1

Report of the Lead and Copper Rule Working Group 

To the National Drinking Water Advisory Council

FINAL

AUGUST 24, 2015
Report of the Lead and Copper Working Group to the National Drinking Water Advisory Council - Final

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Table of Contents

1. Executive Summary............................................................................................................................5

1.1. Charge...........................................................................................................................................5

1.2. Findings and Recommendations...................................................................................................5

2. Considerations and Background Information..................................................................................6

2.1. Considerations in Preparing this Report .......................................................................................6

2.2 Regulatory Background and Formation of the NDWAC Lead and Copper Work Group..................8

3. Recommendations for Revisions to the Lead and Copper Rule ...................................................10

3.1. Replace Lead Service Lines........................................................................................................13

3.1.1. Update Inventories and Improve Access to Information about Lead Service Lines...........15

3.1.2. Establish Active LSL Replacement Programs....................................................................16

3.1.3 LSL Compliance .................................................................................................................19

3.2 Develop Stronger Public Education Requirements and Programs for Lead and LSLs...............19

3.2.1 National Lead in Drinking Water Clearinghouse................................................................21

3.2.2 Outreach to New Customers...............................................................................................23

3.2.3 Revise the Current CCR Language .....................................................................................23

3.2.4 Strengthen Requirements for Public Access to Information...............................................24

3.2.5 Routine Outreach to Caregivers/Health Care Providers of Vulnerable Populations...........26

3.2.6 Public Education Compliance....................................................................................................28

3.3 Improve Corrosion Control.........................................................................................................28

3.3.1 Corrosion Control Recommendations.................................................................................29

3.3.2 Corrosion Control Compliance ...........................................................................................30

3.4 Modify Monitoring Requirements..............................................................................................30

3.4.1 Water Quality Parameter Monitoring.......................................................................................31

3.4.2 Tap Sampling for Lead ............................................................................................................32

3.4.3 Sample Invalidation Criteria ...............................................................................................34

3.4.4. Monitoring Compliance ......................................................................................................35

3.5 Establish a Household Action Level...........................................................................................36

3.5.1 Household Action Level Recommendations.......................................................................36

3.5.2 Household Action Level Compliance .................................................................................37
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3.6 Establish Separate Monitoring Requirements for Copper ..........................................................37

3.6.1 Copper Recommendations..................................................................................................38

3.6.2 Copper Compliance.............................................................................................................40

4 Complementary Actions Critical to the Success of the National Effort to Reduce Lead in 

Drinking Water .........................................................................................................................................40

5 Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................43

Appendices

Appendix A – Lead and Copper Working Group Members

Appendix B – Table 2

Figures

Figure 1 – Overview of Recommended Revised Lead and Copper Rule Framework 
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Abbreviations

AL – Action Level

ALE – Action Level Exceedance

CCR – Consumer Confidence Report

CCT – Corrosion Control Treatment

DWLRP – Drinking Water Lead Reduction Plan

EPA – Environmental Protection Agency

LAL – Lead Action Level

LCR – Lead and Copper Rule

LCRWG – Lead and Copper Rule Working Group

LSL – Lead Service Line

LSLR – Lead Service Line Replacement

LTR LCR – Long Term Revisions to the Lead and Copper Rule

MCLG – Maximum Contaminant Level Goal

mg/L – Milligram per Liter

μg/L – Microgram per Liter 

μg/dL – Microgram per Deciliter

NDWAC – National Drinking Water Advisory Council

OGWDW – Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water

OCCT – Optimum Corrosion Control Treatment

OWQP – Optimal Water Quality Parameter

PE – Public Education

pH – Negative log of hydrogen ion molar concentration

PLSLR – Partial Lead Service Line Replacement

POTW – Publicly Owned Treatment Works

POU – Point-of-use Treatment Device

PWS – Public Water System

SAB – Science Advisory Board

SDWA – Safe Drinking Water Act

DWSRF – Drinking Water State Revolving Fund

TT – Treatment Technique

WQP – Water Quality Parameter
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Report of the Lead and Copper Rule Working Group 

to the National Drinking Water Advisory Council

1. Executive Summary

The Lead and Copper Rule Working Group (LCRWG) of the National Drinking Water Advisory Council 

(NDWAC) has completed its deliberations on issues associated with long term revisions to the Lead and 

Copper Rule (LCR). This report includes the group’s findings and recommendations. 

This executive summary provides a brief overview of the report. Details of the findings and 

recommendations are provided in the body of the report. A list of the members of the working group can 

be found in Appendix A.

1.1. Charge

The charge to the LCRWG was to provide advice to the NDWAC as it develops recommendations for the 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) on targeted issues related to long term revisions to the 

Lead and Copper Rule under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). 

1.2. Findings and Recommendations

The anticipated Long Term Revisions to the Lead and Copper Rule (LTR LCR) is a very important 

opportunity for removing sources of lead in contact with drinking water and for reducing exposure to lead 

from drinking water in the meantime. Creative financing and robust public education also are essential.

The LCRWG took the following considerations, among others, into account in making recommendations 

for revisions to the LCR. A more detailed list of considerations is included in the full report. 

There is no safe level of lead. Lead can pose health risks to anyone, but there are heightened risks for 

pregnant women, infants and young children and other vulnerable populations with both acute and 

chronic exposures. Effective elimination of leaded materials in contact with water and minimization of 

exposure to lead in drinking water is a shared responsibility; public water systems (PWSs), consumers, 

building owners, public health officials and others each have important roles to play. The lack of 

resources to reduce the sources of exposure in some communities, however, also raises important 

questions of disparate impact and environmental justice. Thus, creative financing mechanisms will be 

needed. 

The LCR should remain a treatment technique rule, but it can be improved based on the scientific 

knowledge that has emerged since the current LCR was promulgated. Corrosion control treatment is 

complicated, and will vary based on specific circumstances in each public water system. Thus, regular 

updates to guidance by EPA based on the latest science and the creation of a national clearinghouse of 

information both for the public and for PWSs are needed.

The LCRWG considered but did not quantify the cost implications of its recommendations. An important 

factor in the group’s deliberations was the principle that PWS and state resources should be focused on 

actions that achieve the greatest public health protection. Recognizing that lead service line (LSL) 

replacement programs will be costly in some locations, the LCRWG also encourages PWSs to incorporate 
Report of the Lead and Copper Working Group to the National Drinking Water Advisory Council - Final

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anticipated costs into their capital improvement program as appropriate to their situation, and urges states

to include the costs of LSL replacement in their criteria for allocation of Drinking Water State Revolving 

Funds. 

The LCRWG specifically recommends that EPA revise the LCR to:

• Require proactive lead service line (LSL) replacement programs, which set replacement goals, 

effectively engage customers in implementing those goals, and provide improved access to 

information about LSLs, in place of current requirements in which LSLs must be replaced only 

after a lead action level (AL) exceedance;

• Establish more robust public education requirements for lead and LSLs, by updating the 

Consumer Confidence Report (CCR), adding targeted outreach to consumers with lead service 

lines and other vulnerable populations (pregnant women and families with infants and young 

children), and increasing the information available to the public;

• Strengthen corrosion control treatment (CCT), retaining the current rule requirements to re-assess 

CCT if changes to source water or treatment are planned, adding a requirement to review updates 

to EPA guidance to determine if new scientific information warrants changes;

• Modify monitoring requirements to provide for consumer requested tap samples for lead and to

utilize results of tap samples for lead to inform consumer action to reduce the risks in their 

homes, to inform the appropriate public health agency when results are above a designated 

household action level, and to assess the effectiveness of CCT and/or other reasons for elevated 

lead results;

• Tailor water quality parameters (WQPs) to the specific CCT plan for each system, and increase 

the frequency of WQP monitoring for process control;

• Establish a health-based, household action level that triggers a report to the consumer and to the 

applicable health agency for follow up; 

• Separate the requirements for copper from those for lead and focus new requirements where 

water is corrosive to copper; and

• Establish appropriate compliance and enforcement mechanisms.

Although leadership by EPA is essential, reduction of exposure to lead in drinking water cannot be 

achieved by EPA regulation alone. Thus, this report also includes recommendations for renewed 

commitment, cooperation and effort by government at all levels and by the general public. We urge EPA 

to play a leadership role not only in the revisions to the LCR but also in educating, motivating, and 

supporting the work of other EPA offices; federal state and local agencies and other stakeholders. (See 

Section 4: Complementary Actions Critical to the Success of the National Effort to Reduce Lead in 

Drinking Water.)

2. Considerations and Background Information

2.1. Considerations in Preparing this Report

The members of the LCRWG brought different perspectives and expertise to the preparation of this 

report. Although not all members agreed with each and every consideration listed below, the LCRWG 

took one another’s perspectives into account and, thus, the following concepts collectively underlie the 

recommendations in this report. Additional detail is provided in the recommendations section below. 
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• There is no safe level of lead. Lead can pose health risks to anyone, but there are heightened 

risks for pregnant women, infants and children with both acute and chronic exposures. 

• Lead-bearing plumbing materials in contact with drinking water pose a risk at all times (not just 

when there is a lead action level (LAL) exceedance). 

• Effective elimination of leaded materials in contact with water and minimization of exposure to 

lead in drinking water is a shared responsibility. PWSs, consumers, building owners, public 

health officials and others each have important roles to play. 

• The LTR LCR is an important opportunity for removing sources of lead in contact with drinking 

water and for reducing exposure to lead from drinking water in the meantime. However, 

additional action beyond the scope of the Safe Drinking Water Act is needed. Removing lead 

from drinking water systems also will require renewed commitment, cooperation and effort by 

government at all levels and by the general public. (See Section 4: Complementary Actions 

Critical to the Success of the National Effort to Reduce Lead in Drinking Water.) 

• Proactive action is needed to remove the sources of lead, with appropriate incentives both for 

PWSs and their customers needed to encourage such action. 

• Successful implementation of the revised LCR can only take place in the context of a more 

holistic effort on lead in water issues involving stakeholders other than just EPA and water 

systems, and resources beyond those able to be brought to bear by water systems. Partnerships at 

all levels are essential. Recognizing that public agency budgets are tighter than ever, greater 

engagement by local health agencies, those funding housing programs, and those involved in 

permitting and construction is particularly important.

• Creative financing mechanisms also will be needed to achieve this goal for all individuals 

potentially exposed to lead, regardless of race, ethnicity or income. Leaving a lead service line in 

place because a low-income resident does not have the means to pay raises serious questions of 

disparate impact and environmental justice. 

• The public plays a critical role in protecting their families’ health by reducing exposure to lead 

and copper, and informing the public enables them to be effective participants in implementing 

their share of the responsibility.

• The issues associated with lead and copper are very different and warrant more separate attention 

than has been the case in the past. 

• The LCR should remain a treatment technique rule, but it can be improved. 

• Corrosion control treatment (CCT) is complex, dynamic, and varies based on the circumstances 

in each PWS. The understanding of the challenges with CCT has improved in recent years, but 

questions still remain. 

• Attention to unintended consequences is important generally and, in particular, with respect to 

CCT. 

• The presence of lead-bearing materials in premise plumbing raises issues about what systems can 

implement in customers’ homes. 

• Attention to what States are able to oversee and enforce also is important. 

• PWS and state resources should be focused on actions that achieve the greatest public health

protection.
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2.2 Regulatory Background and Formation of the NDWAC Lead and Copper Work Group

Under the Safe Drinking Water Act EPA sets public health goals and enforceable standards for drinking 

water quality.1 The Lead and Copper Rule is a treatment technique rule. Instead of setting a maximum 

contaminant level (MCL) for lead or copper, the rule requires (PWSs) to take certain actions to minimize 

lead and copper in drinking water, to reduce water corrosivity and prevent the leaching of these metals 

from the premise plumbing and drinking water distribution system components and when that isn’t 

enough, to replace lead service lines under their control. The current rule sets an action level (AL), or 

concentration, of 0.015 mg/L for lead and 1.3 mg/L for copper. An AL is not the same as an MCL. An 

MCL is based on health effects and feasibility; whereas an action level is a screening tool for determining 

when certain treatment technique actions are needed. 

The LCR action level is based on the practical feasibility of reducing lead through controlling corrosion. 

In the LCR, if the AL is exceeded in more than ten percent of tap water samples collected during any 

monitoring period (i.e., if the 90th percentile level is greater than the AL), it is not a violation, but triggers 

other requirements that include water quality parameter monitoring, corrosion control treatment (CCT), 

source water monitoring/treatment, public education, and lead service line replacement (LSLR). The rule 

also requires States to report the 90th percentile for lead concentrations to EPA’s Safe Drinking Water 

Information System (SDWIS) database for all water systems serving 3,300 or more persons, and for those 

systems serving fewer than 3,300 persons only when the lead action level (LAL) is exceeded. States only 

report the 90th percentile for copper concentrations in SDWIS when the copper action level is exceeded in 

water systems regardless of the size of the service population. Public education requirements ensure that 

drinking water consumers receive meaningful, timely, and useful information that is needed to help them 

limit their exposure to lead in drinking water. 

Copper is a common material used in household plumbing and drinking water service lines in the United 

States. Copper is an essential nutrient in small amounts; however, acute ingestion of excess copper in 

drinking water has been associated with adverse health effects, including acute gastrointestinal symptoms 

such as abdominal discomfort, nausea, and vomiting.

The SDWA requires EPA to set MCLGs at concentration levels at which no known or anticipated adverse 

effects would occur, allowing for an adequate margin of safety. EPA proposed an MCLG of 1.3 mg/l for 

copper in 1985, and finalized that MCLG in 1991 when the LCR was promulgated. The LCR set the 

action level (AL) for copper, the level at which treatment technique actions are triggered for the water 

system, equal to the MCLG. The AL is triggered if the 90th percentile level of water samples is exceeded. 

All community water systems must report the 90th percentile level and the number of samples that 

exceeded the 90th percentile in their Consumer Confidence Reports.

In early 2004, EPA began a wide-ranging review of the implementation of the LCR to determine if there 

was a national problem related to elevated levels of lead in drinking water. As part of its national review, 

EPA collected and analyzed lead concentration data and other information, carried out a review of 

implementation in States, held four expert workshops to discuss elements of the regulations, and worked 

to understand local and State efforts to monitor for lead in school drinking water, including a national 

meeting to discuss challenges and needs. EPA released a Drinking Water Lead Reduction Plan (DWLRP) 

in March 2005. This plan outlined short-term and long-term goals for improving implementation of the 

 1 EPA establishes national primary drinking water regulations (NPDWRs) under SDWA. NPDWRs either establish 

a feasible maximum contaminant level (MCL) or a treatment technique “to prevent known or anticipated adverse 

effects on the health of persons to the extent feasible.”
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LCR. The plan can be found at the following web address: 

http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/sdwa/lcr/lead_review.cfm 

In 2007, EPA promulgated regulations, which addressed the short-term revisions to the LCR that were 

identified in the 2005 DWLRP. These requirements enhanced the implementation of the LCR in the areas 

of monitoring, treatment, LSLR, public education, and customer awareness. These revisions were 

intended to better ensure drinking water consumers receive meaningful, timely, and useful information 

needed to help them limit their exposure to lead in drinking water. 

A number of Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) amendments aim to reduce lead in drinking water by 

limiting the amount of allowable lead in plumbing materials that come into contact with drinking water. 

In 1986, the SDWA was amended to prohibit the “use of any pipe, any pipe or plumbing fitting or fixture, 

any solder, or any flux, in the installation or repair of (i) any public water system; or (ii) any plumbing in 

a residential or non-residential facility providing water for human consumption, that is not lead free”. 

Lead Free was defined as solder and flux with no more than 0.2% lead and pipes with no more than 8% 

lead. 

Congress again amended the SDWA in 1996, to prohibit the introduction into commerce of any pipe, pipe 

or plumbing fitting or fixture that is not lead free and to also require pipes, pipe or plumbing fittings or 

fixtures be in compliance with 3rd party lead leaching standards. These provisions ensure that only 

products meeting the lead free definition are sold in the U.S. and that pipes, pipe or plumbing fittings or 

fixtures are certified to be lead free. 

The Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act of 2011 revised the maximum allowable lead content from 

not more than 8% to not more than a weighted average of 0.25% lead and included a calculation 

procedure for determining the weighted average; further reducing the amount of lead in contact with 

drinking water. It also eliminates the federal requirement to comply with the lead leaching standard and 

included exemptions from the lead free definition for plumbing devices that are used exclusively for nonpotable services and also for specific plumbing devices such as toilets, bidets and urinals. The 

Community Fire Safety Act of 2013 further amended the SDWA to add fire hydrants to the list of 

exempted plumbing devices.

EPA has continued to work on the long-term issues that required additional data collection, research, 

analysis, and full stakeholder involvement, which were identified in the 2005 DWLRP and the 2007 rule 

revisions. This action is referred to as the LCR Long-Term Revisions (LTR). The LCR LTR would apply 

to all community water systems (CWSs) and non-transient non-community water systems (NTNCWSs). 

In this report, the term public water system (PWS) is meant to refer to both of these categories but not to 

transient non-community water systems. 

Seeing the need for additional input on potential revisions to the Lead and Copper Rule, EPA requested 

that the National Drinking Water Advisory Committee (NDWAC) form the Lead and Copper Rule 

Working Group (LCRWG) to consider several key questions for the LCR LTR, taking into consideration 

previous input. The LCRWG met seven times in 2014 and 2015 to produce this report, and sought input 

from the NDWAC in advance of the last meeting to understand and address questions the NDWAC might 

have about the working group’s recommendations. 

A list of members of the working group is provided in Appendix A. This report was approved by the 

LCRWG, with one dissent.
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3. Recommendations for Revisions to the Lead and Copper Rule

The long term revisions to the LCR is an important opportunity for removing sources of lead in contact 

with drinking water and for reducing exposure to lead from drinking water in the meantime. Creative 

financing and robust public education also are essential.

The LCRWG offers the following recommendations, based on information provided to the work group 

and on the work group’s own deliberations. The LCRWG considers these recommendations to be an 

integrated package, not a menu of choices from which some recommendations can be selected and 

combined with others. This package reflects a concerted attempt to strengthen public health protection, 

which includes targeting the resources available to PWSs for the greatest public health value. While 

individual members might differ on specific recommendations, the work group (with one dissent) agrees

that this package of recommendations constitutes an improvement over the current LCR.

The LCRWG carefully considered the information and questions posed by EPA in a white paper prepared 

for the working group. In its deliberations, the LCRWG came to the conclusion that the lessons learned 

from the implementation of the current LCR warranted a fresh look at the premises of the regulation. To 

truly solve the problem of exposure to lead in drinking water, the LCRWG concluded that lead-bearing 

materials should be removed from contact with drinking water to the greatest degree possible, while 

minimizing the risk of exposure in the meantime. That premise has led to a different paradigm for a 

revised LCR and, thus, to a somewhat different set of assumptions than underlay questions posed to the 

working group.

The diagram on page 12 illustrates the conceptual framework of the recommendations that follow.

The LCRWG specifically recommends that EPA revise the LCR to:

• Require proactive LSL replacement programs, which set replacement goals, effectively engage 

customers in implementing those goals, and provide improved access to information about LSLs, 

in place of current requirements in which lead service lines (LSLs) must be replaced only after a 

lead action level (AL) exceedance and CCT;

• Establishes more robust public education, by creating a national clearinghouse of information for 

the public and templates for PWSs, by updating the Consumer Confidence Report, adding 

targeted outreach to consumers with lead service lines and other vulnerable populations (pregnant 

women and families with infants and young children), and increasing the information available to

health care providers and the public;

• Strengthen corrosion control treatment (CCT), retaining the current rule requirements to re-assess 

CCT if changes to source water or treatment are planned, adding a requirement to review updates 

to EPA guidance to determine if new scientific information warrants changes;

• Modify monitoring requirements to provide for consumer requested tap samples for lead and to

utilize results of tap samples for lead to inform consumer action to reduce the risks in their 

homes, to inform the appropriate public health agency when results are above a designated 

household action level, and to assess the effectiveness of CCT and/or other reasons for elevated 

lead results; 

• Tailor water quality parameters to the specific CCT plan for each system, and increases the 

frequency of WQP monitoring for process control;
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• Establish a health-based, household action level that triggers a report to the consumer and to the 

applicable health agency for follow up; 

• Separate the requirements for copper from those for lead and focus new requirements where 

water is corrosive to copper; and

• Establish appropriate compliance and enforcement mechanisms.

Although leadership by EPA is essential, reduction of exposure to lead in drinking water cannot be 

achieved by EPA regulation alone. Thus, this report also includes recommendations for renewed 

commitment, cooperation and effort by government at all levels and by the general public. We urge EPA 

to play a leadership role not only in the revisions to the LCR but also in educating, motivating, and 

supporting the work of other EPA offices; federal, state and local agencies and other stakeholders. (See 

Section 4: Complementary Actions Critical to the Success of the National Effort to Reduce Lead in 

Drinking Water.)
12

Figure 1
13

3.1. Replace Lead Service Lines2

Removing the sources of lead in drinking water should be a national goal. More proactive action than has 

taken place to date is needed to achieve it. 

Although success in achieving this goal will require a concerted effort by many and can not be 

accomplished solely through the authorities provided under the Safe Drinking Water Act, revisions to the 

Lead and Copper Rule are an important component to achieving this goal and should be structured 

accordingly. [See Section 4 for recommendations that complement revisions to the LCR.] 

The existing LCR has not created sufficient incentives to fully replace LSLs and other sources of lead ,

because LSL replacement is only required when the lead AL has been exceeded and optimizing CCT is 

insufficient to bring a system back under the action level. Systems that do not exceed the lead AL will 

never have to implement a LSL replacement program. Further, the link to action level exceedance does 

not allow adequate time for a well-planned LSLR program, and a significant unintended consequence

where systems have had to implement a LSL replacement program quickly has been an increase in partial 

LSL replacement. 

EPA asked the Science Advisory Board (SAB) to evaluate the current scientific data regarding the 

effectiveness of PLSLR and the review centered around five issues: (1) associations between PLSLR and 

blood lead levels in children; (2) lead tap water sampling data before and after PLSLR; (3) comparisons 

between partial and full LSLR; (4) PLSLR techniques; and (5) the impact of galvanic corrosion. The SAB 

found that the quantity and quality of the available data are inadequate to fully determine the effectiveness 

of PLSLR in reducing drinking water lead concentrations. The small number of studies available had 

major limitations (small number of samples, limited follow-up sampling, lack of information about the 

sampling data, limited comparability between studies, etc.) for fully evaluating PLSLR efficacy. 

While recognizing the limits to current data, the SAB concluded that PLSLRs have not been shown to 

reliably reduce drinking water lead levels in the short-term, ranging from days to months, and potentially 

even longer. Additionally, PLSLR is frequently associated with short-term elevated drinking water lead 

levels for some period of time after replacement, suggesting the potential for harm, rather than benefit 

during that time period. The available data suggest that the elevated tap water lead levels tend to increase 

then gradually stabilize over time following PLSLR, sometimes at levels below and sometimes at levels 

similar to those observed prior to PLSLR. The SAB also concluded that in studies comparing full LSLR 

versus PLSLR, the evaluation periods were too short to fully assess differential reductions in drinking 

water lead levels. However, the SAB explained that full LSLR appears generally effective in achieving 

long-term reductions in drinking water lead levels, unlike PLSLR. Both full LSLR and PLSLR generally 

result in elevated lead levels for a variable period of time after replacement. The limited evidence 

available suggests that the duration and magnitude of the elevations may be greater with PLSLR than full 

LSLR.

Taking all of these considerations into account, the LCRWG has concluded that an effective framework 

for replacement of LSLs would include the following and, thus, the LCR should be revised accordingly:

 2 40 CFR 141.2 defines: “Lead service line means a service made of lead which connects the water main to the 

building inlet and any lead pigtail, gooseneck or other fitting which is connected to such lead line.” 
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• Requiring all PWSs to establish a LSL replacement program that effectively informs and engages 

customers to share appropriately in fully removing LSLs, unless they can demonstrate that LSLs 

are not present in their system;

• Modifying the definition of lead service lines to include any service line where any portion, 

including a lead pigtail, gooseneck or other fitting, is made of lead;

• Clear guidance, case studies, and templates for LSL replacement programs, including a toolkit of 

ideas for creative financing strategies;

• Targeted outreach to customers with LSLs, with information about the risks of lead exposure, an 

offer to test a tap sample, and information about and encouragement to participate in the LSL 

replacement program;

• Dates by which systems should have met interim goals and completed replacement of all LSLs 

and PLSLs, without penalty to PWSs for those homeowners who refuse to participate in the 

replacement program as long as the PWS has made a meaningful effort to work with such a 

homeowner; 

• Creating incentives for understanding where LSLs and PLSLs exist, while making action on full 

replacement, rather than on investigation of the location of LSLs and PLSLs the priority;

• Maintaining ongoing-outreach to homeowners where LSLs or PLSLs still exist;

• Implementation of standard operating procedures (SOPs), either from EPA guidance or tailored to 

the system, that helps define operations that disturb LSLs and practices to minimize disturbance 

and consumer exposure to lead;

• Stronger programs to educate consumers, and to provide test results of tap samples at the request 

of consumers; 

• Focus efforts on action to replace LSLs rather than on the time and expense of upfront plan 

approval and on using simplified reporting to the states so they would only need to intervene 

when problems arise; and

• Requirements that provide strong encouragement for full LSL replacements, with the 

understanding that there may be justifiable exceptions and that those exceptions would occur only 

after the efforts outlined in the recommendations below on the part of the PWS to work with 

customers to complete a full LSL replacement. Such exceptions might include emergency repairs 

where property owners have refused to participate in a full LSL replacement; during a main 

replacement project; or when a sufficiently high percentage of property owners participate in an 

area-wide LSL replacement project to justify replacing LSLs to the property lines of those who 

do not participate at the time. Revisions to the LCR should include options for risk management 

to occupants of those properties with remaining, partial lead service lines, e.g. additional 

sampling, filters, dielectrics to reduce the risk of galvanic corrosion, plastic piping, aggressive 

premise flushing, etc.
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3.1.1. Update Inventories and Improve Access to Information about Lead Service Lines

Updating and improving access to information about the location of both full and partial lead service lines 

is both essential to ensuring LSLs are replaced and important for successful, proactive outreach to 

customers who are most likely to have a LSL. 

The LCRWG recommends combining: 

1) The presumption that a service line put in place prior to the date when lead service lines were 

prohibited has leaded materials unless the PWS has information to confirm that it not, with

2) Providing credit to a PWS toward its replacement goals for demonstrating that a service line

presumed to include lead does not have leaded materials. 

This approach is intended to create incentives for prompt action to develop an accurate inventory of LSLs 

and PLSLs in part by being overly conservative initially on the potential existence of LSLs, time to 

organize an effective replacement program, and an opportunity to take action to replace LSLs rather than 

devoting time and resources on planning documents that must be approved by the primacy agency. 

The LCRWG recognizes that PWSs vary in the amount of information they have about the location of full 

and partial LSLs. EPA should take the impact on small and medium systems into account when 

developing the proposed rule.

The LCRWG also recognizes that the current definition of a lead service line exempts a service line that 

has a lead pigtail or gooseneck or other fitting but is otherwise not made of lead. We recommend that the 

LCR be revised to remove this exemption since a lead pipe, even if only a small portion, poses a 

sufficiently similar risk as a full lead service line. Because utilities may not know where these portions 

are and may not be able to locate them without excavating, we recommend that the presumption described 

above not apply to lines where the utilities do not have information or are unaware of their use. Finally, 

we recommend that these fittings be replaced when they are encountered during excavations and that the 

applicable operations and customer engagement requirements described in the next section apply. 

In addition, the LCRWG recommends that all PWSs should establish a clear mechanism for customers to 

access information on LSL locations (at a minimum). Detailed public education recommendations for 

both lead and copper follow in separate sections. With respect to information about LSLs, PWSs should:

o Have outreach materials that indicate that property specific information is available.

o Inform customers who may have LSLs about the risks of partial line replacement, who is 

responsible for paying for replacing the service line, and the legal basis of that determination.

o Provide information it has about LSLs to existing home owners and residents on request.

o Provide information to realtors, home inspectors, and potential home buyers on request

o Communicate that this information is subject to disclaimer for accuracy based on information 

available to the PWS. 

o Develop a system to track LSL replacement. 

Where a service line serves multiple dwellings or places such as schools or child care centers that have 

many children, EPA should establish a formula for giving an extra weight or numerical count to these 
Report of the Lead and Copper Working Group to the National Drinking Water Advisory Council - Final

16

lines in the initial inventory to recognize the additional children that would be affected and effectively 

prioritize replacement of these LSLs. 

3.1.2. Establish Active LSL Replacement Programs

Proactive LSL replacement programs by PWSs and their customers are key to moving to a future in 

which lead is not in contact with drinking water. To accomplish this, the LCRWG recommends replacing 

the current regulations, in which LSL replacement is required only if a PWS has a lead AL exceedance 

and after the PWS takes action to operate CCT, because this has not resulted in the complete replacement 

of many LSLs across the country. 3

Instead, a revised LCR should include a requirement that all PWSs with lead service lines prepare and 

implement a LSL replacement program, along with a combination of changes to the regulatory approach

described in this report and supportive actions by other public and private agencies, customers and other 

stakeholders. Taking this approach has the advantages of making replacement of LSLs something all 

systems do and of establishing programs that are put in place in an organized and measured way.

Supportive actions include increased funding of federal lead risk reduction programs under the 

Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) to help fund customer-owned portions of LSLs 

and to consider federal tax deductions for this purpose. Additionally, states should pass legislation 

requiring inspection, disclosure and/or replacement of LSLs on sale of property, and when lines have 

been disturbed as part of a renovation. Details on these and other ideas are included in Section 4 of this 

report.

The LCRWG recommends that EPA include the following revisions to the LCR:

1. Goal: PWSs will work with their customers to implement full replacement of all lead service 

lines in their service areas according to the milestones outlined in Table 1. Revisions to the LCR 

should maximize the likelihood of achieving this goal, consistent with the recommendations in 

this section. EPA should urges PWSs to work with their customers to replace LSLs in their 

service areas more quickly, while recognizing that the recommended approach of replacing LSLs 

in all PWSs with LSLs adds a new and potentially costly requirement for utilities and their 

customers with LSLs who currently are not and may not ever be triggered into a LSLR program 

under the current rule. 

2. Interim Milestones: PWSs that identify LSLs in their inventory should be required to perform 

targeted outreach to customers on the inventory of LSLs and to work with them to replace LSLs

according to a sequence of three-year milestones,4 beginning 36 months after the effective date of 

a revised LCR. Milestones would be set at a faster pace in earlier years and would recognize 

progress may be more difficult to achieve in later years with those LSLs that remain at that time. 

Table 1provides an illustration of this concept. PWSs should be encouraged to contact a larger 

number of homeowners than needed for compliance, since some homeowners may fail to reply or 

may refuse to participate. If replacement goals are not met, the revised LCR should require the

PWS to take additional actions intended to enhance interest in and incentives for customer 

participation in full LSL replacement. The details of this approach should be determined by EPA 

with the intent of the LCRWG being that the PWS be given the flexibility to choose among 

 3 EPA estimates that there were approximately 10.5 million LSLs in 1988 before the promulgation of the LCR and 

approximately 7.3 million LSLs now.

4 Three years is a standard reporting timetable for drinking water regulations.
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options that are appropriate for the size and type of ownership of the system and that the number 

of required efforts would increase over time if replacement goals are not met. EPA should seek 

to add to the initial list of options suggested in Table 2 to ensure a robust menu for PWSs to 

choose from (again considering system size and type of ownership) to avoid a situation where a 

PWS is forced into specific actions; and EPA should set the number of required efforts with 

consideration for the number and feasibility of choices provided.

3. Replacement Credit: The following actions can be counted toward the cumulative replacement 

requirement: 

• Full LSL replacement

• Replacement of lead pigtail where the pigtail is the only leaded material on the service line

• Confirmation that an LSL included in the initial inventory is not lead. 

PLSLR will not be counted toward this requirement. Lack of response or refusal to participate by 

the customer also will not count toward replacement milestones.

4. Targeted Outreach: EPA should create a list of options in the rule of approved outreach methods 

for contacting customers with LSLs and inviting them to participate in the utility’s LSLR 

program. Table 2 provides an initial list of options for such resident engagement, along with 

additional system policies and other actions if milestones aren’t met. EPA also should provide 

guidance and/or templates for these options. For compliance purposes, the revised LCR should 

require that a PWS individually notify customers with known or possible LSLs describing the 

risks of lead in drinking water, specifically inviting them to participate in the LSLR program, and 

clearly describing the terms of the program, and how to follow up. If the customer does not 

respond or chooses not to participate, the PWS must follow up with another invitation at least 

every three years and always when there is a new customer at that address until the full LSL is 

replaced.

5. Control and Responsibility: The revised LCR should require PWSs to clearly state how the PWS 

defines ownership of LSLs, who has what financial responsibility for the replacement, what the 

legal basis is for that determination and any financial assistance programs that may be available. 

6. Planning and Financing Options: EPA should provide a template and guidance for planning LSL 

replacement programs, including reference to options to assist customers replace their portion of 

lead service lines. Small systems may wish to refer to a national information source, such as one 

provided by EPA; large systems may wish to tailor such information to their circumstances. (See 

section 4 for further detail.) 

7. Operations and Customer Engagement: EPA also should provide guidance on PWS policies and 

procedures for how to engage customers in full lead service line replacement and to inform them

on appropriate risk reduction measures. PWSs should adopt templates provided in guidance by 

EPA or, for larger systems, their own standard operating procedures (SOPs) and make them 

available to their customers and the primacy agency for:

a) planned capital projects by the PWS that would require:

o Prior notification (e.g., 45 days prior to planned main replacement or repair) -

Contact letter to affected households likely to have lead service lines, providing 

information about lead service lines, associated risk, risk reduction options, and fulllead service line replacement options.
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o Reminder of flushing post LSLR (e.g., 48 hours prior to actual field work affecting 

structure) -- Door hanger (or alternative direct contact) with information on flushing 

and POU devices immediately after lead service line replacement.

b) emergency main and service line repairs by the PWS that would define how to manage 

potential disturbance to LSLs safely:

o Direction to information on lead service lines, associated risk, risk reduction options, 

and full-lead service line replacement options.

o Door hanger (or alternative direct contact) with information on flushing and POU 

devices immediately after lead service line replacement. 

c) flushing of service lines after lead service line replacement:

o Flush outside hose bib or similarly located spigot close to the meter

o Initial flush followed by house flush by homeowner or plumber using multiple taps to 

maximize water velocity

o Information on proper use of filters when lead levels might be high

d) Requiring PWSs to inform other utilities (e.g. power, cable) whose work might affect water 

service lines or water mains, both proactively and at “mark out” for specific projects, about 

how to manage potential disturbances safely and about information to provide residents of 

affected homes about potential risks and risk mitigation measures. Those other utilities 

would have the responsibility to alert residents.

8. Community and NTNC water systems (schools, hospitals, churches, jails, etc.) who own the 

system and control the entire distribution system should replace LSL’s as soon as practical, at a 

timetable to be determined by EPA. This requirement would not apply to community systems 

where the majority of the connections are individual residential connections (such as mobile 

home parks and HOA’s) where there may be complications due to property ownership of the 

residence. 

The LCRWG discussed and agreed that EPA guidance should encourage PWSs to make every effort to 

ensure that LSL replacement provides equal protection to low income customers (or rental units with low 

income residents), people of color and others protected by civil rights law and policy. Environmental 

justice and civil rights considerations are particularly important in those jurisdictions where the PWS 

requires the property owner to pay a share of the costs of removing the LSL. Making environmental 

justice a priority can be achieved through creative financing programs for low-income customers and 

setting priorities for which neighborhoods are targeted first for LSLR to ensure equal treatment of low 

income neighborhoods.

The LCRWG also discussed but did not agree that the definition of control as ownership should be 

changed in the revised LCR. In the current LCR, when a system exceeds the LAL, EPA requires water

systems to replace only that portion of the LSL that it owns. This is based on EPA’s current interpretation 

of the term “control” in the definition of public water system as limited to ownership. Some members of 

the LCRWG urged that the current definition of control as “ownership” should be replaced with a 

requirement that PWSs must replace the entire LSL, where they have the authority to “replace, repair, or 

maintain” the line or where they have other forms of authority over the LSL. However, the LCRWG also 

recognized that some utilities are prevented by law from spending public funds on private property and 

that gaining physical access to private property poses significant legal issues when a property owner 

objects. 
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The LCRWG does agree that the revised LCR should require PWSs to inform customers about the scope 

of their responsibility with regard to LSL replacement and the legal basis for that decision.

3.1.3 LSL Compliance 

3.1.3.a LSL Replacement Compliance

Recordkeeping:

• Inventory of LSLs

• Customer refusals to participate in full LSL replacement

Reporting: At the end of each three year period, each PWS must provide to the primacy 

agency:

• Certification of the outreach and other efforts implemented (see Table 2 for initial 

examples);

• Report on the change in the number of LSLs removed from the inventory with better 

information;

• Report on the number of full LSLs replaced; and 

• Report on locations where the utility side LSL was replaced, but the homeowner did not

replace the private portion

Violations:

- Failure to conduct required outreach;

- Failure to step up intensity of efforts if 3-year LSL replacement target has not been met;

- Failure to provide on-going outreach to new customers and to follow up (at least every 3 

years) with customers at locations with full or partial LSL who do not respond or chose 

not to participate in the LSL replacement program;

- Outreach materials do not meet the content requirements of the rule

3.1.3.b Operations and Customer Engagement Compliance

PWS must maintain records of who was notified, when notice was given, and content of 

notice for each capital project. (for 7a and 7b) 

Violations:

- Lack of timely notice to customer that LSL removal is scheduled

- Notice materials do not meet rule content requirements

PWS also must develop SOP, and maintain records that it was provided to all utilities 

conducting activities which may impact LSL (for 7d)

Violation:

• PWS has not developed an SOP (or adopted an SOP template available on the National 

Clearinghouse) or not provided it to other utilities

3.2 Develop Stronger Public Education Requirements and Programs for Lead and LSLs

Given the public’s role in the shared responsibility nature of the LCR, notifying and educating the public 

about lead in drinking water is important for risk reduction. Public education about the risks of lead in 

drinking water also is important regardless of whether LSLs are present, since lead can be present in other 
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premise plumbing materials. Moreover, targeted outreach and, possibly, other efforts are a key to the 

success of LSL removal programs. The current LCR does not adequately focus on creating on-going 

opportunities to educate customers on the risks of LSLs or on opportunities to replace them, especially 

when action is most likely, e.g. at the sale of a home. 

The objectives of public education programs should include consumer understanding of: 1) the risks of 

lead in drinking water; 2) the likelihood that the water in one’s home may contain lead; 3) the LCR as a 

“shared responsibility” rule; and 4) the availability of additional resources that consumers can use to 

better minimize their exposure to lead.

Although the LCRWG was briefed on and has experience with public education requirements and 

practices, it does not include members whose specific area of expertise is consumer-centered risk 

communication. Thus, the LCRWG generally recommends that public education programs for lead 

should move away from past practices of one-way communication from “experts” to the “public” toward 

newer concepts of risk communication that involve sustained, multiple, two-way channels of ongoing 

communication and partnership with the public.

5

 EPA should consult with those with such expertise

about the outreach and communication recommendations in this report, and encourage and apply best 

practices in effective ways to communicate with the public.

Communication in languages appropriate to the demographics of the community, in clear terms 

understandable by the public, and with engaging, reader-friendly graphics, photos, and video all help 

achieve greater understanding. Outreach programs and materials can be improved by involving people 

with diverse, and consumer-oriented expertise and perspectives, including consumer-centered risk 

communication experts, community members with extensive experience with lead in water including 

individuals not necessarily affiliated with an organization, lead/copper corrosion experts, grassroots 

public-health workers, and staff of PWSs, state and federal regulatory agencies and public health 

agencies. This information can and should be conveyed in different ways and through different 

communication channels, tailored to the specific circumstances. 

Thus, with these and other considerations in mind, the LCRWG recommends that EPA, in consultation 

with the aforementioned stakeholders and drawing on principles of consumer-centered risk 

communication: 

• Establish an easily accessible, national clearinghouse of information about lead in drinking water 

to serve the needs of the public and of public water systems (section 3.2.1).

• Require information be sent to all new customers on the potential risks of lead in drinking water 

(section 3.2.2)

• Revise the current CCR language to address lead service lines and update the health statements 

(section 3.2.3).Add requirements for targeted outreach to customers with lead service lines 

(section 3.1.1).

 5 Resources include: 1) EPA's "Risk Communication in Action" (http://nepis.epa.gov/Adobe/PDF/60000I2U.pdf) ; 

2) EPA's "7 Cardinal Rules of Risk Communication" 

(http://www.wvdhhr.org/bphtraining/courses/cdcynergy/content/activeinformation/resources/epa_seven_cardinal_ru

les.pdf); and 3) Education & Communication WG Report 2010; National Conversation on Public Health and 

Chemical Exposures (http://www.resolv.org/sitenationalconversation/files/2011/02/Education_and_Communication_Final_Report.pdf) 
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• Strengthen requirements for public access to information about lead service lines, tap monitoring 

results, and other relevant information (section 3.2.4).

• Expand the current requirements for outreach to caregivers/health care providers of vulnerable 

populations (section 3.2.5)

As part of EPA’s consultation with the aforementioned communication experts and stakeholders, the 

LCRWG recommends that EPA include consultation about methods that would increase public awareness 

of and motivation to learn about the effects of lead in drinking water and the benefits of removing these 

materials and/or taking regular precautions when cooking or drinking, regardless of whether LSLs are 

present or there has been a lead AL exceedance. Consistent with this advice, EPA also should take small 

systems into account and consider whether such methods should be included in guidance or in revisions 

to the LCR.

3.2.1 National Lead in Drinking Water Clearinghouse

The LCRWG recommends that EPA take the lead, working with other partners to establish a national, 

accessible information clearinghouse. The LCRWG suggests that this information clearinghouse include

a website, that the materials on the web site be accessible for distribution through the Safe Drinking 

Water Hotline for those who may not have internet access, and that EPA investigate and apply newer 

communication technologies and ideas for interactive or other innovative means of communication with 

the public about lead in drinking water (e.g. social media methods and outreach programs). 

The clearinghouse should include information in multiple languages, in clear terms understandable by the 

public, and should include engaging, reader-friendly graphics, photos, and video. EPA is encouraged to 

include the design of the clearinghouse in its consultation with people with diverse, and consumeroriented expertise and perspectives described above. 

Such a clearinghouse would be intended for use by the general public, PWS’s, public health agencies, and 

health professionals. It should include:

• information and educational materials for the public that the public could access directly and that 

PWSs could use to meet many of the public education requirements of the LCR. 

• guidance and templates, particularly for small systems, on SOPs for compliance with the LCR 

(e.g. templates for communicating lead monitoring results to individual customers, templates for 

explaining to customers how to obtain information on whether their service line could be lead, 

templates for standard operating procedures related to the LSL replacement program 

recommendations above, etc). 

• Principles and guidelines for best practices in developing the content of the public education 

materials. 

• Case examples of how communities have been successful in lead inventory updates and removal 

programs, information about funding sources, model ordinances or other types of authorities 

PWSs have to enable them to implement full LSL replacements, and contacts to other relevant 

agencies. 

Further, EPA should consider best practices in methods for achieving greater public awareness of the 

clearinghouse so that it reaches as many people as possible.
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The web site should include the following information:

Health risks

• Clear and prominent statement that no level of lead in drinking water is safe for human 

consumption and that a short-term exposure to a young child can result in permanent harm to 

the brain if the levels are high enough.

• Clear and distinct language on the health risks of consuming lead in drinking water

• Identification of the most vulnerable populations

• Importance of drinking water plumbing as a lead source

• How to have blood lead levels (BLLs) checked and limitations of testing

• How to have water tested and limitations of testing

• List of labs for testing water other than the utility and what to ask for in terms of number and 

size of bottles, diameter of mouth of bottles, analysis that measures lead particles, etc.

Forms of lead in water and health risk implications

• Soluble

• Particulate

• Unpredictability of lead release

Sources of lead in drinking water

• LSLs

• Other lead-bearing plumbing

• Scale on internal plumbing that can be a source of lead from present or past LSLs

Identification of service line material

• How to recognize a pipe that is made of lead (and when not to check due to age of home)

• What to do about galvanized pipe and why it is a potential source of lead

For homes with LSL

• LSL ownership

• Difference between full and partial lead service line replacement (physically and in terms of 

health risks)

• Benefits to full LSL replacement

• Actions to take if you have a partially replaced LSL

• Available methods for LSL removal

• Opportunities for removal, approximate cost, and financing options

• Overall benefits to the community of removing LSLs fully (lower treatment costs, better 

community health, environmental, etc.)

• Where applicable, requirements for notification during real estate transfer or new rental

Health-protective actions

• Precautionary water-use practices

• Role of filters and proper maintenance of them if they are used

• Replacement of leaded plumbing with lead-free plumbing

Additional information

• How to contact your utility and request a LSL inspection and/or water test

• Where applicable, reference to utility-specific website with local lead-related documents and 

data (e.g. Consumer Confidence Reports (CCRs), sampling protocol used for LCR 

compliance, lead-in-water test results, etc.)
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• What you need to know about lead in water in schools and day care centers (it is not regulated, 

and link to national website that provides more information)

• Reference to a national website that provides a video version of basic educational information, 

including information on how the LCR works (with minority language versions)

• Other standard operating procedures, model ordinances, or templates for compliance with the 

revised LCR

• Where to get more information on drinking water, on lead in water, and on lead in general

3.2.2 Outreach to New Customers

The LCRWG recommends that a revised LCR require PWSs to provide information to all6 new customers 

in a letter or via other direct means on the potential risks of lead in drinking water. 

The outreach materials should include information about the potential for lead from plumbing materials to 

contaminate drinking water even when a PWS meets the LCR LAL, to contaminate drinking water in 

homes with and without LSLs, and to pose chronic and acute health risks to vulnerable populations. The 

specific information to be covered in those materials could be included in the consultation with the

diverse group of experts as described in the introduction to Section 3.2 above and in Section 4 below.

Although the LCRWG defers to such a group, it suggests that at a minimum the following topics be 

covered:

1. Information about lead in drinking water (its sources, variable and erratic release, and wide 

range of lead concentrations)

2. Information about the health effects of lead in drinking water (including chronic and acute 

health risks)

3. Information about the LCR’s shared responsibility regime

4. Actions the PWS is taking to minimize lead in drinking water

• PWSs with LSLs would mention their proactive LSL replacement program

5. Steps consumers can take to reduce exposure to lead in drinking water

• In addition to a list of actions like the ones mentioned in the current Rule, PWSs with 

LSLs would spell out how consumers in homes with a LSL can participate in their 

proactive LSL replacement program

6. Phone numbers and online links for additional information (including a link to EPA’s online 

National Clearinghouse) 

The outreach to new customers should be delivered within 30 days or with the first bill. 

3.2.3 Revise the Current CCR Language

The CCR is a necessary but not sufficient source of information for the public. It can provide general 

information, but is not designed to be frequent or detailed enough for all public education purposes. 

All community water systems (CWSs) should continue to include a statement about lead in their CCR. 

There may be circumstances (e.g. a subdivision built entirely after January 2014 when “lead-free” 

requirements came into effect), where a CWS can demonstrate that there are no lead-bearing materials in 

contact with drinking water. EPA may want to consider allowing the primacy agency to waive this CCR 

language requirement if an entire CWS can meet this criterion. 

 6 EPA may wish to consider circumstances under which exceptions might be applicable.
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The LCRWG recommends that the CCR language should be strengthened to include: 

• Public health statements updated to reflect current understandings that there is no safe level 

of lead and a summary of the health effects, that this risk pertains to everyone, and that some 

individuals are particularly vulnerable;

• A link to the national clearinghouse should be added to the CCR for all CWSs;

• Recognition that a CWS’s compliance with federal regulations does not guarantee what level 

of lead (lower or higher) might be found at the tap in a particular home; and

• The message that customers play an important role in protecting themselves from exposure to 

lead.

In addition, the work group recommends that PWSs where full or partial lead service lines exist (or are 

presumed to exist until an inventory demonstrates otherwise) also add information about what a lead 

service line is and how to contact the utility for information about how to find out if you have one and 

why you should replace it.

Further, the LCRWG recommends that the following redraft of the CCR be considered as a starting point 

for incorporating the elements listed above, to be reviewed by the diverse group of experts that the 

LCRWG suggests EPA consult . 

Important Information from EPA about Lead If lead is present in your drinking water, it

elevated levels of can cause serious health problems, especially for pregnant women and young 

children. Lead can affect children’s brains and developing nervous systems, causing reduced IQ, 

learning disabilities and behavioral problems. Lead is also harmful to adults. Lead in drinking 

water is primarily from materials and components associated with service lines and home 

plumbing and service lines (the pipe connecting your home to the water main). (System name) 

is responsible for providing high quality drinking water, but cannot control the variety of 

materials used in plumbing components. Contact us for information about lead service lines, 

how to find out if you have one and why you should replace it. [Last sentence for systems with 

LSLs.]

When your water has been sitting for several hours, you can minimize the potential for lead 

exposure by flushing your tap for 30 seconds to 2 minutes before using water for drinking or 

cooking. Protecting you against exposure to lead is a shared responsibility. Your water utility is 

required to minimize the corrosivity of the water. However, because every home is different, the 

amount of lead in your tap water may be lower or higher than the monitoring results for your 

public water system as a whole. You can take responsibility for identifying and removing lead 

materials within your home plumbing and taking steps to reduce your family’s risk. If you have 

lead service lines or lead-bearing materials in your home, are concerned about lead in your 

water, you may wish to have your water tested. Information on lead in drinking water, testing 

methods, and steps you can take to minimize exposure is available from the Safe Drinking Water 

Hotline at 1-800-426-4791 or www.epa.gov/safewater/lead. [Insert new national web site link]

3.2.4 Strengthen Requirements for Public Access to Information

The LCRWG supports the public’s right to know about the quality of their water and considered various 

options to increase the public’s access to data related to lead and copper.

Under the current rule, the PWS is only required to make publicly available through the Consumer 

Confidence Report (CCR) that the “90th percentile value of the most recent round of sampling and the 

number of sampling sites exceeding the action level.” 40 CFR 141.153. In many jurisdictions, a 
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25

concerned consumer may be able to obtain or view a redacted version of the complete sampling data set 

but this approach is time-consuming and burdensome on the PWS (or the state) and the community. EPA 

receives only a summary of the sampling results. 

As the LCRWG evaluated different approaches, we kept in mind EPA’s Office of Enforcement and 

Compliance Assurance (OECA) five principles for highly effective regulations and that OECA is working 

with regulatory programs to evaluate new and revised rules against these principles. Principle 4 calls for 

rules to “leverage accountability and transparency by providing the government and the public with realtime access to quality information on regulated entities” emissions, discharges and key compliance 

activities and outcomes.” OECA identified two tools to accomplish this:

• Electronic reporting to the government. 

• Public accountability via websites, paper/electronic mailings, and other ways to provide the 

public and stakeholders (e.g., customers, ratepayers) with compliance information. 

The LCRWG encourages EPA to use the SDWIS-Prime data system7 that is under development to meet 

the first provision of the above goal. Electronic reporting from utilities to a centralized data system would 

allow the public to access data from the State or EPA in a coordinated manner and allow for consistent 

access to all water quality data, not just data for lead and copper.

Until such time as the new data system is in place, though, the LCRWG believes that water systems 

should increase the availability of data to the public. This would include:

• The number of samples over the Household Action Level (described in Section 3.5 below) in the 

last monitoring period, the highest level found during the last monitoring period, the median 

levels, and the most recent 90th percentile level compared to the “system action level” (renamed 

from the current action level).

• Requiring water systems to include WQP-related information on their webpage, or in the CCR or 

some equally accessible manner (e.g., CCT treatment, approved WQP ranges, WQP results from 

the last monitoring period )

• Encouraging water systems to post additional information on their webpages such as:

o Public education materials (and link to National Clearinghouse).

o Sampling protocols the water system provides to customers to use when collecting lead 

samples and any variations from EPA recommendations.

o Individual sampling results (with appropriate privacy provisions such as address 

redaction).

o Inventory (such as a map) of confirmed and presumed lead service lines.

Where a community has lead service lines, EPA should require PWSs provide a public statement of lead 

service line ownership and the legal basis of said determination. (See section 3.1.2, point 5 “Control and 

Responsibility.”)

 7 SDWIS is a database for storage about drinking water systems. The federal version (SDWIS/FED) stores the 

information EPA needs to monitor approximately 156,000 public water systems. The state version (SDWIS/STATE) 

is a database designed to help states run their drinking water programs. SDWIS-Prime is an upcoming version of 

this program. The website for SDWIS is located here: 

http://water.epa.gov/scitech/datait/databases/drink/sdwisfed/index.cfm

SDWIS Reports:

http://water.epa.gov/scitech/datait/databases/drink/sdwisfed/howtoaccessdata.cfm
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3.2.5 Routine Outreach to Caregivers/Health Care Providers of Vulnerable Populations

The LCRWG recommends that a revised LCR encourage PWSs to cooperate in locally appropriate public 

education programs targeted at caregivers and health providers of the populations most vulnerable to lead 

in drinking water (i.e., pregnant women, infants, young children, and children with elevated BLLs). The 

intent of such outreach is to raise awareness among caregivers and health providers about the health risks 

of lead in drinking water, easy steps to prevent exposure, and the availability of EPA’s online National 

Clearinghouse for further information. It is expected that public education messaging in service areas with 

LSLs will differ from public education messaging in service areas without such lines.

In conducting outreach to caregivers and health care providers it is important that the message be 

provided by an organization or individual that carries credibility with those audiences. The LCRWG 

suggests the way to best ensure that caregivers and health providers hear and respond appropriately to 

information about lead and drinking water is for water suppliers to participate in joint communication 

efforts, lead by state health departments, state lead poisoning prevention agencies, and state drinking 

water primacy agencies. This outreach should be targeted to individuals, organizations and facilities 

likely to be visited by the vulnerable populations of pregnant women, infants, and young children, such 

as:

1. local public health agencies; 

2. public and private pre-schools, schools; 

3. Women Infants and Children (WIC) and Head Start programs; 

4. public and private hospitals and medical clinics; 

5. pediatricians, obstetricians-gynecologists, and midwives; 

6. family planning clinics; 

7. local welfare agencies; or

8. licensed childcare centers.

1. The outreach efforts should make use of the information provided in the clearinghouse

Examples of communication vehicles that might be suggested in guidance materials include:

• Development and routine delivery of a joint communication from the PWS (or a group of 

PWSs) and the City/State to:

∗ Health providers (e.g., OBGYNs, pediatricians, midwives)

∗ Childhood lead poisoning prevention professionals/organizations

∗ Professionals at licensed daycare centers and schools

∗ Listservs/organizations for pregnant women/parents of infants (e.g., local listservs, 

environmental health groups, La Leche League, etc.)

• Delivery of educational materials during any water-related work at customer homes

• When lead-in-water levels at individual homes test above the HAL, delivery of information to 

a) the residents at the home and b) City/State health departments. These materials ought to 

cover information prescribed in the current LCR for public outreach during a LAL exceedance 

as well as:

∗ The lead level detected at the specific home

∗ What this level means in terms of health risk to vulnerable individuals

∗ If the PWS determines that the home has a LSL, information about how to participate in 

the PWS’s proactive, full LSL replacement program. 
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27

The LCRWG also recommends that EPA, informed by the advice of the diverse group of experts 

described above and working with CDC, HHS and HUD, develop guidance (and make it available 

through the National Clearinghouse) on how to develop and deliver effective communication efforts to 

caregivers and health care providers focusing on ways those individuals and groups can reach pregnant 

women, parents of infants and young children and those who care for them. The audience for those 

materials would be state primacy agencies, state or local health departments, and state or local lead 

poisoning prevention agencies, as well as PWSs.

To support PWSs in the development of feasible, locally appropriate, and successful public outreach 

programs targeting vulnerable groups on a routine basis, the LCRWG recommends the following: that the 

diverse group of experts EPA may convene for the development of consumer-centered public education 

messaging and materials (see introduction to Section 3.2), also develop guidelines and best practices that 

PWSs can use to create proactive risk communication programs. Echoing extant principles and 

understandings of effective risk communication,8 we imagine such programs to involve robust 

collaboration between PWSs, many of the local public health agencies and organizations listed above, as 

well as local childhood lead poisoning prevention groups (State-funded and grassroots), environmental 

health organizations, and key community leaders (e.g., advisory neighborhood commissioners). 

Education of public health and health care providers on lead and water issues

The LCRWG had extensive discussions about the frustration that members of the group had that many in 

the public health community minimized the risk of lead exposure from drinking water, placed a lower 

priority on actions to reduce that risk, and frequently provided incomplete or conflicting information to 

members of the public or patients. This made and continues to make the work of water professionals in 

motivating appropriate action by customers more difficult. Those in the health sector are highly regarded, 

and viewed as knowledgeable about all health related topics. Customers will look to them for advice and 

to validate what they hear from their water provider. Efforts by water systems to reach out to their 

customers must be appropriately re-enforced by those in the health sector if those efforts are to be 

successful.

The LCRWG recommends that EPA, CDC, HHS and HUD conduct training and outreach to local health 

agencies, medical professionals and local and state lead poisoning prevention agencies on:

1. Information about lead in drinking water (its sources, variable and erratic release, and wide 

range of lead concentrations)

 8 Lundgren, R. E. and A. H. McMakin. 2013. Risk Communication: A Handbook for Communicating Environmental, 

Safety, and Health Risks. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Risk Communication in Action, http://nepis.epa.gov/Adobe/PDF/60000I2U.pdf

Communicating about Lead Service Lines, 

http://www.awwa.org/Portals/0/files/resources/publicaffairs/pdfs/FINALeadServiceLineCommGuide.pdf

Strategies to Obtain Customer Acceptance of Complete Lead Service Line Replacement, 

http://www.awwa.org/Portals/0/files/legreg/documents/StrategiesforLSLs.pdf

National Conversation on Public Health and Chemical Exposures: Education and Communication Work Group 

Report, http://www.utmb.edu/cet/downloads/Natl_Conv_Edu_Comm_WorkGroup%20Report.pdf

Advancing Collaborations for Water-Related Health Risk Communication, 

http://www.waterrf.org/PublicReportLibrary/91145.pdf.
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28

2. Information about exposures routes of lead in drinking water to different vulnerable 

populations, including pregnant women, infants and young children

3. Information about lead service lines

4. Information about the LCR’s shared responsibility regime between water system and customer

5. Actions that PWSs typically take to minimize lead in drinking water

6. Steps consumers can take to reduce exposure to lead in drinking water, including removal of 

LSLs 

7. Phone numbers and online links for additional information (including a link to EPA’s online 

National Clearinghouse)

The LCRWG also recommends that EPA work with CDC to incorporate in the CDC’s website, 

educational materials, and materials used by CDC-funded childhood lead poisoning prevention programs 

nationwide, accurate and up-to-date information about lead in drinking water (its sources, variable and 

erratic release, wide range of lead concentrations, chronic and acute health risks, the LCR’s shared 

responsibility regime, steps to prevent exposure).

3.2.6 Public Education Compliance 

3.2.6.a Compliance for New Customer Outreach

Violations:

• Failure to provide information to new customers

3.2.6.b Compliance for CCR

Recordkeeping, reporting and violations: Same as in the current CCR rule, with updated 

content.

3.2.6.c PE Compliance for Public Access to Information 

PWS must provide the public access to information about:

• Number of samples over the Household Action Level, median, 90th percentile, and 

highest level found in the last monitoring period

• CCT treatment, approved WQP ranges and WQP results from the last monitoring 

period

Violations:

• Failure to make this information available to the public

3.3 Improve Corrosion Control

Corrosion Control Treatment (CCT) involves the addition of chemicals (e.g. orthophosphates or silicate) 

to create a barrier between the pipes and the drinking water, or to modify drinking water chemistry (such 

as pH and hardness) to inhibit the potential for corrosion. The concept is to manage the treatment system

to reduce corrosion (and, thus, the release of metals such as lead and copper) from the distribution system

and premise plumbing. 

Under the current LCR, PWSs serving more than 50,000 people were required to work with their primacy 

agency (typically the state) from 1994 to 1997 to designate and install optimal corrosion control 

treatment. Systems serving 50,000 people or less must optimize corrosion control treatment only if the 
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29

results of lead and copper tap sample exceed the action levels. A PWS exceeds the lead AL if ten percent 

or more of the tap samples collected are greater than the 15 ppb action level. 

In evaluating CCT choices, a PWS must consider list of assessment parameters; and, as part of the 

approval of a PWS CCT plan, the state also approves a shorter list of process control parameters 

applicable to that system to demonstrate that the selected treatment is being properly operated over time. 

For purposes of this report, the term water quality parameters (WQPs) applies to these latter process 

control measures. Recommendations concerning WQPs are included in Section 3.4. 

Based on the experience with current LCR requirements provided to this work group and shared by work 

group members, the LCRWG has concluded the following:

• CCT remains an important component of the LCR, in that it is intended to achieve a water quality 

that minimizes dissolution of lead and copper in water. 

• Effective CCT varies based on the specific conditions from system to system. Increased 

knowledge about CCT since promulgation of the current LCR, if applied today, could lead to 

improvements in CCT in some systems. Thus, PWSs and their primacy agency should apply the 

most current science, tailored to the unique circumstances of each system, to the choice of 

treatment plan and its associated water quality parameters. A variety of factors affect the 

dissolution of lead in water, including but not limited to pH and alkalinity. Factors other than the 

stability of designated WQPs can include, among others, the formation/dissolution of protective 

scales; the presence of manganese, iron, chlorides, sulfates, aluminum and other materials; and 

temperature. Variations in water quality also can occur within the distribution system. These 

water quality conditions vary among PWSs, which in turn affect the CCT choices a PWS must 

make in the context of other regulatory requirements. 

• Lead also occurs in different forms in plumbing systems, from soluble to insoluble and particulate 

in nature. Sources of lead vary from the very common leaded solder and brass fixtures/valves, to 

LSLs, and to less common lead-lined iron pipe. CCT is more effective in reducing exposure to 

soluble lead than it is for particulate lead, although CCT that contributes to the formation of 

certain scales may also provide benefits in reducing exposure to particulates. Thus, while very 

important, CCT is not the only lead control mechanism that a PWS must have in place. In other 

words, CCT should not be relied upon by itself to control lead in water. Rather, it should be one 

of a tool box of other required mechanisms depending on a PWS’s particular conditions and lead 

sources (e.g. LSLs, leaded solder, leaded brass, etc.). These tools are described in other sections 

of this report and include: LSL replacement (as well as the replacement of other less common 

sources of lead such as lead-lined iron pipe), current and future use of lead-free materials, 

stronger public education including targeted public education to vulnerable populations (pregnant 

women and families with infants and young children), availability of certified POU filters, 

instructions on how to flush plumbing systems when lead could be disturbed, etc.

3.3.1 Corrosion Control Recommendations

The LCRWG recommends that:

• EPA release a revised CCT guidance manual as soon as possible and update this manual every six

years, so that PWSs and primacy agencies can take advantage of improvements in the science;

• EPA provide increased expert assistance on CCT to PWSs and primacy agencies;

• The LCR continue to require re-evaluation of CCT when a PWS makes a change in treatment or 

source water;
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• The LCR continue to require WQP monitoring to ensure that the CCT is achieving the treatment 

objectives and that EPA consider requiring such monitoring on a more frequent basis with 

additional guidance on process control methods; and

• Large systems review their existing CCT plan in light of current science in a newly revised 

guidance manual with their primacy agency to determine whether the WQPs reflect the best 

available current science. The LCRWG suggests that this review be done every six years 

following EPA’s six year rule review cycle, and subject to there being sufficient science change 

that EPA updated the guidance manual. EPA should plan to review and refresh Agency guidance 

every 6 years, subject to significant improvement in the state of knowledge, to allow research to

inform rule implementation. In addition, regularly revised guidance would help states and 

systems stay current with corrosion control science as they respond to problem situations, but 

more importantly help them anticipate challenges as new water sources and treatments are 

brought on line, or they contemplate further refinement to corrosion control. Small and medium 

sized systems should work with their primacy agency to determine whether updates to CCT 

guidance is applicable to them.

3.3.2 Corrosion Control Compliance

PWS must maintain records that it reviewed new EPA guidance manuals and assessed

whether and, if so, what changes to CCT are applicable, based on the current state of the 

science.

Violations:

- Failure to notify and consult with primacy agency on re-evaluating CCT if the PWS 

makes a change in treatment or source water

- Failure to review CCT when EPA updates the guidance manual (for large systems)

- Failure to act if state notifies them that they should assess CCT or make adjustments, 

based on state review of guidance manual (for medium and small systems)

3.4 Modify Monitoring Requirements

Under the current LCR, a PWS is required to conduct monitoring to assess the effectiveness of its 

corrosion control treatment (CCT) and trigger additional actions to reduce exposure when necessary. 

Water systems must compare sampling results to an Action Level (AL). The AL for lead is 15 μg/L and 

the AL for copper is 1.3 mg/L. In the Lead and Copper Rule (LCR), water systems must prioritize sample 

site locations (often residences) within the distribution system which are at a high-risk of elevated lead 

and/or copper in the water. Selection and use of these elevated lead and copper sites enables a smaller 

number of sample sites than random or geographic site selection procedures.

Implementation of this approach over time has revealed numerous challenges. Recruitment of customers 

to take in-home samples can be difficult and costly. Customers are not professional samplers and, thus, 

may implement the sampling protocols inconsistently. Research on sampling protocols also has shown 

that sampling results may vary, and not necessarily consistently, based on the configuration and length of 

lines from the water main to the sampling tap and whether the sample is a first draw or a subsequent 

sample intended to reflect water that had been in a LSL for some time. 

The LCRWG recommends two types of on-going monitoring: 1) a more robust WQP monitoring program

to improve process controls for CCT, and 2) voluntary customer initiated tap water sampling coupled 

with a more robust and targeted public education program to encourage sampling, in part to provide direct 
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31

information to consumers that they can use to reduce potential exposures to lead from drinking water in 

their home and to provide ongoing information to the PWS to identify and correct unanticipated 

problems.

The LCRWG also recommends that EPA establish criteria for a PWS to transition from the current rule 

framework into the new rule framework. The LCRWG recommends that the transition includes a 

condition that a PWS must comply with the requirements of the current LCR until the PWS has achieved 

three rounds of monitoring results under the lead AL using the current LCR requirements. Results from 

past rounds of monitoring can be used or new data will be required if prior data are above the AL. At that 

point, the PWS can define their CCT or WQPs for the new rule as that which was used to achieve this 

record. The existing lead AL should be redefined as a System Action Level in the new rule wherein it will 

be used when determining re-optimization, e.g. for use during a review of a new source or treatment, if 

the state determines that additional utility tap sampling is warranted. In other words, it will provide a 

baseline target for confirming CCT if lead sampling is chosen as one means by which to determine CCT. 

PWSs must continue to demonstrate that they are maintaining the WQPs used to establish the transitions. 

All systems, regardless of their lead AL status, should be required to transition to the new LSL 

replacement program and public education program requirements of the revised LCR as of the effective 

date of the new rule.

3.4.1 Water Quality Parameter Monitoring

As noted above, WQP monitoring is distinguished from the more extensive list of parameters that a water 

system would consider as it evaluates corrosion control technology choices. WQPs for the purpose of this 

section involve the on-going process control monitoring that demonstrates that the selected treatment is 

being properly operated over time.

The WQP program recommended below builds on what is in the current rule by recommending:

1) more frequent monitoring than currently required and monitoring that is representative of the 

distribution system (e.g. at points currently used for DBP monitoring or at a subset of points used 

for TCR monitoring) to capture currently undetected variability;

2) continuing to tailor WQPs to the individual PWS CCT plan and asking EPA to review and

consider adding to the list of WQPs referenced in the LCR, based on EPA’s anticipated revision 

to the CCT guidance manual;

3) that WQP monitoring be periodically revisited based on the advancing science as documented in 

research reports and disseminated through periodically revised EPA guidance manuals; and 

4) that a more rigorous data review process such as control charting and similar process control 

techniques be used to take advantage of the collected data to improve the consistency of 

operation, encourage fine-tuning of processes, reduce variability of water quality within the 

distribution system and detect and manage excursions.

In addition, these data should be reviewed whenever there is a change in source or treatment (see 4.3 

above); and, when a system or state primacy agency sees significant changes in WQP data, it should 

initiate a “find and fix” process, looking for what changed and why, and requiring the PWS make any 

needed adjustments or corrections. This provides one type of reality check and correction not explicitly 

in the current LCR.

In addition, the LCRWG recommends that systems which are not currently practicing CCT under the 

LCR but have been under the lead action level by virtue of either naturally non-aggressive source water or 

by virtue of other aspects of treatment in use, be required to conduct a WQP monitoring program to 
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32

continue to demonstrate that the characteristics which caused them to be non-corrosive are continuing to 

be in place.

3.4.2 Tap Sampling for Lead

The LCRWG also recommends that a voluntary customer-initiated sampling program based on the more 

robust and targeted public education efforts being recommended elsewhere in this report be substituted 

for the current LCR tap sampling requirements. .

The results of the voluntary tap sampling program will be used for three separate purposes:

• informing and empowering individual households to take action to reduce risk,

• reporting to health officials when monitoring results exceed a “household action level” (see 

section 3.5) and

• ongoing information to the utility to assess effectiveness of CCT.

Information for Households

Data from customer-initiated sampling will be valuable in informing and empowering individual 

households and thus provide greater customer service. All data provided to customers would need to 

include appropriate information about the variability of lead levels, that a single sample does not represent 

all water quality, and that levels at a particular tap at a particular time might be higher or lower. The 

transmittal should also provide appropriate information about the risks of lead exposure, sensitive 

populations, and actions the consumer can take to minimize risk.

This type of sampling is currently discouraged by the current rule because water systems are often 

concerned that “complaint” or “customer “ samples would be included into the required 90th percentile 

calculation with potential mandatory response actions if it exceeded the action level. This resulted in 

system not offering sampling or having the samples be analyzed through a private lab (and therefore the 

data would not be available for any utility management or regulatory purpose). Currently, PWSs are 

mandated to return to the same locations which, while it may have value for other reasons, means that 

many other households do not get the opportunity to understand their lead exposure. Voluntary customerinitiated sampling can also capture data from multi-family residences, which is not included in the 

mandatory LCR sampling in most cases. A new approach could achieve greater customer service and 

more data to understand and manage lead corrosion.

Outreach to encourage customers to sample will likely involve many different customer contact 

opportunities including the CCR, outreach related to having a LSL, outreach related to construction 

contracts, new customer contact, community meetings, other educational outreach efforts, and whenever a 

customer contacts the CWS for a water quality question or complaint.

Customers should be given the opportunity to determine the type of information they are interested in, 

thus should be offered a menu of sampling protocols, e,g. a random daytime sample to determine typical 

exposure levels, first draw to determine the effects of a brass faucet, or a timed or temperature determined 

sample from within a service line. The National Clearinghouse should include templates with instructions 

for each type of sample. 

Information for Public Health Officials

Data from customer samples which exceeded the “household action level” recommended in section 3.5, 

would be required to be forwarded to health officials. While LCR tap water results are currently provided 

to the collecting household, the LCR does not require any action for individual high samples, and there is 
Report of the Lead and Copper Working Group to the National Drinking Water Advisory Council - Final

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no mandate to refer to health authorities. While the LCR cannot guarantee actions by health departments, 

this recommendation provides direct health intervention in those cases where sampling indicates high lead 

levels.

Information for Assessing the Effectiveness of CCT

The third use of the customer tap sampling data is to provide on-going information to the utility of 

potential changes in the effectiveness of CCT. Under the current rule, most systems are sampling for one 

four-month period every three years. Any changes or variability in lead levels at the tap during the other 

32 months of that period are missed. Under this proposal, it is anticipated that there would be a more 

regular stream of data from more locations, providing information which can be used to understand 

system performance. The data would be provided to the state primacy agency and presented as time 

series data to facilitate identifying any changes in the data over time. Small systems might report the data 

on something as simple as a spreadsheet chart, while larger systems might use more sophisticated 

analytical methods to understand and use the data. 

Unexpected or unexplained changes in the tap sampling data can be used in a “find and fix” approach to 

identify and respond to potential problems. This could be system initiated or in response to periodic 

review of the system data by the primacy agency, such as during a sanitary survey. This provides a 

reality check on whether something unexpected is happening within the distribution system, even though 

consistent treatment was maintained. The more robust (in both temporal and geographic distribution) of 

the customer sample data set provides a more powerful check on treatment than the current episodic 

sampling does. 

Specifically the LCRWG recommends that the revised rule require that:

• any customer sampling data be reported to the state on a routine basis and include which of the 

menu of sampling protocols referenced above was used;

• data be provided as soon as possible and no later than within 30 days to the customer and, if over 

the household action level, to the health department (as discussed above and in section 3.5);

• the PWS maintain the data set for analysis and review, taking type and location of each sample 

into consideration, to identify trends and changes in the data;

• the data be available for public review as described in section 3.2.4;

• the PWS and the state review the data and trend analysis during sanitary surveys;

• annually, at the discretion of the primacy agency, the PWS provide the primacy agency with a 

data summary report of the three most recent years of all tap sampling data, the specific details of 

which should be determined by EPA;

• if the three most recent years of customer sampling data show that the 90th percentile (running 

three-year calculation) is above the System Action Level, then the PWS must analyze any 

changes or trends in the data to evaluate whether they are based on system-wide, local , or 

household-based conditions, and provide the report and analysis to the state for their review and 

determination if additional analysis, re-evaluation of CCT, or other actions such as householdbased actions (LSL removal, education about lead-free faucets and flushing after non-use of 

water, etc.) are appropriate.

• if the system makes any source or treatment changes, the PWS and state should use the customer 

sampling data in the consultation, review and approval by the State currently required by the 

LCR.

The LCRWG also recommends that EPA provide guidance to states and PWSs on additional forms and 

types of data analyses which can be conducted on sampling data to provide more detailed understanding 
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of trends and to support system decision making on customer actions, treatment evaluations or 

development of system plans and priorities for LSL replacement programs. 

It seems appropriate to include some sort of floor to the number of customer samples. Some members of 

the group suggested that systems should be required to collect no fewer samples in a three year period 

than they would under the current three-year reduced monitoring requirement. 

When a system changes its source or treatment, and is required to consult with the state, the state primacy 

agency also may choose to require additional one-time monitoring to evaluate those changes if the degree 

of the change warrants. 

Some members suggested that some small systems might want the opportunity to maintain the current 

home tap water monitoring program. The revised LCR should allow this, while not discouraging 

customer sampling. 

3.4.3 Sample Invalidation Criteria

Under the existing regulation (141.86 (f)(1)), “The State may invalidate a lead or copper tap water sample 

if at least one of the following conditions is met. 

(i) The laboratory establishes that improper sample analysis caused erroneous results. 

(ii) The State determines that the sample was taken from a site that did not meet the site selection 

criteria of this section. 

(iii) The sample container was damaged in transit.

(iv) There is substantial reason to believe that the sample was subject to tampering.”

These are all good and necessary reasons for invalidating a sample and should be retained, but because 

this list is limited, samples must be accepted that are obvious “outliers” and don’t represent the water that 

is normally consumed and should not be used as a basis for treatment changes or public education. This 

is especially true for small systems where the limited number of samples required means that a single, 

unusually high, value can cause the Action Level to be exceeded. This could lead to installation of 

expensive treatment when treatment is not needed or adequate corrosion control is already being 

provided. While probably not as frequent, non-representative samples could also cause water systems to 

be below the action level when treatment changes really are needed. Good invalidation criteria can help 

states address both problems. 

The purpose of the invalidation is to make sure that decisions are based on the most representative set of 

samples possible and to do so through a process that provides adequate information to make good 

invalidation decisions and assures documentation of the reasoning behind the invalidation. 

The following is a proposal from states that will serve those two functions.

States believe that the essential criteria for invalidation are already well stated in the Revised LCR 

Monitoring and Reporting Guidance (EPA 816-R-10-004, March 2010) or the October 2006 

memorandum on Management of Aerators During Collection of Tap Samples to Comply with the Lead 

and Copper Rule. The LCRWG recommends that EPA take the following into account when revising the 

proposed rule and expand the invalidation criteria accordingly:

• Make sure the sample is taken at a tap that is used regularly, and not an abandoned or 

infrequently used tap.” 

• “If first-draw samples are collected at single-family residences, the sample must always be drawn 

from the cold-water kitchen tap or bathroom tap.”
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35

• “If first-draw samples are collected from buildings other than single-family homes, the sample

must always be drawn from an interior tap from which water is typically taken for consumption.” 

• “Public water systems should not recommend that customers remove or clean aerators prior to or 

during the collection of tap samples for lead.”

3.4.4. Monitoring Compliance

PWS must monitor and report based on water quality parameters and schedule set by state 

primacy agency, and use the data for on-going treatment process control (3.4.1)

Violations:

- Failure to monitor as per schedule

- Failure to maintain data, and use in process monitoring (to be evaluated by state during 

sanitary survey inspections or as state primacy agency requests) 

- Failure to report data to state

- Monitoring results outside the WQP range established in the PWSs CCT plan along lines 

similar to current rule requirements 

PWS also must include an offer to customers in all LCR related outreach to collect a sample, 

including in all LSL outreach efforts. PWS must also:

• collect sufficient number of samples, either by customer request or utility initiated 

sampling, i.e. no fewer samples in a three year period than under the current three-year 

reduced monitoring requirement, assuming the PWS qualifies for such reduced 

monitoring; 

• promptly report the data to the customer, the state and local PH (if above health action 

level); and 

• use the data as part of on-going evaluation of CCT performance, monitoring for changes 

in lead levels at the tap over time, geographic trends in levels, and interaction with 

distribution system water quality.

Violations:

- Failure to offer to sample

- Failure to collect minimum number of required samples within 3-year window

- Failure to report data to:

 Household

 State

 Local public health agency (if above household action level) no later than 30 days 

after the result was received

- Failure to provide rule-required information in sampling offer materials, or in household 

reporting of the data

- Failure to use household tap sampling data in on-going evaluation of CCT and maintain 

record of having done so, (as determined by state during sanitary survey inspections or as 

state primacy agency requests)
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3.5 Establish a Household Action Level

The current lead action level is based on the 90th percentile of the collected samples. Without a 

maximum limit, some users may be exposed to levels of lead in the drinking water that presents a 

potentially significant health threat, especially to children, without exceeding the action level.9 

If the levels are high enough and state and local authorities do not act, EPA could determine that 

the levels pose “an imminent and substantial endangerment to the health of persons” pursuant to 

section 1431 of the Safe Drinking Water Act. (40 USC 300i) 

3.5.1 Household Action Level Recommendations

To avoid the possible need to invoke section 1431 of the SDWA, the LCRWG recommends that 

EPA establish in a revised rule a “household action level” and require the PWS to notify the 

local health department and state drinking water authority of sample results over that level. The 

requirement would be triggered by any sample results that the PWS receives from a user or from 

its own monitoring. However, the PWS would not be required to make the notification until it 

has investigated the sample in a timely manner to eliminate sampling or assay errors. 

The existing rule already requires the PWS to notify residents of the results of water system 

conducted lead sampling. We would anticipate that the PWS would alert the resident to 

possibility that the health department may be notified when the sample was taken or the resident 

provided the PWS with the sample results. While this notice may have the unintended 

consequence of discouraging some customers from testing, it is important for the customer to 

make an informed choice.

In response to the notification, the PWS and the health department would consider the situation 

and take action that they deem appropriate (e.g., testing children’s blood, recommending a filter, 

discussing lead service line replacement with the resident or landlord, advising grandparents 

about risk to visiting children, or continuing to monitor the situation). We anticipate that the 

health department be the lead agency, and that the rule would not prescribe actions other than 

notice as the situations are too diverse and complicated for prescription actions. The LCRWG 

encourages EPA to work with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention on recommended 

approaches and make this information available through the clearinghouse discussed in section 

4.2.

This requirement would be somewhat similar to the regulatory approach taken by the 

Department of Housing and Urban Development which mandates that public housing authorities 

notify the local health department within five days when it receives information from any source 

that a child of less than six years of age living in an assisted dwelling unit may have an 

environmental intervention blood lead level. (24 CFR 35.1225) 

 9 The LCRWG discussed the relationship between the household action level and the current lead AL (to be renamed 

the system action level). These levels have two distinct purposes. The LCRWG assumed during its discussions that 

the household action level would be significantly greater than the system action level. It recognized, therefore that, 

depending on what level is set, the household action level may have impacts on other recommendations in this 

report.
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We recommend that EPA set the household action level based on the amount it would take for an 

infant to have a blood lead level greater than five micrograms per deciliter (μg/dL) based on 

consumption by an average, healthy infant of infant formula made with water. When a child’s 

blood lead level exceeds five μg/dL, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

recommends that laboratories and health care providers notify local and state health departments 

and that action be taken to identify and prevent further exposure.10

3.5.2 Household Action Level Compliance

If household sample exceeds the household action level, PWS must promptly notify the 

household and the local public health agency; certify that this has been done, and maintain 

records of having done so.

Violations:

- Failure to report data no later than 30 days after the result was received, to 

 Household

 Local public health agency

- Failure to certify to state that data was reported to the household and to the local public 

health agency within 30 days

- Failure to maintain records of correspondence between PWS and the local public health 

agency,

3.6 Establish Separate Monitoring Requirements for Copper

The current LCR does not deal effectively with copper. Generally speaking, the current rule focuses on 

the health benefits associated with lead risk reduction, with the result that the currently required in-home 

sampling is often done in locations with old copper that has passivated. Thus, the possibility may be 

missed that a system’s water chemistry could result in copper releases. Further, the current rule does not 

require public education for copper, which can have broad benefits. 

The LCRWG has concluded that the regulatory approach should separate lead and copper risk 

management, refocusing attention to where there may be a problem with copper without increasing the 

burden on systems where there is not a problem. This can be achieved in a cost effective manner by 

targeting copper monitoring requirements to those PWSs where there may be exposures.

11 

Elevated exposures to copper generally result from new copper plumbing12 where water chemistry is 

aggressive to copper. It is technically possible to identify water chemistries that are aggressive versus not 

aggressive to copper. Thus, the LCRWG recommends that the requirements for copper monitoring focus 

first on sampling for basic finished water quality parameters such as pH, alkalinity, and orthophosphate in 

a way that is representative of the distribution system to identify waters that are aggressive to copper. 

Systems that can demonstrate that their finished waters are not aggressive to copper or that their 

 10 http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/ACCLPP/blood_lead_levels.htm 11 The LCRWG recommends this approach, assuming EPA determines that the health benefits of regulating copper 

justify the costs. A full health risk assessment for copper was beyond the scope of the LCRWG’s charge, however; 

and, thus, EPA’s analysis of whether benefits justify the costs may have implications for these recommendations. 12 New copper is generally understood to be between six months to three years of use.
Report of the Lead and Copper Working Group to the National Drinking Water Advisory Council - Final

38

distribution systems contain no copper should have no further copper monitoring requirements. This 

could be written into the rule, rather than require a monitoring “waiver.” 

3.6.1 Copper Recommendations

Further, the LCRWG recommends that the LCR be revised based on the following concepts:

1. Instead of basing action on the results of routine, in-home copper sampling, actions should be 

based on the aggressiveness of the water to copper. Systems can determine if their water is 

aggressive to copper by doing WQP monitoring in the distribution system. All PWSs should be 

assumed to have water that is aggressive to copper unless they demonstrate that it isn’t. 

2. EPA should develop criteria to define water that is not aggressive to copper for the purpose of 

establishing whether a system falls into that category (or “bin”) for the purposes of the LCR. 

EPA should consider the accuracy and potential variability of pH and alkalinity monitoring as 

well as corrosivity to copper in establishing pH and alkalinity ranges. The criteria also should 

include consideration of passivation time. Examples of bins (for verification by EPA) would be:

a. if alkalinity is < 35 pH must be > 7.0 ( no upper pH limit)

b. if alkalinity is 36 to 100, pH must be > 7.2

c. if alkalinity is 101 to 150 , pH must be > 7.5

d. if alkalinity is 151-250 , pH must be > 8

If orthophosphate is used, examples of bins would be:

a. if alkalinity <150, PO4 must be >1 mg/L 

b. if alkalinity is 150 to 200, PO4 must be > 2 mg/L 

c. if alkalinity is 200 to 240, PO4 must be > 3 mg/L 

d. if alkalinity is greater than 240, PO4 must be > 3.3 mg/L 

3. PWSs can choose one of several approaches to demonstrate that their water is not aggressive to 

copper:

a. Conduct water quality parameter monitoring to assess whether their water meets the 

definition established by EPA. 

b. Conduct a one-time evaluation with copper sampling at vulnerable houses (houses < 2 

years old with new copper plumbing) to demonstrate that water chemistry is nonaggressive (copper levels fall under the AL/SMCL). EPA may want to consider:

i. Limited number of sample sites needed given copper chemistry

ii. Provision for sample invalidation based on site-specific conditions such as 

biologically-induced corrosion.

c. Conduct a pipe loop study to demonstrate the water chemistry is non-aggressive

d. Change water chemistry to within the range established for non-aggressive water quality

4. PWSs with water classified as non-aggressive to copper must continue to demonstrate that the 

water is non-aggressive. PWS’s can choose to:

a. Maintain those WQPs that demonstrate it maintains non-aggressive water under (2) 

above, or
Report of the Lead and Copper Working Group to the National Drinking Water Advisory Council - Final

39

b. Conduct copper sampling at vulnerable houses (houses < 2 years old with new copper 

plumbing) to demonstrate that water chemistry is non-aggressive (copper levels fall under 

the AL/SMCL)

PWSs that are not able to maintain their WQPs must implement a public education program 

as described in the next section.

5. PWS’s with water classified as aggressive to copper must initiate and maintain a public 

education program. The public education program must either provide:

a. Information to all new homes (new construction or change of service) upon initiation of 

new service

AND

b.

i. Information to newly renovated homes at time of renovation

OR

ii. Information to all customers on a routine basis

In addition, in guidance, EPA should encourage PWSs to notify contractors, plumbing 

suppliers, and plumbers of copper corrosivity and to work with relevant officials and 

organizations to consider building and plumbing code changes that would prohibit copper 

piping in new construction if the corrosive water conditions cannot be eliminated. EPA also 

should provide guidance and/or templates, particularly for small systems, for public education 

messages and modes of delivery.

6. EPA should consider whether or under what circumstances CCT should be required for a PWS 

classified as aggressive to copper Not all systems with water aggressive to copper necessarily 

will have homes with new copper, so treatment might not be necessary or perhaps even advisable, 

particularly for small systems that can control plumbing materials used or for systems in 

communities that modify their plumbing codes. Passivation time of copper varies considerably, 

and CCT may not be necessary or advisable when passivation time is short if interim actions to 

protect public health other than CCT are feasible. In determining when CCT should be required 

and any associated monitoring requirements, EPA also should take into consideration that a PWS 

may not have access to information about renovations where new copper has been installed and, 

even when such information is available, can’t control whether the customer will participate in a 

monitoring program. Setting the correct level and establishing a regulatory approach that triggers 

CCT only when necessary will require a complex assessment and is beyond the scope of this 

workgroup.

7. In the revised LCR, systems should continue to be required to notify the primacy agency if they 

are making any long-term treatment change or addition of a new source. This section of the rule 

should be made clear that for copper, the system may be required to demonstrate that its finished 

water continues to be non-aggressive to copper (per 4 above).

8. Additional information needs to be gathered on the current distribution of pH, alkalinity, and 

phosphate residual among systems nationally to fully understand the implications of this 

approach.
Report of the Lead and Copper Working Group to the National Drinking Water Advisory Council - Final

40

3.6.2 Copper Compliance

Violations:

- Failure to implement public education, for PWSs that have not demonstrated their water 

chemistry is not aggressive to copper.

- Failure to maintain a monitoring program representative of the distribution system that 

demonstrates the system has water chemistry not aggressive to copper.

- Failure to provide notice to and, if required, consultation with the primacy agency, when 

a PWS makes a significant change in source or treatment (as in the current LCR).

- Failure to implement CCT or other risk reduction actions prior to CCT as determined by 

the primacy agency.

4 Complementary Actions Critical to the Success of the National Effort to Reduce Lead in 

Drinking Water

The LCRWG urges EPA not only to promulgate a revised LCR, but also to play a leadership role in 

educating, motivating, and supporting the work of other agencies, where EPA does not have the authority 

to act. The LTR LCR is very important. However, removing lead from drinking water systems and 

reducing exposure to lead from drinking water in the meantime will require renewed commitment, 

cooperation and effort by government at all levels and by the general public. 

Specific recommendations for action in addition to the LTR LCR include (grouped generally by who 

might take such actions):

EPA Actions

• EPA working across all offices to take an integrated approach to action and education on lead 

from all sources (paint, air, site clean–up, etc.), with proper emphasis on lead in drinking 

water, especially in relation to the populations most vulnerable to this source (pregnant 

women, infants and young children). For example, OGWDW should coordinate with EPA’s 

lead-based paint program so lead hazards are communicated consistently.

• Work with other federal agencies including HUD in terms of lead programs including but not 

limited to expanding federal funding from those programs to include lead service line 

replacement; HUD/DOT in terms of efficiency in possible coordination of lead service line 

replacement with road projects and other construction projects; and CDC in terms of 

childhood lead poisoning prevention, screening, and protection programs 

• Enhanced cooperation with state, county, and local health departments to promote an 

integrated approach to childhood lead poisoning screening, prevention, and protection that 

emphasizes drinking water and its potential as a primary lead source (e.g. infants dependent 

on reconstituted formula).

• EPA needs to work with agencies at all levels of government to support financial assistance 

programs for LSL removal. Building costs into a PWS’s capital budget planning should also 

be a consideration.

• EPA should include diverse perspectives in its stakeholder engagement programs, including 

affected consumers (who should not be required to be members of formal organizations), lead 

poisoning prevention/clean water advocates, EJ advocates, lead/copper corrosion experts, and 
Report of the Lead and Copper Working Group to the National Drinking Water Advisory Council - Final

41

representatives from PWSs, States, and federal agencies with Healthy Homes and childhood 

lead poisoning prevention programs.

Other Federal Actions

• A federal tax deduction to support replacement of the customer portion of LSLs.

• EPA should work with CDC and HHS to ensure that the standard protocol for investigation of 

any child with elevated blood lead levels or of a home with lead levels above the HAL 

include determination of whether there is a lead service line.

• EPA should work with HHS and HUD to modify funding guidelines for the Healthy Homes 

and other federal funding programs to explicitly authorize and prioritize the use of those 

funds for lead service line removal programs targeting the privately owned portion of any 

lead service line. The current situation of having tens of thousands of dollars spent by a local 

Healthy Home or lead poisoning prevention program to remove lead paint, and leave behind a 

lead service line because of arbitrary funding guidelines is unacceptable.

State or Local Actions

• Local or state building and plumbing codes, including possibility of prohibiting copper 

plumbing where water is aggressive to copper.

• State Actions to support customer lead service line replacement, e.g.

o State legislation requiring inspection or replacement on sale of home

o Disclosure requirements at sale of home

o Requirements for LSL removal as part of school and day care licensing

o Building code requirements for LSL removal upon substantial renovation (could be 

national action as well)

o Priority in DWSRF funding, especially if increased funding is available. (Criteria 

states might wish to consider include: PWSs where there is a high incidence of 

elevated BLLs for children, a high percentage of homes with LSLs, a high percentage 

of low income families, the PWSs prior efforts to replace LSLs, etc)

13

• States should consider including requirements for lead in drinking water in state child care 

licensing rules.

Public Water System Actions

• Options EPA may want to describe in guidance and PWSs could consider include but are not 

limited to:

a. Rate design considerations:

i. Low rates for low volumes

ii. Household size-based rates

 13 Good examples of programs which facilitate and enable private action include a Massachusetts program which 

provides a state income tax credit for the replacement of failing private wastewater treatment systems (septic tanks 

and leaching fields) coupled with a requirement for inspection and compliance with stricter rules upon property 

transfer; and many local housing rehabilitations programs funded by Federal Community Development Block 

Grants (CDBG) which provide low or no interest loans for health and safety related improvements, payable upon 

property transfer, often with loan sunsets where repayment is not required or the balance is reduced over a period of 

continued occupancy by an income-eligible homeowner. A similar loan program could be authorized by EPA under 

the Drinking Water SRF program.
Report of the Lead and Copper Working Group to the National Drinking Water Advisory Council - Final

42

b. Non-rate policies

i. Budget billing

ii. Fixture retrofits and plumbing assistance by the PWS

iii. Service line replacement and insurance programs not provided by PWS

iv. Direct assistance, emergency bill payment relationships

v. Fixture retrofits and plumbing assistance by NGO organizations providing 

affordable housing

vi. Subsidies including LSL / connection replacement costs associated with 

street, sidewalk, and other repairs not related to drinking water infrastructure

vii. On-bill financing provided by the PWS

c. Funding guidance

i. EPA’s Financing for Environmental Compliance – Water

ii. Tools for Financing Water Infrastructure

d. Funding sources beyond rate revenue:

i. EPA’s Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (DWSLF)

ii. EPA Targeted Grants to Reduce Childhood Lead Poisoning

iii. USDA’s Water and Environmental Programs, U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Rural Development

iv. HUD’s Community Development Block Grant Program – U.S. Department 

of Housing and Urban Development

v. HUD Healthy Homes Technical Studies

vi. HUD Office Healthy Homes and Lead Hazard Control Lead Hazard 

Reduction Demonstration Program

vii. HUD Health Homes Initiative Lead Elimination Action Program

viii. HUD Office of Healthy Homes and Lead Hazard Control Lead Hazard 

Control Lead Technical Studies Grant Program

• PWSs should educate and encourage partnerships with healthcare providers and health 

departments even when levels are below the AL.

Research

• Additional technical review and/or additional study is needed on how to conduct household and 

service line flushing to remove particulate lead.

• Published, peer reviewed research explaining that water in plumbing systems with leaded 

materials and LSLs can have sufficient levels of lead in the water to be a risk to those consuming 

the water. This paper is important to gaining support from the public health agencies and others 

and to placing water in context with other sources of lead.

• Considering that lead remains a complex issue and that research and information gaps still exist, 

the EPA should establish a Research and Information Collection Partnership to encourage the 

filling of these gaps in knowledge. The RICP should be initiated once the EPA begins working on 

the revised rule and continue for three years or more into the promulgation of the revised rule.

• The EPA and other agencies, such as the Water Research Foundation, should conduct research 

(such as bench scale and limited system case studies) to confirm the bins selected to define 

aggressive waters for copper. The bins are based on theory and need some level of confirmation 

prior to promulgating an actual regulation. This work can be done within the timeframe of 

developing a final rule.
Report of the Lead and Copper Working Group to the National Drinking Water Advisory Council - Final

43

5 Conclusion

The LCRWG appreciates the opportunity to provide these recommendations to the NDWAC, offers our 

thanks to the experts and members of the public who made presentations to the work group, and wishes 

particularly to acknowledge EPA for the extensive commitment of staff time and expertise to this process.
Report of the Lead and Copper Working Group to the National Drinking Water Advisory Council - Final

44

ATTACHMENT A

NDWAC Lead and Copper Working Group

Members

Christina Baker: Deputy Public Counsel, Office of the Public Counsel, State of Missouri 

Leon Bethune: Director, Office of Environmental Health, Boston Public Health Commission

Gary Burlingame: Director, Bureau of Laboratory Services, Philadelphia Water

Marilyn Christian: Manager, Environmental Health Programs, Harris County Public Health 

Matthew Corson: Manager, Environmental Compliance, American Water 

Derrick Dennis: Water Quality and Data Management Section Manager, Office of Drinking Water, 

State of Washington 

Stephen Estes-Smargiassi: Director of Planning, Massachusetts Water Resources Authority 

Yanna Lambrinidou: Parents for Non-toxic Alternatives [dissenting]

Thomas G. Neltner: Environmental Defense Fund

John Sasur Jr.: Three Rivers Fire District, Massachusetts

Robert C. Steidel: Director Department of Public Utilities, City of Richmond Virginia

June Swallow: Chief, Division of Water Quality, Rhode Island Department of Health 

Lynn Thorp: National Campaigns Director, Clean Water Action 

Chris Wiant: President, Caring for Colorado

Nse Obot Witherspoon: Executive Director, Children’s Environmental Health Network
Report of the Lead and Copper Working Group to the National Drinking Water Advisory Council - Final

45

Table 1: Elements of utility reports by dates in three-year cycle (*based on EPA adoption of rule in 2017)

Action 2020* 2023 2026 2029 2032 2035 2038 2041 2044 2047 2050

Confirm broad and 

targeted education 

programs 

underway1

Yes. If not, 

then explain.

Yes. If not, 

then explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Status of consumer 

sampling2

NA # done & # 

offered

# done & 

# offered

# done & 

# offered

# done & 

# offered

# done & 

# offered

# done & 

# offered

# done & 

# offered

# done & 

# offered

# done & 

# offered

# done & 

# offered

Confirm 

communication of 

sampling results3

Yes. If not, 

then explain.

Yes. If not, 

then explain.

Yes. If 

not, then

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Confirm operation 

policies in place4

Yes. If not, 

then explain

Yes. If not, 

then explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Yes. If 

not, then 

explain.

Replacement 

Progress5

Initial

Baseline

85% 

remaining

70% 

remaining

55% 

remaining

40% 

remaining

25% 

remaining

17% 

remaining

10% 

remaining

6% 

remaining

3% 

remaining

0% 

remaining

If replacement goals 

not met, number of 

checklist items 

confirmed 

completed (See 

Table 2)6

Basic 

requirements

[see Section 

3.1.2]

Basic 

requirements

TBD (by 

EPA)

TBD (by 

EPA)

TBD (by 

EPA)

TBD (by 

EPA)

TBD (by 

EPA)

TBD (by 

EPA)

TBD (by 

EPA)

TBD (by 

EPA)

TBD (by 

EPA)

1 See Section 3.1.2 (item 4 “targeted outreach” EPA to provide a checklist; PWS to contact customers with LSLs individually at least every three years and when 

there is a new customer at that address.

2 Number of customers offered opportunity to conduct at-tap samples and number of samples taken. 

Confirmation that results were provided to the customer. Number exceeding the household action level and confirmation that the results were submitted to health 

department. Maintain records for review by the primacy agency.

4 Program to ensure that emergency, maintenance and renovation operations consider risks of disruption to service line increasing lead exposure to residents. .See 

Section 3.1.2 item 7 (operations). 5 A service line is presumed lead unless installed after date installation of lead service line prohibited or records or tests by utility confirm entire service line is not 

lead. Confirming that a service line is not lead counts toward replacement progress. 

6

 This is a two-fold concept, the details of which the LCRWG suggests be determined by EPA: 1) provide the PWS the flexibility to select outreach methods and 

other efforts appropriate to that community and 2) increase the number of required efforts to be completed if replacement goals are not met. See Table 2 for 

checklist of options for additional effort (in addition to the basic outreach requirements). 
Report of the Lead and Copper Working Group to the National Drinking Water Advisory Council - Final

46

Table 2 Options (in addition to the basic outreach requirements) to be accomplished by utility if replacement progress goals in Table 1 not met.1

Basic outreach requirements:

• Individually notify customers with known or possible LSLs describing the risks of lead in drinking water, specifically inviting them to 

participate in the LSLR program, offering to have the customer’s tap water analyzed, and clearly describing the terms of the program 

and how to follow up. If the customer does not respond or chooses not to participate, the PWS must follow up with another invitation at 

least every three years and always when there is a new customer at that address. (see Section 3.1.2 for additional details)

• Provide a written offer to replace the LSL when work is being done on the water main in the street (with the same information above).

Resident engagement System policies Other

1. Notice to new customers of need 1. Plumbing code requires full replacement if 

service line will be disturbed.

1. Local health agency contact with resident.

2. Written offer to replace when 

main in street rehabbed (customer 

pays)

2. Grants or low-interest loan funds identified to 

cover customer costs sufficient to maintain 

progress for period.

2. Local health agency funding for removal 

as part of remediation

3. Written offer to volunteer 

(customer pays) 

3. Financing options such as liens on home 

provided to customers or tax deductions for 

property owner costs.

3. Media campaign launched

4. Written refusal from customer(s) 4. MOU or other arrangement to implement 

notification of customers/property owners by 

other utilities about replacement options if LSL 

is disturbed

4. Homeowner association(s) send letters to 

members supporting replacement.

5. Certified letters sent 5. Capital improvement plans target system pipe 

rehab and replacement to areas with more LSLs

5. Real estate organizations notified of 

requirement for replacement of LSL on 

sale or transfer of title

6. In-person call or visit made 6. Service line insurance program revised to include 

replacement LSLs if damaged or leaking

6. Cooperative outreach efforts with nonprofits

7. 7. More aggressive flushing in areas with LSLs to 

manage iron related lead particles

7. Coordinated outreach with WIC

8. 8. 8. Outreach to plumbers/contractors

9. 9. 9. Outreach to ob/gyns and pediatricians

10. 10. 10. Local ordinance requiring 

inspection/notification/replacement of 

LSLs upon sale or transfer of title

11. 11. 11. LSL identification added to home 

inspector standard operating procedures

12. 12. 12.

1 EPA will provide guidance on the options and update them periodically as best practices evolve.