Chapter

11

By John Galbraith, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State 

University, and Richard K. Shaw, USDA-NRCS.

Human-Altered and 

Human-Transported Soils

Introduction

This chapter is a practical guide for soil scientists conducting or 

interpreting a soil survey that includes human-altered and humantransported (HAHT) soils and materials. HAHT soils include 

soils that were intentionally and substantially modified by humans 

for an intended purpose, commonly for terraced agriculture, building 

support, mining, transportation, and commerce. They do not include 

soils modified through standard agricultural practices (such as shallow 

plowing, liming, and fertilization) or farmed soils with unintended wind 

and water erosion. Evidence for HAHT soils includes manufactured 

items (e.g., artifacts) present in the profile, human-altered material 

(e.g., deeply excavated or plowed soil) or human-transported material 

(e.g., fill), and position on or above anthropogenic landforms (e.g., 

flood-control levees) and microfeatures (e.g., excavator scrape marks). 

Detailed criteria regarding the identification of anthropogenic (artificial) 

landforms, human-altered material, and human-transported material are 

in the Keys to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2014).

Using position on or above very specific anthropogenic landforms 

and features as a property of the soil for classification purposes is 

somewhat of a departure from past conventions for defining classes in 

Soil Taxonomy. However, landscape- and landform-related criteria have 

been used for the identification of Fluventic and Cumulic subgroups 

(i.e., slope) and for the plaggen epipedon (i.e., raised landforms). The 

use of specific kinds of anthropogenic landforms for HAHT soils is 

an extension of these precedents. Destructional and constructional 

anthropogenic (human-constructed) landforms and microfeatures 

(see chapter 2) have evident purpose and are undeniably linked to 

the soil itself. Linear straightening of waterways, drainage ditches, 
526 Chapter 11

sanitary landfill mounds, and geometric shaped excavation features 

are all tied to extreme soil modification or compilation (fig. 11-1). 

Regardless of the characteristics of the soil, if a soil is on or above an 

anthropogenic landform or microfeature, it can definitely be associated 

with a human activity and assigned to a unique taxa. For example, 

it would be hard to deny that the soil on the large public landfills in 

figure 11-1 was transported by humans, whether manufactured items 

are found in the 2-meter profile or not. Historical records can provide 

additional supportive proof. The movement of soil by humans resets 

the soil-forming factor of time and commonly truncates or buries a 

more developed soil, thus strongly influencing soil properties. Soil 

development depends on all soil-forming processes, including those 

associated with the construction of the anthropogenic landform or 

microfeature. 

Soils in urban areas are commonly human-transported (e.g., fill) or 

human-altered (e.g., truncated or mixed in situ) to significant depth. They 

generally exhibit a wide variety of conditions, and many are covered with 

impervious surfaces (e.g., buildings and pavements). The same situation 

occurs in suburban and low-density urban areas, but the proportion of 

less altered soils is higher and the proportion of buildings and pavements 

is lower. In many areas with HAHT soils, surface geomorphology and 

hydrology have been intensely altered. Other highly modified landscapes 

contain significant amounts of human-transported materials, such as 

steep farmland with closely spaced hillslope terraces (fig. 11-2) and 

areas of intense activity, such as mines, oilfields, and highway corridors. 

Spoils from land-leveling, filling, construction, mining, dredging, wastedisposal, and manufacturing operations become parent materials for new 

soils, which are commonly used to extend urban areas or airports into 

shallow water or to fill wetlands. Major areas of human-altered materials 

occur where agricultural areas have been deeply ripped to loosen 

impervious subsoil horizons, such as in the Central Basin of California. 

There is a need to identify, describe, and map HAHT soils because these 

soils have been modified enough from their original state that former soil 

maps do not provide the correct information or there is no information 

on them at all.

Background

Humans substantially modify or transform the physical, chemical, and 

biological properties and processes of the soil through anthropedogenesis 

(Richter and Yaalon, 2012). Because they can profoundly affect all five 
Soil Survey Manual 527

Figure 11-1

Top image—This landfill complex (center-right) is a constructional anthropogenic 

landform that rises approximately 33 m higher than the surrounding lower coastal 

plain swamp near Virginia Beach, Virginia. The geometric shaped excavation pit (now 

a lake) is an associated destructional landform. Both landforms are out of context with 

surrounding soils and landforms. Bottom image—The anthropogenic landform can 

be confirmed with edaphic and documented evidence of methane-producing garbage 

and artifacts layered between a geotextile membrane and soil material. (Images by R. 

Facun and S. Early, courtesy of The Virginian-Pilot)

soil-forming factors (parent material, climate, organisms, time, and 

relief or topography), some authors (Dudal, 2005) have established 

a sixth factor, described as a “master variable capable of modifying 

or controlling the other five factors” (Amundson and Jenny, 1991). In 

particular, humans excavate deeply enough to remove most or all soil 
528 Chapter 11

Figure 11-2

Machu Picchu, Peru. HAHT soils can be identified not only by diagnostic features in 

the soil profile but also by their association with anthropogenic landforms, whether 

manufactured items are found in the profile or not. This ancient urban area has 

geometric hillslope terraces on cut-and-fill landforms (foreground and lower right) 

created by humans in mountainous terrain to allow grazing, farming, and house 

building on formerly steep slopes. It demonstrates intentional human modification and 

transportation of soil. (Photo by Pedro Szekely)

horizons, impart manufactured materials and debris (artifacts) that 

become included in soil parent materials (fig. 11-3), and transport and 

deposit extensive amounts of soil, rock, and sediment that become new 

parent materials. 

Humans also level (cut and fill) large areas, destroying natural 

landforms and building anthropogenic landforms and microfeatures 

(e.g., drainage ditches) as described in chapter 2. Archaeological 

evidence shows that humans have been altering soils for at least 8,000 to 

10,000 years. Soil alterations have been slight (surficial) and collateral 

to standard agricultural practices (e.g., erosion) or been intentional and 

profound (e.g., mountaintop mining and extensive landform alteration 

through terracing or oilfield activity). Extensively modified areas with 

integrated land management are called “anthroscapes” (Eswaran et al., 

2005) (fig. 11-4).
Soil Survey Manual 529

Figure 11-3

Profile of the Laguardia soil series showing artifacts in multiple deposits of humantransported material. The buried building debris contains brick, concrete, wire, steel, 

and asphalt. (Photo by Richard Shaw)

Development of HAHT Soil Concepts in the U.S.

The effort to formally describe and classify HAHT soils began in 1988 

with the formation of the International Committee for Anthropogenic 

Soils (ICOMANTH). This committee was commissioned by USDA’s Soil 

Conservation Service to introduce differentiae and taxa for classification 

and survey of observed human-altered and human-transported s oils 

(also called anthropogenic soils). The charge of the committee was to 

introduce HAHT soils into U.S. Soil Taxonomy, facilitate mapping of 

urban areas, introduce new terms and materials into USDA databases, 
530 Chapter 11

Figure 11-4

An ancient Roman urban anthroscape, which reminds us that humans have been 

purposely modifying and moving soil in urban areas for millennia (the Colosseum is 

at the back on the right). Modern urban anthroscapes often include a mosaic of water, 

parks, buildings, and pavements (roads and sidewalks). (Photo by Andreas Tille)

enable meaningful interpretations of unique materials and soils, and 

facilitate establishment and correlation of new soil series. Between 

1995 and 2010, seven circular letters were distributed internationally 

for feedback on committee ideas. The International Field Tour of 

Anthropogenic Soils of Nevada and California in 1998; the 5th Soils of 

Urban, Industrial, Traffic and Mining Areas (SUITMA) tour held in New 

York City in 2009; and the 4th IUSS Conference for Soil Classification 

held in Lincoln, Nebraska, in 2012 were used to test proposals and solicit 

feedback from diverse groups. ICOMANTH proposals were reviewed, 

accepted, and published in the 11th and 12th editions of the Keys to Soil 

Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2010, 2014). Major outcomes were the 

identification of human-altered material, human-transported material, 

and manufactured items as differentiae at both the subgroup and family 

levels in Soil Taxonomy. In addition, standard terms and conventions for 

describing anthropogenic features (artifacts) in soil profiles, as well as 

additional horizon nomenclature for identifying horizons impacted by 

human activity, were adopted (see chapter 3). 
Soil Survey Manual 531

Importance

The human impact on the global environment since the Industrial 

Revolution has been so profound that a new geological epoch—the 

“Anthropocene”—has been proposed (Crutzen and Steffen, 2003; Steffen 

et al., 2011). As the human population increases, so does the degree and 

amount of land alteration by humans. About 3 percent of world’s land 

surface is classified as urban (CIESIN, 1995), and the percentage is 

increasing as more people move into cities, especially along coastlines, 

where 10 percent of the land is urban. As of 2011, approximately 82 

percent of the U.S. population and 52 percent of the world’s population 

lived in urban areas (United Nations, 2013). In many areas, humans grow 

food in or near heavily developed areas, in soils with undocumented or 

unpredictable properties. Human alteration of soil occurs worldwide. For 

example, humans are clearing land deep into South American jungles 

for agriculture and mining, thus driving settlement further north into 

previously undeveloped areas. Agriculture on modified soils occurs 

extensively on most continents. Rice is grown in human-irrigated and 

-flooded paddies (many of which are hillslope terraces) covering 153.7 

million hectares (IRRI, 2010). 

Little was previously known about the chemical and physical 

properties and behavior of profoundly altered soils. In the past, their 

classification was minimal because of high variability. For example, 

urban HAHT soils were commonly classified at higher taxa, such as 

Udorthents, and had almost no specific information in USDA databases 

to provide meaningful interpretations. In order to improve soil survey 

of HAHT soils, additional taxa were needed for their classification, new 

methods were needed for their analysis, and new terms were needed for 

describing their properties so that soil maps and proper interpretations 

for their use could be provided. 

Resource Management Issues and HAHT Soils

Important uses of soil survey information in urban areas include 

restoration and revegetation efforts, hydrologic interpretations for 

stormwater management, urban agriculture, and resource inventory (e.g., 

to identify wetlands). Urban soil surveys are used to advocate for best 

use and management practices for open space areas. 

Mined and drilled lands, farmlands, intensively used agricultural 

areas, and some urban areas contain contaminated HAHT soils. Now that 

over half of the world’s population is in urban areas, soil-related health 
532 Chapter 11

risks are increasingly important. Human health concerns occur from 

contact with or exposure to contaminated soils, many of which are HAHT 

soils. Soils may impact humans directly (e.g., dust inhalation or contact 

with bare feet) or indirectly (e.g., metal uptake by vegetables). Some 

highly contaminated soils are not safe for direct soil sampling except 

by trained and equipped specialists; less-contaminated soils are likely to 

be surveyed and mapped. Agricultural areas subject to heavy pesticide, 

herbicide, or fungicide application also have an adverse impact on soil 

water, surface water, and ground water. Developers, administrators, 

politicians, regulators, and planners need soil information in determining 

best management practices to protect water quality and public health. 

Potentially contaminated sites can be managed for human use. For 

example, some landfills and brownfields have been carefully constructed 

or reclaimed for use as parkland (Scheyer and Hipple, 2005; Craul, 1992, 

1999).

Occurrence

HAHT soils occur on all continents, even Antarctica (fig. 11-5). 

They are common on intensively managed lands where humans have 

established civilizations, including some areas now underwater. New 

HAHT soils are being formed every day. In the future, HAHT soils may 

occur on other celestial bodies. There is no record on global distribution 

of HAHT soils besides maps using national classification systems or the 

World Reference Base for Soil Resources (IUSS, 2014). Although HAHT 

soils are global in extent, they are commonly unmapped, unrecognized, 

and underappreciated.

Identification

By definition, HAHT soils have profound and purposeful alteration 

or occur on landforms with purposeful construction or excavation. The 

alteration is of sufficient magnitude to result in the introduction of a new 

parent material (human-transported material) or a profound change in the 

previously existing parent material (human-altered material) (see chapter 

2). HAHT soils do not include soils with incidental or unintentional 

surficial changes due to standard agricultural practices or the shallow 

incorporation of artifacts through plowing. For example, a soil that has 

higher pH, fertility, or base saturation due to standard practices does 
Soil Survey Manual 533

Figure 11-5

McMurdo Station, Antarctica. Human alteration of landforms, relocation of soil for 

building of infrastructure, and alteration of soil profiles occur even in this remote 

location. (Photo by Alan Light)

not have long-term change, whereas a soil that was shaped into an 

agricultural conservation terrace is profoundly and intentionally altered 

for a long-term purpose. Some changes serve no useful purpose and can 

be judged as unintentional (e.g., cultivation can lead to wind or water 

erosion or salinization and discarded manufactured trash can end up in a 

plow layer). 

Many classification systems, including the World Reference Base 

(IUSS, 2014) and Soil Taxonomy, recognize HAHT soils at the highest 

levels, as Anthosols and as Technosols and Anthosols, respectively. Soil 

Taxonomy presently recognizes HAHT soils with a combination of taxa 

at the subgroup and family levels. Features of these soils include:

• An anthropic or plaggen epipedon 

• Material between 25 and 50 cm thick that meets all the requirements 

of a plaggen epipedon except thickness

• 50 cm or more of human-altered and human-transported material 

over the original soil material 
534 Chapter 11

• HAHT material comprising the entire soil above a root-limiting 

layer or a contact that is shallower than 50 cm 

Soil properties and characteristics that are used for the identification 

of human-transported and human-altered material are given in chapter 

3 of the Keys to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2014) and are 

summarized below.

Human-Transported Material

Human-transported material (HTM) is soil parent material (organic 

or mineral) that has been moved horizontally onto a pedon from a 

source area outside of that pedon by purposeful human activity. Since 

constructional anthropogenic landforms are built with transported 

material, HTM is associated with these landforms. Commonly, a 

lithologic discontinuity or a buried horizon can be observed just below 

HTM. It may be difficult to distinguish human-transported material 

and parent material from mass movement processes (e.g., landslides) 

without intensive onsite examination and analysis. Evidence of HTM 

includes:

• Detached pieces of diagnostic horizons (such as argillic, calcic, 

histic, or spodic horizons) which are derived from the excavated 

source material

• Presence of artifacts such as brick, asphalt, glass, metal, plastic, 

combustion by-products, mechanically abraded rocks, midden 

material, and scrape marks

• Irregular distributions of artifacts or contaminants either with 

depth in the profile or with proximity away from an anthropogenic 

landform, feature, or constructed object, such as a road or building

• Lithologic discontinuities at the contact between HTM and the 

underlying former surface

• An underlying manufactured layer, such as a geotextile liner or 

concrete

• Location of the material on a constructional anthropogenic 

landform or microfeature or within the boundary of a destructional 

anthropogenic landform or microfeature

Human-Altered Material

Human-altered material (HAM) is soil parent material (organic or 

mineral) that has undergone anthroturbation (mixing or disturbance by 

humans). It differs from HTM in that it generally has been altered in 
Soil Survey Manual 535

place and contains little or no evidence of being transported from another 

location. Examples include agricultural soils that have been deeply mixed 

(e.g., by deep ripping of a root-restrictive subsoil layer such as a duripan) 

and soils that have been mechanically compacted to impound water (as in 

a rice paddy with anthric saturation). The concept also includes soils that 

have been removed, stockpiled, and replaced during reclamation (as in 

some surface mining or urban development activities) and soil materials 

that remain exposed after excavation (such as those on the floor of a 

gravel pit). 

Human-altered materials are commonly associated with destructional 

anthropogenic landforms. These landforms are in areas where soil 

material has been removed (pits, quarries, mined areas, etc.). In some 

cases, a destructional landform may be recognized by tracing a subsurface 

horizon (such as an argillic or spodic horizon) from adjacent non-humanaltered soils laterally to the point where it disappears abruptly, which 

corresponds to the boundary of the destructional landform.

Destructional anthropogenic landforms are excavated but may later 

be filled or covered. Where the excavations have been partially or totally 

filled with the original soil material, the material is considered HAM. 

Where they have been filled with different soil material, the material is 

considered HTM.

Evidence of human-altered material includes:

• Material occurs in an area impacted by the agricultural practices 

of deep plowing to rip a root-restrictve layer or of intentional 

compaction to puddle water.

• Material occurs within an excavated area (destructional landform) such as a pit or quarry.

• The soil profile has features such as reoriented pieces of diagnostic 

horizons; rock fragments that are mechanically abraded; scrape 

marks underlying soil material that was removed, stockpiled, and 

replaced on site; or purposely compacted layers formed during 

construction activities.

Manufactured Layers

A manufactured layer is an artificial, root-limiting layer below the 

soil surface. These layers can be identified by their presence in or on 

an anthropogenic landform or microfeature, ranging from landfills to 

concrete-lined ditches to ponds. The soil above is HAHT material. The 

layers are used in construction (e.g., roof of an underground building) 

or to impede water, gas, or roots (e.g., landfill liner). There is a contact 
536 Chapter 11

with HTM at the top of the manufactured layer, typically made out of 

geotextile liners, asphalt, concrete, rubber, or plastic. Below the layer, 

there may be more HTM, a layer of human-altered material, natural soil 

material, or rock.

Description

HAHT materials are described using standard methodology and 

procedures as discussed in chapter 3. Many of the standard conventions 

are also used, but there are a few items unique to descriptions of humantransported and human-altered soil materials. These items are briefly 

summarized below. See chapter 3 for additional information.

Horizon Nomenclature Common to HAHT Soils

A caret symbol (^) is used as a prefix to the master horizon capital 

letter (e.g., ^A) for soil horizons or layers that formed in HTM. These 

materials are commonly at the current surface. In many archaeological 

sites, however, human-transported materials are buried by more recent 

materials or by naturally transported material. 

A numerical prefix can be used in front of the caret symbol to 

indicate a discontinuity (e.g., ^A-2^C). The description of lithologic 

discontinuities is independent of the description of HAHT materials. It is 

not necessary to indicate a discontinuity at the contact between all HAHT 

material and the underlying material, but this can be done if the materials 

are significantly different and it helps in understanding the nature of the 

soil profile.

Horizons and layers of HAHT material containing artifacts are 

identified with both the caret as a prefix and the lowercase letter u as a 

suffix (e.g., ^Au). There is no minimum percentage volume of artifacts. 

Incidental trash (e.g., a windblown plastic grocery bag or discarded 

aluminum can) need not be described with a “u” unless indicative of 

purposeful deposition by humans. 

Manufactured layers (i.e., liners) are identified with the master 

horizon capital letter M. There is a manufactured layer contact at the 

top. Recognized types of liners include geotextile liners, asphalt, 

concrete, rubber, and plastic. The caret symbol prefix is not used with 

“M.” Intentionally compacted soil may act as a liner, but since it is not 

industrially manufactured, it is indicated with the lowercase letter d as a 

suffix. The layer may be further identified as densic material and having 

a densic contact if it meets those criteria (Soil Survey Staff, 2014).
Soil Survey Manual 537

Artifacts

Artifacts are materials created, modified, or transported from 

their source by humans, typically for a practical purpose in habitation, 

manufacturing, excavation, agriculture, or construction activities (Soil 

Survey Staff, 2014). Artifacts may be particulate (< 2 mm in diameter) or 

discrete (> 2 mm in diameter in smallest dimension). Particulate artifacts 

cannot be estimated by sight or feel in the field and are measured on an 

oven-dried weight basis. They are not typically described until after lab 

measurement. Examples of discrete artifacts include bitumen (asphalt), 

brick, concrete, metal, paper, plastic, rubber, and treated or shaped wood 

products (see fig. 11-3). Persistent artifacts remain in the soil relatively 

unchanged for a decade or more. Nonpersistent artifacts undergo rapid 

weathering or decay and remain intact in the soil for only a few months or 

a few years. After burial, artifact properties may change over time. Their 

presence and their weathering by-products can significantly affect the 

physical and chemical properties of the soil. Some artifacts are considered 

noxious, such as arsenic-treated wood products, discarded batteries, 

petroleum products, and medical waste. Others are considered relatively 

innocuous, such as untreated wood products, iron, bricks, cinder blocks, 

and paper products. Knowing the nature and properties of artifacts can be 

very important in understanding the soil and in developing appropriate 

plans and strategies for land management. Because of their importance, 

kinds of artifacts are evaluated when assigning HAHT soils to taxonomic 

families in Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2014).

Artifacts are described separately from rock fragments or other 

features in the soil. Descriptions of artifacts generally include quantity, 

degree of cohesion, persistence, size, and safety classes. They may also 

include shape, kind, penetrability by roots, and roundness. Other attributes 

may be described if considered useful in understanding and interpreting 

the soil. In addition, for soils containing more than 15 percent, by volume, 

artifacts, texture classes are modified with the adjective “artifactual.” 

The terms and classes used to describe artifacts are provided in chapter 3.

Survey Methods and Procedures

Assessing Survey Needs

At the onset of an urban soil survey, its potential uses and audience 

need to be evaluated and the survey objectives established, including 

the type of information needed. Typical users include the municipal 

parks department; city, State, and Federal agencies; schools, colleges, 
538 Chapter 11

and universities; and community groups. Environmental professionals 

in the urban community may be less familiar with soil survey and its 

applications. An advisory committee can be assembled to help identify 

users’ needs, provide operational guidance and assist with land access, 

review survey progress, publicize the survey, and disperse information. 

Reference Materials

Examples of Previously Completed Urban Soil Surveys

To date, urban soil surveys in the U.S. recognizing HAHT materials 

have been completed in San Diego (USDA-SCS, 1973); Washington, 

D.C. (USDA-SCS, 1976a); St. Louis (USDA-SCS, 1982); Baltimore 

(USDA-NRCS, 1998); Chicago (Web Soil Survey, 2013); New York 

City (Web Soil Survey, 2014); and Los Angeles (Web Soil Survey, 2017) 

and have begun in Los Angeles and Detroit. Other surveys on the urban 

fringe include Montgomery County, Maryland (USDA-NRCS, 1995); 

Essex (USDA-NRCS, 2007b) and Hudson (Web Soil Survey, 2012) 

Counties in New Jersey; Plymouth County, Massachusetts (Web Soil 

Survey, 2010); and Fairfax County, Virginia (Web Soil Survey, 2011). 

Other soil surveys covered human-altered soils in the Central Valley of 

California (USDA-NRCS, 2003), mined lands in coalfields, and heavily 

terraced lands across the United States. These soil surveys can provide 

examples and ideas when planning new surveys in similar urban areas. 

Soil survey updates commonly need to remap tracts of more recently 

developed land. Even though some profoundly altered areas exceed 

the minimum size of a map unit, many are correlated to the original 

soil series, are correlated as miscellaneous land types, or occur in map 

units such as “Udorthents-Urban land complex” or “Area not mapped.” 

There is a high demand for information about these areas. As the work 

to conduct soil surveys in urban areas progressed over the nearly 50 

years represented by the above examples, the understanding of humanaltered and human-transported soils improved and the way these soils 

are described, classified, and mapped also advanced greatly. Consulting 

examples of previously completed urban soil surveys, especially those 

that used the most recent advances in this area, is the first step in planning 

new urban soil survey projects.

Other Ancillary Resource Materials

Urban areas include a variety of land uses, e.g., inner city or urban 

cores, industrial and residential areas, cemeteries, parks, and other 

open spaces. Pouyat et al. (2010) refer to an “urban soil mosaic,” 

where the natural landscape has been fragmented into parcels with 
Soil Survey Manual 539

distinctive disturbance and management regimes and, as a result, 

distinctive characteristic soil properties. Where HAHT materials occur 

to a significant extent, an understanding is needed of pre-development 

conditions and land use history throughout the area. Topographic maps, 

including older maps from libraries and agencies, can be used to locate 

natural landforms and significant anthropogenic alterations. Archival 

aerial photography can help in identifying land use changes. Older soil or 

surficial geology maps can help in determining the nature of pre-existing 

parent material (which can also serve as local fill) and/or substratum 

conditions and may help in initial delineation of the survey area. These 

maps can also indicate the location of formerly wet or stony areas or other 

“undesirable” areas buried under human-transported materials in highly 

altered landscapes. Records of transportation departments (municipal, 

State, and Federal), along with landfill and dredging records from various 

departments, may provide valuable information. Municipal boring logs 

(e.g., those of the Department of Design and Construction, NYC) can 

serve as valuable data points in documenting the nature and thickness 

of HTM. Records from onsite soil investigations can provide field notes 

or pedon descriptions. Information from adjacent areas, especially those 

with similar geologic and soil conditions, is also useful. Publications of 

news articles, scientific reports, theses and dissertations, and documents 

from city agencies and historical societies commonly contain valuable 

information on the age and origin of HTM. The thorough collection and 

review of existing information in the area before the first hole is dug will 

save time and effort in the long run.

Mapping Scale

The challenge of mapping soils in urban areas is that severe disturbance and fragmentation of the land create high spatial variability that 

is beyond the scope of standard survey methods. For example, HTM may 

change across an area no larger than one pedon, as when a truckload of 

material is moved in. In this case, there are no polypedons to constitute 

a soil map unit. Order 1 surveys (see chapter 4) can offer 0.2-hectare 

level of detail (close to lot-sized) but may be time- and cost-prohibitive 

if routine soil survey methods are used. Small yards in residential areas, 

narrow transportation corridors, and soils in small commercial zones, 

medians, and parking lots are typically better suited to onsite inspections. 

However, the larger open spaces (more than a hectare) generally exhibit 

more uniformity in soil conditions because they have been disturbed less, 

or, if they have been subject to alteration and filling, consist of similar 

materials filled at the same time. They are generally easier to survey than 
540 Chapter 11

small residential parcels. In addition, there is generally more demand for 

soils information on the larger areas for management, restoration, and 

resource inventory purposes. 

Mapping scales for initial soil surveys in urban areas in the U.S. 

have ranged from 1:24,000 for San Diego, St. Louis, and Los Angeles to 

1:12,000 for Washington, D.C., Baltimore, Chicago, and New York City. 

The soil survey of South Latourette Park in New York State consisted 

of 130 hectares mapped at a scale of 1:6,000. It served as a pilot project 

for modern soil mapping in New York City (USDA-NRCS, 1997). A 

general, or reconnaissance, soil survey at a scale of 1:62,500 was also 

conducted in New York City (USDA-NRCS, 2005) to provide a general 

guide to soil patterns around the city and serve as the foundation for 

more detailed future surveys. Order 1, high-intensity surveys include the 

Gateway National Recreation Area (USDA-NRCS, 2006) at 1:4,800, 

a scale that was compatible with other natural and cultural resource 

mapping and assessment by the National Park Service, and the Bronx 

River Watershed (USDA-NRCS, 2007a) at 1:6,000, which emphasized 

hydrologic applications and stormwater management. The complexity 

of soil patterns, the high value of the land and its intensive use, and 

the number of taxpayers potentially affected by better land use and 

management decisions in urban areas all favor a larger mapping scale. 

The primary considerations when selecting a mapping scale, however, 

are the survey objectives, the users’ needs, the size of the survey area, 

and the time requirements. 

Designing Taxonomic and Mapping Units

Soils in HAHT materials present a formidable challenge to soil 

survey; spatial and vertical variability can be complex and unpredictable, 

and soil conditions commonly change with little variation in landscape or 

vegetation. The variability in HAHT soil properties needs to be examined, 

along with the consistency and extent of various soil types. Certain 

HAHT soil types or human-altered landforms may be associated with a 

particular surficial geology type, landscape position, or pre-existing soil 

map unit and so allow for some soil-landscape modeling. In addition, 

the objectives of the survey need to be kept in mind when establishing 

differentiating criteria for soil components because some soil properties 

will vary with land cover and land use. Although important properties and 

ratings, such as saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat), hydrologic soil 

group, content of soil organic matter, pH, and nutrient content, can vary 

widely across the entire urban landscape, the range in these properties is 

generally much narrower within a specific land use. 
Soil Survey Manual 541

Characterization and classification of HAHT soils will vary according 

to mapping scale. It has evolved somewhat with successive urban and 

suburban mapping efforts. Earlier surveys used miscellaneous areas (e.g., 

“Made land,” in the 1973 soil survey of San Diego Area by USDA-SCS) 

and the great group level, commonly Udorthents. The Washington D.C. 

survey (USDA-SCS, 1976a) mapped 11 phases of Udorthents. It had no 

ratings or interpretations for these phases, but some selected samples were 

listed in tables of physical and chemical properties. The Baltimore survey 

(USDA-NRCS, 1998) included six phases of Udorthents with some ratings. 

A minimum set of physical and chemical properties, approximating the 

series level of classification, is useful for many applications and suitable 

for most interpretations. 

Defining Soil Series and Phases for HAHT Soils

The use of soil series for HAHT soils began in the 1970s. It has 

included strip-mining spoils in Haskell County, Oklahoma (USDA-SCS, 

1975), dredge materials in Wagoner County, Oklahoma (USDA-SCS, 

1976b), cut-and-fill soils in St. Louis (USDA-SCS, 1982), and deepripped, chemically altered soils in California’s Central Valley (USDANRCS, 2003). For these HAHT soils, the user has a complete set of 

estimated properties, ratings, and interpretations. The survey of New 

York City’s South Latourette Park (USDA-NRCS, 1997) featured five 

new series for HAHT soils, using artifact content in the > 2 mm fraction 

as one of the differentiating criteria. Soil Taxonomy uses amount and 

kinds of artifacts in the definitions of some family-level classes (Soil 

Survey Staff, 2014). Artifact content is also used by the World Reference 

Base for Soil Resources to define the Technosols reference soil group and 

the Technic and Hypertechnic (second-level) qualifiers (IUSS, 2014). 

The legend for the initial New York City survey (2014) included 29 

HAHT soil series. Significant amounts of fill and waste materials serve 

as soil parent materials in this area. The Los Angeles survey included 

HAHT series; fill, landscaped, and graded phases at the great group, 

subgroup, and series levels; and some Urban land phases based on 

land use (i.e., commercial, residential, and industrial). This survey area 

extended beyond the city into areas of suburban and industrial land use, 

and human-altered landforms and landscapes were common.

Miscellaneous Areas

The miscellaneous area “Urban land” has long been used in soil 

survey as a map unit component. Because the definition of Urban 

land is somewhat ambiguous, the term has been used inconsistently. A 

miscellaneous area, by definition, is not soil. However, the Urban land 
542 Chapter 11

component includes soil in some soil surveys. To avoid confusion, 

the New York City soil survey proposed a “Pavement and buildings”

miscellaneous area because it was more descriptive. Ideally, such a 

miscellaneous area is restricted to actual impervious surfaces (e.g., an 

Urban land consociation would have 85 percent or more impervious 

surface). Delineating these areas and adding a substratum phase based 

on a surficial geology or predevelopment soil map, or adding a land use 

phase to the consociation, may provide additional information of value to 

the user (Efflend and Pouyat, 1997). The additional information would be 

especially important if the covered material was saturated or posed a risk 

of subsidence or a health hazard to humans (e.g., covered unregulated 

landfills). 

Quantifying and describing the extent of impervious surfaces typically 

is done using geographic information system (GIS) tools or on aerial 

photographs or high-resolution satellite imagery. Other techniques use 

a dot grid. Impervious surfaces include sidewalks, rooftops, driveways, 

bridges, paved roads, and parking lots, excluding those known to be 

pervious (e.g., special materials, gravel, or packed soil). 

Map Unit Design

Urban land is also frequently mapped in complex with HAHT soils 

and minimally altered soils. Several different complexes may be needed 

to reflect lot sizes and percent composition of Urban land. For example, in 

the initial soil survey of New York City, less than 10 percent Urban land 

in a map unit was considered an inclusion. In areas with 10 to 49 percent 

impervious surface, Urban land was named as a major component of a 

map unit complex, and in areas with 50 to 90 percent impervious surface, 

Urban land was named as the dominant component of the complex. Areas 

with over 90 percent Urban land were named as a map unit consociation, 

with the type of original surface identified (e.g., glacial till, outwash, tidal 

marsh) as a substratum phase. Other human-altered miscellaneous areas 

include Dumps, Oil-waste land, Pits, Quarries, Scoria land, and Slickens. 

Classification

As discussed above, soil series can be defined for HAHT soils where 

the human-induced processes leading to their formation are relatively 

uniform over mappable areas (e.g., deep ripping, replacement of stockpiled 

soils after mining, placement of uniform fill material, and extensive subsoil 

compaction for flood irrigation). When surveying an area, new soil series 

should be developed for predictably recurring soils that have a significant 

amount or type of HAHT material, undergo deep alteration of hydrology 
Soil Survey Manual 543

(anthraquic saturation), or are deeply excavated. Existing series may need 

to be reclassified or areas resurveyed to recognize HAHT soils. 

To properly classify HAHT soils, descriptions of HAHT soil profiles 

need to document the kind and amount of HAHT soil materials and 

the kind and amount of artifacts present and to recognize the presence 

of diagnostic horizons and features (such as an anthropic or plaggen 

epipedon, anthric saturation, and densic materials). Soil Taxonomy 

(Soil Survey Staff, 2014) recognizes various taxa for HAHT soils at the 

subgroup and family levels. These taxa are listed in tables 11-1 and 11-2 

along with a brief statement about the concept for the taxa and its general 

occurrence. There will likely be additional taxa in the future.

Table 11-1

Soil Taxonomy Subgroups and HAHT Soil Concepts

Subgroup General concept

Anthraquic Soils have a currently or formerly ponded surface 

due to flood irrigation, commonly with puddled 

or compacted horizons that hold water near the 

surface. They commonly occur in rice paddies and 

aquaculture areas.

Anthrodensic Soils have a constructed densic contact due to human 

activity. They commonly occur in reclaimed mined 

lands and building or transportation construction 

sites.

Anthropic Soils have an anthropic epipedon. They occur in many 

areas associated with sustained human habitation or 

cultivation.

Plaggic Soils have a plaggen epipedon (50 cm or more of 

plaggen material). They mostly occur in northern 

Europe. They may also be associated with some 

intensive organic farming operations.

Haploplaggic Soils have 25 to 49 cm of plaggen materials. They 

mostly occur in northern Europe. They may also 

be associated with some intensive organic farming 

operations.

Anthroportic Soils formed in parent material that was transported by 

humans (HTM). They occur worldwide.

Anthraltic Soils formed in parent material that was altered in 

place by humans. They mainly occur in intensely 

cultivated areas and in areas of burials or trenching.
544 Chapter 11

HAHT soils may be further identified at the family level by the 

presence of unusual materials anywhere in the upper 2 m that are not 

geologic in nature. The HAHT family classes explained in table 11-2 are 

inserted between particle-size class and mineralogy class for soils that 

qualify for HAHT subgroups, that have at least 50 cm of HAHT material 

on top, or for which the whole soil above a root-limiting layer or contact 

occurring at a depth shallower than 50 cm is HAHT materials.

Table 11-2

Soil Taxonomy Family Terms and HAHT Soil Concepts

Family term General concept

Methanogenic Soils produce > 1.6 ppb methane or methyl mercaptan. 

They occur in landfills and waste-disposal sites. 

They do not include natural anaerobic environments. 

Asphaltic Soils have a layer > 7.5 cm thick that contains > 35% 

(by volume) asphalt (bitumen) > 2 mm in diameter. 

They occur in fill areas with construction debris, on 

top of old impervious surfaces, in landfills, and near 

highway paving projects.

Concretic Soils have a layer > 7.5 cm thick that contains > 35% 

(by volume) concrete > 2 mm in diameter. They 

occur in fill areas with construction debris, on top 

of old impervious surfaces, in landfills, and near 

construction projects.

Gypsifactic Soils have a layer > 7.5 cm thick that contains > 40% 

(by weight) synthetic gypsum products, commonly 

as drywall or flue gas desulfurization gypsum. 

They occur in fill areas with construction debris, in 

landfills, and near building projects.

Combustic Soils have a layer > 7.5 cm thick that contains > 35% 

(by volume) coal combustion by-products > 2 

mm in diameter and too heavy to be volatile (e.g., 

bottom ash or coal slag). They occur in approved 

disposal areas, unregulated fill sites, city parks, and 

gravel-topped roads in urban areas.

Ashifactic Soils have a layer > 7.5 cm thick that contains > 15% 

(by grain count in the 0.02 to 0.25 mm fraction) 

light-weight, coal combustion by-products that are 

volatile, such as fly ash. They typically occur in 

approved disposal sites, unregulated fill sites, and 

retention ponds near power plants.
Soil Survey Manual 545

Table 11-2.—continued

Family term General concept

Pyrocarbonic Soils have a layer > 7.5 cm thick that contains > 5% 

(by grain count in the 0.02 to 0.25 mm fraction) 

light-weight products of pyrolysis, such as fuel 

coke or biochar. They typically occur in approved 

disposal sites, unregulated fill sites, and retention 

ponds and near power plants. They include terra 

preta soils.

Artifactic Soils contain > 35% discrete artifacts > 2 mm that 

are both persistent and cohesive in a layer > 50 cm 

thick. They typically occur in landfills, fill areas, and 

transportation corridors.

Pauciartifactic Soils contain > 15% (up to 35%) discrete artifacts > 2 

mm that are both persistent and cohesive in a layer 

> 50 cm thick. They typically occur in landfills, 

fill areas, urban areas, construction sites, and 

transportation corridors.

Dredgic Soils contain finely stratified (< 5 cm thick) layers 

of dredged or irrigated sediment in a layer > 50 

cm thick. They occur on anthropogenic landforms 

near a dredged source, in tailing ponds, and in 

agricultural fields flood-irrigated with diverted 

stream water.

Spolic Soils contain > 50 cm of HTM. They mainly occur on 

anthropogenic landforms, in clean fill areas, and in 

artificially landscaped areas.

Araric Soils contain a layer > 7.5 cm thick with > 3% (by 

volume) mechanically detached and re-oriented 

pieces of diagnostic horizons or characteristics. 

They mainly occur in intensely managed 

agricultural fields, burial grounds, excavated borrow 

and mine pits, transportation corridors, and floodirrigated rice and fish production areas.

Additional Soil Survey Information

More than easy-to-understand map unit descriptions and a special 

symbols legend are important in conveying soil survey information 

for urban and other highly modified areas. Block diagrams, soil profile 

and landscape photos, a glossary, explanation figures, and catena tables 

with drainage class by parent material can also be used. For example, 
546 Chapter 11

the soil survey of South Latourette Park in New York City included a 

series of colorful cartoon-like soil profile drawings. Soil-system type 

block diagrams depicting water movement through the environment are 

particularly useful for stormwater management and hydrologic modeling. 

Field Operations

The degree of parcelization of the landscape that is common in 

urban and suburban areas can create problems with survey site access. 

Establishment of good relations with parks department personnel; 

property managers in golf courses, cemeteries, and schools and colleges; 

and other environmental professionals is typically very beneficial. 

Utility companies and city engineering and parks departments should 

be contacted to find out if any soil excavations are planned in the survey 

area. Open gravesites in cemeteries can provide access to natural soil 

materials. Construction sites and street excavations provide opportunities 

to observe substratum characteristics. 

The following points should be considered when surveying humanaltered landscapes:

1. A preliminary examination of the original topography, landform, 

surficial materials, or soil types, as well as the land use history, 

should precede any site investigations. 

2. Historical maps, records, and vintage photographs should be 

gathered and related to current mapping resources before and 

during mapping.

3. Familiarity with the parent material and soil properties in an 

area helps in determining whether a particular pedon is humanaltered or -transported. 

4. A characterization, classification, or delineation of the site 

beforehand is generally helpful. Depending upon the survey 

objectives and map unit design, these soil lines can reflect preexisting natural landforms, human-altered landforms, current 

land use or land cover patterns, or some combination of these. 

The traverse across the initially delineated area will determine 

soil uniformity. 

5. Highly contrasting soils should be differentiated if possible, with 

transecting to determine map unit composition. 

6. Chemical properties of human-transported soils, particularly 

when enriched with artifacts, can be significantly different than 

those of soils in naturally occurring materials. 

7. Predictions of soil-landscape associations eventually become 

evident. For example, certain vegetation types occur with 
Soil Survey Manual 547

undisturbed soils and certain human-transported soils occur with 

certain parent materials or landscape positions.

8. Generally, the location of human-transported soils is somewhat 

logical. For example, areas with undesirable soil conditions are 

used for waste disposal. In disturbed areas, however, predictions 

need more verification than in undisturbed areas. 

9. Conventional mapping protocol generally may be followed and 

modified when encountering anthropogenic landforms, unusual 

or abrupt changes in parent material, miscellaneous land types, 

or small areas of contrasting soil.

10. The location of buried utilities, such as gas lines, fiber optic 

cable, water pipes, etc., must be ascertained before digging.

Topography, Landforms, and Anthropogenic Features

Many constructional and destructional anthropogenic landforms 

and microfeatures are listed in the Keys to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey 

Staff, 2014). Additionally, the Field Book for Describing and Sampling 

Soils (Schoeneberger et al., 2012) provides a list of anthropogenic (earthsurface) features, ranging in size from entire landscapes to bioswales 

and road cuts. Anthropogenic landscapes, or anthroscapes, are humanmodified with substantial and permanent alterations. Anthropogenic 

landforms are large enough to delineate at commonly used map scales 

(1:24,000 to 1:10,000). They can be grouped as constructional (e.g., fill) or 

destructional (e.g., excavated). Anthropogenic microfeatures are features 

that formed at the surface by purposeful human activity and are too 

small to delineate at commonly used map scales (1:24,000 to 1:10,000). 

Included with microfeatures are what archaeologists call “anthropogenic 

features,” which do not occupy three-dimensional volume (e.g., scrape 

marks of machinery), and temporal forms too small to map at any scale 

(e.g., plowed ridges and furrows). 

The British Geological Society has established a hierarchical 

classification system for mapping “artificial ground classes” (Rosenbaum 

et al., 2003). At the upper level of this classification, there are five genetic 

subdivisions: made ground, worked ground, infilled ground, disturbed 

ground, and landscaped ground. They are followed by a topographic/

geographical category (e.g., embankment, waste heap) and finally a 

material or lithologic type (e.g., building rubble, rock waste). Consideration 

of these or similar classes may be helpful in understanding HAHT soils.

Equipment Needs

Because compacted soils, sharp objects, cobble- and stone-sized 

artifacts, and rock fragments are common in urban areas, digging 
548 Chapter 11

equipment should include heavy-duty tools, such as a reinforced metal 

shovel and a large metal bar. Conventional soil survey equipment is 

also needed, along with recent maps and locational equipment, such as 

cell phones or GPS units. Soil quality (soil health) testing equipment is 

needed for special project areas and should include soil tests that relate to 

ecosystem functions and services. Portable field equipment for measuring 

pH, conductivity, total dissolved solids, bulk density, infiltration, saturated 

hydraulic conductivity, and heavy metals should be taken on survey trips. 

Rapid and non-invasive geophysical methods have great potential for 

use in urban soil survey (see chapter 6). Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) 

can provide information on depth to or thickness of human-transported 

or contrasting materials, buried tanks or drums, etc. Electromagnetic 

induction (EMI) has been used to assess differences in soil water content, 

compaction, texture, lithology, mineralogy, pH, CaCO3

 content, soil 

organic carbon, and other soil properties. Magnetic susceptibility can be 

used to identify industrial dusts and certain types of artifacts (Howard and 

Orlicki, 2015) and as a proxy for trace metal levels in soil (Yang et al., 

2012). Portable X-ray fluorescence (PXRF) spectrometers can determine 

trace metal contents in the field and assess spatial variability. Most of 

these methods require some initial investigation (to determine their 

suitability) and some calibration. However, when considering the time 

needed for hand digging pits in urban areas and the extent of lateral and 

vertical variability in some fill materials, they may be deemed practical. 

Chapter 6 has a more extensive discussion of non-invasive tools.

Safety Precautions in Urban Areas

In urban areas, hazardous materials (HazMat) training is advisable. 

Maps of known Superfund and brownfield sites should be taken to the 

field. Superfund is a U.S. Federal government program designed to 

fund the cleanup of sites contaminated with hazardous substances and 

pollutants. A brownfield is a property, the expansion, redevelopment, or 

reuse of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence 

of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant (US-EPA, 2016). 

PXRF meters should be used in suspected brownfield areas, unregulated 

landfills, and hazardous waste areas for the safety of surveyors. 

Heavy-duty gloves, hard-toed boots, and hardhats should also be 

used in some areas. Traffic cones should be used to prevent accidents 

while parking or pausing vehicles. Utility companies must be contacted 

before digging to prevent accidents. Surveyors should set known checkin times and have a plan in case of traffic delays or late arrival. Using 

prepaid bridge and tunnel passes saves time and money. 
Soil Survey Manual 549

Surveyors should work in pairs; carry cell phones, walkie-talkies, 

and whistles; and wear uniforms with insignia or obvious lettering (e.g., 

New York City Soil Survey) and identification badges. Cars should have 

a magnetic car door logo or other markings clearly identifying their 

official purpose. In urban areas, it is important not to look vulnerable, e.g., 

surveyors should show evidence that they are connected to a protected 

and respected group and can summon help quickly. Surveyors should 

avoid areas with vagrants unless accompanied by authorities, avoid 

trespassing into high-security areas, and recognize dangerous parts of 

urban areas. Exposure to drug sales or manufacturing, marijuana gardens, 

gang violence, sexual attack, and racism and other discriminatory actions 

may pose a real threat in certain urban areas. Surveyors should not carry 

valuables, other than essential identification, in the field or in the vehicle. 

They should take proper precaution in dark areas and at night. Rabies 

and animals infected by rabies, insects, snakes, and dogs are abundant in 

urban areas, as are poisonous plants.

Pedon Descriptions

Most pedon properties are described according to conventional 

standards. Exceptions are defined earlier in this chapter. Two representative 

pedon descriptions of HAHT soils are provided below.

Laguardia Series

The Laguardia series consists of very deep, well drained soils. These 

soils formed in a thick mantle of construction debris intermingled with 

human-transported soil materials. They occur on modified landscapes 

in and near major urbanized areas of the Northeast. Slope ranges from 

0 to 75 percent. Saturated hydraulic conductivity is low to moderately 

high. Mean annual temperature is about 13 degrees C, and mean annual 

precipitation is about 1196 mm.

Taxonomic Classification: Loamy-skeletal, artifactic, mixed, superactive, nonacid, mesic Anthropic Udorthents

^Au—0 to 20 cm; brown (10YR 4/3) artifactual coarse sandy loam, 

pale brown (10YR 6/3) dry; weak very fine subangular blocky structure; 

friable; few very fine and medium roots; 15 percent cobble-sized brick 

and concrete fragments, 5 percent cobble-sized asphalt fragments, 5 

percent gravel-sized glass fragments, and 5 percent natural cobbles; 

neutral (pH 7.2); gradual wavy boundary. 

^BCu—20 to 66 cm; brown (10YR 4/3) very artifactual coarse sandy 

loam; weak very fine subangular blocky structure; friable; few very fine 
550 Chapter 11

roots; 25 percent cobble-sized brick and concrete fragments, 5 percent 

cobble-sized asphalt fragments, 5 percent cobble-sized metal fragments, 

5 percent gravel-sized plastic fragments, and 5 percent natural cobbles; 

neutral (pH 7.2); gradual wavy boundary. 

^Cu—66 to 200 cm; brown (10YR 4/3) very artifactual coarse sandy 

loam; massive with compaction-related plate-like divisions; very friable; 

few very fine roots; 25 percent cobble-sized brick and concrete fragments, 

10 percent cobble-sized asphalt fragments, 5 percent cobble-sized metal 

fragments, 5 percent gravel-sized glass fragments, 5 percent gravel-sized 

plastic fragments, and 7 percent natural cobbles; neutral (pH 7.2).

Ladyliberty Series (fig. 11-6)

The Ladyliberty series consists of very deep, moderately well 

drained soils with moderately low to moderately high saturated hydraulic 

conductivity. These soils formed in a thick mantle of human-transported 

material consisting of coal slag, dredged materials, and/or any geologic 

deposits ranging from till, outwash, alluvium, or coastal plain sediments 

(typically from a local source). They occur on anthropogenic landforms 

in and near major urbanized areas of the Northeast. Slope ranges from 0 

to 8 percent. Mean annual temperature is about 13 degrees C, and mean 

annual precipitation is about 1196 millimeters.

Taxonomic Classification: Sandy-skeletal, combustic, mixed, mesic 

Anthropic Udorthents

^Au—0 to 5 centimeters; very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) fine 

sandy loam; weak medium granular structure; very friable; many very fine 

to coarse roots throughout; 10 percent gravel-sized coal slag fragments; 

strongly acid (pH 5.2); clear wavy boundary. (5 to 27 centimeters thick)

^ABu—5 to 16 cm; dark yellowish brown (10YR 3/4) artifactual 

loam; moderate medium subangular blocky and moderate fine granular 

structure; friable; common fine roots around fragments; 15 percent coarse 

subangular gravel-sized coal slag and 2 percent gravel-sized fine wire, 

bed springs, and glass; strongly acid (pH 5.2); abrupt smooth boundary.

2^Cu1—16 to 39 cm; black (7.5YR 2.5/1) very artifactual loamy 

sand; massive; loose; few fine roots within cracks; 25 percent gravelsized subangular coal slag and brick, 20 percent gravel-sized wood, and 2 

percent gravel-sized wire; slightly acid (pH 6.2); abrupt smooth boundary.

2^Cu2—39 to 65 cm; strong brown (7.5YR 4/6) extremely artifactual 

loamy sand; massive; firm; 70 percent gravel-sized subangular coal slag; 

slightly acid (pH 6.4); abrupt smooth boundary. 

3^C1—65 to 96 cm; dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) gravelly 

sand; massive or single grain; loose; 20 percent well rounded fine 
Soil Survey Manual 551

gravel and 2 percent shell fragments; neutral (pH 6.8); abrupt smooth 

boundary.

3^C2—96 to 167 cm; dark brown (10YR 3/3) sand; massive or single 

grain; loose to firm; 2 percent well rounded fine gravel; slightly alkaline 

(pH 7.8); abrupt smooth boundary. 

3^Cg1—167 to 185 cm; very dark gray (10YR 3/1) sand; single 

grain; loose; 2 percent well rounded fine gravel; slightly alkaline (pH 

7.8); abrupt smooth boundary.

4Cg2—185 to 200 cm; very dark gray (N 3/) silt loam; massive; 

firm; strongly alkaline (pH 8.6).

Figure 11-6

A profile of the Ladyliberty soil series (similar to the one described in the text). Multiple 

deposits of human-transported materials overlie a naturally deposited gleyed substratum 

at a depth of 120 cm. The upper 16 cm consists of transported topsoil over transported 

coal slag with artifacts. Beneath the coal slag, at a depth of 55 cm, is a dredged spoil 

deposit. (Photo by Richard Shaw)
552 Chapter 11

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