Area Frame Design for 

Agricultural Surveys

Carrie Davies

United States 

Department of

Agriculture

National

Agricultural

Statistics

Service

Research and

Development Division

Washington DC 20250

RDD Research Report

Number RDD-09-xx

June 2009

1

AREA FRAME DESIGN FOR AGRICULTURAL SURVEYS

PREFACE

Area frames have been and will continue to be the foundation to the agricultural statistics 

program of the National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS). The methodology applied by 

NASS to develop and sample area frames is of interest to domestic and international users of 

NASS's agricultural statistics. This interest has motivated the need to prepare a document that 

describes the current area frame procedures in NASS. Therefore, the purpose of this document is 

to provide a thorough presentation of the present area frame development and sampling 

procedures employed by NASS. 

There are two chapters to this document. The first chapter was originally written by Jim Cotter 

from NASS in 1987 and updated by Carrie Davies from the Area Frame Section, Research and 

Development Division, National Agricultural Statistics Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

Also, the Stratification Materials Section was written by Ray Roberts from the Area Frame 

Section in NASS in 2009. Chapter I describes the procedures NASS uses to develop new area 

frames. 

The second chapter was written by Jack Nealon from NASS in 1987 and updated by Carrie 

Davies in 2009. Chapter II describes the area frame sampling methodology. Together, these 

chapters will provide the reader with a greater understanding and appreciation for the area 

sampling frame methods currently in use by NASS. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The original authors would like to thank Fred Vogel and Bob Tortora for their suggestions and 

support. 

The reviser would like to thank the following for their important contributions to sections of this 

document:

Denise Abreu

Belinda Bigelow

Terry Broz

Beth Edwards

Herb Eldridge

Peter Gajary

Rebecca Henson

Elizabeth Ward-Kelly

Andrea Lamas

James Lee

Paula Myers

Ray Roberts
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I. AREA FRAME DEVELOPMENT .................................................................3

INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 3

Overview............................................................................................................................... 3

Brief History ........................................................................................................................... 5

Year of Implementation .......................................................................................................... 5

Advantages to Using an Area Frame ...................................................................................... 6

Disadvantages to using an Area Frame................................................................................... 7

How NASS Uses an Area Frame ............................................................................................ 8

PRE-CONSTRUCTION ANALYSIS .................................................................................... 8

STRATIFICATION MATERIALS ..................................................................................... 12

LAND-USE STRATIFICATION ..................................................................................... 18

QUALITY ASSURANCE.................................................................................................. 24

SUB-STRATIFICATION......................................................................................................... 25

BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................................. 30

CHAPTER II: AREA FRAME SAMPLING .......................................................................32

INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................. 32

REPLICATED SAMPLING................................................................................................ 32

SEGMENT SIZE ...................................................................................................................... 36

SAMPLE ALLOCATION .................................................................................................. 38

SELECTION PROBABILITIES .............................................................................................. 42

Equal Probability of Selection .............................................................................................. 42

Unequal Probability of Selection .......................................................................................... 44

SAMPLE SELECTION.......................................................................................................... 45

Equal Probability of Selection .............................................................................................. 45

Unequal Probability of Selection .......................................................................................... 46

SAMPLE PREPARATION ...................................................................................................... 47

SAMPLE MAINTENANCE ............................................................................................... 49

SAMPLE ROTATION........................................................................................................ 51

SAMPLE ESTIMATION....................................................................................................... 54

BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................................. 57
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CHAPTER I. AREA FRAME DEVELOPMENT

Jim Cotter

Carrie Davies

Ray Roberts

Abstract

Area frames are the backbone to the agricultural statistics program of the National Agricultural 

Statistics Service (NASS). The purpose of this report is to describe the procedures currently 

used by NASS to develop and sample area frames for agricultural surveys. 

Key Words: Area frame; stratification; replicated sampling. 

INTRODUCTION

Overview

The National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) has been developing, using and analyzing 

area sampling frames since 1954 as a vehicle for conducting surveys to gather information 

regarding crop acreage, cost of production, farm expenditures, grain yield and production, 

livestock inventories and other agricultural items. An area frame for a land area such as a state 

or country consists of a collection or listing of all parcels of land for the area of interest from 

which to sample from. These land parcels can be defined based on factors such as ownership or 

based simply on easily identifiable boundaries as is done by NASS. 

The purpose of this document is to describe the procedures used by NASS to develop and sample 

area frames for agricultural surveys. The process involves many steps, which have been 

developed to provide statistical and cost efficiencies. Some of the key steps are: 

 Stratification: The distribution of crops and livestock can vary considerably across a 

state in the United States. The precision of the survey estimates or statistics can be 

substantially improved by dividing the land in a state into homogeneous groups or strata 

and then optimally allocating the total sample to the strata. The basic stratification 

employed by NASS involves: (1) dividing the land into land-use strata such as 

intensively cultivated land, urban areas and range land, and (2) further dividing each 

land-use stratum into substrata by grouping areas that are agriculturally similar. 

 Multi-Step Sampling: Within each stratum, the land can be divided into all the sampling 

units or segments and then a sample of segments selected for a survey. This would be a 

very time-consuming endeavor. The time spent developing and sampling a frame can be 

greatly reduced by: (1) dividing the land into larger sampling units called first-step or 

primary sampling units (PSUs), (2) selecting a sample of PSUs and then delineating the 

segments only for these PSUs, and (3) selecting a sample of segments from the selected 

PSUs. 
4

 Analysis: Several decisions are made that can have an appreciable impact on the 

statistical and cost efficiency. These include decisions such as the land-use strata 

definitions, the number of substrata, the size of the sampling units, the allocation of and 

the method of selecting the sample necessary to guide us in these decisions.

 Quality Assurance: Care must be taken to ensure that no land is omitted from the frame 

(unless by design), that no land area is included more than once and that the land is 

properly stratified into the land-use strata. Once stratification is complete, the resulting 

PSUs should be reviewed to verify boundaries and proper classification of PSUs into 

strata. Also, a quality assurance edit should be run to identify errors such as PSUs with 

area outside the tolerance range and mislabeled PSUs. Catching errors using quality 

assurance measures will ensure that sound statistical rules are followed to reduce 

sampling errors and minimize non-sampling errors. 

The major area frame survey conducted by NASS is the June Agricultural Survey (JAS). This 

mid-year survey provides area frame estimates primarily for crop acreages and livestock 

inventories. During the survey, the interviewers visit each segment in the sample, which has 

been accurately identified on aerial photography, and interview each person who operates land 

inside the boundaries of the selected segments. With the respondent's assistance, field 

boundaries are identified on the photography and the acreage and crop type reported for each 

field in the segment. Counts of livestock within each sample segment are also obtained. This 

area frame information is subsequently used to provide state, regional and national estimates for 

crop acreages, livestock inventories and other agricultural items. Naturally, the procedures used 

to develop and sample area frames affect the precision and accuracy of the survey statistics. 

This chapter of the document will begin by briefly outlining the history of area frames in NASS 

and then will discuss the analysis conducted in the pre-construction stage. The source materials 

used in the stratification process will be discussed and then the stratification process itself. Other 

topics covered will be the construction of primary sampling units, the digitization process, the 

use of sub-stratification and the costs incurred in designing and building an area frame. 
5

Brief History

Iowa State University began construction of area frames for use in agricultural surveys in 1938. 

NASS began research into the use of area sampling frames in the mid-1950's to provide the 

foundation for conducting probability surveys based on complete coverage of the farm sector. In 

1954, area frame surveys were begun on a research basis in ten states, 100 counties with 703 

ultimate sampling units or segments. These surveys were then expanded over the years and 

made operational in 1965 in the contiguous United States. 

Changes made to the area frame methodology during the sixties and early seventies were mainly 

associated with sampling methods such as land-use stratification and replicated sampling 

(described in detail in the second chapter of this report). Technological changes were 

incorporated during the seventies and eighties in the form of increased computerization, use of 

satellite imagery, use of analytical software and development of an area frame sample 

management system among others. 

The area frame program has grown over the past 54 years and is now conducted in 49 states with 

approximately 11,000 segments being visited by data collection personnel for the major 

agricultural survey conducted during June of each year. Readers interested in a more detailed 

overview of the historic developments of area sampling frames in NASS are referred to a paper 

by Fecso, Tortora and Vogel (see Bibliography at the end of this chapter). 

Year of Implementation

NASS maintains an area frame for each state except Alaska. NASS also maintains an area frame 

for Puerto Rico. The frames are constructed one state at a time and used year after year until the 

frame is deemed outdated. Frames generally are utilized for 15 to 20 years, and when they 

become outdated, a new frame is constructed to replace it. Each year, three to four states are 

selected to receive a new frame. The decision of choosing which states are selected for new 

frames is based on the following criteria: Age of the frame, significant land use changes, target 

CV’s being met, and significance to the national program.

Figure 1.1 displays the year of implementation of NASS’s currently used area frames. The 

number in each state represents the year the current frame was implemented (i.e. Texas’ frame 

was implemented in 1998).
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Figure 1.1: Year of Implementation for States that Maintain and Area Frame

Advantages to Using an Area Frame

1) Versatility: Since reporting units can be associated with an area of land (a sampling 

unit), an area frame can be used to collect data for multiple variables in one survey. For 

example, crop acreage, livestock, grain production and stocks, and economic data are all

collected during the JAS. 

2) Complete Coverage: NASS’s area frame is complete, meaning when all the sampling 

units are aggregated, the entire population is completely covered and every sampling unit 

has a known chance of being selected. The sampling units do not overlap, nor are there 

gaps between adjacent sampling units. This is a tremendous advantage since it provides 

the vehicle to generate unbiased survey estimates. Complete coverage is also useful in 

multiple frame (area and list) surveys where the area frame is used to measure the degree 

of incompleteness of the list frame.

3) Statistically Sound: The advantage of complete coverage combined with a random 

selection of sampling units is that it can provide unbiased estimates with measurable 

precision.
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4) Non-Sampling Errors Reduced: Face-to-face interviews are conducted for the JAS, 

which generally result in better quality data being gathered than data collected by mail or 

telephone. The interviewer uses an aerial photograph showing the location and boundary 

of the sample segment to collect data for all land within the segment boundary such as 

crop acreages, residential areas, forest, etc. If the respondent refuses to participate in the 

survey, or is inaccessible, the interviewer is instructed to make observations which are 

helpful when making non-response adjustments. 

5) Longevity: Once an area frame is constructed, it can be used year after year without 

having to update the sampling units. The frames can become inefficient as land use 

changes. However, the area frames constructed for most states last 15 to 20 years before 

they need to be replaced.

Disadvantages to using an Area Frame

1) Can be Less Efficient than a List Frame: If a list of farm operators can be stratified by a 

variable related to the survey items, it will provide greater sampling efficiency than an 

area frame that is stratified by land-use. For example, a list frame that is stratified by 

peak number of cattle and calves will provide greater sampling efficiency than the area

frame when estimating cattle inventory. Unfortunately, NASS’s list frame does not 

provide 100 percent coverage, because of the difficulty in obtaining and maintaining a 

complete list of producer names, addresses, and appropriate control data. Since the area 

frame is a complete sampling frame, it is used to measure incompleteness in the list.

2) Cost: An area frame can be very expensive to build and sample. New frame 

construction, on average, uses five full-time employees for four months per state. Also, 

face-to-face interviews conducted by a trained staff are also very costly. 

3) Lack of Good Boundaries: Although this is not a problem for most areas in the United 

States, it can be when building a frame in a foreign country. The importance of quality 

boundaries will be discussed later. 

4) Sensitive to Outliers: Because the sampling rate for the JAS is low, expansion factors are 

relatively high. For this reason, area frame surveys are sometimes plagued by a few 

"extremely large" operations that are in sample segments. These operations can greatly 

distort the survey estimates. A solution to this problem is to identify all very large 

operations prior to the survey (special list frame) and sample them with certainty.
8

How NASS Uses an Area Frame

1) Acreage Estimates for Major Commodities: The primary focus is on corn, soybeans, 

winter wheat, spring wheat, durum wheat, cotton, Not On List (NOL) cattle, and number 

of farms. The acreage for each crop is recorded for each field within the segment. These 

acreages are then expanded to produce an estimate of crop acreage at the state and 

national level.

2) Measure the Incompleteness of the List: NASS maintains a list of farmers who operate 

land in the country. Because farm operations go in and out of business, the list is never 

complete at any given time. The JAS survey is used to find farmers who are not on 

NASS’s list. During the JAS data collection, the interviewer records the names of all 

people who operate agricultural land within each segment. These names are then 

checked against NASS’s list of farm operators. Those who are not present on the list are 

referred to as Not On List or NOL. The NOL operations found during the JAS are 

multiplies by an expansion factor to estimate the incompleteness of the list for each state.

3) Ground Truth for Remotely Sensed Crop Acreage Estimates: The crop data for each field 

inside the segment from the JAS is used to determine what crop spectral signatures from 

the satellite represent. Identified signatures are then used to classify fields throughout a 

state. Once the satellite data has been classified, an acreage estimate can be made for 

various crops grown in that state.

4) Follow on Surveys: NASS uses the data from the JAS for follow on surveys such as the 

Objective Yield Survey where specifically cropped fields are randomly selected with 

probability proportional to size. These yield surveys involve making counts, 

measurements, and weighings of selected crops.

Every five years additional sampling units are added to the JAS for the Agricultural 

Coverage Evaluation Survey (ACES). Data collected from the JAS segments, in 

combination with the additional ACES segments, is used to measure the completeness of 

the Census of Agriculture mail list. The Not on Mail List (NML) estimates are used to 

weight census data at the record level to produce coverage-adjusted estimates.

PRE-CONSTRUCTION ANALYSIS

Prior to building a new frame, analysis is conducted to determine which states are most in need 

of a new frame. Generally three to four states are selected to receive a new frame each year. 

Data collected from approximately 11,000 segments during the JAS is used to determine the 

extent to which the land-use stratification has deteriorated for each state. This involves 

comparing the coefficients of variation for the survey estimates of major items over the life of 

the frame. Typically states with the oldest frames have the highest probability of being selected. 

Also important is the extent to which a state contributes to the national program for major 
9

commodities. For example, Kansas contributes approximately twenty percent to the national 

estimate for winter wheat. If it were determined that the state’s JAS target coefficients of 

variance for winter wheat was not being met, Kansas would be likely to be selected to receive a 

new frame. 

Once a state has been selected to receive a new frame, analysis is performed to determine the 

most appropriate stratification scheme to be used. Previous years' survey data are used to 

calculate the percent of cultivated land in the sample segments, the average number of interviews 

per segment in each stratum, and the variances for important crops in each stratum. This data is 

used to determine the following:

1) The Land Use Strata Definitions: Several land-use strata are common to all frames, 

including cultivated land, ag-urban, urban, and non-agricultural land. The cultivated land 

is divided into several strata based on the distribution of cultivation in the state. Previous 

years' survey data are analyzed to provide information such as the percent of cultivated 

land in the sample segments so that the distribution of cultivated land can be ascertained. 

This will help determine the number of and definition of the cultivated strata. Table 1.1 

presents the land-use stratification scheme generally followed along with the codes to be 

used during the stratification process.

Table 1.1 Land-Use Strata Codes and Definitions

Stratum Definition

11 General Cropland, 75% or more cultivated.

12 General Cropland, 50-74% cultivated.

20 General Cropland, 15-49% cultivated.

31 Ag-Urban, less than 15% cultivated, more than 100 dwellings per 

square mile, residential mixed with agriculture. 

32 Residential/Commercial, no cultivation, more than 100 dwellings per 

square mile. 

40 Less than 15% cultivated.

50 Non-agricultural, variable size segments.

Strata 11, 12, and 20 are where the majority of cropland is present. These strata target 

commodities such as corn, soybeans, cotton, and wheat. In many states, strata 11 and 12 

are collapsed into one stratum. The 40’s strata contain less than 15 percent cultivation. 

Range and pasture land, as well as woods, mountains, desert, swampland, etc., are put 

into stratum 40. Cattle and other livestock operations are usually found in stratum 40.
10

Little to no agriculture is expected to be found in Strata 31, 32, and 50. These strata are 

present in all states. Stratum 31 contains dense commercial and residential areas of cities 

and towns. The ag-urban land in stratum 32 represents a mixture of residential and areas 

with the potential for agricultural activity, usually located in a band around a city, where 

the city blends into the rural area. Stratum 50 contains non-agricultural entities such as 

state and national parks, game and wildlife refuges, military installations and large 

airports.

These are the strata present in most states, however, adjustments may be made to the 

design depending on the state involved. For example, stratum 40 is often broken into two 

or more strata in the western states, with a special stratum for forest or desert. Also, a 

stratum may be added for Indian reservation land. Crop-specific strata are also used in 

several states to allow the opportunity to channel a sample either into, or away from, a 

certain area. For example, citrus strata were created in Florida. However, since an annual 

citrus survey conducted in Florida provides reliable estimates, the JAS is not used for 

citrus estimates. The citrus strata are in place to allow for a heavier sample in strata 

where field crops are present.

2) The PSU and Segment Sizes: In the process of constructing a new area frame, all land in 

the selected state will be broken down into PSUs. The population of PSUs are sampled 

from by stratum, and the selected PSUs are further broken down into an average of six to 

eight segments from which one segment is chosen. This way, an entire frame need not be 

divided into segments, saving a tremendous amount in labor costs.

Before area frame construction can start, the sizes of the PSUs and segments must be 

determined. The target PSU and segment sizes are determined for each stratum based on 

the analysis of previous years’ JAS data. The target size of the segment is determined 

first. 

The target segment size is the same for all segments within each stratum except for 

segments in PPS (Probability of Selection Proportional to Size) strata like stratum 50. An 

explanation of how the optimal segment size per stratum is determined is discussed in 

detail in Chapter II. Table 1.2 is an example of the segment sizes per strata for a typical 

state.
11

Table 1.2 Target Segment Sizes

Stratum Definition

Target 

Segment Size 

(square miles)

11 General Cropland, >75% cultivated. 1.00

12 General Cropland, 50-74% cultivated. 1.00

20 General Cropland, 15-49% cultivated. 1.00

31 Ag-Urban, 0.25

32 Residential/Commercial, 0.10

40 Open Land, < 15% cultivated. 2.00

50 Non-agricultural, variable size segments. PPS

The target sizes of the PSUs are based on the segment size. PSUs should contain six to eight 

segments, so the PSU size should be about six times the segment size. PSUs that are smaller 

than the target size will be broken down into less segments, and PSUs that are larger will be 

broken down into more segments if boundaries are available. So if a PSU in stratum 11 is only 

two square miles, it will most likely be broken down into two segments. The minimum PSU size 

is generally one segment. Table 1.3 is an example of the PSU size tolerance range for the target 

segment sizes in Table 1.2.

Table 1.3 Primary Sampling Unit Size Tolerance Guide

Stratum Cultivation PSU Size (Sq Miles)

Minimum Target Maximum

11 >75% Cultivated 1.00 6.00–8.00 9.00

12 50-75% Cultivated 1.00 6.00–8.00 9.00

20 15-49% Cultivated 1.00 6.00–8.00 9.00

31 Ag-Urban 0.25 1.00–2.00 3.00

32 Commercial 0.10 0.50-1.00 1.00

40 >15% Cultivated 4.00 20.00–24.00 36.00

50 Non-Ag --- PPS ---

Once the analysis is complete and strata definitions and segment sizes are specified by the Area 

Frame Section (AFS), the proposal is sent to the state’s Field Office (FO) for comments and 

suggestions. Once the specifications have been agreed upon, stratification will begin. After this 

point, the strata definitions, PSU and segment sizes are used for the life of the frame and are not 

changed. For a list of strata definitions and segment sizes for each state, refer to the Area Frame 

Design Information document.
12

STRATIFICATION MATERIALS 

This section describes the different types of data which are used to construct the state area frame. 

Satellite Imagery: Satellite imagery is derived from digital data collected by sensors aboard 

satellites. AFS currently uses imagery from the LANDSAT 7 satellite. The spacecraft completes 

14 orbits per day and covers the entire Earth every 16 days. Landsat 7 is equipped with 

Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM +). The sensor has seven bands that simultaneously 

record reflected or emitted radiation from the Earth's surface in the blue-green (band 1), green 

(band 2), red (band 3), near-infrared (band 4), mid-infrared (bands 5 and 7), and the far-infrared 

(band 6) portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. A panchromatic band 8, with a high 

resolution of 15m exists as well. TM band 2 can detect green reflectance from healthy 

vegetation, and band 3 is designed for detecting chlorophyll absorption in vegetation. TM band 4 

is ideal for near-infrared reflectance peaks in healthy green vegetation, and for detecting waterland interfaces. TM band 1 can penetrate water for bathymetric (water depth) mapping along 

coastal areas, and is useful for soil-vegetation differentiation, as well as distinguishing forest 

types. The two mid-infrared bands on TM are useful for vegetation and soil moisture studies, and 

discriminating between rock and mineral types. The far-infrared band on TM is designed to 

assist in thermal mapping, and for soil moisture and vegetation studies. The stratification unit 

typically uses bands 4, 3, and 2. 

Satellite imagery is currently not used for boundary identification. Instead, it is used when 

delineating agricultural strata since it provides a very recent picture of the degree of cultivation. 

Different land uses will show different color signatures on the imagery. The use of satellite 

imagery will be further discussed in the land-use stratification section of this chapter. Figure 1.2 

is a Landsat 7 image showing bands 4, 3, and 2. 
13

Figure 1.2: Landsat Image Bands 4, 3, and 2

Cropland Data Layer (CDL): The CDL is an agriculture specific land cover geospatial product 

developed by the Spatial Analysis Research Section (SARS). SARS uses a number of inputs to 

develop a CDL. Vector inputs include: NASS JAS segments and Farm Services Agency (FSA) 

Common Land Units (CLU) data. Raster inputs include: USGS NLCD, IRS Resourcesat-1 raw 

AWiFS Spring/Summer time, NASA Terra MODIS 16 day NDVI, USGS NLCD 2001 

Impervious and Canopy, and USGS NED Elevation. 

It is used during the frame construction process as an additional layer to assist the stratifier in 

isolating agriculture. It is also used to assist in isolating crop specific strata in a number of states. 

Figure 1.3 is the CDL for California.
14

Figure 1.3: California’s Cropland Data Layer

National Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP): This program is operated by the Farm Service 

Agency (FSA). The FSA acquires one and two meter digital ortho imagery during the 

agricultural growing seasons in the continental U.S. Coverage provides approximately 20 percent 

one meter and 80 percent two meter.

The one meter product is accurate to within five meters of Digital Ortho Quarter Quads 

(DOQQ’s) used to digitize CLU’s and other datasets. The one meter product is intended to 

provide an updated ortho base procured on a three to five year cycle.

The two meter product is accurate within ten meters of DOQQ’s intended for aerial compliance 

and other programs not requiring high spatial accuracy.

NASS acquires the data via download from FSA. The downloaded data is a compressed county 

mosaic in MRSID format.
15

The NAIP imagery is used to verify boundaries during the frame construction process and has 

improved the accuracy of the frame. This data is also used when generating the photo 

enlargements used for the JAS. Figure 1.4 is a NAIP image for part of Butte County, California.

Figure 1.4: NAIP Image, Butte County, CA
16

Topographic Quadrangle Map (Quad): Produced by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), Digital 

Raster Graphic (DRG) maps are scanned images of USGS 1:100,000 scale topographic maps. 

Figure 1.5 is a portion of a digital raster topographic map for Butte County, California. This type 

of digital map is used as a base map during stratification. It shows political boundaries and 

physical features such as roads and streams. The digital maps are also used to generate county 

copy maps. These maps are used to assist enumerators in locating JAS segments.

Figure 1.5: Digital Raster Topographic Map for Butte County, CA
17

Tele Atlas Data: Produced by Dynamap, this Tele Atlas data provides accurate and complete 

digital vector data. This data provides NASS with an accurate map base on which to verify 

boundaries during the frame construction process. Figure 1.6 shows an example of Tele Atlas 

data over NAIP imagery for part of Butte County, CA. The yellow lines are roads, blue lines are 

waterways, green lines are railroads, and the red lines are the county boundaries.

Figure 1.6: Tele Atlas Data over NAIP imagery, Butte County, CA
18

LAND-USE STRATIFICATION

The process of land-use stratification is the delineation of land areas into land-use categories 

(strata). The purpose of stratification is to reduce the sampling variability by creating 

homogeneous groups of sampling units. Although certain parts of the process are highly 

subjective in nature, precision work is required of the personnel stratifying the land (called 

stratifiers) to ensure that overlaps and omissions of land area do not occur and land is correctly 

stratified. The Stratification Unit divides the land within each county into PSUs using quality 

physical boundaries, then assigns them to a land-use strata (defined in the preconstruction 

phase). Later in area frame construction, the PSUs are further divided into segments, also using 

quality physical boundaries. 

A quality physical boundary is a permanent or, at least, long-lasting geographic feature which is 

easily found and identifiable by an interviewer. If an interviewer cannot accurately locate a 

segment in a timely manner, there is the potential for non-sampling errors to be introduced into 

the survey data. Also, if the field interviewer, unknowingly, does not collect data associated with 

all of the land inside the sampled area or collects data for an area outside of that selected, then 

survey results will be biased. 

Given that the area frame is to be used over a period of 15-20 years and represents a major 

investment, the best and most permanent boundaries must be used. Roads and rivers make good 

strata boundaries, while intermittent streams and field edges do not and should rarely be used. 

The following is a list of geographic features which represent strata boundaries. The list is 

ranked by quality from highest to lowest: 

1) Paved highways. 

2) Secondary all-weather roads. 

3) Local farm to market roads. 

4) Railroads. 

5) Permanent rivers and streams. 

6) Visible section lines.

7) Irrigation canals. 

8) Intermittent streams and rivers or prominent water courses that carry water during and 

immediately following rains. 

9) Trails and internal roads. 

Most of the boundaries used in the U.S. are 1 through 5. Occasionally, 6 through 9 are used in 

areas where boundaries may not be present like open range land, swamps, or deserts. 

The stratification of a state is performed by county. Each county is assigned to a stratifier who is 

responsible for all work done on that county. Before stratification can begin, a county outline is 

created using physical boundaries that follow, as closely as possible, the political county 

boundary. Since the county outline may be different from the county’s political boundary, a 
19

PSU may contain land in two counties. While this may occur across county boundaries, state 

boundaries must be used whether the political boundary is physical or not (i.e. PSUs cannot 

contain land in two neighboring states). Figure 1.7 shows the political county boundary (in red) 

and the physical boundary chosen for the county outline (in black) for Colusa County, California.

Figure 1.7: County Outline for Colusa County, CA

Once the county outline is created, the stratifier breaks down all the land within the county 

outline into PSUs. The stratifiers view topographical maps and aerial photography downloaded 

in ArcGIS9 to locate the best physical boundaries and draw off PSUs as close to the target PSU 

size (defined in the preconstruction phase) as possible. 

Simultaneously, they use Landsat satellite imagery to classify the PSUs into strata. Satellite 

imagery is used primarily to ascertain where the cultivated areas and the pasture areas are present 

in a county. Geographic features and their image colors or signatures include: 

 Crops: Different crops will correspondingly produce different color signatures, depending 

on the growth stage. For example, as the wheat crop emerges, a reddish appearance 

occurs and becomes a deeper red as growth continues. A ripe wheat field will have a 

greenish-yellow color, becoming greener just prior to harvest. At harvest, the field will 

appear white or tan. Most small grain crops will follow this general pattern. Crop 

calendars are provided to the stratifier showing approximate planting, growing and 

harvesting intervals for major crops. 
20

 Water appears blue to black. The cleaner and deeper the water, the darker the blue color. 

Lighter colors are usually the result of high turbidity, not due to temperature.

 Cities and other urban areas appear light blue-gray to bright blue. Concrete is usually 

white or very light blue. Asphalt is very dark blue or black. 

 Clouds are white. The shadows should be black and have the same shape as the clouds 

next to them. Distances from the clouds to their respective shadows should be similar for 

all clouds in a given area.

 Bare soil - Soil colors vary dramatically and can be shades of green, gray, blue or brown. 

Moist soils are darker than dry soils. Bare rock is often brighter than more developed 

soils. 

 Green, growing vegetation will appear pink to red on the imagery. 

These color signatures are only general guides. Variations in the signatures can occur depending 

on the type of crop or what time of the growing season the imagery was taken. Therefore, no 

single color key will work for all scenes. The Landsat imagery usually covers the most recent 

growing season, providing a very recent look at the area. 

The stratification unit must make subjective decisions on creating PSUs and placing them in their 

respective strata. For example, stratum 11 may be defined as greater than 75 percent cultivated 

with a target PSU size of six to eight square miles. The stratifiers use the satellite imagery to 

identify areas of the county that are highly cultivated and belong in stratum 11 and which areas 

are less cultivated and belong in other strata. Once an area of the county is deemed greater than 

75% cultivated, the stratifier uses the topographical map and the aerial photography to locate 

physical boundaries and creates the PSU in ArcGIS9. Figure 1.8 is the satellite image (left) and 

the aerial photograph (right) of a PSU created in stratum 11 in California.
21

Figure 1.8: PSU created in Stratum 11

Ideally, the created PSU would be six to eight square miles in size, with all quality physical 

boundaries, and greater than 75 percent cultivation within the PSU. Additionally, the cultivation 

would be equally distributed within the PSU so that if the PSU is selected to be further broken 

down, the resulting segments would also adhere to the greater than 75 percent cultivated 

definition. In the above example, PSU 78 is 7.4 square miles in size with roads used for 

boundaries on all four sides. Most of the PSU is cultivated with the exception of roads, 

buildings, etc. The fields show up in different shades of red and green on the satellite imagery 

depending on the crop grown.

In lesser cultivated areas like stratum 40, the PSUs may contain pasture, woods, desert, 

mountains, etc. The PSU size in stratum 40 will most likely be larger (10 to 12 square miles) 

since there are not as many boundaries available in these areas. Figure 1.9 is the satellite image 

(left) and the aerial photograph (right) of a PSU created in stratum 40 in California. The red 

areas are woodland and the tan areas may be pasture. This PSU is 24.6 square miles in size.

Figure 1.9: PSU created in Stratum 40
22

To stratify urban (stratum 32) and ag-urban areas (stratum 31), all cities and towns are located 

using satellite imagery. The bright blue color indicates urban areas. The PSUs are created in 

ArcGis9 using the aerial photography and topographic maps for boundary identification. Figure 

1.10 is the satellite image (left) and the aerial photograph (right) of a PSU created in stratum 32

in California. The size of this PSU is .98 square miles.

Figure 1.10: PSU created in Stratum 32

Stratum 50 includes national and state parks, wildlife refuges, military installations and airports. 

The topographic maps are used to identify these entities. Since there is no target segment size in 

this stratum, the boundary of the entity is used as the boundary of the PSU. Also, the PSUs are 

not broken down into segments in stratum 50. So when a state park is found, its boundary is not 

only the PSU boundary, but also the segment boundary. If that segment is chosen, the 

interviewer would visit the state park and verify that no agricultural activity is present in the 

entire state park.

Figure 1.11 shows the stratification of Antelope County in Nebraska. All land inside the county 

outline has been drawn off into PSUs in black. Each PSU has been assigned to a stratum. This 

county is highly cultivated (in green) with a small amount of residential areas (in red).
23

Strata11.shp

Strata12.shp

Strata20.shp

Strata31.shp

Strata40.shp

Strata50.shp

Antelope, NE

Figure 1.11: Stratification of Antelope County, NE

Once all of the PSUs in the county have been delineated and classified into strata, the PSU 

identification number is attached. This is done automatically in ArcGIS9. The PSUs are 

numbered beginning in the upper right-hand corner and winding through the county in a 

serpentine fashion. Figure 1.12 shows an example of the numbering scheme. The first number 

is the stratum and the second is an incremental PSU number.

Figure 1.12: PSU Ordering in a Serpentine Manner
24

QUALITY ASSURANCE

Because the stratification process is open to subjectivity, quality assurance measures are in place 

to ensure a high quality product. The following checks are performed during the stratification of 

a state:

1) County Outlines Check: County outlines are established before stratification begins. If 

the political boundary of a county is not also a physical boundary, the closest physical 

boundary is used to create a county outline (see Land-Use Stratification for more detail). 

The reviewer checks to ensure that the most appropriate physical boundaries were chosen 

to create the county outline. Also, the reviewer verifies that the same physical boundary 

was used for neighboring counties that share a boundary.

2) PSU Check: Once all PSUs in a county are created and classified into strata, they are 

examined by the reviewer. When disagreements occur, the reviewer and the stratifier will 

communicate to resolve any differences. 

3) Spot Check: Once the reviewer has finished checking all PSUs in the county, the Lead 

Cartographer-Technician performs a “spot” check on the work that the stratifier and 

reviewer have performed.

4) Quality Assurance Edit Check: The Quality Assurance Edit (or Q-edit) is a program that 

detects PSUs that are outside of the tolerance range for size. Corrections are made to 

PSUs outside of the tolerance range if boundaries are available. Also, PSU areas for each 

county are summed and compared against the official county size. County areas are 

allowed to vary ±25.0 percent from the published area size. The same procedure is 

performed for the state area. The accumulated state area is only allowed to vary ±0.5 

percent from the published area size. Since the stratification is never allowed to cross 

state boundary lines, only a small amount of error is acceptable. 

The PSU areas are then summed to calculate the digitized area for each stratum. The area of the 

PSU divided by the target segment size for the stratum is equal to the total number of ultimate 

sampling units (segments) in that PSU. Summing the number of segments will yield the total 

number of segments in the stratum, which will be utilized in the sample allocation and selection 

processes (described in detail in the second chapter of this report). Table 1.4 shows the results of 

that calculation for each stratum in Nebraska.
25

Table 1.4 Stratum Level Data for Nebraska

Land-Use 

Stratum

Target 

Segment 

Size

Number of

PSUs

Average 

PSU Size

Digitized 

Area 

(Sq Mi)

Number of 

Segments

11 1.00 3,557 8.5 30,338 30,274

12 1.00 1,135 7.8 8,812 8,819

20 2.00 979 9.7 9,597 4,779

31 0.25 640 1.0 642 2,562

32 0.10 90 1.9 169 1,693

40 4.00 1,158 23.8 27,831 6,940

50 1.00 43 4.16 180 183

Total 7,602 77,569 55,250

SUB-STRATIFICATION

There is a further level of stratification which is applied to the frame. Sub-stratification is the 

process used to divide the population of sampling units within each stratum equally into 

categories (substrata). These substrata do not have a definition associated with them like strata 

do (i.e. 50% or more cultivated). Sampling units are placed into substrata based on likeness of 

agricultural content and to a certain extent, location. Sub-stratification activities include ordering 

the PSUs, ordering the counties, calculating the number of sampling units in the strata, 

determining the number of substrata, and placing the sampling units into substrata.

Recall in the Land-Use Stratification section that when the stratifier completes stratification for a 

county, the PSUs within the county are ordered automatically in ArgGIS9. The PSUs are 

numbered beginning in the upper right-hand corner and winding through the county in a 

serpentine fashion. This ordering plays a role in creating the substrata.

Once stratification is complete and all PSUs within each county are ordered, the counties are 

ordered by an area frame statistician. This county ordering is based on a multivariate cluster 

analysis of county level crop and livestock data. The purpose of cluster analysis is to group 

counties into clusters or groups which generally have the same overall agricultural makeup. 

Figure 1.13 exhibits the county ordering used in the Pennsylvania area sampling frame. Note 

that in all but one instance, the ordering proceeds from one county into an adjacent county. The 

reason for the exception along the southern border of the state is that Somerset County is more 

agriculturally similar to Fulton County than the adjacent Bedford County. The county ordering 

need not be continuous. If the counties in one corner of the state are very similar to those in 

another corner, the ordering can skip across several counties. The starting point of the ordering is 

somewhat arbitrary, so a logical starting point would be any corner of the state. However, if the 

cluster analysis indicates a clear distinction between two groups of counties, it may be 

advantageous to start in one area and end in the other. 
26

Figure 1.13 County Ordering Used for the Pennsylvania Area Frame

The county ordering “links” the PSU ordering within each county together. In the example 

above, the PSU ordering for the state begins with the PSU ordering in the first county, Erie 

County. The PSUs ordered in the second county, Crawford county, go next in the ordering, and 

so on. When the ordering "enters" a county from the west or the south, the order of the primary 

sampling units in the county is reversed. PSUs within a county are ordered by arbitrarily starting 

in the northeast corner of the county. Therefore, reversing the order will ensure a fairly 

continuous ordering of PSUs from one county to the next. 

Since sampling units (not PSUs) are placed into substrata, the population of sampling units needs 

to be calculated for each strata. Only PSUs that are chosen for the sample are physically broken 

down into sampling units or segments. However, the number of potential sampling units must be 

determined for all PSUs in the population in order to calculate the population of sampling units. 

The number of sampling units varies from PSU to PSU depending on the PSU’s size. The 

number of sampling units for any given PSU in the strata is:
27

 

 where Nik = the number of potential sampling units in the kth PSU from the ith land-use 

 stratum, rounded to the nearest whole number,

Sik = the size of the kth PSU from the ith land-use stratum, and

Si = the target size of sampling units in the ith land-use stratum.

For example, if a PSU is 8.3 square miles in size, and the target segment size is 1.0 square miles, 

then the number of potential sampling units that could be delineated from the PSU would be 

eight sampling units. The number of potential sampling units is determined for all PSUs in the 

population of each land-use stratum. Then the total number of sampling units is:

 where Ni = the number of sampling units in the ith land-use stratum, and

Nik = the number of sampling units in the kth PSU from the ith land-use stratum.

After the population of segments has been determined for each stratum, the number of substrata 

for each land-use stratum is established. Several factors are considered in the determination, 

including experience with sampling frames in other states, the number of sample segments and 

replicates within each stratum and the degree of homogeneity among the sampling units within 

the various strata. Generally, the higher the intensity of cultivation and variation in crops, the 

higher the number of substrata relative to the sample size.

Table 1.5 is the sample design for Pennsylvania. The Land-Use Stratum Definition and Target 

Segment Size are determined in the pre-construction phase. The Number of Sampling Units for 

each stratum is calculated after stratification is complete. The Sample Size is determined by the 

Sample Allocation (described in Chapter II). 

NASS employs a concept called replicated sampling which provides several key benefits in the 

estimation process which are described in the second chapter of this report. Approximately 20 

percent of the replicates are rotated out of the sample each year with new replicates taking their 

place. As a rule of thumb, five replicates are generally used if the sample size for a stratum is 

less than 50 segments, five or ten replicates if the sample size for a stratum is between 50 and 

100 segments, and ten replicates are used if the sample size is between 100 and 200 segments. 
28

The number of substrata is therefore simply the sample size divided by the number of replicates, 

as is illustrated in Table 1.5. 

Table 1.5 Pennsylvania Sample Design Showing the Number of Substrata and Replications

Stratum Land-Use 

Stratum

Target 

Segment Size

(Sq Mi)

Population 

Number of 

Sampling 

Units

Number of 

Substrata

Number of 

Replications

Sample 

Size

13 >50% Cult. 1.00 2,800 4 6 24

20 15-49% Cult. 1.00 17,084 14 7 98

31 Ag-Urban 0.25 8,284 1 5 5

32 Residential 0.10 1,814 1 2 2

40 <15% Cult. 2.00 11,344 8 6 48

50 Non-Ag PPS 45 1 2 2

In this example, there are 2,800 sampling units in stratum 13. So 700 sampling units will go into 

each of the four substrata. The first 700 sampling units in the ordering within the stratum will go 

into substratum 1. The next 700 sampling units in the ordering within the stratum will go into 

substratum 2, and so on. In many cases the substrata “break” will “split” the last PSU (some 

sampling units will be in one substratum, the rest in the next substratum). 

Each substratum will contain the same number of sampling units, except the last, which may 

contain slightly more or less than the others due to rounding. For example, the 17,084 sampling 

units in stratum 20 are divided into 14 substrata. The first 13 substrata will contain 1,220 units 

and the last will contain 1,224. 

Figure 1.14 is a visual of where the substrata breaks fall in stratum 13. Stratum 13 is the 

highest cultivated stratum and is broken down into four substrata. The green lines are where the 

substrata breaks occur. Notice that the first substratum covers the largest chunk of land. This is 

because the western and northern part of the state has much less agriculture than the southeastern part of the state.
29

Figure 1.14: Substrata Breaks in Stratum 13 in Pennsylvania

Sub-stratification is implemented to reduce variability in sampling units. The land-use 

stratification is based on the percent of cultivation. Therefore, while the majority of the segments 

within a stratum may be intensely cultivated, the agricultural makeup of the segments may differ 

depending on the location of the segments within the state. Ordering the population of primary 

sampling units according to agricultural content will yield greater precision in the estimates for 

individual commodities. 

Sub-stratification is particularly effective in areas of intensive cultivation where cropland content 

varies across the state. Utilizing substrata in grazing or range strata contributes very little to 

reducing variance except possibly for cattle. Therefore, more substrata are used in the intensely 

cultivated strata as compared to the range or lightly-cultivated strata. 
30

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Ciancio, N.J., Rockwell, D.A., and Tortora, R.D. (1977): An Empirical Study of Area Frame

Stratification. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Statistical Reporting Service Staff Report. 

Washington, D.C. 

Cotter, J., and Nealon J. (1987): Area Frame Design for Agricultural Surveys. U.S. Department

of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service. Washington, D.C. 

Fecso, R. and Johnson, V. (1981): The New California Area Frame: A Statistical Study. U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Statistical Reporting Service Publication SRS No. 22. 

Washington, D.C. 

Fecso, R., Tortora, R.D., and Vogel, F.A. (1986): Sampling Frames for Agriculture in the United

States. Journal of Official Statistics. Vol. 2, No.3. Statistics Sweden. 

Geuder, J. (1983): An Evaluation of SRS Area Sampling Frame Designs: Ordering Count Units

and Creating Paper Strata. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Statistical Reporting Service 

Staff Report No. AGES830715. Washington, D.C. 

Geuder, J. (1984): Paper Stratification in SRS Area Sampling Frames. U.S. Department of

Agriculture. Statistical Reporting Service, SF&SRB Staff Report No.79. Washington, 

D.C. 

Hanuschak, G. and Morrissey. K. (1977): Pilot Study of the Potential Contributions of Landsat

Data in the Construction of Area Sampling Frames. U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Statistical Reporting Service Staff Report. Washington, D.C. 

Houseman, E. (1975): Area Frame Sampling in Agriculture. U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Statistical Reporting Service Publication SRS No. 20. Washington, D.C. 

Huddleston, H. (1976): A Training Course in Sampling Concepts for Agricultural Surveys. U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Statistical Reporting Service Publication SRS No. 21. 

Washington, D.C. 

Jessen, R.J. (1942): Statistical Investigation of a Sample Survey for Obtaining Farm Facts, Iowa 

Agricultural Experiment Station Research Bulletin 304. 

Moore, J. (2008): National Agricultural Statistics Service Area Frame Construction and 

Sampling. U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service. 

Washington, D.C. 
31

Pratt, W. (1974): The Use of Interpenetrating Sampling in Area Frames. U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Statistical Reporting Service Staff Report. Washington, D.C. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture (1983): Scope and Methods of the Statistical Reporting Service.

Publication No. 1308. Washington, D.C. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture (1984): Area Frame Analysis Package. Statistical Reporting 

Service Staff Report. Washington, D.C.

U.S. Department of Agriculture (1987): International Training: Area Frame Development and

Sampling. National Agricultural Statistics Service. Washington, D.C. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture (1987): Supervising and Editing Manual, June Enumerative and 

Agricultural Surveys. National Agricultural Statistics Service. Washington, D.C. 

Wigton, W. and Bormann, P. (1978): A Guide to Area Sampling Frame Construction Utilizing 

Satellite Imagery. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Statistical Reporting Service Staff 

Report. 'Washington, D.C. 
32

CHAPTER II: AREA FRAME SAMPLING

Carrie Davies

Jack Nealon

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this chapter on area frame sampling is to provide an in-depth presentation of 

NASS's area frame sampling concepts and procedures. The chapter will begin by discussing 

NASS's use of replicated sampling. Next, the procedures used to determine the size of the 

ultimate sampling unit (segment) and the allocation of the sample across and within states are described. The probability models are then detailed for the various methods of selecting the sample 

segments. An overview of the office procedures applied to select and prepare the sample 

segments for agricultural surveys are also discussed. In addition, the sample rotation scheme and 

the costs associated with the sampling process are described. Finally, the estimation approaches 

used to estimate agricultural production from area frame surveys will be discussed briefly. 

REPLICATED SAMPLING 

NASS’s area frames have been sampled using a replicated design since 1974. Replicated 

sampling is characterized by the selection of a number of independent subsamples or replicates 

from the same population using the same selection procedure for each replicate. Each replicate is 

therefore an unbiased representation of the population. 

A replicate for NASS's area frame sample design is a random sample of land areas (segments) 

selected within a land-use stratum. The sub-stratification within each land-use stratum, which 

was described in the first chapter, has been incorporated into the sampling process to improve the 

sampling efficiency and the sample dispersion. Therefore, a replicate is more specifically defined 

as a simple random sample of one segment from each substratum in a land-use stratum. 

The first segment randomly selected in each substratum in a land-use stratum is designated as 

replicate 1, the second segment selected from each substratum is designated as replicate 2, and so 

forth. The number of replicates is the same for each substratum in a given land-use stratum. 

Therefore, the number of sample segments in a land-use stratum is simply the product of the 

number of replicates and the number of substrata in the land use stratum. That is, 

 where ni = the number of segments in the sample for the ith land-use stratum, 

ri = the number of replicates for each substratum in the i

th land-use stratum, 

si = the number of substrata in the ith land-use stratum. 
33

Suppose, for example, we want to select a replicated sample of two replicates from a land-use 

stratum consisting of three substrata with ten segments in each substratum. Then the total sample 

size for the land-use stratum would be ni = ri×si = 2×3 = 6 segments, as illustrated in Table 2.1. 

Notice that a simple random sample of one segment is selected in each substratum for a replicate 

so that the number of sample segments in a replicate is simply the number of substrata. 

Table 2.1: Replicated Sampling Process for a Land-Use Stratum

Substratum Segment Replicate

1 2

1

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

X

X

2

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

X

X

3

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

X

X
34

The number of replicates certainly does not need to be the same in each substratum. Sometimes 

it may be advantageous to vary the number of replicates in the substrata for a land-use stratum. 

For example, if a crop is localized to a few counties in a state and greater precision is desired for 

data pertaining to this crop, then the sampling variance could be reduced for this crop by 

increasing the number of replicates in the substrata corresponding to these counties. 

There are six reasons why NASS uses replicated sampling:

1) Sample Rotation: A sample rotation scheme is used to reduce respondent burden caused 

by repeated interviewing, avoid the expense of selecting a completely new area sample 

each year, and provide reliable measures of change in the production of agricultural 

commodities from year to year through the use of the ratio estimator. Sample rotation is 

accomplished each year by replacing segments from specified replicates in each land-use 

stratum with newly selected segments. Approximately 20 percent of the replicates in 

each land-use stratum are replaced annually. The sample design does not rotate exactly 

20 percent of the segments because the number of replicates is not always a multiple of 

five. 

To illustrate how replicated sampling simplifies the sample rotation process, Table 2.2 

shows the numbering scheme for a hypothetical land-use stratum with five replicates in 

each of eight substrata. The first digit in the four digit segment number represents the 

year the segment rotated into the sample, e.g. 50001 entered in 2005. The remaining four 

digits are simply unique numbers. 

The sample rotation in 2010 will be performed by replacing the segments in the 50000 

series (replicate 1), which have been in the sample for five years, with segments 

numbered 00001, 00002,..., 00008. In 2011, the segments will be replaced from 

replicate 2 since the 60000 series would have completed its five-year sample cycle. In 

2012, the segments from replicate 3 will be replaced and so forth. 
35

Table 2.2: Replicated Sampling Process for a Land-Use Stratum

Substratum Replicate

1 2 3 4 5

1 50001 60009 70017 80025 90033

2 50002 60010 70018 80026 90034

3 50003 60011 70019 80027 90035

4 50004 60012 70020 80028 90036

5 50005 60013 70021 80029 90037

6 50006 60014 70022 80030 90038

7 50007 60015 70023 80031 90039

8 50008 60016 70024 80032 90040

3) Methodology Research: Replicated sampling provides the capability to test alternative 

survey procedures or evaluate current methodology since different replicates can be 

assigned to the research and operational methods. For example, if there are a total of ten 

replicates in a land-use stratum and there is a need to compare two approaches to asking a 

particular question, then five replicates could be assigned to each method. The test 

statistic could then be easily derived using the means or totals from each replicate for 

each approach. Some examples of survey procedures that might be tested are different 

questionnaire designs and alternative interviewing approaches. 

4) Quality Assurance: Replication also facilitates quality assurance analysis by allowing 

data comparisons among years in order to determine if significant differences in survey 

processes exist over time. For example, segment sizes can readily be compared among 

replicates to determine if the average size and the variability in size differ significantly 

from year to year. If so, this may indicate that the manual procedures for delineating 

segments (to be discussed later) need to be reviewed. 

5) Sample Management: Replication allows easy management of the sample due to the 

replicate numbering scheme. This simplifies the process of designating a subsample of 

segments for one time or repetitive surveys, increasing or decreasing the sample size in a 

land-use stratum to improve sampling efficiency, and identifying segments to be rotated 

out of the area frame sample. For example, replicates are added every five years for the 

ACES survey to estimate the completeness of the Census mail list.

6) Variance Estimation: Replicated sampling provides a simple, unbiased method for 

estimating the sampling variance using replicate means or totals. NASS estimates the 

sampling variance for agricultural surveys using the sub-stratification design rather than 

replicate totals. However, replicate totals are sometimes used for variance and 

covariance estimation to simplify multivariate statistical analysis in research studies. The 
36

benefit of using replicate totals to estimate the sampling variance is most pronounced in 

underdeveloped countries where a computer facility or the necessary statistical software 

is not available. 

7) Rotation Effects: Replication readily provides NASS the vehicle for evaluating sample 

rotation effects. Rotation effects are defined as the impact to survey data resulting from 

the number of years a segment has been in the sample. NASS has a five-year rotation 

process which permits replicate totals to be compared for segments in the sample from 

one to five years.

SEGMENT SIZE

The optimum segment size for a land-use stratum depends upon a multitude of often interrelated 

factors such as the survey objectives, data collection costs, data variability among segments, 

interview length, population density, concentration of cropland, and the availability of 

identifiable boundaries for the segments. The segment size, which is determined in the 

preconstruction phase, is based on the analysis of previous years’ JAS data. The target segment 

size varies from stratum to stratum and state to state. Table 2.3 is an example of the segment 

sizes per strata for a typical state.

Table 2.3: Target Segment Sizes

Stratum Definition

Target 

Segment Size 

(square miles)

11 General Cropland, >75% cultivated. 1.00

12 General Cropland, 50-74% cultivated. 1.00

20 General Cropland, 15-49% cultivated. 1.00

31 Ag-Urban, 0.25

32 Residential/Commercial, 0.10

40 Open Land < 15% cultivated. 2.00

50 Non-agricultural, variable size segments. PPS

When the PSUs in stratum 11 are broken down in this example, the resulting segments should be 

as close to one square mile as possible. The target segment size in the intensively cultivated 

strata (10’s strata) is usually one square mile, with the exception of a few states where the target 

segment size is less. In the moderately cultivated strata (20’s strata), the target segment size is 

typically one to two square miles. 
37

The target segment size for open land strata (40’s strata) varies the most. In states where good 

boundaries are available, the target segment size can be one to two square miles. In some areas, 

like desert, mountainous, or range areas, boundaries are few and far apart. The target segment 

size in these areas will range from 4 to 8 square miles. If adequate boundaries are not available, 

the segments in the strata will not have a target segment size. Segment size will vary depending 

on available boundaries. The probability of selecting a segment is proportional to the size of the 

segment (PPS). 

The target segment sizes in the urban and ag-urban strata are always one-tenth and one-quarter 

square mile, respectively. In stratum 50, the non-agricultural stratum, there is no segment size 

(except for states that have not received a new frame since 1985). Entities such as state parks, 

forests, airports, military land, etc. are placed in stratum 50. The boundary of the segment is the 

boundary of the entity. The probability of selecting a segment in this stratum is proportional to 

the size of the segment (PPS).

For a complete listing of the target segment sizes by stratum for each state, refer to the “Area 

Frame Design Information” document.

When determining the segment size for each stratum, the following are taken into consideration: 

1) Minimize Sampling Variability: Ideally the segments within a (non-PPS) substratum will 

be equal in size and homogeneous in terms of agricultural content to keep variance down. 

As the size of the segments decreases, so does the ability to delineate segments (to be discussed later) that are homogeneous with respect to the amount of cultivated land. 

Therefore, the sampling variability among segments increases for a given sample size.

2) Availability of Boundaries: As the size of the segments decreases, the availability of 

suitable boundaries also decreases. Quality boundaries are pertinent when delineating 

PSUs and segments. If boundaries are not available to delineate segments that are equal 

in size, variability may increase. Also, if poor quality boundaries are used, the result 

could mean more reporting errors during the data collection phase. In highly cultivated 

strata, as well as the urban and ag-urban strata, quality boundaries are generally plentiful, 

allowing for a smaller segment size. The land in the 40’s strata consists of forest, desert, 

range, pasture, etc. Quality boundaries in these strata are more spread apart, making a 

larger segment size more accommodating.

3) Data Collection Costs: The interviewer must contact and interview each person operating 

farmland within the segment boundaries. To minimize data collection costs, the 

interviewer should be able to complete a segment in less than 12 hours. Research has 

shown that interviewers are generally able to complete an average of 3 to 4 interviews per 

segment in 12 hours.
38

The target segment size for a stratum will be based partly on the average number 

interviews per segment. In moderate to intensively cultivated strata (10’s and 20’s 

strata), farms are relative close together. A segment size of one square mile will result in 

an average of 3 to 4 interviews. In the lower intensively cultivated strata (40’s strata), the 

farm operations are typically farther apart in location. The segment size in these strata 

can be larger and still not increase data collection costs. The target segment size in agurban (stratum 31), urban (stratum 32), and non-agricultural strata has no influence on 

data collection costs since little if any interviews are done for segments in these strata.

SAMPLE ALLOCATION

The area frame sample is used to collect data on a wide range of agricultural items such as crop 

acreages, livestock inventories and economic data. Therefore, the allocation of the sample across 

states and within states to the land-use strata is extremely important. NASS evaluates optimum 

allocations of the sample to obtain the most precision in the major survey estimates for a given 

budget. The number of sample segments allocated to each land-use stratum and state depends on 

factors such as the average data collection cost per segment in each stratum, the variability of the 

data in each stratum resulting from the intensity and diversity of agriculture, the total number of 

segments or land area in each stratum, and the importance of the state's agriculture relative to the 

national agricultural statistics program. 

An optimum sample allocation to the land-use strata is generated for each of the most important 

agricultural survey items (univariate) and for all of the important commodities considered 

simultaneously (multivariate). These important commodities include corn, soybeans, cotton, 

winter wheat, spring wheat, durum wheat, number of farms, and not on list (NOL) cattle. The 

allocations are evaluated not only from an area frame perspective but also from a multiple frame 

point of view where the area frame is used to measure the incompleteness in the list frame.

Finally, optimum allocations are conducted at the national, regional, and state levels to assess the 

allocations at the various inference levels. 

NASS places the most importance on the multivariate optimum allocation for the area frame 

non-overlap estimates at the state level since it is important to provide useful statistics at the state 

level. Adjustments are made to this sample allocation to improve the precision of the regional 

and national estimates without seriously hindering the precision levels for the states. Minor 

adjustments to the optimum allocation are also made to provide a multiple of five replicates in 

each stratum to simplify the sample rotation process and to protect against the impact of outliers 

by not allowing the sampling rate to be too small in a stratum, e.g. 1 in 750 segments. 

The optimum allocation of a sample for multipurpose surveys can be viewed as a problem in 

convex programming. An iterative, nonlinear programming algorithm is used to provide the 

univariate and multivariate optimum sample allocations for the area frames. The algorithm is 

guaranteed to converge to the optimum solution.
39

A brief description of the multivariate sample allocation model follows. Suppose each of the j 

survey items, 1 ≤ j ≤ p, from the p selected survey items must satisfy the following constraint: 

 Where V(Ŷj) = the estimated sampling variance for the jth survey total, and

vj = the desired or target sampling variance for the jth survey total.

Assume the following cost function:

Where ci = the average cost per segment in the ith land-use stratum,

ni = the number of sample segments in the ith land-use stratum,

l = the number of land-use strata, and

xi = 1/ni ; ni ≥ 1

The problem then reduces to minimizing the cost function subject to the constraints that:

Where 

 = the square of the standard deviation for the jth survey item in the ith land-

 use stratum,

Ni = the number of segments in the ith land-use stratum.

The nonlinear algorithm iteratively finds the intersection between for fixed 

values of k, and The intersection is the optimal solution. Experience has 

shown that the program converges rapidly to the optimal solution.
40

Given this allocation model, the input for the model is generated as follows:

1) The average cost per segment for each land-use stratum, ci, is estimated by having the 

interviewers keep time records during field work.

2) The population counts that are calculated after the stratification process.

3) The desired sampling variance for the estimated total of each item, vj, is established by 

the Area Frame Section after consultation with others in NASS.

4) The square of the standard deviation, , for the jth item in the ith land-use stratum is 

estimated using the previous two years’ survey data. 

The area frame sample allocations among and within states are evaluated periodically to 

determine if a reallocation of the sample is worthwhile. The sample allocations among the 48 

states for 2008 are shown in Table 2.4.
41

Table 2.4: Number of Segments in the Area Frame Sample: 2008

State Number of Segments State Number of Segments

Alabama 236 Nebraska 473

Arizona 118 Nevada 26

Arkansas 342 New Hampshire 10

California 404 New Jersey 48

Colorado 267 New Mexico 124

Connecticut 8 New York 96

Delaware 23 North Carolina 319

Florida 100 North Dakota 420

Georgia 290 Ohio 220

Idaho 148 Oklahoma 335

Illinois 401 Oregon 194

Indiana 264 Pennsylvania 179

Iowa 452 Rhode Island 8

Kansas 487 South Carolina 119

Kentucky 189 South Dakota 395

Louisiana 249 Tennessee 334

Maine 32 Texas 1120

Maryland 61 Utah 69

Massachusetts 12 Vermont 21

Michigan 145 Virginia 179

Minnesota 393 Washington 267

Mississippi 298 West Virginia 66

Missouri 383 Wisconsin 219

Montana 316 Wyoming 53

There were 10,912 segments in the national area frame sample. This represents approximately 

0.6 percent of the total segments in the population for the nation. The allocation of the sample 

across land-use strata naturally concentrates the majority of the sample segments in the 

cultivated strata. Approximately 54 percent of the national sample is in the intensively cultivated 

strata (10’s), 26 percent in the moderately cultivated strata (20’s), 16 percent in the less 

cultivated strata (40’s), 3 percent in the ag-urban strata (30’s), and 1 percent in the nonagricultural strata (50). Table 2.5 displays the sample allocation by stratum for Minnesota.
42

Table 2.5: 2009 Sample Allocation for Minnesota

Stratum Stratum Definition Number of 

Reps

Number of 

Substrata

Number of 

Segments

11 >75% Cultivated 20 11 220

12 50-74% Cultivated 20 4 80

20 15-49% Cultivated 5 10 50

31 Ag-Urban 2 1 2

32 Commercial 2 1 2

40 <15% Cultivated 5 8 40

50 Non-Agricultural 2 1 2

Total 396

SELECTION PROBABILITIES

There are two methods for selecting the ultimate sampling unit or segment-equal and unequal 

selection. Which method is used depends on the availability of adequate boundaries for 

segments. If good boundaries are plentiful so that segments can be made approximately the 

same size within a land-use stratum, then segments are selected with equal probability. If adequate boundaries are not available, then unequal probability of selection is used since segment 

sizes are allowed to vary greatly in order to ensure easily identifiable segment boundaries. 

The use of unequal selection probabilities is restricted to the non-agricultural stratum in area 

frames developed since 1985 and to some open land strata (40’s strata) in some western states. 

In all other land-use strata in the U.S., equal probability of selection is used. About 96 percent of 

the approximately 11,000 segments in the area frame sample are selected based on the equal 

probability of selection method. 

The probability expressions for equal and unequal probability of selection will now be derived in 

the context of NASS's area frame design. These expressions provide the statistical foundation 

for area frame sampling. 

Equal Probability of Selection: A two-step procedure is used to select sample segments from 

the selected PSUs when selection probabilities are equal. Recall from the first chapter that the 

number of segments delineated within the selected PSU depends on the size of a PSU. The 

number of segments in a PSU is simply the total area of the PSU divided by the target (desired) 

segment size for the land-use stratum in which the PSU has been stratified. This quotient is 

rounded to the nearest integer since fractional segments are not allowed. For example, if a PSU 

in an intensively cultivated stratum is 7.1 square miles and the target segment size is 1.0 square 

mile, then the number of segments for the PSU is seven. 
43

Step One: The first step involves the selection of a sample of PSUs within each substratum in a 

given land-use stratum. Selection is done randomly, with replacement, with probability 

proportional to the number of segments in the PSU. That is, the probability of selecting the kth 

PSU in the jth substratum from the ith land-use stratum is:

 where Aijk = the kth PSU in the jth substratum from the ith land-use stratum,

Nijk = the number of sampling units (segments) in the kth PSU from the jth

substratum in the ith land-use stratum, and

Nij = the number of sampling units (segments) in the jth substratum from the ith

land-use stratum.

Step Two: After the sample of PSUs is drawn, each selected PSU is divided into the required 

number of segments. The second step of the two-step sampling process involves randomly 

selecting a segment with equal probability from the selected PSU. That is, the probability of 

selecting the mth segment given the kth PSU was selected from the jth substratum in the ith landuse stratum is: 

 where Bijkm = the mth segment in the kth PSU from the jth substratum and the ith land-use 

stratum,

Aijk and Nijk are previously defined. 

Therefore, the unconditional probability of selecting the mth segment in the kth PSU from the jth

substratum in the ith land-use stratum is: 
44

 where Nij is as previously defined. 

Therefore, all sampling units within a given substratum in a land-use stratum have an "equal" 

probability of selection using the two-step selection procedure. This fact is illustrated in Table 

2.6 for a hypothetical substratum with seven PSUs. This table shows the number of required 

segments in each PSU, the probability of selecting each PSU, P(Aiik), the probability of selecting 

a segment given the PSU was selected, P(Bijkm|Aijk), and the unconditional probability of 

selecting a segment in the PSU, P(Bijkm). Notice that the unconditional selection probability is 

the same for all segments, as previously stated. 

Table 2.6: Selection Probabilities for the Two-Step Procedure 

PSU

Number of 

Segments in 

PSU

P(Aijk) P(Bijkm|Aijk) P(Bijkm)

1 2 2/40 1/2 1/40

2 3 3/40 1/3 1/40

3 5 5/40 1/5 1/40

4 6 6/40 1/6 1/40

5 7 7/40 1/7 1/40

6 8 8/40 1/8 1/40

7 9 9/40 1/9 1/40

Unequal Probability of Selection: PSUs are selected with unequal probability in less cultivated 

strata (40’s strata) in some western states and in the non-agricultural stratum (stratum 50) for 

states receiving a new area frame since 1985. This type of selection is performed because 

adequate boundaries are not available in these areas to draw off segments of approximately the 

same size. The probability of PSU selection in these strata is proportional to its size (PPS). 

In PPS strata, the PSUs are not further broken down into segments. Therefore, the PSU and 

segment are synonymous. The probability of selecting the kth PSU in the jth substratum from the 

i

th land-use stratum is: 

 whereAijk = the kth PSU in the jth substratum from the ith land-use stratum,

Sijk = the size (acres) of the kth PSU in the jth substratum from the ith land-use 

stratum, and

Sij = the size (acres) of the jth substratum in the ith land-use stratum.
45

The selection probabilities for all situations encountered during the sampling process have now 

been formulated. The expansion factor or weight assigned to each segment to expand the survey 

data to population totals is derived from these selection probabilities. The expansion factor for a 

segment in a substratum is simply the inverse of the product of the probability of selection for 

the segment and the number of segments in the sample for the substratum. That is, 

 where eijm= the expansion factor for the mth segment in the jth substratum and the ith

land-use stratum,

pijm = the probability of selecting the mth segment in the jth substratum from the ith

land-use stratum,

nij = the number of segments or replicates in the sample for the jth substratum in 

the ith land-use stratum.

SAMPLE SELECTION

The office procedures used to select the area frame samples will be described in this section for 

the equal and unequal probability of selection methods. 

Equal Probability of Selection: Recall that a two-step selection procedure is followed when 

segments are selected with equal probability. The first step is PSU selection. A SAS program is 

run which uses the selection probabilities discussed in the last section to select the chosen PSUs. 

The program creates a listing of all chosen PSUs. 

Personnel in the Sample Select Unit break down the chosen PSUs that have equal probability of 

selection into segments in ArcGIS9. The National Agricultural Imagery Program (NAIP) 

photography is used because it provides valuable detail in terms of land use and availability of 

boundaries. Three criteria are followed when delineating segments using aerial photography in 

order to control the total survey error (non-sampling errors and sampling variability). These 

criteria are: 

1) Use the most permanent boundaries available for each segment so that reporting 

problems during the data collection phase caused by ambiguous boundaries will be 

minimized. 

2) Create segments that are as homogeneous as possible with respect to agricultural content. 

Since crop types are generally not distinguishable on the aerial photography, 
46

homogeneity is usually based on the amount of cultivated land. This criterion reduces the 

sampling variability among segments in a given substratum. 

3) Choose boundaries so that the size of each segment is as close to the target segment size 

as practical. Deviations from the target size as large as 25 percent are permitted to satisfy 

the first two criteria. This criterion, like the second, helps control sampling variability.

After the required number of segments has been delineated for a selected PSU, the segments are 

automatically numbered in ArcGIS9. Then one segment is chosen at random also in ArcGIS9. 

Figure 2.1 shows a chosen PSU that has been broken down into segments. 

Figure 2.1: Chosen PSU Broken Down into Segments

The PSU in Figure 2.1 is 8.8 square miles in size. The target segment size is 1.0 square miles, so 

the PSU was broken down into 9 segments using physical boundaries. Then the segments were 

numbered and a segment was randomly selected in ArcGIS9. The selected segment is in the 

bottom right-hand corner of the PSU labeled 101001 (according to NASS’s segment id scheme). 

It is 1.01 square miles in size. Once the PSU is broken down and a segment is selected, it is then 

checked by a reviewer to identify and resolve any errors. 

Unequal Probability of Selection: Recall that PSUs selected with unequal probability in less 

cultivated strata (40’s strata) in some western states and in the non-agricultural stratum (stratum 

50) because adequate boundaries are not available in these areas to draw off segments of 
47

approximately the same size. The probability of PSU selection in these strata is proportional to 

its size (PPS). PSUs in PPS strata vary in size and are not broken down further. Because the 

PSU and segment are one in the same, the Sample Select Unit reviews the boundaries identified 

by the Stratification unit.

Once the chosen PSUs with equal probability of selection are broken down into segments and the 

boundaries of chosen PSUs with unequal probability of selection are reviewed, the sample is 

prepared to go to the field office.

SAMPLE PREPARATION

Once the sample is selected for a state, the chosen segments must be reviewed, prepared, and 

printed. These activities are performed by the Sample Preparation Unit. As was the case with 

the sample selection activities, the work to prepare the samples is carefully reviewed upon 

completion so that high quality materials are made available to the interviewers. 

The process begins with the edit/review phase, when the chosen segment is put through a 

rigorous review and quality assurance program. This includes examining the segment’s 

boundaries closely, ensuring that high quality, identifiable boundaries were used. Also, areas 

may be added or subtracted so that the segment meets the stratum definition (percent cultivated). 

The chosen segment is carefully edited to one and two meter resolution NAIP photography using 

ArcGIS9 and server technology. The finished version of the chosen segment is subsequently reprojected in ArcGIS9 to obtain final coordinate and acreage values. 

The chosen segment is then prepared for the plotting phase, which includes the manual 

adjustment to contrast, resolution, and colors using bands 3, 2, and 1 on the most recent NAIP 

imagery. All pertinent boundary labels are utilized as are necessary adjustments to the heading 

(county name and segment number) and north arrow. Two inset maps are added to the image to 

help the interviewer locate the chosen segment during data collection. These are:

 The County Outline Map, which shows where the general location of the segment in the 

county, and

 The Segment Location Map, which shows a closer view of the segment and nearby roads 

and highways to plan a route to the segment. 

The layout window with the fully prepared final version of the chosen segment, as well as 

accompanying inset segment location map insets, is then captured and saved before sending the 

digital layout to the plotter for printing. A 24” x 24” image of the segment (8”=one mile scale) 

plus the two inset maps are then printed onto Kodak photographic paper. Figure 2.2 is an 

example of the image printout of a chosen segment.
48

Figure 2.2: Chosen Segment Printout

Once all images for the segments in the sample are printed, they are inventoried through a 

conclusive quality control phase. They are sorted by state, alphabetized, and checked for errors. 

The final phase of preparation is the encapsulated lamination of each printout using three 

millimeter water resistant laminates. The finished laminated printouts are then carefully packed 

and sent to their respective state office destinations to be used for data collection. 

The final activity performed in the sample preparation process for all segments is the creation of 

a segment-level data file called the area frame master. The master contains pertinent sampling 

information on each segment such as the land-use stratum, substratum, segment and replicate 

numbers, the expansion factor and digitized acreage. This information is later used along with 

the survey data for computing the survey statistics and standard errors. 
49

SAMPLE MAINTENANCE

NASS has an active program for reviewing the area frame sample to uncover any problems that 

might affect the quality of the survey results. This review consists of four components which 

will now be described. 

1) Problem Segments: Two situations sometimes surface for which corrective measures are 

taken to control non-sampling errors during the data collection phase. The AFS can take 

corrective action for these situations provided strict statistical standards are followed so 

that potential biases resulting from the actions are negligible. Segments that fit either one 

of the following two situations are referred to as "problem" segments: 

 Too Many Tracts: If a segment has more than 20 tracts of which ten or more are 

agricultural and data collection time exceeds 12 hours, it is considered a problem 

segment. To rectify this problem, the Sample Preparation Unit divides the 

segment into halves, thirds, or quarters with input from the Field Office. When 

the segment is divided, the resulting parcels should be as equal in the following as 

possible: 

 Agricultural use of land,

 Number of agricultural and non-agricultural tracts, and

 Total Area.

One of the parcels is then randomly selected with equal probability of selection 

for use in future surveys. The selection probability for the partial segment is then 

multiplied by 1/p. That is, the expansion factor is multiplied by p. 

 Boundary Problem: The segment's boundaries on the photo enlargement do not 

follow features that are identifiable by the respondent which causes reporting 

errors. Action is taken only if the boundaries can be adjusted without introducing 

bias. Small adjustments to the boundaries (less than five percent of the land area 

in the segment) can only be made if:

 Neither a land-use stratum boundary nor a PSU boundary is affected. 

 Minor acreage adjustments resulting from changing a boundary are 

offsetting to the extent possible. All changes are documented and 

analyzed for each state. 
50

2) Imagery Printout Replacement: Each year, field office personnel have the opportunity to 

request new printouts for segments having out of date imagery. Interviewing problems 

can occur due to major land use changes such as new housing developments. State offices 

also request replacements for segments with damaged or lost imagery. 

3) Post-Survey Analysis: The AFS statisticians use SAS Software to produce graphical and 

statistical analyses of each area frame and area frame sample using survey data. The 

major graphical and statistical analyses provided for a state are:

 Percentage of the segments in each land-use stratum satisfying the stratum 

definition. This information is used to evaluate the area frame stratification.

 Comparison of the reported, digitized, and target segment sizes in each land-use 

stratum. 

 Descriptive statistics for major agricultural commodities for each land-use 

stratum. 

 Distribution of the survey estimates in each land-use stratum for each of the five 

sample rotation groups. 

 Survey estimates and coefficients of variation at the substratum, land-use stratum 

and state levels. 

 These analyses sometimes uncover non-sampling errors, or suggest improved 

sample allocations and design alternatives which could benefit future surveys and 

area frame development and sampling activities. 

4) Historic Information: Pertinent historic information about each area frame and area frame 

sample is maintained in an automated system. Basically there are three types of 

information for each state. These are: 

 General information, which is provided for each land-use stratum such as the stratum 

definition, the number of substrata, the total number of segments in the stratum, and 

the number of segments in the sample. 

 Survey estimates and coefficients of variation since 1979 at the state and land-use 

stratum levels, which are available for key survey items. Also, information on the 

number of operations, agricultural operations and resident farm operations is provided 
51

for each land-use stratum. Finally, non response counts and survey estimates since 

1979 are given for each of the five sample rotation groups.

 Historic information, which is provided on the number of problem segments 

submitted each year by each state and the number for which corrective action was 

taken. 

This information is useful for providing a statistical history to assess if a state needs a 

new or updated area frame and to provide information on the sample for evaluation 

purposes.

SAMPLE ROTATION

As mentioned earlier, NASS uses a five-year rotation scheme for the sample segments. Rotation 

is accomplished by replacing segments from specified replicates within a land-use stratum with 

newly selected segments. Preferably, the number of replicates is a multiple of five to provide a 

constant workload for sample selection and preparation activities in the AFS and for data 

collection work in the state offices. Naturally, instances occur when the number of replicates is 

not a multiple of five, especially in urban, commercial, and non-agricultural strata where the 

sample size is small (usually two replicates). 

Table 2.7 illustrates how the replicates are rotated over a five-year cycle (2008 - 2012) for 

different numbers of replicates. If a land-use stratum has two replicates, the segments in 

replicate one will be replaced with all new segments in 2010 and will stay in the sample for five 

years. In 2015, the segments in Replicate one will be replaced again. Likewise, new segments 

will rotate into replicate two in 2011 and 2016. No segments rotate into or out of the sample in 

the years in between (2012, 2013, 2014). If a stratum has five replicates, then the segments in 

one replicate are replaced with new segments each year which is 20 percent of the sample. 
52

Table 2.7: Rotation of Replicates Depending Upon the Number of Replicates

Number of 

Replicates

Year

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

 2 1 2

 3 1 2 3

 4 4 1 2 3

 5 4 5 1 2 3

 6 4 5,6 1 2 3

 7 4,7 5,6 1 2 3

 8 4 5 1,6 2,7 3,8

 9 4,9 5 1,6 2,7 3,8

 10 4,9 5,10 1,6 2,7 3,8

 11 4,9 5,10 1,6,11 2,7 3,8

 12 4,9 5,10 1,6,11 2,7,12 3,8

 13 4,9 5,10 1,6,11 2,7,12 3,8,13

 14 4,9,14 5,10 1,6,11 2,7,12 3,8,13

 15 4,9,14 5,10,15 1,6,11 2,7,12 3,8,13

All segments are not in the sample exactly five years as has been implied. Segments from the 

first and last four years of an area frame's life are in the sample less than five years as shown in 

Table 2.8. This table presents the rotation cycle for an area frame assuming a 20 year life and, 

for simplicity, five replicates in each land-use stratum. 
53

Table 2.8: Rotation Cycle for a 20 Year Period Assuming Five Replicates in the Stratum

Year Replicates

2009 1 2 3 4 5

2010 2 3 4 5 1

2011 3 4 5 1 2

2012 4 5 1 2 3

2013 5 1 2 3 4

2014 1 2 3 4 5

2015 2 3 4 5 1

2016 3 4 5 1 2

2017 4 5 1 2 3

2018 5 1 2 3 4

2019 1 2 3 4 5

2020 2 3 4 5 1

2021 3 4 5 1 2

2022 4 5 1 2 3

2023 5 1 2 3 4

2024 1 2 3 4 5

2025 2 3 4 5 1

2026 3 4 5 1 2

2027 4 5 1 2

2028 5 1 2

Number 

of Years 

in Sample

1 2 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 3

The national area frame sample size is approximately 11,000 segments. The total number of 

segments rotated each year is approximately 3,000. This results from an average of 800 segments 

being selected for new area frames (except in census years when no states receive new frames) 

and about 2,200 segments being selected based on a 20 percent rotation of the remaining 15,000 

or so segments. Therefore, approximately 27 percent of the national area frame sample is based 

on newly selected segments each year. 
54

SAMPLE ESTIMATION

This final section will briefly discuss the approaches used to estimate agricultural production 

with an area frame sample of segments. NASS uses two area frame estimators, namely the closed 

and weighted segment estimators. Both require that the interviewer collect data for all farms that 

operate land inside each segment. (A farm is defined to be all land under one operating 

arrangement with gross farm sales of at least $1,000 a year.) The portion of the farm that is 

inside the segment is called a tract. The interviewer draws the boundaries of each tract on the 

photo enlargement, accounting for all land in the segment. 

When an interviewer contacts a farmer, the closed segment approach requires that the 

interviewer obtain data only for that part of the farm within the tract. For example, the 

interviewer might ask about the total number of hogs on the land in the tract. The most common 

uses of the closed segment estimator are to estimate crop acreages and livestock inventories. An 

interviewer accounts for all land in each tract by type of crop or use and for all livestock in the 

tract. The main disadvantage of the closed segment estimator arises when the farmer can only 

report values for the farm rather than for a tract which is a subset of the farm. For example, 

"How many tractors do you own?" can only be answered on a farm basis. Thus, the closed 

segment estimator is not applicable for many agricultural items. Economic items and crop 

production are two major examples which farmers find difficult or impossible to report on a tract 

basis. 

The weighted segment estimator, by contrast, does not have this limitation. It can be used to 

estimate all agricultural characteristics, which is a major advantage for this estimator. The 

weighted segment approach requires that the interviewer obtain data on the entire farm. For 

example, the interviewer would ask about the total number of hogs on all land in the farm. Using 

the weighted segment approach, the interviewer obtains farm data for each tract, but these farm 

data are weighted. The weight used by NASS is the ratio of tract acres to farm acres. 

Suppose the following situation occurs for a specific farm: tract acres = 10, farm acres = 100, 

hogs on the tract = 20, and hogs on the farm = 40. The closed segment value of number of hogs 

would be 20, and the weighted segment value would be 

40 x (10/100) = 4.

When estimating survey totals and variances for these estimators, segments can be treated as a 

stratified sample with random selection within each sub-stratum. The formulas for each of the 

three estimators can be described by the following notation. For some characteristic, Y, of the 

farm population, the sample estimate of the total for the closed segment estimator is:
55

 where l = the number of land-use strata,

si = the number of substrata in the ith land-use stratum,

nij = the number of segments sampled in the jth substratum in the ith land-use 

stratum, 

eijk = the expansion factor or inverse of the probability of the selection for the 

k

th segment in the jth substratum in the ith land-use stratum, 

 

fijk = the number of tracts in the kth segment, jth substratum, and ith land-use 

stratum, and

tijkm = the tract value of the characteristic, Y for the mth tract in the kth

segment, jth substratum, and ith land-use stratum.

The weighted segment estimator would also be of the same form:

except that

aijkm = the weight for the mth tract in the kth segment, jth substratum, and ith

land-use stratum.

The following weight is currently in use:
56

The precision of an estimate can be measured by the standard error of the estimate. An estimate 

becomes less precise as the standard error increases. Given the same number of segments to 

make an estimate, weighted segment estimates are usually more precise than closed segment 

estimates.

For both estimators, the formula for the sampling variance can be written as:

 where

The standard error is then:

In closing, research into non-sampling errors associated with these estimators has shown that the 

closed estimator, when applicable, is generally the least susceptible to non-sampling errors. The 

closed segment estimator is much relied-on for NASS’ area frame surveys, and the weighted 

segment estimator is the most used for multiple frame surveys where the area frame is only used 

to measure the incompleteness in the list frame.
57

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