementitious materials in immobilizing hazardous waste materials, including inor ganic and organic contaminants. The fixation ofchlorine, anions, heavy metals, and some organic compounds is discussed and strongly depends on the type ofwaste and cement used. Depending on the chemical and mineral compositions, various systems must be used, and detailed investigations are necessary for every waste material. In most cases, fixation in the crystal lattice plays an important role, and the formation ofa microporous structure ofthe hydrated material intensifies the quality ofthe fixation and solidification process. The combination ofdif ferent mineral reservoirs, for example anhydrous material and hydration products, can increase the immobilization process ofhazardous materials. In the fixation process, incorporation oftoxic substances in crystal lattices is necessary for the immobilization, but a dense microstructure can improve leaching tendencies [1], [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 47 39. Cement-Based Solidification ofFerr o-Alloy Flue Dusts Cohen, B., and J.G. Price. 1995. In Proceedings ofthe Canadian Institute ofMining, Metallur gy, and Petroleum on W

aste Processing and Recycling in Mineral and Metallur gical Industries. V

ancouver, Canada. Pages 297-308. Flue dusts from ferro-alloy furnaces contain metal phases with a potential mobility that precludes them from being disposed ofdirectly into landfills. This paper describes the use ofcement-based solidification/stabilization in the treatment of such wastes. A review is given ofthe binding and retention mechanisms ofmetals within cement products. In this work, a model is presented for the containment of solid waste products where water is present only to promote cement hydration. The metals chromium and zinc are considered in detail due to their dif fering mechanisms ofcontainment [1], [2]

. 40. Chemical Aspects ofIncorporating Contaminated Soil Into Cold-Mix Asphalt T esta, S.M. 1994. In Proceedings Superfund XV: Environmental Conference and Exhibition for the Hazardous Materials/Hazardous W aste Management Industry

. W ashington, DC. Pages 1,439-48. This paper presents the chemical aspects associated with the incorporation ofpetroleum hydrocarbons and metals-contaminated soil into an asphalt mix with an emphasis on pavement properties, leaching behavior, sensitivities to moisture damage, and functional group analysis. This study provides information that can be used to evaluate the stability ofthese constituents in soil after being incorporated as an ingredient in asphalt, and it indicates that cold-mix asphalt that incorporates contaminated soil will be highly stable and will perform adequately as an end product. Maximum chemical performance is achieved when the asphalt consists ofhigh concentrations ofpyridinic, phenolic, and ketone groups, which can be achieved by selectively choosing the source material. Ifthe situation requires special stability or redundancy, small amounts of shale oil and lime can be used as additives. Situations and conditions that favor the presence ofinor

ganic sulfur, monovalent salts, and high strength solutions in the asphalt should be avoided because these conditions decrease the chemical stability ofthe asphalt cement by (1) disruption the functional group aggregate bonds and (2) increasing the overall permeability [1], [2]

. 41. Chemical Stabilization ofContaminated Soils and Sludges Using Cement and Cement By-Products Conner, J.R., Cotton, S. and Lear, P .R. 1992. In Proceedings ofthe First International Symposium, Cement Industry Solution to W aste Management. Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Published by Canadian Portland Cement Association. Pages 73-97. There are three basic elements in the chemistry of stabilized wastes: the waste, the stabilization reagents, and the environment in which the stabilized waste will exist. Proper formulation ofthe most cost-ef

fective stabilization method that provides long-term stability requires a goodTopics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 48 understanding ofthe chemistry ofthe waste-reagent-disposal system. This paper describes the basics ofthis chemistry, relating them to a wide range oftreatability study results and on-site project case histories. Stabilization data on both metals and low-level organics is presented [1], [2], [3], [4]

. 42. Chemistry and Microstructure ofSolidified W aste Forms Spence, R.D. 1993. Editor

. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL. This book contains proceedings from the Chemistry and Microstructure ofSolidified W aste Forms Symposium sponsored by the Environmental Division ofthe American Chemical Society at the National Meeting in New Y ork City in 1991. These published proceedings contain written versions ofmost, but not all, ofthe papers presented orally

. The symposium and its proceedings were limited to cementitious, or cement-based, solidified or stabilized waste forms. The book represents the level ofknowledge ofthe chemistry, microstructure, and mechanisms of solidification/stabilization among prominent research centers in the United States and Europe. Authors were asked to summarize or review their organization’s contribution over the years and to specifically introduce the reader to their organization’s achievements and past publications. For example, information is presented on materials other than cement that are used to generate cementitious waste forms, including lime, fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, and combinations. In addition, cementitious waste forms do not include waste encapsulated in polymers, such as bitumen, polyethylene, and vinyl ester styrene, or vitrified in glass waste forms. The book is intended to reflect the current state-of-the-art in the chemistry and microstructure of solidified waste forms. The book also informs professionals working the field about the experiences and accomplishments at other sites and provides a wealth ofreferences [1], [2]

. 43. Designing a Better Matrix for Solidification/Stabilization ofHazardous W aste With the Aid ofBagasse (Lignin) as a Polymer Additive to Cement Bourgeois, J.C., and others. 1996. In Proceedings ofthe Spring National Meeting ofthe American Chemical Society

. New Orleans, LA. Page 416. The proceedings address the need for a better solidification/stabilization matrix to help solve the hazardous waste disposal problem. In this study, the waste-cement matrix is improved by incorporating a polymer additive into the matrix. The polymer enhances the encapsulation and penetration ofthe cement system into the interstitial spaces ofthe waste. T o make the process more economically feasible, the source polymer was lignin obtained from the lar ge excess of bagasse produced each year from sugar cane processors. The studies were conducted with lead as the initial heavy metal waste source [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 49 44. Environmental Aspects ofStabilization and Solidification ofHazardous and Radioactive W

astes, V olume 1, STP-1033 Cote, P ., and T.M. Gilliam. 1989. Editors. American Society for T esting and Materials (ASTM). W

est Conshohocken, P

A. ASTM Publication Code No.: 04-010330-56 This Special T

echnical Publication contains 33 peer-reviewed papers ofthe 62 papers presented at the 4th International Hazardous W aste Symposium on Environmental Aspects of Stabilization/Solidification ofHazardous and Radioactive W astes, held in Atlanta, Georgia, in 1987. Although the two scientific communities work with chemically hazardous or low-level radioactive waste and are faced with similarproblems and technologies, the symposium represented the first forum for technology exchange between them. The symposiumprovided an occasion to understand the gap that separates the two groups, which use a shortly dif ferent vocabulary and are subject to markedly dif ferent regulations. The papers in this Special T echnical Publication are grouped into four chapters: (1) processes, (2) regulatory aspects and testing methods, (3) laboratory evaluation, and (4) lar ge-scale evaluation or demonstration [1], [2]

. 45. Evaluation ofLong-T erm Effectiveness ofSolidified and Stabilized W astes Badamchian, B., and others. 1995. In Proceedings Superfund XVI: Environmental Conference and Exhibition for the Hazardous Materials/Hazardous W aste Management Industry

. W ashington, DC. Pages 599-608. This paper evaluates chemical, physical, and leaching data from field samples of solidified and stabilized wastes collected 6 years after the Soliditech, Inc., and Chemfix T echnologies, Inc. Superfund Innovative T

echnology Evaluation demonstrations. The study is the first ofa two-part study that evaluates the long-term ef fectiveness ofthe solidification/stabilization processes used to treat contaminated soils and hazardous wastes. Part II is a doctoral dissertation that evaluates the mineralogical alteration ofthe treated wastes over time and explores the fundamental mechanisms ofdegradation that af fect the permanent containment ofmetals and the durability of solidified and stabilized wastes [1], [4]

. 46. Immobilization T

echnology Seminar Speaker Slide Copies and Supporting Information U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1989. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: CERI-89-222 This document provides copies of speaker slides and supporting text regarding the use of solidification/stabilization and vitrification technologies to immobilize hazardous waste. The seminar material is comprised ofeight sections: (1) immobilization processes overview; (2)Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 50 descriptions of solidification and stabilization technologies; (3) description ofvitrification technology; (4) physical testing methods for determining ef fectiveness of solidification/stabilization processes; (5) chemical testing methods for determining ef fectiveness of solidification/stabilization processes; (6) technology screening procedures for determining if solidification/stabilization should be implemented; (7) field implementation procedures utilized for solidification/stabilization; and (8) quality assurance procedures for ensuring long-term performance [1], [2], [3], [4]

. 47. Laboratory and Field-Scale T est Methodology for Reliable Characterization of Solidified/Stabilized Hazardous W astes Gray, K.E., and others. 1995. In Proceedings Air & W aste Management Association International Symposium on Field Screening Methods for Hazardous W astes and T

oxic Chemicals. Las V

egas, NV

. Pages 575-82. This paper presents a method for flow-through leach testing and discusses preliminary testing using strontium-doped, cement-based solidification/stabilization samples. The complementary and necessary characterization ofthe solidification/stabilization matrix, before and after testing, is discussed inrelation to the total evaluation ofthe laboratory- and field-scale testing for predicting long-term performance of solidification/stabilization technology as well as its design and improvement. This report describes existing laboratory testing systems that are well suited for accelerated testing of solidification/stabilization waste forms. An overview ofthe available testing systems is given, and a prototype test, including preliminary test results, is discussed. The document also outlines complementary materials characterization methods currently being applied [1]

. 48. Laboratory

, Regulatory

, and Field Leaching ofSolidified W aste Stegeman, J.A., Caldwell, R.J. and Shi, C. 1996. In Proceeding ofthe International Conference on Incineration and Thermal T reatment T

echnologies. Savannah, GA. Pages 75-80. This paper presents the results ofa field solidification study to validate a proposed laboratory evaluation protocol for solidified wastes. A project was initiated which involved placement of 63m of solidified electric arc furnace dust in a field test. Field leaching data were compared 3 with the results from a low liquid-to-solid ratio distilled water batch extraction, a buf fered extraction with a target pH of5, and a regulatory leaching test based on 2 eq/kg acetic acid solution, for the contaminants boron, cadmium, lead, and mercury. Equilibrium modeling was performed to assist in interpretation ofthe laboratory and field data. The distilled water extraction test provided a good estimate ofinitial leachate concentrations in the field for boron, cadmium, chromium, and lead, but peak leachability ofmercury was underestimated significantly

. The pH 5 test was developed to estimate long-term availability ofcontaminants under severe environmental conditions. The pH regime created by the regulatory test is arbitrary and therefore less useful inpredicting field leachability [1], [4].Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 51 49. Material Handling Equipment for the Pr eparation ofW

astes for Stabilization T r eatment Lear, P .R., Schmitz, D.J. and Brickner, R.J. 1995. In Proceedings ofthe Air & W aste Management Association 88 Annual Meeting & Exhibition. San Antonio, TX. th A&WMA Paper Reprint No. 95-RP130.01 Stabilization treatment at hazardous waste sites contaminated with heavy metals can be complicated by the materials handling aspects ofthe waste material and associated debris. The proper materials handling equipment must be selected and assembled to ef ficiently handle, prepare, and/or separate the waste material and debris before the stabilization treatment process occurs. This paper discusses the types ofmaterials handling equipment available, the ef ficacy of the equipment for dealing with waste material and debris, and the ef fect ofthe equipment on the stabilization treatment process based on full-scale experience [1], [2]

. 50. Petrographic T

echniques Applied to Cement Solidified Hazardous W astes W akeley, L.D., and others. 1992. In Proceedings ofthe 14th International Conference on Cement Microscopy

. Costa Mesa, CA. Pages 287-89. The proceedings present data from petrographic and nondestructive analytical techniques applied to treated waste forms to show that such data is needed to determine iftreated waste materials have stable phase composition and iftheir microstructures demonstrate uniform waste disposal. The cementitious solids ofa solidified waste bind the waste physically and may bind it chemically

, allowing it to pass performance tests required for its transportation and disposal. A lar gely separate family of standard test methods has evolved for solidified wastes because it represents an entirely separate use for cements. Some ofthese methods refer to or were based on standard methods from concrete technology

. This paper reviews several ofthe concrete technology techniques to determine ifthey are appropriate for such waste forms and what unique and useful information they can provide for determining the likelihood ofwaste form durability [1], [3]

. 51. Portland Cement-Based Solidification/Stabilization T r eatment ofW

aste W ilk, C.M. 1998. In Proceedings ofthe Fourth International Symposium and Exhibition on Environmental Contamination in Central and Eastern Europe. This paper discusses the applicability ofthe portland cement-based solidification/stabilization technology to various wastes; basic cement chemistry relating to solidification/stabilization; tests used to design treatability studies and to verify treatment; basics on implementation ofthe technology in the field; and examples ofactual projects [1], [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 52 52. Quality Analysis ofField Solidified W aste Stegemann, J.A., and others. 1995. In Proceedings ofthe Fifth Annual Symposium on Groundwater and Soil Remediation. T oronto, Canada. Pages 553-55. Factors responsible for variation in solidified products under field conditions, such as dosing and homogenization ofbinder and waste conditions, were reviewed to establish a method that could predict the magnitude of such variations and make solidification technology acceptable to regulators and waste generators. Random samples of solidified electric arc furnace dust were tested for bulk density, moisture content, specific gravity, contaminant concentrations, initial leachability, acid neutralization capacity, unconfined compressive strength, and freeze-thaw resistance. V

ariability in these properties were expressed in common statistical parameters and were compared with the design formulation prepared at laboratory scale. W ithin the field samples, chemical and leaching properties varied considerably

. Despite the variations, the overall characteristics ofthe field samples met the performance criteria for physical encapsulation ofcontaminants recommended by Environment Canada’s W astewater T

echnology Center solidified waste evaluation protocols [1]

. 53. Recent Advances in Stabilization and Solidification Cocke, D.L., and others. 1994. In Proceedings Spring National Meeting ofthe American Chemical Society

. San Diego, CA. Pages 537-41. Recent advances in the use ofcement, cementitious products, pozzolanic, and mixed environmental materials for stabilization and solidification ofpriority pollutants are discussed in the context ofrecently developed concepts and models. These advances in understanding are being achieved by using modern analytical techniques to examine the surface and bulkproperties of solidification/stabilization systems. Substantial progress has been made in understanding the binding chemistry and leaching mechanisms ofpriority pollutants in cement-based systems; however, future challenges will require that waste managementresearchers extend such progress to more complex hazardous waste problems than those being attacked today

. Commercial vendors will need to design more complex solidification/stabilization schemes to meet the growing use ofthis technology for hazardous waste management in complex waste systems containing both organics and inor ganics. The recent findings are summarized and correlated with the design ofimproved solidification/stabilization systems by using ef fective models to aid in the long-term management oftoxic wastes [1], [2], [4]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 53 54. Remediation ofOil Refinery Sludge Basin Adaska, W

.S., Bruin, W

.T

. and Day, S.R. 1992. In Proceedings ofthe First International Symposium, Cement Industry Solutions to W aste Management. Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Published by Canadian Portland Cement Association. Pages 119-134. This paper discusses the remediation ofa 5.5 acre storm water sludge basin for an oil refinery company. The closure plan included a combination cement-bentonite slurry wall andjet grouting along the perimeter ofthe basin. The sludge and contaminated soil beneath the basin were solidified inplace using a specifically developed soil mixing technique. The paper presents the site evaluation, closure plan, preconstruction testing programs, and field testing and construction that occurred and summarizes the results ofthe remediation [1], [2]

. 55. Stabilization and Solidification ofHazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed W astes, V olume 2, STP-1123 Gilliam, T.M., and C.C. W iles. 1992. Editors. American Society for T esting and Materials (ASTM). W

est Conshohocken, P

A. ASTM Publication Code No.: 04-011230-56 This publication contains papers presented at the symposium on Stabilization and Solidification ofHazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed W astes, held inW

illiamsbur g, V ir ginia, in 1990. The symposium series provides a forum for technical exchange between researchers working with solidification/stabilization technologies for both low-level radioactive and chemically hazardous wastes. The papers presented in this publication are grouped into six sections: (1) regulatory and technical guidance; (2) speciality wastes: organics, ashes, and resins; (3) laboratory-scale leachability studies; (4) laboratory-scale process and development; (5) test method development; and (6) lar

ge-scale evaluation or demonstration [1], [2], [4]

. 56. Stabilization and Solidification ofHazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed W astes. V olume 3, STP-1240 Gilliam, T.M., and C.C. W iles. 1996. Editors. American Society for T esting and Materials (ASTM). W

est Conshohocken, P

A. ASTM Publication Code No.: 04-012400-56 The conference proceedings present papers given at the symposium on Stabilization and Solidification ofHazardous, Radioactive, and Mixed W astes, held inW

illiamsbur g, V ir ginia, in 1993. The symposium series provides a forum for technical exchange between researchers working with solidification/stabilization technologies for both low-level radioactive and chemically hazardous waste. The scientific community has been focusing attention on understanding and predicting the long-term containment prospects ofwaste treated with thisTopics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 54 technology

. Consequently, most papers presented in this publication address to some extent one or both ofthe two principal issues associated with long-term containment: leachability and durability

. As defined in the overview ofthe proceedings, leachability refers to the release of contaminants from the waste upon exposure to an aqueous media, whereas durability refers to the ability ofthe waste to maintain its structural integrity upon exposure to expected environmental conditions [1], [2], [3], [4]

. 57. Synthesis, Crystal Chemistry and Stability ofEttringite, a Material with Potential Applications in Hazardous W aste Immobilization Mc Carthy, G.J., and others. 1992. In Proceedings ofthe Materials Research Society Symposium. V

olume 245. Pages 129-140. These proceedings present results ofthe synthesis, crystal chemistry, structure, and stability of ettringite with specific reference to the use ofthis mineral in hazardous waste immobilization. The potential connection between reductions in leachate hazardous element concentrations and ettringite formation led to the ongoing research program to investigate and then optimize the immobilization ofhazardous elements in solid wastes and sludges particularly after solidification with ettringite-forming cementitious coal residuals or commercially-available cements. The long-term stability and hazardous element leachability ofthe ettringite-containing products is then evaluated. As research moves from the laboratory to the field, more attention to latent ettringite potential will be necessary. Future research should include a detailed evaluation ofthe stability of such composite waste forms under geochemically relevant conditions [1], [2], [4]

. 58. The Pr

esent State-of-the-Art ofImmobilization ofHazardous Heavy Metals in CementBased Materials Bonen, D., and S.L. Sarkar. 1994. In Proceedings ofan Engineering Foundation Conference on Advances in Cement and Concrete. American Society ofCivil Engineers. Durham, NH. Pages 481-498. This paper discusses the current state ofknowledge involving solidification/stabilization of metals in cement-based materials. The common notion that no further reaction occurs between the waste and the binder after solidification/stabilization does not hold for Portland cement, because it overlooks possible long-term deterioration due to environmental corrosion. The report discusses the various types ofchemical attack that Portland cement-based materials are prone to, including corrosion by soft water, ground water, and carbon dioxide-bearing water
. This paper is aimed at stimulating awareness on the complexities involved in immobilizing waste in cementitious materials [3], [4]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 55 59. T r eatability Study ofthe Stabilization ofChromium Contaminated W aste. McGahan, J.F

., and D. Martin. 1994. In Proceedings ofW aste Management ‘94: W orking T owards a Cleaner Environment, T echnology and Programs for Radioactive W aste Management and Environmental Restoration. T ucson, AZ. Pages 1493-1497. This paper presents a process developed to immobilize chromium in calcined uranyl nitrate mixed waste, resulting in a waste form that can be disposed ofas radioactive, nonhazardous waste. A treatability test program was initiated to define the optimum conditions for the chemical reduction pretreatment step needed to stabilize the contaminated waste. Sodium dithionite was determined to be the reducing agent ofchoice. A dithionite demand experiment was run to determine the optimum dithionite dose. This dose, plus 67 percent excess, was added to each sample. Four stabilization systems at three dosage levels were investigated. The best performing reagent system was chosen for scale-up and more stringent performance testing. In one ofthe tested reagent systems involving Portland cement sodium silicate and dithionite, all of the samples exhibited TCLP extract concentrations for chromium well below the regulatory limit. One sample ofPortland cement and blast furnace slag blend passed, and none ofthe samples of cement-fly ash and cement alone passed for leachable chromium. The scaled-up samples passed the performance criteria, and the process has successfully converted mixed waste into radioactive waste for disposal [2]

. BOOKS AND DISSER

T A TIONS 60. A Surface Characterization ofPriority Metal Pollutants in Portland Cement McWhinney, H.G. 1990. Doctoral Dissertation, T exas A&M University

. This dissertation characterizes the binding mechanisms of selected metal pollutants in Portland cement used in solidification/stabilization technologies. Surface analytical techniques were used to evaluate the relationship oflead, chromium, zinc, cadmium, mercury, and barium to the hydrated cementitious material. The location ofmetal ions with respect to the bulk and surface ofthe cement matrix was evaluated as a function ofthe interfacial phenomena ofthe alkaline medium in the synthetic wastes. Chromium tended to concentrate in the bulk, while lead concentrations were high on the surface. Zinc, cadmium, and mercury exhibited similar chemistries in the highly buf fered alkaline medium, but their distribution in the final solidification product dif

fered. Mercury, as mercuric oxide, occurred in isolated deposits within the cement matrix. Barium-doped cement contained lar ge areas rich in calcium. There is also evidence that barium sulfate and carbonate will form. All cation-doped cement showed increases in surface carbonate content [1], [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 56 61. Chemical Fixation and Solidification ofHazardous W astes Conner, J.R. 1990. V

an Nostrand Reinhold. New Y ork, NY

. This reference book discusses in detail the principles ofchemical fixation (stabilization) and solidification ofhazardous wastes. Information is provided for using various inor ganic binder materials, including Portland cement, soluble silicates, lime, fly ash, kiln dust, and other limebased products. Organic binders also are described in the text. Hazardous wastes and waste sources, as well as in situ and ex situ treatment processes are discussed. The text also includes descriptions ofcommonly used test methods, including the EP A Extraction Procedure T oxicity T est, Multiple Extraction Procedure, Oily W astes Extraction Procedure, and T oxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure, as well as California’s W aste Extraction T

est (WET) and the American Nuclear Society ANS 16.1 T est Procedure. Information sources, computer applications, and research developments also are included [1], [2]

. 62. Effectiveness ofSulfur for Solidification/Stabilization ofMetal Contaminated W astes Lin, S.L. 1995. Doctoral Dissertation. Georgia Institute ofT echnology

. This research evaluates the use ofover-supplied materials recovered from waste streams (such as sulfur) to stabilize lead-contaminated soils; such soils can then be used as construction materials, such as roadway fill. Sulfurpolymer cement (SPC) was considered a possible binder or stabilizing agent for the solidification and stabilization ofhazardous, low-level radioactive, and mixed wastes. Elemental sulfurrecovered from industrial waste streams was also used to supplement asphalt cement by blending it with the asphalt to form sulfur-extended asphalt. The sulfur-extended asphalt is used for pavement and construction and has excellentperformance characteristics. The research found that the use of sulfur alone (or SPC) could not stabilize lead compounds satisfactorily

. However, more promising results were obtained with the use of sulfur modified by sodium sulfide or sodium sulfite. The sodium-sulfur compounds chemically react with the heavy metals and physicochemically bind them to form stable compounds, significantly reducing the leachability ofthe metals. Metal levels in sulfur-treated wastes may be reduced to the point that the wastes can be used in some forms ofconstruction materials [2]

. 63. Permanence ofMetals Containment in Solidified and Stabilized W astes Klich, I. 1997. Doctoral Dissertation. T exas A&M University

. This dissertation reviews the current literature available on containing metals in solidified and stabilized wastes treated with inor ganic binders, such as Portland cement, fly ash, and other soluble silicates. The research examines the mineralogic alterations of seven metal-bearing solidified and stabilized wastes that were landfilled or stored aboveground for up to 6 years. The extent ofdegradation after the 6 years was found to be slight to moderate; however, pervasive cracking was observed at the macro-, micro-, and submicroscopic scales. In addition, chemical weathering features were documented. The research verified that wastes treated with cement, like hardened concrete, are metastable both physically and chemically under ambient conditions.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 57 Over time, treated wastes will attempt to reach equilibrium with the surrounding environment. Therefore, the same environmental concerns that af fect the durability ofconcrete must be considered when evaluating the durability and permanence ofcement-stabilized and solidified wastes. Burial ofcement-based solidified and stabilized wastes in deleterious environmental zones, such as acid or saline soils, as well as fluctuating ground water systems, are not recommended [1], [3], [4]. 64. Stabilization ofArsenic W astes Taylor, M., and R.W

. Fuessle. 1994. Illinois Department ofEnergy and Natural Resources and Hazardous W

aste Research Information Center

. Champaign, IL. Report No. HWRIC RR-073. The focus ofthis research is the development and understanding ofa treatment technology for arsenic wastes that are not wastewaters. The document addresses a research need by developing a greater microchemical and microstructural understanding ofwhy stabilization works in some cases and not in others and by comparing methods ofpretreatment to eliminate or minimize interferences and to predict whether the treatment will last or not. These guidelines aid in deciding which arsenic wastes are amenable to stabilization. The recommendations include pretreatment dosages and mix design parameters. These guidelines are intended to improve the design and operation ofcommercial arsenic stabilization processes [2]

. JOURNAL REFERENCES 65. A Critical Review ofStabilization/Solidification T echnology Conner, J.R. and Hoef

fner. S.L. 1998. CriticalReviews in Envir onmental Science and T echnology

. 28(4): 397-462. This article reviews the methods of solidification/stabilization critically in light ofthe current regulatory atmosphere that controls and often mandates their use. The processes and techniques of solidification/stabilization have matured into an accepted and important part ofenvironmental technology

. As a result, many methods have been promoted recently and of fered for the treatment ofhazardous and other wastes from industry, municipalities, and government sources. An overview ofthe technology is provided. The generic and proprietary solidification/stabilization processes (chemical, physical, and thermal) are described. Ofthose, six generic chemical processes that dominate the field and encompass nearly all the treatment work and proprietary products to date are discussed. Current and anticipated major waste streams using the technology today are summarized and the solidification/stabilization approach for each are reviewed [1], [2]

. 66. A Long-T

erm Leachability Study ofSolidified W astes by the Multiple T

oxicity Characteristic Leaching Pr ocedure Lee, C.H., and others. 1994. Journal ofHazar dous Materials

. This paper discusses the use ofthe multiple toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (MTCLP) to evaluate the long-term leachability of solidified wastes. T wo cement-based, solidified, mercury-containing wastes and one untreated waste were evaluated by the MTCLP to simulateTopics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 58 the long-term leaching behavior ofheavy metal contaminants in these wastes in an improperly designed sanitary landfill. The MTCLP combines multiple extraction procedure and the TCLP , which are being used by the EP A. The study presents the experimental procedures ofthe MTCLP as well as the results ofthe chemical analysis ofleachates obtained from the MTCLP of the mercury-bearing wastes [1], [4]

. 67. A Model to Pr

edict the TCLP Leaching ofSolidified Organic W astes Faschan, A., and others. 1996. Hazar dous W aste andHazar

dous Materials

. 13:333-350. This study evaluates the ef fects oforganoclay adsorption on the T oxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure results for solidified organic wastes. Linear adsorption isotherms were developed for the adsorption of 1,2-dichlorobenzene (DCB) and nitrobenzene (NB) by five organoclays on simulated wastes solidified with various combinations ofT ype I Portland cement. A model was developed to predict the leachability oforganic wastes solidified using organoclays. The model is limited to predictions for nonionic organic compounds and predicts the slope oflinear adsorption isotherms dependent on (1) the K ofthe organic compound solidified and (2) the ow percent organic matter ofthe organoclay utilized. The predicted adsorption isotherm slope is then corrected using several factors developed in the study

. One factor corrects for dif ferences in actual leaching results compared to results predicted by the isotherm based on the encapsulation ofthe organic-organoclay mixture by cement. Another factor corrects for dif ferences in actual and predicted leaching results due to dif ferent sample curing times [1]

. 68. A Pr oposed Pr

otocol for Evaluation ofSolidified W astes Stegemann, J.A., and P

.L. Cote. 1996. Science ofthe T otal Envir onment
. 178:103-110. Solidification technologies are potentially useful for improving the chemical and physical properties ofhazardous wastes to the extent that they are suitable for less expensive disposal or even utilization. Unfortunately, in mostjurisdictions worldwide, there is no mechanism for reclassifying a treated, previously hazardous waste, as nonhazardous. In response to the need for such a mechanism, this study proposes a protocol oftest methods for cement-based solidified wastes. The suggested test methods examine contaminant partitioning as a result ofchemical specification, potential for slow release ofcontaminants, mobility ofthe contaminants in the solidified waste matrix, and the durability ofthe matrix. Most ofthe suggested tests are standards from the fields ofhazardous and radioactive wastes, some ofwhich have been evaluated in a cooperative study initiated by Environment Canada with vendors of solidification processes. Based on the performance ofa solidified product in the tests, it is considered for four utilization and disposal scenarios, including unrestricted utilization, controlled utilization, segregated landfill, and sanitary landfill. The protocol represents a first attempt to develop a management tool for solidified waste that accounts for its physical and leaching characteristics in dif ferent disposal scenarios [1]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 59 69. A Review ofSolidification/Stabilization Interferences T russell, S., and R.D. Spence. 1994. W aste Management. 14:507-519. This paper reviews the literature on interferences between hazardous wastes and cement and the fundamental chemical mechanisms that inhibitthe setting ofcement. From this fundamental information, it is possible to reach some conclusions about the potential ef fects ofmost waste constituents even in the absence ofparticular studies on specific compounds. Decisions on the appropriate disposition ofwastes containing both organic and inor ganic compounds should first determine whether any waste constituents compromise the strength or stability ofthe waste form or are highly leachable. Often interferences can be mitigated decrease the leachability ofthe waste constituents. Organic and inor ganic wastes, as well as low-level radioactive wastes are considered [2]

. 70. Cement-Based Solidification/Stabilization ofLead-Contaminated Soil at a Utah Highway Construction Site W ilk, C.M. and Arora, R. 1995. Remediation, The Journal ofEnvir onmental Cleanup Costs, T echnologies & T

echniques

. Reprints available through PCA (PCA Publication No.: RP332). This article describes portland cement-based solidification/stabilization treatment ofheavy metalcontaminated soil. The soil was discovered during highway construction inW est Jordan, Utah. The article includes a discussion ofthe excavation; size segregation; reduction ofoversized particles; addition and mixture ofportland cement and cement kiln dust; and beneficial use ofthe treated soil as a subbase for building a pavement for composting operations at a municipal landfill [1], [2]

. 71. Cement-Based Stabilization/Solidification ofOrganic Contaminated Hazardous W astes Using Na-Bentonite and Silica Fume Shin, H.S., and K.S. Jun. 1995. Journal ofEnvir onmental Science andHealth. 30:651-668. This study investigates the use of(1) bentonite and briquette ash as adsorbents for organic components and heavy metals in industrial wastes and (2) silica fume as an admixture to improve the solidified wastes with cement. Chrome tanning wastes containing up to 1.5 percent organic carbon and 1.2 percent chromium were treated with sodium montmorillonite (bentonite) and briquette ash. The organic components and heavy metals ofthe waste were well adsorbed. Solidification ofthe waste, clay , and silica-fume mixtures produced a monolithic mass with high strength and very low leaching ofthe organic compounds and the metals. This study showed that bentonite and briquette ash could be successful adsorbents for the organic contaminant and heavy metals in industrial wastes, which enabled them to be treated by cement-based solidification. Also, the use of silica-fume was highly ef fective in achieving high compressive strength and low permeability

. Cement-based solidification with the bentonite, briquette ash, and silica-fume gave solid products which set rapidly and were far stronger and more homogeneous than the soleTopics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 60 cement-based solidification. The total organic carbon was reduced by 60 to 78 percent for the wastes tested compared with the conventional cement-based solidified waste, and the release of heavy metals was reduced by 52 to 70 percent [2]

. 72. Cement Binders for Organic W astes Owens, J.W

., and S. Stewart. 1996. Magazine ofConcr ete Resear

ch

. 48:37-44. Three cyclic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, and ortho-xylene), each a known volatile organic compound (VOC), is produced in lar ge quantities by the synthetic chemical manufacturing industry

. The hydrocarbons were loaded into Portland cement matrices and stored in a similar organic solvent, o-dichlorobenzene, for 2 months. The leaching characteristics ofthese three VOCs were measured using gas chromatography and a flame ionization detector

. The objective ofthis study was to assess the comparative leaching characteristics ofthese organic contaminants in cement matrices stored in another organic solvent compared with storage in air

. The leaching characteristics ofbenzene, toluene, and ortho-xylene from Portland cement stored in odichlorobenzene were compared with reported values for similar organic contaminants loaded into cement matrices stored in water
. Results indicate that the leaching ofbenzene, toluene, and ortho-xylene from Portland cement is erroneously high when measured using a weight loss method [2]

. 73. Durability Study ofa Solidified Mercury-Containing Sludge Y ang, G.C.C. 1993. Journal ofHazar dous Materials. 34:217-223. This paper presents research findings on the durability ofa solidified mercury-containing sludge. A sludge sample was obtained from a chloro-alkali plant and solidified using a commercially available sludge treatment agent (ST A II). The solidified monoliths were subjected to physical and chemical durability tests. The physical durability tests (freezing/thawing and wetting/drying tests) were followed by measurements ofunconfined compressive strength and mercury concentrations resulting from the T oxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP). The multiple TCLP was employed for the chemical durability test. The smallerthe sludge-to-binder ratio was, the better the physical and chemical properties a solidified monolith would have. T est results showed that solidification using the binder ST A II reduced the cumulative amount of mercury leached from 11 percent to less than 0.7 percent by weight [1], [2], [3]

. 74. Effect ofAdsorbents on the Leachability ofCement Bonded Electroplating W astes Tamas, F .D., and others. 1992. Cement and Concr ete Resear

ch. 22:399-404. Results from this study indicate that water-soluble cadmium and nickel salts are quantitatively transformed into insoluble hydroxides within Portland cement matrices; this suggests that other heavy metals capable ofgiving insoluble hydroxides in alkaline surroundings would behave similarly

. Chromates and dichromates formed no insoluble hydroxides, but they were partlyTopics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 61 bound in the cement matrix. Adsorbents (silica fume, fly ash, and activated carbon), with the exception offly ash, did not improve the bonding. The use ofclinker instead ofcement caused a more intensive bond. Chromiumbonding appears to be af fected by the presence ofgypsum or its hydration products with clinker aluminates. However, further research is needed to determine if this sort ofdisposal is really risk-free, because carbonation may transform insoluble hydroxides to more soluble carbonates or even hydrocarbonates. In addition, research is necessary to determine the durability ofthe cemented products among extreme conditions, such as carbonation or other types ofacid attack [1], [2]

. 75. Effect ofCarbonation on Microbial Corrosion ofConcretes Ismail, N., and others. 1993. Journal ofConstruction Management andEngineering. 20:133-138. The objective ofthis study was to investigate the ef fect ofcarbonation on microbial corrosion of concretes. The carbonation process involves the reduction of surface pH ofconcrete and is the prerequisite for microbial corrosion to occur. Results showed that the carbonated surface layer of concrete accelerated the surface colonization of sulfur oxidizing bacteria (Thiobacilli thioxidans) and induced microbial corrosion. Corrosion rates corresponded well with the carbonation rates. The formation ofgypsum and ettringite in cured products may further result in the complete decomposition ofthe hardened concrete [3]

. 76. Electron Microscopy ofHeavy Metal W aste in Cement Matrices Ivey, D.G., and others. 1990. Journal ofMaterial Science. 25:5055-5062. In this study, cements were mixed with various amounts ofchromium metal in the form of nitrates to simulate industrial waste. The mixtures were then investigated to better understand the distribution and stability ofchromium contaminants within solidified and stabilized waste matrices. Chromium is known to accelerate the hydration reaction and strength development in cement, which may be ofpractical benefit. Electron microscopy techniques, including scanning electron and scanning transmission electron microscopy, were used to study the complex microstructures associated with the mechanisms of solidification/stabilization. Results showed that trivalent chromium is chemically contained within the cement structure, a feature that appears consistent with accelerating additives. Cement hydration retarders, such as divalent lead and zinc, tend not to be chemically contained, but rather may form insoluble salts and tend to precipitate as dense coatings on the hydrating phases. Accelerators, such as chromium, have soluble calcium salts and are thus more easily incorporated into the cement hydration products [1], [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 62 77. Evaluation ofSolid W aste Stabilization Pr

ocesses By Means ofLeaching T ests Albino, V ., and others. 1996. Envir onmental T

echnology

. 17:309-315. The ef fectiveness oftwo novel stabilizing matrices were tested in systems where 5 or 10 percent of soluble nitrates ofcadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, lead, and zinc were added. The matrices are based on blast furnace slag, fly ash, gypsum, hydrated lime, and Portland cement. They owe their ef

fectiveness to the formation ofcalcium trisulphoaluminate and silicate hydrates. The study involved three leaching tests using deionized water, acetic acid/sodium acetate with a pH of4.74 in a buf fer solution, and controlled pH 4 nitric acid solution. In each test, metals were released to an extent that depends on the nature and initial metal concentration as well as on the matrix nature. The results ofthe leaching tests have shown that neither the prevailing entrapment mechanism can be understood, nor the long-term release behavior can be predicted from a single leaching test [1], [4]

. 78 Evaluation ofthe Leaching Pr operties ofSolidified Heavy Metal W astes Herrera, E., and others. 1992. Journal ofEnvir onmental Science andHealth. A27:983-998. The ef fects ofthree inor

ganic materials on the leaching properties ofT ype I Portland cement solidification matrix were studied. Cadmium nitrate and hydroxide sludges ofcadmium and lead were used as the inor

ganic materials. Cure times ofup to 28 days were studied. Leachability ef fects were determined by the T oxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure. Leaching results indicate that divalent cadmium, in hydroxide or nitrate form, was contained in the cement matrix. Divalent lead was not found to be readily contained as indicated by the lar ge amounts oflead leached. Approximately all ofthe divalent cadmium was immobilizedby the addition ofcement after a 1-day cure time, whereas a considerable amount ofdivalent lead was still left in a leachable form after 28 days [1], [2]

. 79. Factors for Selecting Appropriate Solidification/Stabilization Methods W eitzman, L. 1990. Journal ofHazar dous Materials. 24:457-468. This paper presents information that can be used to select solidification/stabilization methods for treating a given waste. It also discusses binders, including: Portland cement; cement kiln dust; fly ash mixtures; lime-based binders; absorbents, such as hydro and organophilic clays, wood chips, saw dust, and rice hulls; and thermoplastic materials, such as asphalt bitumen and thermoplastic polymers. Absorbents (such as sawdust or expanded clay) are generally not considered to be an acceptable method of solidifying liquids. Solidification/stabilization is generally not suitable for the stabilization oforganics, although it can be used in combination with other treatment schemes which remove the organics from the waste [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 63 80. Feasibility ofUsing a Mixture ofan Electroplating Sludge and a Calcium Carbonate Sludge as a Binder for Sludge Solidification Y ang, G.C.C., and K.L. Kao. 1994. Journal ofHazar dous Materials. 36:81-88. In this work, two industrial wastes, an electroplating sludge and a water purification calcium carbonate sludge, were obtained, mixed, and heated at 1,000 C for 4 hours. The resulting o material was then tested to determine whether it could be used as a binding material to solidify the original electroplating sludge. The heat-treated sludge mixture did exhibitbinding capability in a cement-based solidification ofits original electroplating sludge. In this study, a modified Taguchi method was employed for the experimental design of solidification. The heat-treated sludge mixture was used to partially replace the T ype I Portland cement as a binding material up to 40 weight percent. The solidified monoliths were then tested to determine their unconfined compressive strengths, T

oxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) toxicity, and longterm chemical durability, using the Multiple TCLP

. Experimental results were found to be satisfactory

. The concepts of“wastes treating wastes” and resource recycling are thus realized [1], [2]

. 81. Fundamental Aspects ofCement Solidification and Stabilization Roy, A., and F

.K. Cartledge. 1997. Editors. Journal ofHazar dous Materials. 52:151-354. This special issue ofthe Journal ofHazardous Materials is dedicated to peer-reviewed publications on recent research findings in the advancement of solidification and stabilization technologies that incorporate cement binders. V arious parts ofthe community involved in solidification/stabilization research are well represented in the issue, which includes articles from academia, industry, and government laboratories. The work reported in this volume shows the importance ofa multidisciplinary approach in dealing with complex problems. The topics also include a number of specific problems, such as long-term matrix changes, that have often been suggested to be important but are seldom investigated inpractice [1], [2], [4]

. 82. Immobilization Mechanisms in Solidification/Stabilization ofCadmium and Lead Salts Using Portland Cement Fixing Agents Cartledge, F

.K., and S.L. Y

ang. 1990. Envir

onmental Science and T

echnology

. 24:867-873. This study investigates the behavior ofcadmium and lead salts toward cement-based solidification using the T

oxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure, conduction, calorimetry, and solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance as a function oftime. Even though cadmium hydroxides and lead hydroxides have comparable, and very low solubilities, the situation with respect to cement solidification ofaqueous sludges produced by lime treatment of solutions containing divalent cadmium and lead was found to be quite dif ferent. Concentrations ofcadmium in the leachates were very low, while lead concentrations were considerably higher and would represent a serious threat to groundwater

. Explanations are presented for these dif ferences [1], [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 64 83. Immobilization ofChromium in Cement Matrices Kindness, A., and others. 1994. W aste Management. 14:3-11. One ofthe encouraging features ofthis study has been the ability to isolate the solubility controlling mechanisms of solidification/stabilization treatment processes. The physical potential ofcements to immobilize relatively soluble chromium waste species is complemented by a chemical potential. The nature ofthe chemical potential varies with concentration, time, and chromium specification. Conditions favorable for retaining chromium in cement are characterized by the available alumina to form calcium aluminate hosts and by the chemical reducing conditions to stabilize trivalent chromium and reduce hexavalent chromium to the less soluble trivalent species. Slag cement blends performed well because they meet both criteria. Other combinations, such as Portland cement with an appropriate reducing agent as well as other alumina sources, such as class F fly ash, are also thought to perform well [1], [2]

. 84. Immobilization ofZinc and Lead Fr om W astes Using Simple and Fiber-Reinforced Lime Pozzolana Admixtures Debroy, M., and S.S. Dara. 1994. Journal ofEnvir onmental Science andHealth. A29:339-355. This study evaluates the immobilization ofzinc and lead present in waste sludges by chemical fixation and encapsulation methods using lime pozzolana and fiber-reinforced lime-pozzolana admixtures. In addition, the report explains fixation and encapsulation techniques. Fixation and coating with sodium silicate solution produced good results for immobilizing lead and zinc ions, but encapsulation ofheavy metal hydroxide sludge in simple and fiber-reinforced lime-fly ash mixtures was more ef

ficient. Fiber additives to the admixture may increase the structural strength ofthe monolith. Coating ofan encapsulated admixture may provide an additional immobilization barrier

. The implications ofthese results for long-term storage ofhazardous wastes are discussed [1], [2], [4]

. 85. Immobilization Science ofCement Systems Macphee, D.E., and F

.P

. Glasser

. 1993. MRSBulletin

. 3:66-71. This article highlights recent uses ofcements in solidification/stabilization treatment processes and summarizes results of studies in the interactions of specific waste species and cement systems. V

arious aspects ofwaste species-cement interactions are reviewed and discussed. The dif fering chemistry ofthe elements induces a wide range ofreactions, and with few exceptions, each elementpresents a separate challenge. Moreover, the nature ofthe reaction products is lar gely time-dependent. Satisfactory leaching methods developed for metals and glass are not applicable to cements without some reservations. The development and interpretation ofleach tests are worthy ofattention in order to match the material science with legislative requirements [1], [2], [4]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 65 86. Impact ofCarbon Dioxide on the Immobilization Potential ofCemented W astes: Chromium Macias, A., and others. 1997. Cement and Concr ete Resear

ch. 27:215-225. In this paper the ef

fect ofcarbonation on the immobilization oftrivalent and hexavalent chromium has been studied inboth Portland cements and blended cements containing granulated, glassy, blast furnace slag. Carbon dioxide attack, or carbonation, is the most common form of concrete environmental attack, and it promotes changes to the cement chemical composition and physical properties that can af fect the durability and long-term retention ofheavy metals. The results show that blends ofordinary Portland cement (T ype I) and blast furnace slag are more suitable matrices for chromium-containing waste and are capable ofmaintaining chromium pore fluid contents below 1 part per million (ppm), even in a completely carbonated state. Slag, by virtue ofits slow hydration, continues to release sulfur ions that inhibit any tendency of chromium to oxidize to hexavalent chromium. The development ofa zonal structure, with separate chromium-rich and chromium-poor zones, with overall depletion ofchromium from the near-surface layers ofcarbonated but unleached samples, requires further study

. This af fects carbonation rates and will have implications for the modeling ofchromium leaching from matrices [2], [3], [4]

. 87. Leachability ofLead fr om Solidified Cement-Fly Ash Binders W ang, S.Y ., and C. V

ipulanandan. 1996. Cement and Concr ete Resear

ch

. 26:895-905. The potential ofpartially replacing cement with class C fly ash to immobilize lead was investigated. Lead nitrate up to a concentration of 10 percent (by weight ofbinder) was solidified with T

ype I Portland cement and a cement-fly ash (equal proportion) mixture. Addition offly ash to cement reduced the initial and final setting times, but with the addition of lead nitrate, setting times were increased. The compressive strength ofthe solidified cement decreased with the addition offly ash and lead nitrate. Lead leachability from the solidified binder matrix was studied using the T oxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure. The quantity of divalent lead leached depended on the initial lead nitrate concentration and the binder systems adopted. Lead solidified with cement-fly ash mixture showed slightly less leaching compared to the cement binder [1], [2]

. 88. Long-T

erm Behaviour ofT

oxic Metals in Stabilized Steel Foundry Dusts Andres, A., I. Ortiz, and others. 1995. Journal ofHazar dous Materials. 40:31-42. This study examines the long-term behavior of stabilized steel foundry dust wastes using a dynamic leach test. T

wo solidified and stabilized waste forms containing lead, chromium, cadmium, and zinc were produced using either cement or cement and anhydrite (waste material) as binders. The results ofthe dynamic leaching test were fitted to a semiempirical mathematical model based on simple leaching rate mechanisms, which permitted the evaluation ofan apparentTopics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 66 dif fusion coef

ficient and a leachability index; these in turn provided a measure ofthe contaminants’ mobility in the solidified waste. In the case oflead and zinc, the rate ofleaching was controlled by either an initial resistance or an initial wash of f, followed by dif

fusion ofthe metallic contaminants. The leaching indices obtained inboth cases were higher than 12, suggesting that both solidification/stabilization processes are acceptable [1], [2], [4]

. 89. Long-T

erm Leaching ofMetals fr om Concrete Pr

oducts W ebster, M.T., and R. C. Loehr. 1996. Journal ofEnvir onmental Engineering

. 22:714-721. The long-term leaching ofmetals from concrete products made with spent abrasive media was investigated using a sequential procedure that employed both an acidic extraction fluid and seawater
. By using seawater, leaching behavior could be determined under conditions encountered in the environment (especially coastal areas). Chromium, cadmium, and lead concentrations were substantially less for the seawater sequential extractions than for the acidic sequential extractions. The environment created during the acidic sequential extractions resulted in the leaching of substantial amounts ofalkalinity from the concrete, and leachate pH levels dropped below 4 where metals are highly soluble. The integrity ofthe calcium matrix within the concrete seemed to play an important role in the successful stabilization ofcadmium and lead [1], [2], [4]

. 90. Long-T

erm Stability ofSuperplasticized Monoliths ofa Solidified Electroplating Sludge Y ang, G.C.C., and C.F

. Chang. 1994. Journal ofHazar dous Materials. 37:277-283. In this work, physicochemical durability of superplasticized monoliths, solidified from an electroplating sludge, were investigated. T wo categories of superplasticizer; modified lignosulphonates and sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensates, were employed in this study

. Each was used as an auxiliary binding agent or as a modifier to ordinary Portland cement, which was the majorbinder for solidification. The solidified monoliths were then subjected to various physical and chemical tests, including unconfined compressive strength (UCS); leaching toxicity by the TCLP method; physical durability by freeze/thaw and wet/dry tests; and chemical durability by the multiple TCLP test. Results show that superplasticized, solidified monoliths outperformed the corresponding control monoliths (without addition ofany superplasticizer) in terms ofvarious physical and chemical properties. Generally, the performance ofboth superplasticizers was found to be comparable in this study

. Physical durability testing resulted in less than 1 percent ofcorrected, cumulative weight loss for the solidified monoliths modified by any type of superplasticizer. However, results ofUCS measurements have shown that these same solidified specimens have deteriorated to some degree after the physical weathering tests. As for the resistance of solidified monoliths against the leaching ofcontaminants due to repetitive precipitation ofa synthetic acid rain, multiple TCLP test results indicate that using either superplasticizer is satisfactory [1], [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 67 91. Metals Distribution in Solidified/Stabilized W aste Forms After Leaching Cheng, K.Y

., and P

. Bishop. 1992. Hazar

dous W aste andHazar

dous Materials

. 9:163-171. This study examines the morphology, physical structure, and metal compositions ofleached cement-based waste forms using various testing procedures. A series ofleach tests were conducted in the laboratory

. After a sample had been leached for a given period oftime, the leached surface layer was physically separated from the remaining portion ofthe cement-based waste form. The metal contents ofthe surface layer and the remaining unleached waste form were examined individually

. Data generated from this research is useful in understanding the fate and transport ofmetal contaminants leaching out of solidification/stabilization waste forms. In addition, the metal distribution information is crucial in determining appropriate models used to predict metal leaching behavior [1]

. 92. Ordinary Portland Cement Based Solidification ofT oxic W astes: The Role ofOPC Reviewed Hills, C.D., and others. 1993. Cement and Concr ete Resear

ch. 23:196-212. The work presented here is part ofa wider study ofthe use ofordinary Portland cement (OPC) solidification technology

. One common concern in the waste management industry is the vulnerability ofOPC hydration to specific waste components. For this study, a mixed waste stream was solidified in the laboratory using OPC and fly ash in a variety ofproportions. The solidified products were subjected to calorimetric, physical, and microstructural analyses. The heat ofhydration for OPC and waste mixtures showed that a progressive poisoning ofnormal hydration reactions occurred with increasing concentrations ofwaste. Once poisoned, OPC failed to act as a cement and was substituted for with fly ash and other products. Strength development was found to be related to the heat ofhydration, suggesting that conduction calorimetry could be used to determine the suitability ofa particular waste for OPC-based solidification [1]

. 93. Portland Cement Gives Concrete Support to Solidification/Stabilization W ilk, C.M. 1995. Envir

onmental Solutions

. May

. This report summarizes the role ofPortland cement in the solidification/stabilization of hazardous wastes and discusses the general binding mechanisms ofcement components. Although Portland cement chemistry favors solidification/stabilization processes for inor ganic wastes compounds, the principles ofcement-based solidification/stabilization oforganic wastes also are discussed. In addition, solidification/stabilization performance criteria for the individual priority metals are reviewed, including arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, selenium, and silver

, as well as copper, nickel, and zinc [1], [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 68 94. Potential Application ofEttringite Generating Systems for Hazardous W aste Stabilization Albino, V ., and others. 1996. Journal ofHazar dous Materials. 51:241-252. The advantages ofettringite-based stabilization systems over traditional cement-based ones are presented. The potential ofettringite generating systems in hazardous waste stabilization processes is also studied by means ofa mixture ofanhydrous calcium sulphoaluminate (ettringite) and anhydrite doped with the nitrates, and six heavy metals including, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, and zinc. The presence ofmetals has only a small negative ef fect on the hydration kinetics. The hydrated samples retain their structural integrity when submitted to the dynamic leaching test in water and inpH 4 nitric acid solution; however, they disintegrated when the leachant is a pH 4.74 acetate buf fer

. The ettringite can partially accommodate any metal in the crystal lattice, thus giving rise to chemical entrapment [1], [2]

. 95. Pr eliminary Investigation into the Effects ofCarbonation on Cement-Solidified Hazardous W

astes Lange, L.C., and others. 1996. Envir onmental Science T

echnology

. 30:25-30. This paper reports results from preliminary investigations into the ef fects ofcarbonation on cement-solidified waste material. The waste, which was a commercially blended product, was solidified using dif

ferent amounts ofordinary Portland cement (T ype I) and cured in three dif ferent environments: nitrogen, air, and carbon dioxide. After 28 days, the samples were investigated for leachate metals fixation, strength, and microstructural development. Carbonation solidified products were characterized by enhanced calcite contents, higher strength values, and a significantreduction in leachable metals extracted compared to air-cured samples. Samples cured under a nitrogen atmosphere showed significantretardation ofhydration, resulting in low strength values but improved fixation ofleachable metals [1]

. 96. Reaction ofCO With Alkaline Solid W astes to Reduce Contaminant Mobility 2 Reddy, K.J., and others. 1996. W aterResear

ch

. 28:1377-1382. This study evaluates the ef fects ofcarbon dioxide treatment on the pH and soluble concentrations ofinor ganic contaminants in alkaline fly ash and spent shale solid wastes. A two-level (low and high), three variable (moisture, time, and pressure) statistical experiment was used to determine optimum carbon dioxide conditions. T reated and untreated samples were subjected to solubility and X-ray dif

fraction studies. Carbon dioxide treatment conditions of40 pounds per square inch ofpressure, 20 percent moisture, and 120 hours ef fectively precipitated calcite. These conditions lowered the pH and leachable concentrations ofcertain inor ganic contaminants, including cadmium, lead, zinc, manganese, arsenic, and selenium in alkaline fly ash and spent shale samples. The results suggest that reaction with carbon dioxide under slightly elevated pressures is an ef fective means ofreducing the soluble concentrations ofcertain inor ganic contaminants inTopics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 69 alkaline solid wastes, which would prevent their migration from disposal environments into groundwater [1], [2]

. 97. Recent Findings on Immobilization ofOrganics as Measured by T otal Constituent Analysis Conner, J.R. 1995. W

aste Management. 15:359-470. New hazardous waste stabilization additives and formulations are tested to help waste managers meet the new EP

A total constituent analysis regulatory requirements. The findings evaluate four cement-based formulations applied to soils containing 50 hazardous organic compounds. T wo proprietary rubber particulate additives were superior relative to carbon organoclay for stabilization ofmost constituents. Any ofthe four additives or their combinations may prove valuable in immobilizing specific constituents [1], [2]

. 98. Soil Stabilization Pr

ovides In-Situ T

oxic Containment Bornstein, R. and W

ehr, F

. (1991). California Builder andEngineers

. CB&E: 35-36. This article describes the in situ stabilization ofcontaminated material at a commercial burning yard in Rosamond, CA. Included in the article is a discussion ofEP A laboratory tests to determine the best mixture for the soil stabilization, the technique used to excavate and stabilize the waste, and the results ofanalysis to determine whether EP A specifications were met. Project results showed that soil mixture strength, durability, and permeability met or exceeded the EP A specifications [1], [2]

. 99 Solidification/Stabilization ofa Heavy Metal Sludge by a Portland Cement/Fly Ash Binding Mixture Roy, A., H.C. Eaton, and others. 1991. Hazar dous W aste andHazar

dous Materials. 8:33-41. This paper is another in a series of studies ofmicrochemical mechanisms involved in solidification/stabilization. A Portland cement/class F fly ash binder was used to solidify a heavy metal sludge containing cadmium, chromium, mercury, and nickel. Results indicate a wide variability in the composition ofpartially dewatered sludges. Such variability can lead to localized dif

ferences in the chemical composition ofthe solidified material. Microanalyses of the cement and fly ash mixtures indicate that fly ash spheres reacted with the Portland cement component to form a variety ofreaction products, including ettringite. The results show that the sludge had an ef

fect on cementing reactions, and it inhibited the rate and extent ofhydration. T o a minor degree, fly ash was involved in the chemical entrapment ofthe waste elements [1], [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 70 100. Solidification/Stabilization ofArsenic: Effects ofArsenic Specification Buechler, P

., and others. 1996. Journal ofEnvir onmental Science andHealth. A31:747-754. This study evaluates the chemical identity ofarsenic compounds subjected to solidification/ stabilization in determining eventual leachability from the treated material. Arsenic compounds have major ef

fects on the developing cement matrix when Portland cement is the binder

. Ofthe compounds studied, the organoarsenic species, arsanilic acid, has the least ef fect on the formation ofthe hydrated cement matrix, but it shows the greatest T oxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure ef

fects. Arsenic trioxide has the greatest ef fect on the matrix, reducing the hydration from 70 to 40 percent at 28 days ofcure. Arsenate and arsenite salts have intermediate ef fects on matrix formation, but they show low leachabilities. An organoarsenic fungicide waste treated with Portland cement alone showed significant leachability, but leachability was greatly reduced in the presence oftetramethylammonium bentonite [1], [2]

. 101. Solidification/Stabilization ofHazardous W aste: Evidence ofPhysical Encapsulation Roy, A., and others. 1992. Envir onmental Science and T

echnology

. 26:1349-1353. The nature ofa synthetic electroplating sludge (EP A waste classification F006) containing cadmium, chromium, mercury, and nickel, as well as its solidification/stabilization mechanisms were evaluated by investigating the microscopic morphologies and microchemistry ofthe solidified and stabilized products. The sludge consisted ofimpure, submicrometer-sized crystallites ofheavy metal salts that retarded hydration ofthe ordinary Portland cement (T ype I). However, the hydration products were the same as those formed in the absence ofthe sludge. Morphologies observed in the ordinary Portland cement/sludge samples were distinctly dif ferent from those normally observed in hardened cement. Physical encapsulation on a microscopic scale was the principal mechanism of stabilization [1], [2]

. 102. Solidification/Stabilization ofHeavy Metals in Latex Modified Portland Cement Matrices Daniali, S. 1990. Journal ofHazar dous Materials. 24:225-230. This paper presents preliminary research data to develop latex-modified cement systems for the solidification/stabilization ofinor ganic wastes containing lead and chromium. Polymers have long been used to improve the properties ofconcrete and cement mortar, especially when these materials are subjected to severe chemical attack. Results offreeze/thaw durability tests conducted on the synthetic wastes show little or no weight loss after 50 cycles. In addition, unconfined compressive strength tests show no loss of strength due to the presence oflead and chromium. Preliminary T oxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure and extraction procedure tests indicate considerable improvement over regular Portland cement [1], [2], [3]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 71 103. Stabilization and Solidification ofLead in Contaminated Soils Lin. S.L., and others. 1996. Journal ofHazar dous Materials

. 48:95-110. In this study, a sulfur waste material was employed as a binder to stabilize and solidify leadcontaminated soils. Soil samples collected from a battery recovery plant had high levels of inor ganic lead. Results obtained from the study indicated that sulfurbinders can be used to solidify and stabilize inor

ganic lead-contaminated soil, which may or may not contain organic compounds. However, control samples, which used Portland cement to solidify the same contaminated soils, showed that Portland cement was also an ef fective binder

. The potential applications ofthese solidified matrixes also are discussed. Due to the excellentphysical, engineering, and chemical leaching characteristics, sulfur-solidified wastes could be used as construction fills, such as road fill inpavement construction. Under some circumstances, use of the sulfur stabilization/solidification process will be a viable choice, especially where excess sulfur, recovered from various industrial desulfurization sites, becomes a waste product that requires disposal. The excess waste (sulfur) can be used as a stabilization agent to treat leadcontaminated soil locally

. Thus the two waste materials can be combined and converted into an environmentally stable material for recycling without having to be deposited in a landfill site [1], [2]

. 104. The Binding Chemistry and Leaching Mechanisms ofHazardous Substances in Cementitious Solidification/Stabilization Systems Cocke, D.L. 1990. Journal ofHazar dous Materials

. 24:231-253. The aim ofthis work is to provide information for (1) the design ofnew or improved solidification/stabilization systems and (2) mathematically modeling the leaching. The chemistry ofbinding and the mechanisms ofleaching ofhazardous substances, particularly priority heavy metal pollutants, in cementitious systems are discussed in terms oftheir bulk and surface states. Particular attention is given to the nature ofthe surface and solution chemistries. Key to understanding the binding and leaching processes in cement is the characterization ofthe chemical and physical states involved. Recent ef forts in the surface bulk and morphological characterization of solidification/stabilization hazardous metal-Portland cement systems are presented, with the results summarized inphysical and chemical concepts [1], [2]

. 105. The Effects ofSimulated Environmental Attack on Immobilization ofHeavy Metals Doped in Cement-Based Materials Bonen, D., and S.L. Sarkar. 1995. Journal ofHazar dous Materials. 40:321-335. This study investigates the ef fects oflong-term simulated corrosive environmental conditions for the leaching characteristics of selected heavy-metal oxides stabilized in Portland cement as well as the leaching from paste and mortar
. Portland cement-based materials, which are often used as binders for hazardous waste immobilization, are prone to various types ofchemical attack,Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 72 including corrosion by soft water and ground water
. Carbon dioxide-bearing water is most deleterious, af

fecting the leachability characteristics ofwaste-based cement over time. Heavy metals analyzed include cadmium, nickel, lead, and mercury. Results from aggressive carbon dioxide attack indicated the formation ofa peripheral decalcified zone (the leached zone) and an apparent intact unleached zone. The leached zone was characterized by a depleted heavy metal content, in which nickel and cadmium were converted into hydroxides, and mercury remained in its original oxide form. The leaching rate ofthe metals was lowest for lead and increased for nickel and cadmium. Increasing the metal load increased the amount ofmetals leached at any given time [1], [2], [3], [4]

. 106. The History ofStabilization/Solidification T echnology Conner, J.R. and Hoef

fner, S.L. 1998. CriticalReviews in Envir onmental Science and T echnology

. 28(4): 325-396. This article describes the history of solidification/stabilization. The processes and techniques of solidification/stabilization have matured into an accepted and important part ofenvironmental technology

. How it came about is presented inboth an interesting and instructive way. The article includes a definition ofterms; overview ofthe basics of solidification/stabilization technology; a discussion ofthe origins of solidification/stabilization before 1970, its pre-RCRA use (1970-1976), the post-RCRA solidification/stabilization industry (1976-1990), the current solidification/stabilization technology (1990 to present), and the future of solidification/stabilization [1], [2]

. 107. The Interfacial Chemistry ofSolidification/Stabilization ofMetals Mollah, Y .M.A., and others. 1995. W aste Management. 15:137-148. This study investigates the chemistry ofcement, its hydration, and mechanisms of solidification/stabilization oftoxic metals by cement-based systems, near surface, and interfacial phenomena. The adsorption conditions and the selectively strong af finity ofhazardous metals towards clay minerals, certain hydrated metal oxides and oxyhydroxides, and cementitious substances also play an important role in the solidification/stabilization process for the immobilization ofcontaminants. Recent work involving metal ions and superplasticizers have elucidated the mechanics ofreactions that retard cement hydration and subsequent setting as well as their interactions with silicate-based systems. This paper delineates the current status of interfacial chemistry at the solid-liquid boundary and places it inperspective with present and future solidification/ stabilization processes based on Portland cement and pozzolanic materials. The importance of surface charge, the role ofinterfacial phenomena on adsorption, and the importance ofcalcium and other types ofanions and cations in solidification/stabilization are also discussed. A surface charge control reaction model that accounts for the importance of calcium and other cations and anions is outlined and is used to discuss the chemical nature and microstructure ofthe interfacial transition zone [1], [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 73 108. The Limitation ofthe T oxicity Characteristic Leaching Pr ocedure for Evaluating Cement-Based Stabilized/Solidified W aste Forms Poon, C.S., and K.W

. Lio. 1997. W

aste Management

. 17:15-23. The EP A T oxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) is commonly used as a regulatory tool to determine whether or not a waste can be classified as a hazardous waste. The validity of the test procedure for assessing cement-based stabilized and solidified heavy metal wastes is examined in this paper. Synthetic cement-based heavy metal waste forms with dif ferent acid neutralizing capacity were prepared and subjected to TCLP to study the ef fect ofwaste acid neutralizing capacity metal leaching. A real waste was also obtained from a local commercial treatment facility and tested to verify the findings. The results showed that as long as the stabilized and solidified waste forms neutralize the acidity ofthe leachant, the leaching ofmetals will be small, and the performance ofthe dif ferent waste forms cannot be dif ferentiated. The test therefore has limited use in comparing the performance ofdif ferent cement-based waste forms. A modified test procedure is proposed [1]

. 109. Time Effects ofThree Contaminants on the Durability and Permeability ofa Solidified Sand Al’T abbaa, A., and S.D. King. 1998. Envir onmental T

echnology

. 19:401-407. This paper examines the ef fect ofthree contaminants in low and high concentrations on the durability (wet/dry and freeze/thaw) and permeability of stabilized and solidified contaminated sand. The ef

fect was investigated in terms ofthe development ofthe two properties with time under the influence ofthe contaminants after two curing periods results provide some insight into the development ofthe behaviour with time. The results show that in some cases the behaviour depends not only on the type ofthe contaminant, but also on its concentration. In general, both the durability (as measured by wet/dry and freeze/thaw tests) and permeability results improved with time as the curing period increased from 28 to 56 days. These results were attributed to the continual hydration ofcement. This means that the design of solidified and stabilized soil is based on 28-day durability, and permeability would lead to an uneconomical design unless the ef fect ofcontinual hydration ofthe cement products, and hence continual development ofthe two properties, is allowed for in some way. This emphasizes the need to develop appropriate tests that model in situ long-term behavior of solidified and stabilized ground [1], [3], [4]

. 110. T r eatment ofMetal Industrial W astewater by Flyash and Cement Fixation W eng, C.H., and C.P

. Huang. 1994. Journal ofEnvir onmental Engineering. 120:1470-1488. This paper presents a technique for treating industrial waste waters contaminated with heavy metals. The proposed method employs fly ash adsorption and cement fixation ofthe metalcontaminated adsorbent compound to isolate the metals. Fly ash can provide an acceptable level ofmetal adsorption for zinc and cadmium in dilute wastewater streams with adsorption capacities of0.27 and 0.05 milograms per gram, respectively

. T ests ofleachates derived from the fixed metal-laden fly ash indicated that concentrations ofthe metals in the leachates were lower than the existing drinking water standards [1], [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 74 111. V ariability ofField Solidified W aste Stegemann, J.A., Caldwell, R.J. and Shi, C. 1997. Journal ofHazar dous Materials

. 52: 335- 348. There is little information available regarding the ef fect offield variability on solidified waste properties. In a field test conducted by the W astewater T

echnology Centre it was found that the proportions ofthe waste (electric arc furnace dust) and binder (activated blast furnace slag) could be controlled within 2 percent, expressed as a fraction ofthe mix. Comparisons of comprehensive physical and chemical test results for laboratory and field solidified specimens of electric arc furnace dust showed that the physical properties ofthe field solidified material were sensitive to changes in water addition. Chemical properties and leachability were most af fected by changes inpH and acid neutralization capacity

. However, both physical and chemical properties remained within the desired range [1], [2], [3], [4]

. BIBLIOGRAPHIES 112. Hazardous W astes - Fixation, Solidification, and V itrification Excluding Radioactive Materials Energy Science and T

echnology Database. 1998. U.S. Department ofEnergy, W ashington, DC. NTIS Document No.: PB96-855945INI http://www.ntis.gov This bibliography contains the latest citations concerning the fixation or solidification of hazardous wastes. Articles discuss methods offixation, such as use ofcements, concretes, silicates, fly ash, and vitrified glass. Citations are continuously updated to examine the ability of various techniques to immobilize hazardous materials; immobilization is determined by leach tests and experimental verification. Materials discussed include furnace wastes, contaminated soils, sludges, asbestos wastes, organic wastes, and ashes. The bibliography contains as many as 250 citations and includes a subject term index and title list [1], [2]

. 113. Radioactive W

aste Pr ocessing - Fixation in Cements and Bitumens Energy Science and T

echnology Database. 1998. U.S. Department ofEnergy, W ashington, DC. NTIS Document No.: PB96-855135INI http://www.ntis.gov This bibliography contains citations concerning the fixation or solidification ofradioactive wastes using cements, bitumens, or asphalts. Formulation, physical strength, degradation, and leachability ofthese materials is presented. Specific full-scale production plants are described. W astes that can be contained through fixation include gaseous wastes, nitrate salts, borate salts,Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 75 spent fuels, contaminated soils, sludges, and liquid wastes. The bibliography contains about 250 citations and includes a subject term index and title list [1], [2]

. IN SITU SOLIDIFICA

TION/ST ABILIZA

TION RESOURCES 114. Engineering Issue: Considerations in Deciding to T r eat Contaminated Soils In Situ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1993. Of fice ofSolid W

aste and Emer

gency Response. W ashington, DC. EP A Document No.: EP

A/540/S-94/500 NTIS Document No.: PB94-177771/XAB The purpose ofthis document is to assist in deciding whether consideration ofin situ treatment ofcontaminated soil is worthwhile and to assist in the selection and review ofin situ technologies. This document addresses issues associated with assessing the feasibility ofin situ treatment and selecting appropriate in situ technologies, including characteristics ofthe contaminants, the site, the technologies, and how these factors and conditions interact to allow for ef fective delivery, control, and recovery oftreatment agents and contaminants. The document focuses on established and innovative in situ treatment technologies already available or available for full-scale application within 2 years, including in situ solidification/stabilization. The document is intended to assist in identifying applicable alternatives early in the technology screening process and is not a source for final determinations [1], [2]

. 115. Handbook on In Situ T r eatment ofHazardous W aste-Contaminated Soils U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1990. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/540/2-90/002 NTIS Document No.: PB90-155607/XAB This publication discusses various alternatives for in situ treatment ofhazardous waste in contaminated soils. Several in situ technologies are described, including in situ solidification/ stabilization treatment processes. Delivery and recovery systems also are discussed. The document includes a description ofthe treatment process and its advantages and disadvantages. An extensive list ofreferences is included [1], [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 76 116. International W

aste T echnologies/Geo-Con In Situ Stabilization/Solidification: Applications Analysis Report U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1996. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/540/A5-89/004 NTIS Document No: PB-90-269085 This Application Analysis Report evaluates (1) the International W aste T echnologies HWT-20 additive and the Geo-Con, Inc., deep-soil-mixing equipment for an in situ stabilization/ solidification process and (2) its applicability as an on-site treatment method for waste site cleanup. The in situ treatment technology demonstration was conducted under EP A’s Superfund Innovative T

echnology Evaluation Program in April 1988, at the General Electric Company electric service shop in Hialeah, Florida. Soil at the site contained polychlorinated biphenyls and localized concentrations ofvolatile organics and heavy metal concentrations. This report discusses the in situ process based on test results ofthe demonstration, as well as other data provided by the technology developer and the general capabilities ofcement-based systems. It also discusses the probable applicability ofthe technology to sites other than the General Electric Company electric service shop [1], [2]

. 117. Overview ofIn Situ W aste T r eatment T

echnologies Hyde, R.A., and others. 1992. EG&G Idaho, Inc. Idaho Falls, ID. NTIS Document No.: DE92-018012/XAB In situ technologies are an attractive remedial alternative when addressing environmental problems, and they typically reduce risks and costs associated with retrieving, packaging, and storing or disposing ofwastes. Each in situ technology has specific applications; to provide the most economical and practical solution to a waste problem, these applications must be understood. This paper presents an overview of30 in situ remedial technologies for buried wastes or contaminated soil areas. The objective ofthis paper is to familiarize those involved in waste remediation activities with available and emer ging in situ technologies so that they may consider these options in the remediation ofhazardous and radioactive waste sites. Several types ofin situ technologies are discussed, including solidification/stabilization. Much ofthe information on in situ treatment technologies was obtained directly from vendors and universities, and this information has not been verified [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 77 118. Pilot In Situ Auger Mixing T r eatment ofa Contaminated Site - Part I: T r eatability Study Al’T abbaa, A., and C.W

. Evans. 1998. Geotechnical Engineering

. 131:52-59. The work presented in this two-part publication covers certain findings ofa research contract and related studies to develop an in situ stabilization/solidification treatment methodology using auger mixing at a contaminated site at W est Drayton. This paper, Part 1, contains the introduction, site details, and results ofthe laboratory treatability study; Part 2 details the prototype auger development, site trial, and assessment ofthe in situ treatment. The objective of the treatability study was to develop soil-grout mixes appropriate for the site soils and in situ application process, with an emphasis on low cement and grout content. Cement-based soilgrout mixes were developed based on available strength, durability, permeability, compressibility, and leachate pH design criteria. Constituents ofthe soil-grout mixes, which included cement, pulverized fuel ash and lime, and their ratios were varied. Contradicting requirements for satisfying some ofthe criteria meant that the developed mixes had to be a compromise. The applicability ofthe permeability and freeze/thaw durability criteria considered for the stabilized contaminated soil was questioned [1], [2]

. 119. Recent Developments for In Situ T r eatment ofMetal Contaminated Soils U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1997. T echnology Innovation Of

fice. Of fice ofSolid W aste and Emer

gency Response. W

ashington, DC. EP A Document No.: EP

A-542-R-97-004 This report provides a status update on available and promising technologies for in situ remediation of soils contaminated with heavy metals. It is intended to assist in the remedy selection process by providing information on four in situ technologies, including solidification/stabilization. The report discusses dif ferent techniques currently inpractice or under development, identifies vendors and summarizes performance data, and discusses technology attributes that should be considered during early screening ofpotential remedies. EP A-sponsored demonstrations reviewed in the report indicate that in situ solidification/stabilization is ef fective inreducing leachable concentrations ofmetals to within regulatory or risk-based limits. Failure to meet the design specifications in the field most often stems from poor grout control, such as inconsistently formulated slurries or clogged injection ports that cause incomplete mixing or a spray pattern that is not uniform [1], [2]

.Topics Addressed:

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 78 120. T echnology Evaluation Report: SITE Pr ogram Demonstration T est, International W aste T echnologies In Situ Stabilization/Solidification, Hialeah, Florida U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. 1989. Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory

. Of fice ofResearch and Development. Cincinnati, OH. EP A Document No.: EP

A/540/5-89/004a NTIS Document No.: PB-89-194161 This T echnology Evaluation Report evaluates the International W aste T echnologies HWT-20 additive and the Geo-Con, Inc. deep-soil-mixing equipment for an in situ stabilization/ solidification process and its applicability as an on-site treatment method for waste site cleanup. The in situ treatment technology demonstration was conducted under EP A’s Superfund Innovative T

echnology Evaluation (SITE) Program in April 1988, at the General Electric Company electric service shop in Hialeah, Florida, where the soil contained polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and localized concentrations ofvolatile organics and heavy metal concentrations. This report provides an interpretation ofthe available data and presents conclusions on the results ofthe demonstration, as well as the potential applicability ofthe technology at other sites [1], [2]

.79



### SOURCES OF SOLIDIFICA TION/ST ABILIZA TION TECHNOLOGY INFORMA

TION/TECHNICAL ASSIST ANCE
Numerous W

orld W ide W eb sites, publications/search systems, dockets, hotlines/regulatory/technical assistance centers, and library resources are available to provide information or technical assistance related to issues concerning solidification and stabilization. Many ofthese sources are available through EP A’s main web address, www.epa.gov. This web site provides access to a variety ofEP A of fices, laboratories, and regions; the reader is referred to the following EP A of fices as providing information that is particularly relevant to solidification and stabilization: Of fice ofSolid W

aste and Emer

gency Response (OSWER), Of

fice ofEmer

gency and Remedial Response (OERR), Of fice ofSolid W

aste (OSW), and Of

fice ofResearch and Development (ORD). Specific sources ofinformation are identified below , with information about how to access these sources. WORLD WIDE WEB SITES:

C Hazardous W

aste Cleanup Information (CLU-IN) CLU-INpr

ovides information about innovative Agency

. r emediation andsite characterization technologiesfor hazar

dous waste cleanup pr ofessionals. It includes information on publications andsoftwar e, partnerships and consortia, r

egulatory items, vendor support, internet and on-line r

esour ces, and international activities. Help Line...............................301-589-8368 Internetaddress: http://clu-in.org seven action teams have been established by

C Alternative T

reatment T

echnologies Information Center (A

TTIC) ATTIC is a compr

ehensive computer database LASAGNATM Partnership, the Permeable system thatpr

ovides up-to-date information on Reactive BarriersAction T eam, the Sediments innovative tr

eatment technologies. ATTIC RemediationAction T eam, the In-Place pr ovides users with access to several Inactivation andNatural EcologicalRestoration independent databases, as well as a mechanism T echnologies (IINERT) Soil-MetalsAction for obtainingfull-text technicalpublications. T eam, the Phytor

emediation ofOr

ganicsAction The database contains information on T eam, and the In Situ FlushingAction T eam. biological, chemical, andphysical tr eatment technologies; solidification andstablization technologies; and thermal tr eatment technologies. Help Line...............................513-569-7272 Internetaddress: http://www .epa.gov/attic Development (ORD) to encourage the

C Federal Remediation T echnologies Roundtable (FRTR) FRTR is an interagency working gr oup that pr ovides aforumfor the exchange of information about the development and demonstration ofinnovative technologiesfor the r emediation ofhazar

dous waste sites. The forum also synthesizes the technical knowledge thatfederal agencies have compiled and pr ovides a compr

ehensive r

ecor d of performance and cost ofthe technologies. Participating agencies include the U.S. Department ofDefense, the U.S. Department of Ener gy , and the U.S. Envir

onmental Pr

otection Internetaddress: http://www .frtr .gov

C Remediation T

echnologies Development Forum (RTDF) RTDFwas established by the U.S. Envir onmental Pr

otectionAgency (EP

A) to fosterpartnerships ofpublic andprivate-sector entities that conduct laboratory andapplied r esear ch to develop, test, and evaluate innovative r

emediation technologies. T o date, RTDF, including: the Bior emediation of Chlorinated Solvents Consortium, the

Internetaddress: http://www .rtdf.org

C Superfund Innovative T echnology Evaluation (SITE) Demonstration Program The SITEpr

ogram was established by EP A’s Office ofSolid W

aste andEmer

gency Response (OSWER) and the Office ofResear ch and development and implementation ofinnovative tr eatment technologiesfor the r emediation of hazar dous waste sites andformonitoring and measur ement technologies. Thr

ough the pr ogram, technologies ar

efield-tested and engineering and cost data ar e gather ed. Internetaddress: http://www

.epa.gov/ORD/SITE80



### SOURCES OF SOLIDIFICA TION/ST ABILIZA TION TECHNOLOGY INFORMA

TION/TECHNICAL ASSIST ANCE (CONT’D)
PUBLICA

TIONS/SEARCH SYSTEMS:

C Site Remediation T

echnology InfoBase: Indexes andpr ovidespublic access to all A Guide to Federal Programs, Information Resources, and Publications on Contaminated Site Cleanup T echnologies (EP A/542/B-98/006; August 1998) Thispublication waspr

epar ed under the auspices ofthe FederalRemediation T echnologies Roundtable andsummarizes information aboutfederal cleanuppr ograms within the U.S. DoD, U.S. DOE, andEP A; site r emediation technology development assistance pr ograms; site r

emediation technology development electr

onic databases; and electr onic r esour cesfor site r

emediation technology information. It alsopr ovides a selected bibliography ofpublications and identifies technologypr

ogram contacts.

C DIALOG Database............800-3-DIALOG Containsfiles r

elevant to hazar

dous waste including: Envir

oline, CA Sear

ch, Pollution Abstracts, Compendex, Ener gy Science and T echnology

, National T

echnical Information Service (NTIS), and others. Internetaddress: http://www .dialog.com EP Apersonnel andpr

ovides information on the DOCKETS: Operates Monday

- Friday , 9:00 a.m. - 6:00

C Federal Agency Hazardous W aste Compliance Docket Hotline 800-548-1016 Pr ovides the name, addr

ess, NPL status, agency

, andRegionfor the Federalfacilities listed on the C Superfund Health Risk T echnical Support FederalAgency Hazar

dous W aste Compliance Docket. Facilities ar

e on the docket because Pr ovides EP A Regional Superfund risk they r eported being a RCRA TSDFor having assessors, State agencies, and those working spilled or having thepotential to r elease underEP A contract with technical, typically CERCLA hazar

dous waste. Operates Monday

- chemical-specific, support and risk assessment Friday 8:00 a.m.- 6:00p.m., Eastern T ime. r

eview

.

C UST Docket............................703-603-9230 Pr ovides documents and r

egulatory information pertinent to RCRA Subtitle 1 (the Under gr ound Storage T ankpr ogram). C TSCA Hotline........................202-554-1404 Operates Monday

- Friday , 9:00 a.m. - 4:00 Answerspublic andprivate r egulatory questions p.m., Eastern T

ime. on TSCA. Refers callers to appr opriate EP

A T o send a request: U.S. Environmental contacts, and takes TSCA-r elevant document Protection Agency or ders. Of fice ofUnderground Operates Monday

- Friday , 8:30 a.m. - 5:00 Storage T ank Docket p.m., Eastern T ime. 401 M Street, SW

, 5305W T o fax a request: 202-554-5603 W ashington, DC 20460 T o fax a request: 703-603-9234 C RCRA Information Center ...703-603-9230

r egulatory materials supporting theAgency’s actions underRCRA, anddisseminates curr ent Office ofSolid W

astepublications. Operates Monday

- Friday , 9:00 a.m. - 4:00 a.m., Eastern T

ime.

C Superfund Docket.................703-603-9232 Pr ovides access to Superfund r egulatory documents, SuperfundFederalRegisterNotices, andRODs. Operates Monday

- Friday , 9 a.m. - 4p.m., Eastern T ime. T o fax a request: 703-603-9240 email: superfund.docket@epamail.epa.gov HOTLINES/REGULA

TOR Y/TECHNICAL ASSIST ANCE:

C RCRA/Superfund Hotline...800-424-9346, 703-412-9810, TDD: 800-553-7672, 703-412- 3323 Pr ovides r egulatory assistance r

elated to RCRA, CERCLA, and USTpr

ograms. Serves as a liaison between the r

egulated community and availability ofr

elevant documents.
p.m., Eastern T

ime. Internetaddress: http://www

.epa.gov/epaoswer/hotline/

Center ....................................513-569-7300

Operates Monday

- Friday , 8 a.m. - 5p.m., Eastern T ime. T o fax a request: 513-569-715981



### SOURCES OF SOLIDIFICA TION/ST ABILIZA TION TECHNOLOGY INFORMA

TION/TECHNICAL ASSIST ANCE (CONT’D)

LIBRARIES:

C The EP

A Headquarters and Regional Libraries provide information services covering a wide range ofenvironmental and related subjects, including hazardous waste, air and water pollution and control, environmental law, solid waste, toxic substances, and test methods. These libraries also provide a collection ofmaterials on social, economic, legislative, legal, administrative, and management projects related to all aspects ofenvironmental policy

. EP A Headquarters and Regional Libraries contact information is provided below

. In addition to resources available through EP A libraries, users may also access relevant documents through university libraries or other public libraries that house government documents.

- EP A Headquarters Library Headquarters Information Resources Center T o send a request: Environmental Protection

Agency 401 M Street, SW Mail Code 3404 W ashington , DC 20460 Operates Monday

- Friday , 8 a.m. - 5p.m., Eastern T ime. Phone.....................................202-260-5922 Fax..........................................202-260-5153 email: library-hq@epamail.epa.gov

- EP A Region 1 Library (Boston, MA) T o send a request: JFK Federal Building

Boston, MA 02203-0001 Operates Monday

- Friday , 8:30 a.m. - 5p.m., Eastern T ime Phone...................................617-565-3300 Fax.......................................617-565-9067 e-mail: library-regl@epamail.epa.gov Internetaddress: http://www

.epa.gov/region01/oarm/index.html

- EP A Region 2 Library (New Y ork, NY) T o send a request: 290 Broadway , 16 Floor th New Y ork, NY 10007 Operates Monday

- Thursday , 9 a.m. - 4:30 p.m., Friday 9 a.m. - 1 p.m., Eastern T ime Phone......................................212-637-3185 Fax..........................................212-637-3086 e-mail: library-reg-2@epamail.epa.gov Internetaddress: http://www

.epa.gov/Region2/library/ - EP A Region 3 Library (Philadelphia, P A) T o send a request: 1650 Arch Street

(3PM52) Philadelphia, P

A 19103 Operates Monday

- Friday , 8 a.m. - 4p.m., Eastern T ime Phone......................................215-814-5254 Fax..........................................215-814-5253 e-mail: library-reg3@epamail.epa.gov Internetaddress: http://www

.epa.gov/region3/r3lib/index.html

- EP A Region 4 Library (Atlanta, GA) T o send a request: Atlanta Federal Center

61 Forsyth St, SW 9 Floor T

ower th Atlanta, GA 30303-3104 Operates Monday

- Friday , 8 a.m. - 4p.m., Eastern T ime Phone......................................404-562-8190 Fax..........................................404-562-8114 Internetaddress: http://www

.epa.gov/recoreds/a00220.html

- EP A Region 5 Library (Chicago, IL) T o send a request: 77 W est Jackson Boulevard Chicago, IL 60604-3590 Operates Monday

- Friday , 7:30p.m. - 5p.m., Central T ime Phone......................................312-353-2022 Fax..........................................312-353-2001 e-mail: library

.reg5@epamail.epa.gov Internetaddress: http://www

.epa.gov/region5/library/

- EP A Region 6 Library (Dallas, TX) T o send a request: 1445 Ross A venue Dallas, TX 75202 Operates Monday

- Friday , 7:30 a.m. - 4:30 p.m., Central T

ime Phone......................................214-665-6424 Fax..........................................214-665-2714 e-mail: library-reg6@epamail.epa.gov Internetaddress: http://www

.epa.gov/6mol/6lib.htm82



### SOURCES OF SOLIDIFICA TION/ST ABILIZA TION TECHNOLOGY INFORMA

TION/TECHNICAL ASSIST ANCE (CONT’D)

- EP A Region 7 Library (Kansas City, KS) T o send a request: Information Resource

Center 726 Minnesota A

venue Kansas City, KS 66101- 2728 Operates Monday

- Friday 10 a.m. - 3p.m. (walk-in), 8:30 a.m. - 5p.m. (phone), Central T ime Phone.............................913-551-7241/7358 Fax..........................................913-551-7467 e-mail: library-reg7@epamail.epa.gov Internetaddress: http://www

.epa.gov/earth100/records/ a00222.html

- EP A Region 8 T

echnical Library (Denver , CO) T o send a request: 999 18 Street, Suite 500 th (8OC-L) Denver, CO 80202 Operates Monday

- Friday , (except W ednesday), 12:00 noon - 4:00p.m., Mountain T ime, operates W

ednesday 10 a.m. - 4p.m., Mountain T

ime Phone......................................303-312-6312 Fax..........................................303-312-7061 e-mail: R8EISC@epamail.epa.gov Internetaddress: http://www

.epa.gov/region08/html/eisc.html

_ EP A Region 8 Library (Denver , CO) Environmental Information Service Center (EISC) Phone...........................303-312-6312 and 1-800-227-8917 (for region 8 states only) Fax...............................303-294-1087

- EP A Region 9 Library (San Francisco, CA) T o send a request: 75 Hawthorne Street

San Francisco, CA 94105 Operates Monday

- Friday , 9 a.m. - 4p.m., W estern T ime Phone......................................415-744-1510 Fax..........................................415-744-1474 e-mail: library-reg9@epamail.epa.gov Internetaddress: http://www

.epa.gov/region09/library/ - EP A Region 10 Library (Seattle, W A) T o send a request: 1200 Sixth A venue, Mail code OMP-104 Seattle, W

A 98101 Operates Monday

- Friday , 9 a.m. - 4p.m., W estern T ime Phone......................................206-553-1289 Fax..........................................206-553-0110 email: library-reg10@epamail.epa.gov Internetaddress: http://www

.epa.gov/earth100/records/ a00225.html

- RREL/Site Superfund V ideotape Library Pr ovides composite videotapes containing a number ofEP

Apr oduceddocumentaries on specific SuperfundInnovative T echnology Evaluation (SITE) Pr

ogram demonstrations. Operates Monday

- Friday , 8:30 a.m. - 4:30 p.m., Eastern time Phone......................................201-535-221983

OTHER RESOURCE GUIDES The following documents are intended to support decision-making by Regional and State Corrective Action permit writers, Remedial Project Managers (RPMs), On-Scene Coordinators, contractors, and others responsible for the evaluation ofinnovative treatment technologies. These guides direct managers of sites being remediated under RCRA, UST , and CERCLA to bioremediation, ground water, physical/chemical, soil vapor extraction (SVE), SVE enhancement, and solidification/stabilization treatment technology resource documents; databases; hotlines; and dockets, and identify regulatory mechanisms (for example, Research Development and Demonstration Permits) that have the potential to ease the implementation of these technologies at hazardous waste sites. Collectively, the guides provide abstracts ofover 400 guidance/workshop reports, program documents, studies and demonstrations, and other resource guides, as well as easy to use Resource Matrices that identify the technologies and contaminants discussed in each abstracted document. The title and document number is provided for each. 1. Bioremediation Resource Guide U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. September, 1993. Of fice ofSolid W

aste and Emer gency Response. T

echnology Innovation Of

fice. W ashington, DC. [1], [2], [3]

. EP A Document No.: EP

A/542-B-93/004 NTIS Document No.: PB-94-112307 2. Ground W

ater T r eatment T

echnology Resource Guide U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. September, 1994. Of fice ofSolid W

aste and Emer gency Response. T

echnology Innovation Of

fice. W ashington, DC. [1], [2]

. EP A Document No.: EP

A/542-B-94/009 NTIS Document No.: PB-95-138657 3. Physical/Chemical T r eatment T

echnology Resource Guide U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. September, 1994. Of fice ofSolid W

aste and Emer gency Response. T

echnology Innovation Of

fice. W ashington, DC. [1], [2]

. EP A Document No.: EP

A/542-B-94/008 NTIS Document No.: PB-95-138665Topics Addressed

[1] Performance Evaluation or Testing Protocols [2] Contaminant- or Waste-Specific Procedures [3] Durability and Degradation [4] Long-term Effectiveness 84 OTHER RESOURCE GUIDES (CONT’D) 4. Soil V apor Extraction (SVE) Enhancement T echnology Resource Guide U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. October, 1995. Of fice ofSolid W

aste and Emer

gency Response. T

echnology Innovation Of

fice. W ashington, DC. [1], [2]

. EP A Document No.: EP

A/542-B-95/003 5. Soil V apor Extraction (SVE) T r eatment T

echnology Resource Guide. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

. September, 1994. Of fice ofSolid W

aste and Emer gency Response. T

echnology Innovation Of

fice. W ashington, DC. [1], [2]

. EP A Document Number: EP A/542-B-94/007 NTIS Document Number: PB-95-13868185 

### WE WOULD LIKE YOUR COMMENTS W e would like your comments about this guide, especially on:

C Questions about solidification/stabilization technologies

C Information about solidification/stabilization technology documents that you have drafted or completed which may be suited for inclusion in an update to this Guide. Mail this form:

C Fold the form into thirds (along the dotted lines) so that the address shows on the outside.

C Tape the form closed.

C Add a first class stamp (EP A employees use interof

fice or pouch mail).

C Drop it in the mail.

or Fax this form: TIO

- (703) 603-9135 or (703) 603-9167
COMMENTS86

Return Address: Place Stamp Here

U.S. ENVIRONMENT

AL PROTECTION AGENCY TECHNOLOGY INNOV A TION OFFICE 401 M STREET, SW (5102G) W ASHINGTON, DC 20460