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## Document

Number: 

# 73 ) II-A- 5 Docket Number: 

# A-84-2 2

Printed 4/18/2008 10:52:08 AM Sheet 73 of 94'r&A P. 2 , . ,,,:-- 

# A-/yv ^ MW~£-

EPA-340/1-75-00 7 Apri l 197 5 Stationar ySource Enforcement ! Serie s 

# H I [H i GUIDELINE S FO R EVALUATIO N O F VISIBL E EMISSION S '

" - , : * ' * 

## CERTIFICATION , FIELD PROCEDURES

, LEGA L ASPECTS , AN D BACKGROUN D MATERIAL



# n # |p— 3 

## U.S

. ENVIRONMENTA L PROTECTIO N AGENC Y Offic e o fEnforcemen t Offic e o fGenera l Enforcemen t Washington , D.C

. 2046 0P. 3 :r i r'"i t •- - 

# EPA-340/1-7 5 00 7 

# GUIDELINE S FO R EVALUATIO N O F VISIBL E EMISSION S

CERTIFICATION , FIEL D PROCEDURES , LEGA LASPECTS , AN D BACKGROUN D MATERIA L

b y Rober t Misse nan dArnol dStei n Pacifi c Environmenta l Services , Inc . 193 0 Fourteent hStree t Sant aMonica , Californi a9040 4 Contrac t

No . 68-02-1390 , Tas k Orde r No . 2 Projec t Officer : Kennet hB . Malmber g Divisio no f

Stationar y Sourc e Enforcemen t Prepare dfor : U.S . ENVIRONMENTA LPROTECTIO NAGENC Y

Offic e o f

Enforcemen t Offic e o f

Genera l Enforcemen t Washington , D.C . 2046 0 Apri l 197 5P. 4

i i

Th e Enforcemen t

Technica l Guidelin e serie s o f report s i s issue db y th e Offic e o f

Enforcement , Environmenta l Protectio nAgency , t o assis t th e Regiona l Office s i nactivitie s relate dt o enforcemen t o f implementatio n plans , ne w sourc e emissio nstandards , an dhazardou s emissio nstandard s t o b e develope dunde r th e Clea nAi r

Act . Copie s o f

Enforcemen t

Technica l Guidelin e report s ar e availabl e - a s supplie s permi t - fro mAi r

Pollutio n Technica l Informatio nCenter , Environmenta l Protectio nAgency , Researc h Triangl e Park , Nort hCarolin a27711 , o r ma y b e obtained , fo r anomina l cost , fro mth e Nationa l Technica l Informatio nService , 528 5 Por t Roya l Road , Springfield , Virgini a22161 .

Thi s repor t

wa s furnishe dt o th e Environmenta l Protectio nAgenc y b y th e Pacifi c Environmenta l Services , Inc . , Sant aMonica , Californi a90404 , i n fulfillmen t

o f Contrac t

No . 68-02-1390 , Tas k Orde r No . 2 . Thi s repor t ha s bee nreviewe db y th e Environmenta l Protectio nAgenc y an dapprove dfo r publication . Approva l doe s no t signif y tha t

th e content s necessaril y reflec t th e view s an dpolicie s o f th e Agency , no r

doe s mentio no f

trad e name s o r

commercia l product s constitut e endorsemen t o r recommendatio n fo r use .

Publicatio nNo . EPA-340/1-75-00 7P. 5 ' ' r I '

11 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT S

Muc ho f the informatio n containe d i n thi s manua l wa s supplie d b y i staf f member s o f Federal , Stat e an d loca l ai r pollutio n contro l agencies . Th e author s ar e particularl yindebte d t o the following : Divisio n o f StationarySourc e Enforcement , Environmenta l Protectio n Agency , Washington , D.C . K . Malmber g K . Foste r Emissio n Standard s an d Engineering Division , Environmenta l | Protectio n Agency , Researc hTriangl e Park , N.C . R . Neulich t

Ba yAre a Ai r Pollutio n Contro l District , San Francisco , Californi a J . BrinkleyW . Garoutt e R . Matso n

Lo s Angele s Ai r Pollutio n Contro l District , Lo s Angeles , Californi a T . Wilke s R . Georg e Chicag o Departmen t o f Environmenta l Control , Chicago , Illinoi s J . Bo c J . Winkle r Th e author s woul d als o lik e t o expres s thei r appreciatio n o f th e wor k perfomre d b

yth e staf f o f Pacifi c Environmenta l Services , Inc. , especiall yVicto r Yamad a an d Me l Weisburd , an

d the ywoul d als o lik e tp than k Kar l Luedtk e wh o acte d a s a consultan t on thi s contract .P. 6

,-,.., •

TABL EO FCONTENTS

P;ag e I LIST . O F FIGURE S ' i x LIS T O F TABLE S i x CHAPTE R 1 . INTRODUCTIO N„1. 1 1. 1 Genera l il. l 1. 2 Purpos e o f Manua l 1. 2 CHAPTE R 2 . TRAININ G AN D CERTIFICATIONPROCEDURE S '2. 1 2. 1 Summar

y'2. 1 2. 2 ClassroomWor k 2. 1 2. 3 Evaluatio n Procedure s 2. 1 2. 4 Completing the Qualificatio n For m2. 3 2. 5 Certificatio n Procedur e i2 . 6 2. 6 Apprenticeshi p Perio d . J2. 7 2. 7 Recertificatio n Procedur e . 2. 9 2. 8 Smok e Generato r . 2. 9 2.8. 1 Descriptio n 2. 9 2.8. 2 Specification s . . 2. 9 2. 9 Bibliograph

y2.1 0 CHAPTE R 3 . PROCEDURE S FO R EVALUATIN G VISIBL E EMISSION S I NTH E FIEL D 3. 1 3. 1 Introductio n 3. 1 3. 2 Offic e Preparatio n 3. 1 3. 3 Fiel d Equipmen t .3. 2 3. 4 Observer' s Locatio n 3. 3 3.4. 1 Guideline s . 3. 3 3.4. 2 Observatio n Site-Of f Compan yPropert y. . . . 3. 3 3.4. 3 Observatio n Site-O n Compan yPropert y. . . .3. 3 3. 5 Evaluatio n Procedure s 3. 5 3.5. 1 Observatio n Form s 3. 5 3.5. 2 Type s o f Opacit yRegulation s . 3. 5 3.5. 3 Observationa l Dat a ! 3 . 1 0 3.5. 4 Procedure s fo r Reading Stea mPlume s 3.1 0 3.5.4. 1 Attache d Stea mPlume s 3.1 0 3.5.4. 2 Detache d Stea mPlume s ' 3.1 1 3.5.4. 3 Recording Presenc e o f Stea mPlume s . 3.1 1 3.5. 5 Recording Observation s . J 3.1 1 3.5. 6 Numbe r o f Reading s 3.1 1 3.5.6. 1 Guidelin e 1 3.1 2 3.5.6. 2 Guidelin e 2 3.1 2 3.5.6. 3 Guidelin e 3 3.1 2 3.5.6. 4 Guidelin e 4 3.1 3Pafi e P. 7

3.5. 7 Sketc h 3.5. 8 Photograph s 3.5. 9 Numbe r o f Observer s 3.5.1 0 Dat a Reductio n 3.5.10. 1 "Averag e Opacity " Concep t . . . 3. 7. 10. 2 "Time " Concemp t ....... . 3. 6 Sourc e Inspectio n 3. 7 Bibliograph

y CHAPTE R 4 . SOURCE S O F VISIBL E EMISSION S

4. 1 Introductio n 4. 2 Procedure s fo r Non-stac k Emissio n Source s ... . 4.2. 1 Roo f Monitor s 4.2. 2 Materia l Handling Operation s 4.2.2. 1 Drilling 4.2.2. 2 Crushing 4.2.2. 3 Conveying 4.2.2. 4 Screening 4.2.2. 5 Stockpiling 4.2. 3 Coking Operation s 4.2.3. 1 Charging Operation s 4.2.3. 2 Pushing Operation s 4.2.3. 3 Doo r Leakag e 4.2.3. 4 Storag e 4. 3 Procedure s fo r Specifi c Stac k Emissio n Source s 4.3. 1 Powe r Plants , Refiner yHeaters , Boiler s an d Miscellaneou s Fue l Burning Equipmen t 4.3. 2 Refinerie s . 4.3. 3 Resi n Kettle s an d Varnis hCooking Kettle s 4.3. 4 Sulfuri c Aci d Manufacturing 4.3. 5 Phosphori c Aci d Manufacturing 4.3. 6 Soa

p an d Detergen t Manufacturing 4.3. 7 Glas s Manufacturing 4.3. 8 Fri t Smelter s 4.3. 9 Food Processing 4.3.9. 1 Mea t Smoking 4.3.9. 2 Fis hMea l Drier s 4.3.1 0 Pain t Baking ... . 4.3.1 1 Incinerator s 4.3.1 2 Hot-Mi x Asphal t Paving BatchPlant s . . . 4.3.1 3 Concret e Batching Plants . 4.3.1 4 Ston e Quarrving,Roc k an d Grave l Plant s . . 4.3.1 5 Minera l Woo l Furnace s 4.3.1 6 Perlite-Expandm g Furnace s 4.3.1 7 Feed an

d Grai n Mill s 4.3.1 8 Pne-..i.ati

c Conveying an

d Drying 3.1 3 3.1 3 3.1 5 3.1 5 3.1 5 3.1 5 3.1 5 3.1 6 4. 1 4. 1 4. 1 4. 1 4. 3 4. 3 4. 3 4. 3 4. 6 4. 6 4. 6 4. 6 4. 8 4. 8 4. 8 4. 8 4. 8 4.1 1 4.1 3 4.1 4 4.1 4 4.1 5 4.1 6 4.1 7 4.1 7 4.1 8 4.1 8 4.1 8 4.1 9 4.2 0 4.2 0 4.2 ] 4.2 2 4.2 2 4.2 3 4.2 3Vi i P. 8

'Page 4.3.1 9 Woodworkin g Equipmen t 4.2 4 4.3.2 0 Asphal t Roofin g Fel t Saturator s 4.2 4 4.3.2 1 Abrasiv e Blas t Cleanin g 4.2 5 4.3.2 2 Zinc-Galvanizin g Equipmen t t 4.2 5 4.3.2 3 Cerami c Sprayin g an d Meta l Depositio n i

Equipmen t 4.2 6 4.3.2 4 Stee l Manufacturin g Processe s 4.2 6 4.3.2 5 Iro n Castin g 4.2 8 4.3.2 6 Secondar yBrass-an d Bronze-Meltin g

Processe s i 4.2 8 4.3.2 7 Secondar yAluminu mMeltin g an d Smeltin g . . 4.2 9 4.3.2 8 Secondar yZinc-Meltin g Processe s 4.2 9 4.3.2 9 Lea d Refinin g l 4.3 0 4.3.3 0 Meta l Separatio n Processe s 1 4.3 1 4.3.3 1 Foundr ySand-Handlin g Equipmen t j 4.3 1 4.3.3 2 Kraf t Pul p Mill s 4.3 1 4.3.3 3 Cemen t Plant s 4.3 2 4.3.3 4 Aluminu mReductio n Plant s . . 4.3 3 4.3.3 5 Minin g | 4.3 3 I CHAPTE R 5 . PROBLEM S ASSOCIATE D WIT H CONDENSE D WATE R PLUME S .... . 5. 1

5. 1 Genera l . | 5. 1 5. 2 Source s o f Wate r Vapo r Plume s \ 5. 2 5. 3 Readin g Wate r Vapo r Plume s . 5. 3 5. 4 Descriptio n o f th e Psychrometri c Char t 5. 3 5. 5 Exampl e o f th e Us e o f th e Psychrometri c Char t . . .\ 5. 4 5. 6 Bibliograph y. 5. 8 i CHAPTE R 6 . LEGA L ASPECT S O F OPACIT Y OBSERVATION S ; . 1 6. 1 6. 1 Summar y6. 1 6. 2 Lega l Standin g o f Opacit yObservation s 6. 2 6. 3 Summar yo f Cour t Case s . , 6. 3 . 6. 4 Presentatio n o f Testimon y. ' 6. 8 6.4. 1 Genera l . 6. 8 6.4. 2 Witnes s Behavio r 6. 9 6.4. 3 Testimon yI 6.1 0 6.4. 4 Typ e o f Informatio n Require d i n Testimon y. . 6.1 2 6. 5 Bibliograph

yJ 6.1 4 CHAPTE R 7 . EFFECT S O F VIEWIN G CONDITION S O NOPACIT Y READING S ... . 7. 1

7. 1 Win d Spee d 7. 1 7. 2 Win d Directio n . 7. 1 7. 3 Viewin g Poin t . 7. 1 7. 4 Illuminatio n 7. 2 7. 5 Backgroun d 7. 2 7. 6 Atmospheri c Stabilit y7. 2 7. 7 Atmospheri c Haz e 7. 3 7. 8 Su n Angl e 7. 3 7. 9 Effec t o f Observe r Distanc e o n Observe d Opacit y. . , 7. 3m .i W u. » n n I W l 1 1 IW| l f

Vll l P. 9

Zi_.S? . 7.1 0 Tim e Interva l Betwee n Reading s 7. 3 7.1 1 Summaryo f Recommende d Observationa l Procedure s . . 7. 6 7.1 2 Bibliograph

y7. 6 CHAPTE R 8 . APPLICABILIT Y O F VISIBL E EMISSION S EVALUATION S 8. 1

8. 1 Advantage s 8. 1 8. 2 Objection s 8. 2 8. 3 Summar y8. 5 8. 4 Bibliograph

y8. 5 CHAPTE R 9 . PARTICL E SIZE S AND THEI R CHARACTERISTIC S 9. 1

9. 1 Genera l 9. 1 9. 2 Size s o f Particulat e Matte r Emission s 9. 1 9. 3 Effec t o f Atmospheri c Particulate s o n Climat e .. . 9. 5 9. 4 Attenuatio n o f Sola r Radiatio n 9. 0 9. 5 Healt h Effect s o f Atmospheri c Particle s 9. 7 9. 6 Remova l Mechanism s 9. 7 9.6. 1 Gravitationa l Settlin g 9. 7 9.6. 2 Coagulatio n 9. 8 9.6. 3 Rainou t 9. 8 9.6. 4 Washou t 9. 9 9.6. 5 Impactio n 9. 9 9. 7 BJ V

iograph

y9. 9 CHAPTE R 10 . AID S FOR EVALUATING VISIBL E EMISSION S 10. 1

10. 1 Introductio n 10. 1 10. 2 Smok e Chart s 10. 1 10. 3 Smok e Inspectio n Guid e . 10. 1 10. 4 Comparator s 10. 1 10. 3 Smokescop e : 10. 1 10. 6 Photograph

y10. 2 10. 7 TL> . --^photometer s 10. 2 10. 8 Transmissometer s 10. 2 10. 9 Lase r Technique s 10. 3 10.1 0 Bibliograph

y10. 3 CHAPTE R 11 . DEFINITION S 11. 1

11. 1 Pollutan t Cloud 11. 1 11. 2 Haz e 11. 1 11. 3 Type s o f Effluen t 11. 1 11.3. 1 Smok e 11. 2 11.3. 2 Fume s 11. 3 11.3. 3 Dust s 11. A 11.3. 4 Mist s 11. 5 1..3. 5 Case s an

d Vapor s 11. 6 11. 4 Bibliograph

y11. 6 CHAPTE R 12 . METHO D 9 - VISIBL E DETERMINATIO NO F TH E OPACIT Y O F

EMISSION S FRO M STATIONARY SOURCE S 12. 1 TECHNICA L REPOR T DATAFOR M 13. 1. , , ,_ T _, r ( ...., . P.1 0

FIGUP E 2. 1 FIGUR E 7. .7 •JIGU^ E 3- 1 i;T--:UF' r 3,7 .•.'T.GUR L 3 . •> FIGUR E 3. ^ FIGUR E 3. 5 FIGUR E 3. 6 FIGUR E A.1 . FIGUR E 4.2 a FIG ; !P R 4.2 b FIGUF i 4 . J a FIGUR E 4.3 b FIGUR E ". 4 FIGURF . 4. 5 FI^UK E 4. 6 FIGUR E 5..: . FIGUR E 5. 2 FIGUR E 7.J . FIGUR E 9. 1

TABL E 7. 1 TABL E 9. 1 TABL E 9. 2 TABL E 9. 3 LIS T O F FIGURE S 

### i Pag e Smok e Schoo l Training For m2. 4 Car.'.iiicitio

n Lette r 2.8 ' •Tr-serv?tio

n Record (Federa l Register ) 3. 6 Rcc-orc" . o_ : Visua l Determinatio n o f Opacit y (Federa l Register ) 3. 7 Visibl e Emissio n Observatio n For m(Proposed ) 3. 8 Record o f Visua l Determinatio n o f Opacit y(Proposed ) . . 3.9 . Fiel d Sketc h3.1 4 Inspectio n Dat a Shee t 3.1 7 Po- f Monito r Emission s A . 2 Reck Drilling Emission s 4. 4 Cr'-r.hin g Emission s 4. 4 Conveying-Screening Emission s 4.5 [ otcvag e Amission s . 4. 5 Topsid e Vie wo f Cok e Battery4. 7 Vie wo f Oven s fro

mCok e Sid e during Pushing Operation s . 4. 9 Viewo f Oven s fro

mPus hSid e 4.1 0 Psychrometri c Char t 5. 5 Psychrometri c Char t 5. 7 Effec t o f Observe r Locatio n o n Observe d Pathlengt h.. . 7. 4 Typica l Siz e Distributio n o f Particle s i n the Atmospher e Showing Variou s Averag e Diameter s .... . 9. 3

LIS T O F TABLE S The Beaufor t Scal e o f Wind-Spee d Equivalent s 2. 5 Variatio n o f Observe d Opacit ywit hDistanc e fro m an Elevate d Sourc e 7•-> Particl e Size s an

d Characteristic s 9. 2 Siz e Distributio n ( % b yNumber ) Fro

mOi l Combustio n . . . 9.5 j weigh t Percen t Les s than State d Siz e Fro mCoa l Q * v Combustio n y ' JP.1 1 T'l' . |

- 1. 1

INTRODUCTIO

N

1. 1 GENERA

L ' Onc e a plume o r effluen t i s identifie d a s an ai r contaminant , it : mus t be measure d b

ysome standar d t o determin e whethe r o r no t a violatio n o f th e la wha s occurred , o r i t mus t b e evaluate d t o determin e th e size- , o r severit yo f a give n ai r pollutio n problem . Visua l observatio n o f plume s b yfiel d personne l can b e a n effectiv e an d economica l metho d o f determining complianc e wit hai r pollutio n regula

tions , provide d th e regulation s ar e base d o n the visua l aspec t o f plumes , i o r o n othe r propertie s tha t ca n b e show n t o b e directl yrelate d t o th e visua l aspect . Th e benefit s o f basing emission s statute s o n opacity , o r density , ar e quit e evident , eve n thoughequipmen t an d fue l regulation s hav e in-j

creasingl yassume d precedenc e i n contro l legislation . Whe n th e visua l standard i s specifi c wit hreferenc e t o a cutof f poin t an d time interval , i t i s simpl yan

d directl yenforced . Al l enforcemen t officer s nee d d o i s i observ e an emissio n o f a n opacit yo r densit ybeyon d tha t allowe d b

ythe regulation s fo r a minimu mtime interva l i n orde r t o cit e a violato r fo r excessiv e emissions . Althoughth e visua l standar d i s limite d t o estimation s o f particu

lat e pollutio n whic hobscure s vision , it s applicatio n simultaneousl y tend s t o reduc e grai n loading , sinc e ther e i s a relationshi p betwee n grai n loading an

d opacity , althoughthi s relationshi p i s somewha t com plex . Th e standard , therefore , i s mos t versatil e i n accomplishin g gros s reduction s o f atmospheri c pollutant s i n a community , an d ca n b e applie d no t onl yt o smoke , bu t t o fumes , dust s an d mist s arising froma variet y o f sources . I t shoul d b e cautioned , however , tha t whil e suchbenefit s ca n b e assumed , the

ycanno t alway s b e precisel ypredicte d o r evaluated . Detjer

i minatio n o f opacit yan d shad e o f an

yemissio n alon e give s n o specifi c measurement s o f th e quantitie s o f contaminant s being emitted .P.1 2

1. 2

1. 2 PURPOS E O F MANUAL The purpos e o f thi s manua l i s t o provid e the certifie d visibl e emission s evaluator , ofte n referre d t o a s a "smok e reader" , wit hcertai n guideline s t o be followe d whe n making visua l observation s o f stationary sourc e emissions . I t i s intende d t o supplemen t EP Apolicyan

d procedura l guideline s fo r making opacit ydeterminations . Metho d 9 o f Appendi x At o Sectio n 6 0 o f the Federa l Registe r Vol . 39 , No . 219 , Novembe r 12 , 1974 , i s the basi s fo r the visua l observatio n procedures . An

ysubsequen t revision s t o Metho d 9 tha t ma yb e publishe d in th e Federa l Registe r shoul d tak e precedenc e ove r the procedure s give n i n thi s manual . Th e manua l i s primaril yintende d t o assis t EP Apersonnel : (a ) i n making fiel d evaluation s o f th e opacit yo f visibl e emission s i n accordanc e wit hthe approve d procedures , (b ) i n ensurin

g tha t al l necessaryobservation s are . made , an d al l pertinen t informatio n i s obtaine d an d recorde d i n a standard , clea r for

mat , an d (c ) b yproviding recommende d procedure s t o b e adopte d i n preparing an d presenting a cour t case , shoul d the result s o f the fiel d investigatio n indicat e tha t th

e visibl e emissio n regulatio n wa s violated .- ,.-!, • P.1 3

2. 1

2

- TRAINING AND CERTIFICATIO NPROCEDURE S •

.'. . I SUMMARY T o becom e a qualifie d visibl e emission s evaluato r th e studen t mus t successfull ycomplet e a trainin g school , normall yo f thre e day s duration, ! presente d b

ya Federal , Stat e o r loca l ai r pollutio n agency , o r educationa l establishment . Th e trainin g schoo l consist s o f a serie s o f lectures , an d slid e an d fil mpresentations , i n additio n t o th e actua l trainin g o f th e studen t t o evaluat e th e opacit yo f visibl e emissions . 2. 2 CLASSROO M WOR K Th e purpos e o f th e classroo mwor k i s t o presen t t o th e studen t sufficien t backgroun d materia l suc h tha t competen t evaluation s o f th e opacit yo f l visibl e emission s ca n b e mad e i n th e fiel d durin g enforcemen t operations , i and t o enabl e thes e observation s t o b e translate d int o testimon ytha t wil l b e admissabl e a s evidenc e i n an yfutur e cour t o r hearin g boar d proceedings . Th e classroo mwor k shoul d consis t o f a descriptio n o f th e Ringelman n chart , the definitio n o f opacity , a descriptio n o f aid s tha t ar e availabl e fo r ] evaluatin g visibl e emissions , procedure s t o b e followe d i n th . . i .eld , trainin g procedures , a descriptio n o f th e smok e generator , source s o f visibl e emissions , th e problem s associate d wit hwate r vapo r plumes, pre- | paratio n o f th e evidence , courtroo mand hearin g boar d procedures , presen tatio n o f th e evidenc e an d som e basi c meteorology . 2. 3 EVALUATIO NPROCEDURE S Th e ai mo f th e trainin g schoo l i s t o produc e a qualifie d observe r whos e judgmen t o f plum e densit ywil l b e accurat e an d unaffecte d b

y variabl e fiel d conditions . T o ensur e uniformit yo f observin g conditions , a s fa r a s i s possible , th e followin g procedure s shoul d b e adhere d to : a . Th e sun shoul d b e withi n a 14 0 secto r behin d th e observe r durin g dayligh t hours . Thi s avoid s th e problem s arisin g from th e forwar d scatterin g o f ligh t byth e particle s i n th e plume . b . Readin g shoul d be mad e a t ri^l H angle s t o the plum e direction , and fro man ydistanc e necessar yt o obtai n a clea r vic^

wo f the stac k an

d background . c . Reading s shoul d b e take n a t th e denses t par t o f th e plum e i.e. , through the cente r o f th e plum e immediatel yabov e the stac k exit .P.1 4

d . Th e studen t should , i f possible , read th e plume agains t a contrasting background , suc ha s blu e sk yfo r blac k plume s o r a dar k backgroun d fo r whit e plumes . e . Th e studen t shoul d no t star e a t th e plume , sinc e staring a t th

e plume tend s t o caus e eye fatigu e whic h produce s erroneou s readings . f . A n indicatio n wil l b e give n b ythe examine r t o the student s t o infor

mthe mwhe n a reading shoul d b e taken . Thi s wil l usuall yb e the sounding o f a horn . Whe n the horn i s sounde d the studen t shoul d loo k u p a t th e plume an d mak e the opacit ydeterminatio n a s soon a s possible . Usuall yth

e contro l setting s on th e smok e generato r wil l no t b e change d fo r a fe wsecond s afte r the hor n ha s sounde d bu t the opacit ycan varyslightl yeve n thoug hth e contro l setting s remai n unchanged . Fo r thi s reaso n i t i s goo d practic e fo r the studen t t o loo k a t the plume an d tak e the reading immediatel ywhe n the hor n i s sounded , sinc e the tim e take n t o accomplis hthi s i s approximatel ythe same a s the time take n b yth e smok e t o trave l fro mthe trans missomete r locatio n t o th e stac k exit . Th e two reading s ar e therefor e take n throug happroximatel ythe sam e cross sectio n o f smoke . g . Reading s wil l b e take n whe n the opacity , a s determine d b y the transmissomete r readout , ha s stabilized , whic hwil l b e abou t ever

y1 5 seconds . Th e operato r o f the generato r decide s whe n the opacity , a s give n b ythe transmissomete r readout , i s constan t an d wil l soun

d th e hor n t o indicat e tha t the reading shoul d be taken . Th e contro l setting s wil l remai n constan t fo r a fewsecond s afte r whic hanothe r contro l setting wil l b e selecte d fo r the nex t reading . I f th e loca l agenc ypermit s it , the studen t ma yus e small , hand

hel d Ringelmann Chart s o r othe r aid s a s guide s i n judging the blac k an d gra yshades . However , i t i s recommende d tha t the studen t no t us e an y o f thes e aids , sinc e withi n a veryshor t perio d o f time the studen t wil l gai n sufficien t confidenc e i n hi s abilit yi n makin g th e observation s tha t thes e aid s wil l becom e o f n o significan t benefit . I f the studen t wishe s t o b e qualifie d a s a certifie d smok e reade r unde r nighttime condition s a separat e tes t mus t be taken . Fo r night

tim e reading a ligh t sourc e i s require d an d the studen t shoul d be posi

tioned suc htha t the ligh t i s immediatel ybehin d th e plume . However , a t thi s tim

e EPAdoe s no t hav e an yapprove d procedure s for evaluating plume opacit yunde r nighttime conditions .P.1 5

2. 3 Normall ytraining wil l onl yb e conducte d o n plume s containing n o condense d wate r vapor . I f the plum e doe s contai n condense d wate r vapo r the observatio n shoul d b e mad e eithe r jus t afte r the point*wher e th e wate r droplet s evaporate , o r i f the stea mplum e i s detache d fromth e stack , reading s can b e take n befor e th e vapo r condenses , immediatel yabov e th e stac k exit . 2. 4 COMPLETIN

G TH E QUALIFICATIONFOR M Ablank qualificatio n for mi s give n belo wi n Figur e 2.1 . Al l entrie s mus t b e mad e i n ink . Th e observer' s name , affiliatio n an d dat e ar e self-explanatory . Th e tim e shoul d b e th e approximat e time whe n th e ru n began . Th e win d spee d shoul d b e estimate d b ythe observe r t o withi n a 3 t o 5 mil e pe r hou r range . I f a n anemomete r i s no t available , th e wind spee d ma yb e estimate d b

yusing the Beaufor t win d scal e give n i n Tabl e 2.1 . Th e win d directio n ca n b e estimate d t o eigh t point s o f th e compas s (N , NE , etc ) b

yobservin g whic hwaya fla g i s blowing , o r b yseeing whic h waya fe wblade s o f gras s ar e blown whe n throw n int o the air . Th e Nort h directio n can b e obtaine d b yreferenc e t o a map . Th e sk yconditio n shoul d b e fille d i n as : (a ) Clea r - les s tha n 0. 1 o f th e sk

ycovere d b

ycloud s (b ) Scattere d - 0. 1 t o 0. 5 o f the sk ycovere d (c ) Broke n - 0. 5 t o 0. 9 o f th e sk ycovere d (d ) Overcas t - mor e than 0. 9 o f the sk ycovered . Th e observer' s orientatio n wit hrespec t t o bot hthe plum e and th e sun shoul d b e indicate d i n th e "Observer' s Position. " Eac hrun during th e qualificatio n sessio n consist s o f 5 0 emissions , 2 5 o f black , o r grey , smok e an d 2 5 o f whit e smoke . Th e run s ar e numbere d successively , beginnin g wit h1- B an d 1-W , an

d continuing wit h2-B , 2-W , etc. , wher e B refer s t o blac k smok e an d W refer s t o whit e smoke . Th e student' s observation s ar e entere d i n the "Observe r Reading " ' columns , wit hreading s fo r bot hblac k an d whit e smok e being entere d i n percen t opacity . Th e student' s estimat e o f th e opacit yi s mad e t o th eP.1 6 ip|i , P|in .

2. 4 Figur e 2.1 : NATIONA L ENVIRONMENTA L RESEARC H CENTE R

RESEARC H TRIANGL E PARK , NORT H CAROLIN A MOK E SCHOO L TRAININ

G FOR M 1

. Nam e o fObserver

. 2

. Affiliatio n 3

. Dat e rime . 4 . Win d Speed

. Direction , Sk yCondition

. 5

. Observer s Position

. 6

. Correcte d B y Recor d Blac k

and/o rWhit e Smok e i n Percen t Opacit y(fo rexample : 5 percen t smalles t division )

PU N NO .ReadingNo.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2ObserverReadingTransmissometerReading+Deviation—DeviationReadingNo.

1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5ObserverReadingTransmissoraeterReading

o "r a > • a > Q 

## +—Deviation RU N

NO .ReadingNo.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9' 1 0 1 1 1 2ObserverReadingTransmissometerReading c _ o r _ > • o _ Q

- r—DeviationReadingNo.

1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5ObserverReadingTransmissometerReading+Deviation—Deviation

7 . Ru n Number 8 . Numbe rCorrec t 9 . Numbe ro

fPlu s Deviation s 10 . Numbe ro

fMinu s Deviation s 11 . Averag e Plu s Deviation s = Su m o fPlu s Deyjiajtion s No

. o fP4u s Deviation s 12

. Averag e Minu s Deviation s = Su m o;- fS'inti s tjpv-iation s No

. o fMinu s flreviations 13 . Averag e Deviatio n -

_(Su m o fPlu s psvjattip ) + (Su m ofMinu s Deviations )

' ToitaFIJJo

. o fReading s 14

. Numbe ro fheading s 20% Deviatio n an d Ove r EPA(DUR)25 52. 5

Tabl e 2.1 : TH E BEAUFOR T SCAL E O F WIND-SPEE D EQUIVALENT S 'T l P.1 7

Genera l Descriptio n Cal m

Ligh t Gentl e Moderat e Fres h

Stron g

Gal e

Whol e gal e Hurrican e Specification s

Smok e rise s vertically . Directio n o f wind show n b ysmok e drif t bu t no t b

ywin d vanes . Wind fel t o n face ; leave s rustle ; ordinar yvan e move d b ywind . Leave s an

d smal l twig s i n constan t motion ; wind extend s ligh t flag . Raise s dus t and loos e paper ; smal l branche s ar e moved . Smal l tree s i n lea f begi n t o sway ; creste d wavelet s for

mo n inlan

d waters . Larg e branche s i n motion ; whistlin g hear d i n telegrap hwires ; umbrella s use d wit h difficulty . Whol e tree s i n motion ; inconvenienc e fel t i n walkin g agains t wind . Break s twig s of f trees ; generall y impede s progiess . Sligh t structura l damag e occur s (chimney pot s an

d slat e removed) . Tree s uprooted ; considerabl e structura l damag e occurs . Rarel yexperienced ; accompanie d b y widesprea d damage . Limit s o f Velocit y 3 3 fee t (1 0 mi ) abov e leve l ground (MPH ) 1

. i 1 Unde r 1 1 t o 3 4 t o 7 8 t o 1 2 1 3 t o 1 8 1 9 t o 2 4 '

2 5 t o 3 1 3 2 t o 3 8 3 9 t o 4 6 4 7 to . 5 4 i 5 5 t o 6 3 i 6 4 t o 7 5 Abov e 7 52. 6

neares t 5 percent . Th e lowes t possibl e reading i s 0 - indicatin g a clea r plume - an

d the highes t i s 10 0 - indicating a completel yopaqu e plume . Afte r the 5 0 evaluation s hav e bee n mad e the for mi s checke d b

ya fellowstudent . Th e opacit ya s determine d b ythe transmissomete r i s entere d i n the "Transmissoraete r Reading " columns , an d the res t o f the for m i s then completed . 2. 5 CERTIFICATIO

NPROCEDUR E Th e smok e opacit yevaluatio n training require s tha t the studen t mus t o 1 3-?rv e an d successfull yevaluat e the opacit yfo r a ru n o f 5 0 consecutiv e smok e emission s - 2 5 o f blac k smoke , an d 2 5 o f whit e smok e - i n accordanc e wit hthe EPAcertificatio n procedures . Th e curren t criteri a are : 1 . The deviatio n o f an yreading mus t no t b e greate r tha n 15% . 2 . Th e averag e deviatio n fo r bot hthe blac k an d whit e smok e run s mus t b e les s than 7.5% . ASmok e Schoo l Qualificatio n For msimila r t o the on e show n abov e i n Figur e 2. 1 i s t o b e use d t o record the reading s an d deviations , an

d t o comput e the informatio n require d fo r qualification . Initiall yther e wil l b e some emission s o f bot hblac k an d whit e smok e during which.time the opacit ywil l b e announce d whil e the smok e i s being emitted , s o tha t the studen t can become familia r wit hthe procedure s an d learn t o correlat e hi s observation s wit hthe announce d readings . Afte r the familiarizatio n period , ther e wil l b e a t leas t on e practic e run o f 5 0 emissions . Following the practic e run , ther e wil l b e certificatio n run s o f 5 0 emission s (2 5 blac k an d 2 5 white) . T o qualif ya s a certifie d visibl e emission s evaluato r the studen t mus t achiev e the criteri a give n above , i.e. , averag e deviatio n les s tha n 7.5 % an

d n o deviatio n greate r than 15% , fo r bot hthe blac k an d whit e smoke . Afte r th

e qualificatio n criteri a hav e bee n achieve d th e studen t shoul d ensur e tha t the for mha s bee n completel yfilled in . Th e studen t shoul d als o chec k the transmissomete r reading s on the for magains t the2. 7

actua l transmissomete r reading s recorde d b ythe examiner , whic hwil l be o n displa

yexpressl yfo r thi s purpose . I t i s als o recommende d tha t the studen t chec k th e arithmeti c o n the form . Th e reason s fo r thes e check s i ar e t o fin

d an yerror s i n transcriptio n o r arithmeti c tha t migh t hav e occurred , whic hwoul d preclud e the studen t fromqualifying , eve n thoug h the studen t believe s i n goo d fait htha t the qualificatio n criteri a hav e bee n met . Afte r the studen t ha s checke d an d complete d the for mh e submit s i t t o the examiner , wh o wil l chec k al l the dat a an d the arithmeti c o n th e quali

ficatio n form . T o thos e student s wh o successfull ymee t the qualificatio n ' ! criteria , th

e examine r wil l sen d writte n affirmatio n i n the for mo f a letter , togethe r wit ha cop yo f the student' s qualificatio n form . A n exampl e o f thi s lette r i s show n i n Figur e 2.2 . Th e origina l o f th

e complete d qualificatio n for mi s retaine d b

y; the examine r i n hi s office , s o tha t i t mayb e availabl e fo r presentatio n i n an yfutur e lega l proceeding s tha t mayoccur , a s evidenc e tha t the inspec

to r ha s bee n certifie d a s a qualifie d visibl e emission s evaluato r b ya. recognize d ai r pollutio n agency . Th e certificatio n i s vali d fo r a perio d o f si x months . 2. 6 APPRENTICESHI P PERIO D Unde r the Metho d 9 procedure s a n inspecto r become s a full yqualifie d visibl e emission s evaluato r a s soo n a s h e ha s attende d a "Smok e School " i an d me t the certificatio n criteria . However , i t i s suggeste d tha t befor e he i s regarde d a s being fully-qualifie d the newly-certifie d inspecto r shoul d demonstrat e hi s abilit yt o satisfactoril yevaluat e visibl e emission s i n the fiel d durin g a n "apprenticeshi p period " unde r the guidanc e an d supervisio n o f a n experience d inspector . Sinc e thi s apprenticeshi p perio d i s no t par t o f the curren t EPApro i cedure s ther e ar e n o specifi c guideline s tha t shoul d b e adopted , bu t i t i s suggeste d tha t during thi s perio d the traine e inspecto r shoul d perform abou t ten fiel d evaluation s o n plume s o f variou s colors , an d i f possible , on a t leas t on e plum e containing condense d wate r vapor . Th e purpose s o f the apprenticeshi p perio d ar e t o demonstrat e t o theP.2 0



### 2. 8

ENVIRONMENTA

L PROTECTIO

NAGENCY RESEARC H TRIANGL E PARK , NORT H CAROLIN A2771 1 Apri l 30 , 197 5

Mr . Kennet hB . Malmber g U.S . EPA , Regio n V 1 Nort hWacke r Drive r Chicago , Illinoi s 6060 6

Dea r Mr . Malmberg : Pleas e b e advise d tha t yo u successfull ycomplete d our recen t "Visibl e Emission s Evaluation " course . Having attende d the lecture s (Apri l 8 , 1975 ) an

d participate d i n th e smok e evaluatio n sessions , yo u me t the following certificatio n criteria : 1 . Th e averag e deviatio n fo r the set s o f 2 5 blac k smok e an d 2 5 whit e smok e emission s wa s les s than 7.5% . 2 . Th e deviatio n o f eac hreadin g wa s 15% , o r less . Thi s certificatio n i s vali d untf. l Octobe r 7 , 1975 .

Sincerel yyours ,

Denni s P . Holzschuh Physica l Scienc e Technicia n Engineering an

d Enforcemen t Sectio n Ai r Pollutio n Trainin g Institut e

Figur e 2.2 : CERTIFICATIO NLETTE RP.2 1

2. 9 superviso r o f the Inspectio n Departmen t tha t the traine e inspecto r i s no t onl ycapabl e o f evaluating a wid e variet yo f source s unde r variou s weathe r conditions , bu t i s familia r wit hthe fiel d equipmen t an d the dat a reductio n procedures . , 2. 7 RECERTIFICATIO NPROCEDUR E T o become recertifie d i t i s no t necessaryfo r the inspecto r t o atten d the lectur e progra

magai n - achieving the certificatio n criteri a o n the emission s evaluatio n tes t i s sufficient . Otherwise , the procedure s ar e identica l t o thos e describe d abov e i n the preceding sections . I t i s recommende d tha t eve n afte r an inspecto r ha s successfull yme t the criteria , tha t h e continu e t o mak e evaluation s o f the opacit yo f the i emission s t o gathe r additiona l experienc e an d improv e hi s accuracy . Th e result s o f thes e evaluation s nee d no t b e give n t o th e examiner . Afte r becoming recertifie d the inspecto r i s qualifie d t o determin e the opacit yo f visibl e emission s fo r a perio d o f si x month s fromthe dat e o f the test . i 2. 8 SMOK E GENERATO R 2.8. 1 DESCRIPTION I n orde r t o trai n personne l t o evaluat e visibl e emissions , i t i s necessaryt o hav e a systemwhic hwil l produc e bot hblac k an d whit e plumes , an d i s equippe d wit ha n instrumen t fo r measuring an d recording th e amoun t o f ligh t transmitte d b ythe smoke . Severa l companie s ar e no wmanufacturin g thes e devices , and a t leas t on e smok e generato r i s no wavailabl e fo r train

in g purpose s i n mos t states . Whit e smok e i s usuall ygenerate d b yvaporizing fue l oi l i n th e exhaus t manifol d o f a gasolin e engine , an d blac k smok e i a generate d by , burnin g benzen e i n a combustio n chamber . 2.8. 2 SPECIFICATION S Th e specification s fo r the smok e generato r ar e give n i n the Metho d 9 procedure s publishe d i n th e Federa l Register . Th e curren t Metho d 9 pro cedure s ar e give n i n Sectio n 1 2 o f thi s manual .P.2 2

2.1 0 2. 9 BIBLIOGRAPH

Y 1 . Conner , W.D . an d J.R . Hodkinson , Optica l Propertie s an d Visua l Effect s o f Smok e Stac k Plumes , DHEW , PH S Publicatio n No . 999-AP-30 , 1967 . 2 . Coons , J.D. , e t al , Development , Calibration , an d Us e o f a Plume Evaluatio n Training Uni t , J . Ai r Poll . Contro l Assoc . 15 , 199-203 , Ma

y1965 . 3 . Sholtes , R.S . Operatio n o f the Mar k II , Smok e Observers ' Training

Unit , 1967 .,

3. 1

3 . PROCEDURE S FOR EVALUATING VISIBL E EMISSION S I NTH E FIEL D

3. I INTRODUCTION Thi s chapte r outline s the step s t o b e followe d t o satisfactoril y evaluat e visibl e emission s i n th e field . Recommende d guideline s ar e include d fo r th e collectio n o f al l informatio n tha t i s necessar yt o . documen t a violatio n o f th e opacit yregulatio n an d fo r us e i n an

ysubse

quen t lega l proceedings . 3. 2 OFFIC E PREPARATIO N I n mos t instance s th e inspecto r wil l hav e sufficien t notic e befor e i makin g a fiel d observatio n t o adequatel yprepar e fo r th e visit . Prepara tio n i s a veryimportan t aspec t o f th e inspector' s work . Th e followin g item s concernin g th e facilit yi n questio n shoul d b e researched . a ) Plan t locatio n b ) Name s and position s o f responsibl e plan t contact s (compan yofficer s o r managemen t personnel ) c ) Typ e and numbe r o f processe s d ) Typ e o f proces s t o b e observe d e ) Proces s operatin g condition s f ) Typ e and locatio n o f contro l equipmen t g ) Probabl e locatio n o f sourc e emission s h ) Possibl e observatio n site s i ) Regulation s applicabl e t o the sourc e j ) Statu s o f sourc e wit h respec t t o an yvarianc e o r exemptio n fro m th e agency' s rule s and regulations . Observatio n i s no t require d i f th e sourc e i s o n a variance , o r exemp t fromth e regulations . k ) Involvemen t o f steamplume , I f any . Th e procedur e i n th e "Condense d Wate r Vapo r Plume " sectio n wil l indicat e i f a steam , plum e migh t b e present , and coul d indicat e a tim e o f daywhe n a steamplum e migh t no t b e present . Familiarit ywit h th e opacit yregulations , an d th e regulatio n exemp- r tion s wil l hel p t o preven t an inspecto r fromdocumentin g wha t h e perceive s t o b e a violatio n whe n i n actualit yi t i s not . Fo r example , althoug h Colorad o regulation s stat e tha t a n opacit ygreate r tha n 20 % constitute s a violation , a sourc e ma yemi t visibl e emission s o f 40 % opacit yfo r 3 minute s ou t o f 6 0 minute s i f i t i s undergoin g proces s modification , star t up , cleaning , etc .-"-~T -

3. 2 The recommende d procedur e i. s t o determin e a vi - n.- . io n regardles s o f plan t operatio n (e.g . fo r Colorado , an emissio n greate r tha n 20 % fo r an

y tim e period greate r tha n 3 minute s woul d constitut e a violation) . I n thi s wa yth e investigato r know s tha t a documente d an d enforceabl e violatio n ha s occurre d withou t having t o fea r a compan yreporting a t a late r dat e tha t th e reading s (in the cas e o f Colorado , greate r tha n 20% , bu t les s tha n 40 % opacity ) canno t b e utilize d becaus e the plan t wa s undergoing a proces s chang e a t the tim e o f the visibl e emissio n evaluation . 3. 3 FIEL D EQUIPMEN T Th e following equipmen t shoul d b e availabl e fo r us e b ythe observer : a ) Hard ha t b ) Stopwatc h c ) Clipboard , not e pa d an d a t leas t tw

o pen s (Pencil s mus t no t be use d fo r recording opacit yreadings) . d ) Geologist s compas s e ) Ai r velocit ymete r f ) Rang e finde r g ) Psychromete r h ) Binocular s i ) Camer a j ) Topographi c map s k ) Necessaryforms , including ampl e spar e copies : 1 . Observatio n For m 2 . Summar

yFor m 3 . Sketc h For

man d Dat a Sheet , i f standard format s ar e used . 1 ) Safet ygoggle s m ) Safet yshoe s n ) Respirato r fac e mas k o ) Pouch , t o carr

ythe equipmen t NOTE : Item s 1 , man d n ar e require d onl yi f sit e condition s warran t thei r use . Th e equipmen t shoul d b e inspecte d i n the offic e befor e going ou t o n a fiel d observatio n i n orde r t o ensur e tha t i t i s i n good working order .3. 3

3. 4 OBSERVER' S LOCATIO N! I 3.4. 1 GUIDELINE S v'

I Th e evaluato r shoul d selec t a n observatio n poin t consisten t wit hj the followin g guidelines : I 

# - 1 : 1 ) Th e lin e o f sigh t fromth e sourc e t o th e observe r shoul d b e . ' unobstructed . 2 ) Th e lin e o f sigh t shoul d b s a t righ t angle s t o th e win d direction . 3 ) ' h e sun shoul d b e oriente d withi n a 14 0 secto r t o th e observer' s .,ack . 4 ) Th e locatio n shoul d b e safe . 5 ) I f the pollutant s ar e emitte d a t ground level , th e observe r shoul d b e a s clos e t o th e sourc e a s possible . 6 ) I f th e pollutant s ar e emitte d froman elevate d position , th e ! . . ; inspecto r shoul d b e a t a suitabl e distanc e fromth e source . I (Se e Sectio n 7.9) . i 7 ) Wit h goo d visibilit yi t i s suggeste d tha t th e observe r should 1 b e withi n abou t a quarte r o f a mil e fromth e source . ' 8 ) Whe n visibilit yi s restricted , th e observe r shoul d b e withi n a distanc e tha t i s abou t on e quarte r o f th e visua l range . 9 ) Whe n evaluatin g emis s on s fromrectangula r outlets , th e ob

serve r shoul d b e positione d a t righ t angle s t o th e longe r axi s o f th e outlet . 3.4. 2 OBSERVATIO NSITE-OF F COMPAN Y PROPERT Y I f a positio n ca n b e selecte d tha t i s no t o n compan yproperty , tha t meet s al l th e abov e requirements , th e evaluato r ma ybegi n th e fiel d j evaluatio n o f th e sourc e i n accordanc e wit hSectio n 3.5 . Th e inspecto r shoul d no t notif ycompan yofficial s tha t a n evaluatio n i s t o b e conducted . 3.4. 3 OBSERVATIO NSITE-ONCOMPAN Y PROPERT Y I f th e evaluato r decide s tha t i t i s no t possibl e t o selec t a suit- ! abl e poin t tha t i s no t o n compan ypropert yfro mwhic ht o mak e th e evaluaj

tion , the n the evaluatio n shoul d b e carrie d ou t froma locatio n o n company property . 

### i I f a sit e ca n b e selecte d tha t i s o n compan yproperty , bu t i s accessibl e t o th e public , th e evaluato r maybegi n th e evaluatio n withou t notifyin g compan

yofficials . If , however , a sit e meetin g th e criteri a give n i n Sectio n 3.4. 1 is .P.2 6

3. 4 on compan

yproperty , tha t i s no t publicl yaccessible , then th e evaluato r mus t obtai n permissio n fro ma responsibl e compan yofficia l t o ente r the plant . Befor e notifying th e compan

yo f th e propose d evaluation , however , i t i s recommende d tha t th e inspecto r take severa l opacit yreading s fro m the bes t availabl e sit e of f compan yproperty . Thes e preliminar y reading s can then b e used a s a compariso n betwee n stac k emission s befor e an d afte r compan

ynotification . I f a noticeabl e chang e i s observed , the inspecto r shoul d record thi s fact . I f i t i s necessaryt o ente r the plan t propert yi n orde r t o mak e th e observations , ever

yattemp t shoul d b e mad e t o ensur e managemen t cooperation . Entering a plant , especiall yfor th e firs t time , can presen t a delicat e situation ; tac t an

d courtes yar e mos t importan t consideration s unde r thes e conditions . Th e evaluato r shoul d follo wthe step s belo wt o correctl yan d courteousl yente r th e plan t fo r the purpos e o f conducting the evaluation . a ) Whe n entering the plan t b e prepare d t o stat e you r name , affiliatio n an

d position , an

d hav e identificatio n avail

abl e fo r presentation . b ) Stat e the natur e o f you r visi t an d reques t an intervie w wit ha compan

yoffice r o r responsibl e employe e o f the company . c ) Describ e t o the compan yrepresentativ e the natur e o f wor k o r dutie s yo u inten d t o perfor

mo n the premise s an d reques t thei r permissio n t o d o so . d ) Shoul d yo u mee t wit hrefusal , an d i f attempt s t o discus s the situatio n ar e unsuccessful , contac t you r offic e fo r furthe r instructions . e ) Shoul d yo u b e give n permissio n t o procee d t o a specifi c are a withou t escort , as k fo r direction s an d g o ther e directly . f ) Spen d a s littl e time a s possibl e wit hentranc e procedure s s o a s no t t o become liabl e t o charge s o f "interfering wit h compan ywork. " g ) D o no t sign an

ydocuments , suc ha s liabilit ywaiver s o r others , tha t ar e condition s fo r your presenc e on th e compan

y premises . Discussio n betwee n you r responsibl e office r an d th e plan t officia l ar e the bes t mean s o f resolving an y problem s tha t migh t aris e i n thi s matter . h ) Maintai n a business-lik e an d cordia l relationshi p wit h compan yofficial s an

d employee s a t al l times . i ) Th e evaluato r shoul d take not e o f the lengt ho f tim e h e i s kep t waiting , cooperatio n an d attitud e o f plan t personnel , an d an ychange s i n operating condition s whic hma yresul t fro

m hi s presence . Th e latte r ma yaffec t the credibilit yo f the 

# J• I T

3 . 5 j i evaluator' s finding s shoul d h e late r b e aske d abou t thes e [ condition s durin g th e presentatio n o f testimony . I j ) Recor d th e name , titl e and telephon e numbe r o f th e company officia l and not e th e tim e tha t th e officia l wa s informe d j tha t a n evaluatio n wa s t o b e conducted . Th e inspector' s ultimat e objectiv e i s th e improvemen t o f th e ambien t ai r qualit yb

yensurin g tha t source s emi t pollutant s i n complianc e wit h th e regulations . Thi s objectiv e ca n b e achieve d muc hmor e readil ywit h th e willin g cooperatio n o f th e company . Th e visibl e emission s evaluatio n , afford s th e inspecto r a n opportunit yt o engag e i n som e "publi c relations " work . Th e inspecto r shoul d therefor e endeavo r t o maintai n a polite , ye t professional , attitud e whil e h e i s o n compan ypremises . 3. 5 EVALUATIONPROCEDURE S i 3.5. 1 OBSERVATIO NFORM S 

### I Onc e a suitabl e observatio n sit e ha s bee n selecte d th e inspecto r shoul d begi n th e evaluatio n o f th e source , recordin g al l th e pertinen t informatio n o n a n approve d se t o f forms . Tw o set s o f form s ar e include d i n th e manual : 1 ) Thos e form s tha t appeare d i n th e Federa l Register , Volum e 39 , No . 219 , date d Tuesday , Novembe r 12 , 1974 , an d include d a s Figure s 3. 1 an

d 3.2 . 2 ) Suggeste d alternativ e forms , include d a s Figure s 3. 3 and 3.4 . Th e form s i n th e Federa l Registe r represen t th e approve d form s t o b e use d whe n makin g a visua l determinatio n o f opacit ya t th e tim e thi s manua l wa s written . Althoug h Metho d 9 , th e referenc e metho d fo r visua l determina-j

tio n o f th e opacit yo f emissions , ha s bee n finalized , EP Ai s stil l consi

derin g additiona l change s t o th e observatio n time , an d th e metho d o f evaluatin g exceptio n period s an d non-consecutiv e violations . Th e form s include d a s Figure s 3. 3 and 3. 4 hav e bee n propose d a s possibl e improvement s t o th e Federa l Registe r forms . Th e form s tha t appea r i n an ysubsequen t issue s o f th e Federa l Registe r shoul d b e use d fo r recordin g th e fiel d data . 3.5. 2 TYPE S O F OPACIT Y REGULATION S A t th e presen t tim e ther e ar e two type s o f opacit yregulation s i n use . Thes e ar e base d o n th e followin g concepts :

i ,.,i .FIGUR E 3. 1 OBSERVATIO N RECORD PAGE . .OF . COXPANY LOCAT.C

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FEDERA L REGISTER

, VO L 39 , NO . 219—TUESDAY , NOVEMBE RIJ , 197 4FIGUR E 3. 2 RECOR DO F VISUAL DETERMINATION O f OPACIT Y PAG E e f

a tn 5 COMPANY ^

LOCATION TES T NUMBER . DAT E TYP E FACILIT Y CONTRO L DEVIC E HOUR S O F 03SERVATI0N _ OBSERVE R 03SERVERCERTIFICATION

D. " OBSERVE RAFFILIATION POINT O F EMISSION S HEIGif r OF DISCHARG E POIN T

o r z o

> z o < CLOC KTIM E

OBSERVE RLOCATION Distanc e t o Discharg e Directio nfro

m Discharg e Heigh t o f Observatio nPoin t BACKGROUNDDESCRIPTION WEATHE RCONDITION S KindDirectio n HindSpee d Ambient Temperatur e SK Y CONDITION

S (clear , overcast , %clouds , etc. ) PLUM EDESCRIPTIO

N Colo r

— Distance-Visibl e OTHE RI'lFOOTIO U Initia l Fina l SUMMAR Y O FAVERAG EOPACIT Y Se t Numbe r T'rr

.

Start-En d Oracit y S-J. i Averag e

Reading s range dfrom 

### t

o % opacit y Th e sourc e v/as/was no t tnconplianc e wit h th e time evaluatio nwa s made . 

### a tP.3 0

Figur e 3.3 : VISIBL E EMISSIONOBSERVATIO NFORM Sourc e Nam e Observe r Addres s Dat e

Observatio n Point : 

## i Stack : Distanc e FromHeigh t Wind : Spee d Directio n Sk yCondition : Colo r o f Emission : Ambien t Temp : DryBul b ° F

We t Bul b ° F Relativ e Humidity : Obt , :rvation bega n Ende d Observer' s Signature : Certificatio n Date : Comments : 

# 1 1 " 

# 1 o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 0

2 9 1 5 3 0 4 5 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 T O J O 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 5 9 0 1 5 3 0 4 5

iFigur e 3.4 : RECOR DO F VISUA L DETERMINATIO NO F OPACIT Y Pag e o f COMPAN Y LOCATION TES T KUM3F. R DAT E TYP E FACILIT Y CONTRO L DEVIC E HOUR S O F OBSERVATIO N OBSERVE R OBSERVE R CERTIFICATIO NDAT E OBSERVE R AFFILIATIO N POINT O F EMISSION S HEIGH T O F DISCHARG E POIN T

NOTE : Recor d the followin g informatio n prio r to , an d upo n corapletion of , observation s -i t eac h source . I f observation s ar e mad e ove r a n extende d perio d o f time , additiona l recording s shoul d b e made , a s applicabl e

Cloc k Tim e Distanc e t o Discharg e (ft. ) Directio n fro

mDischarg e Heigh t o f Observatio n Poin t (ft. ) METEOROLOGICA L CONDITIONS : Aabien t Tem

p (°F ) Dr yBulb/We t Bul b Relativ e Humidit y% Win d Directio n Wind Spee d (mph ) SK Y CONDITIONS : iClou d Cove r PLUM E DESCRIPTION : Colo r Distanc e Visibl e (ft. ) Othe r dat a Initia l

^ ^ ^ Fina l

^ ^ SUMMAR Y O F READING S

Opacit y No . o f Reading s Frequenc y% 0-2 0 21-3 0 31-4 0 41-6 0 61-8 0 81-10 0 -Tota l

i ! i 1 Reading s ove r % . Averag e Opacit y= Reading s range d fro mt o % opacity . Opacit yexceede d Regulation : X fo r min s

T JP.3 2

3.1 0

a ) Opacit yi s t o be average d ove r a specifie d tim e period—si x minute s i n the curren t Metho d 9 procedures—an d thi s averag e opacit yi s compare d t o th e regulatio n limit . b ) Ther e i s n o need.t o averag e the observe d opacities—an yob

served opacit ytha t i s greate r tha n the regulatio n limi t constitute s a violation . Usuall yth

e opacit yregulatio n wil l permi t the sourc e t o emi t visibl e emission s greate r than the regulatio n limi t fo r a specifie d tim e interval—ofte n thi s exemptio n period i s thre e minute s i n a on e hou r period . Figure s 3. 1 an

d 3. 2 ar e used i f the "averag e opacity " concep t i s employed . Figure s 3. 3 an

d 3. 4 ar e used i f the "time " concep t i s employed . 3.5. 3 OBSERVATIONAL DAT A Th e inspecto r shoul d begi n the evaluatio n b yrecording th e sourc e identificatio n parameters , sit e locatio n an d ambien t weathe r condition s o n th e observatio n forms , Figure s 3. 1 an d 3.2 , o r Figure s 3. 3 an d 3.4 . Aphotographo f the sourc e shoul d b e take n a t thi s point . 3.5. 4 PROCEDURE S FOR READIN G STEA M PLUME S Thi s sectio n describe s procedure s fo r reading stea mplumes . Th e natur e o f stea

mplume s i s treate d i n detai l i n Volume II . Chapte r 5 treat s the source s o f stea mplumes , ho wthe

ycan be eliminate d an d ho wt o us e a psychrometri c chart . 3.5.4. 1 ATTACHE D STEA M PLUME S Whe n condense d wate r vapo r i s presen t withi n the plume a s i t emerge s fro mth e emissio n outlet , opacit yobservation s shoul d b e mad e beyon d th e poin t i n th e plume a t whic hcondense d wate r vapo r i s n o longe r visible . Th e observe r shoul d record th e approximat e distanc e fromth e emissio n outle t t o the poin t i n the plume a t whic hth e observation s ar e made .3.1 1

3.5.4. 2 DETACHE D STEAM PLUME S j Whe n wate r vapo r i n th e plum e condense s and become s visibl e a t a dis

tinc t distanc e fro mth e emissio n outlet , th e opacit yo f emission s shoul d b e evaluate d a t th e emissio n outle t prio r t o th e condensatio n o f wate r vapo r an d th e formatio n o f th e stea mplume . I

3.5.4. 3 RECORDIN G PRESENC E O F STEA M PLUME S I f th e form s i n the . Novembe r 12 , 197 4 Federa l Register , Figures3. 1 an d 3.2 , ar e used , a chec k mar k shoul d b e place d i n th e appropriat e bo x t o denot e th e presenc e o f a stea mplume . I f ti- e suggeste d alternativ e forms , Figure s 3. 3 an d 3. 4 ar e used , a .ndicatin g th e presenc e o f a r b e mad e i n th e "Comments " section . not e indicatin g th e presenc e o f a n attache d o r detache d stea mplum e shoul d

3.5. 5 RECORDIN G OBSERVATION S ) Observation s shoul d b e mad e a t th e poin t o f greates t opacit yinithat s portio n o f th e plum e wher e condense d wate r vapo r i s no t present . Th e ob

serve r shoul d not loo k continuousl ya t th e plume , sinc e thi s ca n lea d t o ey e fatigue , bu t instea d shoul d observ e an d evaluat e th e plum e momentaril y a t 15-secon d intervals . 3.5. 6 NUMBE R O F READING S I n orde r t o mee t th e requirement s o f EP Ametho d 9 , th e require d Inumbe r o f reading s i s a s follows : 1 ) I n al l cases , a minimu mo f 2 4 reading s must b e take n corres pondin g t o si x minute s o f observation . 2 ) I n case s wher e th e regulatio n permit s a n exemptio n perio d fo r exces s emissions , a minimu mo f 24 observation s mus t b e recorde d ove r an d abov e th e numbe r o f reading s equa l t o th e permissibl e exemptio n period . Fo r example , i f th e regula

latio n permit s 3 minute s o f exces s emission s i n anyhour , ; a minimu mo f 1 2 reading s ( 3 minutes ) plu s 24 reading s ( 6 i minutes ) mus t b e recorded . Tha t is , a tota l o f 3 6 reading s [ ( 9 minutes ) mus t b e recorde d i n orde r t o establis ha singl e six-minut e averag e fo r tha t hour . Whil e i t i s a simpl e matte r t o establis hth e minimu mnumbe r o f i reading s necessar yt o mee t th e requirement s o f Metho d 9 , i t i s not a simpl e matte r t o establis h th e numbe r o f reading s necessar yt o documen tP.3 4

3.1 2

an enforceabl e violatio n o f the opacit yregulations . Whethe r ther e i s sufficien t proo f tha t a violatio n di d occu r wil l depen d upo n th

e amoun t o f evidenc e collecte d i n the field . Th e mor e reading s above th e regula

l Io n limit , tha t ;irc

_ obnerved , th

e stronge r wil l b e th e ensuing cas e i f the result s o f th

e evaluatio n ar e used a s evidenc e a t an ysubsequen t lega l proceedings . Some guideline s t o ai d i n thi s matte r ar e give n below : 3.5.6. 1 GUIDELINE 1 : I n mos t cases , the amoun t o f evidenc e tha t shoul d b e regarde d a s tt u minimu

mnecessaryt o documen t an enforceabl e violatio n shoul d consis t o f a t leas t on e se t o f 2 4 reading s wit han averag e opacit yo f a t leas t 10 % above the regulatio n limit . 3.5.6. 2 GUIDELINE 2 : Concerning regulation s based o n actua l opacit yinstead o f averag e opacity , i t i s recommende d tha t befor e lega l proceeding s ar e initiated , the observe d opacit yshoul d excee d the regulatio n limi t b ya t leas t 10 % fo r a t leas t thre e minute s i n an yhour ; thi s i s i n additio n t o an yexemp tio n tim

e period tha t mayb e permitte d fo r exces s emissions . 3.5.6. 3 GUIDELINE 3 : Weathe r condition s during the observatio n perio d shoul d b e take n int o accoun t whe n considering th e numbe r o f observation s an d the degree s o f exces s emission s necessaryt o documen t a violation . Test s conducte d b y EP A(Se e Sectio n 7.5) , indicat e tha t the possibilit yo f a positiv e bia s i s greates t whe n a contrasting background i s use d (i.e . - whit e plume , blu e sky) . I n a simila r manne r whe n a noncontrasting backgroun d i s use d (i.e . - whit e plume , overcas t sky ) the possibilit yo f a negativ e bia s i s greatest . I n fact , the tes t result s indicat e tha t th e chanc e fo r positiv e erro r i n determining the opacit yo f whit e plume s i s essentiall ynon-exis

ten t whe n a noncontrasting backgroun d i s present . Thi s shoul d b e take n int o consideratio n whe n the inspecto r i s determining th e amoun t o f dat a neede d t o verif ya violation .! ' vJ T r'n n

3.1 3 3.5.6. 4 GUIDELIN E 4 : The ncluu l opacit yo f emission s fromthe sourc e can be used a s a furthe r guidelin e i n determining the numbe r o f reading s tha t ar e necessary , e.g . i f the opacit yo f th e emission s i s 100 % a n observatio n time o f si x minute s i n exces s o f th e exemptio n perio d shoul d b e sufficien t evidenc e t o ensur e tha t th e violatio n coul d be enforced . If , however , the opacit yo f the emission s average s abou t 30% , i n thos e area s wher e the regulatio n limi t i s 20% , considerabl ymor e reading s woul d b e necessary . 3.5. 7 SKETC H Areasonabl ydetaile d sketc hshoul d b e drawn . I t shoul d includ e sufficien t detai l t o allo wa perso n wh o ha s no t visite d the sit e t o deter

min e the sourc e tha t wa s evaluate d an d the locatio n o f th e observatio n i point . Th e sketc hshoul d depict : Sourc e Locatio n Observe r Locatio n Distanc e fro

mobserve r t o sourc e Nort h directio n Win d directio n - fro

mwhic hwin

d i s blowing Su n positio n Landmark s an

d nearb ystreet s Plume typ e Distanc e plum e visibl e A n exampl e o f a sketc hi s show n i n Figur e 3.5 . 3.5. 8 PHOTOGRAPH S Photograph s shoul d no t b e take n during th e observatio n period . !The y shoul d b e take n befor e an d afte r the observatio n i s made . Eve n though i photograph s canno t be use d a s evidenc e i n court , the yd o pu t o n permanen t record condition s a s the yexiste d a t the time o f the observation . Th e us e o f a 3 5 m

m- typ e camer a i s recommended , s o tha t good photograph s are ' ensured . Eac hphotograp hshoul d b e identifie d - including suc hinformatio n a s dat e an d tim e th e photographwa s taken , the sourc e an d the positio n fro

m whic hthe photographwa s taken .3.1 4 FIEL D SKETC H

Loopin g Plum e

Plum e Visibl e fo r10 0 Yard s

Observe rX Postio n •*—^

- Date : Time : Observer : Source : Novembe r1 , 197 4

1400-150 0 Rober t Misse n CG E Powe rPlan t Uni t 1 , Sant a Monica , Calif

.

NORT H

Win d Directio n (SE )

Pic o Blvd

. St

. John' s Churc h Uni t 1 Uni t 2

Observer' s Locatio n 14t h Stree t Powe rPlan t Propert yLin e

Comments : N o stea m plum e visibl e

Observatio n mad e fro m St

. John' s Churc h parkin g lot

.

l'lgurt

- 3.5 : FIEL D SKETC HT T

3.1 5

3.5. 9 NUMBE R O F OBSERVER S Onl yon e inspecto r shoul d evaluat e a give n sourc e during an ygive n period o f time . I n case s wher e the sourc e i s continuall yevaluate d an d reevaluate d ove r extende d period s o f time (day s an d months) , i t i s accep table , indeed preferable , t o hav e differen t inspector s performthe evalua- * tions . 3.5.1 0 DAT

AREDUCTIO

N 3.5.10. 1 DAT

AREDUCTIO

N- "AVERAG E OPACITY " CONCEP T Opacit yi s determine d a s an averag e o f al l the reading s take n oye r a tim e period corresponding t o the applicabl e standard . Fo r example , fo r a si x minut e standard , the opacit yi s define d a s the averag e o f a "set " o f an y2 4 consecutiv e reading s take n ove r a si x minut e perio d a t 1 5 secon d intervals . Th e observation s recorde d o n the observatio n record sheet , Figur e 3. 1 ar e divide d u p int o set s o f 2 4 consecutiv e reading s an d the averag e opacit yfo r tha t se t i s determine d b ydividing the su

mo f the j reading s b

y24 . The su man d averag e opacit yfo r eac hse t i s entere d i n the "Summary o f Averag e Opacity " tabl e i n Figur e 3.2 . Th e set s nee d no t b e consecutiv e i n time , bu t i n n o cas e shoul d tw o set s overlap . 3.5.10. 2 DAT

AREDUCTION- "TIME " CONCEP T Th e opacit yreading s recorde d o n Figur e 3. 3 shoul d be summarize d b y completing th

e item s on th

e righ t han

d sid e o f Figur e 3.4 . 3. 6 SOURC E INSPECTIO N Afte r the visua l observatio n ha s bee n made , whethe r froma locatio n insid e o r outsid e th e plan t property , a n inspectio n o f th e sourc e tha t wa s evaluated , shoul d b e made . T o d o this , th e highes t ranking officia l o f the company , wh o i s readil yavailable , shoul d b e contacted .

• A t al l time s during the inspectio n the inspecto r shoul d maintai n a business-lik e relationshi p wit hcompan ypersonnel . I f requeste d b ythe compan yrepresentative , the inspecto r maygiv e a brie f discussio n o f the purpose s o f the opacit yevaluation .3.1 6

Th e inspecto r shoul d no t unde r an ycircumstance s indicat e whethe r a violatio n o f the regulation s wa s observed , an d indeed a t th

e tim e o f the inspectio n a determinatio n o f whethe r a violatio n wa s observe d wil l no t hav e bee n made , sinc e the informatio n o n Figure s 3. 3 o r 3. 4 ha s t o b e complete d befor e such a determinatio n can b e made . During the inspection , informatio n concerning the sourc e shoul d b e obtaine d fro

mthe compan

yofficial . Thi s informatio n can b e obtaine d b y asking suc hquestion s as : 1 ) Wer e th

e plan t an

d the sourc e o f interes t operating normall y a t th e time the evaluatio n wa s conducted ? 2 ) Ar e ther e an

ycontro l device s associate d wit hthe source ? Wer e the

yoperating properly ? 3 ) Whe n wer e the sourc e an d it s contro l devid e installe d o r modified ? Sinc e a n inspectio n repor t ha s t o b e writte n afte r the evaluatio n ha s bee n made , the relevan t informatio n abou t the sourc e shoul d b e collecte d an d recorde d i n a standard format . Adat a shee t simila r t o Figur e 3. 6 shoul d b e use d t o record thi s information . 3. 7 BIBLIOGRAPH

Y 1 . Lucas.M,Th e Objectiv e Calibratio n an d Ai r Pollutio n Significanc e o f Ringelman

n Numbers , Atmos . Env. , pp . 775-780 . 1972 . 2 . Marks , L.S . Inadequacyo f the Ringelmann Chart , Mech . Eng. , p . 681 .

1973 . 3 . Stein , A . Guid e t o Engineering Permi t Processing , APTD-1164 , EPA

Offic e o f Ai r Programs . 1972 . 4 . Weisburd , M.I . Fiel d Operation s an d Enforcemen t Manua l for Ai r Pollutio n Control . Volume I : Organizatio n an d Basi c Procedures , APTD-1100 , EP AOffic e o f Ai r Programs . 1972 . 5 . Wei : urd , M.I . Fiel d Operation s an d Enforcemen t Manua l fo r Ai r Pollutio n Control . Volume II : Contro l Technolog y an d Genera l Sourc e Inspection , APTD-1101 , EP AOffic e o f Ai r Programs . 1972 . 6 . Weisburd , M.I . Fiel d Operation s an d Enforcemen t Manua l fo r Ai r Pollutio n Control . Volume III : Inspectio n Procedure s fo r Specifi c Industries , APTD-1102 , EPAOffic e o f Ai r Programs . 1972 . 7 . Yocum , J.E . Problem s i n Judging Plume Opacity , J . Ai r Poll . Contro l

Assoc . 13 , 36-39 . January1963 .P.3 9

- ' - " " - - " ' • ' ! | II ! "I I

3.1 7

VISIBL E EMISSION S EVALUATIO NDAT ASHEE T

OBSERVER : DATE :

COMPAN Y DAT A COMPAN Y NAME : COMPAN Y ADDRESS : COMPAN Y CONTACT : TELEPHONE :

SOURC E DAT

A SOURC E IDENTIFICATION : APPLICABL E R 1 "-'JLATION : OPERATIN

G RATE : NORMAL OPERATIN

G RATE : CONSTRUCTION/MODIFICATIONDATE :

CONTRO L SYSTE M DATA TYPE : DESIG NEFFICIENCY : INSTALLATIONDATE :

COMMENTS :

Figur e 3.6 : INSPECTIO NDAT ASHEE T -P.4 0 T' T W

4. 1

4 . SOURCE S O F VISIBL E EMISSION S 4. 1 INTRODUCTIO

N Thi s chapte r i s divide d int o tw o mai n sections . Th e firs t sectio n cover s emission. s fro mnon-stac k sources , fo r example , cok e oven s an d equip men t use dfo r handling variou s kind s o f materials . Th e secon d sectio n briefly outline s man

y o f the source s tha t emi t visibl e emission s fro m stacks . Th e chapter present s a revie wo f mos t o f the majo r source s o f visibl e emission s commonl yencountere d o n fiel d inspections . Becaus| e a n industr y o r a specifi c sourc e ha s no t bee n reviewed,thi s shoul d no t b e take na s a nindicatio

ntha t the industryo r sourc e doe s no t presen t a proble m a s fa r a s visibl e emission s ar e concerned . 4. 2 PROCEDURE S FOR NON-STAC K EMISSIONSOURCE S Man y source s o f emission s ar e commo n t o severa l industries . Thes e include , fo

r example , roo f monitor s o n buildings , crushers , conveyors , screenin

g operations , storag e piles , etc . Othe r source s ar e specifi c t o an y give nindustr

y suc ha s cok e oven s i n the stee l industry . 4.2. 1 ROO

F MONITOR S Man y source s o f visibl e emission s simpl yven t int o the building , particularl y

i f there ar e a larg e numbe r o f smal l poin t sources , an d the emission s are allowe dt o escap e int o the atmospher e throug ha n openin g i n Ch e roof . Figure 4. 1 i s a sketc ho f a roo f monito r showing th e emissio n points . Evaluation s shoul db e mad e a t the poin t o f denses t emissions , fro ma positio na t groun d leve l tha t i s approximatel yperpendicula r t o th e longe r axis . I nconnectio

nwit hthe curren t tren d fo r tightening the existing ai r pollutio

nregulations , some agencie s ar e no t onl yobserving the emission s fro m th e roo f monitor , bu t ar e als o makin g observation s o f individua l point source s fro

m position s withi n th e building . Thi s procedure , however , depend s o

nstric t interpretatio n o f loca l definition s o f "atmosphere" ; Thi s practic e i s no t currently followe

db yEPA .P.4 1



### 4. 2

EMISSION S

Roo f Monito r

Figur e 4.1 : ROO F MONITO R EMISSION S"- ' "!"'" l "if'- '

4 . 3

4.2. 2 MATERIA L HANDLIN G OPERATION S Althoug h th e materia l ma yvary , th e processe s involve d i n th e j handlin g o f man ydivers e substance s remai n essentiall ysimilar . Thes e processe s includ e drilling , crushing , conveying , screenin g an d stockpilin g operation s fro mth e followin g industries :

- rock , san d an d grave l handlin g

- dr yconcret e batchin g plant s

- dee p hoppe r grai n unloadin g

- grai n dryin g

- woodworkin g plant s

- abrasiv e cleanin g operation s

- coa l preparatio n plant s

- fertilize r plant s

- lim e plant s

- minin g operation s 4.2.2. 1 DRILLIN G Emission s fro mdrillin g operation s ar e evaluate d a s the yar e re lease d fro mth e drillin g devic e o r th e dril l hol e a t a saf e distance } (30-4 0 feet ) fro mth e drillin g machine . Se e Figur e 4.2a . 4.2.2. 2 CRUSHIN G Emission s ar e release d a s materia l i s discharge d fro mth e primar y an d secondar ycrushin g machines . Observation s shoul d b e performe d a| t a saf e distanc e (e.g . 10-1 5 feet ) fro mth e discharg e point , an d a t the i sam e elevatio n a s th e discharge , i f possible . Se e Figur e 4.2b . 4.2.2. 3 CONVEYIN G Visibl e emission s shoul d b e evaluate d a s materia l i s discharge d a t conveyo r bel t loadin g an d transfe r points . Evaluatio n shoul d b e mad e a t th e sam e elevatio n a s th e discharge , i f possible . Se e Figur e 4.3a .'* F' ' WW.' P.4 3

4. 4

Drilling Ri g

\ \



# V EMISSION S

Figur e 4.2a : ROC K DRILLIN G EMISSION S

Crushe r ./ / 

# 7

\__Z 7 c . EMISSION S Conveyo r



# o o o u 

# ""O " J)

Figur e 4.2b : CRUSHIN G EMISSION S

### 4. 5 P.4 4



# o

Conveyor s EMISSION S



# O X)

Hoppe r / EMISSION S

EMISSION S

Scree n _~-

— EMISSION S

Figur e 4.3a : CONVEYING-SCREENIN G EMISSION S

EMISSION S Conveyo r



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Figur e 4.3b : STORAG E EMISSION SP.4 5

4. 6 4.2.2. 4 SCREENIN

G Visibl e emission s shoul d be evaluate d a s materia l i s discharge d fro mthe scree n int o the chute . Th e observe r shoul d maintai n an obser

vatio n poin t a s clos e t o the elevatio n o f th e screen s a s possible . Se e Figur e 4.3a . 4.2.2. 5 STOCKPILIN G Emission s occu r a s materia l i s dumpe d fromth e conveyo r ont o th e storag e pile . Observation s shoul d b e mad e fromgroun d level . Se e Figur e 4.3b . Usuall yvisibl e emission s fromstockpile s ar e no t performe d an d thi s sourc e mayb e governe d b ythe fugitiv e emissio n regulatio n rathe r tha n the opacit yregulation . Emission s fromstockpile s ar e a possibl e sourc e t o b e evaluated , however . 4.2. 3 COKIN

G OPERATION S Thes e operation s ar e foun d mostl yi n conjunctio n wit hthe iro n and stee l industry . Emission s o f smok e an d particulat e matte r occur during charging an

d pushing operations , fro mleak s i n the syste man d fro mstorag e piles . Charging an d pushin g ar e generall ythe mos t seriou s problems . 4.2.3. 1 CHARGIN

G OPERATION S During charging , emission s emanat e from :

a ) charging hole s b ) larir

yca r hopper s c ) larr

yca r contro l system s d ) standpipe s Figur e 4. 4 i s a sketc ho f th e to p o f a typica l cok e ove n showing thes e features . Emission s fro mthes e source s shoul d b e evaluate d froma positio n o n to

p o f the battery , i n whic hcas e a respirato r i s essential .

### 4. 7 ' T \"V7

Larr y Car x Hoppe r N Larr y Car Contro l Syste m | Standpipe Li d

Chargin g Hol e

Figure 4.4 : TOPSIDE VIE W O F COK E BATTER

Y4. 8

4.2.3. 2 PUSHIN

G OPERATION S Durin g pushing , th

e emission s ar e t o be read whil e th e doo r i s i n th e open position . Observation s shoul d b e mad e fro ma groun

d leve l posi

tion on th

e cok e sid e o f th e battery , usin g tha sk ya s th e background . Figur e 4. 5 show s a sketc ho f the oven s during the pushing operation . 4.2.3 3 DOO

R LEAKAG E

. Leakag e can occur fro mbot hthe levele r doo r an d the cok e ove n door . Emission s shoul d b e evaluate d afte r th e door s ar e closed an d unti l emission s diminish , fro

ma groun

d leve l position , using the batter ystructur e a s th e background . Figur e 4. 6 i s a sketc ho f the oven s wit hth e door s closed . 4.2.3. 4 . STORAG E Whe n finishe d cok e i s store d i n pile s larg e quantitie s o f windblow n dus t can caus e emission , a s wel l a s nuisance , problems . REFERENCES : 1 . Weisburd , M.I . Fiel d Operation s an d Enforcemen t Manua l fo r Ai r Pollutio n Control . Volume II : Contro l Technolog yan d Genera l Sourc e Inspection . APTD-1101 , Sectio n 7.5 . EPA Offic e o f Ai r Programs . 1972 . 2 . EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 ,

Sectio n 7.2 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 4. 3 PROCEDURE S FOR SPECIFI C STAC K EMISSIO NSOURCE S 4.3. 1 POWE R PLANTS , REFINER Y HEATERS , BOILER S AND MISCELLANEOU S FUE L BURNIN

G EQUIPMEN

T Thi s typ e o f equipmen t generall yonl yrepresent s an opacityproblem whil e burning liqui d o r soli d fuel s withou t a n adequat e contro l system . Fue l oil s o f greater'than 0.5 % sulfur content , coa l an d hogged fue l o r sawdus t wil l usuall ycreate r opacitie s o f greate r tha n 20 % an

d mostl yi n th e 30-50 % range . A s as h i s formed , i t cling s t o the tube s an d i s a deterren t t o efficien t hea t transfer . Hence , an operatio n called "soot -

### 4. 9 , , r T.M-r- M

Doo r Remove d EMISSION S

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Cok e Doo r Remova l

Machin e Figur e 4.5 : VIE W O F OVEN S FROM COK E SID E DURIN G PUSHING OPERATION S4 .1 0 P.4 9

Al l Door s Closed Leveling Door s Close d

Figur e 4.6 : VIE W O F OVEN S FROM PUS H SID EP.5 0 I i '

4 1 1 blowing " mus t be performe d periodicall yt o remove the as hdeposit . Thi s i s don e wit hai r o r stea mjet s fro

mretractabl e lance s an d the operatio n tend s t o increas e the opacit yo f th e plume . I f a detache d plum e exists , thi s indicate s tha t S0

_i s reaching it s dew-poin t a t some smal l distanc e downstrea

mfromth e li p o f th e stack , an d the plum e mus t b e evaluate d a t the poin t tha t the aci d mis t plume become s visible . |

<• i Orchar d heater s fo r agricultura l purpose s ar e generall yunde r a separat e categoryo f regulatio n an d ar e limite d t o an approve d type j o f equipmen t whic hca n operat e fairl ycleanly . Th e ol d "smudge-pots " an d rubbe r tire s fo r thi s purpos e ar e n o longe r used . Observation s ar e t o b e mad e fro mgroun d leve l according t o the usua l procedure s fo r evaluating stac k emissions . REFERENCE : I Weisburd , M.I . Fiel d Operation s an d Enforcemen t Manua l fo r Ai r Pollutio n Control . Volume II : Contro l Technolog yan d Genera l Sourc e Inspection . APTD-1101 , Sectio n 6.2 . EPA , Offic e o f Air ' Programs . 1972 . 4.3. 2 REFINERIE S I n additio n t o the numerou s boiler s an d heater s i n refineries , th e mai n source s o f visibl e contaminant s are : cokin g an d coke-handlin g (opera

tions ; catalys t regenerator s an d catalyst-handling equipment ; incinerators " o r flare s a s theyar e commonl ycalled ; brightening operations ; ho t asphal t loading operations ; asphal t air-blowing an d grease-compounding . Coking i s usuall ydon e batch-wis e i n larg e vessels . Durin g th e heating cycl e th e gase s ven t of f int o a close d system . A t th e en d o f the cycle , th

e quenc hi s mad e b

yfilling th e vesse l wit hwater . Th e vesse l i s the n opene d t o remov e the coke , usuall yint o a pit . I f th e quenc h wa s no t properl ymad e o r the leve l sensor s malfunctioned , the n heav yvisibl e emission s can b e note d whe n th e tower s ar e opened . Thes e emission s wil l contai n condense d wate r an d mus t b e evaluate d wit hthi s i n mind . Th e cok e i s the n crushe d an d conveye d t o storage . I f allowe d t o become to o dry , visibl e dus t emission s mayb e a potentia l problema t ever yoperatio n and transfe r point . Th e cok e i s the n maintaine d i n eithe rP.5 1

4 . 1 2 covere d storag e o r i n ope n piles . I n the latte r case , i t i s agai n a poten tia l problemi n excessiv e winds . T o carr ythe situatio n further , the cok e i s the n loaded int o truck s o r rai l transportatio n fo r transfe r t o a por t an d a shiploading operation . Almos t al l o f thes e handling operation s presen t a n emission s problem . Catalys t regeneratio n fo r al l the catalyti c cracking an d reforming processe s i s performe d t o restor e the catalys t activit yb yburning of f carbo n an

d othe r contaminant s deposite d o n the surface . Controlle d tem peratur e an

d ai r rate s provid e the means . Whe n th e ai r i s discharge d i t contain s a considerabl e amoun t o f catalys t "fines " an d eve n thoug

hthe kiln s ar e generall yconstructe d t o allo wthe discharg e o f the flu e gase s throug hdr ytyp e inertia l dus t collectors , a sufficien t numbe r o f smal l particle s carr

ythroug

ht o provid e a sever e opacit yproblem . Contro l equipmen t suc ha s an electrica l precipitato r i s ofte n adde d an d man ytime s the discharg e fro

mthes e device s stil l represent s a problem . Th e catalys t handling facilitie s suc ha s conveyo r systems , etc. , presen t th

e usua l dus t an

d opacit yproblem s a t al l ope n transfe r o r discharg e points . System s ar e varie d i n constructio n an d operatio n an

d mus t b e evaluate d during thei r operationa l cycle . Th e thre e genera l type s o f flare s fo r refinerywast e ga s disposa l are : Elevate d flares , ground-leve l flare s an d burnin g pits . Th e opacit y problem s occu r whe n smok e i s create d b yvirtu e o f th e combustio n proces s being incomplete . Whe n ther e ar e inadequat e hea t value s necessaryt o obtai n minimu

mtheoretica l combustio n temperature s o r an inadequat e suppl yo f combustio n ai r o r a n inadequat e mixin g o f the ai r an d fuel , ther e wil l b e hydrocarbo n sid e reaction s wit hthe resultan t productio n o f smoke . Stea

mjet s ar e normall yuse d t o inspirat e sufficien t ai r an d pro duc e the turbulenc e require d fo r good mixin g an d a smokeles s flame . Brightenin g operation s i s the broa d ter mgive n t o blowing a strea m o f ai r throughoi l containing a sligh t amoun t o f wate r disperse d through it . Th e oi l ha s a cloud yloo k an

d i t lose s sale s appea l unles s i t i s "brightened" . Thu s an yai r strea

mdischarging fromequipmen t use d fo r thi s purpos e generall ycontain s i n additio n t o th e wate r vapo r removed , a cer tai n amoun t o f entrained , finel ydivide d oi l droplets . Thi s result s i n an emission s problemunles s some sor t o f filte r o r demiste r i s used .4.1 3 Whe n ho t asphal t (normall ya t a temperatur e o f abou t 40 0 F ) i s loaded int o tan

k car s o r truck s an emission s problemarises , i f th e loading operatio n i s no t controlled . The surfac e o f the asphal t is ! dis

turbed an

d expose d t o the ai r a s i t discharge s fro mthe loading spout . Th e ligh t end s escap e a s a visibl e vapor . Opacit yreading s ca n usuall y be mad e a t the loading opening o f eithe r the truck s o r rai l tan k cars . Greas e compounding i s a rathe r mino r problembu t emission s o f sufficien t opacit yt o violat e certai n rule s an d regulation s ca n b e genera ted . A s the temperatur e i s increased , no appreciabl e emission s occu r fo r the firs t hal f o f th e cycle . A t tha t tim e som e emission s occu r and ! whe n a fina l quenc hi s mad e b yadding wate r a t a temperatur e i n the vicinit y o f 40 0 F some oi l mis t droplet s a s wel l a s condense d wate r vapo r con stitut e th

e element s o f a fairl ydens e plume . Th e condense d wate r vapo r disappear s an

d leave s a residua l plume o f oi l vapo r a shor t distanc e downwin d unde r norma l conditions . Observation s ca n b e mad e fro mgoun d leve l according t o th e usua l procedure s fo r evaluating stac k emissions . REFERENCES : 1 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 579-698 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 2 . Weisburd , M.I . Fiel d Operation s an d Enforcemen t Manua l fo r Ai r Pollutio n Control . Volume III : Inspectio n Procedure s fo r Specifi c Industries . APTD-1102 , Sectio n 7.6 . EPAOffic e o f Ai r Programs . 1972 . 4.3. 3 RESI NKETTLE S AND VARNIS H COOKIN G KETTLE S Briefl ydescribed , thi s equipmen t mos t ofte n i s merel ya larg e open toppe d kettl e i n whic hthe ingredient s fo r a polymerize d resi n o r varnis h ar e heate d an

d a t certai n point s i n th e process , dr

ydust yingredient s mayb e added . Th e chemica l reaction s takin g plac e a t elevate d tempera ture s can caus e heav yvisibl e emission s a t times . Dumping o f th e dr y ingredient s ofte n i s an opacit yproblemalso . An yconvenien t plac e fromwhic hthe emission s can b e observe d i s suitable .py..... . — —P-^3 _

4 . I A

REFERENCE : Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineerin g Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 701-716 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 4.3. 4 SULFURI C ACI D MANUFACTURIN G Th e onl ymajo r opacit yproble mfro mthi s operatio n i s th e S O mis t tha t i s emitte d i n th e tai l ga s fro mth e absorber . S O readil yabsorb s th e moistur e tha t i s presen t i n th e plume , formin g droplet s o f sulfuri c acid . Thes e droplet s ar e i n th e submicroni c siz e rang e an d thu s hig h value s fo r th e opacit yca n occur . Ofte n th e plum e doe s no t becom e visibl e unti l a fe wstac k diameter s downwind , and thi s shoul d not b e confuse d wit ha detache d stea mplume . Observation s shoul d b e take n throug hth e densest par t o f th e plume , whic hwil l no t necessaril yb e a t th e plum e exit . Th e evaluatio n shoul d b e mad e fro mgroun d level . REFERENCES : 1 . Publi c Healt h Service . Atmospheri c Emission s fro mSulfuri c Aci d

Manufacturin g Processes , U.S . Departmen t o f Health , Educatio n an d Welfare . AP-13 , 1965 . 2 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineerin g Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 716 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 3 . Weisburd , M.I . Fiel d Operation s an d Enforcemen t Manua l fo r Ai r

Pollutio n Control . Volum e III : Inspectio n Procedure s fo r Specifi c Industries . APTD-1102 , Sectio n 7.7 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r Programs . 1972 . 4 . EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 ,

Sectio n 5.17 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 . 4.3. 5 PHOSPHORI C ACI D MANUFACTURIN G Th e us e o f phosphori c acid , it s salt s an d derivative s ha s enjoye d a grea t increas e i n recent years . Wit hth e exceptio n o f fertilizers , mos t phosphorou s compound s ar e derive d fro morthophosphori c acid . Phosphorou s i s burne d t o for mth e pentoxid e whic hi s reacte d wit hwate r t o for m th e acid . Exces s ai r i s use d t o preven t formatio n o f th e trioxide . Th e fina l stag e o f manufactur e i s th e hydrato r i n whic hth e pentoxid e react s" ' ' r.i i

4.1 5 wit hwate r vapo r t o for mth e aci d mist . Th e tai l ga s ou t o f thi s vesse l i s saturate d wit hwate r an d can produc e a verydens e plume . Th e concen tratio n o f aci d i n the plume can b e kep t lo wwit ha well-designe d plant . However , eve n thi s smal l amoun t i s effectivel yremove d b yan electrica l precipitator , a ventur i scrubbe r o r a Brin k fibe r mis t eliminator . Observation s shoul d b e mad e fromgoun d leve l i n the usua l manner , bearing i n min

d tha t ther e i s a strong possibilit yo f a condense d wate r vapo r plum

e being present . '

REFERENCES : 1 . Publi c Healt hService . Atmospheri c Emission s fro mWet-Proces s Phosphori c Aci d Manufacture . AP-57 , U.S . Departmen t o f Health , Educatio n an d Welfare , 1970 . 2 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP J 40 ,

p . 734-737 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 3 . EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 ,

Sectio n 5.11 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 . 4.3. 6 SOA

P AND DETERGEN

T MANUFACTUR E I n soa p finishing operation s dus t can b e emitte d fro mequipmen t performing th

e following operations : Additio n o f powdere d an d fin e crystallin e material s t o crutcher s (mixers) , mechanica l sawing an d cutting o f col d frame soap , milling an d plodding soap , air-drying o f soa p i n stea

m heate d dryers , forming an d packaging . Emission s fro mthes e operation s ar e generall yno t extremel ydens e an d maybe margina l o r verylowkey . However , the grinding o f soa p chips , pneumati c conveying o f powders , an d spra ydrying operation s wil l generall ycaus e emission s o f excessiy e 'opaci

ties . Th e oleu

mo r fuming sulfuri c aci d use d i n detergen t manufactur e produce s a dens e mis t whe n displace d vapor s ar e allowe d t o escap e int o the atmosphere . Thus , dens e whit e 100 % opacit yemission s ca n b e see n from the vent s o f storag e tank s an d proces s vessel s during filling operation s wit holeum . The receiving , storag e an d batching o f the variou s dr yingredient s a s wel l a s pneumati c conveying , creat e dus t an d opacit yproblems . Dus t emission s occu r during mixing an d batching a t the scal e hoppers , mixer s4.1 6

an d th e crutcher . OI.HITV.-I L ion s can be mad e i n th e usua l manner . REFERENCES : 1 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 737-749 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 2 . EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 ,

Sectio n 5.15 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 . 4.3. 7 GLAS S MANUFACTURIN G Soda-lime glas s constitute s abou t 9 0 percen t o f the tota l productio n o f commercia l glass . I t i s produce d o n a massiv e scal e i n large , direct

fired , continuou s meltin g furnaces . Mos t othe r type s ar e produce d i n smal l batc hfurnace s an

d ar e a mino r problemcompare d t o soda-lime glas s pro duction . Silic a sand , dr

ypowders , granula r oxides , carbonates , culle t (broken recycle d glass) , an d othe r ra

wmaterial s ar e transferre d fromrail

roa d hoppe r car s t o storag e bins . Thes e material s ar e the n batch-weighe d an d blende d i n a mixer . Th e mixe d batc hi s the n conveye d t o the feeder s attache d t o the side s o f the furnace . Apotentia l opacit yproblemexist s whereve r the dus t fromthes e operation s can b e seen . A s the feeder s suppl ythe dr ymaterial s previousl yblended , the y floa t upo n the molte n glas s i n the furnac e unti l the ymelt . Carbonate s decompose , releasing C0

_i n th e for mo f bubbles . Volatilize d particulates , compose d mostl yo f alkal i oxide s an d sulfates , ar e capture d b ythe , flame an d ho t gase s passing acros s the molte n surface . Th e particulate s tha t d o no t settl e ou t i n th e checker s ar e discharge d ou t th e stac k an d a visi

bl e whit e plume i s formed . Th e molte n glas s goe s t o the forming machine s wher e the . grease s an d parting compound s creat e a visibl e emissio n whic hcan b e a ver ysignifican t source . Observation s ar e mad e i n the usua l manner .P.5 6

. , n,

4.1 7 REFERENCES : Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-4(p , p . 765-782 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973. . EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 , Sectio n 8.13 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 . 4.3. 8 FRI T SMELTER S Cerami c coating s ar e wate r suspension s o f groun d fri t an

d cla yan d ar e use d on glass , potter yo r metal . The fri t i s prepare d b yfusin g variou s mineral s i n a smelte r an d the n quenching th

e molte n materia l wit hai r o r water . The therma l shoc k shatter s th

e solidifie d materia l int o smal l glas s particle s calle d "frit" . The fri t i s drie d an d pu t int o a bal l mil l an d groun d wit hsome othe r materials . Cerami c sli p i s the n prepare d b ysuspending the groun d fri t i n a mixtur e o f wate r an d clay . The sli p i s applie d t o the meta l o r glas s o r potterysurfac e an d fired i n a kiln . Significan t visibl e dus t an d fume emission s ma yo r mayno t b e presen t depending o n th e batc hcomposition . Ther e mos t generall yar e some visibl e emission s whe n charging . Othe r emission s come fromcondense d metalli c oxid e fume s tha t hav e volatilize d fro mth e molte n batch . The y ofte n contai n a minera l dus t carryove r i n addition . Some glas s fiber s ar e release d an

d contribut e t o th e opacit yo f the emissions . Observation s can be mad e i n th e usua l manner . REFERENCES : 1 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 788-804 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 2 ; EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 ,

Sectio n 8.12 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 . 4.3. 9 FOO D PROCESSIN G Food processing include s suchoperation s a s slaughtering , smoking , 1 

### I drying , cooking , baking , frying , boiling , dehydrating , hydrogenating , fermenting , distilling , curing , ripening , roasting , broiling , barbecuijng , canning , freezing , enriching an d packaging . Obviousl ysome produc e la'rg e volume s o f visibl e contaminant s an d other s onl yinsignifican t amounts . TwoFL52 L

4 . J H o f th e mor e troublesome operation s wii l be discussed . 4.3.9. 1 MEA

T SMOKIN

G Smok e i s normall ygenerate d fromhardwoo d t o provid e a smok y atmospher e fo r the purpos e o f partiall ycooking , curin g an d adding flavo r t o ham , bacon , wieners , etc . Acertai n amoun t o f th e smok e i s exhauste d continuousl yfro

mbot hatmospheri c an d recirculating typ e smok e houses . Unfortunatel ythe particulate s ar e i n a submicro n siz e rang e wher e ligh t scattering i s maximum . Thes e exhaus t plume s can periodicall yb e expecte d t o excee d 40 % opacity . 4.3.9. 2 FIS H MEAL DRIER S Excessiv e visibl e ai r contaminant s can b e create d i n fis hmea l drier s b

yth e overheating o f mea l an d volatilizatio n o f low-boiling oil s an d othe r organi c compounds . Smok e i s mor e likel yt o be emitte d fro m direct-fire d drier s than fro msteam-tub e units . Drier s operate d i n the 200-30 0 F rang e o f the ga s discharg e temperatur e can b e expecte d t o produc e a visibl e plume . Additio n o f certai n lowboiling material s t o drie r feedstock s can als o creat e visibl e emission s whe n ther e i s essen tiall yn o overheating o f mea l i n the drier . Observation s fo r thes e source s maybe m^.d e i n the usua l manner . REFERENCES : 1 . Publi c Healt hService . Ai r Pollutio n i n the Coffe e Roasting Industry .

AP-9.U.S . Departmen t o f Health , Educatio n an d Welfare , 1964 . 2 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 788-812 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 3 . EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 ,

Sectio n 6.6 , 6.7 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 . 4.3.1 0 PAIN

T BAKIN G Man ysystem s fo r the applicatio n o f protectiv e o r decorativ e coating s o n surface s consis t o f a metho d fo r applying the coating . Th e coating i s then cured , o r baked , int o a hard finis hi n an oven . Th e oven s ma yb e batc ho r continuous ; direct-o r indirect-fired ; resistanc e o r infra-re d heating ; etc . A s the initia l solven t o r vehicl e flashe s of f an d the"'" • T VT T

4.1 9

temperatur e increases , ther e i s ofte n a grea t dea l o f smok e produced . Ven t stack s i n th e roo f and ove n doors , o r opening s i n th e oven s o f th e continuou s type , ar e source s o f visibl e emissions . Observation s ma yb e mad e i n th e usua l manner . REFERENCE : 1 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineerin g Manual . AP-40 ;

p . 865-871 . EPA , Offic e o f ai r and Wate r Programs . 1973 . 4.3.1 1 INCINERATOR S Ther e ar e numerou s type s o f incinerator s use d t o dispos e o f wast e materia l o f on e sor t o r another . Almos t al l presen t a n opacit yproble m unles s theyar e properl ydesigne d wit ha n additiona l combustio n chambe r t o incinerat e th e smoke . Bot hsmok e and fl yas hcontribut e t o th e opacit y o f th e visibl e emission s emanatin g fro mth e incinerato r stack . Som e o f th e mor e commo n name s o f incinerator s use d fo r variou s purpose s ar e a s follows : a . General-refus e b . Mobil e c . Wood-wast e d . Flue-fe d apartmen t e . Pathological-wast e f . Brake-sho e debonde r g . Electrica l windin g reclaimin g h . Drumreclaimin g i . Wir e burner s Observation s ma yb e mad e i n th e usua l manner . REFERENCES :

2 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineerin g Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 435-531 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r and Wate r Programs . 1973 . EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 ,

Sectio n 2.1 , 2.2 , 2.3 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 . 3 . Weisburd , M.I . Fiel d Operation s and Enforcemen t Manua l fo r Ai r

Pollutio n Control . Volum e II : Inspectio n Procedure s fo r Specifi c Industries . APTD-1101 , Sectio n 6. 3 EPA , Offic e o f Ai r and Wate r Programs , 1972 .P.5 9

4.2 0 4.3.1 2 HOT-MI X ASPHAL T PAVIN G BATC H PLANT S Atypica l hot-mi x asphal t paving plan t ha s the following components : an oil

- o r gas-fire d rotar ydrier , a screening an d classifying system , weighboxe s fo r asphal t an d aggregate , a mixer , an d necessaryconveying an d storag e equipment . Aggregat e i s conveye d t o the drie r whic hheat s i t t o 250-35 0 F . Thi s i s the n screene d an d classifie d an

d dumpe d int o elevate d storag e bins . Selecte d amount s o f give n size s alon g wit hasphal t ar e weighe d int o th e mixer . Th e batc hi s the n dumpe d int o trucks . Opacit yproblem s aris e fro mdus t fromthe drier , conveying equipment , screen s an

d weighhopper . Smok e come s fromthe mixin g section . Truck s ar e generall yspraye d wit ha diese l oi l t o preven t sticking an d a s the ho t asphal t hit s the diese l oil , i t i s vaporize d int o a bluish-whit e clou d o f considerabl e opacity . Observation s mayb e mad e i n the usua l manner . REFERENCES : 1 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 325-333 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 2 . EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 ,

Sectio n 8.1 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 . 4.3.1 3 CONCRETE-BATCHIN G PLANT S Th e aggregat e generall yarrive s fromthe roc k an d grave l plan t along wit hsan

d i n a sufficientl ymois t conditio n a s no t t o b e a problem . The cemen t dus t represent s the mai n problemwhic hca n b e emitte d fro mth e receiving hopper , elevating equipment , an d sil o i n the receiving an d storag e system . Othe r point s o f emissio n ar e the weighhopper , the gathering hoppe r an d the mixer . Al l cement-handling operating s mayb e considere d i n thi s category . Observation s ma

yb e mad e i n the usua l manner .I t I -l'j- l

4.2 1 REFERENCES : 1 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 334-339 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 : ! 2 . EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 ,

Sectio n 8.10 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 . 4.3.1 4 STONE QUARRYING , ROCK AN D GRAVE L PLANT S Roc k an d crushe d stone product s ar e loosene d b ydrillin g an

d blasting an

d remove d b

yheav yearth-moving equipmen t t o the crushers . Grave l fro

mol d dr

ybed s i s screene d t o obtai n useabl e sizes , wit h the oversiz e roc k bein g crushe d int o variou s siz e ranges . Aconveyo r systemfro

mth e quarrycarrie s th e materia l int o the plan t proper . Th e materia l passe s throughth e firs t jawcrushe r whic hi s se t t o ac t o n rock s large r tha

n 6 inche s an

d t o pas s smalle r sizes . Th e materia l i s then screene d t o ge t size s smalle r an d large r than 1J

_t o 2 inches . Th e under

siz e goe s t o a screening plan t an d the oversiz e t o anothe r crushing plant . Thi s plan t usuall yha s severa l primarycone-crusher s i n paralle l an d severa l mor e secondar

ycone-crusher s als o i n parallel . Th e materia l i s agai n ' screene d an

d goe s t o storag e o f the prope r size . A s the materia l leave s the pi t o r quarryi t i s usuall ymois t eithe r naturall yo r having bee n wette d down . Onc e crushing operation s hav e started , dr

ysurface s ar e expose d an d dus t emission s creating opacit ypro blem s begin . The n a s the materia l move s t o mor e screen s an d crushers , the roc k become s mor e finel ygroun d an d the dus t problembecome s greater . Al l conveyo r transfe r points , screens , an d crusher s afte r th e firs t jawcrushe r ar e potentia l source s o f dus t cloud s wit hexcessiv e opacity . Observation s shoul d b e mad e i n accordanc e wit hth e procedure s out lined i n Sectio n 4.2 , above . REFERENCES : 1 . Stern , A. , Ai r Pollution , Volume III . Academi c Press , Ne wYork .

p . 123-127 . 1968 . 2 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 340-342 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 3 . EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 ,

Section s 8.19 , 8.20 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 .P.6 1

4.2 2 4.3.1 5 MINERAL WOO L FURNACE S Minera l wool , known als o a s slagwool , roc k wool , an d glas s wool , i s merel ysilicat e fiber s mad e i n a cupol a b yusing blas t furnac e slag , silica , an

d cok e (t o serv e a s fuel) . It s us e i s mainl yfo r therma l an d acoustica l insulation . Th e majo r sourc e o f pollutant s i s th e cupol a o r furnac e stack . Th e visibl e portio n i s mainl ycondense d fume s tha t hav e volatilize d from the molte n charge . Heav yemission s ca n als o b e note d fromth e blowchambe r whic hconsis t o f condense d fumes , oi l vapors , binding agen t aerosols , an d woo l fibers . Th e curing ove n mayals o hav e u p t o 70 % opacit yan d the asphal t applicato r ca

n smok e i f the temperatur e o f the holding po t exceed s 40 0 F . Observation s mayb e mad e i n the usua l manner . REFERENCES : 1 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 342-350 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 2 . EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 ,

Sectio n 8.16 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 . 4.3.1 6 PERLITE-EXPANDIN G FURNACE S Perlit e or e i s surface-mined , o r quarried , an d i s normall ydried , crushed , an

d screene d a t the mine . Aperlit e plan t fo r expansio n o f perlite , ofte n referre d t o a s "bloate d clay" , consist s o f ore-unloading an d storag e facilities , a fur

nace-feeding device , expanding furnac e (rotar ykiln) , ga s an

d produc t cooling equipment , produc t classifying equipmen t an d produc t collecting equipment . Mos t o f the opacit yproblem s aris e fro mleakag e i n the produc t handling system

and th e outle t o f the las t produc t collector . Eve n whe n thi s i s a well-designe d baghouse , the natur e o f th e particle s (sub-micron an d needle-lik e i n shape ) i s suc htha t the ycan penetrat e the clot hfilte r an d evolv e a s a n opacit yproblem . Observation s mayb e mad e i n the usua l manner .P.6 2

4.2 3

REFERENCES : 1 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-J40 ,

p . 350-352 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973. ! 2 . EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 , •

Sectio n 8.17 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 . 4.3.1 7 FEE D AN

D GRAI NMILL S Thi s i s strictl ya mechanica l problemo f receiving , handling , storing , siz e reduction , cleaning , an d possibl ybulk-loading fro mspouts . Th e problem s whic hoccu r ar e create d mostl yb ydust . Thi s i s ofte n controlle d 

### ; i fo r othe r reasons , mainl yt o reduc e the possibilit yo f explosions . , 1 Observation s mayb e mad e i n the usua l manner . REFERENCES : 1 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 352-361 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 2 . EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 ,

Sectio n 6.4 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 ; 4.3.1 8 PNEUMATI C CONVEYIN G AND DRYIN

G Almos t al l materia l handling b ypneumati c conveying i s accomplishe d b yne wsophisticated , efficien t equipment . However , occasionall ysomething happen s t o th

e ai r unlocking devic e (cyclone , etc. ) an d emission s occu r i n the discharging ai r stream . Drier s ca n als o b e operate d i n myriad s o f processe s withou t an y visibl e emission s othe r than wate r vapor . However , i f the productibein g drie d i s o f an organi c natur e o r otherwis e capabl e o f being decomposed , scorched , burned , etc. , ther e i s alway s a possibilit yo f an opacit yproblem . Al l drier s an

d thei r gases , eithe r fro mthe exi t o r entranc e opening s |o r vent(s) , shoul d b e scrutinize d an d analyze d fo r a possibl e emissio n o f visibl e contaminants . Observation s maybe mad e i n th e usua l manner .P.6 3

4.2 4 REFERENCE : Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Enginee'rin g Manual . AP-40 , p . 362-365 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 4.3.1 9 WOODWORKIN

G EQUIPMEN

T Woodworking machine s produc e larg e quantitie s o f wast e sawdust , chips , an

d shaving s tha t mus t be remove d fro mthe wor k site . A n exhaus t syste mi s almos t alway s use d fo r thi s purpos e an d i t almos t alway s ha s an unlocking o r contro l devic e t o remov e the materia l fro mthe plume . However , a t time s thi s equipmen t can b e somewha t ineffi c ien t on the smalle r particl e size s an

d a resultan t visibl e plume occurs . Althoughthe amoun t o f particulat e ma

yno t b e great , i t shoul d b e remembere d tha t ther e i s n o simpl e correlatio n betwee n weigh t o f materia l emitte d an d the opacit y o f the plume i n whic hi t i s distributed . Observation s maybe mad e i n th e usua l manner . REFERENCE : Lo s Angele s CountyAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 372-375 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 4.3.2 0 ASPHAL T ROOFIN G FEL T SATURATOR S Asphal t saturator s ar e machine s used t o impregnat e a moving we b o f pape r fel t wit hho t asphal t b yspraying an

d b ydipping . Th e saturate d fel t i s converte d int o shingle s b yapplying minera l granule s whil e the asphal t i s i n a sof t condition , allowing the fel t t o coo l an d the n cutting t o shape . Aver yvisibl e plume containing some moistur e i s generall yexhauste d fro mthe spraying an

d dipping area . Th e opacit yi s create d b ythe con dense d oi l vapo r fro mthe ho t asphalt . Some dus t fro mthe minera l handling an d loos e fiber s fro

mth e fel t als o contribut e t o the opacity . Observation s maybe mad e in the usua l manner . REFERENCES : 1 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 378-390 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 197 34.2 5

EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 ,

Sectio n 8.2 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r and Wate r Programs , 1973 . 4.3.2 1 ABRASIV E BLAS T CLEANING Th e application s o f thi s typ e o f cleanin g ar e manyan d varied . Th e typ e o f abrasiv e ca n var yfromsand , nutshells , and othe r ligh t ma terial s tha t brea k int o dus t easily , t o al l type s o f metal s suc ha s smal l sharp piece s o f stee l wir e o r lead shot . Th e metho d o f propellin g thes e ont o a surfac e ca n b e hig hpressur e ai r o r merel ya centrifuga l throwin g whee l o r eve n a n ai r an d wate r jet . Th e natur e o f th e surfac e als o in

fluence s th e amoun t o f dus t created . Surface s covere d wit hrus t an d scal e fo r exampl e ca n hav e a grea t dea l o f finel ydivide d materia l removed . Blastin g i s ofte n don e i n th e open , but'i n populou s area s a n enclosur e housin g th e blastin g operatio n i s used . Unles s controlled , th e vent s |fro m mos t enclosure s wil l represen t an opacit yproble mfro mtime t o time . Observation s ma yb e mad e i n th e usua l manner . REFERENCE : 1 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineerin g Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 397-401 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r and Wate r Programs . 1973 . 4.3.2 2 ZIN C GALVANIZIN G EQUIPMEN T Zin c galvanizin g i s define d a s th e ar t o f coatin g clea n oxide-fre e iro n o r stee l wit h a thi n laye r o f zin c b yimmersio n int o molte n zin c hel d a t temperature s from84 0 -86 0 F . Opacit yproblem s aris e fromthi s operatio n fro ma numbe r o f mechanisms . I f th e meta l ha s no t bee n properl ycleane d and degreased , a n oi l mis t I s discharge d whe n th e articl e i s dippe d int o th e molte n zinc . I f th e arti

cle s ar e no t properl ypickle d an d rinsed , mor e flux mus t b e use d t o ge t th e desire d coating . Thi s create s mor e fumes . Wheneve r th e flux cove r is ! disturbe d o r mor e flu x adde d th e fume s increase . Som e zin c and zin c chlorid e ar e t o b e foun d :' n th e fume s eve n thoughtheyar e normall yo f ver ylo wvapo r pressure . _.' t i s though t tha t a we t articl e immerse d i n th e molte n zin c wil l for msteamtha t atomize s som e zin c an d flu x int o !th

e air . Adustin g wit h finel ygroun d sa l ammonia c o n th e articl e immediatel y afte r remova l fromthe molte n zin c i s sometime s use d to*produc e brighter ,4.2 6 smoothe r finishes . Althoughonl ysmal l amount s o f dusting fluxe s ar e used , dens e fume s ar e alway s created . REFERENCE : 1 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 402-410 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 . 4.3.2 3 CERAMI C SPRAYIN G AND METAL DEPOSITIO NEQUIPMEN

T Cerami c spray s ar e slurrie s mad e u p b ysuspending mixture s o f feldspar , quartz , clays , finel ygroun d frit , pigments , etc . i n water . Whe n the yar e sprayed ont o metalli c o r potterysurfaces , the overspra yca n be emitte d throug hth e ven t in th

e spra ybooth . Althougheasil ycapture d b ya water was hcontro l sectio n the yca n h e a n opacit yproblemi f no t properl y controlled . Meta l depositio n i s accomplishe d b yspraying molte n meta l ont o a surfac e t o for

ma coating . Metallizing , therma l spraying o r plasm a ar c sprayin g al l produc e a discharg e o f cloud s o f molte n meta l fume s along wit h finel ydivide d oxid e particle s whic har e quit e visible , a s emission s fro m the spra

yboot hvents . Attempt s t o contro l th e emission s wit ha dr ytyp e baffl e o r pain t arresto r wil l resul t i n remaining opacitie s i n th e effluen t whic hwil l b e excessive . Observation s maybe mad e i n the usua l manner . REFERENCE : 1 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 421-433 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 4.3.2 4 STEE L MANUFACTURIN G PROCESSE S Th e tw o commo n steel-refining processe s are : (1 ) Th e basi c process , wherei n oxidatio n take s plac e i n combinatio n wit ha stron g bas e suc ha s lime ; an d (2 ) th

e aci d process , wherei n oxidatio n take s plac e withou t the bas e addition . Thes e processe s ar e usuall ycarrie d ou t i n the ope n heart h furnace , the

1 electri c furnace , o r the Besseme r converter . Electri c furnace s ar e o f thre e types : direct-arc , indirect-ar c an d induction .• p

4.2 7 Visibl e emission s ar e produce d i n the ope n heart hfurnac e throughou t the hea t whic hlast s fro m8-1 0 hours . Aportio n o f the emission s ;i s du e t o th e combustio n o f grease , oi l an d othe r contaminant s i n the scra p alon g wit hthe fuel , bu t mos t come s fro mthe fume s o r oxide s o f the variou s meta l constituent s fromwhic hthe alloyi s being made . Muc h o f the emission s ar e submlcroni c i n siz e whic h lend s t o thei r verygood light

scattering ability , producin g plume s o f hig hopacity . Th e quantit yan

d typ e o f fume s emitte d fro man electri c ar c furnac e depen d o n severa l factors : Furnac e size , typ e o f scrap , compositio n an d cleanlines s o f th e scrap , typ e o f furnac e process , orde r o f charging materials , meltin g rate , refining procedure , an d tapping temperature . Mos t o f the emission s whic har e generate d during the firs t hal f o f the heat , ar e eithe r retaine d i n the sla g o r discharge d fro mthe furnac e vent . Inductio n furnace s produc e fume s wit hthe sam e characteristic s a s th e electric-ar c furnaces . Theyar e generall ysmalle r i n siz e bu t the opacityproblemi s jus t a s great . Th e Besseme r converter s ar e no t ver ycommo n a t presen t havin g bee n supplante d b

ythe ope n heart han d electric-ar c furnaces . I t shoul d b e kep t i n mind tha t i n additio n t o th e furnaces , othe r associate d source s o f emission s ar e the launder , ladle s an d mold s during tappin g an d pourin g operations . Observation s shoul d b e mad e froma saf e positio n using th e usua l manner . REFERENCES : i 1 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 239-255 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 2 . EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 ,

Sectio n 7.5 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 . 3 . Weisburd , M.I . Fiel d Operation s an d Enforcemen t Manua l fo r Ai r Pollutio n Control . Volum e III : Inspectio n Procedure s fo r Specifi c Industries . APTD-1102 , Sectio n 7.4 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r Programs . 1972 . 4 . Publi c Healt hService . Ai r Pollutio n Aspect s o f the Iro n an d Stee l Industry . AP-1 . U.S . Departmen t o f Health , Educatio n an d Welfare . 1963 .4 . 2 8

4.3.2 5 IRO

NCASTIN

G The cupola , electri c arc , an d reverberatoryfurnace s ar e the type s mostl ywidel yencountered . Dus t an d fumes , smoke , an

d oi l vapo r contribut e t o the opacit yproblem . Abou t 15 % o f th e effluen t i s i n the 1- 3 micro n range . Th e dus t i n the discharg e gase s o f th e cupol a come s fro mdirt y scra p an d fine s i n th

e cok e an

d limeston e charge . Smok e an d oi l vapor s ste mfro mpartia l combustio n an d distillatio n o f oil s fro ma greas yo r oil yscia

p charge . Th e othe r type s ar e somewha t cleane r bu t ma ystil l hav e a n opacit yproblemfro mcondense d meta l fume s an d dirt yo r oi l scrap . Observation s ma

yb e mad e i n the usua l manner . REFERENCES : 1 . Publi c Healt hService . Ai r Pollutio n Aspect s o f the Iro n an d Stee l Industry . AP-1 . U.S . Departmen t o f Health , Educatio n an d Welfare . 1963 . 2 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 256-269 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 3 . EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 ,

Sectio n 7.10 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 . 4.3.2 6 SECONDAR

Y BRASS

- AND BRONZE-MELTIN G PROCESSE S Brass , an alloyo f zin c an d copper , an

d bronze , an alloyo f coppe r an d ti n ar e generall ymelte d i n reverberatory , electric-arc , induction , o r crucible-typ e furnaces . Th e visibl e emission s ar e comprise d mostl yo f dus t an d metalli c fumes . Th e particl e size s o f zin c oxid e fume s varyfro m 0.0 3 t o 0. 3 microns . Lead oxid e fumes , emitte d fromman ybras s alloy s ar e i n thi s same siz e range . Consequentl yveryopaqu e effluent s mayb e expecte d sinc e th

e particle s ar e i n th e 0.2-0. 6 micro n rang e producing a maximu m scattering o f light . Some o f th

e factor s causing larg e zin c fume concentration s are : alloycomposition , pouring temperature , typ e o f furnac e an d poo r foundr

y practice . Observation s ma

yb e mad e I n the usua l manner .P.6 8

4 . 2 9

REFERENCES : 1 . Publi c Healt hService . Ai r Pollutio n Aspect s o f Bras s an d Bronz e Smelting an

d Refining Industry . AP-58 . U.S . Departmen t 'o f Health , Educatio n an d Welfare . 1969 . j 2 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 269-283 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973, . 3 . EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 ,

Sectio n 7.9 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 . 4.3.2 7 SECONDAR

Y ALUMINU

M MELTIN

G AND SMELTIN

G Thes e operation s ar e essentiall ythe remelting o r re-refining o f aluminum . Accompanyin g these , operation s are : fluxing , alloying , degas

i sin g an d "demagging" . The meta l i n the for mo f pigs , foundr

yreturn s o r scra p i s melte d i n crucibles,inductio n furnace s o r reverberatoryfur

naces . Muc ho f th

e scra p charge d t o a reverberatoryfurnac e i s covere d wit hpaint , dirt , oil , greas e an d othe r contaminant s whic hcreat e dens e fume s an

d smoke . Chemical s adde d during the accompanying operation s note d abov e creat e opacit yproblem s also . Th e mea n particl e siz e give n of f during fluxing , fo r example , i s abou t 0. 7 microns . Observation s ma

ybe mad e i n the usua l manner . REFERENCE : 1 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 283-292 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 i 4.3.2 8 SECONDAR

Y ZINC-MELTIN

G PROCESSE S Zin c i s melte d i n crucible , pot , kettle , reverberatoryo r electric

inductio n furnace s a s wel l a s i n retor t an d muffl e furnaces . Muffl e fur

nace s can als o b e use d t o manufactur e zin c oxid e b yvaporizing an

d burning th e zin c i n air . Th e visibl e emission s frommeltin g furnace s ar e generall ycause d b y excessiv e temperature s an d meltin g o f meta l contaminate d wit horgani c material . Fluxin

g can als o creat e excessiv e emissions . Zin c vapor s escap e fro mretort-typ e equipmen t whe n th e residu e i s removed an

d a ne wcharg e i s pu t in . A s th e zinc vapor s mi x wit hair ; dens e whit e zin c oxid e fume s ar e formed . Thi s operatio n can tak e u p t o on e hour .4.3 0 The condense r portio n i.s vente d throug ha "speiss " hol e an d althoug

hth e emissio n rat e i s low , the opacit yi s highan d goe s o n fo r 2 0 hour s pe r day . Observation s mayb e mad e i n the usua l manner . REFERENCES : 1 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Mannual . AP-40 ,

p . 293-299 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 2 . EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 ,

Sectio n 7.14 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 . 3 . Weisburd , M.I . Fiel d Operation s an d Enforcemen t Manua l fo r Ai r Pollutio n Control . Volume III . Inspectio n Procedure s fo r Specifi c Industries . APTD-1102 , Sectio n 7.8 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r Programs . 1972 . .4.3.2 9 LEA

D REFININ

G Fo r thi s operatio n the thre e principa l type s o f furnace s use d are : Th e reverberatory , blast , an d pot . Lead oxid e i s als o produce d b ysome lea d refiner s b

ythe Barto n process . Th e po t furnace s creat e les s problem s than eithe r the reverberatoryo r the blas t furnaces . Al l hav e the usua l problem s o f oxid e formation , dir t an d vaporize d metal . Th e unagglomerate d particulat e matte r fromsecondarylead-smelting operation s ha s bee n foun d t o be i n a rang e o f 0.0 7 t o 0. 4 micron s wit ha mea n o f 0. 3 microns . Th e Barto n proces s require s a baghous e fo r produc t collectio n o f the oxide , henc e i t normall ydoe s no t represen t a problemexcep t fo r malfunc

tion an d leakages . Observation s mayb e mad e i n th e usua l manner . REFERENCES : 1 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 299-304 : EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 2 . EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 ,

Sectio n 7.6 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 . 3 . Weisburd , M.I . Fiel d Operation s an d Enforcemen t Manua l fo r Ai r Pollutio n Control . Volume III : Inspectio n Procedure s fo r Specifi c Industries . APTD-1102 , Sectio n 7.8 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r Programs . 1972 .P.7 0

4.3 1 4.3.3 0 METAL SEPARATIO NPROCESSE S Thi s operatio n i s als o commonl yknow n a s "sweating " an

d ca n b e accomplishe d i n rotary , reverberatoryo r muffle-typ e furnaces . Th e materia l consisting o f scra p o r jun

k i s charge d t o the furnace , an d b y virtu e o f differen t melting point s o f the metals , th e desire d meta l can be mad e molte n whil e the other s remai n soli d b ycarefull ycontrolling th e temperature . Thi s operation , a s mos t metal-melting processes , i s plague d b yth e smok e fro

morgani c constituent s a s wel l a s meta l an d meta l oxid e fumes . Observation s ma

yb e mad e i n the usua l manner . REFERENCE : 1 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 304-308 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 4.3.3 1 FOUNDR

Y SAND-HANDLIN

G EQUIPMEN

T Afte r the meta l ha s coole d i n the mold , the san d fromthe cor e i s generall yrecovere d an d mixe d wit hfres hsand . Th e minimu mequipmen t require d fo r reconditioning the ol d san d i s a shake-ou t scree n t o remov e oversiz e particles , an d a mixer-mulle r wher e cla yan d wate r ar e combine d wit hth e san d t o rende r i t suitabl e fo r remolding . I n addition , ther e ma > b e equipmen t fo r cooling , oversiz e crushing , fine s removal , coating re mova l an

d conveying . Emission s occu r a t an ypoin t wher e the dus t fro m san d breakdow

n can escap e t o the atmosphere . Observation s mayb e mad e i n the usua l manner . REFERENCE : 1 . Lo s Angele s Count yAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 ,

p . 315-319 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an dWate r Programs , 1973 . 4.3.3 2 KRAF T PUL P MILL S Thi s i s the proces s mos t frequentl yemploye d i n reducing woo d t o cellulos e fiber s fo r pape r manufacture . Th e larges t sourc e o f visibl e emission s i s the recoveryfurnace , wher e th e emission s includ e sodiu mP.7 1

4.3 2 sulfate , sodiu

mcarbonate , an

d carbo n o f 1 micro n i n diamete r o r less . Othe r point s tha t ar e potentia l source s o f visibl e emission s includ e the smel t tank , lim

e kiln , an

d ho g fue l burning equipmen t whic hi s use d t o produc e power . Observation s mayb e mad e i n the usua l manner . REFERENCES : 1 . Weisburd , M.I . Fiel d Operation s an d Enforcemen t Manua l fo r Ai r Pollutio n Control . Volume II : Inspectio n Procedure s fo r Specifi c Industries . APTD-110 1 Sectio n 7.2 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r Programs . 1972 . 2 . EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 , Sectio n

10.1 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 . 4.3.3 3 CEMEN

T PLANT S Virtuall yal l o f the processe s involve d i n producing cemen t ar e potentia l source s o f visibl e emissions . Thes e include : quarrying , crushing , grinding , bagging , an d materia l storage , althoughusuall ythe majo r sourc e o f emission s i s th e kiln . Normall yther e i s som e for mo f contro l devic e on the kiln , bu t eve n s o i t i s stil l a potentia l problem a s far a s complianc e wit hth e opacit yregulatio n i s concerned . Observation s mayb e mad e i n th e usua l manner . REFERENCES : 1 . Lo s Angele s CountyAPCD . Ai r Pollutio n Engineering Manual . AP-40 .

p . 335-340 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs . 1973 . 2 . Weisburd , M.I . Fiel d Operation s an d Enforcemen t Manua l fo r Ai r Pollutio n Control . Volume III : Inspectio n Procedure s fo r Specifi c Industries . APTD-1102 , Sectio n 7.10 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r Programs . 1972 . 3

- EPA . Compilatio n o f Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 ,

Sectio n 8.6 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 ..,, . r

4.3 3 4.3.3 4 ALUMINU

M REDUCTIO

NPLANT S Thi s activit yi s confine d t o the southeas t portio n o f the Unite d . State s wher e the bauxit e or e i s mined . Importe d or e i s als o processe d \i i n area s wher e chea p powe r i s available . Th e obviou s visibl e emission s come predominantl yfromthe stack s o f the anod e plan t an d the potroom ai r vent s an

d roo f monitors . Floo r operation s suc ha s crushing an d othe r feed preparatio n operation s ma ycaus e othe r emissions . Observation s ma yb e mad e i n the usua l manner : REFERENCES : 1 . Weisburd , M.I . Fiel d Operation s an d Enforcemen t Manua l fo r Ai r Pollutio n Control . Volume III : Inspectio n Procedure s fo r Specifi c Industries . APTD-1102 , Sectio n ,7.11 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r Programs . 1972 . 2 . EPA . Compilatio n o f i Ai r Pollutan t Emissio n Factors . AP-42 , j .

Sectio n 7.1 . EPA , Offic e o f Ai r an d Wate r Programs , 1973 . * " 4.3.3 5 MININ

G Open-pi t mine s an

d strip-mining produc e larg e amount s o f visibl e , emissions . Dusts , smok e an d organi c emission s ar e produce d fro msurface . I operation s suc ha s amassing spoi l piles , loading an d dumping , blasting an d transportatio n activities . Some mine s wil l hav e greate r emissio n potential s tha

n others , du e t o th e typ e o f min e an d natur e o f the deposits . Observation s shoul d b e mad e fro msaf e vantag e point s a s clos e t p th e individua l emissio n source s a s i s feasible , REFERENCE : 1 . Weisburd , M.I . Fiel d Operation s an d Enforcemen t Manua l fo r Ai r , Pollutio n Control . Volum e III : Inspectio n Procedure s fo r | Specifi c Industries . APTD-1102 , Sectio n 7.12 . EPA , Offic e I o f Ai r Programs . 1972 . !P.7 3

5. 1

5 . PROBLEM S ASSOCIATE D WIT H CONDENSE D WATE R PLUME S

5. 1 GENERA

L Plume s containing larg e amount s o f wate r i n the liqui d for mhav e bee n variousl ydescribe d a s "moist" , "wet" , "steam" , "condense d water" , o r "condense d wate r vapor " plumes . Usuall ythe yar e referre d t o a s "stea mplumes" , whic htechnicall yi s no t a correc t ter msinc e stea

mi s define d a s wate r i n the gaseou s phase . Thi s term , however , has.becom e the generall yaccepte d descriptio n o f a plume containing droplet s o f condense d water . A s long a s the temperatur e o f the plume remain s abov e i the de wpoint,—define d a s the temperatur e a t whic hwate r vapo r jus t begin s t o condense—th e wate r remain s i n the gaseou s phas e and ha s n o effec t o n the opacity . I n thi s contex t the plum e i s sometime s referre d t o a s being "dry" . ' Man ysource s o f ai r pollutio n als o emi t larg e quantitie s o f wate r vapor . Whil e wate r vapo r itsel f i s no t normall yclassifie d a s a n ai r pollutant , i t ca n hav e advers e effect s o n the environmen t an d can cause ' problem s t o an inspecto r wh o wishe s t o mak e a n opacit ydeterminatio n of | a source . I n makin g the opacit ydeterminatio n o f a source , th e problem occur s whe n the wate r vapo r i n the plum e condenses , i n whic hcas e the effec t o f the wate r vapo r clou d tha t i s forme d fa r exceed s th e effec t o f the particulat e presen t i n th e plume . Wate r vapo r itsel f i s invisibl e an d thu s ha s n o effec t o n opacity , bu t a s soo n a s condensatio n occurs , the condense d wate r droplet s scattej r ligh t an

d affec t th e opacity . Th e droplet s forme d ar e i n the submicrorii c siz e rang e s o tha t a relativel ysmal l mas s concentratio n can hav e a larg e effec t o n the plum e opacity . Usuall ythe effec t i s s o grea t th e the pllum e i s completel yopaqu e an d the opacit yreading woul d b e 100% . Thi s i s no t a vali d reading however , sinc e i t reflect s the opacit yo f the condense d wate r vapo r plume rathe r than th e opacit yo f th e pollutan t plume . i Condensatio n o f the moistur e containe d i n the plume can occu r withi n the stac k itself—whe n the stea mplume i s sai d t o be "attached " t o the stack—o r i t can occu r some , distanc e downwin d o f th e stack—i n whic hcas e5. 2 th e stea mplum e i s sai d t o be "detached" . I n bot hcase s th e stea mplume wil l eventuall yrevaporiz e a s th e plume i s transporte d downwind . Whethe r th e 1.1 um e wil l be attache d o r detached , an d the distanc e taken fo r re vaporizatio n t o occur , depend s upo n the specific s o f the cas e o f interest : plume , temperatur e an d moistur e content , atmospheri c pressure , temperatur e an d relativel yhumidity , an d the degre e o f mixin g betwee n the ho t effluen t gase s an

d the ambien t air . 5. 2 SOURCE S O F WATE R VAPO R PLUME S Th e larges t wate r vapo r plume s ar e produce d fromcooling pond s o r cooling tower s whic har e no t o f direc t concer n t o ai r pollutio n enforce

men t officers , excep t fro man estheti c poin t o f view . Thes e plume s can caus e foggin

g o r icin

g problem s ove r a considerabl e area , obstructing visibilit yan

d creating a safetyhazard t o automotiv e traffic , aircraf t operation s o r shipping . Wit hthe increasing publi c awarenes s an d concer n ove r the environ

men t tha t ha s bee n occurring i n recen t years , ai r pollutio n agencie s appea r t o b e receiving increasing number s o f complaint s abou t ai r pollu

tion emission s fro

mthe public . Man

yo f thes e complaints , concer n con dense d wate r vapo r plume s whic har e no t covere d b yai r pollutio n regula

tions . Th e inspecto r mus t be abl e t o tel l a t a glanc e whethe r the plume contain s condense d wate r vapo r o r not . Thi s can b e determine d fairl y easil ysinc e a stea mplume ha s a verywispyappearanc e an d th e opacit yde

crease s rapidl yfrom100 % t o 0% . Fo r a dr yplume containing n o condense d moistur e the opacit yi s seldoma s hig ha s 100% , excep t unde r upse t condi

tions , an

d th e rat e o f chang e o f opacit ywit hdistanc e i s no t s o rapid . Th e mai n effec t o f stea mplume s i s the possibilit yo f maskin g the presenc e o f othe r pollutant s i n the plume . Moistur e i n the plume maycome fromsevera l sources , suc has : 1 ) wate r produce d b ythe combustio n o f fuel s 2 ) fro mdryer s 3 ) wate r introduce d b yscrubber s 4 ) wate r introduce d t o contro l th e hea t release d b ychemica l reaction s 5 ) wate r introduce d t o coo l the flo wbefor e i t enter s a n electro

stati c precipitator .'I T

5. 3 5. 3 READIN

G WATE R VAPOR PLUME S I f the condense d wate r vapo r plume i s detached , opacit ydetermina

tion s can b e mad e immediatel ya t the stac k exit , i.e . befor e the wate r I vapo r begin s t o condense . I .I f the wate r vapo r plum e i s attache d t o the stack , reading s shoul d b e mad e a t the poin t wher e the wate r droplet s hav e revaporize d completely . Thi s poin t maybe som e distanc e downwin

d thu s allowing the pollutant s t o become dilute d b

ymixing wit hth

e ambien t air . Th e furthe r downwind thi s poin t is , th

e mor e dilut e wil l b e th e pollutant s an

d th e lowe r th

e jopacit

y reading s wil l become , whic ho f course , tend s t o ac t i n the favo r o f the source . I f th e inspecto r ha s an

yquestio n abou t the quantit yo f pollutant s bein g emitte d b

ya sourc e an

d i s unabl e t o take a reading clos e t o |th e stac k becaus e o f the condense d wate r vapo r plume a sourc e tes t shoul d be ordered . The bes t wayo f handling th e problemi s t o mak e the visi t t o the plan t whe n ther e i s a good possibilit ytha t th e condense d wate r vapo r plum e wil l no t b e present . Using a psychrometri c char t according t o the procedure s o f Sectio n 5. 5 i n conjunctio n wit hestimate s o f meteorologica l an d effluen t conditions , an d a fe wminute s o f computation , wil l allo wthe inspecto r t o determin e whethe r o r no t ther e i s a good possibilit ytha t the wate r vapo r i n the plume wil l condense . Thi s procedur e coul d sav e the Inspecto r a waste d tri p t o th e plan t i n question . A n exampl e o f th e us e o f the psychrometri c char t i s give n below . 5. 4 DESCRIPTIO

NO F TH E PSYCHROMETRI C CHART Apsychrometri c char t i s a graphica l solutio n o f variou s temperatur e an d humidit ystate s o f ai r an d wate r vapo r mixtures . Eac hpoin t on.th e char t represent s on e uniqu e combinatio n o f the following atmospheri c properties : 1 ) Dr ybul b temperature , whic hi s th e actua l temperatur e o f the gas . 2 ) We t bul b temperature , whic hi s the temperatur e indicate d b ya thermomete r tha t ha s it s bul b covere d wit hwate r an d ; placed i n a strea

mo f moving air .5. 4

3 ) Relativ e humidity , whic hi s th e rati o o f th e partia l pressure t o th e saturatio n vapo r pressur e o f water , a t th e sam e temperature . 4 ) Humidit yratio , whic h i s th e rati o o f th e mas s o f wate r vapo r presen t pe r uni t mas s o f dr yair . 5 ) Specifi c volum e o f dr yair , whic hi s th e volum e occupie d b yuni t mas s o f dr yair . I f anytw o o f thes e parameter s ar e known , the n th e stat e point o n th e psychrometri c chart i s defined . Th e psychrometri c char t fo r norma l atmospheri c pressur e condition s i s show n i n Figur e 5. 1 whic h i s sufficientl yaccurat e fo r th e estimate s involve d i n thi s procedur e fo r mos t part s o f th e country . Th e curve d lin e alon g th e lef t sid e o f th e char t represent s th e 10 0 percen t relativ e humidit yline , o r th e saturatio n line . Anystat e poin t t o th e lef t o f thi s line , o r th e pat ho f anyproces s crossin g thi s line , wil l normall yb e accompanie d b ycondensatio n o f th e wate r vapo r resultin g i n th e formatio n o f a stea mplume . A s ca n b e see n fro mth e psychrometri c chart : 1 ) Towar d th e lowe r en d o f th e ambien t temperatur e rang e i t take s ver ylittl e moistur e t o full ysaturat e th e air , an d thu s th e possibilit yo f th e moistur e i n th e plum e condensin g i s ver yhigh , n o matte r wha t th e stac k exi t condition s ma ybe ; 2 ) Th e possibilit yo f a stea mplum e bein g forme d i s smalles t o n hot , dr ydays .

5. 5 EXAMPL E O F TH E US E O F TH E PSYCHROMETRI C CHAR T Th e psychrometri c char t show n i n Figur e 5. 1 ma yb e use d t o deter

min e i f a condense d wate r vapo r plum e i s t o b e forme d fro ma specifi c sourc e i f th e ambien t weathe r condition s ar e known . Usuall yth e informatio n give n (o r estimated ) i s th e ambien t temperatur e an d relativ e humidity , an d th e effluen t ga s temperatur e and moistur e content , th e latte r bein g define d a s th e volum e percentag e o f wate r vapo r i n th e effluen t gases . Knowin g th e moistur e conten t (M.C) , a valu e fo r th e humidit yrati o ma yb e obtaine d fro mth e followin g expression :* 1 H U O c Hnxi o ffi o

n n

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ABSOLUT E HUMID'TY-L Q O F VAPO R Pt R L O O F OH YAI R

S' S ll..:. l ii:,

. .P.7 8

5. 6

Humidit yRati o = 435 4 (M.C. ) Grain s 1

- M.C . L

b o f Dr yAi r whic hfollow s fro

mthe Idea l Ga s Lawan d the definition s o f humidit y rati o an

d moistur e content . Th e initia l stat e poin t i s give n b ythe effluen t ga s temperatur e an d th e humidit yratio , an d the fina l stat e poin t i s give n b ythe ambien t we t an d dr ybul b temperatures . Ambien t Ai r Temperatur e (dr ybulb ) = 7 0 F We t Bul b Temperatur e = 6 0 F Barometri c Pressur e = 29.9 2 inche s Hg Effluen t Ga s Exhaus t Temperatur e (Dr yBulb ) = 160° F Moistur e Conten t = 16.8 % Substituting thes e value s int o the expressio n fo r the humidit y rati o gives : Humidit yRati o = 435 4 (0.168 ) 1-0.16 8

= 88 0 Grain s Lb . o f dr

yai r Th e stat e poin t o f the ambien t ai r i s a t the intersectio n o f the 7 0 F drybul b temperatur e lin e an d the 6 0 F we t bul b temperatur e line . Th e effluen t ga s stat e poin t i s a t the intersectio n o f the 88 0 grain s pe r poun

d o f dr yai r lin e an

d the 16 0 F dr

ybul b temperatur e line . Figur e 5. 2 show s th e tw o stat e point s plotte d o n the psychrometri c chart . Alin e connecting thes e tw o stat e point s crosse s the saturatio n curve a t abou t 11 2 F an d 8 4 F indicating tha t a condense d wate r vapo r plume i s a distinc t possibility . A s the plume mixe s wit hthe ambien t ai r the wate r vapo r i n the plume wil l begi n t o condens e whe n the effluen t temperatur e reache s 11 2 F an d wil l begi n t o revaporiz e whe n it s temperatur e i s furthe r coole d t o 8 4 F .T l H O O C i- (

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ABSOLUT C HjUIOITT-L B O f VAPO H PE R L B O f OU TAI S

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5. 8

5. 6 BIBLIOGRAPH

Y 1 . Buffal o Forg e Company . Fan Engineering . 1970 . 2 . Californi a Ai r Resource s Board . Visibl e Emissio n Evaluatio n Cours e

Manual . 1974 . 3 . Crocker , B.B. , Wate r Vapo r i n Effluen t Gases : Wha t t o d o abou t

Opacit yProblems . Chemica l Engineering , June , 1968 . 4 . Faires , V . Thermodynamics . Th e MacMilla n Company , Ne wYork . 1962 . 5 . Kalika , P.W . Ho wWate r Recirculatio n an d Stea mPlume s Influenc e Scrubbe r Design . Chemica l Engineering , Jul y1969 . 6 . Lee , J.F . an

d F.W . Sears . Thermodynamics . Addison-WesleyPublishing Company , 1955 . 7 . Reigel , S.A . an d CD . Doyle . Using the Psychrometri c Chart . Pollu

tion Engineering , Marc h1972 . 8 . Rohr , F.W . Suppressing Scrubbe r Stea mPlume . Pollutio n Engineering , Novembe r 1969 .6. 1

LEGA L ASPECT S O F OPACIT Y OBSERVATION S P.8 1

6. 1 SUMMAR Y Mos t peopl e ar e unde r th e impressio n tha t "ai r pollution " and mor e particularly , th e law s tha t hav e bee n passe d t o contro l it , ar e o f rat'her recen t origin . A s a matte r o f fact , i n th e yea r 127 3 durin g th e reig n o f Edwar d I , th e firs t smok e abatemen t statut e wa s enacted . Thi s la w[pro

hibite d th e us e o f coa l a s detrimenta l t o health , and i n 130 7 on e offende r w.? s condemne d and executed . Althoug h present-da ypunishmen t fo r violator s i s no t nearl ys o drastic , th e origina l concep t o f th e nuisanc e categor yha s bee n accepted , enlarge d upon , an d develope d int o th e moder n laws . Thes e law s hav e bee n teste d i n mos t Stat e Suprem e Courts, a s wel l a s th e Unite d State s Suprem e Court , an

d hav e bee n uphel d a s legal , proper , an d constitutiona l i n th e contro l o f excessiv e visibl e emissions . Mos t o f th e curren t law s hav e bee n develope d sinc e th e tur n o f th e century . However , Kennedy , (1957) , i n a 50-yea r revie wpaper , ha s summarize d th e accomplishment s o f th e pre-190 7 period . H e state s tha t "th e followin g aspect s o f ai r pollutio n contro l la wrepresen t th e majority , i f no t all , o f th e basi c principle s whic hbecam e settle d an d accepted : (1 ) Althoug h a t commo n law , smok e and othe r ai r contaminant s wer e no t considere d t o b e a nuisanc e "pe r se " th e legis

latur e ca n declar e ai r contaminant s t o b e a publi c nuisanc e and th e court s wil l no t invalidat e suc hlegislativ e acts , provide d tha t th e legislativ e declaratio n i s reasonabl y' clea r an d certain . (2 ) Astatut e o r ordinanc e wil l b e vali d a s fa r a s du e pro ces s i s concerned , i f i t i s reasonabl ynecessar yfo r th e benefi t o f th e publi c welfare , and i f i t i s no t arbitrar y o r oppressive . (3 ) Th e stat e ha s th e powe r t o confe r upo n municipalitie s th e powe r t o enac t ordinance s fo r th e purpos e o f regulatin g ai r pollutio n a s constitutin g a prope r exercis e o f th e polic e powe r o f th e municipality . (4 ) Th e court s tak e judicia l notic e tha t dens e smok e i s a nuisanc e o r a t leas t harmfu l enoug ht o b e declare d a nuisance. " Kennedystate s further : "Generall yspeaking , th e la wo f ai r pollu T tio n ha s see n thes e majo r development s sinc e 1907 .mwi> I. mf^rm v '•

6. 2

(1 ) Th e doctrin e o f nuisanc e ha s followe d i n the cours e o f urban an

d industria l development . (2 ) The contro l o f ai r contaminatio n b ythe us e o f stric t statutor

yan d administrativ e regulation s ha s become quit e popular . (3 ) Th e court s hav e adhere d fairl yrigidl yt o the lette r o f the ne wpolic e regulations . Th e wayo f th e transgresso r ha s become increasingl ydifficult. " 6. 2 LEGA

L STANDIN

G O F OPACITY OBSERVATION S Variou s court s i n the countr yhav e foun

d that : (1 ) Th e opacit yo f emission s mayb e ascertaine d according t o a definit e scientifi c scale , suc ha s the Ringelmann chart . (2 ) Inspector s ca n b e trained t o rea d the opacit yo f emission s o f an ycolor . I t i s no t necessaryfo r the mt o hav e a Ringelman

n chart , o r an

yothe r aid , wit hthemi n the fiel d a t the time observation s ar e made . (3 ) Th e Ringelmann char t ha s bee n accepte d int o cour t a s evidence . (4 ) I t i s no t unconstitutiona l t o forc e a sourc e t o curtai l it s emission s i n orde r t o confor mt o th e ai r pollutio n regulations , n o matte r wha t th e cos t mayb e t o th e source . Th e sourc e mayeve n b e force d t o clos e dow n i f th e regu lation s canno t b e complie d with . (5 ) Officer s o f a corporatio n mayb e hel d responsibl e fo r action s performe d b ythe corporation . A n office r i s no t respQnsibl e fo r thes e actions , however , i f h e had n o contro l ove r the actions . (6 ) Certai n operation s ma yb e exemp t fromthe regulations . (7 ) Regulation s mayb e allewe d t o var ywit h location s depending upo n the loca l problem s an d conditions . (8 ) Evaluatio n o f th e opacit yo f the emission s ma yb e mad e from eithe r insid e o r outsid e th e plan t property . Advanc e notice s o r searc hwarrant s ar e no t necessary .n c h 6. 3

6. 3 SUMMAR

Y O F COURT CASE S , The followin

g ar e summarie s o f some specifi c cour t case s tha t have j give n lega l standin g t o th e item s listed above . i CAS E 1 . AI R POLLUTIO NVARIANC E BOARD O F COLORAD O VS . WESTER NALFALFA' CORPORATION , U.S . SUPREM E COURT , No . 73-690 . (MA Y 20 , 1974 ) The Ai r Pollutio n Varianc e Board o f th e Stat e o f Colorad o challenge d th e Colorad o Cour t o f Appeal s decisio n (No . 71-494 , 1973 , 51 0 P . 2 d 907| ) tha t an evaluatio n o f the opacit yo f visibl e emission s fro man observatao n sit e on compan

yproperty , an

d whic hwa s mad e withou t notifying the company , constitute d a

n unreasonabl e searc han d lacke d the fundamenta l element s |o f du e proces s o f law . I The Board then appeale d thi s decisio n t o th e U.S . Supreme Cour t whic h ruled unanimousl ytha t Stat e authoritie s ar e fre e t o mak e unannounce d i i spection s o n the propert yo f suspecte d ai r polluter s an d neithe r a sear warran t no r advanc e notic e i s require d fo r inspections . Justic e Douglas , i n hi s opinion , als o stated tha t no searc hwarran t i s neede d fo r "sightl s seen i n ope n fields. " The cour t determine d that , depending o n th e layou t o f eac hplant , the inspectio n can be mad e fro mlocation s insid e o r outs|id e ! compan ypremises , i n orde r t o b e abl e t o mak e an evaluatio n fro ma suit

abl e observatio n point . CAS E 2 : NORTHWESTER NLAUNDR

Y VS . DE S MOINES , 23 9 U.S . 486 , 365 , ct . 206 , 6 0 L.ed . 396 , De s Moines , Iow a (1916 ) Thi s i s a ver

yimportan t earl ycas e i n the histor yo f ai r pollutioj n laws . Th e cour t decide d that : 1 . The De s Moine s ordinanc e declaring the emissio n o f dens e smok e t o b e a publi c nuisanc e wa s constitutional . i 2 . Th e Ringelmann Smok e Char t represente d a vali d metho d o f measuring the opacityo f emissions . i 3 . Ther e ar e n o constitutiona l objection s t o the regulations , eve n thoug

hthe compan

yma yb e force d t o spen d a considerabl e amoun t o f moneyin orde r t o compl ywit hth e regulations , o r clos e dow

n i f complianc e coul d no t b e achieved .__-^^_________

_P.8 4

6. 4

CAS E 3 : BOAR

D O F HEALT H O F WEEHAWKE NTOWNSHIP , HUDSO NCOUNT Y VS . NE W YOR K CENTRA

L RAILROA

D 4 N.J . 293 , 7 2 A2d (1950 ) Th e cour t said : "...Ther e ar e n o constitutiona l restraint s upo n stat e action s agains t the emission s o f dens e smok e injuriou s t o the commo n welfare ; th

e onl yrequiremen t i s tha t the regulatio n b e fre e fro mar bitrariness . Northwester n Laundr yCo . vs . De s Moine s supra. "

CAS E 4 : CINCINNAT I VS . BURKHARDT , 3 0 OHI O CIR . CT . REP . 350 , ANN . CAS. ,

191 8 B , 174 . Cincinnati , Ohio . (1908 ) A n ordinanc e whic hprovide d fo r the measuremen t o f the densit yo f smok e b yus e o f a colo r scal e wa s upheld . CAS E 5 : CITY O F ROCHESTE R VS . MACAULAY-FIE NMIL L COMPANY , 19 9 N.Y . 207 ,

9 2 N.E . 641 , 3 2 L.R.A . (U.S.) . 554 , Rochester , N.Y . (1910 ) Th e cour t hel d reasonabl e an ordinanc e o f the Cityo f Rocheste r whic h provide d fo r th

e adoptio n o f the standard o f the Ringelman n Scale , prohibite d dens e smok e during the day , excep t fro mbetwee n 5 a.m . an d 7:3 0 a.m. , an

d whic hpermitte d the emissio n o f dens e smok e fo r 5 minute s i n ever y4 consecutiv e hours . CAS E 6 : PEOPL E VS . INTERNATIONA L STEE L CORPORATIO

N10 2 CAL . APP . 2N

D SUPP . 935 , 22 6 p . 2d 587,

- Lo s Angeles , California . (1951 ) Th e Appellat e Departmen t o f th e Lo s Angele s Count ySuperio r Cour t approve d the us e o f th e Ringelman n Char t fo r measurin g the opacit yo f visibl e emissions , an d asserte d tha t inspector s traine d i n the us e o f th e char t mayb e classifie d a s expert s an d maytestif ya s suc ht o the Ringel

mann numbe r o f a particula r smok e emission , withou t using an actua l char t during th e evaluation . CAS E 7 : PEOPL E VS . INTERNATIONAL STEE L CORPORATIO NE T AL. , CR A265 4 Lo s Angeles , California.(1951 ) Th e defendant s claime d tha t the Californi a opacit yregulatio n wa s unconstitutiona l i n tha t a distinctio n betwee n permissio n an d pro hibition , a s far a s opacit yi s concerne d canno t b e drawn ; o r i f suc h a distinctio n can b e drawn , i t i s draw n i n the wrong place . The y-, p

6. 5

furthe r claime d tha t th e opacit yregulatio n doe s no t appl yt o certai n agricultura l operation s o r orchar d heater s whic h the yclaime d prevent s th e la wfro mhavin g a unifor m operation , makin g th e la warbitrar yi n it s application . Th e cour t disallowe d al l th e abov e claims . Thre e witnesse s testifie d regardin g th e opacit yo f th e smok e bein g discharge d fro mth e defendants ' plac e o f business . Th e defendant s t cl3ime d tha t th e witnesse s showe d n o qualification s sufficien t t o enabl e them ; t o giv e exper t testimon yo n th e subject , an d tha t thei r observation s wer e no t sufficien t becaus e the yha d n o Ringelman n char t wit h the ma t th e timeith e observation s wer e made . Th e cour t rule d tha t th e witnesse s wer e qualifie d t o testif ya s exper t witnesse s an d tha t a Ringelman n char t wa s no t necessar y sinc e the yha d al l bee n certifie d a s "smok e readers " withou t th e us e o f th e Ringelman n char t a t a schoo l give n b yth e Lo s Angele s Count yAi r Pollutio n Contro l District . 1 Th e cour t uphel d th e convictio n agains t on e o f th e officer s o f th e corporatio n sinc e th e cour t decide d tha t h e wa s i n charg e o f th e operation . Th e cour t dismisse d th e charge s agains t th e othe r office r o f th e corporation , sinc e i t decide d tha t althoug h h e kne wo f th e operation s h e di d no t hav e an ycontro l ove r them .

CAS E 8 : PEOPL E VS . SOUTHER NPACIFI C COMPANY , ETC. , C R A358 5 TRIA L COUR T I NO . 57288 , Lo s Angeles , California . (1957) . Thi s cas e concerne d a fir e tha t burne d fo r severa l hour s an d th e opacit yo f th e smok e fro mthi s fir e exceede d th e regulatio n limit . I t wa s no t clea r ho wth e fir e wa s started , bu t a n employe e o f th e compan y wa s awar e o f th e fir e an d mad e n o effor t t o extinguis h it . Th e cour t Hel d / ; I tha t th e compan ywa s responsibl e fo r th e fir e an d therefor e wa s liabl e li n th e sam e manne r a s th e on e wh o starte d th e fire . CAS E 9 : PEOPL E VS . FRAN K BABCOCK , C R A3676 , Lo s Angeles , California .

(1957 ) Th e defendan t wa s th e owne r an d operato r o f severa l apartmen t an d hote l building s i n thie Lo s Angele s are a an d wa s charge d wit h tw o coun|ts | o f emittin g smok e fro mboiler s i n thes e buildings . I t wa s hi s contenition , o n appea l o f bein g goun d guilty , tha t th e statut e wa s unconstitutiona l i n tha t i n Sa n Francisc o wher e ther e i s als o a n Ai r Pollutio n Contro l Distric t6. 6 th e violatio n woul d no t hav e bee n a crimina l offense , wherea s i n Lo s Angele s th

e same ac t woul d hav e been . H e contende d tha t ther e wa s unequa l classification , therefor e the statut e wa s unconstitutional . Th e People' s contention , on appeal , wa s tha t ther e wa s a reasonabl e classificatio n i n tha t in differen t localitie s ther e wer e differen t smo g conditions , differ

ent , problems , an

d therefore , differen t regulations . Th e cour t dismisse d th e defendant' s claims . CAS E 10 : PEOPL E VS . METROPOLITA NSTEVEDOR E COMPANY , CR A3562 , Lon g Beach , Californi a (1957 ) Th e defendant s operate d a bul k loade r i n sucha manne r tha t carg o being loaded int o the hol d o f a shi p emitte d dus t o f an opacit ydarke r tha n th e regulatio n limit . Theycontende d that : (1 ) Applicatio n o f the opacit yregulatio n t o the bul k loade r constitute d an unlawfu l burde n on foreign commerce , (2 ) the opacit yregulatio n wa s no t applicabl e t o opera tion s mad e pursuan t t o it s contract , an d (3 ) the evidenc e wa s insufficien t t o suppor t th

e judgment . Th e cour t dismisse d al l o f th e defendants ' claims . CAS E 11 : ESSE X CHEMICA L CORPORATION , E T AL , VS . RUCKELSHAUS/J.S . APP . D.C . 48 6 F2 d 427 . (SEPTEMBE R 10 , 1973 ) "Th e 10 % opacit ystandard fo r sulfuri c aci d plants , an d the 20 % opacit ystandard fo r coal-fire d stea mgenerators , wer e challenge d o n ground s identica l t o the Portlan d Cemen t Associatio n cas e discusse d belo w i.e . the standard i s arbitraryan d opacit ydetermination s canno t b e mad e wit hsufficien t accuracya t thes e lowopacit yvalues . Thi s cas e wa s als o remanded , an d a t the tim

e o f publicatio n o f thi s manua l the cas e ha s no t ye t bee n reheard . CAS E 12 : STAT E VS . FR Y ROOFIN

G COMPANY , OREGO

NCOUR T O F APPEALS , 49 5 P . 2d 751 . (1973 ) The circui t cour t ha d foun d Fr yRoofing Compan

yguilt yo f violating th e Orego n opacit yregulation . Th e Orego n Cour t o f Appeal s foun d tha t the regulatio n limitin

g emission s tha t ar e greate r tha n 40 % opacit yt o thre e minute s i n an

yhour wa s constitutional . Th e Appeal s Cour t als o ruled tha t ih e origina l judge s ha d no t abuse d thei r authorit yb yadmitting the testi

mon yo f inspector s wit honl ytw o day' s training i n the evaluatio n o f, , I -p. ,

6. 7 visibl e emission s wh o ha d bee n recertifie d shortl ybefor e makin g the ! evaluation . CAS E 13 : PORTLAN

D CEMEN T ASSOCIATIONVS . RUCKELSHAU S 48 6 F 2 d 375 , | U.S . COURT O F APPEALS , DISTRIC T COLUMBI ACIRCUI T (JUN E j 29 , 1973 ) EPA' s respons e t o the "unreliability " challeng e t o Sectio n 11 1 'opacit y standard s wa s hel d sufficien t justificatio n fo r suc h regulation s t o measur e pollutio n an

d t o ai d i n contro l o f emissions , an d wer e therefor e validate d o n reman d b ythe Cour t i n Portlan d Cemen t Associatio n vs . Train , Adminlsitrator , i No . 72-107 3 D.C . Cir . May22 , 1975 . Whil e thi s validatio n o f opacity ! regu lation s i s bindin g onl yfo r Sectio n 11 1 purposes , i t wil l serv e a s .valuabl e preceden t fo r challeng e t o opacit ystandard s withi n the Stat e Implementatio n Plans . j CAS E 14 : NATIONA

L ASPHAL T PAVEMEN

T ASSOCIATIONVS . TRAIN , U.S . APP . D.C . - NO . 74-133 2 (1975 ) Thi s cas e deal s wit hopacit yissue s simila r t o thos e containe d !i n Cas e //13 , an

d wil l b e heard b

yth e Cour t i n the fal l o f 1975 . CAS E 15 : STAT E O F NE W JERSE Y VS . FR Y ROOFIN

G Docke t No . C-3682-7 2 Ne wJerseySuperio r Court , Trenton , Ne wJersey . (1974 ) Fr yRoofing contende d tha t the procedure s fo r determining opacit y "l)....wer e scientificall yinaccurat e i n tha t theywer e simpl yestimate s obtaine d b

ythe unaide d eye s o f fiel d observers , an d tha t th e investiga

i tor s di d no t distinguis hvisibl e wate r vapo r fro mthe particulat e plume ; an d 2 ) tha t the investigation s wer e conducte d withou t a warrant , withou t notic e t o an

d withou t consen t o f the defendant , constituting unreasonabl e searche s i n violatio n o f the Fourt han d Fourteent hAmendment s t o th e U.S . Constitution. " Violation s o f the opacit yregulatio n wer e observe d on two separat e occasions ; onc e fro ma locatio n o n compan ypropert yan

d onc e fromof f compan yproperty . Fo r bot hcase s th e compan ycontende d tha t th e visuaj l inspection s violate d the Fourt hAmendmen t t o the U.S . Constitution . Citing the Ai r Pollutio n Varianc e Board o f th e Stat e o f Colorad o vs . Wester n Alfalf a Corporatio n (Cas e 1 , above) , th e cour t conclude d tha t [th e company' s constitutiona l right s had no t bee n violated .6. 8

Th e compan

ycontende d tha t the observation s wer e mad e withou t prio r warning , violating the righ t o f du e proces s unde r th e law . Th e cour t conclude d tha t n o prio r warning i s necessary . Th e compan

yals o contende d tha t the observers ' training wa s inade

quat e sinc e the

yha d no t receive d an

ytraining i n the evaluatio n o f plume s containing visibl e wate r vapor . Evidenc e wa s introduce d t o demonstrat e tha t i t i s no t difficul t t o determin e i f a stea mplume i s presen t an d the observer s testifie d tha t a "stea mplume " had no t bee n present . Usin g representativ e dat a fo r the stac k exi t condition s ari d actua l meteorologica l observations , the witnesse s demonstrate d b yus e o f a psychrometri c char t tha t a stea

mplume woul d no t b e formed . Th e cour t conclude d tha t the observer s wer e full yqualifie d an d th e cour t wa s satisfie d tha t ther e wa s n o stea

mplume presen t a t the tim e the observation s wer e made . The cas e wa s remanded , an d a t th e time o f publicatio n o f thi s manua l the cas e ha

d no t reache d the courts .

6. 4 PRESENTATIO

NO F TESTIMON

Y 6.4. 1 GENERA

L Whethe r th e cas e i s t o b e heard befor e a n administrativ e bod yo r i n a regula r cour t o f law , the witnes s mus t b e prepare d t o properl yconvey t o a board , jury , o r judg e hi s competenc yt o testify , an d hi s credibilit y a s a n evaluato r o f visibl e emissions . Th e witnes s mus t hav e had adequat e an d proficien t training a s a resul t o f attending a smoke-reading schoo l operate d i n the manne r prescribe d i n EPAMetho d 9 an

d fro mwhic hh e ha s receive d a certificate . H e shoul d b e familia r wit hmoistur e lade n plume s an d understan

d ho wt o evaluat e them . H e mus t b e abl e t o evaluat e weathe r condition s b yvisua l observation s an d wit hsimpl e measuring devices . Th e witnes s shoul d have some familiarit ywit hcourtroomprocedures . Thi s can be acquire d b yattending actua l trial s o r b yparticipating i n moc k trials . H e shoul d be familia r wit hal l aspect s o f the la wtha t pertai n t o hi s responsibilities .P.8 9

. p ...,, .



### 6. 9

Give n hi s expertis e an d knowledg e o f the cas e unde r review , th e attitud e o f th

e witnes s i s crucia l t o the effectivenes s an d acceptabilit y o f hi s testimony . Hi s objectiv e shoul d b e t o provid e accurat e an d complet e fact s i n a s clea r a manne r a s possibl e i n respons e t o direc t questions . H e shoul d no t offe r hi s opinion s an d judgment s o f th e sourc e being tried o r o f officia l program s o r policies , no r shoul d h e b e concerne d wit h justifying hi s infallibilit ya s a n exper t i n hi s field . H e shoul d no t argu e wit ho r "tal k down " t o th e examiner , o r giv e the impressio n tha t h e i s a n exper t i n a specialize d are a whe n h e i s not . H e shoul d avoi d exaggeratio n o f th e fact s an d boasting , o f hi s accomplishments . Th e witnes s shoul d b e prepare d fo r th e proceeding . H e shoul d kno w the exac t substanc e o f wha t h e wil l b e calle d upo n t o testify . H e shoul d b e reste d an

d alert . Fatigu e ca n affec t concentratio n an d th e precisio n o f answer s t o a marke d degree . H e shoul d b e abl e t o quickl ythin k through hi s answer s befor e responding , an d avoi d saying anything tha t h e doe s no t mean . 6.4. 2 WITNES S BEHAVIO R Persona l appearanc e i n th e courtroomi s quit e important . Th e witnes s shoul d come t o the courtroomi n conservativ e dres s (preferabl ya busines s suit , o r i n uniform , i f applicable) . H e shoul d b e well-groome d wit h neatl ytrimme d hair . Th e witnes s shoul d alway s arriv e o n time o r a littl e ahead o f time s o a s no t t o hol d u p the proceedings . I n genera l th e wit

nes s shoul d avoi d an ybehavio r tha t migh t ten d t o creat e an unfavorabl e impressio n i n th e mind o f th e court . Whe n calle d t o the stand , th e witnes s shoul d wal k wit hassurance . Whe n being swor n in , h e shoul d hol d hi s righ t han d hig hwit hfinger s extende d an

d loo k directl ya t th e perso n administering the oath . Aftej r the oat h ha s bee n administere d he shoul d sa y" I do " i n a lou

d voice , an

d generall ybehav e i n a confiden t manner .P.9 0

6.1 0 6.4. 3 TESTIMON

Y The tw o mai n categorie s o f witnes s testimon yi s th e direc t examina

tion b yhi s ow

n counse l an

d the cross-examinatio n b ythe opposing counsel . Th e direc t examinatio n i s usuall ystarte d wit ha lin e o f questioning whic h wil l provid e a foundatio n fo r the qualification s o f the witness . Th e following lis t o f question s whic hwil l b e aske d b ythe agenc ycounse l wil l giv e some ide a o f howthi s i s achieved : 1 . Stat e your ful l name an d home address , please . 2 . B ywhomar e yo u employed ? 3 . Ho wlong ? 4 . Prio r t o your employmen t wit h(agencyo r company) , di d yo u hav e an y colleg e o r universit ywork ? Wha t kin d o f work ? Graduat e work ? Degree ? 5 . Hav e yo u ha

d an yprio r employmen t whic hmigh t b e relevan t t o thi s case ? 6 . Hav e you eve r attende d a training cours e whic hmigh t b e referre d t o a s "Smok e School " o r "Smoke-reading School" ? When ? Wer e yo u certified ? 7 . Describ e briefl ythe training yo u received . g 8 . Di d yo u learn t o evaluat e blac k smoke ? 9 . Di d yo u learn t o evaluat e an ycolo r othe r than black ? 10 . Di d yo u lear n t o evaluat e emission s withou t the us e o f the Ringelmann Chart ? 11 . Wer e yo u require d t o attai n a certai n degre e o f proficienc ybefor e being certified ? 12 . Wha t wer e th e standards ? 13 . D o yo u recal l you r ow n persona l proficiency ? 14 . Hav e yo u testifie d i n cour t befor e a s a n expert ? Th e foundatio n o f the cas e i s the n lai d wit hquestion s simila r t o the following : 1 . O n dat e an

d location , wer e you o n dutya s a representativ e o f (agency o r company) ? 2 . Wha t directe d you r attentio n t o thi s location ? (Routin e observation , citizen' s complaint , etc. ) 3 . Wher e wer e yo u whe n yo u firs t sawit ? 4 . Coul d yo u determin e the sourc e o f emission ? 5 . Describ e the premises . 6 . Di d yo u mak e an yreadings . Wha t tim e di d the

ybegin ? Wha t tim

e.•,,-,-, ; P.9 1

7 . 8 . 6.1 1 di d the yend ? Wha t wer e th e times , duratio n an d densitie s o f the emissions ? Di d yo u se e the sourc e o f the erais'sions ? Wer e an yrepresentative s o f th e defendan t presen t an d wer e ther e an

y conversations ? Thes e ar e the type s o f question s tha t wil l b e aske d b ythe counse l i n orde r t o presen t th e cas e t o th e court . Th e witnes s mayus e note s including the observatio n an

d summar

yforms , h e ha s personall ymad e i n orde r t o refres h hi s memoryo n an

yfacts , bu t ma

yno t rea

d fro mthe mdirectly . Th e answer s t o the question s shoul d no t b e memorize d bu t the yshoul d b e accurate , factua l an d truthful . Afte r the direc t examinatio n i s finished , the opposing counse l wil l cross-examin e th

e witness . I n thi s phase , he maytr yt o discredi t the witness , o r presen t conflicting technologica l evidence . Th e witnes s mus t be knowledgeabl e i n hi s fiel d an d be prepare d t o respon d t o suc hquestions . Re-direc t examinatio n b ythe witness ' counse l ma ybe necessaryt o rebu t some point s brough t u p i n the cross-examination . Opposin g counse l maythen wan t t o mak e a n additiona l refutation . Thi s typ e o f questioning coul d g o on indefinitel yexcep t tha t i t wil l usuall yb e terminate d b ythe judg e whe n h e feel s i t i s n o longe r usefu l t o the trial . Fo r some administrativ e typ e hearing s direc t testimon yi s writte n ou t i n narrativ e for

man d onl ythe cross-examinatio n i s don e orally . Th| e oppositio n i s usuall ygive n a wee k o r tw o t o stud

yth e documen t befor e the witnes s appears . Thi s documen t usuall yconsist s o f four parts : (a ) hi s qualification s a s a n expert , (b ) th e materia l fro mwhic hh e fashion s hi s opinion , (c ) the reasoning proces s use d t o arriv e a t an opinio n fromthe material , an

d (d ) the conclusio n o r opinio n itself . Othe r case s involve , discoveryo r the proces s b ywhic hon e sid e find s ou t wha t the factua l basi s fo r the othe r sid e is . Thi s ma yb e don e b

yde

positio n o r interrogatories . Fo r a depositio n the potentia l witness ! i s place d unde r oat hbefor e a cour t reporte r an d aske d a wid e rang e o f ques tion s designe d t o prepar e the opposing lawye r fo r hi s testimon ya t the trial . Th e interrogatorie s ar e merel ywritte n question s serve d upon ; the oppositio n whic har e t o b e answere d unde r oath . I n an ycase , the witnes s mus t eventuall yappea r i n cour t t o presen tP.9 2

6.1 2

hi s testimony . Som e guideline s fo r thi s presentatio n ar e give n below . I f a t al l possible , th e witnes s shoul d b e o n han d t o vie wth e pro ceeding s prio r t o hi s testimony . Thi s wil l giv e hi mth e "tone " o f th e hearin g an

d indicat e i n genera l wha t typ e o f question s t o expect . Mos t importantly , i t wil l reassur e him . 6.4. 4 TYP E O F INFORMATIO NREQUIRE D I NTESTIMONY Th e witnes s ma yb e calle d upo n t o presen t an yinformatio n tha t h e ma yhav e tha t wil l b e necessar yt o prov e a violation . Thes e ten d t o fal l int o two categories : 1 . Basi c element s a . Th e rul e o r stat e cod e sectio n violated . b . Th e dat e an

d locatio n o f th e violation . c . Th e time o r time s o f violation . d . Th e time , duration , an d densitie s o f th e violatin g opacities . e . Th e name s and title s o f th e owner s an d operator s o f th e equipmen t emittin g th e violatin g opacities . f . Th e name s o f th e enforcemen t officer s observin g th e violatio n (usuall yth e witness) . 2 . Supportiv e element s a . Identit yo f visibl e emissions , i.e . "smoke " "fume " "dust " etc . b . Descriptio n o f th e equipmen t an d proces s o r processe s wit h thei r operatin g cycles . c . Ambien t atmospheri c conditions . 1 . Ligh t condition s an d su n position . 2 . Win d directio n an d velocity . 3 . Temperatur e an d relativ e humidity . d . Backgroun d agains t whic hobservatio n wa s made . e . Positio n o f observe r relativ e t o poin t o f emission ; th e heigh t o f th e stac k an d hi s distanc e fromit . f . Descriptio n o f surroundin g geographi c feature s suc ha s building s and streets . g . Certificatio n dat e o f th e observer . h . Descriptio n o f plum e appearance , i.e . color , length ,. , , ,--: , N 6.1 3 moisture , etc . Whil e o n the stan

d th e witnes s shoul d alway s b e truthful , fai r an d frank . Befor e replying t o a questio n the witnes s shoul d paus e fo r a whil e i n orde r t o collec t hi s thoughts . Ahastyanswe r mayno t conveythe ful l fact s tha t shoul d b e brough t ou t an d an incomplete , o r erroneous , repl y migh t plac e th

e opposing counse l i n a positio n t o discredi t the witness , whic h i n turn coul d seriousl yjeopardiz e the case . . Answer s shoul d b e brie f an d t o the point . Informatio n should'neve r be volunteered—th e repl yshoul d merel yb e a n answe r t o the questio n asked . I f a n objectiv e i s raised the witnes s shoul d stop speaking a t once , an d no t continu e unti l the cour t ha s give n it s ruling . I f the opposin g I attor ne yinterrupt s an answe r thi s shoul d be indicate d t o the presiding judge . Th e skillfu l witnes s als o know s whe n t o conced e a point , eve n i f it[reflect s poorl yon hi s work . Th e witnes s shoul d expres s himsel f a s lucidl ya s possible , using simpl e technica l languag e tha t th e judge , juryan

d attorney s can understand . Th e cour t shoul d no t be treate d in. a condescending manner , however . Mannerisms , witicism s an d colloquialism s shoul d b e hel d t o a minimum , an d n o attemp t shoul d b e mad e t o overimpres s the cour t wit hirrelevan t infor

mation . Fo r the cour t reporters ' benefit , the witnes s shoul d spea k loudly , clearl yan

d slowly , waiting unti l the questio n ha s bee n complete d befor e beginning the answer . Replie s shoul d no t b e mad e b ya movemen t o f the head t o impl ya "yes " o r "no " answer , sinc e the cour t reporte r mayno t alway s be lookin

g a t th e witness . Whe n addressin g the court , us e "Your Honor" ; whe n addressing the attorneys , us e thei r names . The witnes s shoul d neve r los e hi s composur e b ybecoming flustere d o r losing hi s temper , especiall ywhe n being goade d o r arouse d b yth e opposing counsel . Th e witnes s als o ha s n o obligatio n t o answe r a questio n whic h h e doe s no t fee l qualifie d t o answer . An " I a mno t qualifie d t o answe r that " i s perfectl yacceptable . I f th e witnes s ha s mad e a mistake , o r a contradictor ystatement , thi s shoul d be admitte d an d corrected . Unde r n o circumstance s shoul d any i attemp t6.1 4

b e mad e t o cove r u

p the error , sinc e i t i s almos t inevitabl e tha t the true fact s wil l eventuall yemerge , throwin g the witness ' credibilit yint o a ver ypoo r light .

. Durin g recesse s the witnes s shoul d no t discus s anything wit hothe r witnesse s o r partie s t o the case , an d shoul d onl yspea k wit hhi s ow n coun sel . Th e witnes s shoul d no t allowthe opposing counse l t o sugges t fact s o r an opinion . Unde r n o circumstance s shoul d the counse l b e engage d i n a n argument . A

n answe r t o a questio n whic hi s identica l t o a previou s ques tion shoul d b e restate d a s give n the firs t time . Additiona l statement s can be given , however , t o hel p clarif yth e origina l statement , i f thi s i s indicate d b

ythe lin e o f questioning . 6. 5 BIBLIOGRAPH

Y 1 . Cantor , B.J . Th e Exper t Witness , ABAJ , 52 , 946-948 . Octobe r 1966 . 2 . Conner , W.D . an d Hodkinson , J.R. , Optica l Propertie s an d Visua l Effect s o f Smok e Stac k Plumes , DHEW , PH S Publicatio n No . 999-AP-30 . 1967 . 3 . Hammon , S . Th e Lawye r an d the Expert , ABAJ , 54 , 583-585 , Jun e 1968 . 4 . Health , Educatio n an d Welfar e (Departmen t of) , ACompilatio n o f Selecte d Ai r Pollutio n Emissio n Contro l Regulation s an d Ordinances , PHS , Publicatio n No . 999-AP-43 , 1968 . 5 . Horsley , J.E . Ho wt o Prepar e Yoursel f fo r Cross-Examination , Journa l

o f Lega l Medicine , Vo . 2 , No . 1 , pp . 26-28 . 1974 . 6 . Kennedy , H.W . Lega l Suppor t fo r Lo s Angeles ' Stric t Ai r Pollutio n

Program . Repor t t o Lo s Angele s Count yBoard o f Supervisors . 1957 . 7 . Nickerson , Th e Exper t Technica l Witnes s o n Trial , ABAJ , 50 , 731 . Augus t

1964 . 8 . Norman , J. , Ho wt o b e a Witness . Progra mGuideline s an

d Informatio n Branch , EPA . 1972 . 9 . Rodgers , J.A. , APrime r fo r EP AEmployees : Presenting Scientifi c Evidence , Pape r fro moffic e o f Genera l Counsel . 1974 . 10 . Weisburd , M.I . (Editor) , Th e La wo f Ai r Pollutio n Control , Ai r Pollu

tion Contro l Fiel d Operation s Manual , PH S Publicatio n No . 937 . 1962 . 11 . Weisburd , M.I . Fiel d Operation s an d Enforcemen t Manua l fo r Ai r Pollutio n Control . APTD-1100 , EPA . 1972 .P.9 5 H !

7. 1 EFFECT S O F VIEWIN

G CONDITION S O

NOPACITY READING S 7. 1 WIN

D SPEE D Th e stronge r the win d speed the mor e the plume wil l b e diluted , thu s reducing the opacity . However , a smal l finit e tim e mus t elaps e befor e th

e plume can mi x significantl ywit h the ambien t air , wit hth e resul t tha t the plume opacit ya t the emissio n poin t i s no t affecte d b y win d speed t o an

ygrea t extent . Rea d a t stac k exit , o r the sourc e point . 7. 2 WIN

D DIRECTION I f th e plum e i s being blow n directl ytoward o r awa yfro mthe observer , the observe r tend s t o rea d throug

ha longe r pat hlengt hthan : whe n reading s ar e take n wit hth e win d blowing perpendicularl yt o the observer' s lin e o f sight . Th e longe r th e pat hlengt hthroughthe plume , th e greate r the plume opacit ywil l appear . Difficultie s i n obtaining good readings , especiall yfo r low-leve l sources , ca

n b e experience d unde r light , variabl e win d conditions . (Thi s i s mos t likel yt o occu r on hot , sunn yafternoons) . Wind directio n can ; varyconsiderabl ywithi n a veryshor t perio d o f tim e (36 0 i n les s than a minute , fo r example ) wit hthe resul t tha t the observe r can fin d himsel f i n a poo r .position fo r takin g opacit yreading s a t the specifie d 15

- or j 30

- secon

d time intervals . Unde r variabl e wind condition s th e observe r shoul d watc hth e plume mor e o r les s continuall yan d tak e reading s whe n the plume i s being blow n a t righ t angle s t o the observer' s lin e o f sigh t (Th e observe r ca n chang e the observatio n poin t shoul d th e mea n wind directio n change , provide d tha t th e su n remain s i n the prope r orientation . An ychange s i n the observer' s locatio n mus t b e indicate d o n the observatio n summaryform) . Rea d a t righ t angle s t o the wind direction . 7. 3 VIEWIN

G POIN T A s the plume i s transporte d downwin d diffusio n take s place , reducing th e concentratio n o f th e effluen t an d thu s reducing the opacity . A n exceptio n t o thi s mayoccu r i n the cas e o f an aci d mis t plum ewher e the greates t opacit yca n occu r a smal l distanc e fro mth e stac k exit . Thi s i s cause d b

ythe hygroscopi c aci d mis t particle s growin g i n siz e b y absorbin g wate r vapo r a s theyar e t _._. . u-.rte d downwind . Alway s rea d a t th e poin t o f maximumopacity . Fo r a particulat e plum e thi s wil l b e a t th e stac k exi t bu t fo r an aci d mis t plum e i t ca n b e som e distanc e downstream . (Indicat e o n th e observatio n formwher e th e viewin g poin t i s i n relatio n t o th e stac k exi t o r sourc e point) . 7. 4 ILLUMINATION Contras t betwee n th e plum e and th e background wil l increas e wit hin

creasin g illumination , causin g th e apparen t opacit yt o increase . Attemp t t o tak e reading s wit hgoo d lightin g conditions . 7. 5 BACKGROUND Test s conducte d b

yHamil , et . al. , (1975 ) indicate d tha t th e back

ground use d t o evaluat e th e opacit yo f an emissio n doe s hav e an effec t o n th e observe d opacity . Hami l presente d dat a showin g tha t fo r whit e smok e th e inspectors ' reading s tende d t o hav e a negativ e bia s (i.e . theyrea d low ) wheneve r a non-contrastin g background (overcas t sky ) wa s used . Whe n a contrastin g backgroun d (blu e sky ) wa s used , th e inspector s tende d t o hav e a sligh t positiv e bia s (i.e . the yread high ) fo r ver ylo wopacitie s (15 % opacity , o r lower ) an d theytende d t o read lo wi n th e 20 % t o 35 % opacit yrange . Wheneve r possibl e blac k plume s shoul d b e evaluate d usin g blu e sk y a s backgroun d and whit e plume s shoul d b e evaluate d usin g a dar k background , suc ha s building s o r hills . Evaluatin g plume s agains t a non-contrastin g backgroun d tend s t o reduc e th e observe d opacity . Acontrastin g backgroun d shoul d b e use d i f possible . 7. 6 ATMOSPHERI C STABILIT Y Aplum e disperse s mor e rapidl yi n a n unstabl e atmospher e tha n i n stabl e atmosphere . Althoug h a plum e appear s les s dens e downwind i n a n unstabl e atmosphere , i f reading s ar e take n a t the source , atmospheri c stabilit yha s n o significan t effec t o n th e opacity . Rea d a t stac k exi t o r sourc e point .P.9 7

• i . | . -| i . •

7. 3

7. 7 ATMOSPHERI C HAZ E I Th e presenc e o f haze , eithe r natura l o r man-made , i n the atmos pher e wil l reduc e the contras t betwee n the plume an d it s background , an d henc e wil l reduc e the opacit yreading . Atmospheri c haz e shoul d no t significantl yaffec t th e opacit yreading i f the visibilit yi s greate r tha n abou t thre e mile s an d the observatio n poin t i s withi n h mil e o f the emissio n point . Reading s shoul d no t b e take n i n poo r visibilit yconditions . 7. 8 SU NANGL E Th e particle s i n the plume scatte r mor e ligh t i n th e forward direc

tio n (at smal l angle s wit hreferenc e t o the directio n o f the sun' s [rays) . Aplum e viewe d suc htha t th e observe r i s looking toward the su n appear s t o b e mor e dens e than a plume viewe d wit hthe su n locate d behin

d the observer . Areading taken wit hthe su n directl ybehin

d th e observe r wil l

l produc e the lowes t opacit yreadin g possibl e wit hthe existing conditions , bu t i t ha s bee n foun d experimentall ytha t the observe d opacit yi s np t particularl ysensitiv e t o the sun' s locatio n provide d the su n i s behin

d the observer , withi n an angl e o f abou t 7 0 wit hth e lin e o f sight . Th e sun shoul d be withi n a 14 0 secto r oriente d behind th e observer' s back . 7. 9 EFFEC T O F OBSERVE R DISTANC E ONOBSERVE D OPACITY A s the observe r move s close r t o the bas e o f the stac k o f a n elevate d sourc e th e pathlengt hthroug hthe plume increases , s o tha t the observe d opacit yincrease s wit hdecreasing observationa l distance , eve n though the cross-plume opacit yremain s constant . (Se e Figur e 7.1. ) Tabl e 7. 1 belo w compare s the variatio n o f th e observe d opacit ywit hdistanc e fromth e bas e o f th e stac k whic hi s emitting a plume o f 20 % opacity . A s show n i n [th e tabl e th e observe d opacity , a s evaluate d froma distanc e o f on e stac k heigh t (H ) i s 28% , wherea s thi s valu e drop s t o 22 % froma distanc e o f 2H , an d 21 % fro

ma distanc e 3H .Plume

Figur e 7.1 : EFFEC T O F OBSERVE R LOCATIO NO NOBSERVE D PATHLENGT HP.9 9 T'' l V

Tabl e 7.1 : VARIATIONO F OBSERVE D OPACITY WIT H

DISTANC E FROM A

NELEVATE D SOURC E OBSERVE R DISTANC E (Y ) H 2 H 3 H OBSERVE D

PATHLENGTH 1.41 D 1.12 D 1.05 D ACTUAL

OPACITY % 2 0 2 0 2 0 OBSERVE D

OPACITY % 28. 2 22. 4 21. 0 DEVIATION%



## I 8 2

'• 1 1 Significan t increase s i n th e observe d opacit ycan therefor e b e intro

duced i f the observe r select s an observatio n locatio n tha t i s very,clos e t o th e bas e o f the stack . I f observation s ar e mad e fro mposition s tha t ar e ver yclos e t o an elevate d sourc e the effec t tha t thi s ha s o n th e opacit y reading s shoul d b e carefull yweighe d i f the reading s ar e t o b e use d a s testimon

yi n subsequen t lega l proceedings . A s th e observe r move s furthe r awa yfro mthe source , the contras t i betwee n the plume an d the backgroun

d decreases , causing a decreas e ji n the observe d opacity . Thi s i s du e t o ligh t scattering b ythe particle s i n the ai r betwee n the sourc e an d the observer , an

d i t i s particularl ynoticeabl e whe n the visibilit yi s no t verygood .

Earlie r version s o f Metho d 9 recommende d tha t the observe r shoul d b e betwee n two stac k heights-an d a quarte r o r a mil e fro mth e source . Whil e i thes e requirement s ar e n o longe r valid , the yd o indicat e approximatel ywha t th e distanc e betwee n the sourc e an d the observe r shoul d be . Whe n evaluating a n elevate d sourc e the observe r shoul d b e aj t a suitabl e distanc e fro mthe source . 7.1 0 TIM E INTERVAL BETWEE NREADING S

Staring continuousl ya t the plume wil l resul t i n ey e fatigu e resulting i n reduce d visua l acuity . Fo r thi s reaso n the observe r shoul d glanc e a t the plume an

d mak e the opacit ydeterminatio n a t regula r intervals . The i recom mende d tim

e interva l betwee n reading s i s 1 5 seconds . I f longe r time inter

val s betwee n reading s ar e taken , the reason s fo r thi s shoul d b e show n o n th e observatio n form . Rea d a t 15-secon

d tim e intervals .P . 10 0

7. 6

7.1 1 SUMMAR

Y O F RECOMMENDE D OBSERVATIONA L PROCEDURE S Opacit yreading s shoul d b e taken :

• a t 15-secon

d interval s

• throug

hthe denses t par t o f the plume

• unde r good lighting condition s

• wit ha contrasting background , i f possibl e

• wit hthe sun behin d the observe r

• wit h the plum e being blow n a t righ t angle s t o the lin e o f sigh t

• a t a suitabl e distanc e fro mthe source . 7.1 2 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 . Conner , W.D . an d J.R . Hodkinson . Optica l Propertie s an d Visua l Effect s o f Smok e Stac k Plumes . Departmen t o f Health , Educatio n an d Welfare , PH S Publicatio n No . 999-AP-30 . 1967 . 2 . Hamil , H.F. , R.E . Thoma s an d N.F . Swynnerton . Evaluatio n an d Collabora

tive Stud

yo f Metho d fo r Determinatio n o f Opacit yo f Emission s fro mStationarySources . EPA , Researc hTriangl e Park , N.C . 1975 .p. l V 1 T 8. 1 8 . APPLICABILITY O F VISIBL E EMISSION S EVALUATION S

8. 1 ADVANTAGE S | Opacit yregulation s (formerl yRingelmann an d equivalen t opacit y method ) hav e bee n the foundatio n fo r th e vas t majorit yo f particulat e contro l o r enforcemen t action s i n thi s country . Th e tas k o f visibl e I emissio n complianc e woul d b e muc hmor e difficul t withou t thi s simpl e bu t effectiv e mean s o f sourc e surveillance . Fromthe standpoin t o f the responsibl e ai r pollutio n contro l a'gency , some o f the advantage s o f the us e o f opacit yregulation s are : (1 ) Th e validit yo f using the Ringelmann Char t an d opacit y provision s ha s bee n wel l establishe d i n the fiel d o f ai r : pollutio n legislatio n b ythe courts . : (2 ) Observer s can b e qualifie d i n abou t thre e day s o f training f an d i t i s no t necessarytha t th e observer s hav e an exten - \

, i siv e technica l background . Recertificatio n can b e achieve d i n on e day , o r less , ever ysi x months . i (3 ) N o expensiv e equipmen t i s require d i n compariso n t o alter

- , nativ e sourc e measuremen t procedures . (4 ) Aqualifie d inspecto r can mak e severa l observation s pe r day , i I enabling a wid e are a t o b e inspected , particularl yfo r thos| e agencie s equippe d wit ha helicopte r o r ligh t aircraft , , allowin g potentia l violator s t o b e quickl ylocate d an d iden

tified , j (5 ) Violator s can be cite d withou t resorting t o time-consuming an d costl ysourc e testing . i (6 ) Opacit yregulation s serv e a s an effectiv e screening process ' t o reduc e the numbe r o f expensiv e sourc e test s require d for i informationa l an

d enforcemen t requirements . j i (7 ) Althoughi t i s usuall yno t possibl e t o accuratel yquantif yI the reductio n i n mas s emission s b yvisua l observations , ther e i s a definit e relationshi p betwee n reducing visibl e emission s ;in d improvement s i n particulat e ai r quality .P. 2

8. 2 (8 ) Contro l can b e achieve d fo r thos e operation s no t readil y suitabl e t o regula r sourc e testing methods , suc ha s dus t an d othe r leakag e fro

mproces s equipment , visibl e automobil e exhaust , an

d bul k loading , unloading , o r storag e o f dust y material s (grains , coal , ores , etc.) . (9 ) Opacit yregulation s provid e a n expedien t mean s fo r source s t o conduc t self-appraisal s an d monito r thei r operating conditions . (10 ) Th e presenc e o f visibl e emission s i s prima faci e evidenc e tha t something othe r than clean ai r i s presen t i n the atmosphere . (11 ) I t provide s an excellen t too l t o bring mino r o r margina l source s o f pollutio n unde r contro l tha t woul d normall y b e exemp t unde r proces s weigh t restrictions . (12 ) I n mos t cases , a trained observe r can distinguis hsmoke s an d mist s b

ycolor , behavio r an d dissipatio n point . H e ca n distinguis hbetwee n emission s o f smok e resulting fromrubbis hburning , fuel-oi l burning an d eve n natura l gas , whe n gas-fire d boiler s ar e severel you t o f adjust

ment , b ycolo r an

d escap e velocit yo f th e bod yo f the plume . (13 ) Th e result s o f suchregulation s provid e a n indicatio n t o an yobserve r (officials , citizens , etc. ) tha t the agencie s maintai n goo d operating practice s an d procedures . (14 ) Opacit yca n b e monitore d an d recorde d automaticall yb ymean s o f bolometers , photoelectri c cells , etc. , t o ensur e complianc e wit hthe applicabl e regulations . (15 ) Visibl e emission s ar e easil yobserve d b ylayme n wh o ca n ac t a s "spotters " fo r th e ai r pollutio n agency . Althoughlayme n canno t b e considere d a s exper t witnesses , the yca n serv e t o infor mth e agenc yo f possibl e violation s o f the regulations . 8. 2 OBJECTION S Th e mos t commo n objection s t o th e us e o f equivalen t opacity , an d rebuttal s t o thes e objections , ar e give n below :__________________________________________________ • • i | ' 1 | i I n" -

8. 3

1.1 . "The opacit yobserve d i s a subjectiv e measurement , varyin g i wit h the positio n o f the observe r in relatio n t o the su n ari d sky , wit hth

e siz e o f particle s i n the plume , stac k diameter , and . wit hatmospheri c lighting an d backgroun

d o f the plume. " 1. 2 Thi s objectio n ha s bee n use d fo r man yyear s agains t the us e o f th e Ringelman

n Char t fo r gra

ysmoke , bu t t o dat e n o othe r metho d ha s bee n foun d t o b e a s practica l an d useful . I t ha s bee n show

n tha t wit hadequat e training , using consisten t observationa l procedures , an experience d observe r can learn t o weigh t the opacit yreading s according t o variou s conditions , wit h good accuracyan d reproducability . 2. 1 "Opacit yha s no t a s ye t bee n successfull ycorrelate d i n detai l I wit h othe r method s o f measurement. " 2. 2 I n recen t year s severa l plume opacit ymodel s hav e bee n deve

loped that , hav e show n goo d correlatio n betwee n predicte d an d observe d opacity . Th e model s d o requir e tha t the inpu t para meters , sucha s grai n loading an d particulat e siz e distribution , b e wel l defined . Th e particle s causing the ligh t scattering ar e i n the submicroni c rang e an

d normall yconstitut e a smal l percentag e o f the tota l particulat e emicsions , wherea s the particle s causing ligh t jab

sorptio n ar e primaril ygreate r than 1 0 micron s i n diameter . Reducing th e plume opacit ytherefor e woul d resul t i n a reductio n o f the tota l particulat e emissions , althoughno t necessaril yi n the same ratio . 3. 1 "Gaseou s emission s canno t b e determine d b yequivalen t opacity. " 3. 2 Thi s i s generall ytru e sinc e most , althoughno t all , gaseou s emission s ar e invisible . However , th e us e o f a visibl e emissio n regulatio n shoul d no t be regarde d a s the onl yenforcemen t regu latio n availabl e t o an ai r pollutio n agencyan d i t doe s no t eliminat e the need fo r qualifie d technica l personnel , sourc e testin g capability , a thoroug hunderstanding o f the processe s leading t o ai r pollutan t emissions , an d soun d engineerin g an

d administrativ e judgment .Ji4 _

8. 4

4. 1 "Visibl e emissio n observation s ar e difficul t t o mak e a t night. " 4. 2 Provide d th e observe r ha s bee n properl yqualifie d t o mak e opacit ydetermination s a t nigh t an d th e approve d procedure s ar e followed , opacit yobservation s ca n b e mad e durin g th e hour s o f darkness . However , EPAdoe s no t hav e a procedur e fo r night

time evaluatio n a t th e presen t time . 5. 1 "Wate r droplet s interfer e wit hth e equivalen t opacit yobser

vations. " 5. 2 Ai r pollutio n contro l regulation s exemp t visibl e emission s whic h violat e th e opacit yrul e becaus e o f th e presenc e o f wate r droplet s i n th e plume , s o tha t som e allowanc e mus t b e mad e fo r thos e plume s whos e opacit yi s derive d fro mth e presenc e o f con dense d wate r vapor . I t i s relativel ysimpl e t o identif yth e presenc e and exac t locatio n o f a steamplume , and th e proble m i s easil yhandle d b ymakin g th e evaluatio n a t a poin t i n th e plum e wher e condense d wate r i s no t present . 6. 1 "Th e regulation s concernin g th e opacit yo f emission s ar e ar bitrar yand capricious. " 6. 2 Ther e ar e man ylega l precedent s includin g a U.S . Suprem e rulin g (Ai r Pollutio n Varianc e Boar d o f th e Stat e o f Colorad o vs . Wester n Alfalf a Corporation , - U.S . - 9 4 S . Ct . 2114 . 1974 ) whic h indicat e tha t thi s i s no t th e case . I f a readin g i s mad e i n a prope r manne r b ya traine d observer , thi s i s considere d t o b e a perfectl ylega l and vali d measuremen t o f th e degre e o f pollutio n create d b yvisibl e emission s fro ma give n source . 7. 1 "I t i s difficul t t o secur e guarantee s fro mvendor s tha t a con tro l syste mca n b e designe d t o ensur e tha t a sourc e wil l achiev e complianc e wit hth e visibl e emissio n regulation. " 7. 2 Fo r a give n se t o f stac k condition s i t i s possibl e t o obtai n goo d correlatio n betwee n opacit yand grai n loading . Vendor s ca n therefor e desig n contro l equipmen t fo r a specifi c sourc e tha t wil l ensur e compliance . 8. 1 "Visibl e emissio n regulation s ca n b e circumvente d b yth e intro

ductio n o f dilutio n air , o r b yreducin g th e exi t diamete r o f th e stack. "P. 5

8. 5 8. 2 Normall yth e introductio n o f ai r i n orde r t o bring a sourc e int o complianc e i s a contraventio n o f the regulations . Reducing the stac k diamete r ma yno t b e a contraventio n o f the regulations , however , thi s mayno t b e a verywis e strateg yfo r the sourc e t o undertake , sinc e complianc e wit hthe proces s weigh t an d grai n loading regulation s mus t stil l b e achieved . 8. 3 SUMMAR

Y Whil e the argument s continu e an d position s remai n polarized , th e fac t remain s tha t opacit yregulation s an d thei r enforcemen t hav e unquestionabl y prove n t o b e a n effectiv e an d dynami c abatemen t an d complianc e too l fo r us e i n the contro l o f ai r pollution . Th e genera l publi c i s probabl ymor e awar e awar e an d concerne d wit h visibl e emission s tha n wit han yothe r aspec t o f the ai r pollutio n problem , an d the applicatio n o f a n opacit ystandard i s a veryeffectiv e means ! o f demonstrating tha t measure s ar e being take n t o ameliorat e the problem . Whil e enforcemen t action s base d on opacit yobservation s hav e been , an d probabl ywil l continu e t o be , challenge d i n the courts , i f the obser

vation s ar e mad e according t o the approve d procedure s b ya properl yquali

fied inspecto r the court s wil l probabl ycontinu e t o accep t opacit yobser

vation s a s a vali d measur e o f the emission s froma source . 8. 4 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 . Collis , R.R.H. , Lida r Observatio n o f Cloud , Scienc e 149 , 978-891 . 1965 . 2 . Coons , J.D. , e t al , Development , Calibratio n an d Us e o f a Plum e Evaluatio n Training Unit , J . Ai r Pollutio n Contro l Assoc , 15 , 199-203 . 1965 . 3 . Crider , W.L . an d J.A . Tash , Stud yo f Visio n Obscuratio n b yNon Blac k Plumes , J . Ai r Pollutio n Contro l Assoc . 14 , 161

- 167 . 1964 . 4 . Ensor , D.S . an

d Pilat , M.J. , Calculatio n o f Smok e Plume Opacit y fromParticulat e Ai r Pollutio n Properties , JAPCA , p. . 496 . August , 1971 . 5 . Ensor , D.S . an

d Pilat , M.J.,Plume Opacit yan d Particulat e Mas s Con

centration , Atmos . Env . 4 , pp . 163-173 . Apri l 1970 . 6 . Ensor , D.S . an

d Pilat , M.J. , Th e Relationshi p Betwee n the Visibilit y an d Aeroso l Propertie s o f Smok e Stac k Plumes , Pape r presente d a t the Secon

d Internationa l Unio n o f Ai r Pollutio n Preven tio n Association s i n Washington , D.C . Decembe r 1970 .P. 6

8. 6

7 . Halo wan

d Zeek , Predicting Ringelmann No . an d Optica l Characteristic s o f Plumes , JAPCA , 676-684 . Augus t 1973 . 8 . Lucas , The Objectiv e Calibratio n an d Ai r Pollutio n Significanc e o f Ringelman

n Numbers , Atmos . Env . Vol . 6 , pp . 775-780 . 1972 . 9 . Marks , L.S. , Inadequacyo f the Ringelmann Chart , Mech . Eng. , p . 681 .

1973 . 10 . Ringelmann , M. , Metho d o f Estimating Smok e Produce d b yIndustria l Installations , Rev . Technique , 268 . 1898 . 11 . Rose , A.H. , Nader , J.S. , an d Drinker , P.A . Developmen t o f a n Improve d Smok e Inspectio n Guide , J . Ai r pollutio n Contro l Assoc . 8 , 112-116 . 1958 . 12 . Rose , A.H . an

d Nader , J.S. , Fiel d Evaluatio n o f a n Improve d Smok e Inspectio n Guide , J . Ai r Pollutio n Contro l Assoc . 8 , 117-119 . 1958 . 13 . Stoecher , W.F. , Smok e Densit yMeasurement , Mech . Eng . 72 , p . 793 . 1950 . 14 . U.S . Departmen t o f the Interior , Ringelmann Smok e Char t , Informatio n

Circula r 8333 . 1967 . 15 . Yocum , J.E. , Problem s i n Judging Plume Opacity , J . Ai r Pollutio n

Contro l Assoc . 13 , 36-39 . 1963 .P. 7

9. 1

9 . PARTICL E SIZE S AND THEI R CHARACTERISTIC S 9. 1 GENERAL Aparticl e i s define d a s an ydisperse d material , eithe r solid!o r i liquid , i n whic hthe individua l aggregate s ar e large r than singl e small_ molecule s (0.00 2 micron s i n diameter ) bu t smalle r than 50 0 microns . Particle s hav e a life-time i n th e suspende d stat e varyin g froma fe w second s t o severa l months . Chemicall ythe yar e a mos t divers e clas s o f substances , althoughphysicall ythe yd o hav e a numbe r o f propertie s i n common . Tabl e 9. 1 give s a brie f summar yo f the type s o f particle s an d thei r characteristics . Th e usua l mean s o f classifying particle s i s b ythei r "size" . Siz e ma ybe define d i n severa l ways , althoughthe mos t usua l definitio n i s t o classif yparticle s b ythei r "Stokes " o r aerodynami c diameter , whic h7 s a measur e o f thei r settling velocity . Thi s settling velocit ydepend s o n the configuratio n o f the particle , s o tha t a non-spherica l particl e [i s classifie d b

ythe Stoke s diamete r o f a spherica l particl e tha t ha s the same settling rate . Although the distributio n o f particl e size s usuall yencountere d i n th e atmospher e closel yapproximate s a log-norma l distributio n (Volz.il959 ) , i show n i n Figur e 9. 1 wit ha media n siz e o f 1 micron , the particl e siz e distributio n i n a plume i s usuall yverydifferen t fro mthis , an

d i n addi

tio n the distributio n i s differen t fo r eac htyp e o f source . 9. 2 SIZE S O F PARTICULAT E MATTE R EMISSION S Particle s ar e produce d b ytw o mechanisms : thos e belo w1 micro n ar e forme d principall yb ycondensation , whil e large r particle s resul t frp m comminution . Combustio n o f fuel s i s a comple x sourc e o f particulat e emission s wit hparticle s bein g forme d i n the following ways : 1 . Th e hea t mayvaporiz e materia l whic hsubsequentl y condense s t o yiel d particle s i n th e siz e rang e betwee n 0. 1 an

d 1 microns .Tabl e 9.1 : PARTICL E SIZE S AND CHARACTERISTIC S

Siz e (microns ) (min ) Ligh t Ligh t Scattering Example s

Settling Velocit ycm/sec . 0. 1 0.000 1

U V Some Carbo n Black , Fume , Combustio n Nucle i 0.000 2 0. 5

0.000 5 Visibl e Ye s Tobacc o Smoke , Smog , Oi l Smok e 0.00 2 1

0.00 1

Nea r I R Ye s Sulfuri c Aci d Mist , Talc , Clay 0.00 7 1 0

0.0 1

I R Some Cemen t Dust , Fog , Bacteri a 0. 6 10 0

0. 1

Fa r I R Littl e Huma n Hair , Mist , San

d

5 0 >x > h O

>

From : Sheeh

ye t al . (1968 )

T l 0 0,.,.. , (•••Mill ' r i P. 9

•» . (

Coun t Mod e (0.61 9 fi)

0. 4

c o ( 0 u LL , 0. 2

0. 0 Coun t Media n (1.0// )

Diamete r o f Averag e Mas s (2.05 6 /i )

Are a Media n (2.61 4 A* )

Are a Mea n (3.32 4 H

)

Mas s Media n (4.226// )

Mas s Mea n (51374// )

Particl e Diamete r (microns ) Figur e 9.1 : TYPICA L SIZ E DISTRIBUTIO

NO F PARTICLE S I NTH E ATMOSPHER E SHOWIN G VARIOU S AVERAG E DIAMETER S (VOLZ , 1959 ) 'P.1 0

9. 4

2 . Particle s o f verysmal l siz e ar e als o produce d (belo w0. 1 microns) ; thes e particle s maybe o f shor t lif e a s a resul t o f thei r being simpl yunstabl e mole

cula r clusters . 3 . Mechanica l processe s mayreduc e eithe r fue l o r as ht o particl e size s large r than 1 micron s an d ma yentrai n it . 4 . I f the fue l i s itsel f a n aeroso l during combustion , a ver yfin e as hmayescap e directly . 5 . Partia l combustio n o f fossi l fuel s mayresul t i n soo t formation . Particle s large r than 1 0 micron s frequentl yresul t fro mmechanica l processe s suc ha s wind erosion , grinding , spraying , etc. , althoughnatura l precipitatio n i s obviousl yno t produce d i n thi s way . NAPC A(1969 ) ha s give n the siz e distribution s o f particulat e emission s fro

msevera l majo r sourc e categories : Open-Heart hFurnace s (Silverman , 1955 ) Majorit yo f particle s b ynumber<0. 1 micron s Abou t 46 % b

yweight< 5 micron s Municipa l Incinerator s (Chas s an d Rose , 1953 ) Abou t 30 % b

yweight< 5 micron s Sulphuri c Aci d Manufactur e Chambe r Proces s (NAPCA , 1969 ) Abou t 10 % b

yweigh t < 3 micron s Contac t Proces s (U.S . Departmen t o f HEW , 1965 ) Abou t 63 % b

yweight< 3 micron s Cemen t Plant s (Kreichelt , Keranit z an d Cuffe , 1967 ) Abou t 30 % b

yweigh t < 5 micron s Abou t 20 % b

yweigh t < 2 micron s Automobile s (Mueller , Helwig , Alcocer , Gong , an d Jones , 1964 , an d Lee , Patterson , Cride r an d Wagraan , 1968 ) Abou t 70 % b

yweight< 2 micron s Abou t 90 % o f lea

d emission s i s containe d i n particles<0. 5 micron sP.1 1 ll'l' l

9. 5

Fue l Oi l Combustio n Th e siz e distributio n o f particulat e emission s fro mlarg e oi l burnin g unit s Tabl e 9.2 , wa s give n b ySmit h(1962) . Tabl e 9.2 : SIZ E DISTRIBUTIO N( % B Y NUMBER ) FRO M OI L

COMBUSTIO N

Cas e 1 2 3 4 0-1 ^ 48. 4 64. 2 93. 5 94. 8 1-2 ,

28. 8 18. 8 3. 2 2. 2 

## 2 

# - 5 

# „

16. 7 10. 0 2. 0 1. 5 

## >5 „ 6. 1 7. 0 1. 3 1. 0 Larges t

1 5 1 5 2 0 2 0

Coa l Combustio n Siz e distribution s fo r fou r coal-burnin g furnac e type s wer e give n i b ySmit han

d Grube r (1966 ) and ar e reproduce d belo wi n Tabl e 9.3 .

Tabl e 9.3 : WEIGH T PERCEN T LES S THA NSTATE D SIZ E FROM COA L COMBUSTIO N

Particl e Siz e ill) 1 0 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0 10 0 20 0 Pulverize d Fue l

Fire d Furnac e 3 0 5 0 7 0 8 0 8 5 9 0 9 6 Cyclon e

Furnac e 7 6 8 3 9 0 9 2 9 4 9 5 9 7 Spreade r

Stoker-Fire d Furnac e 1 0 2 0 3 7 4 7 5 4 6 0

__ . Stoker-Fire d

(Other-tha n Spreader )

' 1 1 5 2 6 3 6 4 3 5 0 i 6 6 i 9. 3 EFFEC T O F ATMOSPHERI C PARTICULATE S ONCLIMAT E Particle s i n th e atmospher e pla ysevera l role s i n th e behavio r an d determinatio n o f th e weather . On e o f th e mor e obviou s way s i s th e effec t theyhav e o n sola r radiation , b yscatterin g and absorbin g th e incomin g ligh t t o greate r o r lesse r extent s i n differen t wavelength s dependin g upo n particl e size , characte r an d concentration , providin g no t onl ycolorfu l sunsets , bu t als o dens e urba n pall s and reducin g th e amoun t o f sola r energyP.1 2

9. 6 reaching the ground . Theyplaya n essentia l rol e i n the formatio n o f cloud s an d i n causing precipitatio n fro

mthes e clouds . Th e questio n ha s als o bee n raise d i n recen t year s o f the long-ter meffect s o f highparticulat e loading i n the atmosphere . I t ha s bee n suggeste d tha t a hig hatmospheri c particulat e loading woul d lea

d t o a reductio n o f the Earth' s temperature , effecte d b y the particle s absorbing th e sola r radiatio n befor e i t i s allowe d t o reac h the surface , althoughn o conclusiv e evidenc e ha s bee n produce d t o dat e t o eithe r prov e o r disprov e thi s suggestion . During the winte r perio d ther e i P increase d usag e o f fossi l fuel s for heating purposes , particularl yi_. :'.. e colde r area s o f the country , resulting i n greate r emission s o f particulate s t o the atmospher e whic h ha s the effec t o f reducing th e amoun t o f sunligh t reaching the surface . Sheleikovski i (1949 ) presente d figure s t o showtha t i n Leningrad thi s reductio n coul d b e a s hig ha s 10 % during the summe r an d 70 % during the winter . 9. 4 ATTENUATIONO F SOLA R RADIATIO

N Sola r radiatio n i s attenuate d during it s passag e throug hthe atmos pher e b yfour physica l factors : 1 . Scattering b

yth e ai r molecule s an d particle s whic har e smalle r tha n th e wavelengt ho f light . Thi s i s know n a s "Rayleigh scattering. " Scattering i s inversel yproportiona l t o the fourt h powe r o f th

e wavelengt hs o tha t ligh t o f shorte r wavelengt h i s scattere d most , accounting fo r th e blu e colo r o f the sky . 2 . Selectiv e absorptio n b yth e gase s presen t i n the atmospher e (Ozone , Carbo n Dioxide , wate r vapor , etc. ) 3 . Scattering b

yparticulat e matte r whic hi s roughl ythe same siz e a s the wavelengt ho f light . Thi s i s know n a s "Mi e scattering. " 4 . Absorptio n b

yparticulat e matte r whic hi s the same as , o r large r than , the wavelengt ho f light . Mi e scattering i s th e dominan t for mo f attenuatio n i n th e atmosphere , an d fo r plume s the othe r thre e factor s mayusuall yb e ignored . Visibl e ligh t ha s a wavelengt ho f betwee n abou t 0. 4 an d 0. 7 microns . Particle s withi n th e 0. 1 t o 1 micro n rang e scatte r ligh t mor e efficientl y than particle s o f othe r sizes . Whe n ligh t i s scattered , mor e i s scattere d i n the forward directio n (paralle l t o the directio n o f the light ) than i n'Tl ' | "i'i " 9. 7 othe r directions . Scattering o f ligh t i n the atmospher e reduce s the contras t betwee n a targe t an

d it s background i.e . visibilit yi s reduce d b ythe presenc e o f smal l particle s i n th e atmosphere . Becaus e o f the forward scatterin g mentione d above , visibilit yi s greate r whe n measure d awa yfro mth e su

n than whe n measure d toward the sun . 9. 5 HEALTH EFFECT S O F ATMOSPHERI C PARTICLE S Experiment s b

yvariou s workers , Dautrebande , Bechman n an d Walken

hors t (1957 ) an

d Findeise n (1935) , fo r example , hav e show n tha t particle s o f smal l diamete r settl e ou t i n the passageway s o f the huma n lung . I t ha s bee n show

n tha t virtuall yal l particle s large r tha n 1 micro n become trappe d i n the respiratorysystem , an d moreover , fo r particle s o f abou t 1 micro n i n diameter , 80 % ar e deposite d i n the alveola r regio n wit ha corresponding valu e o f 50 % fo r 0. 5 micro n particles . I t i s i n the alveol i tha t oxyge n fro mthe ai r i s transferre d int o the bloodstream , an d wast e gase s ar e transferre d int o the air , an d i f th e subjec t i s expose d t o continuall yhigh concentration s o f thes e particle s the ywil l ten

d t o decreas e the lung efficienc yan

d eventuall ycan lead t o lun g disease . I t shoul d be note d her e tha t the particle s i n the 0. 5 t o 1 micro n range , whic hd o the mos t damag e i n the alveola r region , ar e als o thos e particle s whic har e o f the same siz e a s the wavelengt ho f ligh t an d hav e the greates t effec t o n scattering the light , an d therefor e the greates t effec t o n plum e opacity . Ther e i s the n a correlatio n betwee n th e plum e opacity , a s determine d b ythe observe r i n the field , an d the amoun t o f lung-damaging particulat e bein g emitted . 9. 6 REMOVA

L MECHANISM S 9.6. 1 GRAVITATIONAL SETTLIN G Thi s i s a n importan t remova l mechanis mprimaril yfo r thos e particle s i large r than abou t 2 0 microns , whe n settling occur s withi n a fairl yshor t distanc e fro

mthe source . For a 5 0 micro n particl e the settling velocit yi s abou t 1 2 cm/sec , s o tha t i f the releas e poin t i s 100 mabov e groun d leve l the particl eP.1 4

9. 8 woul d reac hthe groun d afte r abou t 1 4 minutes . Wit ha win d spee d o f 5ra

/ sec . the particl e woul d therefor e reac hgroun d leve l some 4 k

mfro mthe emissio n point . Fo r a 0. 5 micro n particl e emitte d fromthe same stac k wit hthe same win d speed the settling velocit yi s onl yabou t 0.00 2 cm/sec . an d groun d impac t woul d no t occu r unti l some 250,00 0 k mdownwind , s o tha t t o al l intent s an

d purpose s thes e ver ysmal l particle s woul d remai n i n the atmos pher e almos t indefinitely , being transporte d acros s Stat e an d internationa l borders , unles s ther e existe d some othe r remova l mechanism . Fortunatel y ther e ar e othe r processe s availabl e fo r removal , suc ha s coagulation , rainout , washou t an d impaction . Th e abov e time s an

d distance s shoul d no t be take n a s absolut e value s sinc e the particle s ar e affecte d b ythe turbulen t eddie s i n the atmosphere , wit hth e resul t tha t some particle s wil l settl e ou t befor e the distance s give n above , an

d some particle s wil l settl e ou t a t considerabl yfurthe r distances . 9.6. 2 COAGULATIO

N Whe n particle s come int o contac t an d adher e t o on e anothe r the pro ces s i s calle d coagulation . Particle s can come int o clos e proximit ybe

caus e o f thei r Brownia n motion , resulting i n therma l coagulation , o r superimpose d o n thi s ther e can als o exis t a n orderl ymotio n produce d b y electrical , gravitationa l o r othe r forces . Afte r coagulatio n ha s occurre d the ne wparticl e ha s a large r gravita

tiona l settling rat e an d differen t ligh t scattering properties , compare d t o the original . 9.6. 3 RAINOUT I f ther e i s sufficien t wate r vapo r presen t i n the air , particle s tha t ar e 0. 2 micron s o r large r i n diamete r ac t a s nucle i fo r the formatio n o f raindrops .P.1 5

., , pn,.. -

9. 9 9.6. 4 WASHOU T Particle s that.ar e large r tha n abou t 1 micro n ca n collid e with!an d b e absorbe d b yraindrops . Particle s smalle r tha n abou t 1 micro n hav e suc h smal l inerti a tha t th e pressur e force s surroundin g a fallin g raindro p ar e sufficientl ylarg e t o preven t th e particl e fro m contactin g th e raindrop . 9.6. 5 IMPACTIO N i Whe n particle s com e int o contac t wit ha surface , suc ha s a building o r vegetation , presen t i n the atmosphere , theycan settl e ou t fromth e flowan d becom e loosel yattache d t o th e surface . Thi s attachmen t can b e I strengthene d b

yan yelectrostati c attractio n betwee n the particl e an d the surface . 9. 7 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 . Bush , A . S . Municipa l Incineration , SanitaryEngineering Researc h

Project , Technica l Bulleti n No . 6 , Universit yo f California , Lo s Angeles , California . 1951 . 2 .

3 .

5 . 6 . Cab e an

d Atkins , Win

d Tunne l Stud

yo f Ligh t Absorbanc e i n a Dispersing Smok e Plume . Texa s Univ . Austin , Dept , Civi l Eng . Env . Res . Lab. , Tech . Dept. , EHE-71-5 , p 80 . 1971 . o f

Chass , R . L . an

d A . H . Rose . Discharg e fro mMunicipa l Incinerators . Presente d a t 46t hAnnua l Meeting , Ai r Pollutio n Contro l Association . 1953 . Conner , W . D . an

d J . Raymon

d Hodkinson . Optica l Propertie s an d Visua l Effect s o f Smoke-Stac k Plumes , DHEW , PH S Publicatio n No . 999-AP-30 . 1967 . Crider , W . L . an

d J . A . Tash . Stud yo f Vision-""Obscuratio n b yNon Blac k Plumes , J . Ai r Poll . Contro l Assoc . 1 4 161-167 . 1964 . Dautrebande , L. , H . Bedman n an d W . Walkenhorst . Lung Depositio n |O f Fin e Dus t Particles . Arch . Ind . Health , Vol . 16 , p p 179-187 . 1957 .

. an d M . J . Pilat . Calculatio n o f Smok e Plum e Opacit y fromParticulat e Ai r Pollutan t Properties , JAPCA , p 496 . 1971 .

. an d M . J . Pilat . Plum e Opacit yan d Particulat e Mas s Concentration , Atmos . Env. , 4 , p 163-173 . 1970 .

. an d M . J . Pilat . Th e Relationshi p betwee n the Visibilit yan

d Aeroso l Propertie s o f Smok e Stac k Plumles , Pape r presente d a t the Secon d Internationa l Unio n o f Ai r Pollutio n Preventio n Association s i n Washington , D.C. i 1970 . 7 . 8 . 9 . Ensor ,

Ensor , Ensor , D .

D . D .P.1 6

9.1 0

10 . Findeisen , W . Ube r da s Absetze n Kleine r i n de r Luf t suspendierte n

Teilche n i n de r menshliche n Lung e be i de r Atmung . Arch . Ges . Physiol. , Vol . 236 , p p 367-379 . 1935 . 11 . Gansler , N . R . Th e Us e o f a Bolomete r fo r Continuou s Measuremen t

o f Particulat e Losse s fro mKraf t Mil l Recover yFurnaces , Pacifi c Northwes t Internationa l Sections , APCA , Vancouver , B.C . 1968 . 12 . Giese , R . H. , E . d e Bary , K . Bullric han d C . D . Vinnemann . Table s o f Scatterin g Functions , M = 1.50 . Abhand , Deutch . Skad . Wissenschaft . Berli n No . 6 . 1961 . 13 . Halo wan

d Zeek . Predictin g Ringelman n No . an

d Optica l Charact

eristic s o f Plumes , APCA , 676-684 . 1973 . 14 . Hawksley , P . G. , S . Badzioc han d J . Blackett . Measuremen t o f Solid s i n Flu e Gases , Britis hCoa l Utilizatio n Researc h Assoc . Leatherhead , Surrey , England . 1961 . 15 . Hodkinson , J . R . Dus t Measuremen t b yLigh t Scattering an d Absorption , Ph . D . thesis , Universit yo f London . 1962 . 16 . Hodkinson , J . R . Th e Optica l Measuremen t o f Aerosols , i n

Aeroso l Science , ed . C . N . Davies , Academi c Press , London . 1966 . 17 . Hodkinson , J . R . Th e Refractiv e Inde x an d Extinctio n Efficienc y Facto r o f Carbon , J . Opt . Soc . Amer. , 5 4 846 . 1964 . 18 . Hurley , T . F . an d P . L . Bailey . . Th e Correlatio n o f Optica l Densit y wit hthe Concentratio n an d Compositio n o f the Smok e Emitte d froma Lancashir e Boiler . J . Inst . Fue l 31 , 534 . 1958 . 19 . Jarman , R . T . an d C . M . d e Turville . Th e Visibilit yan d lengt h o f ChimneyPlumes , .Atmo . Env . 3 , 257 . 1969 . 20 . Kreichelt , T . E. , D . A . Kemnit z an d S . T . Cuffe . Atmospheri c Emission s fromthe Manufactur e o f Portland Cement . U . S . Dep t o f Health , Educatio n an d Welfare . Publicatio n No . AP-1 7 1967 . 21 . Lee , R . E. , Jr. , R . K . Patterson , W . L . Cride r an d J . Wagman . Concentratio n an

d Particulat e Siz e Distributio n o f Particulat e Emission s i n Aut o Exhaust . 1968 . 22 . Lehr , P.E. , R . W . Burnet t an d H . Z . Zim . Weather , a Guid e t o Phenomen a an

d Forecasts , Golde n Press , Ne wYork . 1965 . 23 . McCormick , R . A . Ai r Pollutio n Climatology , Ai r Pollutio n Vol . 1 ,

edite d b

yA . C . Stern . 1968 . 24 . McDonald , J . E . Visibilit yReductio n du e t o Jet-Exhaus t Carbo n

Particles , J . Appl . Met. , 1 , 391 . 1962 . 25 . Middleton , W . E . K . Visio n throug hth e Atmosphere , Universit yo f Toront o Press , pp . 83-102 . 1963 .• ; I 1 fl " | <;ip-

9.1 1 P.1 7

26 . Mueller , P . K. , H . L . Helwig , A . E . Alcocer , W . K. , Gong an d E . E . Jones . Concentratio n an d Particl e Siz e Distribution ! o f Particulat e Emission s i n Aut o Exhaust . America n Societ yfo r Testing an d Materials , Spec . Tech . Pub . , 352 . 1968 . 27 . NAPCA . Ai r Qualit yCriteri a fo r Particulat e Matter . U . S . Dept .

o f Health , Educatio n an d Welfare . Publicatio n No . AP-49 . 1969 . 28 . Penndorf , R . B . Ne wTabl e o f Mi e Scattering Functions , Par t 6 ,

Geophysica l Researc hPape r No . 45 , AFCRC-TR-56-204/6 y Ai r Forc e Cambridg e Researc hLaboratory , Bedford , Mass . 1956 . ' 19. Penndorf , R . B . Researc hon Aeroso l Scattering i n the Infra-Red ,

Fina l Report , AFCRL-63-668 , Ai r Forc e Cambridg e Researc h Laboratory , Bedford , Mass . 1963 . ! 30 . Robinson , E . Effec t on the Physica l Propertie s o f the Atmosphere 1 ,

Ai r Pollutio n Vol . 1 , edite d b yA . C . Stern . 31 . Sheehy , J . P. , W . C . Achinge r an d R . A . Simon . Handboo k o f Ai r Pollution . U . S . Dept . o f Health , Educatio n an d Welfare , Publicatio n No . AP-44 . 1968 . 32 . Sheleikhovskii , G . V . Smok e Pollutio n o f Towns . Translate d from

Russia n an

d publishe d b

ythe Nationa l Scienc e Foundation . 1961 . 33. ' Silverman , L . Technica l Aspect s o f HighTemperatur e Ga s Cleaning '

fo r Stee l Makin g Processes . Ai r Repair , Vol . 4 , pp . ' 189-196 . 1955 . 34 . Smith , W . S . an d C . W . Gruber . Atmospheri c Emission s fromCoa l Combustion . A

n Inventor

yGuide . U . S . Dept . o f Health , Educatio n an

d Welfare , Publicatio n No . AP-24 . 1966 . 35 . Smith , W . S . 36 . 37 . 38 . 39 . 40 . Stoecher , W . U . S . Dept . Atmospheri c Emission s fro mFue l Oi l Combustion . U . S . Dept . o f Health , Educatio n an d Welfare , Publicatio n No . AP-2 . 1962 . F . Smok e Densit yMeasurement , Mech . Eng . 72 , 793 . 1950 . o f Health , Educatio n an d Welfare . Atmospheri c Emission s fromSulfuri c Aci d Manufacturin g Processes . Publicatio n No . AP-2 . 1965 . Van D e Hulst , H . C . Ligh t Scattering b ySmal l Particles , Joh n Wile y & Sons , Inc. , Ne wYork . 1957 . Volz , F . APhotomete r fo r Measuremen t o f Sola r Radiation , Arch .

Met . Geophys . & Bioklimat . B 10 , 100-131 . 1959 . Wanta , R . C . Meteorolog yan d Ai r Pollution , Ai r Pollutio n Vol . I j edite d b

yA . C . Stern . 1968 .P.1 8 p- l -:i p-

•

10. 1 10 . AID S FOR EVALUATIN G VISIBL E EMISSION S 10. 1 INTRODUCTIO

N Anumbe r o f aid s fo r evaluating the opacit yo f visibl e emission s ha s bee n developed , ranging froma simpl e hand-hel d Ringelman n char t t o sophisticate d lase r techniques . Th e aid s varyi n pric e fro ma fe wcent s t o ten s o f thousand s o f dollars . Althoughsome ar e usefu l fo r researc h purposes , non e o f themproduce s an ysignifican t improvemen t ove r a n inspecto r wh o ha s bee n properl ytraine d t o evaluat e emissions . 10. 2 SMOK E CHART S The variou s smok e chart s tha t hav e bee n develope d wor k o n the Ringelman

n principl e b

ycomparing shade s o f gra yprinte d on paper , wit h i th e sourc e emission . Theyar e simpl ysmaller , han d hel d Ringelmann charts , an d shoul d b e use d t o evaluat e gra yo r blac k emissions . 10. 3 SMOK E INSPECTIO NGUID E The Publi c Healt hServic e ha s develope d a fil mstri p comprise d b f piece s o f fil mwit hdensitie s o f zero , 20 , 40 , 6 0 an d 8 0 percen t trans mission , an

d whic hi s referre d t o a s a "Smok e Inspectio n Guide. " The ; inspecto r view s the sourc e throughthe guid e an d evaluate s the opacit y o f the sourc e b

ycomparing i t t o the piece s o f fil mo n the guide . O f al l the aid s availabl e thi s guid e i s probabl ythe bes t fro ma "cost effectiveness " standpoin t fo r observation s i n connectio n wit henforcemen t proceedings . 10. 4 COMPARATOR S Thes e includ e the smok e tintomete r an d the umbrascop e whic hus e tinted glasse s graduate d t o th e Ringelmann scal e agains t whic hth e opacit y o f the emission s mayb e compared . 10. 5 SMOKESCOP E Thi s instrumen t consist s o f two barrel s fo r receiving incoming light , simila r t o binoculars , wit hon e eyepiec e fo r viewing . Th e stac k i s viewe d throug h on e barre l o f the instrument . Ligh t fro man are a adjacen t t o theP.1 9

10. 2 stac k enter s the othe r barre l an d illuminate s a circula r standard densit y film . Hal f o f thi s fil mi s equivalen t t o No . 2 Ringelmann an d th e othe r hal f i s equivalen t t o No . 3 Ringelmann . Th e imag e o f thes e tw o hal f disc s i s projecte d ont o a scree n i n fron t o f the eyepiec e an d thi s imag e surround s a smal l apertur e wher e th e smok e i s seen . Th e observe r then compare s the smok e shad e wit hthe tw o Ringelmann shades . Th e advantag e o f thi s instrumen t ove r a Ringelman n Char t use d i n the fiel d i s tha t the illumina

tion s o f the smok e an d the referenc e ar e bot hinfluence d b ythe same factors . Thus , th

e smokescop e i s automaticall ycompensate d fo r varyin g ligh t condi

tions . (Th

e amoun t o f ligh t transmitte d i s use d t o evaluat e plume opacity , whil e the amoun t o f ligh t reflecte d i s use d t o evaluat e a conventiona l Ringelman

n chart) . 10. 6 PHOTOGRAPHY Photograph s o f the sourc e can b e use d t o evaluat e the plume trans mittanc e b

yplacing filter s along the sid e o f the camer a fil mplan e s o tha t a calibratio n scal e i s superimpose d o n the photograph . 10. 7 TELEPHOTOMETER S Telephotometer s ar e use d t o measur e the luminanc e o f a source , ofte n using a brigh t ligh t sourc e a s a datum . 10. 8 TRANSMISSOMETER S Man ypermanentl yinstalled , in-stac k device s ar e commerciall yavail

abl e t o continuousl ymonito r an d record the emissio n transmittance . Some ar e designe d t o se t of f an alar mt o war n operating personne l whe n the transmittanc e reache s a prese t level . Other s indicat e the transmittanc e on a meter , o r record i t o n a stri p chart . Mos t o f thes e device s us e eithe r a ligh t source-photocel l combina

tio n t o measur e the transmissio n o f ligh t throughth e plume , o r remov e a sampl e o f the plume an d measur e the transmissio n o f ligh t throug hthi s sample . On e problemwit hthe ligh t sourc e photocel l systemi s tha t bot h th e ligh t sourc e an

d photocel l deteriorat e wit htime an d requir e frequen t recalibration . I f the ligh t transmissio n o f a sampl e i s measured , i t i s frequentl ydifficult , especiall yunde r varyin g conditions , t o obtai n aP.2 0

10. 3 representativ e sample . Th e bolomete r i s anothe r devic e availabl e tha t use s the same genera l principa l a s th e ligh t sourc e photocell . Thi s devic e measure s the resis

tanc e chang e acros s a filamen t whic hi s proportiona l t o the ligh t tha t i s transmitte d throughthe emission . According t o the manufacture r the mai n advantag e o f th e bolomete r ove r the ligh t source-photocel l systemi s tha t bolometer s do no t nee d t o be calibrate d a s often . 10. 9 LASE R TECHNIQUE S Lase r technique s fo r measuring the transmittanc e o f plume s hav e recentl ybee n developed . Th e metho d i s base d o n the measuremen t o f back

scatte r signal s o f a pulse d lase r bea mb yaerosol s i n the ai r beyond a plume . Th e plume' s transmittanc e i s obtaine d b ycomparing the backscatte r signa l whe n th

e bea mi s directe d throug hthe plume t o the backscatte r signa l obtaine d whe n th e bea mi s directe d besid e the plume . 10.1 0 BIBLIOGRAPHY Collis , Ronal d T.H .

1965 . Lida r Observatio n o f Cloud , Scienc e 149 , 978-981 . 2 . Gansler , N.R. , Th e Us e o f a Bolomete r fo r Continuou s Measuremen t o f

Particulat e Losse s fro mKraf t Mil l RecoveryFurnaces , Pacifi c Northwes t Internationa l Sections , APCA , Vancouver , B.C . 1968 . 3 . Hawksley , P.G. , S . Badzioc han d J . Blackett , Measuremen t o f Solid s i n Flu e Gases , Britis hCoa l Utilizatio n Researc hAssoCi . Leatherhead , Surrey , England . 1961 . 4 . Hodkinson , J.R. , Th e Theoryo f th e Tyndahlscope , Staub . Marc h1966 . 5 . McKee , Instrumenta l Metho d Substitute s fo r Visua l Estimatio n o f Equi

valen t Opacity , APCA , 488 . Augus t 1971 . 6 . Rose , A.H. , J.S . Nade r an d P.A . Drinker , Developmen t o f a n Improve d Smok e Inspectio n Guide , J . Ai r Poll . Contro l Assoc . 8 , 112-116 . Augus t 1958 . 7 . Rose , A.H . an

d J.S . Nader , Fiel d Evaluatio n o f an Improve d Smok e Inspectio n Guide , J . Ai r Poll . Contro l Assoc . 8 , 117-119 . Augus t 1958 .P.2 1 > " r nr

"ITI " v• 11. 1 1 1 . DEFINITION S

11. 1 POLLUTAN

T CLOUD Aclou d o f ai r pollutio n i s an emissio n o f ai r contaminant s whic h ha s become completel ydivorce d fro mit s sourc e o r source s an d i s graduall y being dissipate d b

ythe processe s o f dilution , gravitationa l settling'an d diffusion , bu t maystil l retai n visibl e boundaries . Th e clou d i s shape d b ythe directio n o f ai r flow , an d b ydilutio n whic hoccur s a t righ t angle s t o thi s flow . Th e clou d i s the extensio n o r the fanning effect , o f the plume an

d generall yoccur s unde r stabl e atmospheri c conditions . Cloud s ar e ofte n produce d fro mlarg e sourc e emission s an d frombuilding , brus han

d fores t fires . Generall yspeaking , the large r the quantit yp f ai r pollutants , the longe r a clou d remain s coherent . Noting the appearanc e o f cloud s i n reports , especiall ya s t o height , length , breadt han

d thickness , ca n b e importan t i n determining the severit y o f a genera l o r loca l problem . 11. 2 HAZ E Haze s ar e frequentl yforme d b ycondensatio n o f vapor s o n atmospheri c particles , o r b

yaeroso l productio n i n smo g formation , an d b ydust s an

d pollen . Smo g i s itsel f a chemica l haze . Ahaz e mayals o b e considere d a s a mor e attenuate d for mo f clou

d residing a t groun d level , representin g Stagnan t atmospheri c conditions . Notatio n o f the existenc e o f the hkze i s important , particularl ywhe n i t i s peculia r t o a community , sinc e a n acut e loca l proble mmayb e present . 11. 3 TYPE S O F EFFLUENT Th e plum e represent s the for mo f th e ai r contaminan t o f primary interest . I t i s th e "discharge " o r "emission " regulate d o r prohibite d i n mos t statute s o r rules . Sinc e al l substance s become liquid , solid s an d gase s a t certai n temperatures , th e plum e mayconsis t o f a variet yo f contaminant s i n variou s state s o f matter . Smoke , fo r instance , contain s visibl e aerosols — carbo n particle s an d soli d o r liqui d particle s o f partiall yburne d fuels — an d suc h gase s a s sulfu r dioxide , oxide s o f nitrogen , an d unburne d vapors .P.2 2

11. 2 The identit yascribe d t o the plume i s usuall ymad e i n terms o f it s outstanding visua l characteristic . Fo r example , eve n thoug hsulfu r dioxid e ma

yb e the mos t significan t o f the pollutant s emitte d froma give n stack , the effluen t i n whic hi t i s containe d i s frequentl ydes

cribe d a s smok e du e t o th e visibl e soot , carbo n particle s an d flyas h containe d i n the plume . Th e mer e observatio n o f a plume , however , doe s no t resul t i n it s conclusiv e identification . Knowledg e o f the specifi c condition s whic h cause d the contaminant s i s required . Th e distinctio n betwee n smok e an d fume s canno t be mad e unles s the processe s b ywhic hthe

yar e generate d ar e described . 11.3. 1 SMOK E Smok e i s the visibl e effluen t resulting fro mincomplet e combustion . I t consist s mostl yo f soot , fl yas h an d othe r soli d o r liqui d particle s les s than on e micro-mete r i n diameter . Depending upo n the compositio n o f the fue l o r material s being burne d an d the efficiencyo f combustion , variou s volatilize d gase s an d organic s sucha s aldehydes , variou s acids , sulfu r oxides , nitroge n oxide s an d ammoni a ma

yals o be emitted . Du e t o the lowvapo r pressure s an d slowsettling propertie s o f the particles , the smok e mayb e carrie d considerabl e distance s fro mthe sourc e an

d man y submicro-mete r particle s wil l remai n disperse d i n the atmospher e almos t permanently . Smok e wil l varyi n color , bu t wil l b e generall yobserve d a s grey , blue , black , brow

n an d white , an

d sometime s yellow , depending upo n the condition s unde r whic h certai n type s o f fuel s o r material s ar e burned . Th e colo r o f smok e i s generall ya fairl ygood indicatio n o f the typ e o f combustio n problemencountered . Smok e whic hi s greyo r blac k i n colo r mayindicat e tha t materia l i s being burne d wit hinsufficien t ai r o r inadequat e mixing o f fue l an d air . Whit e smok e usuall yresult s whe n combustio n i s cooled b yexcessiv e draft s o f air , o r whe n the material s being burne d contai n excessiv e amount s o f moisture . I n the latte r case , o f course , a condense d wate r vapo r plum e i s no t subjec t t o the opacit yregulation .P.2 3

11. 3

Brow n o r yello wsmok e mayresul t fro mthe burning o f semi-soli d tarr ysubstance s suc ha s asphal t o r ta r paper , resulting fro minadequat e temperatur e o r poo r mixing . Ablu e colo r o r ligh t blu e colo r i s ofte n associate d wit hthe burning o f domesti c tras hconsisting mostl yo f pape r o r woo d products . Th e ligh t blu e colo r seem s t o ste mfro mthe fin e particle s o f pyroligneoii s aci d du e t o sulfid e treated pape r an d woo d tar constituents . Th e blu e i plume contain s littl e o r no carbo n o r soo t particles . 11.3. 2 FUME S I n ai r pollutio n control , fume s ar e referre d t o specificall ya s "condense d fumes. " Thes e ar e minut e soli d particle s generate d b yth e condensatio n o f vapor s fro m soli d matte r afte r volatilizatio n fromthe molte n state , o r ma ybe generate d b

ysublimation , distillation , calcilnatio n o r chemica l reactio n whe n thes e processe s creat e air-born e particles . Fume particle s ar e generall yles s tha n on e micro-mete r i n diamete r an d wil l behav e lik e smoke . Fume s wil l mor e commonl yconsis t o f metal s a'n d J ' | metalli c oxide s an d chlorides . Als o containe d i n the fume s ar e commo; n soli d I i particulate s suc ha s fl yash , carbon , mechanically-produce d dus t an d Igase s suc ha s sulfu r dioxide . Th e fume s principall yemitted , however , ar e |actually dust s condense d fro mthe mor e volatil e element s i n the metal s melte d Isuc h a s zinc , sulfur , lea d an d others . Metallurgica l operation s ar e the mos t commo n for mo f fume which

i consist s primaril yo f th e metalli c oxid e drive n fro mth e meltin g surfac e whe n meta l i s heate d t o the molte n state . Metal s suc ha s cop'pe r an d bronz e wit hrelativel yhig hboiling temperatures , a s compare d t o Ithei r meltin g an

d pouring temperatures , d o no t readil yvolatiliz e an d do.no t constitut e an ai r pollutio n problem . Coppe r an d tin , fo r example , hav e boiling temperature s abov e 400 0 F. , bu t ar e poure d a t temperature s a t abou t 2000°F . i Some metal s maycontai n alloy s wit hextreme difference s i n volatility .

! • Copper-base d alloy s sucha s yello wbrass , manganes e bronze , brazing spelte r an d variou s plumbing metal s contai n fro m1 4 t o 4 0 percen t zinc , the boiling temperatur e o f whic hi s aroun d 220 0 F . Sinc e the meta l mus t b e heatej d t o mel t the coppe r whic hha s the highes t pouring temperature , a portio n o f the11. 4 zinc wil l be brough t t o it s boiling poin t an d wil l volatilize . Coppe r alloy s wit hhig

hzinc content s ma

ylos e fro

m2 t o 1 5 percen t o f thei r zinc throug

hfuming . Whe n vente d t o the atmosphere , fume s ma yhav e the appearanc e o f smoke . However , al l o f the source s o f fume s ma yno t b e practicall y vente d i n a large-scal e foundr yoperation , s o tha t fume s i n the vicinit y o f a plan t ma

yappea r a s a haz e o r a clou d emitte d fro

mfactor

ymonitor s an d windows . Othe r processe s whic hwil l produc e fume s includ e calcination , sub

limatio n an

d distillation . Calcinatio n consist s o f heating , roasting o r smelting t o decompos e minerals . Calcinatio n i s commerciall yapplie d i n th e manufactur e o f glas s an d minera l catalyst s throug hth e heating o f material s suc ha s san d an d limestone . I t i s variousl yemploye d t o remove moistur e o r a volatil e con stituen t b

ysuc hmethod s a s heating limeston e t o for mcarbo n dioxid e ga s an d calciu

moxide , o r t o reduc e mineral s b yoxidation . Sublimatio n i s the proces s i n whic ha soli d substanc e i s converted , t o a ga s withou t a chang e i n compositio n an d withou t firs t goin g through the liqui d state . Iodine , carbo n dioxid e (dr yice ) an

d man ymetalli c an

d nonmetalli c crystal s ar e example s o f sublime d materials . Sublimatio n o f thes e material s mayb e accomplishe d b ylowering the pressure , raising the tem peratur e o r b

ychanging bot htemperatur e an d pressure . Distillatio n i s a cycl e o f vaporizatio n an d condensatio n i n whic h a liqui d i s converte d t o a vapo r an d condense d t o a liquid . Distillatio n i s generall yemploye d t o purif ya liqui d o r t o segregat e component s according t o relativ e volatility . 11.3. 3 DUST S Dust s ar e minut e soli d particle s release d i n the ai r b ynatura l force s o r b

ymechanica l processe s suc ha s crushing , grinding , melting , drilling , demolishing , shoveling , sweeping , sanding , etc . Dus t particle s ar e large r an

d les s concentrate d tha n thos e i n colloida l systems , suc h a s smok e an

d fumes , an

d wil l settl e fairl yquickl yon surfaces . Adus t effluent , however , mayals o contai n man ysubmicroscopi c particles .11. 5

Dust s ar e produce d fro mvirtuall yever

yhuman activit ya s wel l a s fro mthe natura l environment . Some dust yindustrie s includ e minera l eart hprocessor s sucha s cerami c an d cemen t manufacturing , calcining, , an d wood-working an

d feed an

d flour industries . Dus t particle s mainl yexcee d on e micro n i n diamete r an d ar e readil y. controlle d b

ycentrifuga l separators , clot hfilter s an d electrostatic 1 precipitators . 11.3. 4 MIST S Mist s consis t o f liqui d particulate s o r droplets , les s than the 1 siz e ;> i raindrops , suc ha s fog , an d ar e formed b

ycondensatio n o f a vapor, , o r atomizatio n o f a liqui d b ymechanica l spraying . Mis t droplet s maycontai n contaminan t materia l i n solutio n o r suspension . Th e impregnatio n an d coating o f building material s wit hasphal t o r th e manufactur e o r heating o f asphal t a t batc hplant s ma yproduc e haze s o r fog s containing droplet s o f liqui d asphalt . Pain t spraying operation s emi t liqui d particulate s containing organi c solvents , pigment s an d othe r materials . Mist s mayals o be emitte d fro

mcontro l device s suc ha s cyclone s an d scrubbers , using a liqui d ai r cleaning medium . Aci d particulates , sucha s chromi c an d sulfuri c aci d produce d fro

mchrome plating operations , ma yals o for

mmist s whe n exhauste d t o the atmosphere . I n larg e oil-burning installations , sulfu r trioxid e i s forme d a s a gas , and , afte r contac t wit hsufficien t moistur e i n the air , form s la s a white-to-blu e plume severa l fee t abov e the stac k (detached plume) . Afte r furthe r contac t wit hmoistur e i n the air , th e sulfur trioxid e i s transforme d t o a sulfuri c aci d mist . 11.3. 5 GASE S AN

D VAPOR S Mos t gaseou s an

d vapo r plume s ar e colorless . I f the yar e visibl e however , e.g . a chlorin e o r nitroge n dioxid e emission , i t woul d probabl y b e wise r for the inspecto r t o repor t thes e emission s t o a plan t officia l 

### i a t onc e rathe r tha

n t o attemp t t o prov e a violatio n o f the opacit y regulation . Emission s o f som e gase s i n quantitie s o f sufficien t magnitud e t o violat e the opacit yregulatio n woul d ver ylikel yconstitut e a rea l threa t to human healt han d the loca l environment , an d ever yattemp t shoul dP.2 6

11. 6

b e mad e t o sto

p the emission s a s soo n a s possible . 11. 4 * BIBLOGRAPH

Y 1 . Weisburd , M.I . (Editor) , Identifying Effluen t Plumes , Ai r Pollutio n

Contro l Fiel d Operation s Manual , PH S Publicatio n No . 937 . 1962 .12. 1

12 . METHO D 9 —VISUAL DETERMINATIO NO F TH E OPACITY O F EMISSION S FROM STATIONARY " SOURCE S Th e curren t Metho d 9 , publishe d i n th e Federa l Register , Volume 39 , No . 21 9 o n Novembe r 12 , 197 4 i s reproduce d below : "Man ystationarysource s discharg e visibl e emission s int o the atmos phere ; thes e emission s ar e usuall yi n the shap e o f a plume . Thi s metho d involve s the determinatio n o f plume opacit yb yqualifie d observers . Th e metho d include s procedure s fo r the training an d certificatio n o f obser

vers , an

d procedure s t o be use d i n the fiel d fo r determinatio n o f plum e opacity . Th e appearanc e o f a plume a s viewe d b ya n observe r depend s upo n a numbe r o f variables , some o f whic hmayb e controllabl e an d some o f whic hmayno t b e controllabl e i n th e field . Variable s whic hca n b e controlle d t o a n exten t t o whic hthe yn o longe r exer t a significan t influenc e upo n plume appearanc e include : Angl e o f the observe r wit hre spec t t o the plume ; angl e o f the observe r wit hrespec t t o the sun ; poin t o f observatio n o f attache d an d detache d stea

mplume ; an

d angl e o f th e observe r wit hrespec t t o a plum e emitte d froma rectangula r stac k wit h a larg e lengt ht o widt hratio . Th e metho d include s specifi c criteri a applicabl e t o thes e variables . Othe r variable s whic h ma yno t b e controllabl e i n the fiel d ar e luminescenc e an

d colo r contras t betwee n the plum e an d the background agains t whic hthe plume i s viewed . Thes e variable s exer t a n influenc e upo n the appearanc e o f a plum e a s viewe d b ya n observer , an

d ca n affec t the abilit yo f the observe r t o accuratel yassig n opacit yvalue s t o the observe d plume . Studie s o f the theor yo f plume opacit yan d fiel d studie s hav e demonstrate d tha t a plume i s mos t visibl e an d present s the greates t apparen t opacit ywhe n viewe d agains t a contrasting background . I t follow s fro

mthis , an

d i s confirme d b

yfiel d trials , tha t th e opacit y o f a plume , viewe d unde r condition s wher e a contrasting background i s presen t ca n b e assigne d wit h th e greates t degre e o f accuracy . Howeyer , the potentia l fo r a positiv e erro r i s als o the greates t whe n a plume i s viewe d unde r suc h contrasting conditions . Unde r condition s presentin g a les s contrasting background , the apparen t opacit yo f a plum e i s les s an d ' approache s zer o a s the colo r an d luminescenc e contras t decreas e toward zero . A s a result , significan t negativ e bia s an d negativ e error s can be mad e whe n a plume i s viewe d unde r les s contrasting conditions . Anegativ eP.2 8

12. 2 bia s decrease s rathe r tha n increase s th e possibilit ytha t a plan t opera to r wil l b e cite d fo r a violatio n o f opacit ystandard s du e t o observe r error . Studie s hav e bee n undertake n t o determin e th e magnitud e o f positiv e error s whic hca n b e mad e b yqualifie d observer s whil e readin g plume s unde r contrastin g condition s and usin g th e procedure s se t fort hi n thi s method . Th e result s o f thes e studie s (fiel d trials ) whic hinvolv e a tota l o f 76 9 set s o f 2 5 reading s eac h ar e a s follows : 1 ) Fo r blac k plume s (13 3 set s a t a smok e generator),10 0 percen t o f th e set s wer e rea d wit ha positiv e erro r o f les s tha n 7. 5 percen t opacity;-9 9 percen t wer e rea d wit h a positiv e erro r o f les s tha n 5 percen t opacity . 2 ) Fo r whit e plume s (17 0 set s a t a smok e generator , 16 8 set s a t a coal-fire d powe r plant , 29 8 set s a t a sul

furi c aci d plant) , 9 9 percen t o f th e set s wer e read wit h a positiv e erro r o f les s than 5 percen t opacity . Th e positiv e observationa l erro r associate d wit ha n averag e o f twenty-fiv e reading s i s therefor e established . Th e accurac yo f th e metho d mus t b e take n int o accoun t whe n determinin g possibl e violation s o f appli

cabl e opacit ystandards . 1 . PRINCIPL E AND APPLICABILIT Y 1. 1 PRINCIPL E Th e opacit yo f emission s fro mstationar ysource s i s determine d visuall yb

ya qualifie d observer . 1. 2 APPLICABILIT Y Thi s metho d i s applicabl e fo r th e determinatio n o f th e opacit yo f emission s fromstationar ysource s pursuan t t o § 60.1 1 (b ) an d fo r quali

fyin g observer s fo r visuall ydeterminin g opacit yo f emissions . 2 . PROCEDURE S Th e observe r qualifie d i n accordanc e wit hparagrap h3 o f this , metho d shal l us e th e followin g procedure s fo r visuall ydeterminin g th e opacit yo f emissions . Fo r a set , positiv e erro r = averag e opacit ydetermine d b yobservers ' 2 5 observation s - averag e opacit ydetermine d fromtransmissometer' s 2 5 recordings .' " P I

12. 3 2. 1 POSITIO

N Th e qualifie d observe r shal l stan d a t a distanc e sufficien t t o pro vid e a clea r vie wo f the emission s wit hthe su n oriente d i n the 14 0 secto r t o hi s back . Consisten t wit hmaintaining the abov e requirement , the observe r shall , a s muc ha s possible , mak e hi s observation s froma positio n suc htha t hi s lin e o f visio n i s approximatel yperpendicula r t o the plume direction , an d whe n observing opacit yo f emission s fromrect angula r outlet s (e.g . roo f monitors , ope n baghouses , noncircula r stacks) , approximatel yperpendicula r t o the longe r axi s o f the outlet . Th e obser

ver' s lin e o f sigh t shoul d no t includ e mor e than on e plume a t a time whe n multipl e stack s ar e involved , an d i n an ycas e the observe r shoul d mak e hi s observation s wit hhi s lin e o f sigh t perpendicula r t o the longe r axis!o f suc ha se t o f multipl e stack s (e.g . stu b stack s o n baghouses) . 2. 2 FIEL D RECORD S Th e observe r shal l record th e name o f the plant , emissio n location , typ e facility , observer' s name an d affiliation , an

d the dat e o n a fiel d dat a shee t (Figur e 9 1) . Th e time , estimate d distanc e t o the emissio n location , approximat e win d direction , estimate d win d speed , descriptio n o f ! the sk yconditio n (presenc e an d colo r o f clouds) , an d plume background ar e recorde d o n a fiel d dat a shee t a t the tim e opacit yreading s ar e initiate d an d completed . 2. 3 OBSERVATION S Opacit yobservation s shal l b e mad e a t the poin t o f greates t opacit y i n tha t portio n o f th e plume wher e condense d wate r vapo r i s no t present . i Th e observe r shal l no t loo k continuousl ya t the plume , bu t instea d shal l observ e the plume momentaril ya t 15-secon d intervals . 2.3. 1 ATTACHE D STEA M PLUME S Whe n condense d wate r vapo r i s presen t withi n th e plum e a s i t emerge s fro

mthe emissio n outlet , opacit yobservation s shal l b e mad e be

yon d the poin t i n the plume a t whic hcondense d wate r vapo r i s n o longe r visible . Th e observe r shal l .recor d the approximat e distanc e fromthe emissio n outle t t o th e poin t i n the plume a t whic hthe observation s ar e made .P.3 0

12. 4 2.3. 2 DETACHE D STEA M PLUM E Whe n wate r vapo r i n the plume condense s an d become s visibl e a t a distinc t distanc e fro mthe emissio n outlet , the opacit yo f emission s shoul d be evaluate d a t th

e emissio n outle t prio r t o the condensatio n o f wate r vapo r an

d the formatio n o f th e stea mplume . *

2. 4 RECORDIN

G OBSERVATION S Opacit yobservation s shal l b e recorde d t o the neares t 5 percen t a t 15-secon

d interval s o n a n observationa l record sheet . (Se e Figur e 9- 2 fo r a n example) . Aminimu mo f 2 4 observation s shal l b e recorded . Eac h momentaryobservatio n recorde d shal l b e deeme d t o represen t th e averag e opacit yo f emission s fo r a 15-secon d period . 2. 5 DATAREDUCTIO

N Opacit yshal l b e determine d a s an averag e o f 2 4 consecutive observation s recorde d a t 15-secon d intervals . Divid e the observation s recorde d o n the recor d shee t int o set s o f 2 4 consecutiv e observations . Ase t i s compose d o f an y2 4 consecutiv e observations . Set s nee d no t b e consecutiv e i n time an d i n n o cas e shal l two set s overlap . Fo r eac hse t o f 2 4 observations , calculat e th e averag e b ysumming the opacit yo f th e 2 4 observation s an d dividing thi s su

mb y24 . I f a n applicabl e standard specifie s an averaging tim e requiring mor e than 2 4 observations , calculat e the averag e fo r al l observation s mad e during the specifie d time period . Record the averag e opacit yon a record sheet . (Se e Figur e 9- 1 fo r a n example) . 3 . QUALIFICATION S AND TESTIN G 3. 1 CERTIFICATIO

NREQUIREMENT S T o receiv e certificatio n a s a qualifie d observer , a candidat e mus t b e tested an

d demonstrat e the abilit yt o assign opacit yreading s i n 5 percen t increment s t o 2 5 differen t blac k plume s an d 2 5 differen t whit e plumes , wit ha n erro r no t t o excee d 1 5 percen t opacit yo n an yone reading an d an averag e erro r no t t o excee d 7. 5 percen t opacit yi n eac hcategory . Candidate s shal l b e teste d according t o the procedure s describe d i n para graph3.2 . Smok e generator s use d pursuan t t o paragraph3. 2 shal l b e equippe d wit ha smok e mete r whic hmeet s the requirement s o f paragraph3.3 .P.3 1

- n

12. 5 The certificatio n shal l be vali d for a period o f 6 months , a t whic h tim e th e qualifica-tio

n procedur e mus t be repeate d b yan yobserve r i n orde r t o retai n certification . j

3- . 2 CERTIFICATIO

NPROCEDUR E i Th e certificatio n tes t consist s o f showing the candidat e a complet e ru n o f 5 0 plume s - 2 5 blac k plume s an d 2 5 whit e plume s - generate d b ya smok e generator . Plume s withi n eac hse t o f 2 5 blac k an d 2 5 whit e run s shal l b e presente d i n rando morder . Th e candidat e assign s a n opacit y valu e t o eac hplume an d record s hi s observatio n on a suitabl e form . . A t the completio n o f eac hru n o f 5 0 readings , the scor e o f the candidat e is [ de

termined . I f a candidat e fail s t o qualify , the complet e ru n o f 5 0 reading s mus t be repeate d i n an yretest . Th e smok e tes t mayb e administere d a s par t o f a smok e schoo l o r trainin g program , an

d mayb e precede d b ytraining o r familiarizatio n run s o f the smok e generato r during whic hcandidate s ar e show n blac k an

d whit e plume s o f know n opacity . ! 3. 3 SMOK E GENERATOR SPECIFICATION S

i An ysmok e generato r use d fo r th e purpos e o f paragraph3. 2 shal l b e equippe d wit ha smok e mete r installe d t o measur e opacit yacros s th e dia

mete r o f the smok e generato r stack . Th e smok e mete r outpu t shal l dijspla y in-stac k opacit ybase d upo n a pathlengt hequa l t o the stack , exi t diameter , on a ful l 0 t o 10 0 percen t char t recorde r scale . Th e smok e mete r optica l design an

d performanc e shal l mee t the specification s show n i n Tabl e 9-1 . Th e smok e mete r shal l be calibrate d a s prescribe d i n paragrap h3.3. 1 prio r : I t o the conduc t o f eac hsmok e reading test . A t th e completio n o f eac h test , the zer o an

d spa n drif t shal l b e checke d an d i f the drif t exceed s , + 1 per cen t opacity , th

e conditio n shal l b e correcte d prio r t o conducting an ysub

sequen t tes t runs . Th e smok e mete r shal l b e demonstrate d a t the time o f installation , t o mee t th e specification s liste d i n Tabl e 9-1 . Thi s | demonstratio n shal l b e repeate d following an ysubsequen t repai r o r replace

men t o f the photocel l o r associate d electroni c circuitr yincluding tjh

e char t recorde r o r outpu t meter , o r ever y6 months , whicheve r occur s first .P.3 2

12. 6

TABL E 9-1 : SMOKE METE R DESIG NAN D PERFORMANC E SPECIFICATION S

Paramete r a . Ligh t source fa. Spectra l respons e o f photocel l

c . Angl e o f vie w d . Angl e o f projectio n e . Calibratio n error f . Zer o an

d span drif t g . Respons e tim

e Specificatio n Incandescen t lam

p operate d a t nomina l rate d voltage . Photopi c (dayligh t spectra l respons e o f the huma n eye - referenc e 4.3) .

- , ,- o , 1 5 maximu

mtota l angle . 1 5 maximu

mtota l angle . + 3 % opacity , maximu m + 1 % opacity , 3 0 minutes . 5 seconds . 3.3. 1 CALIBRATIO

N Th e smok e mete r i s calibrate d afte r allowing a minimu mo f 3 0 minute s warmu p b yalternatel yproducing simulate d opacit yo f 0 percen t an d 10 0 per cent . Whe n stabl e respons e a t 0 percen t o r 10 0 percen t i s noted , th e smok e mete r i s adjuste d t o produc e an outpu t o f 0 percen t o r 10 0 percen t a s appropriate . Thi s calibratio n shal l b e repeate d unti l stabl e 0 percen t an d 10 0 percen t opacit yvalue s mayb e produce d b yalternatel yswitching the powe r t o the ligh t sourc e o n an d of f whil e the smok e generato r i s no t producing smoke . 3.3. 2 SMOK E METE R EVALUATIO N Th e smok e mete r design an d performanc e ar e t o be evaluate d a s follows : 3.3.2. 1 LIGHT SOURC E Verif yfro

mmanufacturer' s dat a an d fro mvoltag e measurement s mad e a t th e lamp , a s installed , tha t th e lam p i s operate d withi n + 5 percen t o f the nomina l rated voltage .P.3 3 r |

12. 7 3.3.2. 2 SPECTRA

L RESPONS E O F PHOTOCEL L Verif yfro

mmanufacturer' s dat a tha t th e photocel l ha s a photopi c response ; i.e. , the spectra l sensitivit yo f th e cel l shal l closel y' approximat e th

e standard spectral-luminosit ycurve fo r photopi c visio n whic hi s reference d i n (b ) o f Tabl e 9-1 . 3.3.2. 3 ANGL E O F VIE W I Chec k constructio n geometryt o ensur e tha t the tota l angl e of 1 vie w o f th e smok e plume , a s see n b ythe photocell , doe s no t excee d 1 5 . j Th e tota l angl e o f vie wma ybe calculate d from : 6=2 tan d/2L , wher e 6- tota l angl e o f view ; d=th e su mo f th e photocel l diamete r + the diamete r o| f the limiting aperture ; an d L=th e distanc e fro mthe photocel l t o the limiting aperture . Th e limiting apertur e i s the poin t i n the pat hbetwee n th e photocel l an

d th e smok e plume wher e the angl e o f vie wi s mos t restricted . I n smok e generato r smok e meter s thi s i s normall yan orific e plate . [ 3.3.2. 4 ANGL E O F PROJECTION Chec k constructio n geometryt o ensur e tha t the tota l angl e o f pro jectio n o f the lam

p o n the smok e plume doe s no t excee d 1 5 . Th e tota l angl e o f projectio n ma ybe calculate d from : 6=2 ta n d/2L , wher e 0= tota l angl e o f projection ; ,d=th e su mo f the lengt ho f the lam p filamen t -I

f the diamete r o f th

e limiting aperture ; an d L=th e distanc e fro mthe lam

D t o the i limiting aperture . 3.3.2. 5 CALIBRATIO NERROR " Using neutral-densit yfilter s o f know n opacity , chec k the erro r betwee n the actua l respons e an d the theoretica l linea r respons e o f the smok e meter . Thi s chec k i s accomplishe d b yfirs t calibrating th e smok e mete r according t o 3.3. 1 an d then inserting a serie s o f thre e neutral

densit yfilter s o f nomina l opacit yo f 20 , 50 , an d 7 5 percen t i n the smok e mete r pathlength . Filter s calibrate d withi n + 2 percen t shall , b e used . Car e shoul d be take n whe n inserting the filter s t o preven t stra ylight fro maffecting the meter . Mak e a tota l o f five nonconsecutiv e reading s fo r eac hfilter . Th e maximu merro r on an

yon e reading shal l b e 3 percen t opacity .

### 12. 8 3.3.2. 6 ZERO AN

D SPA NDRIF T Determin e the zer o an d span drif t b

ycalibrating an

d operating the smok e generato r i n a norma l manne r ove r a 1-hour period . Th e drif t i s measure d b

ychecking th e zer o an d span a t the en

d o f thi s period . 3.3.2. 7 RESPONS E TIM E Determin e the respons e tim e b yproducing the serie s o f fiv e simulate d 0 percen t an

d 10 0 percen t opacit yvalue s an d observing th e tim e require d t o reac hstabl e response . Opacit yvalue s o f 0 percen t an d 10 0 percen t ma yb e simulate d b

yalternatel yswitching the powe r t o th e ligh t sourc e of f an d o n whil e th

e smok e generato r i s no t operating . 4 . REFERENCE S 4. 1 Ai r Pollutio n Contro l Distric t Rule s an d Regulations , Lo s Angele s Count yAi r Pollutio n Contro l District , Regulatio n IV , Prohibitions , Rul e 50 . 4. 2 Weisburd , Melvi n I. , Fiel d Operation s an d Enforcemen t Manua l fo r Air , U.S . Environmenta l Protectio n Agency , Researc hTriangl e Park , N.C , APTD 1100 , Augus t 1972 . pp . 4.1-4.36 . 4. 3 Condon , E.U. , an d Odishaw , H. , Handboo k o f Physics , McGraw-Hil l Co. , N.Y. , N.Y . 1958 , Tabl e 3.1 , p . 6-52; "P.3 5

13. 1 TECHNICA L REPOR TDAT A (I'lcasc rca.1 tuunn-titiris

on thr /nvn vhr/orc

ranii'Utini;! 1

. REPOR TNO

. EPA-340/1-75-00 7 I

. TITL t AN O SUBTITL E Guideline s fo r Evaluatio n o f Visibl e Emission s Certification , Fiel d Procedures , Lega l Aspects . and Backgroun d Materia l 7 . AUTHOR(S ) Robert Misse n an d Arnol d Stei n 9

. PERFORMIN G ORGANIZATIO N NAM E AN D ADDRES S Pacifi c Environmenta l Service s Inc . 193 0 14t h Street . Sant a Monica , Californi a 9040 4 1?

. SPONSORIN G AC', 1 NC YNAM L AN O ADDRES S U

. S

. Environmenta l Protectio n Agenc y Divisio n o fStationar ySourc e Enforcemen t 40 1 M Stree t S

W Washington , D

C 2046 0 3

. RECIPIENT' S ACCESSION-NC

. 5

. REPOR TOAT E Apri l 1975 * 6

. PERFORMIN G ORGANI Z A T1 ONlCOD E

8

. PERFORMIN G ORGANIZATIO N REPOR TMO

.

10

. PROGRA M ELEMEN TNO

. 1 1

. CONTRACT/GRAN TNO

. 68-02-1390 , Tas k

2 13

. TYP E O F REPOR TAN D PERIO D COVERE D 14

. SPONSORIN G AGENC YCOD E

15

. SUPPLEMENTAR YNOTE S

16

. ABSTRAC T Thi s repor t provide s guideline s for : (a ) Fiel d procedure s t o follo wi n evaluatin g visibl e emission s fro mstationar y source s o f ai r pollution . (Procedure s ar e include d fo r evaluation j o f non stac k emissio n source s suc ha s ar e foun d i n th e mineral s industr ya s wel l a s specifi c stac k emissio n sources. ) (b ) Visibl e emission s evaluato r regardin g specifi c problem s o f applicability , includin g th e effect s o f viewin g condition s o n opacit yreading s and th e effect s o f wate r vapo r o n plum e opacity . Als o include d ar e trainin g and certificatio n procedure s fo r visibl e emission s evaluation , brie f description s o f affecte d proces s operations , genera l instructio n o n bein g a witnes s durin g lega l proceeding s involvin g opacit yevaluations , and th e us e o f aid s i n evaluatin g visibl e emission s

KE YWORD S AN D DOCUMEN TANALYSI S DESCRIPTOR S Ai rPollutio n Visibl e Emission s Evaluation s Plum e Observation s Litigatio n 

### Wate r Vapo r b.IDENTIFIERS/OPE N ENDE D TERM S Visibl e Emission s c . COSAT I Field/Grou p 14 B 14 D

18

. DISTRIBUTIO N STATEMEN T Unlimite d 19

. SECURIT YCLAS S (This Keporl) Unclassifie d 2 0 SECURIT YCLAS S VvVl/.i/T-X' 1 ) Unclassifie d 2 1

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